United States Office of Research and EPA/540/R-95/512
Environmental Protection Development July 1995
Agency Washington DC 20460
v>EPA Contaminants and Remedial
Options at Selected
Metal-Contaminated Sites
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CONTACT
Michael Royer is the EPA contact for this report. He is presently with the newly organized National Risk
Management Research Laboratory's new Land Remediation & Pollution Control Division in Edison, NJ
(formerly the Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory). The National Risk Management Research
Laboratory is headquartered in Cincinnati, OH, and is now responsible for research conducted by the Land
Remediation & Pollution Control Division in Edision.
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EPA/540/R-95/512
July 1995
CONTAMINANTS AND REMEDIAL OPTIONS AT SELECTED
METAL-CONTAMINATED SITES
by
Battelle
Columbus Division
Columbus, Ohio 43201-2693
Contract No. 68-CO-0003
Work Assignment 41
Project Officer' '
' ., Michael D, Royer .'/'"'• ,." '; ,',
Technical Support Branch
Superfund Technology Demonstration Division
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
• •••••• Edison, New Jersey 08837 • •';'
NATIONAL RISK MANAGEMENT RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
Printed on Recycled Paper
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NOTICE
This review of contaminants and remedial options at selected metal-contaminated sites summarizes
Information collected from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) programs, peer-reviewed journals,
industry experts, vendor data, and other sources. A variety of potential candidate treatment technologies
are described as advisory guidance to assist in identifying feasible treatment technologies.
The Information in this document has been funded in part by EPA under Contract No. 68-CO-0003,
Work Assignment 41, to Battelle (Columbus Division). It has been subject to the Agency's peer and
administrative review, and it has been approved for publication as an EPA document. Mention of trade
names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
Compliance with environmental and occupational safety and health laws is the responsibility of each
Individual site manager and is not the focus of this document.
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FOREWORD
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is charged by Congress with protecting the Nation's
land, air, and water resources. Under a mandate of national environmental laws, the Agency
strives to formulate and implement actions leading to a compatible balance between human
activities and the ability of natural systems to support and nurture life. To meet these mandates,
EPA's research program is providing data and technical support for solving environmental
problems today and building a science knowledge base necessary to manage our ecological
resources wisely, understand how pollutants affect our health, and prevent or reduce
environmental risks in the future.
The National Risk Management Research Laboratory is the Agency's center for investigation of
technological and management approaches for reducing risks from threats to human health and the
environment. The focus of the Laboratory's research program is on methods for the prevention and
control of pollution to air, land, water, and subsurface resources; protection of water quality in
public Water systems; remediation of contaminated sites and groundwater, and prevention and
control of indoor air pollution. The goal of this research effort is to catalyze development and
implementation of innovative, cost-effective environmental technologies; develop scientific and
engineering information needed by EPA to support regulatory and policy decisions; and provide
technical support and information transfer to ensure effective implementation of environmental
regulations and strategies.
This publication has been produced as part of the Laboratory's strategic long-term research plan. It
is published and made available by EPA's Office of Research and Development to assist the user
community and to link researchers with their clients.
E. Timothy Oppelt, Director
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
m
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ABSTRACT
This document provides information that facilitates characterization of the site and selection of
treatment technologies at metal-contaminated sites that are capable of meeting site-specific cleanup levels.
The document does not facilitate the determination of cleanup levels. This document will assist Federal,
State, or private site removal and remedial managers operating under Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA),
or state regulations.
This document focuses mainly on the metalloid arsenic and the metals cadmium, chromium, lead,
and mercury. Other metals are discussed, particularly those that have a strongly favorable or unfavorable
Influence on the performance of a treatment technology.
The remedial manager faces the challenge of selecting remedial options that meet established
cleanup levels. A wide range of physical, chemical, and thermal process options are available for
remediation of metal-contaminated sites. These options can reduce mobility, reduce toxicity, or allow
separation and concentration of metal contaminants. No single process option can remediate an entire
metal-contaminated site. The remedial manager must combine pretreatment and posttreatment components
to achieve the best performance by the principal process option.
This document Is designed for use with other remedial guidance documents issued for RCRA,
CERCLA, and/or State-mandated cleanups to accelerate the remediation of metal-contaminated sites.
Sections describing contaminants at metal-contaminated sites and the behavior, fate, and transport
of metals In the environment are provided to assist the remedial manager in identifying the matrix and
chemical species likely to be present. The section on remedial options outlines the arrangement of
treatment trains to achieve performance levels. Technology performance data provided can help the
remedial manager narrow options to those most likely to achieve site-specific cleanup goals. The
descriptions of remedial options cover innovative and emerging technologies, as well as proven treatments.
Some standard information sources on containment and water treatment technologies are indicated.
These technology areas are not covered in this document because they are thoroughly discussed in other
documents.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract No. 68-CO-0003, Work Assignment 41, by
Battelle (Columbus Division) under the sponsorship of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This
report covers a period from October 1,1991 to January 31,1994. Work was completed in May 1995. Final
revisions were performed by Foster Wheeler Environmental Services, Inc., under Contract 68-C9-0033 and
Science Applications International Corporation under Contract No. 68-CO-0048.
IV
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Notice ii
Foreword ....... ...-. r... : iii
Abstract ; jv
Figures VjH
Tables ix
Abbreviations and Symbols xi
Acknowledgments xvi
1 Introduction 1-1
1.1 Purpose '. 1-1
1.2 Scope and limitations 1-1
1.3 Organization 1-3
1.4 References 1-6
2 Origins, Uses, and Matrices of Selected Contaminants at Metal-Contaminated Sites ...' 2-1
2.1 Origin and Major Industrial Uses of Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Lead, and Mercury . . 2-1
2.1.1 Arsenic .. , 2-1
2.1.2 Cadmium 2-1
2.1.3 Chromium 2-2
2,1.4 Lead 2-2
2.1.5 Mercury ; 2-2
2.2 Overview of Sources of Contaminants at Metal-Contaminated Sites ; 2-2
2.2.1 Stack Emissions 2-3
2.2.2 Fugitive Emissions 2-3
2.2.3 Process Solid-Phase Waste Materials . 2-4
2.2.4 Sludges 2-6
2.2.5 Soils 2-6
„ 2.3 References ...:............. 2-7
3 Contaminant Behavior, Fate, Transport, and Toxicity .......;....,,.. 3-1
3.1 Chemical Forms and Speciations 3-1
3.1.1 Arsenic 3-2
3.1.2 Cadmium 3.3
3.1.3 Chromium 3-3
3.1.4 Lead 3-3
3.1.5 Mercury 3-4
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Section Page
3.2 Environmental Fate and Transport 3-4
3.2.1 Arsenic 3-7
3.2.2 Cadmium 3-8
3.2.3 Chromium 3-9
3.2.4 Lead 3-11
3.2.5 Mercury 3-12
3.3 Toxicity 3-13
3.3.1 Arsenic 3-15
3.3.2 Cadmium 3-16
3.3.3 ' Chromium 3-16
3.3.4 Lead . . ... 3-16
3.3.5 Mercury . . ' 3-17
3.4 References 3-17
4 Remedial Options 4-1
4.1 Cleanup Goals ,. . . 4-1
4.1.1 Major Regulatory Sources for Applicable or Relevant and
Appropriate Requirements . ; . 4-1
4.1.2 Soil and Groundwater Cleanup Goals for Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium,
Lead and Mercury at Selected Superfund Sites . 4-2
4.2 Immobilization Treatment . 4-2
4.2.1 Containment Technologies . 4-2
4.2.2 Solidification/Stabilization Technologies 4-6
4.2.2.1 In Situ and Ex Situ Solidification/Stabilization 4-6
4.2.2.2 Cement-Based Solidification/Stabilization Technologies 4-7
4.2.2.3 Polymer Microencapsulation 4-16
4.2.3 Vitrification Technologies 4-18
4.2.3.1 Vitrification of Excavated Materials 4-18
4.2.3.2 Vitrification of In Situ Materials 4-25
vi
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Section
4.3 Separation/Concentration Treatment Technologies 4-29
4.3.1 Separation/Concentration Technologies to Treat Excavated SoHds 4-29
4.3.1.1 Physical Separation/Concentration Technologies .... 4-29
4.3.1.2 Soil Washing Technologies ...'.,' 4-40
4.3.1.3 Pyrometallurgical Separation Technologies , 4-44
4.3.2 Description of In Situ Technologies '. 4.50
4.3.2.1 Soil Flushing Technology 4-50
4.3.2.2 Electrokinetic Treatment Technology 4-54
4.4 Treatment Technologies for Groundwater and Wastewater 4-58
4.5 References . ....... '. 4-61
Appendix A: Stability Region Diagrams ......> A-1
Appendix B: Summary Tables of SITE Program Technologies for Metal-Contaminated Sites !. . . B-1
Appendix C: Summary of Metal-Contaminated Waste Treatment Technology Vendors Shown
in VISITT Version 3.0 (1994) C-1
Appendix D: Selected Metal-Contaminated Sites . ...................... D-1
Appendix E: Summary of Best Demonstrated Available Technologies for Metal-
Contaminated Wastes '".... E-1
Appendix F: Review of Metal Recycling Options for Metal-Contaminated Wastes
from CERCLA Sites F-1
Appendix G: Summary of EPA Evaluation Criteria of Remedial Technologies G-1
Appendix H: Guide to Information Sources H-1
Appendix I: Remediation Technology Costs Estimated by the CORA Model .':'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.. 1-1
Appendix J: Summary of Major Regulatory Sources of Cleanup Goals j-1
Appendix K: Glossary K-1
vii
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LIST OF FIGURES
Number
3-1 Relative Mobility of Cations Through Soil , 3-6
3-2 Relative Mobility of Anions Through Soil 3-6
4-1 Separation Scheme for Removal of Lead from Soil 4-34
A-1 Approximate Position of Some Natural Environments as Characterized by Eh and pH A-2
A-2 Solubilities of Metal Arsenates A-3
A-3 Stability Regions of Arsenic Species In the Sulfur Carbonate Water System A-3
A-4 Stability Regions of Cadmium Species in the Sulfur Carbonate Water System A-4
A-5 Stability Regions of Chromium Species in the Sulfur Carbonate Water System A-4
A-6 Stability Regions of Lead Species in the Sulfur Carbonate Water System A-5
A-7' Stability Regions of Mercury Species in the Sulfur Carbonate Water System A-5
viii
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LIST OF TABLES
Number
Page
1-1 Remedial Technologies Applicable to Metal-Contaminated Sites 1-4
3-1 Representative Metal Content Typical of Soils . 3-1
3-2 Characteristics of Soil Types -.-..., 3-5
3-3 Risk Assessment Concerns: Metals .... 3-14
3-4 Constants for Analysis of Environmental Risk from Metal Contaminants 3-15
4-1 Soil and Groundwater Action levels and risk goals at Example Superfund
Metal-Contaminated Sites 4-3
4-2 TCLP Limits for Metals in Characteristic Wastes 4-5
4-3 Typical Treatment Trains for Cement-Based Solidification/Stabilization Treatment
at Metal-Contaminated Sites ... 4-8
4-4 General Properties of Raw and Treated Wastes in the Subset of the
Treatability Database . . 4-10
4-5 Summary of Solidification/Stabilization Selections/Applications at Selected Superfund
Sites with Metal Contamination 4-11
4-6 Solidification/Stabilization Treatment Cost Data , 4-13
4-7 Specific Data Needs for Solidification/Stabilization Cement-Based
Treatment Technologies 4-14
4-8 Typical Treatment Trains for Polymer Microencapsulation Treatment at
Metal-Contaminated Sites 4-17
4-9 Estimated Total Project Costs for Microencapsulation of Soils Contaminated
with Metals Only or With VOCs and Metals 4-18
4-10 Specific Data Needs for Polymer Microencapsulation Technologies 4-19
4-11 Theoretical Energy Inputs Required to Form Various Glass Types .... 4-20
4-12 Typical Treatment Trains for Ex Situ Vitrification Treatment at Metal-Contaminated Sites ... 4-21
4-13 Approximate Solubility of Elements in Silicate Glasses 4-21
4-14 Summary of Ex Situ Vitrification Technologies for Metal-Contaminated Waste 4-22
4-15 Treatment Costs for a 3.3-ton/hr Babcock & Wilcox Cyclone Vitrification Furnace
with a 60% Online Factor 4-24
4-16 Specific Data Needs for Vitrification Technologies Applied to Excavated Materials 4-25
4-17 Summary of In Situ Vitrification Technology Selections/Applications at Selected
Superfund Sites with Metal Contamination 4-27
4-18 Specific Data Needs for In Situ Vitrification Technologies 4-28
4-19 Particle,Separation Techniques 4-30
4-20 Particle Size Range for Application of Separation Techniques 4-31
4-21 Examples of Applications of Physical Separations to Waste Sites 4-32
4-22 Illustration of Calculation of Concentration Criteria for Gravity Concentration 4-36
4-23 Performance of Separation Unit Processes for Lead Removal 4-37
4-24 Specific Data Needs for Physical Separation Technologies 4-39
4-25 Typical Treatment Trains for Soil Washing Treatment at Metal-Contaminated Sites 4-41
4-26 Summary of Soil Washing Technology Applications at Selected Metal-Contaminated
Superfund Sites 4-43
4-27 Example Soil Washing Cost Data ($/ton) 4-44
ix
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LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED)
Number
Page
4-28 Specific Data Needs for Soil Washing Technologies 4-45
4-29 Typical Treatment Trains for Pyrometallurgical Treatment at Metal-Contaminated Sites .... 4-46
4-30 Current United States Processing Capability for EAF Dust and Similar Materials 4-47
4-31 Metal Concentration Ranges in Influent and Effluent for Flame Reactor Process 4-48
4-32 Typical Input Material Requirements for the INMETCO Process 4-49
4-33 Estimated Costs Associated with the Horsehead Resource Development Flame Reactor
System (in 1991 Dollars) 4-51
4-34 Specific Data Needs for Pyrometallurgical Technologies . '. 4-52
4-35 Typical Treatment Trains for Soil Flushing and Electrokinetic Treatment at
Metal-Contaminated Sites 4-52
4-36 Summary of Soil Rushing Technology Selections/Applications at Selected Superfund
Sites with Metal Contamination 4-54
4-37 Specific Data Needs for Soil Flushing Technologies 4-55
4-38 Specific Data Needs for Electrokinetic Technologies 4-57
4-39 Summary of Treatment Technologies for Metal-Bearing Wastewater Streams 4-59
B-1 Summary Table of SITE Program Demonstration Technologies for Metal-
Contaminated Soils, Sediments, or Sludges B-2
B-2 Summary Table of SITE Program Demonstration Technologies for
Metal-Contaminated Water B-8
B-3 Summary Table of SITE Program Emerging Technologies for Metal-Contaminated
Soils, Sediments, or Sludges B-11
B-4 Summary Table of SITE Program Emerging Technologies for
Metal-Contaminated Water B-15
C-1 Summary of Metal-Contaminated Waste Treatment Technology Vendors Shown
in VISITT Version 3.0 C-2
D-1 Summary of Selected Metal-Contaminated Sites D-2
E-1 Summary of BDATs for Metal-Contaminated RCRA Wastes E-1
E-2 Listed Hazardous Wastes Frequently Found at Metal-Contaminated Sites E-2
E-3 Tabulation of Best Demonstrated Available Technology Standards for
Metal-Contaminated Waste E-4
F-1 Data on Use and Recycling of Selected Metals in the United States F-3
F-2 Recyclers of Metal-Contaminated Wastes from CERCLA Sites F-5
G-1 Summary of EPA Evaluation Criteria of Remedial Technologies for Soils,
Sediments, and Sludges G-2
H-1 Policy References and Descriptions of Content H-1
H-2 Technical References and Descriptions of Content H-1
H-3 Technical Support Services and Descriptions of Content H-4
H-4 Bibliographies and Descriptions of Content H-5
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ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
AA
AERC
AETS
Ag
ANC
ANS
ANSI
ANSI/ANS/16.1
AOC
ARC
API
ARARs
ART
As
ASH
ASTM
ATR
ATTIC
AVIP
BACT
BBS
BOAT
BDL
BESCORP
BMRC
BNA
BOM
BTU, Btil
CA
CAA
CALMAX
Cal WET
CAMU
CB
CCBA
CCJ
OCR
Cd
GDI
CEAM
CEC
CEP
CERCLA
CERCLIS
CFR
CLP
atomic absorption spectroscopy (a microcharacterization method)
Advance Environmental Recycling Corporation .
Acid Extraction Treatment System
silver
Acid Neutralization Capacity (test) ,
American Nuclear Society .
American National Standards Institute
American Nuclear Society test 16.1, a leaching test ,
area of contamination
air pollution control
American Petroleum Institute
applicable or relevant and appropriate requirements
Alternative Remedial Technologies, Inc.
arsenic
Air-Sparged Hydrocyclone
American Society for Testing and Materials
Annotated Technical Reference
Alternative Treatment Technology Information Center
Advanced Vitrification/Incineration Process
Best Available Control Technology
Bulletin Board System
Best Demonstrated Available Technology (RCRA treatment standard)
below detection limits
Brice Environmental .Services Corporation
Bureau of Mines Research Center
base, neutral, and acid (organic) compounds
U.S. Bureau of Mines
British thermal unit
corrective action
Glean Air Act
California Materials Exchange ,
California Waste Extraction Test, a leaching test.
Corrective Action Management Unit
cement-bentonite
Coordinate, Chemical Bonding, and Adsorption (process)
Campbell Centrifugal Jig
Chromated Copper Arsenate
cadmium
chronic daily intake
Center for Exposure Assessment Modeling
cation exchange capacity
catalytic extraction process
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
Information System
Code of Federal Regulations
Contract Laboratory Procedures
xi
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ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS (CONTINUED)
CLU-ln Cleanup Information (Electronic Bulletin Board)
CMS Cyclone Melting System
CNS central nervous system
COD chemical oxygen demand
COE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
CORA Cost of Remedial Action (software package)
CPS cancer potency slope
Cr chromium
Cr(VI) hexavalent chromium
CRN Core Research Needs for Containment Systems
CRV Counter Rotating Vortex combustor
CSH Calcium Silicate Hydrate
CWA Clean Water Act
DLT Dynamic Leach Test
DOE U.S. Department of Energy
DQO Data Quality Objective
ORE destruction-removal efficiency
DTPA diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid
EAF electric arc furnace
EDTA ethyienediaminetetraacetic acid
EDXA energy dispersive X-ray analysis, a microcharacterization method.
EE/CA Economic Evaluation/Cost Analysis
Eh oxidation reduction potential
ELT Equilibrium Leach Test
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EP Tox Extraction Procedure Toxicity Test
ESD electro-acoustic soil decontamination
FDA Food and Drug Administration
FGD flue gas desulfurization
FR Federal Register
FS Feasibility Study
FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
FY fiscal year
GC/MS gas chromatography/mass spectrometry
GI gastrointestinal
GW groundwater
HCB hexachlorobenzene
HELP Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance
Hg mercury
HI hazard index
HQ hazard quotient
HRD Horsehead Resource Development Company
HRS Hazard Ranking System
HSL Hazardous Substance List
HSWA Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984
HTMR high-temperature metal(s) recovery
HWSDC Hazardous Waste Superfund Data Collection
ICP inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy.
ID identification
IGWMC International Ground Water Modeling Center
XII
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ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS (CONTINUED)
INEL Idaho National Engineering Laboratory
INMETCO International Metals Reclamation Corporation
IRIS Integrated Risk Information System
IRM iron-rich material
ISV in situ vitrification
IWT International Waste Technologies
kWh kilowatt hours
LAER Lowest Achievable Emission Rate
LDR Land Disposal Restriction
LIMB Lime Injection Multistage Burner
LRT Liquid Release Test
Mb molybdenum
MCL maximum contaminant level; maximum concentration limit
MCLG maximum contaminant limit goal
MEP Multiple Extraction Procedure
meq milliequivalent
MIBC methyl isobutyl carbinol (a synthetic frother)
/jm micrometer(s)
mm millimeter(s)
mV miilivolt(s)
MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet
MSW municipal solid waste
MTRs minimum technology requirements
MWEP Monofilled Waste Extraction Procedure
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NAPL nonaqueous-phase liquid
NCC National Computer Center
NCEL Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory
NCP National Oil and Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan
NEESA Naval Energy and Environmental Support Activity '
NESHAP National Emissions Standard for Hazardous Air Pollutants
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
NJDEP New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection
NMR nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NPL National Priorities List
NRC National Research Council; U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NSPS New Source Performance Standards
NSR National Smelting and Refining Company
NYSC-HWM New York State Center for Hazardous Waste Management
OAQPS Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (of the U.S. EPA)
O&M operations and maintenance (costs)
OERR Office of Emergency and Remedial Response
OLS Online Library System (of EPA)
OR&N oxidation, reduction, and neutralization
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Act; Occupational Safety and Health Administration
OSW Office of Solid Waste
OSWER Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
OTS Office of Toxicological Substances
OU Operable Unit
xiii
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ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS (CONTINUED)
PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
Pb lead
PCB polychlorinated biphenyl
PFT Paint Filter Test
pH negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration
PIES Pollution Prevention Information Exchange System
POTW publicly-owned treatment works
ppb part(s) per billion
ppni part(s) per million
PRP potentially responsible party •
PSD Prevention of Significant Deterioration
QA/QC Quality Assurance/Quality Control
QAPP Quality Assurance Project Plan
3Rs recovery, reuse, and recycle
RAAS Remedial Action Assessment System
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976
RCRIS Resource Conservation and Recovery Information System
RD/RA Remedial Design/Remedial Action .
RfD reference dose
RFI RCRA Facility Investigation
Rl Remedial Investigation
RI/FS Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study
RM Remediation Manager
RMERC BOAT technology code for retorting or roasting mercury for eventual recovery
ROD Record of Decision
RP Responsible Party
RPM Remedial Project Manager
RREL Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory (of the U.S. EPA)
SACM Superfund Accelerated Cleanup Model
SARA Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986
SB soil-bentonite
SCE sequential chemical extraction
SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act
Se selenium
SEM scanning electron microscopy
SET Sequential Extraction Test
SITE Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Program
SRS Separation and Recovery Systems, Inc.
SRT Subsurface Remediation Technology Database
S/S solidification/stabilization
STLC Soluble Threshold Limit Concentration
SW surface water
TCE trichloroethylene
TCLP Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
TDS total dissolved solids
TIO Technology Innovation Office (U.S. EPA)
TM TerraMet
TOC total organic carbon
TPH, tph ton(s) per hour
TPY, tpy ton(s) per year
xiv
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ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS (CONTINUED)
TRD Technical Resources Document
TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act
TSD treatment, storage, and disposal facility (RCRA)
TTLC Total Threshold Limit Concentration
TWA Total Waste Analysis
UBK uptake biokinetic
UCS unconfined compressive strength
USAGE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
USATHMA U.S. Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency
U.S. DOE United States Department of Energy
U.S. DOT United States Department of Transportation
U.S. EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
UST underground storage tank
VISITT Vendor Information System for Innovative Treatment Technologies
VOC volatile organic compound
VORCE Volume Reduction/Chemical Extraction
WET see Cal WET, a leaching test
xv
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report is a product of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Research and
Development The text was prepared by Battelle under EPA Contract 68-CO-0003, Work Assignment 41.
The final drafts were prepared by Foster Wheeler under EPA Contract 68-C9-0033 and Science Applications
International Corporation under EPA Contract No. 68-CO-0048. The EPA Work Assignment Manager was
Michael Royer of the EPA Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, Technical Support Branch. Jeffrey Means
served as the Battelie Project Leader, and Lawrence Smith as the primary author. Professor Hsin-Hsiung
Huang of Montana College of Mineral Science and Technology in Butte, Montana/prepared the stability
region diagrams shown in Appendix A.
Other Battelle authors who contributed major portions of this report were Abraham Chen, Arun
Gavaskar, Bruce Alleman, Susan Brauning, and Bruce Sass. Erin Sherer, Wendy Huang, Daniel Giammar,
and Christopher Voight provided valuable assistance. Christopher Chapman, John Tixier, and Eric Crecelius
of Battelle's Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Richard Osantowski of Radian Corporation, and Paul Queneau
of Hazen Research also wrote portions of this document.
This document benefited from discussions with and/or information provided by the following
Individuals:
Gary Adamkiewicz, EPA Region II
Harry Allen, EPA ERT
Douglas Ammon, Clean Sites, Inc.
John Barlch, EPA Region X
Edwin Barth, EPA CERI
Glezelle Bennett, EPA Region IV
Bert Biedsoe, EPA RSKERL
Magalle Breville, EPA Region II
David Brown, EPA ERL-Athens
John Burckle, EPA RREL
Harry Compton, EPA ERT
Christopher Corbett, EPA Region III
Jim Cummings, EPA TIO
Anita Cummings, EPA OSW
Steven Donohue, EPA Region III
Hugh Durham, EPA RREL
Patricia Erlckson, EPA RREL
Gordon Evans, EPA RREL
Linda Fiedler, EPA TIO
Russell Fish, EPA Region III
Frank Freestone, EPA RREL
John Fringer, NEESA
Shawn Ghose, EPA Region VI
Katherine Green, EPA ORD Env. Res. Lab.
Joseph Greenblott, EPA Region IX
Richard Griffiths, EPA RREL
Douglas Grosse, EPA RREL
Patrick Haas, U.S. Air Force Center for
Environmental Excellence
Gregory Ham, EPA Region III
Jeffery Heath, Naval Facilities Engineering
Services Center
Jonathan Herrmann, EPA RREL
Anthony Holoska, EPA Region V
J. Lary Jack, EPA EMSL-LV
David Klauder, EPA OSPRE, ROS
Robert Kodis, Mine Waste Pilot Program
Richard Koustas, EPA RREL
Norman Kulujian, EPA Region III
Caroline Kwan, EPA Region II
Jos<§ Labiosa, EPA OSW
Robert Landreth, EPA RREL
Mike Magyar, U.S. Bureau of Mines
Shahid Mahmud, EPA OERR
McKenzie Mallary, EPA Region IV
Steve Mangion, EPA Region V
John Matthews, EPA RSKERL
Shaun McGarvey, EPA OSW
Greg Mickey, EPA Region V
Fred Micku, EPA Region V
Ross Miller, Air Force Center
for Environmental Excellence
Robert Mournighan, EPA Region VII
Donald Oberacker, EPA RREL
xvi
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Asim Ray, Foster Wheeler Environmental
Services, Inc.
Robert Robins, Montana College of Mineral
Science and Technology (visiting
professor)
Larry Rosengrant, EPA OSW
Seymour Rosenthal, Foster Wheeler
Environmental Services, Inc.
David Rosoff, EPA Region II
Tamara Rossi, EPA Region II
Ari Selvakumar, Foster Wheeler
Environmental Services, Inc.
Don Sternitzke, Dynamac Corporation
Mary Stinson, EPA RREL
James Stumbar, Foster Wheeler
Environmental Services, Inc.
Ronald Turner, EPA RREL
J. Jeffrey van Ee, EPA EMSL-LV
Jeffrey Walker, DOE
Anne Wethington, U.S. Bureau of Mines
Chuck Wilk, EPA Region V
Kenneth Wilkowski, EPA RREL
David Wilson, EPA Region V
George Wolf, Foster Wheeler
Environmental Services, Inc.
Andre Zownir, EPA ERT
The authors express their appreciation to Lynn Copley-Graves and Carol Young for editing and to
Loretta Bahn and Bonnie Snodgrass for text processing.
xvii
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE
This reference document is intended to assist site remediation managers (RMs) to select treatment
technologies for contaminated soils, sludges, sediments, and waste deposits at sites where inorganic arsenic
(As)1, cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), or lead (Pb) are the primary contaminants of concern.
These five metals have been addressed because of their toxicity, industrial use, and frequency of occurrence
at Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) sites and in
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) hazardous wastes. This document should prove useful
to all remediation managers, whether their efforts fall under Federal, State, or private authorities, and whether
they are applying standards from RCRA, CERCLA, and/or State programs.
1.2 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
This project represents a best effort (subject to the key limitations noted below), to identify, collect,
analyze, organize, and consolidate information, data, and pertinent references that a remediation manager
would find useful for identifying and selecting remedial alternatives for soils, sediments, sludges, and waste
deposits in which the principal contaminants are As, Cd, Cr, Hg, or Pb and selected inorganic compounds
of these metals.
It is assumed that the RMs are familiar with appropriate policy issues (RCRA, CERCLA, and state),
site characterization, sampling methods, analytical methods, risk assessment, determination of cleanup
levels, and health and safety plans. Familiarity js assumed, as appropriate, with the references listed in
Appendix H.
It is also assumed that the RMs or available support staff are familiar with widely available references
(e.g., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics; Merck Index) from which physical and chemical data for
the five metals of interest and their compounds can be obtained.
While this technical resource document consolidates information from the past in an attempt to
accelerate and improve decisions in the future, it is recognized that site-specific factors ultimately drive the
selection of the remedial alternative for any particular site. The remedial action objectives should be clearly
established and cleanup levels designated. It is of particular importance to develop reasonable estimates
of the volume, distribution, and physical and chemical composition of each significant contaminant/
co-contaminant/medium combination at the site that will require remediation. It is similarly important to
clearly define the parameters (e.g., total metal(s) concentration, leachable metals, filtered/unfiltered aqueous
metal concentrations), test methods (e.g., Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure or TCLP, Extraction
Procedure Toxicity Test or EP Tox, other leaching tests, total waste analysis), and numerical goals that will
be employed to measure treatment effectiveness. A risk assessment should consider transport and fate of
contaminants using the best methods available including equilibrium and/or transport models where
applicable.
1For convenience this document will refer to the metalloid, arsenic, as a metal.
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An emphasis was placed on keeping the document relatively brief. Therefore, technology
descriptions are presented as brief summaries. Compact data tabulations are used where possible.
Containment and water treatment technologies are primarily addressed by reference, since they are
well-described and evaluated in recent, available documents, which are referenced in Section 4.
This technical resource document does not apply to sites where the no action or interim remedies
are appropriate. The user should refer to Guide to Developing Superfund No-Action, Interim Action, and
Contingency Remedy RODs (U.S. EPA, 1991, 9355.3-02FS-3) for more information on these remedies.
To avoid redundancy with existing or forthcoming documents, information collection and coverage
of the four specific types of metal-contaminated sites listed below were intentionally limited to cases where
Innovative technologies have been selected or applied:
• Lead battery recycling sites (EPA/540/2-91/014, Selection of Control Technologies for
Remediation of Lead Battery Recycling Sites)
• Wood preserving sites (As, Cr) - (EPA/600/R-92/182, Contaminants and Remedial Options
at Wood Preserving Sites)
• Pesticide sites (As, Hg) - (Contaminants and Remedial Options at Pesticide Sites, in
preparation for U.S. EPA)
• Mining sites (the U.S. EPA Mine Waste Pilot Project, National Superfund Mine Waste Advisory
Group, and U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Resource Recovery Project, various reports)
In the Interests of simplicity, brevity, and limited project resources, this technical reference document
does not attempt to systematically address remediation of:
organometallic compounds
organic-metal mixtures
multimetal mixtures
For example, while Incineration is noted as a potential pretreatment for an organic-metal mixture, the effects
of As, Cd, Cr, Hg, or Pb on the technical and economic feasibility of incineration are not discussed. Another
example Is that several RCRA Best Demonstrated Available Technologies (BDATs) are cited for multimetal
wastes, but there Is no discussion on how, in general, to select a remedial technology for a multimetal
waste.
No claims are made that this document is completely comprehensive in identifying, collecting,
analyzing, or listing all pertinent information or data on remediation of metal-contaminated sites. The types
of Information collected to support preparation of this document include the following.
• Background information on As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb, and associated inorganic compounds
regarding mineral origins, processing, uses, common matrices, chemical forms, behavior,
transport, fate, and effects.
• Existing remediation performance data, listed in rough order of desirability: (a) full-scale
remediation of As-, Cd-, Cr-, Hg-, and Pb-contaminated sites; (b) technology demonstrations
on As-, Cd-, Cr-, Hg-, or Pb-contaminated sites under the EPA Superfund Innovative
Technology Evaluation Program (SITE); (c) RCRA As-, Cd-, Cr-, Hg-, and Pb-bearing
hazardous wastes for which BDATs have been established; (d) waste applicability/capacity
information for treatment technologies as described in technology guides and the EPA Vendor
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Inventory of Superfund Innovative Treatment Technologies (VISITT) database; (e) feedstock
specification information for primary or secondary smelting or recycle/re-use markets; (f)
Records of Decision (RODs) and corresponding summaries for As-, Cd-, Cr-, Hg-, and
Pb-contaminated sites; (g) Treatability test data on As-, Cd-, Cr-, Hg-, and Pb-contaminated
matrices where the results are well-documented and in an accessible form (e.g., Alternative
Treatment Technology Information Center [ATTIC] and the Risk Reduction Engineering
Laboratory (RREL), treatability database; (h) Superfund National Priority List (NPL) sites where
As-, Cd-, Cr-, Hg-, or Pb-contaminated media are a primary concern and remedial options are
or will be under evaluation.
1.3 ORGANIZATION
Remedial Options and the appendices cited therein form the heart of this reference document. This
section begins with a general discussion of the key applicable or relevant and appropriate regulations that
influence cleanup goals. Soil and groundwater action levels and risk goals are tabulated for 24
metal-contaminated sites. TCLP limits for metals in selected metal-bearing RCRA characteristic hazardous
wastes are also tabulated.
Most of Section 4 addresses the immobilization, and separation/concentration technologies that are
potentially applicable for remediating metal-contaminated solids, with the main emphasis on soils. Each
technology is addressed in a similar manner.
• A technology description is provided, then a discussion of typical treatment trains; next a
discussion of the applicability of the technology to various wastes, with specific reference to
the five metals of interest when applicable information is available.
• The status (e.g., bench-, pilot-, full-scale; applications to Superfund remediation) and
performance of the technologies are also discussed and, if sufficient examples exist, tabulated.
• Cost factors and costs are also discussed with cost estimates often being drawn from
applicable SITE program Applications Analysis Reports.
• Finally, data needs for assessing the applicability of each type of technology are tabulated.
The subsection on immobilization addresses solidification/stabilization (S/S) (cement-based and
polymer microencapsulation) and vitrification (in situ and ex situ) technologies. Containment technologies
(capping and vertical and horizontal barriers) are noted, but only addressed by reference since: (1) the type
of metal contaminant is not a strong influence on containment system selection, and (2) there is a recent,
readily available EPA document, U.S. EPA Handbook: Stabilization Technologies for RCRA Corrective
Actions (EPA 625/6-91/026), that already addresses the topic at the desired level.
Separation/concentration technologies are subdivided into two categories:
• Technologies applicable for excavated solids:
- Physical separation technologies [i.e., screening, classification, gravity separation,
magnetic separation, and flotation]
Soil washing technologies [i.e., extraction via water, solvents, or solutions containing
surfactants, chelating agents, acids, or bases]
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— Pyrometallurgical separation technologies (i.e., Waelz kiln, flame reactor, molten metal
bath, secondary lead smelting via reverberatory and blast furnaces, submerged arc
furnace, and mercury roasting and retorting)
Technologies applied in situ (i.e., soil flushing and electrokinetics).
Water treatment options are very briefly discussed, and a summary table is provided. As with
containment options, limited coverage is provided due to the availability of other recent, available EPA
documents that address the topic in a suitable manner.
Table 1-1 is a general summary of the technology types which are applicable for remediation of
metal-contaminated sites.
TABLE 1-1. REMEDIAL TECHNOLOGIES APPLICABLE TO METAL-CONTAMINATED SITES
No Action
Excavation and Off-Site Disposal
Containment
Capping
Vertical Barriers
Horizontal Barriers
Solidification/Stabilization (in situ or ex situ)
Cement-Based Stabilization
Polymer Microencapsulation
Vitrification (in situ or ex situ)
Chemical Treatment Technologies (only addressed as a pretreatment)
Oxidation
Reduction
Neutralization
Separation/Concentration Treatment Technologies (ex situ)
Physical Separation/Concentration Treatment Technologies
Screening
Gravity Separation
Floatation
Pyrometallurgical Separation
Soil Washing
Separation/Concentration Treatment Technologies (in situ)
Soil Flushing
Electrokinetic Treatment
Section 4, Remedial Options, is complemented by a number of key appendices, including the
following.
• Appendix A presents several stability region diagrams which illustrates the effects of oxidizing
potential and pH on the stability of metal compounds.
Appendix B summarizes 67 technologies applicable to metal-contaminated media that are
undergoing evaluation in the SITE Program.
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• Appendix C summarizes 39 innovative metal-contaminated technologies from 9 technology
categories. This information was excerpted from EPA's VISITt database version 3.0.
• Appendix D lists and briefly describes more than 40 selected metal-contaminated NPL sites.
• Appendix E summarizes BOAT for 60 RCRA hazardous wastes that contain As, Cd, Cr, Hg,
and Pb.
• Appendix F supplements the separation/concentration technology portions of Section 4 by
providing a review of metal recycling options for metal-contaminated wastes from CERCLA
sites. The appendix includes a matrix that matches 37 specific recyclers to 11 lead-bearing
materials, 5 mercury-bearing materials, and 16 RCRA metal-bearing hazardous wastes. A list
of waste exchanges is also provided.
• Appendix G summarizes the technology types addressed in the document versus 7 of the EPA
, evaluation criteria employed during selection of Superfund remedial alternatives.
• Appendix H provides a list of key documents, databases, experts, and sources of technical
support relevant to remediation of As-, Cd-, Cr-, Hg-, and Pb-contaminated sites.
• Appendix I supplements the cost estimation discussions in Section 4 by providing a
description and example applications of EPA's Cost of Remedial Actions (CORA) model.
CORA contains cost modules for a variety of remedial options including caps, slurry walls,
surface water diversion, soil excavation, sediment excavation and dredging, pumping, soil
flushing, ion exchange, off-site RCRA treatment, solidification, offsite RCRA landfill, discharge
to publicly-owned treatment works (POTW), and offsite transportation.
• Appendix J summarizes general information on the identification and determination of potential
applicable or relevant and appropriate requirements (ARARs) for remedial actions at Superfund
metal-contaminated sites.
• Appendix K is a glossary.
Section 2 briefly identifies typical mineral origins, industrial uses, and Superfund matrices of
inorganic As, Cd, Cr, Hg, and Pb.
Section 3 addresses possible chemical forms for the five metals under various conditions. It is noted
in Section 3 that solubility diagrams and Eh-pH diagrams provide useful summaries of aqueous solution
chemistry (e.g., oxidation/ reduction reactions, stability of mobile phases, and hydrolysis of different metals).
Sample stability diagrams appear in Appendix A and some applicable computer models are also cited.
Also described in Section 3 are typical environmental transport, partitioning, and transformation
phenomena for the five metals in air, soil and sediment, and surface water and groundwater. Factors
influencing transport, partitioning, and transformation that are discussed individually or in combination
include: airborne transport and subsequent deposition of particulates; interaction of selected stack emissions
with natural and anthropogenic compounds prior to deposition in soil; formation of selected volatile
compounds; effects of pH, oxidation reduction potential, and valence on aqueous solubility; precipitation;
adsorption; ion exchange; complexation with insoluble or soluble soil organic matter; bioconcentration;
biomagnification; and biotransformation. Reaction kinetics are discussed semiquantitatively for several
cases. Qualitative relative mobility rankings are provided from experimental data for As, Cd, Cr, Pb, and Hg
in 11 soil types under anaerobic conditions.
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Section 3 also includes a brief overview of the human and environmental toxicity of the five metals
and some of their compounds. The topics addressed include: target organs, exposure pathways, ecological
effects, reference doses, cancer potency slopes, EPA drinking water limits, OSHA work place air limits, and
a very brief discussion of the Uptake Biokinetic model for estimating blood lead levels based on various lead
sources. Key references and sources for additional details or information updates are provided.
1.4 REFERENCES
1. Guide to Developing Superfund No Action, Interim Action, and Contingency Remedy RODs.
9355.3-02FS-3, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response, April 1991.
2. U.S. EPA Handbook: Stabilization Technologies for RCRA Corrective Actions. EPA/625/6-
91/026, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Officer of Research and Development,
Cincinnati, Ohio, August 1991.
3. U.S. EPA. ROD Annual Report Volumes 1 and 2. Publication 9355.6-05. PB92-963359. April
1992.
4. Contaminants and Remedial Options at Wood Preserving Sites. EPA/600/R-92/182, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, Ohio,
1992.
5. Selection of Control Technologies for Remediation of Lead Battery Recycling Sites.
EPA/540/2-91/014, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
Development, Washington, DC, 1991.
6. Guidance for Conducting Remedial Investigations and Feasibility Studies Under CERCLA,
Interim Final. EPA/540/G-89/004, OSWER Directive 9355.3-01, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Washington, DC, 1988.
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SECTION 2
ORIGINS, USES, AND MATRICES OF SELECTED CONTAMINANTS AT
METAL-CONTAMINATED SITES
This section describes process sources for contaminants, historical trends, and possible chemical
and physical conditions for contaminants and waste forms at metal-contaminated sites. This description of
typical site and contaminant conditions gives the remedial project manager (RPM) a general framework of
understanding for the types of materials requiring treatment at metal-contaminated sites. Due to the diversity
of such sites, the information is presented as general surveys indicating the range of conditions that may
be encountered.
2.1 ORIGIN AND MAJOR INDUSTRIAL USES OF ARSENIC, CADMIUM, CHROMIUM,
LEAD, AND MERCURY
This section outlines the principal industrial applications of the metals discussed in this document,
The brief outline for each metal discusses the main industrial uses and the chemical forms that are most
likely to be encountered at a particular industrial site. More detail on metal processing and use can be
found in standard references such as the KIrk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology (Kroschwitz
and Howe-Grant, 1991), Metal Statistics (Espinosa, 1993), various U.S. Bureau of Mines (BOM) publications,
and the BOM online database (see Appendix H, Subsection H.3.11).
2.1.1 Arsenic
Arsenic (chemical symbol As) is a semi-metallic element or metalloid. For convenience, this report
will refer to arsenic as a metal. Arsenic has several allotropic forms. The most stable allotrope is a
silver-gray, brittle, crystalline solid that tarnishes in air. Arsenic compounds, mainly As2O3, can be recovered
as a by-product of processing complex ores mined mainly for copper, lead, zinc, gold, and silver. Arsenic
occurs in a wide variety of mineral forms. Worldwide the main commercial ore is arsenopyrite (FeAsS4), but
much of the former U.S. production involved copper/arsenic ores such as enargite (Cu3AsS4) and tennantite
((Cu.Fe^As^g). Because arsenic is a by-product, its supply depends primarily on the demand for the
main metals in the ores. Arsenic use in 1992 was 23,900 metric tons, of which 67% was for production of
the wood-treatment chemical chromated copper arsenate (CCA). Agricultural use was 23% of the total in
1992, but will be declining due to cancellation of approval for use of arsenic chemicals as cotton leaf
desiccants (58 FR 26975). All arsenic consumed in the United States in 1991 was derived from imported
sources. Arsenic is regarded as a zero-value impurity by most U.S. mine and smelter operators. As a result,
operators are likely to avoid ores containing arsenic when possible (Loebenstein, 1992).
2.1.2 Cadmium
Cadmium (chemical symbol Cd) is a bluish-white, soft, ductile metal. Pure cadmium compounds
rarely are found in nature, although occurrences of greenockite (CdS) and otavite (CdCO3) are known. The
main sources of cadmium are sulfide ores of lead, zinc, and copper. Cadmium is recovered as a by-product
when these ores are processed. Because cadmium is produced as a by-product of sulfide ore refining, its
production rate is more closely coupled to zinc demand than to cadmium demand. Cadmium use varied
from 3,107 to 4,096 metric tons between 1988 and 1992. The peak use was 4,096 metric tons in 1989. The
estimated apparent consumption in 1992 was 3,400 metric tons. About half of the cadmium used goes for
production of nickel-cadmium batteries. Other uses include plating, pigments, plastics, and alloys (U.S.
Bureau of Mines, 1993).
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2.1.3 Chromium
Chromium (chemical symbol Cr), a lustrous, silver-gray metal, is one of the less common elements
In the earth's crust and occurs only in compounds. The chief commercial source of chrome is the mineral
chromite (FeCr2O4). Chromium is mined as a primary product and is not recovered as a by-product of any
other mining operation. There are no chromite ore reserves, nor is there primary production of chromite
In the United States.
Total apparent chromium consumption ranged from 366,000 to 537,000 metric tons of contained
chromium between 1988 and 1992. Peak consumption of 537,000 metric tons occurred in 1988. The
estimated consumption for 1992 was 435,000 metric tons of contained chromium. The consumption figures
include primary production and secondary sources from recycling. Chromium contained in purchased
stainless steel Is estimated to account for about 26% of the consumption of recycled chromium in 1992 (U.S.
Bureau of Mines, 1991).
2.1.4 Lead
Lead (chemical symbol Pb) is a bluish-white, silvery or gray metal that is highly lustrous when freshly
cut, but tarnishes when exposed to air. It is very soft and malleable, has a high density (11.35 g cm"3) and
low melting point (327.4°C), and can be cast, rolled, and extruded. The estimated consumption of lead in
1992 was 1,220,000 metric tons. Of this amount, 80% was used in lead-acid batteries. About 760,000 metric
tons of lead was recovered from scrap batteries in 1992.
2.1.5 Mercury
Mercury (chemical symbol Hg) is a silvery liquid metal. The primary source of mercury is the sulfide
ore, cinnabar (HgS). In a few cases, mercury occurs as the principal ore product. Mercury is more
commonly obtained as the by-product of processing complex ores that contain mixed sulfides, oxides, and
chloride minerals, which are usually associated with base and precious metals, particularly gold. Native or
metallic mercury Is found in very small quantities in some ore sites.
Mercury for United States use came from domestic mines, sales of surplus from government stocks,
imports, and waste recovery. Mercury was produced as the main product of the McDermitt Mine and as
a by-product of nine gold mines in Nevada, California, and Utah (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1993). The
McDermitt Mine is now closed. Market expectations indicate a continuing decline in mercury use and
Increased reliance on recycled mercury (Espinosa, 1993).
The total use of mercury in 1992 was 621 metric tons. The main users were mercury-cell chloralkali
plants. The use of mercury is expected to decline and the supply of recycled mercury is expected to
increase. Smaller amounts of mercury are produced when secondary sources are reprocessed. In 1992,
commercial secondary mercury reprocessors produced 176 metric tons of mercury (U.S. Bureau of Mines,
1993). Common secondary mercury sources are spent batteries, mercury vapor and fluorescent lamps,
switches, dental amalgams, measuring devices, control instruments, and laboratory and electrolytic refining
wastes. The secondary processors typically use retorting to recover mercury from compounds and
distillation to purify contaminated liquid mercury metal.
2.2 OVERVIEW OF SOURCES OF CONTAMINANTS AT METAL-CONTAMINATED SITES
Wastes at CERCLA sites are frequently heterogeneous on a macro and micro scale. The
contaminant concentration and the physical and chemical form of the. contaminant and matrix usually are
complex and variable. Waste disposal sites collect a diverse variety of waste types causing concentration
profiles to vary by orders of magnitude through a pit or pile. Limited volumes of high-concentration "hot
spots" may develop due to variations in the historical waste disposal patterns or local transport mechanisms.
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Similar radical variations frequently occur on the particle-size scale as well. The waste often consists of a
physical mixture of very different solids, for example, paint chips in spent abrasive. These variations in
contaminant concentration and matrix type require that the design of sampling for analysis and treatability
studies be done with caution. Due to the importance of matrix effects, treatability studies should be
performed on actual site material rather than on synthetic materials whenever possible.
2.2.1 Stack Emissions
Stack emissions are point source emissions from stacks, vents, ducts, pipes, or other confined air,
gas, or vapor streams. Air releases from pollution control equipment typically are considered stack
emissions. Metal contaminants will be present in gas streams as fine particulates. Solids with small particle
size may be entrained in a gas stream during material handling, mixing, or size reduction. In high-
temperature processing, some metals (particularly arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury) can volatilize.
Unless a reducing atmosphere is maintained, the metal will quickly convert to an oxide and condense as
a very fine paniculate typically called a "fume" or a "condensed fume."
Offgas treatment may be applied to collect the metal-bearing particulates. Depending on the
process and application, either a wet scrubbing system or a dry filtration system may be used to collect the
particulates. Wet scrubbing produces a sludge waste, whereas filtration results in dry powder. These solid
waste material types are discussed below.
At many older plants, offgas paniculate removal systems did not work well or were not used. Even
if offgas treatment systems are used, paniculate removal is never complete. Particulates escaping a plant's
point source emission release locations will be distributed by natural air currents until they settle out due
to gravity. In many cases tall stacks are used to obtain dilution. Airflow then distributes the metal
contaminants over a wide area.
The resulting contaminant deposition will distribute contaminants generally downwind from the plant.
The pattern of contaminant deposition will depend on many site-specific factors such as offgas flow and
composition, wind direction and speed, and duration of operation. The concentration of metals in the offgas
typically is low, but in some cases plant operation over many years allows a buildup of measurable
contaminant levels. For example, one operable unit of the Superfund site at Palmerton, Pennsylvania, is a
mountainside contaminated with oxides of cadmium, lead, and zinc due to operation of a smelter.
2.2.2 Fugitive Emissions
Fugitive emissions are air emissions not covered by the point source stack emissions described
above. Some examples of fugitive emissions include:
• Dust from loading, unloading, and equipment operation
• Airborne losses due to spills .
• Dust carried by wind from material storage areas or waste piles
• Releases from general building ventilation
As with the stack emissions, the metal contaminants typically leave the source as solid particulates
or very quickly convert to particulate form.
In general, the contaminant concentration in the fugitive emission sources will be lower than in the
stack emissions, but the emissions will occur near the ground. As a result, the distribution area usually will
be smaller. As With stack emissions, the actual concentrations encountered depend on site-specific
conditions.
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2.2.3 Process Solid-Phase Waste Materials
Industrial processes may result in a variety of solid metal-bearing waste materials, including slags,
fumes, mold sand, fly ash, abrasive wastes, spent catalysts, spent activated carbon, and refractory bricks
(Zimmerman and Coles, 1992). These process solids may be deposited above ground as waste piles or
below ground in landfills. Solid-phase wastes can be dispersed by well-intended but poorly controlled reuse
projects. For example, many slags can serve as good quality materials for construction applications such
as road subgrade, fill material, or daily landfill cover. However, slags containing teachable levels of
cadmium, lead, or other metals have been used for construction fill and have created problems. Similarly,
metal-contaminated sludge has been spread as fertilizer (50 FR 658, January 4, 1985).
2.2.3.1 Waste Piles
Large volumes of dry solid-waste materials frequently are accumulated in waste piles. Because the
waste piles are exposed to weathering, they can be sources of contamination to the surrounding soil or
groundwater. In addition, waste piles can be exposed to natural disasters or accidents causing further
dispersion. For example, a fire at a material pile belonging to Frit Industries in Walnut Ridge, Arkansas,
resulted in contamination to soil and water by runoff of water used to fight the fire (50 FR 658, January 4,
1985).
Slags-
Slag is a fused solid consisting mainly of inorganic oxides of silicon, iron, and calcium with metallic
impurities. Slag is a typical waste product from pyrometallurgical metal processing. The slag composition
depends on the feed material source and the process used. Slags generally contain silica (SiO2) as the
main constituent along with fluxing salts (e.g., calcium and magnesium) and metals from the ore.
Density, porosity, and leach resistance are the main properties considered in evaluating slag as a
contaminated matrix. These properties vary depending on the method of producing the slag. The form of
slag produced depends on the conditions used for cooling. Testing has indicated that faster slag cooling
is important to maximize formation of vitreous materials which reduces the mobility of metals.
Other Metal-Bearing Wastes--
Other metal-bearing wastes include fumes, foundry sand, fly ash, abrasives, catalysts, spent
activated carbon, refractory bricks, etc. Fumes are very fine particulates produced during high-temperature
metal processing. Volatile metals or metal oxides evaporate and recondense to form the fume. One
common example is condensed silica fume, a fine paniculate consisting of over 90% silica. Condensed
silica fume is a by-product of ferroalloy production. Metal impurities may impart a hazardous waste
characteristic. The fume is an artificial pozzolan with a very high activity due to its small particle size and
amorphous structure. Volatile metals such as cadmium and zinc also are prone to fume formation. The
fine-particle fumes are difficult to transfer by conventional materials-handling techniques due to moisture
absorption and poor flow properties (Popovic et al., 1991).
Foundries use sand to make molds and cores to contain and shape metal during casting. The sand
grains are held together with additives called "binders." Mold-making techniques may use sand mixed with
a small amount of clay and water or more complex binder systems such as silicates or organic resins such
as phenolic-urethane polymers.
Fly ash Is fine paniculate carried in the offgas exiting processes such as smelting or coal
combustion. Fly ash particles form in a high-temperature gas stream. At the typical combustion or
processing temperature of about 16QO°C (2900 °F), the ash material is a molten sphere. As the particles
cool and solidify, they retain a generally spherical shape. The particulate is collected by baghouses,
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electrostatic precipitators, or similar offgas cleaning equipment. The paniculate is mainly glassy, spherical
silicate and aluminate material with particle sizes in the range of 1 to 150 micrometers fam) (Gera et al.,
1991). The fine paniculate may be removed from the offgas cleaning equipment as either a dry powder or
a water slurry and then be sent to a storage pile for subsequent disposal or recycling.
Abrasives are powdered, granular, or solid materials used to grind, smooth, cut, or polish other
substances. The abrasive wears down the surface of materials to alter their shape or give the desired finish.
Sand, ground quartz, pumice, and corundum are commonly used natural abrasives. Synthetic abrasives
such as Carborundum™ (silicon carbide, SiC) and alumina (aluminum oxide, AI2O3) are prepared for special
applications. Abrasives can become contaminated with metals during use. For example, chips from a paint
with lead or chromate pigments may cause the spent abrasive to have a hazardous waste characteristic.
Catalysts for industrial process use typically are a ceramic support carrying a small quantity of metal
catalyst such as a chromium, nickel, or platinum group metal. The supporting ceramic usually is a sphere
of controlled particle size consisting mainly of alumina (AI2O3) and silica (SiO2). In use, the catalyst becomes
fouled with reactants or reaction products. Catalyst activity often can be recouped by thermal regeneration,
but some of the particles break during the regeneration process. Once the catalyst particles become too
small to be useful, they can become a waste disposal problem.
Spent activated carbon results from a variety of wastewater treatment or offgas cleaning operations.
Activated carbon adsorption may be applied to offgas cleanup or to removal of metals from aqueous
streams. The carbon may become a characteristic hazardous waste due to sorbed contaminants (Dungan,
1992).
Refractory bricks are high-performance ceramic materials used to line high-temperature processing
equipment. Refractory bricks are made from chromite or similar chromium oxide materials. The bricks
deteriorate in use and are replaced periodically during furnace maintenance .(Martin et al., 1987). Many
refractory bricks contain percentage levels of chromium and can exhibit the D007 chromium toxicity hazard
characteristic (see Appendix E).. The bricks also may become contaminated by process materials during
use.
Metals in Polymer Matrices--
Metals, metal salts, and organometallic compounds are incorporated in polymer matrices to act as
fillers, improve mechanical properties, or provide colors. For example, organolead compounds are used
in wire and cable insulation; cadmium is used in plastics; and various lead, cadmium, and chromate
pigments are used in paints and plastics.
Industrial maintenance or metals recovery operations can generate significant volumes of metal-
bearing polymer waste. Examples are recovery of copper or aluminum from wire, recovery of steel from
automobiles, and paint removal. The polymer usually is removed by shredding or abrasive blasting and thus
is left as a finely divided paniculate. The residue from shredding is a finely divided polymer called "fluff."
The fluff contains metals as a constituent as well as metal paniculate contaminants from the substrate. Paint
removal debris typically will be produced as an abrasive blasting medium contaminated with the paint debris
containing metal pigments, substrate metal, and metal oxide paniculate.
2.2.3.2 Landfills
Metal-contaminated wastes are frequently deposited in landfills. Landfills are subgrade waste-holding
or disposal facilities. Landfill designs range from a simple pit to a complex lined and capped disposal
facility. The landfill may contain process solid waste or sludges or other sources of metal contaminants.
Infiltrating surface water or migrating groundwater can pass through the waste material in landfills, resulting
2-5
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In contaminated leachate. Surrounding soils may become contaminated due to leaching from the landfill.
Uncontrolled landfills can also release contaminants via wind and surface erosion.
2.2.4 Sludges
A general definition of sludge is a thick, water-based suspension of solid particles. Sludges may
Include metal hydroxides, carbonaceous materials, silicates, and other industrial by-products formed into
a semisolid mass. RCRA and the implementing regulations take a somewhat more specific approach,
defining sludges as residues from air or wastewater treatment or other,pollution control operations (50 FR
618, January 4, 1985).
Many industrial metal-contaminated sludges are hydroxide or sulfide precipitates from treatment of
wastewater. In addition to the chemicals added to cause precipitation and the precipitated contaminants,
the sludge may contain flocculants and filter aid. Depending on the source and age of the sludge, the waste
matrix composition will range from uniform to heterogeneous:
Hydroxide or sulfide sludges derived from well-controlled treatment of a uniform wastestream will
have uniform and predictable matrix characteristics. Wastewater treatment sludges from inorganic pigment
manufacture or plating operations are common industrial examples of such sludges. Sludges containing
high concentrations of a single metal also can result from grinding or offgas scrubbing processes. A clean,
well-controlled sludge that is contaminated with one or two metals and/or has a high metal concentration
is a good candidate for recycling.
Sludge pits at CERCLA sites typically represent the other extreme.. At such sites, waste treatment
sludges were discharged to holding pits. As the wastes weather in the pits, hydroxides convert to
carbonates and various hydration reactions occur. Further, the pits become a repository for all manner of
facility wastes including pallets, bricks, broken tools and equipment, and drummed wastes. Additional
miscellaneous wastes may enter the pit from illegal offsite sources.
Many of the CERCLA waste pits have been abandoned for some period with little or no access
control. Abandoned waste sites are an inviting location for disposal of wastes by parties not involved in
known use of the site. This sort of "midnight waste disposal" is suspected to have occurred at the King of
Prussia CERCLA site, Winslow Township, NJ, for example. Before any attempt at recycling, wastes from
old sludge pits almost certainly will require significant pretreatment or, at a minimum, sorting, screening, and
sizing.
2.2.5 Soils
Soils can become contaminated with metals as a result of direct contact with plant waste
discharges, fugitive emissions, or leachate from waste piles; landfills; or sludge deposits. Soil consists of
weathered mineral grains and organic materials in varying proportions. Soils typically are heterogeneous
and may be stratified due to historical variations during the soil formation process. Soil layers form as a
result of interaction between the soil and groundwater, atmosphere, and vegetation. The properties of upper
layers are particularly affected by biological activity of plants and microorganisms. -As a result, the surface
soil properties are strongly influenced by soil chemistry, moisture content, and climatic conditions.
The wide variations in natural soil properties and contaminant levels encountered in site remediation
cannot be overemphasized. Soil and contaminant conditions certainly will vary from site to site. Conditions
may also vary widely within one site. The process or equipment selected to handle contaminated soils
should typically be able to accept wide variations in soil conditions and contaminant levels.
2-6
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Many systems are available for classifying soil type and constituents. Most of these classifications
include particle size as the primary physical parameter. Typical classifications, in order of decreasing size,
are: gravel, sand, silt, and clay.
The organic content of soil can vary from <1% in dry, sandy soils to >20%. The chemistry of the
organic portion of soils is complex. The soil organic content will consist of high-molecular-weight humic
materials and lower-molecular-weight organic acids and bases. The high-molecular-weight organic materials
in soil have low water solubility and high affinity for metals and account for most of the metal immobilization
due to soil organic matter. These high-molecular-weight organic acids immobilize metals by complexation
and chelation mainly due to acidic sites. The lower-molecular-weight organics tend to mobilize metals by
forming soluble complexes with metals (Czupyrna et al., 1989).
Other characteristics that help identify soil type and behavior include structure, color, density, type,
and amount of organic and inorganic colloidal materials. Typical engineering properties, such as density
and Atterberg limits, will indicate the handling properties of the soil. The solubility of metals in soil is
controlled by factors such as pH, Eh, the ion exchange capacity, and complexing and chelation effects of
organic matter. Measurement methods and the significance of each of these factors have been described
in several documents (Bodek et al., 1988; Cameron, 1992; Sims et al., 1984).
2.3 REFERENCES
1. Bodek, I., W.J. Lyman, W.F. Reehl, and D.H. Rosenblatt. Environmental Inorganic Chemistry.
Pergamon Press, New York, New York, 1988.
2. Cameron, R.E. Guide to Site and Soil Description for Hazardous Waste Site Characterization -
Volume 1: Metals. EPA/600/4-91/029, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, 1992.
3. Czupyrna, G., R.D. Levy, A.I. Maclean, and H. Gold. In Situ Immobilization of Heavy-Metal-
Contaminated Soils. Noyes Data Corporation. Park Ridge, New Jersey, 1989.
4. Dungan, A.E. Development of BOAT for the Thermal Treatment of K106 and Certain D009
Wastes. In: Arsenic and Mercury - Workshop on Removal, Recovery, Treatment, and
Disposal, Alexandria, Virginia, August 17-20. EPA/600/R-92/105. Office of Research and
Development, Washington, DC, 1992. pp. 100-102.
5. Espinosa, J. (Ed.). Metal Statistics 1993: The Statistical Guide to the Metals Industries. 85th
Edition. Published annually by American Metal Market, Chilton Publications, New York City,
1993.
6. Federal Register. 50 FR 618 and 658. January 4, 1985.
7. Federal Register. 58 FR 26975. May 6, 1993.
8. Gera, F., O. Mancini, M. Mecchia, S. Sarrocco, and A. Schneider. Utilization of Ash and
Gypsum Produced by Coal Burning Power Plants. In: J.J.J.M. Goumans, H.A. van der Sloot,
and Th. G. Aalbers (Eds.), Waste Materials in Construction, Studies in Environmental Science
48, Elsevier, New York, New York, 1991. pp. 433-440.
9. Kroschwitz, J. and M. Howe-Grant (Eds.). Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology.
John-Wiley and Sons, New York, New York, 1991.
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10. Loebenstein, J.R. Arsenic: Supply, Demand, and the Environment. In: Arsenic and Mercury -
Workshop on Removal, Recovery, Treatment, and Disposal, Alexandria, VA, August 17-20,
1992. pp. 8-12.
K
11. Martin, K.E., W.A. Stephens, J.E. Vondracek, D.P. Trainor, T.R. Stolzenburg, and T.R. Wirth.
Constructive Use of Foundry Process Solid Wastes for Landfill Construction: A Case Study.
Transactions of the American Foundrymen's Society, 95:483-492, 1987.
12. Popovic, K., N. Kamenic, B. Tkalcic-Ciboci, and V. Soukup. Technical Experience in the Use
of Industrial Waste for Building Materials Production and Environmental Impact. Waste
Materials in Construction. J.J.J.M. Goumans, H.A. van der Sloot, and Th. G. Aalbers (Eds.).
Elsevier, Studies In Environmental Science 48, New York, New York, 1991. pp. 479-490.
13. Sims, R.C., D.L Sorensen, J.L Sims, J.E. McLean, R. Mahmood, and R.R. Dupont. Review
of In-Place Treatment Techniques for Contaminated Surface Soils. EPA/540/2-84-003b, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1984.
14. U.S. Bureau of Mines. Mineral Commodity Summaries. Washington, DC, 1991.
15. U.S. Bureau of Mines. Mineral Industry Surveys. Washington, DC, 1993.
16. Zimmerman, L. and C. Coles. Cement Industry Solutions to Waste Management - The
Utilization of Processed Waste By-Products for Cement Manufacturing. In: Proceedings of
the First International Conference for Cement Industry Solutions to Waste Management,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada, October 7-9, 1992. pp. 533-545.
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SECTION 3
CONTAMINANT BEHAVIOR, FATE, TRANSPORT, AND TOXICITY
At every metal-contaminated site, testing and analysis should be performed to measure the
concentrations of metals present, to determine the species and physical form, and to determine the extent
of metals contamination. It is imperative, however, that the background concentration of the metals also
be analyzed. It often is assumed that all metals measured at a site are contaminants, but in reality, high
concentrations of many metals may be native to the area. As shown in Table 3-1, the common ranges of
As, Cd, Cr, Pb, and Hg in typical soils are 1 to 50, 0.01 to 0.70, 1 to 1,000, 2 to 200, and 0.01 to 0.3 ppm,
respectively. The typical background concentrations for these metals are 5, 0.06, 100, 10, and 0.03 ppm,
respectively (U.S. EPA, 1987, EPA/540/P-87/001B).
TABLE 3-1. REPRESENTATIVE METAL CONTENT TYPICAL OF SOILS
Element
Common range for
soils (ppm)
Selected average
for soils (ppm)
Arsenic (As)
Cadmium (Cd)
Chromium (Cr)
Lead (Pb)
Mercury (Hg)
Barium (Ba)
Boron (B)
Copper (Cu)
Manganese (Mn)
Nickel (Ni)
Selenium (Se)
Silver (Ag)
Tin (Sn)
Zinc (Zn)
1-50 t
0.01 - 0.70
1 - 1,000
2 - 200
0.01 - 0.3
•100 - 3,000
2-100
2 - 100
20 - 3,000 .
5 - 500
0.1 -2
0.01 - 5
2-200
10 - 300
5
0.06
100
10
0.03
430
10
30
600
40
0.3
0.05
10
50
Adapted from U.S. EPA, 1987, EPA/540/P-87/001B.
Important sources for information on behavior, fate, and transport include Bodek et al. (1988); Dragun (1988);
McLean and Bledsoe (1992); and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1991a, 1991b, 1991c, 1991d, and 1992).
3.1 CHEMICAL FORMS AND SPECIATIONS
this section describes possible chemical forms for metal contaminants under typical soil and waste
matrix conditions based on the background information presented in Section 2 and on geochemical
principles. Conditions of compounds of pure metals are emphasized. The effects of mixed metal and
metal/organic combinations are discussed when applicable.
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Solubility and Eh-pH diagrams provide a useful summary of aqueous solution chemistry for a given
system and provide a framework for evaluating oxidation/reduction reactions, stability of mobile phases, and
hydrolysis for different metals. Example diagrams are provided in Appendix A to illustrate the potential for
these diagrams. Computer models such as STABCAL (Huang, 1993), MINTEQA2 (U.S. EPA, 1991,
EPA/600/3-91/021), and Outokumpu (Roine, 1993), are available to allow calculation of the diagrams.
3.1.1 Arsenic
In most arsenic-contaminated sites, arsenic is present as As2O3 or as arsenic species leached from
ASjOg, oxidized to As(V), and then sorbed onto iron-bearing minerals in the soil. Arsenic also may be
present as organometallic forms, such as methylarsenic acid (H2AsO3CH3) and dimethylarsenic acid
((CH3)2AsO2H), which are active ingredients in many pesticides), as well as arsine (AsH3) and its methyl
derivatives (dimethylarsine (HAs(CH3)2) and trimethylarsine (As(CH3)3)). These arsenic forms illustrate the
various oxidation states that arsenic commonly exhibits (-III, 0, III, and V), and the resulting complexity of
its chemistry in the environment.
The chemistry of As(V) resembles that of P(V). As(V) exhibits anionic behavior in the presence of
water and can form insoluble metal arsenates. In aerobic environments, H3AsO4 predominates at pH <2
and Is replaced by H2AsO4", HAsO42", and AsO43" as pH increases to about 2, 7, and 11.5 respectively.
Under mildly reduced conditions, H3AsO3 is a predominant species at low pH, but is replaced by H2AsO3",
HAs032", and AsC^3" as pH increases. Under still more reduced conditions and in the presence of sulfide,
As2S3 can form. As2S3 is a low-solubility, stable solid. HAsS2 and AsS22" are thermodynamically unstable
with respect to As2S3 (Wagemann, 1978). Under extreme reducing conditions, elemental arsenic and arsine
can occur. Methylation of arsenic can result in highly volatile methylated arsine derivatives.
Because it forms anions in solution, arsenic does not form complexes with simple anions such as
Ci" and SO42". Anionic arsenic, such as arsenate (AsO43~) and arsenite (AsO33~), behaves like a ligand and
precipitates with many metal cations (Bodek et al., 1988). As(V) is less mobile (and less toxic) than As(lll).
(This phenomenon is just the opposite of Cr, where Cr(VI) is more mobile and toxic than Cr(lll).) Calcium
arsenate (Ca3(AsO4)2) is the most stable metal arsenate in well-oxidized and alkaline environments, but it
Is unstable In acidic environments. Even under initially oxidizing and alkaline conditions, absorption of CO2
from the air will result in formation of CaCO3. Sodium often is available, such that the mobile compound
Na3AsO4 can form. The slightly less stable manganese arsenate (Mn2(AsO4)2) forms in both acidic and
alkaline environments. However, its mobility increases in well-oxygenated systems (Sadiq et al., 1983).
Under acidic and moderately reducing conditions (0 to 100 mV), arsenic will cqprecipitate with or adsorb
onto Iron oxyhydroxides [as As(V)] (Masscheleyn et al., 1991). These species are immobile as long as
acidic and reducing conditions are maintained. Mobility increases with decreasing Fe/As ratio and
Increasing pH. For example, the solubility varies from a minimum of <0.05 mg/L at an Fe:As mole ratio of
16:1 to a maximum of 510 mg/L with equal molar amounts of Fe and As (Krause and Ettel, 1989). The
arsenic ferrihydride species has been suggested as a disposal medium for arsenic, although there is some
debate concerning its solubility (Robins, 1981; Krause and Ettel, 1989). Lead arsenate (Pb3(AsO4)2) also has
been suggested as a possible solid in natural environments, but it has not been established whether the
mechanism is precipitation or sorption onto solid surfaces (Hess and Blancher, 1977).
Arsenite also is present in aqueous systems under reduced conditions. It has a strong affinity for
sulfur and readily adsorbs or coprecipitates with metal sulfides (Ferguson and Gavis, 1972). However, the
adsorption of arsenite onto clays, carbonates, or other hydroxides has not been investigated.
Arsenic forms bonds with organic sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon. As(lll) reacts with sulfur and
sulfhydryl groups, such as cystine, organic dithios, proteins, and enzymes, but does not react with amine
groups or organic compounds with reduced nitrogen constituents. On the contrary, As(V) reacts with
reduced nitrogen groups, such as amines, but not with sulfhydryl groups. Arsenic (both III and V) forms
organo-arsenlcals with carbon. The complexation of arsenic by dissolved organic matter in natural environ-
3-2
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ments prevents sorption and coprecipitation with solid-phase organics and inorganics, thus increasing the
mobility of arsenic in aquatic systems and in the soil.
3.1.2 Cadmium
Plating operations, nickel-cadmium battery manufacturing, pigment manufacturing and applications
and disposal of cadmium-containing wastes are the principal sources of cadmium contamination at metal-
contaminated sites. Cadmium exists as Cd2+ ion, Cd-CN" complexes, or Cd(OH)2 sludge at most metal-
•contaminated sites, depending on pH and treatments that Cd wastes receive before disposal to pits and/or
lagoons. At pH <8, cadmium occurs primarily as the dissolved divalent ion, Cd2+, or aqueous sulfate
species. As pH increases, cadmium precipitates to form Cd(OH)2 and CdCO3. CdCO3 is significantly less
soluble than Cd(OH)2; its solubility increases as dissolved CO2 concentration increases. Under reduced
conditions and in the presence of sulfide, a stable cadmium compound, CdS, forms. Cadmium also forms
precipitates with phosphate, selenite, selenate, arsenate, and chromate; the solubilities of these precipitates
vary under different pH and geochemical conditions.
3.1.3 Chromium
At most metal-contaminated sites, chromium is released to land, surface water, and groundwater
from electroplating and leather tanning operations/pigment manufacturing and applications, and textile
manufacturing, and from disposal of chromium-containing wastes. Chromium usually carries +VI or +III
valence. The hexavalent chromium (CrO42" and CrzO72") is the major chromium species used in industry
(except tanning), and is more toxic and mobile. The two forms of hexavalent chromium are pH dependent.
Chromate ion (CrO42~) predominates above pH 6 under oxidizing conditions and Cr2O72~predominates at
lower pH under moderately reducing conditions. Because of its anionic nature, Cr(VI) precipitates with metal
cations, such as Ba2+, Pb2+, and Ag+. Cr(VI) also complexes with multiple sites on soil surfaces having
positively charged sites, the number of which decrease with increasing soil pH. As a result, adsorption of
Cr(VI) onto the surface of iron oxide, aluminum oxide, and other soil constituents occurs only at an acidic
or neutral pH. The trivalent chromium is less toxic and tends to adsorb onto clays below pH 4. Above pH
5, chromium's immobility is attributed to the formation of Cr(OH)3 solid, and, between pH 4 and 5, to both
precipitation and adsorption (Chrotowski et al., 1991). Cr(lll) also forms complexes with fluoride, ammonia,
cyanide, sulfate, and many soluble organic ligands, all of which may increase the mobility of chromium.
Cr(VI) is reduced to Cr(lll) in the presence of ferrous iron, dissolved sulfides, and organic
compounds, particularly sulfhydryl groups. The reduction reaction proceeds at a slow rate under ambient
pH and temperatures; however, the rate of reaction increases with decreasing soil pH. Cr(lll) can be
oxidized to Cr(VI) by a large excess of MnO2; oxidation by oxygen occurs slowly under natural water
conditions (Chrotowski et al., 1991).
3.1.4 Lead
Lead (Pb) is released to land, surface water, and groundwater primarily from ferrous and nonferrous
metal smelting and processing, secondary metals producing, lead battery manufacturing, and pigment and
chemical manufacturing, as well as from the disposal of lead-containing waste. Most of the lead released
is in the form of lead metal, lead oxides and hydroxides, and lead-metal oxy-anion complexes. The most
common oxidation states for lead are 0 and +II. Pb(ll) forms both mononuclear and polynuclear oxides and
the corresponding hydrates and hydroxides. However, Pb2+ and hydroxy complexes are the most stable
species under most conditions. Lead also forms stable complexes with both inorganic (e.g., CI", CO32~) and
organic (e.g., humic and fulvic acid) ligands present in soils and aquatic systems (Bodek et al., 1988).
Soluble lead also reacts with carbonates, sulfides, sulfates, and phosphates to form low-solubility
compounds; At pH values above 6, lead forms lead carbonate (McLean and Bledsoe, 1992). In solutions
with high concentrations of sulfide, lead precipitates to form PbS. PbS is the most stable solid in reduced
3-3
-------
conditions with sulfur (Hem and Durum, 1972). PbS will be converted to lead hydroxide, carbonate, or
sulfate when the sulfur is oxidized to sulfate. In the presence of phosphate, stable lead phosphates and lead
phosphate chlorides will form (Clever and Johnston, 1990).
3.1.5 Mercury
Mercury is released to the environment primarily from a number of industrial processes including
chloralkali manufacturing, copper and zinc smelting operations, paint application, waste oil combustion,
geothermal energy plants, municipal waste incineration, chemical manufacturing, ink manufacturing, paper
mills, leather tanning, pharmaceutical production, and textile manufacturing, as well as from the disposal of
Industrial and domestic products (e.g., thermometers, electrical switches, and batteries) as solid wastes in
landfills. In a metal-contaminated site, mercury exists in mercuric form (Hg2+), mercurous form (Hg22+),
elemental form (Hg°), or alkylated form (e.g., methyl and ethyl mercury). Hg22+ and Hg2* are more stable
under oxidizing conditions. Under mildly reducing conditions, both organically bound mercury and inorganic
mercury compounds may be degraded to elemental mercury that can be converted readily to methyl or ethyl
mercury by biotic and abiotic processes. Methyl and ethyl mercury are the most toxic forms of mercury.
The alkylated mercury compounds are volatile and soluble in water.
Mercury(ll) forms relatively strong complexes with CI" and CO32". Stumm and Morgan (1981)
suggested that the principal dissolved CI" complexes are HgCI42" In seawater and HgOHCI in fresh water
under aerobic conditions. The other CI" complexes present under aerobic conditions are HgCI*. HgCI2,
HgCI3", and HgCI42". Mercury(ll) also forms complexes with other inorganic ligands such as F, Br", I", SO4 ,
S2", and PC-43". The insoluble HgS is formed under mildly reducing conditions. Mercury(ll) forms strong
complexes with organic ligands, such as sulfhydryl groups, amino acids, and humic and fulvic acids.
Mercury is very soluble in oxidized aquatic systems. Its solubility is greatly influenced by its strong
cornplexatton with inorganic and organic ligands. For example, at a CI" concentration of 35,460 mg/L, the
solubilities of Hg(OH)2 and HgS increase by factors of 105 and 3.6 x 107, respectively. At a CI" concentration
of only 3.5 mg/L, the solubilities of these two compounds increase by factors of 55 and 408, respectively.
The solubilities of HgS, HgO, and HgCI2 also increase in the presence of humic acid (Bodek et al., 1988).
3.2 ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND TRANSPORT
This subsection describes typical environmental fate and transport mechanisms for metals in
contaminated sites. As indicated in the following subsections, the descriptions include transport and
partitioning as well as transformation. Metal transformations are described according to environmental
media types, Including air, soil and sediment, and surface water and groundwater.
Trace levels of As, Cd, Cr, Pb, and Hg may be released into the atmosphere from the off-gas of
open-hearth furnaces in steel mills; zinc, cadmium, and lead smelters; and incinerators (Schroeder et al.,
1987). The airborne particulates are present mainly as oxides or in the form of chlorides in some incinerator
emissions. Significant coagulation and interaction can occur in the atmosphere between emitted species
and ambient particles of both natural and artificial origin. The paniculate matter eventually will be removed
from the atmosphere by wet or dry deposition and will be dispersed to a wide area of soil, causing soil
contamination or damage to plants. For example, the zinc smelters at the Palmerton Zinc (OU-1) site in
Carbon County, Pennsylvania, emitted large quantities of Zn, Pb, Cd, and SO2 that led to the defoliation of
approximately 2,000 acres on Blue Mountain adjacent to the smelters (U.S. EPA, 1987, EPA/ROD/R03-
87/036).
In soil and sediment, metal contaminants are dissolved in the soil solution, adsorbed or ion-
exchanged on Inorganic soil constituents, complexed with insoluble soil organic matter, and precipitated as
pure or mixed solids. Metals in the soil solution are subject to movement with soil water, and may be
transported through the vadose zone to groundwater, taken up by plants and aquatic organisms, or
3-4
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volatilized. Unlike organic contaminants, metals cannot be degraded, but some metals such as As, Cr, and
Hg can be transformed among various oxidation states, altering their mobility and toxicfty. Metal
contaminants participate in chemical reactions with the soil solid phase. Immobilization of metals by
adsorption, ion exchange, complexation, and precipitation can prevent the movement of metal contaminants
to groundwater. Changes in soil conditions, such as degradation of organic matrices and changes in pH,
redox potential, or soil solution composition, due to various remediation schemes or to natural weathering
processes, also may change metal mobility.
Metal contaminants also may be dispersed to a wide area of soil by well-intended but poorly
considered uses, such as using a slag with leachable Pb or Cd as a road covering or fill material. However,
it must be noted that spreading slag is not necessarily a bad practice. In fact, all iron and most steel slag
now used in construction contains primarily silicate minerals with very low hazardous metal content and near
zero teachability.
The qualitative ranking of the relative mobilities of As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, and 6 other metals in the 11
soils listed in Table 3-2 have been ranked to indicate possible mobility of these metals under anaerobic
conditions and a pH of 5 (Korte et al., 1976). Of the cationic metals studied, Cu and Pb are the least mobile
and Hg(ll) is the most mobile (see Figure 3-1). The heavier textured soils with higher pH are effective in
attenuating the metals, whereas sandy soils and/or soils with low pH do not retain the metals effectively.
For the anionic metals studied, Cr(VI) is the most mobile anion (Figure 3-2). Clay soils containing oxides
with low pH are the most effective in retaining the anions. On the contrary, the light-textured soils are the
least effective in retaining anions. The relative mobility of nine metals through montmorillonite and kaolinite
is:
Cr(VI) > Se > As(lll) > As(V) > Cd > Zn > Pb > Cu > Cr(lll)
Table 3-2 and Figures 3-1 and 3-2 illustrate the importance of clay minerals in reducing the mobility
of cationic metals, the moderate to high mobility of mercury, and the effect of iron minerals in reducing the
mobility of metal- and metalloid-bearing anions.
TABLE 3-2. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL TYPES
Soil Type
Wag ram
Ava
Kalkaska
Davidson
Molokal
Chalmers
Nicholson
Fanno
Mohave
Mohave Clay
Anthony
Soil Order
Ultisol
Alfisol
Spodosol
Ultisol
Oxisol
Mollisol
Alfisol
Alfisol
Aridisol
Aridisol
Entisol
pH
4.2
4.5
4.7
6.2
6.2
6.6
6.7
7.0
7.3
7.8
7.8
CEC
m^/100 g
2
19
10
9
14
26
37
33
10
12
6
Surface area
m2/9
8.0
61.5
8.9
61.3
67.3
125.6
120.5
122.1
38.3
127.5
19.8
Free Fe
oxides % .
0.6
4
1.8
17
23
3.1
5.6
3.7
1.7
2.5
1.8
Clay
%
4
31
5
61
52
35
49
46
11
40
15
Texture
loamy sand
silty clay loam
sand
clay
clay
silty clay loam
silty clay
clay
sandy loam
clay loam
sandy loam
Adapted from Korte et al. (1976) with permission of the authors and of the publisher, Williams & Wilkins.
3-5
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Increasing Mobility •
t
Increasing
Attenuation
Capacity
Son Type(a)
Molokai c.
Nicholson si. c.
Mohave Clay c.l.
Fanno c.
Mohave s.l.
Davidson c.
Ava si. c.l.
Kalkaska s.
Anthony s.l.
Wagram l.s.
Cu
X"
Pb
** .-vV
V
Be | Zn | Cd | Ni
LOW MOBILITY"" '
•*
,v/l '--•• Vr^-rv
MODERATE
MOBILITY
HtOH MO'BIL^Y
Hg
(a) See Table 3-2 for soil characteristics.
c = clay; s! = silt; I = loam; and s = sand.
(b) Ranking of metal mobility based on anaerobic landfill conditions.
Adapted from Korte et al. (1976) with permission of the authors and of the publisher,
Williams & Wilkins.
Figure 3-1. Relative mobility of cations through soil.'
Increasing Mobility •
Increasing
Attenuation
Capacity
Soil Type(a)
Molokai c.
Nicholson si. c.
Davidson c.
Ava si. c.l.
Fanno c.
Mohave Clay c.l.
Kalkaska s.
Mohave s.l.
Wagram l.s.
Anthony s.l.
Se
-
•• ;
V As | Cr
.• V S J V' '' ' '-. « <"* *f*' f-f\fff f / ..
-- -LOWMOBIUW
V. ^^. WA *.Vf,\ -f
MODERATE
MOBILITY |
|
HIGH MOBILITY
*
(a) Bee Table 3-2 for soil characteristics.
c = clay; si = silt; I = loam; and s = sand.
(b) Ranking of metal mobility based on anaerobic landfill conditions.
Adapted from: Korte et al. (1976) with permission of the authors and of the publisher,
Williams & Wilkins.
Figure 3-2. Relative mobility of anions through soil.'
:i ("Kb)
3-6
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3.2.1 Arsenic
3.2.1.1 Transport and Partitioning of Arsenic
Most arsenic at contaminated sites exists in soils. Because many arsenic compounds are strongly
sorbed onto soils or sediments, leaching by rainfall or snowmelt usually results in transport of these
compounds over only short distances in soils (Moore et al., 1988; Welch et al., 1988). Transport and
partitioning of arsenic in water depend on chemical forms (e.g., oxidation state and associated opposite
charge ion) and interactions with other materials present. Soluble forms move with water and may be
carried long distances via rivers. However, arsenic may be adsorbed onto sediments or soils, especially
clays, iron oxides, aluminum hydroxides, manganese compounds, and organic materials (Welch et al., 1988).
Sediment-bound arsenic may be released back into the water by chemical or biological
interconversions. Bioconcentration of arsenic can occur in aquatic organisms, primarily in algae and the
lower invertebrates. However, biomagnification in aquatic food chains does not appear to be significant
(Callahan et al., 1979), although some fish and invertebrates contain high levels of arsenic compounds.
Terrestrial plants may accumulate arsenic by root uptake from the soil or by absorption of airborne arsenic
deposited on the leaves, and certain species may accumulate substantial levels. Arsenic in the atmosphere
exists as paniculate matter, mostly as particles of less than 2 fjm in diameter (Coles et al., 1979). Examples
of industrial processes that generate airborne arsenic participates include smelting and glass making. These
particles are transported by wind until they are returned to earth along with precipitation or by dry
deposition.
3.2.1.2 Transformations of Arsenic in the Environment
Air-
Arsenic, is released into the atmosphere primarily as arsenic trioxide or arsine and its methyl deriva-
tives. Arsine is rapidly oxidized in the atmosphere; trivalent arsenic and methyl arsines may be more
persistent because of their lower rates of oxidation. Trivalent arsenic and methyl arsines are oxidized
partially to the pentavalent state and coexist with pentavalent forms as a mixture (Callahan et al., 1979).
Soils and Sediments-
Most arsenic compounds are strongly sorbed by soils and sediments and thus are relatively
immobile. As(V) compounds predominate in aerobic soils and sediments; As(III) compounds in slightly
reduced soils and sediments; and arsine, methylated arsines, and arsenic metal in very reduced conditions.
Arsine and methylated derivatives are highly volatile and will vaporize after formation. As(V) and As(lll)
compounds are sorbed through specific adsorption onto iron and aluminum hydrous oxides, clays, and
carbonates. They also can be removed from water through coprecipitation with iron oxides or by
isomorphic substitution with phosphorus in minerals. Coprecipitation and adsorption with hydrous iron
oxides may be the most common mechanisms under most environmental conditions.
In general, arsenates are more strongly sorbed by soils and sediments than are arsenites. Arsenates
also are fixed to soils and sediments by adsorption, forming immobile species with soil minerals containing
iron, aluminum, calcium, manganese, and other similar minerals. In fact, arsenates may be leached from
soils if the levels of reactive iron, aluminum, and calcium in soils are low (Woolson et al., 1971). The
presence of iron in soils and sediments can be most effective in controlling arsenate mobility (Krause and
Ettel, 1989; Masscheleyn et al., 1991).
3-7
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Arsenic compounds in soils and sediments can undergo a complex series of transformations,
Including oxidation-reduction reactions, ligand exchange, and biotransformation (Callahan etal., 1979; Welch
et al., 1988). The factors most strongly influencing these fate processes include oxidation-reduction
conditions (Eh), pH, the presence of certain competing anions and complexing ions, clay and hydrous oxide
contents, metal sulfide and sulfide ion concentrations, salinity, and distribution and composition of the biota
(Callahan et al., 1979; Wakao et al., 1988; Bodek et al., 1988). Sorbed As(V) compounds in sediments may
be remobilized if conditions become sufficiently reduced for As(lll) compounds to form. Arsenic also
appears to be more mobile under both alkaline and more saline conditions. The presence of other ions and
organic compounds can increase arsenic mobility because of competitive sorption and the formation of
organoarsenic complexes. Arsenic may be biotransformed through methylation to form highly volatile arsine
and its methyl derivatives, thus being transferred from sediments back to the water column in aquatic
systems.
Surface Water and Groundwater-
Transformations of arsenic in surface water and groundwater are similar to those occurring in soils
and sediments. The predominant form of arsenic in surface water usually is arsenate, but aquatic
microorganisms may reduce the arsenate to arsenite and a variety of methylated arsenicals. Arsenate also
occurs in groundwater but typically sorbs onto iron-bearing minerals so arsenite is often the major
component In the water, depending on the characteristics of the water and the surrounding geology (Welch
et al., 1988).
3.2.2 Cadmium
3.2.2.1 Transport and Partitioning of Cadmium
Cadmium and cadmium compounds may exist in air as suspended particulates derived from
industrial emissions, combustion of fossil fuels, smelting operations, or soil erosion. Depending on particle
size, the particulate matter may be transported from a hundred to a few thousand kilometers (with a typical
atmospheric residence time of 1 to 10 days) before deposition along with precipitation, or may be removed
from the atmosphere by gravitational settling in the areas downwind from the pollutant source. The
particulates also may dissolve in atmospheric water droplets and be removed by wet deposition. Cadmium
Is more mobile In aquatic environments than most other heavy metals, such as lead (Callahan et al., 1979).
Cadmium exists In water as hydrated ions or Cd complexes with humic substances or other organic ligands.
Cadmium may be removed from water by precipitation or by sorption to mineral surfaces and organic
materials. Studies have revealed that cadmium concentrations in sediments are at least one order of
magnitude higher than in the overlying water (Callahan et al., 1979). However, cadmium may redissolve
from sediments under varying ambient conditions. Cadmium in soils may leach into water, especially under
acidic conditions. Cadmium does not form volatile compounds; therefore, partitioning from water to the air
does not occur. Aquatic and terrestrial organisms bioaccumuiate cadmium. Cadmium concentrations in
freshwater and marine animals can be hundreds to thousands of times higher than in water (Callahan et al.,
1979). Cadmium is known to accumulate in grasses, food crops, poultry, cattle, and wildlife. However,
blomagnificatlon of cadmium through the food chain is not clearly understood (Beyer, 1986).
3.2.2.2 Transformations of Cadmium in the Environment
Air-
Most cadmium compounds found in air are stable and are not subject to chemical reactions.
Transformation of these compounds is mainly through dissolution in water or in dilute acids.
3-8
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Soils and Sediments-
Precipitation and adsorption onto soils and sediments are the most common mechanisms governing
the transformation and mobility of cadmium in the environment. Removal of cadmium from water increases
with increasing pH through a critical range of 6 to 8. Below pH 6, little or no cadmium is removed. Above
pH 8 to 9, cadmium may be completely removed. Cadmium adsorption often correlates with the cation
exchange capacity (CEC) of the clay minerals, carbonate minerals, oxides, and organic matter in soils and
sediments. The presence of anions and ligands also affects cadmium adsorption. For example, sulfate and
chloride ions often reduce cadmium adsorption by amorphous clay minerals, silica, and/or alumina. On the
contrary, ligands such as humic acids, glycine, and phosphate increase cadmium adsorption. The presence
of other cations also reduces cadmium adsorption because of competitive adsorption.
Surface Water and Groundwater-
In surface water and groundwater, cadmium is present primarily as Cd2+ ions, although at high
concentrations of organic matter, a significant amount of Cd2+ ions may complex with the organic matter.
In the acidic environments and in the presence of chloride and sulfate, cadmium may form complexes with
chloride or sulfate ions. The formation of these complexes may keep cadmium in the aqueous phase, thus
increasing its mobility. In reducing environments, cadmium precipitates with sulfide to form CdS.
Precipitation of CdS provides an effective control on cadmium mobility as long as reducing conditions are
maintained.
3.2.3 Chromium
3.2.3.1 Transport and Partitioning of Chromium
Chromium is present in the atmosphere primarily as particulate matter. Transport and partitioning
of this particulate matter depend largely on particle size and density. Chromium particles of <20 jjm may
remain airborne for longer periods of time and be transported for greater distances than larger particles.
These particles are deposited on land or water via dry or wet deposition. Cr(VI) at metal-contaminated sites
can be reduced to Cr(lll) by soil organic matter and Fe(H) minerals. The rate of this reduction reaction is
slow, but it increases with decreasing soil pH. Cr(lll) is readily adsorbed by soil or forms insoluble Cr(OH)3
or Cr2O3 • nH2O, depending on soil pH. Therefore, Cr(lll) is relatively immobile in soils in contrast to Cr(VI).
Formation of complexes with soluble organic matter, however, increases the mobility of Cr(lll) in soils.
The mobility of chromium in soil also depends on the sorption characteristics of the soil; the
determining factors are clay content, Fe203 content, and organic matter content. Surface runoff from soil
can transport both soluble and bulk precipitates of chromium to surface water. Soluble and unadsorbed
Cr(VI) and Cr(lll) complexes in soil will leach into groundwater. The leachability of Cr(VI) in the soil
increases as the soil pH increases. On the other hand, the lower pH of acid rain may enhance the leaching
of acid-soluble Cr(lll) and Cr(VI) compounds in soil. Most of the chromium released into water ultimately
will be deposited in sediment. The remaining soluble chromium is present as Cr(VI) and soluble Cr(lll)
complexes. As in soils, Cr(VI) in water eventually will be reduced to Cr(lll) by organic matter in the water.
It has been estimated that the residence time of total chromium in lake water ranges from 4.6 to 18 years
(Fishbein, 1984; Schmidt and Andren, 1984). While bioaccumulation of chromium occurs to a limited extent,
biomagnification of chromium is not expected in either the aquatic or terrestrial food chain.
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3.2.3.2 Transformations of Chromium in the Environment
Alr~
Cr(VI) in the atmosphere may be reduced by vanadium (V2+, V3+, and VO2+), Fe2+, HSO3-, and As3+.
No other reactions are likely under most environmental conditions.
Solts and sediments-
The fate of chromium in soil is dependent partly on soil pH and redox potential. Cr(VI) exists in
more oxidized soils and sediments. Cr(lll) may be oxidized to Cr(VI) in the presence of excess MnO2
(Fendorf and Zasoski, 1992). Cr(lll)-organic complexes (such as humic acid) may be more easily oxidized
than insoluble Cr(OH)3 and Cr2O3. In deeper soils and sediments where anaerobic conditions exist, Cr(VI)
Is reduced to Cr(lll) in the presence of reducing agents (e.g., organic matter, S2", Fe2+, etc.). The reduction
of Cr(VI) to Cr(lll) also is possible in aerobic soils and sediments containing organic energy sources
necessary for the redox reaction. This reduction reaction proceeds more favorably at acidic pH values. In
most soils and sediments, most chromium eventually will be present as Cr(lll).
Surface Water and Groundwater-
One of the most widely known cases of Cr(VI) groundwater contamination is the Nassau County
Superfund site on Long Island, New York (Palmer and Wittbrodt, 1991), where a recharge basin used for
the disposal of 40 mg/L Cr(VI) solutions from an aircraft plant became a source of a thin and elongated
plume migrating 1,300 m downgradient from the basin at the same velocity as the groundwater. The Cr(VI)
plume was then discharged into Massapequa Creek. Very high levels of groundwater contamination by
Cr(VI) also have taken place at the United Chrome Products site in Corvallis, Oregon, which was a hard
chrome plating facility operating from 1956 until 1985. After operations ceased, it was discovered that the
process tanks had been leaking directly to the groundwater and that a plume of 14,600 mg/L Cr(VI)
migrated approximately 100 m downgradient and the contaminated water had discharged into the local
drainage system. The contaminated soils contained as much as 25,900 mg/kg of Cr(VI).
After being released into surface water and groundwater, Cr(VI) will precipitate with metal cations,
such as Ba2*, Pb2*, and Ag*. Under anaerobic conditions, Cr(VI) will be reduced to Cr(lll) by S2" or Fe2* ions
with a reduction half-life ranging from instantaneous to a few days (Saleh et al., 1989). However, the
reduction of Cr(VI) by organic energy sources is much slower, depending on the type and amount of
organic material and the redox condition of the water. The transformation of chromium in groundwater
depends on the redox and pH conditions in the aquifer. Cr(VI) usually predominates in shallow aquifers
where aerobic conditions exist. Cr(lll) predominates in deeper groundwater under reducing conditions
because of Eh. Because the pH in most groundwater ranges from 6 to 8, CrO42" predominates.
Cr(lll), after being released into surface water and groundwater, forms complexes with dissolved
organic matter, adsorbs onto suspended clay and oxide particles, or precipitates as Cr(OH)3 or Cr2O3 solids
at pH >5. The oxidation of Cr(lll) to Cr(VI) is insignificant, even in well-aerated water. The presence of
MnO2 will accelerate this reaction, but only decreasing the oxidation half-life from 9 years to 2 years (Saleh
et al., 1989). The predominant Cr(lll) species in this pH range is Cr(OH)21+. This and other Cr(lll) species
will predominate at more acidic pH values; Cr(OH)3 and Cr(OH)41" predominate in more alkaline pH values
(Calder, 1988).
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3.2.4 Lead
3.2.4.1 Transport and Partitioning of Lead
Lead exists in the atmosphere primarily in the paniculate form. Upon release to the atmosphere,
lead particles are dispersed and ultimately are removed from the atmosphere by wet or dry deposition. In
general, wet deposition is more predominant than dry deposition. Particles with diameters of >2jum settle
out of the atmosphere fairly rapidly and are deposited relatively close to emission sources, whereas smaller
particles may be transported thousands of kilometers. For example, lead has been found in sediment cores
of lakes in Ontario and Quebec, provinces in Canada that were far removed from any point sources of lead
releases (Evans and Rigler, 1985). Lead is removed from the atmosphere by wet deposition relatively
quickly, compared to metals such as Fe, Al, Mn, Cu, Zn, and Cd.
The fate of lead in soil is affected primarily by processes such as adsorption, ion exchange,
precipitation, and complexation. After being released to a contaminated site, most lead is retained strongly
in soil (by ion exchange, precipitation, or sorption/complexation to organic matter); very little is transported
into surface water or groundwater. In soil, with a high organic matter content and a pH of 6 to 8, lead may
form insoluble organic lead complexes; if the soil has less organic matter at the same pH, hydrous lead
oxide complexes or lead carbonate or lead phosphate precipitates may form. At a pH of 4 to 6, the organic
lead complexes become more soluble and may leach out. Lead also may be converted, at the soil surface,
to lead sulfate, which is relatively more soluble than lead carbonates or lead phosphates.
The amount of lead in water depends on water pH and the total dissolved salt content. At pH >5.4,
the lead solubility is approximately 500 //g/L in soft water and only 30y/g/L in hard water. Sulfate ions limit
the lead concentration in solution by forming lead sulfate. Above pH 5.4 or 6, lead carbonates, PbCO3 and
Pb2(OH)2C03, form. As a result, a significant fraction of lead carried by river water is in an undissolved form,
which consists of colloidal or larger particles of lead carbonate, lead oxide, lead hydroxide, or lead sulfate.
Lead also may occur as sorbed ions or surface coatings on sediment mineral particles or it may be carried
as a part of suspended living or nonliving organic matter in water.
Plants and animals may bioconcentrate lead, but biomagnification has not been detected. In
general, the highest lead concentrations are found in aquatic and terrestrial organisms that live near lead
mining, smelting, and refining facilities; storage battery recycling plants; or sewage sludge and spoil disposal
areas; and in lead-contaminated sites.
3.2.4.2 Transformations of Lead in the Environment
Air- ••..-.
Lead particles emitted from mines and smelters are primarily in the form of PbO, PbSO4, and PbS.
In the atmosphere, lead exists primarily in the form of PbSO4 and PbCO3. It is not completely clear how
the chemical composition of lead changes during dispersion in the atmosphere. Several studies have
suggested that tetraalkyl and trialkyl lead are the important intermediates during lead transformation in the
atmosphere (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1991d). -The transformation involves direct
photolysis, reaction with hydroxyl radicals, and reaction with ozone.
Soils and Sediments- ;
Atmospheric lead enters the soil as lead sulfate or it is converted rapidly to lead sulfate at the soil
surface. Lead in the contaminated sites is strongly retained in soil and sediment in the form of divalent lead
cation, lead carbonates, lead sulfate, and lead sulfide. Lead also forms complexes with soil organic matter.
Tetramethyl lead, a relatively volatile organolead compound, may form as a result of biological alkylation of
organic and inorganic lead by microorganisms in anaerobic sediments. If the water over the sediments is
3-11
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aerobic, volatilization of tetramethyl lead from the sediments is not considered to be important because the
tetramethyl lead will be oxidized (U.S. EPA, 1979, EPA-440/4-79-029a).
Surface Water and Groundwater-
In surface water and groundwater, the divalent lead (Pb2+) is the stable ionic species of lead. It
precipitates with hydroxide, carbonate, sulfide, and sulfate depending on the water pH and the dissolved
salt content of the water. At pH <5.4, lead sulfate limits the concentration of lead in solution, whereas at
pH >5.4, lead carbonates limit the lead concentration. Tetraalkyl lead compounds formed In the anaerobic
sediment are subject to photolysis and volatilization after being released from the sediment to the surface
water. Degradation proceeds from trialkyl lead to dialkyl lead to inorganic lead. Because trlethyl and
trlmethyl lead are more water-soluble, they are more persistent in water than tetraethyl or tetramethyl lead.
3.2.5 Mercury
3.2.5.1 Transport and Partitioning of Mercury
The transport and partitioning of mercury are characterized by degassing of the metal from soils and
surface waters, followed by atmospheric transport, deposition of mercury back to land and surface waters,
and sorption of the compound to soil or sediment particulates. The redox potential and pH of the
environmental medium determine the specific state and form of mercury. Metallic mercury, the most
reduced form, is a liquid at ambient temperatures but readily vaporizes. It is the principal form of mercury
In the atmosphere, which can be transported long distances before wet and dry deposition processes return
the compound to land and surface waters. Residence time in the atmosphere ranges from 6 to 90 days
(Andren and Nriagu, 1979) to 0.3 to 2.0 years (U.S. EPA, 1984, EPA/600/8-84/019F).
In soils and surface waters, volatile forms (e.g., metallic mercury and dimethylmercury) evaporate
to the atmosphere, whereas solid forms partition to particulates. Mercury exists primarily in the mercuric
and mercurous forms as a number of complexes with varying water solubilities. In soils and sediments,
sorption is one of the most important controlling pathways for removal of mercury from solution; sorption
usually increases with Increasing pH. Other removal mechanisms include flocculation, co-precipitation with
sulfldes, and organic complexation. Mercury is strongly sorbed to humic materials. For example, in the St.
Lawrence River, the total dissolved mercury concentration was 12 mg/L, of which 70% was associated with
organic matter. Inorganic mercury sorbed to soils is not readily desorbed; therefore, freshwater and marine
sediments are Important repositories for inorganic mercury. In general, leaching is a relatively insignificant
transport process in soils, but surface runoff does remove mercury from soil to water, particularly for soils
with high humic content.
The most common organic form of mercury, methyl mercury, is soluble and mobile, and it quickly
enters the aquatic food chain; concentrations of methylmercury in carnivorous fish can be 10,000 to 100,000
times the concentrations found in ambient waters (Callahan et al., 1979). Biomagnification has been found
also in piscivorous fish. Aquatic macrophytes also bioconcentrate methylmercury. Bioaccumulation of
methylmercury in the aquatic food chain is important because it generally is the most important source of
nonoccupational human exposure to the compound. Aquatic plants also bioaccumulate mercury.
3.2.5.2 Transformations of Mercury in the Environment
Mercury is transformed in the environment by biotic and abiotic oxidation and reduction,
bioconversion of organic and inorganic forms, and photolysis of organic mercurials. Inorganic mercury can
be methylated by microorganisms indigenous to soils, fresh water, and salt water. This process is mediated
by various mlcrobial populations under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
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Air-
The main transformation process for mercury compounds in the atmosphere is photolysis of
organomercurials. Metallic mercury vapor also may be oxidized to other forms in the removal of the
compounds from the atmosphere by precipitation. The oxidation of mercury with dissolved ozone, hydrogen
peroxide, hypochlorite entities, or organoperoxy compounds or radicals also may occur in the atmosphere.
Some mercury compounds, such as mercuric sulfide, are quite stable in the atmosphere as a result of their
binding to particles in the aerosol phase.
Soils and Sediments--
Mercury (II) usually forms various complexes with chloride and hydroxide ions in soils; the specific
complexes formed depend on the pH, salt content, and composition of the soil solution. Formation and
degradation of organic mercurials in soils are mediated by the same types of microbial processes occurring
in surface waters, and also may occur through abiotic processes. Elevated levels of chloride ions reduce
methylation of mercury in river sediments, sludge, and soil, although increased levels of organic carbon and
sulfate ions increase methylation in sediments. Mercurous and mercuric mercury also are immobilized in
soils and sediments by forming precipitates with carbonate, phosphate, sulfate, and sulfide.
Surface Water and Groundwater-
The most important transformation process in the environmental fate of mercury in surface water
and groundwater is biotransformation. Any form of mercury entering surface water and groundwater can
be micrdbially converted to methylmercuric ion given favorable conditions. Sulfur-reducing bacteria are
responsible for most of the mercury methylation in the environment, with anaerobic conditions favoring their
activity. Volatile elemental mercury may be formed through the demethylation of methyl mercury or the
reduction of inorganic mercury, with anaerobic conditions favoring the reactions. High pH values and
increased dissolved organic carbon levels in water reduce methylation of mercury in water. At pH 4 to 9
and a normal sulfide concentration, mercury forms mercury sulfide, which precipitates out and removes
mercury ions from the water. Under more acidic conditions, however, the activity of the sulfide ion
decreases, thus inhibiting the formation of mercury sulfide and favoring the formation of methylmercury.
Abiotic reduction of mercuric mercury to metallic mercury in aqueous systems also can occur, particularly
in the presence of soluble humic substances. This reduction process is enhanced by light, occurs under
both aerobic and anaerobic conditions, and is inhibited by the competition from chloride ions.
3.3 TOXICITY
The following is an outline of toxicity information about arsenic, cadmium, chromium, mercury, and
lead. Target organs, exposure pathways, and environmental fate and ecological effects are summarized in
Table 3-3. More detailed information on environmental fate and transport and toxicity for metals is available
in metal-specific toxicology profiles (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1991 a, 1991b, 1991c,
1991d, and 1992). Recent updates on toxicology are available through the Integrated Risk Information
System (IRIS) (see Appendix H, Subsection H.3.5). Information in this subsection is derived from these
sources. Information on Center for Exposure Assessment Modeling (CEAM)-supported models is available
on line (see Appendix H, Subsection H.3.6). Information on available groundwater modeling programs is
provided in IGWMC (1993), NRG (1990), and U.S. EPA (1988, EPA/600/2-89/028). Information on available
air models is provided in U.S. EPA (1986, EPA/450/2-78-027R).
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TABLE 3-3. RISK ASSESSMENT CONCERNS: METALS
Contaminants Target Organs/Effects
Exposure Pathways
Environmental Fate/Ecological Effects
Arsenic'8' Human carcinogen (Group A)
by inhalation (lung cancer) and
Ingestion (skin cancer); may
also be associated with
increased incidence of cancer
of the colon, liver, and spleen;
may cause damage to nerves
and adverse reproductive
effects
Cadmium'0' Affects cardiovascular and
immune systems, kidneys, liver;
human carcinogen by inhalation
causing lung tumors and
possibly prostate cancer (B,);
animal teratogen
Chromium'"' Hexavalent form affects
gastrointestinal (Gl) tract,
kidney, respiratory system, and
is a human carcinogen (A); the
primary effect of the trivalent
form is dermatitis
Inhalation of dust, fumes;
ingestion of contaminated
food, soil, groundwater,
surface water
Inhalation of dust, fumes,
ingestion of contaminated
food, soil, groundwater,
surface water
Inhalation of dust;
ingestion of contaminated
food, groundwater, surface
water, soil
Metals do not biodegrade and
therefore are highly persistent in the
environment; aquatic toxioity
decreases with increased pH and
hardness of water; disturbs soil
microbial activity; affects plant
metabolism; volatilization in aquatic
environments caused by biological
activity and reducing conditions
Metals do not biodegrade and
therefore are highly persistent in the
environment; aquatic toxicity
decreases with increased pH and
hardness of water; disturbs soil
microbial activity; affects plant
metabolism; volatilization in aquatic
environments caused by biological
activity and reducing conditions
Bioaccumulates in aquatic organisms;
trivalent form is more acutely toxic to
fish, whereas hexavalent form is more
chronically toxic
Lead
Neurotoxic to children even at
low-level exposure; causes
alterations in blood-forming
system and Vitamin D
regulation; Centers for Disease
Control determined child blood
levels about 25 ji/g/dl indicate
excessive lead absorption;
probable carcinogen (B,)
Inhalation of dust, fumes;
ingestion of contaminated
food, soil, groundwater,
surface water; absorption
rate highest through
inhalation
Persistent; bioaccumulates; substantial
background levels already present in
the environment'11'
Mercury
Organic compounds more
acutely toxic than inorganic;
affects central nervous system
(CNS), respiratory system, liver,
kidney, and Gl tract; teratogenlc
and embryotoxic in animals;
skin/eye irritant
Inhalation of dust, fumes;
ingestion of contaminated
food, soil, groundwater,
surface water
Highly bioaccumulative and toxic to
aquatic biota; persistent; atmospheric
transport is the primary migration
pathway
Source: Adapted from U.S. EPA, Annotated Technical Reference.
(a) Cancer potency factor currently available (see Table 3-4).
(b) Because lead is a ubiquitous compound in the environment, background exposure must be .considered in addition to the
exposure levels Identified for the site. Background exposure to lead is the result of atmospheric dust; lead solder from cans;
metals used in grinding, crushing, and sieving; and lead in water. In urban areas, lead is often found in lead-based paint
or at elevated background levels in soil due to lead in auto emissions. The decision to clean up beyond the background level
should be considered on a site-specific basis..
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TABLE 3-4. CONSTANTS FOR ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FROM METAL CONTAMINANTS
Reference Doses and Cancer Potency Slopes
Contaminant
Arsenic
Arsenic (as carcinogen)
Cadmium & compounds
Chromium (III) & compounds
Chromium(VI) & compounds
Lead (inorganic)
Lead (tetraethyl)
Mercury & compounds
(inorganic)
Oral RfD
(mg/kg/d)
3.00e-04
ND
S.OOe-04
1.00e+00
5.00e-03
ND
1.00e-07
3.00e-04
Inhaled RfD
(mg/kg/d)
ND
ND
ND
5.71e-07
ND
ND
ND
8.57e-05
Oral Potency
Slope
1/(mg/kg/d)
ND
1.75e+ 00
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Inhaled Potency
Slope
V(mg/kg/d)
ND
1.51e+01
'6.306+00
ND
4.20e+01
ND
ND
ND
Mercury & compounds (methyl)
3.00e-04
ND
ND
ND
Source: Smith, 1993. Check IRIS database (see Appendix H) for updates.
RfD = reference dose; ND = No data.
Potential risk from carcinogenic effects is expressed as a probability (i.e., 1E-06) which translates,
in this example, to an additional cancer in an exposed population of 1 million. Risk estimates represent the
incremental probability that an individual will develop cancer over a lifetime as a result of exposure to the
contaminant. The probabilities are determined by multiplying the estimated chronic daily intake (GDI), as
determined by the exposure scenario, by the compound-specific cancer potency slope (GPS) (see Table
3-4). -•
Potential riskfrom noncarcinogenic effects is characterized by the hazard quotient (HQ). The hazard
quotient is the ratio of the GDI divided by a compound-specific reference dose (RfD) (see Table 3-4). The
RfD is defined as an estimate of the daily exposure level for the human population, including sensitive
subpopulations, that is likely to be without an appreciable risk of deleterious effects during a lifetime. In the
case of multiple contaminants, the HQs for each contaminant are summed to give a hazard index (HI).
Generally HI values greater than one indicate cause for concern.
3.3.1 Arsenic
Arsenic is a common environmental toxicant due both to natural releases such as mineral springs
and to mining, smelting, and the use of arsenic compounds. Arsenic exists as the elemental form and in
trivalent and pentavalent oxidation states. The toxicity of arsenic typically increases in the order RAs-X <
As(V) < As(lll) < arsine (AsH3). The level of toxicity is generally related to the rate of clearance from the
body with the organic arsenical being eliminated most quickly.
EPA has set a limit of 50 ppb for arsenic in drinking water. EPA is currently reviewing this vafue and
may lower it. Finally, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has established a
maximum permissible exposure limit of 10 //g/m3 for airborne arsenic in various workplaces that use
inorganic arsenic.
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3.3.2 Cadmium
Cadmium ranks close to lead and mercury as a metal of current toxicological concern. Cadmium
Is released from Industrial use. It is also present in coal and other fossil fuels and is emitted as a result of
fuel combustion. Cadmium is poorly absorbed in the gastrointestinal (Gl) tract but is more readily absorbed
on Inhalation, particularly for smokers.
The EPA now allows 10 parts per billion (ppb) of cadmium in drinking water, and plans to reduce
the limit to 5 ppb. The EPA limits how much cadmium can be put into lakes, rivers, dumps, and cropland.
The EPA does not allow cadmium in pesticides. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) limits the amount
of cadmium in food colors to 15 ppm.
OSHA now limits work place air to 100 fjg cadmium/m3 as cadmium fumes and 200 //g
cadmium/m3 as cadmium dust. OSHA is planning to limit all cadmium compounds to either 1 or 5 ;/g/m3.
Because breathing cadmium may cause lung cancer, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) wants workers to breathe as little cadmium as possible.
3.3.3 Chromium
Chromium enters the atmosphere as a result of fossil fuel burning, steel production, stainless steel
welding, and chromium manufacturing. Emissions to water and soil can result from industrial processes
such as electroplating, tanning, water treatment, or disposal of coal ash. Cr(lll) is an essential micronutrient
that helps the body use sugar, protein, and fat. Higher exposures to Cr(lll) can produce toxic effects. The
oxidized form, Cr(VI), is more toxic than Cr(lll).
EPA has set the maximum level of Cr(lll) and Cr(VI) allowed in drinking water at 0.05 mg Cr per liter
of water (mg/L). According to the EPA, the following levels of Cr(lll) and Cr(VI) in drinking water are not
expected to cause harmful effects: 1.4 mg Cr/L water for 10 days of exposure for children, 0.24 mg Cr/L
water for longer-term exposure for children, 0.84 mg Cr/L for longer-term exposure for adults, and 0.12 mg
Cr/L water for lifetime exposure of adults.
OSHA regulates chromium levels in the work place air. The occupational exposure limits for an 8-
hour workday, 40-hour workweek are 0.5 mg Cr/m3 for water-soluble chromic (Cr[lll]) or chromous (Cr[ll])
salts and 1 mg Cr/m3 for metallic chromium (Cr[0], and insoluble salts). The level of chromic acid and
Cr(VI) compounds in the workplace air should not be higher than 0.1 mg Cr(VI)/m3 for any period of time.
For Cr(VI) compounds that do not cause cancer, NIOSH recommends an exposure limit of 0.025
mg Cr(VI)/m3 for a 10-hour workday, 40-hour workweek. The levels of the Cr(VI) compounds that do not
cause cancer should not be greater than 0.05 mg Cr(VI)/m3 for any 15-minute period. For Cr(VI)
compounds that do cause cancer, NIOSH recommends an exposure limit of 0.001 mg Cr(VI)/m3 for a 10-
hour workday, 40-hour workweek.
3.3.4 Lead
Lead enters the air, water, and soil through a variety of human activities. Until recently a major
source was tetraethyl-lead in gasoline. Both the gastrointestinal tract and the respiratory system are major
routes for lead absorption.
EPA requires that the concentration of lead in air that the public breathes shall not exceed 1.5 //g/m3
averaged over 3 months. EPA now regulates the limit of level of lead in leaded gasoline to 0.1 gram per
gallon (0.1 g/gal) and the level in unleaded gasoline to 0.001 g/gal.
3-16
-------
EPA regulations also limit lead in drinking water to 0.015 milligrams per liter (mg/L). OSHA
regulations limit the concentration of lead in workroom air to 50//g/m3 for an 8-hour workday.
As shown In Table 3-4, there currently are no criteria (I.e., cancer slope factor or reference dose)
available for lead. In September 1989, the U.S. EPA recommended a soli lead cleanup level of 500 to 1,000
mg/kg for residential sites with a direct exposure route (U.S. EPA, 1989, OSWER Directive 9355.4-02) and,
In January 1990, reiterated that these Interim soil cleanup levels were guidance, not binding regulation (U.S.
EPA, 1990, OSWER Directive 9355.4-02A). There is a general trend away from using single-value criteria
for lead cleanup standards and instead using a model that accounts for population, health, and
environmental factors. The U.S. EPA is developing guidance recommending the use of the Uptake Biokinetlc
(UBK) model which integrates exposure from lead in air, water, soil, diet, dust, and paint with
pharmacokinetic modeling to predict blood levels of lead in the most sensitive population (children 0 to 6
years old). The model does not apply to adults and it may not be appropriate if the exposure scenario is
an Industrial setting. Therefore, recommended soil cleanup levels for lead at commercial or industrial sites
are not available at this time. The method for calculating a target soil/dust lead guideline concentration
proposed by the Society for Environmental Geochemistry and Health is outlined by Wixson and Davies
(1994). A copy of the 1991 Strategy for Reducing Lead Exposures can be obtained by calling the TSCA
Assistance Information Service at (202) 554-1404 or faxing a request to (202) 554-5603.
3.3.5 Mercury
Mercury enters the environment through industrial use and as a component of fossil fuels. When
considering the toxicity of mercury three chemical forms must be recognized: (1) elemental mercury, (2)
salts of mercury, (3) and organic mercurials. Elemental mercury is the most volatile inorganic form. Most
exposures to elemental mercury vapor are occupational. The monovalent and divalent mercuric salts are
the most irritating and acutely toxic forms of the metal. There is a wide range of organic forms of mercury.
The alkylmercury forms are the most toxic with methylmercury being the most commonly occurring example.
EPA and the FDA have set a limit of 2 parts mercury per billion (ppb) parts of water in drinking
water. EPA also recommends that the level of inorganic mercury in rivers, lakes, and streams should be
ho more than 144 parts mercury per trillion (ppt) parts of water to protect human health. EPA suggests that
a daily exposure to 2 ppb of mercury in drinking water for an adult of average weight is not likely to cause
any significant adverse health effects.
OSHA regulates levels in the workplace. It has set a limit of 10 ;/g/m3 for organic mercury and 50
jt/g/m3 for inorganic mercury in the workplace air to protect workers during an 8-hour shift and a 40-hour
workweek.
3.4
REFERENCES
1. Andren, A.W. and J.O. Nriagu. The Global Cycle of Mercury. In: The Biogeochemistry of Mercury
in the Environmental, Nriagu, J.O., Ed.* Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, New York, New York,
1979.
2.
3.
4.
Beyer, W.N. A Reexamination of Biomagniflcation of Metals in Terrestrial Food Chains, Environ. Tox.
Chem., 5, 1986, pp. 863-864.
Bodek, I., W.J. Lyrhan, W.F. Reehl, and D.H. Rosenblatt. Environmental Inorganic Chemistry:
Properties, Processes, and Estimation Methods. Pergamon Press, Elmsford, New York, 1988.
Calder, LM. Chromium Contamination of Groundwater. Adv. Environ. Sci. Technol., 20, 1988
pp. 215-229.
3-17
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5. Callahan, M.A., M.W. Slimak, and N.W. Gabel. Water-Related Environmental Fate of 129 Priority
Pollutants. Vol. I. Introduction and Technical Background, Metals and Inorganics, Pesticides and
PCBs. EPA-440/4-79-029a, Report to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Planning
and Standards, Washington, DC, by Versar Incorporated, Springfield, VA, 1979.
6. Chrotowski, P., J.L Durda, and K.G. Edelmann. The Use of Natural Processes for the Control of
Chromium Migration, Remediation, 1991, pp. 341-351.
7. Clever, H.L and F.J. Johnston. The Solubility of Some Sparingly Soluble Lead Salts: An Evaluation
of the Solubility in Water and Aqueous Electrolyte Solution," J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 9(3), 1990,
pp. 751-784. ,
8. Coles, D.G., R.C. Ragaini, and J.M. Ondov. Chemical Studies of Stack Fly Ash from a Coal Fired
Power Plant, Environ. Sci. Technol., 13, 1979, pp. 455-459.
9. Dragun, J. The Soil Chemistry of Hazardous Materials. Hazardous Materials Control Research
Institute, Silver Spring, Maryland, 1988.
10. Evans R.D. and F.H. Rigler. Long Distance Transport of Anthropogenic Lead as Measured by Lake
Sediments, Water Air Soil Pollut., 24, 1985, pp. 141-151.
11. Fendorf, S.E. and Zasoski, R.J. Chromium (III) Oxidation by tf-MnO2", Environmental Science
Technology, Vol. 26, No. 1, 1992, pp. 79-85.
12. Ferguson, J.F., and G. Gavis. A Review of the Arsenic Cycle in Natural Waters, Water Research, 6,
1972, pp. 1259-1274.
13. Flshbein, L Sources, Transport and Alterations of Metal Compounds: An Overview. I. Arsenic,
Beryllium, Cadmium, Chromium and Nickel, Environ. Health Perspect., 40,1984, pp. 43-46.
14. Hem, J.D. and W.H. Durum. Solubility and Occurrence of Lead in Surface Water, J. Amer. Water
Works Assoc., 64, 1972, pp. 562-567.
15. Hess, R.E. and R.W. Blancher. Dissolution of Arsenic from Waterlogged and Aerated Soils, Soil Sci.
Soc. Am. J., 41, 1977, pp. 861-65.
16. Huang, H.H. Stability Calculation for Aqueous Systems (STABCAL) - User Manual. Metallurgical
Engineering, Montana Tech, Butte, Montana, 1993..
17. International Ground Water Modeling Center (IGWMC). Software Catalog. Institute for Ground-Water
Research and Education. Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, August, 1993.
18. Korte, N.E., J. Skopp, W.H. Fuller, E.E. Niebla, and B.A. Aleshii. Trace Element Movement in Soils:
Influence of Soil Physical and Chemical Properties, Soil Sci., 122, 1976, pp. 350-359.
19. Krause, E. and V.A. Ettel. Solubilities and Stabilities of Ferric Arsenate Compounds, Hydrometallurgy,
22, 1989, pp. 311-337.
20. Masscheleyn, P.H., R.D. Delaune, and W.H. Patrick, Jr. Effect of Redox Potential and pH on Arsenic
Speciation and Solubility in a Contaminated Soil. Environ. Sci. Technol., 25, 1991, pp. 1414-1419.
21. McLean, J.E. and B.E. Bledsoe. Behavior of Metals in Soils, EPA/540/S-92/018, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Washington, DC, 1992.
3-18
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22. Moore; J.N., W:H. Ficklin, and C. Johns. Partitioning of Arsenic and Metals in Reducing Sulfidic
Sediments, Environ. Sci. Techno!., 22, 1988, pp. 432-437.
23. National Research Council (NRC). Ground Water Models: Scientific and Regulatory Applications.
National Academy Press. Washington, DC, 1990.
24. Palmer, C.D. and P.R. Wittbrodt. Processes Affecting the Remediation of Chromium-Contaminated
Sites, Environ. Health Perspectives, 92, 1991, pp. 24-40.
25^ Robins, R.G. The Solubility of Metal Arsenates. Metallurgical Transactions B, 12B, pp. 103-109,1991.
26. Roine, A. Outokumpu Enthalpy, Entropy, Heat Capacity Chemistry for Windows. Outokumpu
Research, Finland, 1993.
27. Sadiq, M., T. Zaidi, and A. Mian. Environmental Behavior of Arsenic in Soils: Theoretical, Water, Air,
and Soil Pollution, 20, 1983, pp. 369-377.
28. Saleh, F.Y., T.F. Parkerton, and R.V. Lewis. Kinetics of Chromium Transformations in the Environment.
Sci. TotalEnviron., 86, 1989, pp.25-41.
29. Schmidt, J.A., and A.W. Andren. Deposition of Airborne Metals into the Great Lakes: An Evaluation
of Past and Present Estimates. Adv. in Environ. Sci. Technol., 14, 1984, pp. 81-103.
30. Schroeder, W.H., M. Dobson, D.M. Kane, N.D. Johnson. Toxic Trace Elements Associated with
Airborne Paniculate Matter: A Review. J. Air Poll. Control Assoc., 37(11), 1987, p. 1267.
31. Smith, R.L Risk-Based Concentration Table, Fourth Quarter 1993. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency - Region III, Philadelphia, PA, 1993.
32. Stumm, W. and J.J. Morgan. Aquatic Chemistry, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, New York,
. •- 1981 ' •..-•.-•• • - ' , .• • - ;.- . . ..-,. ; . --.-.:
33. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. Toxicological Profile for Arsenic. Prepared by Clement
I nternational Corporation for U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry, Washington, DC., 1991 a.
34. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. Toxicological Profile for Cadmium. Prepared by
Clement International Corporation for U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Agertcy for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry, Washington, DC, 1991b.
35. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. Toxicological Profile for Chromium. Prepared by
Clement International Corporation for U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry, Washington, DC, 1991 c.
36. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. Toxicological Profile for Lead. Prepared by Clement
International Corporation for U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry, Washington, DC, 1991 d. ".-'<••
37. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services: Toxicological Profile for Mercury. Prepared by Clement
International Corporation for U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry, Washington, DC, 1992.
3-19
-------
38. U.S. EPA. Water-Related Environmental Fate of 129 Priority Pollutants. Vol. 1: Introduction and
Technical Background, Metals and Inorganic Pesticides and PCBs. EPA-440/4-79-029a, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, 1979. pp. 13-1 to 13-19.
39. U.S. EPA. Mercury Health Effects Update: Health Issue Assessment. Final Report. EPA/600/8-
84/019F, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment,
Washington, DC, 1984.
40. U.S. EPA. Guideline on Air Quality Models (Revised). EPA-450/2-78-027R, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina, July, 1986.
41. U.S. EPA. A Compendium of Superfund Field Operations Methods: Volume 2. EPA/540/P-87/001B,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Remedial Response, Washington,
DC, 1987.
42. U.S. EPA. Superfund Record of Decision, EPA Region III: Palmerton Zinc Site, Palmerton,
Pennsylvania. Final Report. EPA/ROD/03:87/036, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987.
43. U.S. EPA. Groundwater Modeling: An Overview and Status Report. EPA/600/2-89/028. Robert S.
Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory. Ada, OK. December 1987
44. U.S. EPA. Interim Guidance on Establishing Soil Lead Cleanup Levels at Superfund Sites. OSWER
Directive 9355.4-02. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, DC,
1989.
45. U.S. EPA. Supplement to Interim Guidance on Establishing Soil Lead Cleanup Levels at Superfund
Sites. OSWER Directive 9355.4-02A, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste,
Washington, DC, 1990.
46. U.S. EPA. MINTEQA2/PRODEFA2, A Geochemical Assessment Model for Environmental Systems:
Version 3.0, User's Manual. EPA/600/3-91/021, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Research and Development, Washington, DC, 1991.
47. Wagemann, R. Some Theoretical Aspects of Stability and Solubility of Inorganic Arsenic in the
Freshwater Environment, Water Research, 12, pp. 139-145, 1978.
48. Wakao, J., H. Koyatsu, and Y. Komai. Microbial Oxidation of Arsenite and Occurrence of Arsenite-
Oxidizing Bacteria in Acid Mine Water from a Sulfur-Pyrite Mine, Geomicrobiol. J., 6, pp. 11-24,1988.
49. Welch, A.H., M.S. Lico, and J.L Hughes. Arsenic in Groundwater of the Western United States,
Groundwater, 26, pp. 333-347, 1988.
50. Wixson, B.G. and B.E. Davies. Guidelines for Lead in Soil. Environmental Science and Technology,
28(1):26A-31A, 1994.
51. Woolson, E.A., J.H. Axley, and P.C. Kearney. The Chemistry and Phytotoxicity of Arsenic in Soils. I.
Contaminated Field Soils, Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., 35, pp. 938-943, 1971.
3-20
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SECTION 4
REMEDIAL OPTIONS
This section details the specific considerations and issues related to the performance and application
of technologies or particular treatment trains for remediation of metal-contaminated sites. Final decisions
for selecting a treatment strategy will depend on technology- and site-specific issues related to
implementation, performance, costs, and the ability to achieve site remediation goals. Evaluation of each
treatment approach will require consideration of the contaminated medium, the nature and type of
contamination, and the remediation goals established for the site. The basic options for site treatment
selection relative to remediation objectives are discussed in Subsections 4.1 through 4.5. A summary
evaluation of the technologies with respect to the Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study (RI/FS) evaluation
criteria is shown in Appendix G (Table G-1).
Remediation strategies for metal-contaminated sites may incorporate several distinct technology
options assembled into a treatment train to attain specific site cleanup goals. Discussion of metal-
contaminated site remediation technologies presented in this section evaluates the performance and
adequacy of each technology in achieving the desired toxicity reduction, reduction of the environmental
mobility of metal contamination, and significant volume reduction of the contaminant. Depending on the
goals and criteria for site remediation, the following control options and basic approaches to toxicfty/mobil-
ity/volume reductions are available:
• Immobilization Treatment: Discussion of these processes is presented in Subsection 4.2.
• Separation/Concentration Treatment: Discussion of these processes relative to soils,
sediments, and sludges is presented in Subsection 4.3. Both ex situ (Subsection 4.3.1) and
in situ (Subsection 4.3.2) technologies are addressed. Literature sources describing
separation/concentration technologies for contaminated groundwater are outlined in
Subsection 4.4.
In some cases, specific trade names or vendors are mentioned to assist site personnel in identifying
sources of additional information on technologies. Mention of specific sources should not be construed as
an endorsement of the source or technology.
4.1
CLEANUP GOALS
4.1.1 Major Regulatory Sources for Applicable or Relevant and Appropriate Requirements
General information on the identification and determination of potential applicable or relevant and
appropriate requirements (ARARs) for remedial actions at Superfund metal-contaminated sites are presented
in Appendix J. The information presented in this section is not meant to be an exhaustive discussion on
the compliance with ARARs, but rather a representative listing of potential ARARs and areas of consideration.
The following principal statutes should be examined as potential ARARs at metal sites:
• Safe Drinking Water Act
• Clean Water Act
• Water Quality Criteria
4-1
-------
4.1.2
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
Clean Air Act
Occupational Safety and Health Act
Department of Transportation Rules
Soil and Groundwater Cleanup Goals for Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Lead,
and Mercury at Selected Superfund Sites
Cleanup goals are one of the most important of the regulatory requirements that will determine
whether a treatment option is potentially acceptable. Table 4-1 summarizes the cleanup goals determined
for a variety of metal-contaminated sites. Cleanup goals are developed based on a site-specific risk
assessment. Cleanup goals may be stated either as total metal content or leachable metal content
depending on the risk assessment and the technology selected. Treatability standards must be expressed
In terms consistent with the type of treatment option. For technologies designed to reduce contaminant
mobility (for example solidification/stabilization or vitrification), performance goals for the treated waste are
stated as leachable metal content. Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) (see Table 4-2) or
other leaching data generally will be required to demonstrate that the treatment option immobilizes the
contaminants. Particularly when the treated waste is discarded on-site, the immobilization technologies
(containment, solidification/stabilization, and vitrification) addressed in this document pose a degree of risk
to human health and the environment not shared by processes that remove the toxic metals from the waste.
The performance standards and monitoring requirements applied to immobilized wastes should be selected
to ensure low leaching potential in the disposal environment, physical durability, and chemical stability of
the treated waste system. For an in-depth discussion on performance measures, see Technical Resource
Document: Solidification/Stabilization and its Application to Waste Materials (EPA/530/R-93/012), June
1993. The performance standards for technologies to remove metals (for example metal extraction) generally
will be stated as total metal concentration remaining in the treated residual.
4.2 IMMOBILIZATION TREATMENT
This subsection discusses technologies that reduce the mobility of contaminants in a solid matrix
or the transport of contaminated groundwater by one or more of the following three mechanisms:
1. Reducing infiltration of fluids into the contaminated media by using barriers.
2. Reducing infiltration of fluids by modifying the permeability of the contaminated matrix.
3. Reducing the solubility and hence mobility of the contaminant in groundwater or other fluids
with which it is in contact.
4.2.1 Containment Technologies
Containment technologies for application at Superfund sites include capping, vertical barriers, and
horizontal barriers. Since the selection of these containment technologies is not significantly influenced by
the type of metal contaminant, and these technologies are already adequately addressed in the Handbook
for Stabilization Technologies forRCRA Corrective Actions (EPA/625/6-91/026, August 1991); they are not
discussed here. The Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP) computer program is available
for computer analysis of landfill performance. The HELP program is an easy-to-use model that was
developed to assist landfill designers and regulators by providing a tool to allow rapid, economical screening
of alternative designs. HELP is a quasi-two-dimensional model that computes a daily water budget for a
landfill represented as a series of horizontal layers. Each layer corresponds to a given element of a landfill
design (e.g., cap, waste cell, leachate collection system, and liner). HELP considers a broad range of
hydrologlc processes including surface storage, runoff, infiltration, percolation, evapotranspiration, lateral
drainage, and soil moisture storage (EPA/625/6-91/026, 1991).
4-2
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TABLE 4-1. SOIL AND GROUNDWATER ACTION LEVELS AND RISK GOALS AT EXAMPLE
SUPERFUND METAL-CONTAMINATED SITES
Region
Site Name/ Location/Type(a)
Contaminant/ Initial
Media Concentration
Cleanup Goal
Initial Risk
Rnal Risk
ARSENIC
2
3
4
7
10
Ringwood Mines Landfill, NJ
Paint sludge disposal
Whitmoyer Laboratories, PA
(OU-3 Rnal)
Lab facility
1 Pepper's Steel and Alloys
(OU-1 Rnal)
Medley, FL
General industrial area
Vogel Paint and Wax
(OU-1 Rnal)
Maurice, IA
Paint waste disposal
Martin Marietta, OR
(OU-1 Rnal)
Aluminum manufacturing
As(GW)
As (soil)
As (soil)
As (soil)
As (soil)
57ppb
No Data
1 to 200
mg/kg
4.8 to 65
mg/kg
No Data
SOppb
21 mg/kg
5 mg/kg
Soil treatment
will achieve
leaching
standards
65 mg/kg
(b)
No Data
No Data
1.7 x 10"*
total excess
cancer
10-* to 10'1
(b)
No Data
No Data
1 x ID'8
total
excess
cancer
10*
CADMIUM
2
3
4
6
7
Waldick Aerospace (OU-1)
Wall Township, NJ
Aerospace parts
manufacturing
Palmerton Zinc, PA (OU-1)
Defoliated mountainside
from zinc smelting
Independent Nail (OU-1)
Beaufort, SO
Electroplating
Posses Chemical
(OU-1 Rnal)
Fort Worth, TX
Reclamation of NiCad
batteries
E.I. DuPont De Nemours
(OU-1)
West Point, IA
Paint waste disposal
Cd (soil)
Cd (soil)
Cd (soil)
Cd (soil)
Cd (soil)
< 16,200
mg/kg
1,300 mg/kg
15 mg/kg
< 2,400
mg/kg
Not specified
3 mg/kg
3 Ib/acre
2.6 mg/kg
15 mg/kg
20ppm
No Data
No Data
Inhalation
10"3
2 x 10-2
No Data
No Data
No Data
10'e
1 x 10"8
No Data
CHROMIUM
1
2
Saco Tannery Waste Pits
(OU-1 Rnai)
Saco, ME
Leather tannery wastes
Genzale Plating Co.
Franklin Square, NY
Electroplating
Cr(VI) (soil)
Cr(VI)
(sediment)
Cr (soil)
2,625 mg/kg
2,297 mg/kg
37,300 mg/kg
375 mg/kg
health-based
target
6.7 mg/kg
5.6 x Id"6
(sediment
absorption)
No Data
No Data
No Data
4-3
-------
TABLE 4-1. (continued)
Rtgton
Site Name/ Looatlon/Typ8w
Contaminant/
Media
Initial
Concentration
Cleanup Goal
Initial Risk Rnal Risk
CHROMIUM (cent)
2
4
7
King of Prussia (OU-1)
Wlnslow Twp., NJ
Abandoned waste disposal
facility
Bypass 601, NC
(OU-1)
Battery recycling facility and
surrounding area
Vogol Paint and Wax (OU-1
Final)
Maurice, 1A
Paint waste disposal
Cr (soil)
Cr(6W)
Cr (soil)
Cr(lll) (soil)
< 11,300
mg/kg
< 1,040//g/L
6.5 to 52
mg/kg
4.9 to 21 ,000
mg/kg
483 mg/kg
50pg/L
56 mg/kg
Soil treatment
will achieve
leaching
standards
No Data No Data
No Data No Data
1.7 x 10-* 1 x 10'e
total excess total
cancer excess
cancer
LEAD
2
3
4
9
RIngwood Mines Landfill, NJ
(OU-1 Rnal)
Paint Sludge Disposal
Palmerton 2nc, PA (OU-1)
Defoliated mountain-
side from zlno smelting
Bypass 601, NC
(OU-1)
Battery recycling facility and
surrounding area
Beckman Instruments (OU-1
Rnal)
Portervilte, CA
Manufacturer of electronic
Instruments
Pb(GW)
Pb (soil)
Pb (soil)
Pb (soil)
Pb (soil)
85 ppb
< 1300 mg/kg
6,475 mg/kg
96 to 62,250
mg/kg
1,280 mg/kg
50 ppb
250 mg/kg
100 Ib/acre
Excavate soil
over 500
mg/kg and
S/S to pass
TCLP leach
test
200 mg/kg
(b) (b)
No Data No Data
No Data No Data
6x10"* to No Data
1.6x 10'3
MERCURY
2
2
3
Da Rewal Chemical (OU-1)
Frenohtown, NJ
Chemical Company
GE Wiring Devices
(OU-1 Final)
Puerto Woo
Assembly of mercury
switches
Saltvllla Waste Disposal
Ponds, VA (OU-1)
Chloralkali Plant
Hg (soil)
Hg (soil)
Hg(GW)
Hg (water)
< 2.5 mg/kg
ND to 62
mg/kg
ND to 7,000
Pfl-
10to120//g/L
1 mg/kg
16.4 or 21
mg/kg
according to
air monitoring
O.OSfjg/1.
2 x 10"3 1 x 10"4
to
1 x 10'7
No Data No Data
No Data No Data
4-4
-------
TABLE 4-1. (continued)
Region Site Name/ Location/Type^
Contaminant/
Media
Initial
Concentration
Cleanup Goal Initial Risk
Rnal Risk
MERCURY (cont)
2 King of Prussia (OU-1)
Winslow Twp, N J
Abandoned waste disposal
facility
Hg (soil)
Hg (GW)
1.7 to 100
mg/kg
Not detected
1 mg/kg No Data
2//Q/L
No Data
(a) For more site Information and Implementation status, see Appendix D.
(b) Cleanup goals based on nonpromulgated New Jersey cleanup objectives.
(c) NJDEPE = New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection and Energy.
No Data = No data available in references as listed in Appendix D.
TABLE 4-2. TCLP LIMITS FOR METALS IN CHARACTERISTIC WASTES
California
EPA Hazardous
Waste No.
D004
D005
D006
D007
D008
D009
D010
D011
Metal'
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Chromium
Lead
Mercury
Selenium
Silver
TCLP
Regulatory Limit
(mg/L)
5.0
100.0
1.0
5.0
5.0
0.2
1.0
5.0
tTLCCa)
(mg/L)
500
-
100
500
1,000
20
100
500
STLC(b)
(mg/L)
5.0
-
1.0
5.0
5.0
0.2
1.0
5.0
(a) Total Threshold Limit Concentration
(b) Soluble Threshold Limit Concentration
In addition to this document, there are a number of other EPA technical guides pertaining to
containment technologies:
• Lining of Waste Containment and Other Impoundment Facilities (EPA/600/2-88-052), 1988
• Design, Construction, and Evaluation of Clay Liners for Waste Management Facilities
(EPA/530/SW-86/007F), November 1988
• Technical Guidance Document: Final Covers on Hazardous Waste Landfills and Surface
Impoundments (EPA/530-SW-89-047), July 1989
• Technical Guidance Document: Inspection Techniques for the Fabrication of Geomembrane
Field Seams (EPA/530/SW-91/051), May 1991
4-5
-------
• Technical Guidance Document: Construction Quality Management for Remedial Action and
Remedial Design Waste Containment Systems (EPA/540/R-92/073), October 1992.
4.2.2 Solidification/Stabilization Technologies
Solidification and stabilization (S/S) methods of treating contaminated wastes are applied to change
the physical or leaching characteristics of the waste or to decrease its toxlctty. In the solidification process,
waste constituents are physically locked within a solidified matrix in the form of a granular soil-like mixture
or a monolithic block. Stabilization converts waste contaminants to a more immobile form, typically by
chemical reaction. S/S refers to treatment processes that mix or inject treatment agents into the
contaminated material to accomplish one or more of the following objectives:
• Improve the physical characteristics of the waste, without necessarily reducing aqueous
mobility of the contaminant, by producing a solid from liquid or semiliquid wastes
• Reduce the contaminant solubility
• Decrease the exposed surface area across which mass transfer loss of contaminants may
occur
• Limit the contact of transport fluids and contaminants
S/S treatment improves the waste handling or other physical characteristics of the waste and can
reduce the mobility of contaminants. S/S treatment can be accomplished by treatment with inorganic
binders such as cement, fly ash, and/or blast furnace slag or by organic binders such as bitumen. ,
S/S technology usually is applied by mixing contaminated soils or treatment residuals with a
physical binding agent to form a crystalline, glassy, or polymeric framework surrounding the waste particles.
In addition to the microencapsulation, some chemical mechanisms also may improve Waste
leach resistance. Other forms of S/S treatment rely on macroencapsulation in which the waste is unaltered
but macroscopic particles are encased in a relatively impermeable coating.
4.2.2.1 In Situ and Ex Situ S/S
S/S can be either an in situ or ex situ process. The following descriptions of in situ and ex situ S/S
are derived primarily from the Engineering Bulletin: Solidification and Stabilization of Organics and
Inorganics, EPA/540/S-92/015, and the Engineering Forum Issue, Considerations in Deciding to Treat
Contaminated Unsaturated Soils In Situ, EPA/540/S-94/500.
Ex situ processing involves: (1) excavation to remove the contaminated waste from the subsurface;
(2) classification to remove oversize debris; (3) mixing; (4) off-gas treatment (if volatile, or dusts are present);
and (5) a system for delivering the treated wastes to molds, surface trenches, or subsurface injection.
In situ treatment processing has only two steps: (1) mixing, and (2) off-gas treatment. The most
significant challenge in applying S/S in situ for contaminated soils is achieving complete and uniform mixing
of the binder with the contaminated matrix (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/540/2-90/002). Three basjc approaches
are used for In situ mixing of the binder with the matrix: (1) vertical auger mixing; (2) in-place mixing of
binder reagents with waste by conventional earthmoving equipment, such as draglines, backhoes, or
clamshell buckets; and (3) injection grouting, which involves forcing a binder containing dissolved or
suspended treatment agents into the subsurface, allowing it to permeate the soil. Grout injection can be
applied to contaminated formations lying well below the ground surface. The injected grout cures in place
to produce an in situ treated mass.
4-6
-------
4.2.2.2 Cement-Based S/S Technologies
This section describes application of inorganic stabilization materials, primarily Portland-type
cements and siliceous pozzolans, for treatment of wastes contaminated with metals.
Description of Cement-Based S/S Technologies-
Gement-based S/S involves mixing contaminated materials with an appropriate ratio of cement or
a similar binder/stabilizer and possibly water. The fundamental materials used to perform this technology
are Portland-type cements and pozzolanic materials. Portland cements typically are composed of calcium
silicates, aluminates, aluminoferrites, and sulfates. Pozzolans are very small spheroidal particles that are
formed in combustion of coal (fly ash) and in lime and cement kilns, for example. Pozzolans of high silica
content are found to have cement-like properties when mixed with water.
Inorganic binder systems using sodium silicate and cement/silicate systems are also used.
Inorganic S/S treatment processes tie up free water by hydratjon reactions. Mobility of inorganic
compounds can be reduced by formation of insoluble hydroxides, carbonates, or silicates; substitution of
the metal into a mineral structure; sorption; physical encapsulation; and other mechanisms.
S/S treatment may involve using only Portland cement, only pozzolanic materials, or blends of both.
The composition of the cement or pozzolan, together with the amount of water and aggregate added,
determine set time, cure time, pour characteristics, and material properties of the resulting treated waste.
For example, compressh/e strength is one physical property of the stabilized waste that is controlled by the
composition variables. The compositions of cements and pozzolans, including those commonly used in
S/S applications, are classified according to ASTM standards. Binder addition usually results in an increase
in the treated waste volume.
A variety of additives are used with cement-based S/S treatment to assist in immobilizing specific
contaminants or to improve physical characteristics. Activated carbon, organophilic clay, and other sorbents
may be added to improve immobilization of organics. Soluble silicate additives are used to speed setting,
reduce free water, and can precipitate lower solubility forms of some metals. Sulfide additions will provide
reducing power and can form very low solubility metal sulfides.
Treatment Combinations with Cement-Based S/S Technologies--
Ex situ S/S is usually preceded by physical separation methods. Typically dry or wet screening is
used to remove debris and produce a well-graded size distribution. The operations to load and mix waste
and binder result in particulate air emissions. If the contaminated material contains organics, mixing
operations and heating due to binder hydration will release organic vapors. Control of dust typically is
needed and control of organic vapors may be needed in some applications. Pretreatment to change
oxidation state (e.g., Cr reduction) or to moderate extreme pH may be needed.
For a waste containing metals and organics, pretreatment may be used to render the material more
suitable for S/S. S/S treatment is not generally applicable to wastes with volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) or high levels of semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs). The waste can be prepared for S/S by
techniques such as air stripping or incineration, depending on the type and concentration of the organics.
S/S treatment may be used as a pretreatment to improve the handling characteristics of a waste.
For example, cement may be added to convert a sludge to a granular solid. Typical treatment combinations
are shown in Table 4-3.
4-7
-------
TABLE 4-3. TYPICAL TREATMENT TRAINS FOR CEMENT-BASED SOLIDIFICATION/
STABILIZATION TREATMENT AT METAL-CONTAMINATED SITES
Materials Handling
Pretreatment
Post-treatment/Residuals Management
Excavation
Dredging
Conveying
Screening for debris removal
Size reduction for oversize material
Neutralization to moderate extreme pH
Reduction (e.g., Cr(Vl) to Cr(lll))
Oxidation (e.g., arsenite to arsenate)
Treatment to remove or destroy organics (e.g.,
incineration, soil washing, thermal desorption,
bioremediation, or solvent extraction)
Physical separation to separate rich and lean
fractions
Disposal of treated solid residuals
(preferably below the frost line and above
the water table)
Containment barriers
Off-gas treatment
S/S of Cr(VI) requires reduction pretreatment as Cr(VI) is highly toxic and mobile in soils. Treatment
consists of reducing Cr(VI) to the less toxic Cr(lll), which is readily precipitated by hydroxide over a wide
pH range.
Acidification followed by reduction and neutralization is a common approach to Cr reduction. Cr(VI)
Is a strong oxidizing agent under acidic conditions and thus converts to Cr(lll) without strong reducing
agents. Acidification can be accomplished using mineral acids. With the pH adjusted to <3, ferrous sulfate
can be added to convert Cr(VI) to Cr(lll). After chemical reduction, Cr(lll) is precipitated by increasing the
pH to >7 to coprecipitate chromium with ferric and ferrous iron (Conner, 1990).
Chemical treatments are also available for chromium reduction in neutral pH ranges. Possible
chromium reduction reagents include sodium metabisulfite, sodium bisulfite, and ferrous ammonium sulfate
(Jacobs, 1992). These reagents are more expensive than ferrous sulfate but may still be competitive in
terms of overall costs. Reduction at neutral pH generates less sludge, so the potential waste volume is
reduced (Conner, 1990).
In situ chemical treatment -systems have the potential for introducing oxidizing, reducing, or
, neutralizing chemicals into the groundwater system, but chemical addition to the in situ environment may
create a pollution problem in itself. Also, injection of treatment chemicals may create the requirement for
land disposal. In such cases, the selection of reagents for chemical treatment will be limited by the Land
Disposal Restrictions (LDRs) on introducing chemicals into the soil. In situ chemical treatment agents must
be selected for compatibility with the environment. For example, in situ chromium-reducing sulfur Is a
possible candidate for acidification. Possible in situ chromium-reducing agents Include leaf litter and acid
compost (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/540/2-90/002). Formation of a crushed limestone barrier also has been
proposed as an In situ chemical treatment method for Cr(lll) (Article and Fuller, 1979).
Applicability of Cement-Based S/S Technologies-
If a single metal is the predominant contaminant in soil, sediment, or sludge, then cadmium and lead
are the most amenable to cement-based S/S. The predominant mechanism for immobilization of metals
in Portland and similar cements is precipitation of hydroxides. Both lead and cadmium tend to form
insoluble hydroxides in the pH ranges commonly found in cement. They may resolubilize, however, if pH
is not carefully controlled. Lead, for example, is subject to leaching and solubilization in the presence of
even mildly acidic leaching solutions. At pHs around 10 and above, Pb tends to resolubilize as Pb(OH)3".
4-8
-------
Metals (e.g., mercury) that do not have low solubility hydroxides, and species (e.g., Cr(VI), As(lll)
or As(V)) that exist as anions can be difficult to stabilize reliably (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/530-SW-90-059Q).
Cement-based S/S is only applicable to low levels of mercury contamination (i.e., <260 mg/kg of Hg)
because of failure to form low solubility hydroxides at high concentrations and is most applicable to
elemental and inorganic forms of mercury. Also note that high volatility of mercury makes thermal recovery
feasible at relatively low concentrations compared to other metals. Arsenic does not form insoluble
hydroxides or carbonates and hence cement-based S/S does not apply for As. Arsenic sulfides may also
have significant solubilities under the basic conditions typical of cement-based S/S. Cr(VI) is difficult to
stabilize due to formation of cations that are soluble at high pH. Therefore, Cr(VI) is reduced to Cr(lll), which
does form insoluble hydroxides. Although cement-based S/S is difficult for Hg, As (III and V), and Cr (VI),
this does not eliminate the possibility that effective S/S approaches will be identified for specific wastes
containing these metals.
Wastes containing more than one metal are not addressed in this document other than to note that
cement-based solidification/stabilization of multiple metal wastes will be particularly difficult if a set of
treatment and disposal conditions cannot be found that simultaneously produces low mobility species for
all the metals of concern. On the other hand, the various metal species In a multiple metal waste may
interact (e.g. formation of low solubility compounds by combination of cationic and anionic metal species)
to reduce the mobility of the contained metals. Appendix E includes multiple metal wastes for which S/S
has been identified as RCRA BOAT. Figure 2 in Appendix A illustrates the variation in solubility of arsenate
vs. pH and cationic metal species.
Organic contaminants are often present with inorganic contaminants at metal-contaminated sites.
S/S treatment of organic-contaminated waste with cement-based binders is more complex than treatment
of inorganics alone. Wastes in which organics are the primary contaminant of concern generally are not
suited to S/S treatment. This is particularly true with VOCs where the mixing process and heat generated
by cement hydration reaction can increase organic vapor losses (Ponder and Schmitt, 1991; Shukla et al.,
1992; U.S. EPA, 1989, EPA/600/2-89/013; Weitzman and Hamel, 1990; U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/9-90/006).
However, S/S can be applied to wastes that contain lower levels of organics, particularly when inorganics
are present and/or the organics are semivolatile or nonvolatile. Also, recent studies indicate that addition
of silicates or modified clays to the binder system may improve S/S performance with organics (U.S. EPA,
1993, EPA/530/R-93/012).
S/S processes can be affected by the chemical constituents present in the waste being treated and
by many other factors (e.g., binder-to-waste ratio, water content, or ambient temperature). The interferences
caused by the chemical constituents of the waste can affect the solidification processes and/or the chemical
stabilization of the treated product. Waste-specific treatability studies are needed to identify and overcome
such interferences. General types of interference caused by the chemical constituents include (U.S. EPA,
1990, Treatability Study Protocol draft):
• Inhibition of bonding of the waste material to the S/S material
• Retardation of setting
• Reduction of stability of the matrix resulting in increased potential for teachability of the
waste
• Reduction of physical strength of the final product.
4-9
-------
Status and Performance of Cement-Based S/S Technologies-
Performance data of S/S measured in treatability studies were collected and analyzed by EPA. The
results are summarized in Table 4-4. S/S with cement-based and pozzolan binders is a commercially
available, established technology. Some transition metal salts, particularly Cu, Zn, and Pb, cause a
pronounced retardation of the early hydration of calcium silicate cements (Thomas et al., 1981). The
predominant mechanism for immobilization of metals in Portland and similar cements is precipitation of
hydroxides. Metals (e.g., mercury) that do not have low-solubility hydroxides or species [e.g., Cr(VI), As(lll),
or As(V)] that exist as anions can be difficult to stabilize reliably (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/530-SW-90-059Q).
A process to treat lead contamination by formation of anglesite (PbSO4) and apatite (Ca5CCI,F)(PO4)3) has
been accepted into the SITE Program (see Appendix B). As shown in Table 4-5, sites were identified where
S/S has been selected for remediating of metal-contaminated solids. At 13 of these sites, S/S has been
either completely or partially implemented. S/S is considered BOAT for lead and cadmium contaminated
wastes. However, EPA does not preclude the use of S/S for treatment of As (particularly inorganic As)
wastes, but recommends that its use be determined on a case-by-case basis. As shown in Table 4-5, there
are five sites where As S/S is selected or implemented.
Only one NPL site, DeRewal Chemical, Frenchtown, New Jersey, was identified where S/S of a
mercury bearing waste was selected, and the mercury concentration is less than 2.5 mg/kg. BOAT for non-
wastewater >260 mg/kg Hg is acid leaching followed by chemical precipitation.
BOAT for chromium is chromium reduction and S/S, Cr(lll) forms an insoluble hydroxide.
TABLE 4-4. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF RAW AND TREATED WASTES IN THE
SUBSET OF THE TREATABILITY DATABASE
Untreated Waste
Metal
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Chromium
Lead
Mercury
Selenium
Silver
No. of
Records^
65
5
92
44
280
15
6
0
Total
Metal(b>,
mg/kg
500-1,500
NA99.9
8.8 - >99.9
<0 - >99.9
<0 - >99.9
<0 - >99.9
33 - >99.9
99.0-99.9
NA
(a) Number of records remaining after leaching test and teachability criteria were applied. The full database contains many more
records. There are multiple records for a single waste material if the treatability study tested more than one binder or binder-
to-waste ratio. V'i
(b) Total metal concentration was not reported for all records. Therefore, this range may not reflect full range for all samples.
(c) teachable metal concentration was determined by EP, TCtP, or Cal WET test procedure.
(d) Ratio of teachable to total metal could not be calculated for records that did not include total metal concentration for
untreated waste. Therefore, this range may not reflect full range for all samples.
(e) NA Indicates not available.
Reprinted from Erlckson (1992) with permission of the publisher, the Air & Waste Management Association.
4-10
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TABLE 4-5. SUMMARY OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION SELECTIONS/APPLICATIONS AT
SELECTED SUPERFUND SITES WITH METAL CONTAMINATION10'
Region
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
Site Name/Location
De Rewal Chemical, French Town, New
Jersey
Marathon Battery Co., Cold Spring, New
York
Nascolite, Millville, Cumberland County,
New Jersey
Roebling Steel, Roebling, New Jersey
Waldick Aerospace, Wall Township, New
Jersey
Aladdin Plating, Clarks Summit,
Pennsylvania
Palmerton Zinc, Pennsylvania
Tonolli Corp., Nesquehoning, Pennsylvania
Whitmoyer Laboratories, Pennsylvania
Bypass 601, North Carolina
Rowood, Mississippi
Independent Nail, South Carolina
Pepper's Steel and Alloys, Medley, Rorida
Specific Technology
Solidification
Chemical fixation (maectite
process, pH 11-12)
Stabilization
34-acre slag area
S/S
4,000 cy
Stabilization
12,000 cy
Stabilization with fly ash,
lime, potash
S/S
Oxidation/fixation
S/S
S/S
6,000 cy
S/S
S/S
Key Metal Contaminants
Cr, Cu.Hg
Cd, Ni
Pb
As, Cr, Pb
Cr, Cd
Cr
Cd, Pb, Zn
As, Pb
As
Cr, Pb, Sb, Mn
Pb
Cd, Cr, Ni, Zn
As, Pb
Associated Technology
GW pump and treatment
Dredging, off-site disposal
Off-site facility
Capping
LTTD, off-site disposal
Off-site disposal
—
In situ chemical
limestone barrier
GW pump and treatment, '
capping, grading, and
revegetation
Capping, regrading,
revegetation, GW pump
and treatment
Capping
Capping
On-site disposal
Status(b)
S
I
S
S
C
C
I
S
S
S
C
C
C
(a) For more site information and implementation status, see Appendix D. •
(b) Status codes: S - selected in ROD; I = in operation, not complete; C = completed.
-------
TABLE 4-5. (continued)
ro
Region
6
6
7
7
7
7
10
10
Site Name/Location
Gurley Pit, Arkansas
Pesses Chemical, Fort Worth, Texas
Vogel Paint and Wax, Maurice, Iowa
E. I. DuPont de Nemours, West Point, Iowa
Mid-America Tanning, Sergeant Bluff, Iowa
Shaw Avenue Dump, Charles City, Iowa
Frontier Hard Chrome, Vancouver,
Washington
Gould Site, Portland, Oregon
Specific Technology
In sHu S/S
In situ S/S (12,400 cy)
Stabilization
S/S
In situ S/S
S/S
Stabilization
S/S
Key Metal Contaminants
Ba, Pb, Zn
Cd, Mi
Cd,Cr(HI),Pb,As,Hg,
Ni.Zn
Se, Cd, Cr, Pb
Cr, Pb
As, Cd
Cr
Pb
Associated Technology
—
Concrete capping
Biotreatment, GW pump
and treatment
Capping, regrading, and
revegetation
Capping, regrading, and
revegetation
Capping, groundwater
monitoring
—
Capping, regrading, and
revegetation
Status^
C
C
I
C
s
C
s
I
(a) For more site information and implementation status, see Appendix D.
(b) Status codes: S = selected in ROD; I = in operation, not complete; C = completed.
-------
Estimated Costs of Cement-Based S/S Technologies-
The estimated cost of treating waste with S/S generally ranges from $50 to $250 per ton (1992
dollars). Costs are highly variable due to variations in site, soil, and contaminant characteristics. One report
cites costs of in-drum, in-place, plant, and area mixing at $512.80/yd3, $38/yd3, $41.80/yd3, and $43.50/yd3,
respectively. These costs include labor, equipment, monitoring and testing, reagents, and miscellaneous
supplies. Not included are costs for equipment mobilization and demobilization, engineering and
administration, and health and safety (Arniella and Blythe, 1990). Auger-type mixing systems developed by
Novaterra (formerly Toxic Treatments USA); International Waste Technologies (IWT)/Geo-Con, Inc.; and
S.M.W. Seiko, Inc. have been accepted for testing in the SITE Program. The reported cost for operation
of a single auger machine is $194/ton. Estimated cost for treatment operations using a four-auger machine
of similar design was $111 /ton (U.S. EPA, 1991, EPA/540/5-91 /008).
Note that some of the auger systems, particularly the Novaterra system, may inject steam (or steam
and hot air) instead of binders to perform steam stripping of organics. Costs for S/S treatment developed
from SITE Program Applications Analysis Reports are summarized in Table 4-6. Chemfix and Soliditech are
ex situ treatment technologies. Cost modules for ex situ and in situ S/S with inorganic binders are available
in the CORA model (see Appendix I).
TABLE 4-6. SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TREATMENT COST DATA
IWT/Geo-Con(a)
(In situ)
Hazcon(b)
(In situ)
4-Auger 1 -Auger 300 Ib/min
System System 70% on Stream
($/ton) ($/ton) ($/ton)
Site preparation
-
-
-
2,300 Ib/min
70% on Stream
($/ton)
-
Permitting and regulatory - - - -
Equipment
Startup and fixed cost
Labor costs
34.35
3.71
16.56
Supplies - raw materials 52.68
Supplies - utilities
Effluent treatment
Residual transport
Analytical
Facility modification
Demobilization
Totals
0.98
_
-
1.14
1.18
0.90
111.50
87.64
1.52
46.18
52.68
2.39
_
_
3.28
0.45
0.31
194.45
Not included in estimate.
(a) U.S. EPA. 1990. EPA/540/A5-89/004
(b) U.S. EPA. 1989. EPA/540/A5-89/001
(c) U.S. EPA. 1989. EPA/540/A5-89/011
(d) U.S. EPA. 1990. EPA/540/A5-89/005
12.93
2.31
65.02
116.67(1)
1.40
_
-
6.50
0.32
0.83
205.98
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
7.91
2.31
8.57
116.67(1)
0.36
-
-
2.40
0.14
0.83
139.19
Conservative level of
Included in startup.
On-site disposal.
At a treatment rate of
Chemfix(0) Soliditech(d)
(Ex situ) (Ex situ)
37,000 tons<4) 5020 yd3
($/ton) ($/yd3)
1.35
0.70
5.00
0.89
27.00
30.00
3.00
0.07
-
5.00
0.0<2>
73.01
binder addition.
160 tons per day.
4.98
1.99
12.56
4.18
49.98
62.53
1.72
1.29
0.0<3>
6.47
0.35
2.99
149.04
Cement-Based S/S Technology Data Needs-
The data needs for S/S with cement-based treatment systems are presented in Table 4-7.
4-13
-------
TABLE 4-7. SPECIFIC DATA NEEDS FOR SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION CEMENT-BASED
TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
Factor Influencing
Technology Selection**'
Conditions Favoring
Success of S/S Treatment
Basis
Data Needs
Metal speclation
pH and Eh: buffering
capacity; apparent
solubility of metals
teachability
Not specified
Not Specified
(Depends on site cleanup
goals
Chemical form of metal determines
its environmental behavior and likely
reaction? with treatment agents.
pH and Eh can identify likely soluble
species of metals (see Appendix A).
Buffering capacity and apparent
solubility can identify conditions
leading to lowest solubility.
Metals need to remain Immobile
under expected disposal conditions
as the treated materials age.
Measurement of different
oxidation states of Cr and
As.
pH, Eh; neutralization
potential; equilibration with
pH and Eh controlled
solutions.
TCLP for regulatory
purposes only. Equilibrium
and/or diffusion-controlled
leach tests that mimjc
expected post-treatment
disposal conditions.
Organic content
VOC content
SVOC content
Oil and grease content
Phenol content
Particle size
Hallda content
Soluble salts of
manganese, tin, zinc,
copper, and lead
content of the waste
Cyanide content
Sulfate content
<20 to 45 wt% total
organic content
<50ppb
organics < 10,000 ppm
PAHs < 10.000 ppm
< 10 wt% total oil and
grease content
Limited amount of
insoluble particulate
passing through a 200
mesh screen
Not specified
Not specified
<3,000 mg/kg
< 1,500 ppm for Type I
Portland cement
Cements can be
formulated to tolerate
higher sulfate levels
Organic materials can interfere with
bonding
VOCs can vaporize during process
or curing. Organic materials can
interfere with bonding
Organic materials can interfere with
bonding
Oil and grease coat the waste
particles and weaken the bond
between the waste solids and
cement
Phenols can reduce compressive
strength of final product
Rne particulate can coat the waste
particles and weaken the bond
between the waste solids and
cement
Presence of halide salts can alter
cement setting rate. Halides
generally are soluble and can leach
from cement.
Soluble salts of these metals can
reduce the physical strength of the
final product, cause large variations
in setting time, or reduce the
dimensional stability of the cured
matrix
Cyanides Interfere with bonding of
waste materials
Retards setting ,
Can cause cement to spall after
curing
Analysis for VOCs and total
organic carbon (TOO)
Analysis for VOCs
Analysis for SVOCs and
polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Analysis for oil and grease
Analysis for phenol
Particle-size distribution
Analysis for total halides
Analysis of inorganic
content
Analysis for cyanides
Analysis for sulfate
4-14
-------
TABLE 4-7. (continued)
Factor Influencing
Technology Selection^
Conditions Favoring
Success of S/S Treatment
Basis
Data Needs
Ability to obtain good
mixing of waste
particles and binder
Not specified
Cement must coat particles to obtain
a good S/S product
Waste particle-size distri-
bution
Waste moisture content
Binder heat of
hydration
Moisture content
Unconfined
compressive strength
Rexural strength
Cone index
Durability testing
PH
Alkalinity
Volume increase
following treatment
Not specified
Not specified
Treated waste usually re-
quires 50 psi, but higher
levels may be needed.
Must exceed intended use
limits.
Not specified, must
exceed intended use
limits
Not specified, must
exceed intended use
limits
Not specified, must
exceed intended use
limits
Not specified. Treated
waste pH range about 9.0
to 11.5 required for setting
(cement hydration) and to
minimize metal solubility.
Not specified. Treated
waste pH range about 9.0
to 11.5 required for setting
(cement hydration) and to
minimize metal solubility.
Minimum volume increase
consistent with effective
binder addition. Most
critical when disposal site
space is limited or long
distance, off-site disposal
is planned.
Heat generation, particularly in large
mass treatment, can increase
temperature and volatilize organic
and metal contaminants
Quantify the amount of water
addition/ removal needed for S/S
mixing process
Evaluate changes in response to
overburden stress between treated
and untreated waste
Evaluate material's ability to
withstand loads over large areas
Screening test for material
compressive strength
Evaluate durability of treated waste
Evaluate changes in leaching as a
function of pH
Develop binder formulation
Evaluate changes in leaching as a
function of pH
Develop binder formulation
Increased treated waste volume
increases cost of transportation,
disposal, and disposal
area/volume/surface topography
Waste viscosity
Total and time-dependent
heat output of binder
formulation
Waste moisture content
Unconfined compressive
strength of treated and
untreated waste
Treated waste flexural
strength
Cone penetrometer test
Treatability test
Freeze-thaw cycling tests
Wet-dry cycling tests
pH of untreated and
treated waste
Alkalinity of untreated and
treated waste
Density and volume before
and after treatment based
on treatability testing
4-15
-------
TABLE 4-7. (continued)
Factor Influencing
Technology Selection(a)
Conditions Favoring
Success of S/S Treatment
Basis
Data Needs
For In Situ
Subsurface conditions Not specified
Contaminant depth
Varies with technology
Presence of subsurface .barriers or
debris
Depth to first confining layer
In-place mixing limited to near
surface. Auger systems
demonstrated to 30 feet. With newly
developed equipment, treatment to
150 feet should be possible
Subsurface geology
Waste conditions
Waste composition and
spatial distribution
(a) Use hazardous substance list and site historical records to plan total waste analysis
Source: Adapted from Arnlellaand Blythe, 1990; Conner, 1990; McGrail and Olson, 1992; U.S. EPA, 1988, EPA/540/2-88/004; U.S.
EPA, 1990, EPA/540/2-90/002; U.S. EPA, 1991, EPA/540/2-91/009; U.S. EPA, 1993, EPA-823-B93-Q01; and U.S. EPA,
1993, EPA/530/R-93/012.
4.2.2.3 Polymer Microencapsulation
This subsection describes application of asphalt and similar organic binders to treatment of wastes
contaminated with metals or with metals and organics.
Description of Polymer Microencapsulation Technologies-
S/S by polymer microencapsulation can include application of thermoplastic orthermosetting resins.
Thermoplastic materials are the most commonly used organic-based S/S treatment materials. Potential
candidate resins for thermoplastic encapsulation include bitumen, polyethylene and other polyolefins,
paraffins, waxes, and sulfur cement. Of these candidate thermoplastic resins, bitumen (asphalt) is the least
expensive and by far the most commonly used (Arniella and Blythe, 1990). The urea-formaldehyde
thermosetting resin systems experienced limited use in the solidification of low-level radioactive waste. This
application has been discontinued due to poor performance of the system. Research is continuing on other
thermoset resins for waste encapsulation (Weingardt, 1993).
The process of thermoplastic encapsulation involves heating and mixing the waste material and the
resin at elevated temperature, typically 130°C to 230°C, in an extrusion machine. Any water or volatile
organics in the waste boil off during extrusion and are collected for treatment or disposal. Because the final
product is a stiff, yet plastic resin, the treated material typically is discharged from the extruder into a drum
or other container. Asphalt-treated soils or abrasives contaminated with metals have been reused as paving
material (Means etal., 1993).
Treatment Combinations With Polymer Microencapsulation Technologies-
As with cement-based S/S, polymer microencapsulation typically requires physical separation to
remove debris and condition the particle-size distribution of the feed. In addition, wet feed materials must
be dried. Typical treatment combinations are shown in Table 4-8.
4-16
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TABLE 4-8. TYPICAL TREATMENT TRAINS FOR POLYMER MICROENCAPSULATION
TREATMENT AT METAL-CONTAMINATED SITES
Materials Handling
Pretreatment
Post-treatment/Residuals Management
Excavation
Dredging
Conveying
Screening for debris removal
Size reduction for oversize material
Dewatering for wet sludge
Drying
Physical separation to separate rich and
lean fractions
Disposal of treated solid residuals (preferably
below the frost line and above the water line)
Containment barrier
Reuse for onsite paving
Air pollution control
Applicability of Polymer Microencapsulation Technologies--
Organic binder systems have been used mainly to treat low-level radioactive wastes. However,
organic binders have been tested or applied to wastes containing chemical contaminants such as arsenic,
metals, inorganic salts, PCBs, and dioxins (Arniella and Blythe, 1990). Organic binder systems function
mainly by physical encapsulation in the water-insoluble organic resin. Polymer micro-encapsulation is
particularly well suited to treating water-soluble salts such as chlorides or sulfates that generally are difficult
to immobilize in a cement-based system (Kalb, Holmes-Burns, and Meyer, 1993).
Characteristics of the organic binder and extrusion system impose compatibility requirements on
the waste material. The elevated operating temperature places a limit on the quantity of water and VOCs
in the waste feed. Less volatile organics will be retained in the bitumen but may act as solvents causing the
treated product to be too fluid. The bitumen is a potential fuel source so the waste should not contain
oxidizers such as nitrates, chlorates, or perchlorates. Oxidants present the potential for rapid oxidation,
causing immediate safety concerns as well as slow oxidation that results in waste form degradation.
Status and Performance of Polymer Microencapsulation Technblogies-
S/S with organic binders requires more complex equipment and operations and higher energy use
than cement-based stabilization. Applications have been limited to special cases where the specific
performance features are required or the waste matrix and contaminants allow reuse of the treated waste
as a construction material (Means et al., 1993, ASTM).
Estimated Cost of Polymer Microencapsulation Technologies-
The general cost elements for a thermoplastic microencapsulation system are shown in Table 4-9.
Polymer Microencapsulation Technologies Data Needs-
The data needs for organic encapsulation technologies are shown in Table 4-10.
4-17
-------
TABLE 4-9. ESTIMATED TOTAL PROJECT COSTS FOR MICROENCAPSULATION OF SOILS
CONTAMINATED WITH METALS ONLY OR WITH VOCs AND METALS
Hem
.Case 1
10,000 TRY
(Dollars)
Case 2
100,000 TRY
(Dollars)
Subtotal
Capital (Includes Transportation and Installation)
Heated Screw Dryer (for Drying and Stripping VOCs)
Extruder (for Mixing Soil and Asphalt)
Soil Screening, Conveying, Handling, and Other Ancillary
Equipment
Operations and Maintenance
Labor
Equipment Rental
Raw Materials and Major Utilities
Technology Implementation
Designs, Plans, Specifications, and Regulatory Approval (20% of
Capital)
Contingency at 25% of Summed Up Costs for Capital, O&M, and
Implementation
Total Project Cost
Subtotal
669,000
488,000
343.000
1,500,000
1,450,000
400,000
1.800.000
3,650,000
300,000
1.360.000
6,810,000
1,630,000
1,200,000
670.000
3,500,000
1,870,000
685,000
16.945.000
19,500,000
700,000
5,925.000
29,626,000
Notes:
Total project cost assumes single use and operation for 1 year.
No salvage/reuse value has been attributed to the equipment.
TPY » tons per year.
Source; Roy F. Weston, Inc., 1987.
4.2.3 Vitrification Technologies
This subsection describes technologies that apply high-temperature treatment aimed primarily at
reducing the mobility of metals by incorporation in a vitreous mass. These technologies also vaporize or
destroy organic contaminants In addition to Immobilizing the metals in a stable oxide solid. More details
on vitrification technologies for treatment of hazardous waste are given in an EPA handbook (U.S. EPA,
1992, EPA/625/R-92/002). High-temperature processing to recover metals is discussed in Subsection
4.3.1.3.
4.2.3.1 Vitrification of Excavated Materials
This section describes application of vitrification to treatment of excavated wastes contaminated with
metals or with metals and organlcs.
4-18
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TABLE 4-10. SPECIFIC DATA NEEDS FOR POLYMER MICROENCAPSULATION TECHNOLOGIES
Factor Influencing Technology Selection^
Basis
Water content
Presence of oxidizing agents such as nitrates,
chlorates, or perchlorates
Presence of organic solvents
Presence of oils, greases, and chelatlng agents
Presence of thermally unstable materials
The processes usually require a dry solid feed so drying would be
needed to prepare a high-moisture-content waste
Organic binder Is a potential fuel source and may react violently with
oxldlzers
Oxidizers will cause slow deterioration of the binder
Organic solvents, particularly aromatic solvents, can dissolve the binder
Oils, greases, and chelatlng agents will dissolve In and migrate through
the binder
Oils, greases, and chelatlng agents can coat the waste particles, thus
preventing a good bond with the binder
Hydrated salts can decompose during hot mixing with the binder, thus
liberating vapor and causing poor bonding
(a) Use hazardous substance list and site historical records to plan total waste analysis
Source: Adapted from U.S. EPA, 1991, Treatment Technology Background.
Description of Technologies for Vitrification of Excavated Materials-
The vitrification process can incorporate oxides of nearly all the elements of the periodic table. With
the addition of low-cost materials such as sand, clay, and/or native soil, the process can be adjusted to
produce products with specific characteristics, such as chemical durability. Waste vitrification may be able
to transform the waste into useful, recyclable products such as clean fill, aggregate, or higher valued
materials such as erosion control blocks, paving blocks, and road dividers. The vitrification process can
accommodate different chemical and physical forms of matter including liquids, slurries, sludges,
combustible or noncombustible solids, and mixtures of these physicochemical states, making vitrification
an attractive method of waste treatment because a single technology can process widely different materials.
Vitrification, or making glass out of wastes, treats waste by destroying organic materials and immobilizing
metals and radioactive elements into a chemically durable, leach-resistant solid. Due to the melting and
densification of minerals, combustion or volatilization of organics, and vaporization of water, the glass
product from vitrification occupies less volume than the waste feed.
Energy input to form the glass melt is one of the significant cost elements in vitrification. Soil is a
typical material requiring treatment at CERCLA sites. The theoretical heat required to melt various
commercial glasses is presented in Table 4-11. These energy requirements indicate an.approximate
minimum for glass formation. The actual energy requirements for vitrification of waste must be corrected
for process losses and for the water content and exothermic energy sources present in the feed. The
theoretical energy requirements for melting dry oxides or soil range from 560 to 680 kW-hr/ton. Process
heat losses may increase heat requirements significantly when the throughput is below 10 tons/day. An
electrical resistance vitrification remediation process that operates near commercial glass production rates
would require an energy input of about 800 kWh/ton. Materials, such as organics, that release energy on
oxidation will reduce energy input requirements. For waste with more than -18 dry wt% carbon, the
electrical power requirements can be less than 100 kW-hr/ton because oxidation of the carbon near the
molten glass surface provides much of the energy needed to melt the accompanying ash or soil. Depending
on the local energy costs, different sources of energy can be used to minimize costs. For example, coal
can be added to contaminated soil to lower costs using its oxidation near the molten glass interface to offset
the electrical cost.
4-19
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TABLE 4-11. THEORETICAL ENERGY INPUTS REQUIRED TO FORM VARIOUS GLASS TYPES
Heat of Reaction, kJ/kg
Enthalpy (20 to 1500°C), kJ/kg
Batch gases (20 to 1500°C), kJ/kg
Theoretical Total, kJ/kg
Theoretical Total, kcal/kg
Theoretical Total, btu/kg
Theoretical Total, kWh/kg
Theoretical Total, btu/#
Theoretical Total, kWh/#
Theoretical Total, kWh/ton
Soda-lime,
Container Glass
487
1,886
289
2,662
636
2,524
0.740
1,147
0.336
673
Borosilicate,
Laboratory Glass
412
1,701
138
2,251
538
2,134
0.626
970
0.284
569
Lead Crystal Glass
403
1,693
164
2,260
540
2,142
0.628
974
0.286
571
In fossil, fuel-heated, glass melters with concurrent flow of waste and combustion gases, a
substantial quantity of energy is lost to the off-gas system. For example, a conventional fossil-fueled, 100
ton/day glass meiter that uses recuperators for efficiency consumes about 1,570 to 1,770 kWh/ton of glass
produced.
Typical Treatment Combinations with Technologies for Vitrification of Excavated Materials-
The stages in the complete remediation process may include waste excavation, pretreatment,
mixing, feeding, melting, off-gas cleanup, recycle of filtered off-gas material, and casting or forming of the
discharged melted material. Most of the vitrification systems do not require any pretreatment operations.
Those meiter technologies that do require pretreatment typically are limited to size reduction. However,
pretreatment operations also may include drying, desorption, segregation of metal components, and size
reduction of the material. Volatile metals can be difficult to retain during the vitrification process. Arsenic
Is more volatile in some forms than in others. For example, arsenic oxide may be more volatile than calcium
or Iron arsenates. Certain waste feeds may require chemical or thermal pretreatment to convert arsenic
oxide to less volatile forms before vitrification (U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/625/R-92/002).
Off-gas cleanup systems are more strongly dependent upon the waste being treated than on the
vitrification process. If the organic content is relatively high, an afterburner may be required to guarantee
the destruction of escaping organics. The balance of the off-gas system will be directed toward gas
quenching, acid gas scrubbing, and removal and recycle of particulates. Typical treatment combinations
are shown In Table 4-12.
Applicability of Technologies for Vitrification of Excavated Materials-
Vitrification can treat a wide variety of mixed organic and inorganic contaminants in slag, soil, and
sludge wastes. Organics are destroyed by pyrolysis and combustion. Metals are incorporated in a leach-
resistant matrix. When the silica content of the waste is sufficient to form glass with minimal additions, the
waste volume can be reduced. Despite these advantages, vitrification is not widely used. The technology
Is expensive to Implement and the current commercially available capacity for hazardous waste vitrification
Is limited.
4-20
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TABLE 4-12. TYPICAL TREATMENT TRAINS FOR EX SITU VITRIFICATION TREATMENT
AT METAL-CONTAMINATED SITES
Materials Handling
Pretreatment
Post-treatment/Residuals Management
Excavation
Dredging
Conveying
Screening for debris removal
Size reduction for oversize or refractory material
Dewatering for wet sludge
Drying
Physical separation to separate contaminant-rich
and contaminant-lean fractions
Conversion of metals to less volatile forms
[e.g., As2O3 to
Disposal of treated solid residuals (preferably
below the frostline and above the water
table)
Reuse as construction aggregate
Air pollution control
For successful treatment by vitrification, the metals must be retained in the melt during heating and
incorporated into the vitrified mass that forms as the melt cools. The melt is formed under oxidizing
conditions so metals will tend to convert to oxides, silicates, or other compounds with high boiling points.
Metals retained in the melt must be solubilized to minimize formation of crystalline phases that can decrease
the leach resistance of the vitrified product. The approximate solubility limits of some elements in silicate
glasses are shown in Table 4-13. These are only rough guidelines of the limits for incorporation of the
elements into the vitrified waste. The actual solubility depends on the waste matrix and glass formulation.
As an approximation for starting melt formulation, the waste concentration should be adjusted with soil or
other silica sources to decrease each metal below its solubility limit. Keeping the metal below the solubility
limit helps ensure melt homogeneity and helps avoid accumulation of refractory sludges in the melter.
TABLE 4-13. APPROXIMATE SOLUBILITY OF ELEMENTS IN SILICATE GLASSES
Solubility
Elements
Less than 0.1 wt%
Between 1 and 3 wt%
Between 3 and 5 wt%
Between-5 and 15 wt%
Between 15 and 25 wt%
Greater than 25 wt%
Ag, Ar, Au, Br, H, He, Hg, I, Kr, N, Ne, Pd, R, Rh, Rn, Ru, Xe
As, C, Cd, Cr, S, Sb, .Se, Sn, Tc, Te
Bi, Co, Cu, Mn, Mo, Ni, Ti
Ce, F, Gd, La, Nd, Pr, Th, B, Ge
Al, B, Ba, Ca, Cs, Fe, Fr, K, Li, Mg, Na, Ra, Rb, Sr, U, Zn
P,Pb, Si
Source: Adapted from U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/625/R-92/002.
Most of the high-temperature immobilization technologies rely on the natural corrosivity of the
molten material and conductive heat transfer to dissolve the waste matrix and contaminants. The particle
size of the waste may need to be controlled for some of the different melting technologies. For wastes
containing refractory compounds that melt above the unit's nominal processing temperature, such as quartz
or alumina, size reduction may be required to achieve reference throughputs and a homogeneous melt.
Size reduction is not a major factor for the high-temperature processes using arcing or plasma technologies.
For the intense melters using concurrent gas-phase melting or mechanical agitation, size reduction is
needed for feeding the system and for achieving a homogeneous melt.
4-21
-------
Several melting technologies are being tested or applied to the treatment of nonhazardous,
hazardous, radioactive, and mixed radioactive and hazardous wastes. The melting technologies may be
grouped into two general categories: melters that provide either long or short residence time in the molten
state. Within these two categories are a wide range of specific process designs. The designs are aimed
at optimizing cost and performance, particularly by reducing capital and energy costs for the melter.
Different melter configurations and melt homogenization methods are used. Heat can be applied through
a variety of sources such as combustion of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil) in the melter or input of
electric energy by direct joule heating, arcing, plasma torches, and microwaves. Combustion or oxidation
of the waste can contribute significant energy to the melting process.
Barium, beryllium, chromium, copper, nickel, silver, thallium, and zinc typically will be incorporated
Into the oxide melt, particularly If recycle from the off-gas system is practiced. Arsenic, lead, and selenium
also will be Incorporated but with more difficulty, particularly for co-current fossil fuel-fired designs.
Chlorides present In the waste in excess of about 0.5 wt % typically will not be incorporated into and
discharged with the glass, but will fume off and enter the off-gas treatment system. If chlorides are
excessively concentrated, salts of alkali, alkaline earths, and heavy metals will accumulate in solid residues
collected by off-gas treatment. Separation of the chloride salts from the other residuals may be required
before or during return of residuals to the melter.
Status and Performance of Technologies for Vitrification of Excavated Materials-
A number of hazardous waste vitrification systems are under development. Characteristics of some
example vitrification technologies are summarized in Table 4-14.
TABLE 4-14. SUMMARY OF EX SITU VITRIFICATION TECHNOLOGIES
FOR METAL-CONTAMINATED WASTE
Vendor/Technology
Testing Sites
Tested Contaminant and Matrix
Scale of Operation
Energy
Consumption
Long-Residence-Time Melters
EM&C Engineering
Associates Vitriflux
Envitco Cold-Top
Melter
Ferro Corporation*0'
Classification
International
Panburthy
Bacfromelt, Inc.
Penburthy glass
melter
Terra-Vit
VHiifix, England
Costa Mesa, CA
Sylvania, OH
Independence,
OH
Steel mill in the
Pacific
Northwest
Seattle, WA
Richland, WA
Faslane,
England
Metal-bearing sludge and slag
Metal-bearing ash and
radioactive waste '
Synthetic soil matrix spiked
with metals
K061 electric arc furnace dust
RCRA organics and inorganics
No data available
Asbestos-contaminated soils
Bench-scale'0'
Pilot-scale
(transportable)
Bench-scale
Pilot-scale
Full-scale (50 tons per
day)
No data available
Full-scale
Electrical
resistance heating
Electrical
resistance heating
Electrical
resistance heating
Electrical
resistance heating
Electrical
resistance heating
1,OOOkWh/ton
Electrical
resistance heating
Electrical
resistance heating
4-22
-------
TABLE 4-14. (continued)
Vendor/Technology
Testing Sites
Tested Contaminant and Matrix
Scale of Operation
Energy
Consumption
Short-Residence-Time Melters
Allis Mineral Systems
Pyrokiln Thermal
Encapsulation^
Ausmelt
Sirsomelt
B&W- Nuclear
Cyclone Furnace(a)
EET Corp.
Microwaste Melter(b)
Electropyrolysis
Plasma Energy Corp.
Plasma Arc Furnace
Retech, Inc.
Plasma Centrifugal
Reactor(a)W
Stir-Melter, Inc
Stir-Melter
Vortec Corp.
Advanced
Vitrification/Incin-
eration Process(a)^
Westinghouse Electric
Corp.
Plasma Cupola
Process
Western Product
Recovery Group
Coordinate, Chemical
Bonding and
Adsorption'3'*)
Oak Creek, Wl
Denver, CO
Alliance, OH
Rocky Flats, CO
Wayne, PA
Several
Butte, Montana
Toledo, OH
Harmarville, PA
Pittsburgh, PA
Houston, TX
Metal-bearing slags and
sludges
Metal-bearing slags and
sludges
Synthetic soil matrix spiked
with metals
Metal-bearing sludge
Metal-bearing sludge
High hazard materials such as
radioactive or medical waste
Soil from Silver Bow Creek
Superfund site spiked with zinc
oxide, hexachlorobenzene, and
oil
Simulated radioactive waste, fly
ash, fiber glass
Soil contaminated with metals,
Wastewater treatment
incinerator ash, municipal solid
waste (MSW) fly ash, and
hazardous baghouse dust
Steel mill wastes, simulated
landfill material, PCB-
contaminated waste
Soils contaminated with metals.
and organics
Bench-scale testing
performed
Pilot-scale equipment
available
Pilot-scale (in US)
Full-scale (in
Australia)
SITE Demonstration
Pilot-scale
Pilot-scale*0'
Bench-scale with
plans for pilot scale.
Pilot-scale
Full-scale
Pilot-scale
Full-scale
Pilot-scale test
planned
Fossil fuel heating
Fossil fuel heating
Fossil fuel heating
Microwave energy
supply
Electric arc
heating
Plasma arc
heating
270 kWh/ton
Plasma arc
heating
21 ,800 to 7,260
kWh/ton
Electrical
resistance heating
Fossil fuel heating
Plasma arc
heating
1,000 to 1,180
kWh/tbn
Fossil fuel heating
(a) SITE Program Technology, see Appendix B.
(b) Listed in VISITT, see Appendix C.
(c) Both ex situ and in situ implementations in development.
Sources: U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/540/R-92/077; Roy F. Weston, 1987, AMXTH-TE-CR-86101; U.S. EPA, 1992,
EPA/540/AR-92/017; U.S. EPA, 1993, EPA/542-R-93-001.
4-23
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Estimated Costs of Technologies for Vitrification of Excavated Materlals-
The challenge In vitrification Is to process wastes at competitive costs. Treatment costs for
vitrification are highly dependent on the waste, throughput capacity, local energy costs, and site location.
The dominant costs for conventional glass melters are capital recovery and labor. Energy costs can be
reduced by mixing solid waste fuels such as waste wood, tires, and/or low-grade coal. Detailed analysis
of cost elements for vitrification Is presented In U.S. EPA (1992, EPA/625/R-92/002).
The Babcock & Wilcox cyclone furnace was evaluated under the SITE Program. Cost estimates
reported In the Applications Analysis Report are given in Table 4-15 (U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/540/AR-92/017).
The effect on various factors of the total amount of material processed Is shown. The cost estimates
assume that a 3.3-ton/hr furnace operates 60% of the available time. Estimates are based on transporting
and setting up a furnace at a generic site 1,000 miles from Alliance, Ohio.
TABLE 4-15. TREATMENT COSTS FOR A 3.3-TON/HR BABCOCK & WILCOX CYCLONE
VITRIFICATION FURNACE WITH A 60% ONLINE FACTOR
Cost for Various Total Throughputs ($/ton)
Cost Element
Sito preparation
Permitting and regulatory costs
Equipment cost Incurred
Startup and fixed costs
Labor
Supplies
Consumables
Effluent treatment and disposal
Residuals shipping, handling, and transport
Analytical costs
Facility modification, repair, and replacement
Stta demobilization
Total operating costs
10,000 Tons Total
Throughput
31.37
n/r
50.46
109.90
219.95
2.02
157.96
n/r
n/r
n/r
1.24
27.67
600.57
20,000 Tons Total
Throughput
31.37
n/r
43.83
58.67
219.95
2.02
157.96
n/r
n/r
n/r
1.24
13.83
528.88
100,000 Tons Total
Throughput
31.37
n/r
38.53
17.69
219.95
2.02
157.96
n/r
n/r
n/r
1.24
2.77
471.53
(a) Includes transportation and setup on site.
n/r • Not Included in cost estimate.
Source: U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/540/AR-92/017.
Data Needs for Vitrification of Excavated Materials Technology-
The data needs for vitrification of excavated materials are shown in Table 4-16.
4-24
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TABLE 4-16. SPECIFIC DATA NEEDS FOR VITRIFICATION TECHNOLOGIES
APPLIED TO EXCAVATED MATERIALS
Factor Influencing
Technology Selection(a)
Conditions Favoring
Success of Treatment
Basis
Data Needs
Silica and alkali content
Particle size
Moisture content
Metal content
Waste organic content
Volatile metals
Power availability
Sulfates, sulfides,
chlorides, and fluorides
Mineral content
>30% SiO2
> 1.4% alkali on dry
weight basis
Varies with technology
<25% water by weight
See Table 4-13
Not specified
Adequate utility supply
available
Not specified
Not specified
Required to form melt and cool
to stable treated waste form.
Can be adjusted by frit addition.
Preprocessing usually required
to ensure particle size is
compatible with feed system
and melter heat transfer
Energy input is required to
vaporize water
Most metal oxides have
solubility limits in glass matrices
Increases off-gas volume (not
applicable to fossil-fueled
systems)
Volatile metals such as mercury
and cadmium may exist in off-
gas, thus requiring special
treatment of off-gas'
Vitrification requires significant
energy input
Sulfates and chlorides can react
to form volatile metal species or
corrosive acids
Mineral content can affect glass
viscosity, corrosivity, and other
properties
Waste matrix analysis
Material particle-size distribution
Waste moisture content
Waste composition
Organic analysis
Weight loss on ignition
Complete inorganic character-
ization (cations)
Local infrastructure
Complete inorganic character-
ization (anions)
Weight loss on ignition
Weight fraction of metals as
oxides
(a) Use hazardous substance list and site historical records to plan total waste analysis. • ' •
Source: Adapted from U.S. EPA, 1988, EPA/540/2-88/004 and U.S. EPA, 1991, Treatment .Technology Background.
4.2.3.2. Vitrification of In Situ Materials ..,;'. ....., = , ., ,,. ,, , ., ,.
... , This subsection describes the application of vitrification to In situ materials for the treatment of
wastes contaminated with metals or with metals and organlcs.
Description of Technologies for Vitrification of In Situ Materials- •:,;.-.
Vitrification In situ is a thermal treatment process that converts contaminated soils to a stable glass
and crystalline monolith. The in situ vitrification (ISV) technology is based on electric melter technology, and
the principle of operation is joule heating, which occurs when an electrical current Is passed through a
region that behaves like a resistive heating element. Electric current is passed through the soil through an
array of electrodes inserted vertically into the surface of the contaminated soil zone. Because dry soil is not
conductive, a starter path of flaked graphite and glass frit is placed in a small trench between the electrodes
to act as the initial flow path for electricity. Resistance heating in the starter path transfers heat to the soil,
which then begins to melt. Once molten, the soil becomes conductive. The melt grows outward and
downward as power is gradually increased to the full constant operating power level. A single melt can treat
4-25
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a region of up to 1,000 tons. The maximum treatment depth has been demonstrated to about 20 feet.
Large contaminated areas are treated in multiple settings which fuse the blocks together to form one large
monolith.
During the ISV process, organic wastes are pyrolyzed as they are thermally contacted by the melt
front, while inorganics are incorporated into the vitreous mass. Off-gases released during the melting
process, containing volatile components and products of combustion and pyrolysis, are confined in a steel
off-gas hood placed over the site being treated. The off-gas is directed to a series of wet scrubbers, dry
filters, and adsorption units where it is treated before being released to the atmosphere (Buelt et a|., 1987).
The water from the off-gas treatment system can be treated and re-used, while solid residuals from the off-
gas treatment system (e.g. activated carbon, filters, sludges) can be vitrified in a subsequent batch. Thus,
only residuals from the last vitrification setting at the site need to be discarded. (U.S. EPA, 1994,
EPA/540/S-94/504)
Bio-Electrics, Inc. has also developed a technology for ISV of contaminated soil by electro-
gasification. The process depends on the electrical conductivity of earth strata (electrolytic conductivity)
and Induced conductivity generated by electropyrolysis of hydrocarbons. This technology consists of
several steps:
1. Hydrofracturing the soil.
2. Injecting electrically conductive propants into bedrock fractures. Propants are materials that
can be used to fill the fracture to prevent it from collapsing. A typical propant is coarse sand.
3. Applying electric energy through electrodes placed in wells and injecting air simultaneously for
fusing of solid material.
4. Recovering the off-gas through electrode wells (U.S. EPA, 1993, EPA/542-R-93-001).
Typical Treatment Combinations With Technologies for In Situ Vitrification-
ISV technology should require little or no pretreatment or post-treatment in many instances.
Exceptions Include: shallow (< 5 to 7 feet) soils, in which it is advantageous to stage into deeper trenches;
wet soils, for which dewatering may be necessary to reduce energy costs, steam formation, and movement
of contaminants Into groundwater. Also, as noted in the preceding section, off-gasses are generated and
require treatment, but to the extent that the offgas contaminants are re-incorporated into the vitrified waste,
off-gas residuals requiring post-vitrification treatment are limited to those from the last melt. (U.S. EPA, 1994,
EPA/540/S-94/504).
Applicability of Technologies for Vitrification of In Situ Materials-
ISV is applicable to contaminated sludges and soils regardless of whether they are sand, silt, or clay.
However, special monitoring and/or analyses must be performed when melting silty soils or nonswelling
clays due to their low permeabilities (Buelt and Thompson, 1992). ISV is applicable to soils containing a
combination of hazardous organic and inorganic contaminants. High concentrations of combustible debris,
concrete rubble, rock, and scrap metals are all processible by ISV; however, containers such as tanks and
drums must not be present. Volatile contaminants (e.g., mercury, arsenic, or organics) may be difficult to
capture and treat effectively or may migrate through the subsurface. Implementation costs are high (Buelt
and Thompson, 1992).
The main requirement for the technology is the ability for the soil melt to carry current during heating
and then solidify to a stable mass as it cools. Because most soils and sludges are naturally composed of
glass-forming materials such as silica, they are generally processible by ISV without modification. However,
a minimum alkali content (combined Na2O and K2O) of 1.4 wt% is necessary to carry the electrical current
in the molten soil (Buelt and Thompson, 1992).
4-26
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Status and Performance of Technologies for Vitrification of In Situ Materials-
The reported typical treatment rate is 3 to 6 tons per hour (U.S. EPA, 1991, EPA 540/2-91/009).
Laboratory analysis has shown that ISV will provide long-term effectiveness as well as reduction in toxicity,
mobility, and volume (U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/625/R-92/002; Buelt et al., 1987). One vendor of technologies
for vitrification of in situ materials is listed in VISITT (see Appendix C).
ISV has been operated at a large scale ten times, including two demonstrations on radioactively
contaminated sites at the DOE's Hanford Nuclear Reservation (Buelt et al., 1989; Luey et al., 1992). Pilot-
scale tests have been conducted at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory,
and Arnold Engineering Development Center, in addition to the Hanford site. More than 150 tests and
demonstrations at various scales have been performed on a broad range of waste types in soils and
sludges. The technology has been selected as a preferred remedy at 10 private, EPA Superfund, and DOD
sites (Hansen and FitzPatrick, 1991). One of these sites (the Parsons/ETM site in Grand Ledge, Michigan)
has been selected for a technology demonstration of ISV in the EPA SITE Program (see Appendix B) (U.S.
EPA, 1991, EPA/540/5-91/008). The demonstration was completed in April 1994 in one of the eight melters.
About 3,000 cu yd of soil was remediated. However, some improvements are needed with melt containment
and air emission control systems. Data are being reviewed and the Applications Analysis Report will soon
be available from EPA. Table 4-17 provides a summary of ISV technology selection/application at metal-
contaminated Superfund sites.
TABLE 4-17. SUMMARY OF IN SITU VITRIFICATION TECHNOLOGY SELECTIONS/APPLICATIONS
AT SELECTED SUPERFUND SITES WITH METAL CONTAMINATION1"'
Region
5
8
Site Name/
Location/Type
Parsons Chemical/
Michigan/soil
Rocky Mountain
Arsenal/Colorado/
soils
Specific Technology
In situ vitrification
In situ vitrification
Key Metal
Contaminants
Mercury (low),
biocides, dioxins
Arsenic and
mercury
Associated
Technology
Not applicable
Not applicable
Statusb
C
S/D
(a) For more site information and implementation status, see Appendix D.
(b) Status codes: S/D - selected^in ROD, subsequently de-selected, C - completed;
Estimated Cost of Technologies for Vitrification of In Situ Materials-
There have been no full-scale applications to serve as a basis for cost estimation. As with most
technologies, the actual cost depends largely on site-specific conditions and requirements. ISV costs have
been estimated to range from $ 360 to $790/ton (U.S. EPA and U.S. Air Force, 1993; and U.S. EPA, 1992,
EPA/625/R-92/002).
Data Needs for Technologies for Vitrification of In Situ Materials-
The data needs for ISV are discussed in Table 4-18.
4-27
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TABLE 4-18. SPECIFIC DATA NEEDS FOR IN SITU VITRIFICATION TECHNOLOGIES
Factor Influencing
Technology Selection*0'
Conditions Favoring Success
of In Situ Treatment
Basis
Data Needs
Soil composition
Contaminant depth
>30% SiO2
>1.4%NajO+K2O
on dry weight basis
>6ftand
<20ft
Presence of
combustible liquids
Presence of
combustible solids
Presence of
groundwater
<1 to 7% depending on the Btu
content of the organic
<3,200 kg combustible solids
per meter of depth and >30%
soil
Groundwater control required if
contamination is below the
water table and soil hydraulic
conductivity is >10~*cm/sec
Required to form melt and cool
to stable treated waste form
(technology modifications may
allow treatment of soils with
lower alkali content)
Uncontaminated overburden
helps retain volatile metals
As a batch process, economics
improve with increased
thickness of contaminated
volume
Treatment depth demonstrated
to 20 ft
Heat removal capacity of the
off-gas hood and treatment
system
Can generate excessive off-gas
volumes on combustion
Water inflow increases energy
required to vaporize water
Soil chemistry (whole
rock analysis)
Contaminant distribution
Contaminant
composition
Heat of combustion of
organic materials
Contaminant
composition and
distribution
Contaminant distribution
Location of water table
Presence of in situ voids Void volume < 150 ft3
Can generate excessive off-gas Subsurface geology
Can cause excessive
subsidence
Conductive metal
content
Presence of sealed
containers
Surface slope
Location of structures
No limit demonstrated
None present
< 5%
Underground structures and
utilities located > 20 ft from melt
zone
May cause electrical short
circuits in situ
Containers can rupture during
heating resulting in a large
pulse of off-gas generation
Melt may flow under influence
of gravity
Kerns closer than 20 ft to the
melt zone must be protected
from heat
Contaminant
composition and
distribution
Contaminant
composition and
distribution
Site surface slope
Contaminant
composition and
distribution
Subsurface conditions
(a) Use hazardous substance list and site historical records to plan total waste analysis
Source: Adapted from Buelt and Thompson (1992); Geosafe Corporation (1989); and McGrail and Olson (1992).
4-28
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4.3 SEPARATION/CONCENTRATION TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
This subsection discusses technologies to separate and/or concentrate contaminants. Three basic
types of ex situ technologies are discussed: physical separation, pyrometallurgical separation, and soil
washing. Two in situ technologies are discussed: soil flushing and electrokinetic extraction.
The critical issues for application of separations technology to metal-contaminated site cleanups are
whether the technology can be implemented at a reasonable cost, within the required time frame, and at
the desired level of treatment effectiveness.
Separation/concentration technologies may be used either as a pretreatment to reduce the volume
of material to treat, or to recover metals in elemental form or as marketable compounds. Recovery for reuse
has the potential to improve the long-term effectiveness of the remediation. However for recovery to be
viable, there must be a market for the material. Table F-1 (Appendix F) shows a tabulation of consumption,
recycling, and economic data for some metals to indicate the relative strength of the recycling market for
various metals.
4.3.1 Separation/Concentration Technologies to Treat Excavated Solids
This subsection discusses the importance, processes, advantages, and disadvantages of methods
for separation/concentration remedial options. Many different process implementations are available within
each of the broad classes of separation technologies described in this report. Each technology
implementation has specific performance characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages. Available space
limits the level of detail that can be presented for these technologies. Brief descriptions of some of the less
common processes and equipment items are provided in the glossary (see Appendix K).
Processes that employ physical separation techniques such as gravity separation, froth flotation, and
size separation and hydroclones, followed by hydrometallurgical separation, such as acid leaching, are
generally known as soil washing.
4.3.1.1 Physical Separation/Concentration Technologies
Description of Physical Separation/Concentration--
Physical separation/concentration techniques have been used commonly in the mining industry for
many years. These techniques involve the physical separation of particles from each other based on:
« Particle size
• Particle density
• Surface properties of particles
• Magnetic properties (magnetic separation)
The most common particle.separation techniques are summarized in Table 4-19.
Physical separation has long been used in ore beneficiation to extract the desired metal from a
mineral ore. It usually involves a series of steps that lead to successive products containing increasing
concentrations of the desired metal. Each separation technique thus results in the feed being divided into
at least two streams-concentrate and tailings. If the separation were 100% efficient, the concentrate would
consist purely of the desired metal and the tailings would constitute the rest of the feed material. However,
this is not achievable in practice, and concentrate and tailings each contain some fraction of the other. The
separation efficiency sometimes is increased by isolating a third stream called middlings, which has a metal
concentration somewhere between that of the concentrate and tailings. All three streams-concentrate,
middlings, and tailings-can be treated further to recover additional metal value.
4-29
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TABLE 4-19. PARTICLE SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
Technique
Basic principle
Major
advantage
Major
disadvantage
General
equipment
Lab test
equipment
Screen
Sizing
Various diameter
openings allow
passage of
different effective
particle sizes
Inexpensive
Screens can
plug, fine screens
are fragile, dry
screening
produces dust
Screens, sieves,
trommel (wet or
dry)
Vacuum sieve/
screen, trommel
Classification by
Settling Velocity
Faster vs. slower
settling, due to
particle density, size,
shape of particles
Continuous
processing, long
history, reliable,
inexpensive
Difficulty with clayey,
silty, and humic soils
Mechanical, non-
mechanical
hydrodynamic
classifiers
Elutriation columns
Gravity
Separation
Differences in
density, size,
shape, and weight
of particles
Economical, simple
to implement, long
history
Ineffective for fines
Jigs, shaking
tables, troughs,
sluices
Jig, shaking table
Magnetic
Separation
Magnetic
susceptibility
Simple to
implement
High capital
and operating
costs
Magnetic
separators
Lab magnets
Flotation
Suspend fines by
air agitation, add
promoter/collector
agents, fines collect
in floating froth
Very effective for
some particle sizes
Contaminant must
be small fraction of
total volume
Rotation machines
Agitair™ laboratory
unit
Adapted from: Perry and Chilton (1984) and Wills (1985).
Recently, there has been a growing interest in applying physical separation techniques to soil
remediation. Physical separation is applicable to remediation primarily in two situations. First, if the metal
contamination is in the form of discrete particles in the soil, a technique can be applied to physically
separate the metal from the soil. Second, if the metal contamination is molecular (adsorbed onto soil
particles) and if the contamination is limited to a specific particle-size range, physical separation based on
particle size can be used as a pretreatment to reduce the total amount of contaminated soil that must
undergo final (chemical) treatment.
A slightly different mineral beneficiation method, termed comminution, often is used in the mining
Industry, usually as a precursor to the physical separation techniques described above. Comminution
Involves crushing and grinding the mineral to reduce the particle size to a range suitable for other physical
techniques. For example, gravel-sized mineral particles can be ground down to 100 //m so that froth
flotation can be applied. In soil remediation, however, comminution may not have much use other than to
break up soil lumps. Generally, screening is used in soil remediation to isolate the particle size amenable
to treatment.
Applicability of Physical Separation Techniques-
The applicability of the physical separation techniques mentioned in Subsection 4.3.1.1 depends,
to a large extent, on particle size. The size ranges suitable for the various techniques are shown in Table
4-20. As seen in this table, many of these techniques have good applicability in the intermediate size range
(between 100 and 1,000 //m). In the case of froth flotation, there is an upper limit on the size range based
on the size (or weight) of the particle that the air bubbles are capable of supporting. Because soil usually
contains a wide range of particle sizes and the performance of physical separation techniques depends on
4-30
-------
particle size, a single technique will often not achieve sufficient separation. In that case, a combination of
techniques may be able to achieve the desired separation. The particle-size ranges shown in Table 4-20
can.be used to determine which reparation technique(s) should be used. Additional information on the
application of these separation techniques can be obtained from U.S. EPA, 1988, EPA/540/2-88/002 and
Chemical Engineers' Handbook (Perry and Chilton, 1984).
TABLE 4-20. PARTICLE-SIZE RANGE FOR APPLICATION OF SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
Separation Process
Particle-Size Range
Screening
Dry screen
Wet screen
Hydrodynamic classifiers
Elutriator
Hydrocyclone
Mechanical classifier
Gravity concentrators
Jig
Spiral concentrator
Shaking table
Bartles-Mozley table
Froth flotation
> 3,000 fjm
>150/ym*
>50//m
5 - 150 fim
5 - 100//m
75 - 3,000 ^m
75 - 3,000//m
5 - 100 ^m
5 - 500 fjm
Adapted from: Perry and Chilton (1984) and Wills (1985).
* Wet screening at less than 75 //m reported in pilot-scale soil washing study at Sand Creek Superfund Site, Commerce City,
Colorado (URS, 1992).
Recently, physical separation techniques have been increasingly evaluated for or applied to
remediating contaminated waste sites. Table 4-21 lists some of these applications. Use of such applications
can be expected to continue to increase.
Typical Combination of Physical Separation Techniques-
A classic example of the use of physical separation techniques for soil remediation is the work being
conducted by a Bureau of Mines Research Center (BMRC) for the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory (NCEL)
(Johnson, et. al., 1993 and 1994). The NCEL is researching the remediation of lead-contaminated soils
associated with small arms ranges. Lead is present in the form of both particulates (bullets and bullet
fragments) and molecular adsorbate. Paniculate lead often is distributed across all size ranges in the soil.
NCEL, in conjunction with BMRC, wanted to explore the possibility of using physical separations to remove
paniculate lead before using stabilization or soil washing to treat the adsorbed lead. BMRC used its
knowledge of mining techniques to develop a separation scheme that, in pilot studies, recovered a
significant amount of lead from soils taken from various sites. In fact, for one of the sites where lead
contamination was predominantly paniculate, physical separation was able to recover lead to a level where
the soil passed the TCLP test without having to undergo further chemical treatment. A field demonstration
was completed in August 1993 (Jeffery Heath, Naval Facilities Engineering Services Center, Port Hueneme,
CA; personal communication, June 1993). Several problems were encountered during testing, which
included the disposition of residual lead from the gravity circuit, smears of once molten lead trapping soil
grains and attaching to larger particles, and fine lead trapped on wood surfaces (Johnson, et. al., 1993).
4-31
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TABLE 4-21. EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS OF PHYSICAL SEPARATIONS TO WASTE SITES
Site
Application
Vendor/
technology
Separation
equipment
Performance
Alaskan Battery Enterprise,
SITE Demonstration Program
US. Army Corps of Engineers,
Confined Disposal Facility,
Saginaw Bay, Ml
Montdair/West Orange, New
Jersey, Radium Site and Glen
Ridge Radium Site -
Demonstration
Gould, Portland, Oregon,
Battery site
Twin Cities Army Ammunition
Plant (TCAAP), New Brighton,
Minnesota
Soil contaminated by broken
lead batteries
Soils, sediments contaminated
with metals, PCBs, organics,
radionuclides
Separately, highly radioactive
contaminated soil from low
radioactive soil
Soil and battery casings
contaminated with lead
Soil contaminated with metals
Brice Environmental Service
Corp. (BESCORP) Soil
Washing System
Bergmann USA/soil and
sediment washing technology
Office of Radiation and Indoor
Air/Volume Reduction/
Chemical Extraction (VORCE)
technology
Canonie Environmental
COGNIS/BESCORP soil
washing/soil leaching process
Wet screen, hydraulic
separators, spiral classifier,
clarifier
Screen, trommel screw, heavy
medium separator, elutriation
Mechanical classifiers, attrition
mill, trommel, hydrocyclone,
screen, clarifier, filter press
Attrition scrubbing, washing,
gravity separation
Trommel, separation chamber,
jig
61-85% lead removal; sand
fraction passed TCLP test,
gravel fraction failed TCLP test
SITE Applications Analysis
Report, EPA/540/AR-93/503
SITE Demonstration Bulletin,
EPA/540/MR-92/075
54% of the total soil volume
had low level of contamina-
tion (below cleanup target)
and waste separated from the
rest of the soil
Site cleanup in progress
Lead levels in soil were
reduced to 100 ppm from as
high as 86,000 ppm.
ND = no data
-------
The final separation scheme arrived at by BMRC after trying different combinations is shown in
Figure 4-1. Although many users could probably achieve acceptable results with less complex operations,
this flowchart shows how each piece of equipment was optimized to do what it does best.
The lead-contaminated soil first is loaded into a feed hopper through a 1-inch grizzly. The grizzly
removes rocks, branches, etc. The soil is fed via a conveyor belt to a two-deck (3 mesh and 20 mesh)
Vibrating screen. Water is added at the screen for wet screening; alternatively, a 20% slurry of the soil in
water could be prepared separately and fed to the screen. The +3-mesh fraction containing a combination
of bullets, bullet fragments, and pebbles is collected in a drum. This fraction can be sent to a lead smelter
for recycling. The -3+20-mesh fraction is sent to a jig, and the jig concentrate (consisting of lead
fragments) is drummed for recycling. The overflow from the jig goes to chemical treatment (heap leaching
in this case).
The -20-mesh fraction from the screen goes to a spiral classifier to remove slimes. The slimes
(ultra-fine particulate) go to the thickener for dewatering. The sludge from the thickener is fed to a Bartles-
Mozley table. The concentrate from the table is dewatered in a spiral classifier and drummed for recycling.
The tailings are dewatered, first in a thickener (with addition of flocculant), and then in a centrifuge. The
solids from the centrifuge are further treated chemically.
The bulk of the -20, mesh fraction coming out of the screen and through the first spiral classifier
is collected in a sump, from which it is pumped to two spiral concentrators. The tailings from the spiral are
dewatered in a hydrocyclone and sent to chemical treatment. The overflow water from the hydrocyclone
is clarified and sent to a day tank for storage and reuse. The concentrate from the spirals is sent to a riffled
shaking table. The table concentrate is dewatered in a spiral classifier and collected in a drum for recycling.
The table tailings are recirculated back to the top of the spiral concentrators.
All the equipment in the flowchart is expected to fit on two or three 40-ft x 8-ft trailers. A
throughput of 1.5 tons/hr of untreated soil is possible with relatively small equipment. The advantage of
using physical separation to remediate lead-contaminated soils is the ability to recover large amounts of lead
without the use of large volumes of extraction fluid. Very little lead is left in the soil that goes on to chemical
treatment. Because the subsequent chemical treatment is heap leaching, the use of wet separation is
justified and the water added to the soil forms part of the extractant (acetic acid) liquid.
Another example of the use of physical separation techniques for soil remediation is the work being
conducted by MSRDI for Energy and Environmental Research Center (EERC).
The MSRDI system employs physical methods to remove elemental mercury from soil by gravity
separation, and a chemical leaching procedure to extract the remaining complexed metal. For the
demonstration, it was operated in a batch semi-continuous mode. With this process, the material is placed
in a cement mixer and siurried to a relatively uniform consistency! The slurry is passed through a 10-mesh
vibrating screen. Material smaller than 10 mesh is pumped to a two-stage Neffco concentrator. The
elemental mercury and other heavy materials are retained in the concentrator and then passed through a
spiral concentrator.
The fine materials are collected and a flocculating agent is added to promote gravity settling. A leachant
is passed through the thickened material to remove the mercury, which is subsequently precipitated out of
the leaching solution. The precipitant and the free mercury collected during the physical separation step
are heated in a retort to produce elemental mercury (HazTech News, May 1994).
4-33
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Food
-Tra*h
Bartles-Mozley_Under)|ow
Vanner
Dewater Water
Spiral
Classifier
Water Sludge-.,
CD/Gavaskarl7/Sgf
(a) Letters designate streams in Table 4-25.
Figure 4-1. Separation scheme for removal of lead from soil.
(Source: Jeffery Heath, Naval Facilities Engineering Services Center, Port Hueneme, CA; personal communication; June 1993).
-------
Status and Performance of Physical Separation Techniques-
All the physical separation techniques discussed in the previous subsections are used commercially
in the mining industry. Complex physical separation process combinations are just beginning to be applied
to separation/concentration for metal-contaminated solids. Most equipment can be purchased off the shelf
in standard sizes. However, a suitable combination based on the feed specifications must be determined
and the process units must be carefully integrated to meet cleanup goals, operate efficiently, and minimize
residuals.
The performance of these physical separation techniques depends on the size range and density
difference of the feed material. The feed material should be characterized to find the particle size range of
the soil and the contaminant distribution within each size range. Size distribution can be readily determined
in a laboratory by passing a small sample of air-dried soil from the site through a series of standard sieves.
Each size fraction is then subjected to a chemical (metals) analysis to determine the distribution of the
contaminants among various size fractions.
If the density difference between the soil and contaminant particles is significant, classification
followed by gravity concentration techniques should perform well. Actual recoveries cannot be predicted
without tests on site-specific soils; however, the efficiency of separation can be estimated by the following
"concentration criterion" (cc) (Wills, 1985):
cc =
S, - Sf
where, Sh = specific gravity of heavy particles (usually metal contamination)
Sf = specific gravity of separation fluid medium (usually water)
S, = specific gravity of light particles (usually soil)
If cc is greater than 2.5, gravity concentration can be expected to perform well. Between 1.25 and
2.5, concentration should still be feasible; below this the separation may not be feasible. Examples of the
concentration criteria for various elements and compounds are shown in Table 4-22. Good size control
through the judicious use of screens and classifiers before gravity concentration will enhance the efficiency
of the concentration. Furthermore, small particles reduce the processing rate and/or separation efficiency
of gravity concentration and should be removed prior to gravity separation.
Other equipment-related variables can be adjusted to improve performance. For example, one of
the most important variables is the water balance in the separation scheme. Most gravity poncentrators
have an optimum solids level for the feed slurry. Good solids level control is important, especially for the
initial feed. As the material travels through the separation scheme, water can be added or removed as
required with the use of washwater lines or thickeners and hydrocyclones.
In jigs, the density effect can be accentuated compared with the size effect by using a short jigging
cycle (i.e., short, fast strokes). The short cycle allows smaller, denser particles to be affected more by initial
acceleration (mass effect) rather than by terminal velocity (size effect). For coarser particle sizes, longer,
slower strokes are better. Similarly, separation in spirals can be improved by selecting a spiral with a
suitable channel slope. Spirals generally are manufactured with varying slopes of the spiral channel. Gentler
slopes are provided for smaller density differences, but with a concomitant drop in capacity. Steeper slopes
are for larger density differences and larger throughputs. The performance of tables is most affected by
particle size. The wider the particle size range of the feed, the lower the performance. Table performance
can be affected also by adjusting the stroke. A shorter stroke and higher speed improve the separation of
finer particles; a longer stroke and slower speed are suitable for coarser particles.
4-35
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TABLE 4-22. ILLUSTRATION OF CALCULATION OF CONCENTRATION CRITERIA FOR
GRAVITY CONCENTRATION
Heavy Material Type
Arsenic element, As4^
Arsentous oxide, As2O3
Cadmium metal, Cd
Cadmium oxide, CdO(b)
Chromium metal, Cr
Chromic oxide, Cr2O3
Chromlte, FeCTjQ,
Lead metal, Pb
Corussite, PbCO3
Lead oxide, PbO^5
Mercury metal, Hg
Mercuric oxide, HgO
Heavy Material
Specific Gravity(c)
4.7
3.9
8.6
7.0
7.1
5.2
4.5
11.3
6.5
9.3
13.5
11.1
Concentration
Light
2.2
3.1
2.4
6.3
5.0
5.1
3.5
2.9
8.6
4.6
6.9
10.4
8.4
Criteria for Various Combinations of
Specific Gravity
Material Specific Gravity(c)
2.4 2.6
2.6 2.3
2.1 1.8
5.4 4.8
4.3 3.8
4.4 3.8
3.0 2.6
2.5' 2.2
7.4 6.4
3.9 3.4
5.9 5.2
8.9 7.8
7.2 6.3
(a) Beta form.
(b) Amorphous form.
(c) Specific gravity values used for Illustration. In practice, measured particle specific gravities should be used.
Particle size also is important in froth flotation, because the bubbles will not carry particles large and
heavy enough to overcome the forces of adhesion at the bubble-particle interface. Another factor affecting
flotation performance is pH. Generally a higher pH is more suitable to flotation, because most collectors
are stable In this range. Alkalinity is maintained by the addition of lime.
If the contamination is adsorbed on matrix particles, characterization and analysis should be
designed to Indicate if contamination is associated predominantly with a particular size fraction. Physical
separation based on size (screening or classification) would then be suitable.
The performance of the various stages in the BMRC separation scheme shown in Figure 4-1 is given
In Table 4-25. Starting with 1.5 tons of raw contaminated soil, Table 4-23 shows the distribution of the feed
Into various fractions and the amount of lead in each fraction. The "overall operation" columns show the
product weight and lead content as a percentage of the total values in the initial feed. For example, starting
with 1.5 tons of lead-contaminated soil feed, 0.148 ton or 9.9% is retained in the jig concentrate.
Also, starting with 316.2 !b of lead in 1.5 tons of contaminated soil, 93.6 Ib or 29.6% of the lead is
retained In the jig concentrate; this is determined by analyzing a sample of the jig concentrate which showed
31.67% lead ("stream assay" column). The "unit operation" column shows the product weight and lead
content as a percentage of the feed to a particular unit process. For example, 59.8% of the material
delivered to the jig is retained in the tailings and 40.2% is retained in the concentrate. Also, 99.9% of the
lead delivered to the jig is retained in the concentrate versus 0.1% in the tailings. The last two columns
Indicate the water balance maintained at various stages of the operation.
4-36
-------
TABLE 4-23. PERFORMANCE OF SEPARATION UNIT PROCESSES FOR LEAD REMOVAL
Overall Operation
Stream(a)
Feed (A)
+3 mesh (B)(b)
-3+20 mesh (C)
-20 mesh (D)(c)
JIG T (E)
JIG C (F)
CLS SAN (G)
CLS SLI (H)
SPRL C (1)
SPRL T (J)
TBL G (K)
TBLT(L)
BM C (M)
BM T (N)
Dry Wt. Wt. Dist. Pb Dist. Wt. Pb in Stream
(ton) (%) (%) Stream (Ib) Assay, Pb (%)
1.5
0.127
0.368
1.005
0.22
0.148
0.7
0.305
0.026
0.674
0.002
0.024
0.016
0.289
a T = tailings; C = concentrate; CLS
description indicate stream location
b -t- # = Retained on screen size #
100
8.46
24.53
67.0
14.68
9.85
46.66
20,35
1.73
44.93
0.13
1.6
1.07
19.28
= classifier; SAN
on figure 4-1 .
100
59.44
29.64
10.92
0.03
29.61
6.38
4.54
3.57
2.81
2.98
0.59
1.56
3.04
= sands; SLI
316.2
187.95
93.72
34.53
0.09
93.63
20.17
13.36
11.29 >
8.89
9.42
1.87
4.74
9.61
= slimes; SPRL =
10.54
74.07
12.73
1.72
0.036
31.67
1.44
2.35
9.35
0.283
80.8
1.3
13.65
1.53
spiral; TBL =
Unit Operation
Wt. Dist.
100
8.46
24.53
67.01
59.84
40.16
69.63
30.37
3.7
96.3
7.5
92.5
5.24
94.73
table; BM =
Pb Dist. Percent Solids
(%) of Stream
100
59.44
29.64
10.92
0.1
99.9
58.43
41.57
55.9
44.1
83.5
16.5
33.09
66.91
Bartles-Mozley table.
100
70
70
25
10
60
75
9
65
23
40
5
15
6
Letters following
Water
(gpm)
0
0.22
0.63
12.05
7.92
0.39
0.93
12.33
0.06
6.02
0.01
1.82
0.36
18.1
stream
c - # = Passes through screen size #
(Source: Jeffery Heath, Naval Facilities Engineering Services Center; Port Hueneme, CA; Personal Communication, June 1993.)
-------
Note that a simple screening step (+3 mesh) results in 59.4% of the lead in the original feed being
removed into a stream that contains 74.1% lead. A second screening step (-3+20 mesh) removes another
29.64% of the lead in the original feed. Thus, almost 90% of the original lead contamination is removed just
by screening. Jigging concentrates the -3+20 mesh stream from the screen from 12.7% lead to 31.7% lead,
making the material easier to sell to a recycler. The classifier removes the slimes in preparation for the spiral
concentrator and table steps. The lead in the slimes is upgraded from 2.4% to 13.7% with the Bartles-
Mozley table. The spiral concentrator upgrades the classifier sands from 1.4% lead to 9.4% lead. The
shaking table upgrades the spiral concentrate from 9.4% to 80.8% lead, again a lead concentration sufficient
to make recycling attractive.
Preliminary data from the tests conducted by MSRDI system for EERC indicates that physical
separation alone removed 80% of the mercury from sandy soils containing 15,370 mg/kg, but less than 30%
from clays that had starting levels of 920 mg/kg. Following the leaching step, the mercury levels were 10
mg/kg in the sandy soil and 33 mg/kg in the clay soils. The overall removal rate was 99.9% in the sandy
soils and 96.4% in the clay soils. A total of 579.8 g of elemental mercury was recovered from the sandy soil,
and 10.8 g from the clay soil (HazTech News, May 19,1994).
Estimated Costs of Physical Separation Techniques--
Based on two SITE demonstrations conducted recently at Escambia Wood Treating site in
Pensacola, Florida and Toronto Port Industrial District, the cost estimates to remediate 20,000 tons of
contaminated soil are in the range of $68-$73/ton in 1993 dollars (U.S. EPA, 1993, EPA/540/AR-93/508 and
U.S. EPA, 1993, EPA/540/AR-93/577). The Toronto Harbor Commissioners (THC) soil recycle treatment
train consisted mostly of physical separation equipment including screen, trommel, hydroclone, Lamellar
separator, and attrition scrubbers. EPA RREL's Mobile Volume Reduction Unit has a mixing chamber,
trommel, and two sets of screens. (Note: Although the target compounds for these SITE Demonstrations
did not include metals, the technologies are believed to be applicable to metals utilizing similar processing
techniques for soils.)
Physical Separation Data Needs--
Characterization of the site soil is an important first step in determining the suitability and selection
of physical separation techniques. Table 4-24 describes some of the parameters to be measured. Not all
these parameters may be required at each site. In most cases, the two most important parameters are
particle size and contaminant metal concentrations in each size class. The other parameters, however, may
be important at specific sites. For example, at a site contaminated with lead shot, the concentration criterion
may be the most important parameter to determine. Also to be noted is that, although floatability is
mentioned as a characterization parameter to determine the suitability for separability by flotation, this
characteristic can be altered by adding flotation reagents. Following this characterization, bench-scale tests
can be performed to determine the suitability of each separation technique.
For most applications, off-the-shelf equipment can be purchased; rarely, a particular piece of
equipment may have to be custom-designed. Fairly high throughputs can be obtained with relatively small
separation equipment, and bench and pilot tests often can be combined. Care must be taken that the
bench/pilot equipment simulates the field equipment as much as possible. For example, success in
screening air-dried soil in a laboratory sieve may not be indicative of the ease of screening in the field,
especially at lower mesh sizes. Or, dewatering with a laboratory vacuum filter may not be indicative of
dewatering with a bowl centrifuge in the field. If bench-scale equipment is not available or is very expensive,
vendors often can perform a test on a small sample of the site soil for nominal or no fee. In fact, vendors
of separation equipment are a great source of information to be tapped. Representatives of vendors or
manufacturers can often guide potential users in the application and effectiveness of their equipment.
4-38
-------
TABLE 4-24. SPECIFIC DATA NEEDS FOR PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNOLOGIES
Factor Influencing
Technology Selection3
Conditions Favoring Success
of Physical Separation
Basis
Data Needs
CO
Particle size
Contaminant metal concentration in
each size class
Concentration criteria13:
st-s,
Moisture content of soil
Particle shape
Waste complexity
See Table 4-20
Higher concentrations in specific size
classes favorable.
cc > 2.5 is favorable
cc > 1.25 is acceptable
Low moisture favorable for dry
separations, high moisture favorable
for wet separations
Variable
Fewer types of metal preferred
Spatial variation in waste composition Homogeneous waste preferred
Magnetic properties
Floatability
Ferromagnetism
Hydrophobic surface
Generally, separation improves with higher
particle sizes. Minimum particle size level
acceptable shown in Table 4-20. High-
slimes (uitrafines) level undesirable for
gravity concentration.
Large concentrations of metal
contaminants in specific size classes make
size separations worthwhile.
The larger the density difference between
metal and soil, the better the separation.
High moisture content can interfere with
dry processing such as dry screening.
Round particles (e.g., lead shot) can roll
off shaking table; flat particles (e.g., mica)
may not move on table; elongated
particles could pass through screens.
Multimetals complicate separation unless
all metals enrich to the same separation
fraction.
Variations in waste composition may
reduce removal efficiency.
Ferromagnetic fraction can be separation
from nonmagnetic fraction.
Helps air bubble attach to particle surface
in froth flotation.
Particle-size analysis
Chemical analysis for metal
concentration by size class
Specific gravities of metal'
contaminant and soil
Moisture content of soil
Visual examination of particles
Waste composition
Waste composition
Ferromagnetic fraction
Surface polarity
a Use hazardous substance list and site historical records to plan total waste analysis.
b Sh = specific gravity (sp. gr.) of heavy particles (element or compound), SL = sp. gr. of light particles (soil), S, = sp. gr. of fluid (typically water);
assume SL = 2.5 for soil if not known.
-------
4.3.1.2 Soil Washing Technologies
Soil washing Is an ex situ soil remediation technique combining aqueous extraction and contaminant
separation to lower the residual contaminant concentration in treated soil to specified levels. Soil washing
Includes physical separation techniques (Subsection 4.3.1.1) and extraction techniques such as chemical
leaching and attrition scrubbing. Physical separation is discussed in its own subsection (Subsection 4.3.1.1)
because physical beneficiation is widely used as a pretreatment for many other treatment processes.
Subsection 4.3.1.1 discusses operations in which the mechanisms are mainly physical and the goal is to
divide the wastestream Into two or more size fractions. This subsection discusses operations In which
chemical mechanisms predominate and the goal is to extract a metal contaminant from the solid matrix.
The technologies discussed in this subsection rely on solubility in water or chemical leaching agents to
remove metals, unlike the physical separation processes that separate metal-rich and metal-depleted phases
based on physical properties such as size, shape, and density. , , ,
Description of Soil Washing Technologies--
Soil washing is a water-based process for mechanically scrubbing excavated soil to remove
contaminants In two ways: by dissolving or suspending them in the wash solution or by concentrating them
Into a smaller volume of soil through particle size separation techniques. Soil washing systems that
Incorporate both techniques achieve the greatest success with soils contaminated with heavy metals and
organic contaminants. Contaminants tend to bind chemically and physically to clay and silt particles. The
silt and clay, in turn, tend to attach physically to sand and gravel. The particle size separation aspect of soil
washing first scours and separates the silts and clays from the clean sand and gravel particles. The process
then scrubs the soluble contaminants from the particle surfaces and dissolves them into the liquid phase.
The soil washing process uses various additives (surfactants, acids, chelating agents) to increase separation
efficiencies. The washed soil, after successful testing, can be returned to the site or reclaimed. The
aqueous phase and the clay/silt/sludge fraction contain high concentrations of contaminants. These two
streams become waste feed for other on- or off-site separation/concentration, recovery, or disposal.
Typical Treatment Combinations With Soil Washing Technologies-
Soil washing often incorporates physical separation techniques (see Subsection 4.3.1.1). Physical
separation also can reduce the volume of material needing treatment. In many soils the metal contaminant
Is bound to the smaller particles in a soil matrix. Physical methods will separate a clean coarse fraction from
a contaminated fine fraction. Soil washing requires intimate contact of the solid contaminated matrix with
an extraction fluid. The presence of large clumps or debris interferes with good contact, so pretreatment
to remove or crush/grind oversize material normally is required.
Soil washing transfers the metal from the contaminated matrix into solution or converts ft to a
compound that subsequently can be separated from the treated matrix. Processing typically requires several
volumes of washing water or leach solution per unit volume of matrix treated. The extraction fluid typically
requires treatment to reduce metals to acceptable levels prior to reuse or discharge. Chemical leaching
solutions are regenerated for reuse to leach the next batch of material. Reuse is required both to recover
the economic value of the leaching chemicals and to avoid the environmental impact associated with
treatment and discharge of waste solutions. If the goal of soil washing is to recover metal value, further
processing of the leaching solution may be required to remove impurities, increase the metal concentration,
or both. The full range of classical solution processing methods are available for upgrading the leach
solution. The most commonly used methods are ion exchange and solvent extraction. The concentrated
and purified metal-bearing solution is usually treated to reduce the metal salt or complex to metal or to
convert It to a marketable compound. Reduction to metal is accomplished by electrowinning or by using
a reducing gas such as hydrogen. Typical treatment combinations are shown in Table 4-25.
4-40
-------
TABLE 4-25. TYPICAL TREATMENT TRAINS FOR SOIL WASHING TREATMENT
AT METAL-CONTAMINATED SITES
Materials Handling
Pretreatment
Post-treatment/Residuals Management
Excavation
Dredging
Conveying
Screening for debris removal .
Size reduction for oversize material
Physical separation to separate rich
and lean fractions
Metal recovery from extraction fluid by aqueous
processing (amalgamation, ion exchange,
electrowinning, etc.)
Pyrometallurgical recovery of metal from sludge
Processing and reuse of leaching solution
S/S treatment of leached residual
Disposal of solid process'residuals (preferably ,.
below the frostline and above the water table)
Disposal of liquid process residuals
Applicability of Soil Washing Technologies- ,
Soil washing is less capital-intensive and thus usually is more efficient than pyrometallurgy if the
metal concentration is low (several percent to parts per million) or the quantity to treat is small. However,
economies of scale still make soil washing more cost effective for larger volumes.
Soil washing solutions can range from pure water or water supplemented with surfactants or
chelating agents to concentrated acids or bases. The loaded extraction fluid is then treated for removal of
contaminants. Heavily contaminated soils are commonly treated several times in a multistage
countercurrent treatment system. A similar process for in situ treatment of soils is referred to as soil
flushing (discussed in Subsection 4.3.2.1).
An extraction fluid typically can be selected to remove almost any metal contaminant. However,
the dissolution action of the extraction fluid typically is specific to a limited range of chemical forms of a
metal. Thus, most extraction solutions are effective only for a narrow range of contaminant and matrix
combinations. The major challenges in selecting economically viable extraction solutions are the cost of
the solution, its compatibility with the contaminated media, possible side reactions with the mixture of
contaminants present, and treatment or regeneration of the extraction solution.
Chelating agents can be added to the wash solution to improve metal removal. The chelating agent
reacts with the metal to form a water-soluble metal-chelate complex. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
(EDTA), citric acid, and diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) are chelation/complexing agents
considered for extracting metals (R.F. Weston, 1987, AMXTH-TE-CR-86101). Chelating agents can be
expensive and difficult to recover.
Soil washing with concentrated acids or bases is an option for metal contaminants bound tightly to
the solid matrix and for which less aggressive extracting solutions are not effective. The methods and
equipment used are similar to those used for soil washing with milder solutions. The major requirement
is to obtain good contact between the contaminated matrix and the extraction solution. Acid leaching uses
the solubility of metals in acid solutions to transfer metals from the waste to a solution. The process
concentrates the constituents) leached by the acid solutions. The contaminant-laden solution can then be
filtered to remove residual solids and neutralized to precipitate solids containing high concentrations of the
constituents of interest, which can be further treated in metal recovery processes. Alternatively, the acid
4-41
-------
solutions can be electrolyzed to recover relatively pure metals. An acid leaching system usually consists
of a solid/ liquid contacting unit followed by a solid/liquid separator. The most frequently used acids in
industrial leaching processes include sulfuric (H2SO4), hydrochloric (HCI), and nitric (HNO3). Acidic solutions
dissolve basic metal salts such as hydroxides, oxides, and carbonates. Although any acidic pH theoretically
can be used, acid leaching processes are normally run at a pH from 1 to 4. Although less common, some
metals are better leached using alkaline or carbonate leachate (U.S. EPA, 1991, Treatment Technology
Background). Using strong acids to treat a solid waste matrix may present problems due to the potential
hazards of the residues.
Status and Performance of Soil Washing Technologies-
Soil washing treatment methods are being actively developed for CERCLA wastes as evidenced
by the large number of systems listed in VISITT (see soil washing and acid extraction in Appendix C). The
COGNIS TerraMet® soil remediation system is being used for full-scale remediation of about 7,000 tons
of lead-contaminated soil at the Twin Cities Army Ammunition Plant, New Brighton, Minnesota. The
process recovers larger lead particulates by physical separation and dissolves residual lead with a
proprietary solvent. The solvent is regenerated and the lead recovered (Fix and Fristad, 1993).
A process for treating soils contaminated with metals and organics was demonstrated at an
industrial site within the Toronto Port Industrial District. The process involves physical separation to reduce
the volume of soil requiring treatment, acid extraction, and selective chelation to dissolve metals, and
biological treatment of organics. Metals are recovered from the extraction solution. A demonstration under
the SITE Program was completed in the spring of 1992 (U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/540/R-92/077). The
Applications Analysis Report (U.S. EPA, 1993, EPA/540/AR-93/517) is available from EPA.
Many of the metal extraction processes are derived from processes using water-surfactant-based
soil washing to remove organics from soil. Organic removal by soil washing is a more mature technology,
but some soil washing systems have been tested for treatment of metal-contaminated solids. More
aggressive solvent systems are under development for removal of metal contaminants. A review of
innovative technology applications at Superfund sites based on RODs completed by FY 91 indicates that
soil washing is the selected remedy at 20 Superfund sites. Nine of these sites are wood-treating facilities,
and several others are pesticide manufacturers or battery-recycling sites. Several of the sites, as
summarized in Table 4-26, include the site types and metals emphasized in this document.
Estimated Costs of Soil Washing Technologies-
As can be seen from Table 4-26, only one metal site was identified where soil washing
implementation has been completed (King of Prussia, New Jersey). At another site, Twin Cities Army
Ammunition Plant, Minnesota, soil washing/acid extraction is in progress.
Vendor-estimated costs for a commercial soil washing system are shown in Table 4-27. The EPA
VISITT Version 3.0 contains information from 20 vendors of soil washing technology and 5 vendors of acid
extraction technology. The vendors reported costs for soil washing and acid extraction ranging from $6 to
$300/ton and from $220 to $390/yd*. respectively (U.S. EPA, 1993, EPA/542/R-93-001). Although these
cost estimates were not reviewed for this report, it is the author's opinion that cost estimates less than
$50/ton should be regarded with extra caution.
4-42
-------
TABLE 4-26. SUMMARY OF SOIL WASHING TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS AT SELECTED METAL-CONTAMINATED
SUPERFUND SITES'3'
•t.
h
Region
2
2
2
5
5
9
Site Name/Location
Ewan Property
New Jersey
GE Wiring Devices
Puerto Rico
King of Prussia
New Jersey
Zanesville Well Reid
Ohio
Twin Cities Army
Ammunition Plant, New
Brighton, Minnesota
Sacramento Army Depot
California
Specific Technology
Water washing
Water with potassium iodide
solution as an additive
Water with washing agents
as an additive
Soil washing
Soil washing
Soil washing
Key Metal Contaminants
Chromium, lead, copper,
barium
Mercury
Chromium, copper, silver
Lead, mercury
Lead, antimony, cadmium,
chromium, copper,
mercury, nickel, silver
Chromium, lead
Associated Technology
Pretreatment by solvent extraction to
remove organics
Treated residues disposed on site and
covered with clean soil
Sludges to be land disposed
Pretreatment with soil vapor extraction to
• remove organics
Soil leaching
Offsite disposal of wash liquid
Status(b)
S
S
C
S
1
S/D
(a) For more site information and implementation status, see Appendix D.
(b) Status Codes: S - selected in ROD; I - in operation, not complete; C - completed; S/D = selected, but subsequently De-selected.
-------
TABLE 4-27. EXAMPLE SOIL WASHING COST DATA ($/ton)
Volume (Short tons)
Cost Item
Depreciation^
Mob and demob
"Normal" site prep
Material handling
Labor
Chemicals
Maintenance
Safety equipment
Utilities
Process testing
Disposal of residuals
(10% Assumption)
Management, engineering overhead,
and profit
Net price (S/short ton)
25,000
40
8
12
15
30
15
8
3
8
15
32
70
$256
50,000
30
4
6
15
25
15
6
3
8
12
32
60
$216
100,000
15
3
4
15
20
15
4
3
8
8
32
48
$175
200,000
12
1
2
15
15
15
2
3
8
5
32
40
$150
(a) Major process equipment Items Included In the cost estimate are wet screen, hydrocyclone, clarifier, surfactant wash unit,
froth flotation cell, lamella clarifier, and belt filter press.
Source: Alternative Remedial Technologies, Inc. (Tampa, FL) brochure.
Data Needs for Soil Washing Technologies-
The data needs for selection and application of soil washing technologies are shown in Table 4-28.
4.3.1.3
Pyrometallurqical Separation Technologies
This subsection describes methods using high-temperature processes to treat a metal-contaminated
solid for recovery of metals as metal, metal oxide, ceramic product, or other useful form. Some companies
providing pyrometallurgical metal recovery are listed in Appendix F.
Description of Pyrometallurgical Separation Technologies-
Pyrometallurgy is a broad term encompassing techniques for processing metals at elevated
temperature. High-temperature processing increases the rate of reaction and often makes the reaction
equilibrium more favorable, lowering the required reactor volume per unit output. It is the oldest type of
metal processing dating back to the origins of extracting useful metals from ore. The earliest recorded use
of pyrometallurgy was conversion of copper oxide ores to copper metal by heating with charcoal. This early
example of pyrometallurgy was well established by 3,000 B.C. Pyrometallurgy offers a well-developed and
powerful collection of tools for recovery of metals from waste materials.
Typical Treatment Combinations With Pyrometallurgical Separation Technologies-
Pyrometallurgical processing usually is preceded by physical separation processes to produce a
uniform feed material and/or upgrade the metal content. Solids treatment in a high-temperature furnace
requires efficient heat transfer between the gas and solid phases while minimizing paniculate in the off-gas.
The particle-size range that meets these objectives is limited. The presence of large clumps or debris slows
heat transfer, so pretreatment to remove oversize material normally is required. Fine particles become en-
4-44
-------
TABLE 4-28. SPECIFIC DATA NEEDS FOR SOIL WASHING TECHNOLOGIES
Factor Influencing
Technology Selection^3'
Conditions Favoring
Success of Treatment
Basis
Data Needs
Total metal concentration
Leachable metal
concentration
Particle-size distribution
Clay content
Type and size of debris
Complexity of waste mixture
Waste composition variation
Waste buffering capacity
and pH
Presence of cyanides,
sulfides, and fluorides
Cation exchange capacity
(CEC)
Humic acid content
Extraction fluid
characteristics
Equilibrium partitioning of
contaminant between matrix
and extraction fluid
Contaminant solubility in
water
Not specified
Not specified
>2mm
0.25-2 mm
0.063-0.25 mm ,
<0.063 mm
Low is preferred
No debris preferred
Less complexity is
beneficial
Homogeneous material
preferred
Low is preferred with
acid extraction
Low is preferred
About 50 to 100 meq/kg
Low is preferred
Fluid should have low
toxicity, low cost, and
allow for treatment and
reuse economically
> 1,000 mg/L metal in
extractant desired
> 1,000 mg/L
Determine concentration targets or
interfering constituents, pretreatment
needs, and extraction fluid
Determine extractability of target
constituents and post-treatment
needs
Oversize pretreatment requirements
Effective soil washing
Limited soil washing
Clay and silt fraction-difficult soil
washing (up to 20% clay may
sometimes be tolerable)
Determine sorption characteristics of
the waste matrix
Presence of debris increases
pretreatment requirements
Complex mixture increases difficulty
in formulation of a suitable extraction
fluid
Variation in feed composition
complicates processing
High buffering capacity or pH
increases acid consumption
Determine potential for generating
fumes at low pH
High CEC indicates the matrix has a
high affinity for metal sorption
Humic content increases sorption
Toxicity increases both health risks
and regulatory compliance costs.
Expensive or nonreusable fluid
increases costs.
Low partitioning of contaminant into
the extraction fluid increases fluid
volumes required to attain cleanup
goal
Soluble compounds can be removed
by water flushing
Waste composition
Waste teachability
Particle size distribution
Distribution of
contaminants to various
solid and liquid,phases
Soil color, texture, and
composition
Waste composition
Contaminant
composition
Waste composition
Alkalinity
Waste composition
CEC of matrix
Soil color, texture, and
composition
Fluid characterization,
jar testing, pilot-scale
testing
Equilibrium partitioning
coefficient, jar testing
Contaminant solubility
(a) Use hazardous substance list and site historical records to plan total waste analysis. Source: Adapted from U.S. EPA 1988,
EPA/540/2-88/004; U.S. EPA 1990, EPA/600/2-90/011; U.S. EPA 1992, EPA/600/K-92/003; U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/540/2-
90/017; U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/540/S-92/011; U.S. EPA, EPA-823-B93-001; and U.S. EPA, 1991. Treatment Technology
Background.
trained in the gas flow, increasing the volume of dust to be removed from the flue gas, so fine particles also
are undesirable. The feed material often is pelletized to give a uniform size and improve gas flow in the
reactor. In many cases a reducing agent and flux may be mixed in prior to penalization to ensure good
contact between the treatment agents and the contaminated material.
Physical separation also may be used to reduce the volume of material requiring treatment (see
Subsection 4.3.1.1). In many soils the metal contaminant is bound to the smaller particles in a soil matrix.
In many cases, physical methods can be used to separate a clean coarse fraction from a contaminated fine
fraction. Typical treatment combinations are shown in Table 4-29.
4-45
-------
TABLE 4-29. TYPICAL TREATMENT TRAINS FOR PYROMETALLURGICAL TREATMENT
AT METAL-CONTAMINATED SITES
Materials Handling
Pretrealment
Post-treatment/Residuals Management
Excavation
Dredging
Conveying
Screening for debris removal
Size reduction for oversize material
Addition of reducing agent
Palletizing
Dewatering for wet sludge
Drying
Physical separation to separate rich
and lean fractions
S/S treatment of slag or fly ash
Disposal of treated solid residuals
(preferably below the frostline and above
the water table)
Reuse of slag as construction aggregate
Reuse of metal or metal compound
Further processing to purify metal or metal
compound
Applicability of Pyrometallurgical Technologies--
Pyrometallurgical processes for waste treatment typically consist of:
• Primary treatment to convert compounds in the waste matrix to metal or matte and transfer
undesirable components to a separate slag phase
• Subsequent treatment to upgrade a metal or matte
A variety of equipment types such as rotary kilns, rotary hearth furnaces, or arc furnaces may be
used for pyrometallurgical processing. Pyrometallurgical separations may be used singly, in sequence, or
In combination with physical, hydrometallurgical, biological, or electrometallurgical processing depending
on the types of materials processed.
Pyrometallurgical separations typically require a reducing agent, fluxing agents to facilitate melting
and slag off impurities, and a heat source. Although the fluid mass often is called a melt, the operating
temperature, although quite high, is often still below the melting points of the refractory compounds being
processed. The fluid forms as a lower melting point material due to the presence of a fluxing agent such
as calcium. Volatile metals such as arsenic, cadmium, or lead enter the off-gas stream where they are
oxidized and recovered by filtration or scrubbing. Nonvolatile metals such as nickel or chromium remain
in the furnace and are purified by slagging.
Pyrometailurgical processing in conventional rotary kilns, rotary furnaces, or arc furnaces is most
likely to be applicable to large volumes of material containing metal concentrations (particularly zinc, lead,
cadmium, nickel, or chromium) higher than 5 to 20%. Lower metal concentrations can be acceptable if the
metal is particularly easy to reduce and vaporize (e.g., mercury) or is particularly valuable (e.g., gold or
platinum).
Pyrometaliurgical separation processing for all metals except mercury is currently carried out in
fixed- location facilities (see Appendix F). The flame reactor process has the potential to allow lower capital
costs. Pyrometallurgical processing of smaller volumes in on-site facilities may be feasible with the newer
technologies. However, economies of scale still apply. For mercury recovery, both fixed-facility and mobile
thermal desorption units are available.
4-46
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Status and Performance of Pyrometallurgical Technologies-
Due to the large volume of electric arc furnace (EAF) emission control waste (K061), extensive
processing capability has developed to recover cadmium, lead, and zinc from solid waste matrices.
Permitting is being expanded to cover other hazardous waste types. The currently available process
technologies for K061 and similar materials include:
• Waelz kiln process
• Waelz kiln and calcination process
• Flame reactor process
Plasma arc furnaces currently are successfully treating K061 (EAF waste) at two steel plants. These
are site-dedicated units that do not accept outside material for processing. The companies shown in Table
4-30 are reported to have the capability for processing EAF dust or similar materials to recover cadmium,
lead, and zinc.
TABLE 4-30. CURRENT UNITED STATES PROCESSING CAPABILITY FOR EAF DUST
AND SIMILAR MATERIALS
Company(c'
Location
Approximate design
capacity
(metric ton EAF/yr)
Approximate 1992
production (metric
ton contained Zn/yr)
Process
Horsehead Resource
Horsehead Resource
Horsehead Resource
Horsehead Resource
Horsehead Resource
Zia Technology, TX
Beaumont, TX
Calumet City, IL
Monaca, PA
Palmerton, PA
Rockwood, TN
Caldwell, TX
27,000
72,000
18,000
245,000
90,000
27,000
0
(b)
No Data
(b)
(b)
Low
Rame Reactor(a)
Waelz Kiln
Flame Reactor
Waelz Kiln
Waelz Kiln and
Calcining
Waelz Kiln
Inclined Rotary Kiln
(a) Under construction.
(b) 62,000 MT/yr contained zinc for three facilities.
(c) Site-dedicated plasma furnaces not included.
The flame reactor technology was accepted into the SITE Demonstration Program in summer 1990.
The prototype flame reactor system used for the SITE Program operates with a capacity of 1 to 3 tons/hour
in a stationary mode at the developer's facility in Monaca, Pennsylvania. The SITE Demonstration test was
conducted from March 18 to 23,1991, on secondary lead smelter-soda slag from the National Smelting and
Refining (NSR) Company Superfund site in Atlanta, Georgia. Approximately 72 wet tons of NSR waste
material were processed during the demonstration. Partial test results are shown in Table 4-31. All effluent
slag passed the TCLP-limits criteria. The Technology Evaluation Report (U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/540/5-
91/005) and the Applications Analysis Report (U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/540/A5-91/005) are available from EPA.
In addition to the processes for metal recovery from EAF dust, pyrometallurgical processing capacity
is available for a variety of other metal-bearing wastes. The greatest capacity and process variety for
recovery of metals from solid wastes other than EAF dust is for lead recovery. Mercury, due to its relatively
low boiling point and stability as a metal, is another common target for recovery. Other metals commonly
recovered by pyrometallurgical methods include copper, nickel, and tin. Pyrometallurgical processes also
are available for some other specialty wastes.
4-47
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TABLE 4-31. METAL CONCENTRATION RANGES IN INFLUENT AND EFFLUENT
FOR FLAME REACTOR PROCESS
Metal
Arsenic
Cadmium
Copper
Iron
Lead
2no
Waste feed
(mg/kg)
428-1,040
356 - 512
1,460-2,590
95,600 - 130,000
48,200-61,700
3,210-6,810
Effluent slag
(mg/kg)
92.1 - 1,340
<2.3 - 13.5
2,730 - 3,890
167,000 - 228,000
1,560-11,400
711-1,680
Product oxide
(mg/kg)
1,010-1,170
1,080-1,380
1,380-1,780
29,100 - 35,600
159,000 - 184,000
10,000 - 16,200
(a) Alt effluent slag passed TCLP-limits criteria.
Source: U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/540/R-92/077.
Catalytic Extraction Processing. Molten Metal Technology has patented a catalytic extraction
process (CEP) that uses a high-temperature molten metal bath to process wastes contaminated with
organlcs and metals. The CEP dissolves the waste material into a molten metal bath operating near
3,000 °F. The high temperatures and catalytic action of the metal bath convert materials to elemental form.
Organic contaminants are reportedly converted to CO2 and methane, and exit as an off-gas stream for
purification and reuse. Metal impurities in the waste collect in the molten metal bath (Smith, 1991).
Secondary Lead Smelting. Secondary lead smelting is a proven technology for reclaiming lead from
materials that contain 40% lead or more. Commercial secondary lead smelters typically use reverberatory
and blast furnaces to heat a contaminated matrix to remove lead by a combination of melting and reduction.
The Center for Hazardous Materials Research and Exide/General Battery Corporation are
demonstrating the use of secondary lead smelting to reclaim usable lead from waste materials containing
between 1 and 50% lead. Waste containing 1 to 25% lead is treated in a reverberatory furnace to produce
slag containing about 70% lead. The slag and other high-lead-content materials are fed to a blast furnace
to produce lead metal products. SITE Program testing has been performed on a variety of waste materials
Including battery cases, slags, lead dross, and lead paint chips. Materials from Superfund or other
contaminated sites could be mixed with other higher grade lead material for smelting (U.S. EPA, 1992,
EPA/540/R-92/077). The reported treatment cost ranges from $150/ton to $250/ton for Superfund materials
(Tlmm and Elliott, 1993). The process has been used to treat about 2.7 million pounds of lead-bearing
materials from the NL Industries Superfund site (U.S. EPA, 1993, EPA/542/N-93/005).
Submerged Arc Smelting Furnace. INMETCO (Ellwood City, PA) operates a submerged arc smelting
furnace to recover nickel, iron, and chromium. Solid wastes are pelletized and fed to the Rotary Hearth
Furnace to reduce metal salts to the metallic form. A submerged arc furnace then processes the pretreated
waste. The chromium, iron, and nickel are cast into ingots that are suitable as feed for stainless steel
making. The slag is reported to be nonhazardous and suitable for application as an aggregate. Cadmium,
lead, and zinc are collected as flue dust from the submerged arc furnace. The flue dust is sent to another
site for metal recovery (Electrical World, 1991).
The types of waste material processed by the facility include nickel- and chromium-containing
sludges, dusts, grindlngs, and catalysts; nickel-cadmium and iron-nickel batteries; chromium-magnesite
refractories, dolomitic refractories, carbon brick and coke fines, waste magnesium powders and machinings;
baghouse bags; and bags and filters for plating operations (Hanewald et al., 1992). The facility is reported
to hold a permit to process RCRA waste codes D001, D002, D003, D006, D007, D008, F006, K061, and
K062. The typical material quality required for the process is shown in Table 4-32.
4-48
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TABLE 4-32. TYPICAL INPUT MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE INMETCO PROCESS
Metal
Approximate Solid Waste Specification
(wt% on a dry basis)
Nickel
Chromium
Phosphorus(a)
Iron
Calcium Oxide
Magnesium Oxide
Sodium, Chloride, Potassium
Copper
Tin5.0
<0.05
No limit
No limit
No limit
<20.0
<2,0
<0,03
<20.0
<5.0
<10.0
<20.0
<15.0
<15.0
<2.0
<10.0
(a) Critical limits.
Source: INMETCO Brochure.
Mercury Recovery. Relatively few metal oxides convert easily to the metallic state in the presence
of oxygen. As a result, reduction reactions typically require the presence of a reducing agent such as
carbon at elevated temperatures. Mercury is one of the few exceptions. Many mercury compounds convert
to metal at atmospheric pressure and 300 °C or lower temperature. With a boiling point of 357 °C (Chase
et al., 1985), mercury is substantially more volatile than most metals. Thus, mercury and its compounds can
be separated by roasting and retorting more easily than most metals, making it an ideal candidate for
recycling from a wide variety of waste materials. Two vendors of thermal desorption processes for mercury
recovery are listed in the VISITT database (see Appendix C).
An Input concentration of 5% mercury Is preferred. Typical feed Includes metal and glass materials.
Most plastics can be processed, but polyvinyl chloride and other halogen-containing materials must be
minimized due to the potential for generation of corrosive or volatile materials during heating In the retort.
Volatile or reactive metals such as lithium, arsenic, and thallium also are not allowed In the process. Quartz
containers can be processed but must be crushed. Dirt, soils, and sludge-like materials can be processed
if the water content Is below about 40%. If the mercury is In solution, the mercury must be collected as a
solid by precipitation or by adsorption onto activated carbon. As with the sludge feed, the collected solid
usually contains less than about 40% water (Lawrence, 1992).
A portable thermal treatment (PTT) process for removing elemental mercury, mercury compounds,
and amalgams from soil is being commercialized by Mercury Recovery Services, New Brighton, PA. The
first full-scale system, which Is designed to handle 12-18 tons/day, is scheduled to begin remediating a gas
line site in 1994. The PTT system is one of three technologies evaluated for use on mercury-contaminated
soil by the University of North Dakota's Energy and Environmental Research Center with funding from the
Gas Research Institute. The other two are a physical separation/chemical leaching process developed by
Mountain States R&D International, Inc., Vail, AZ, and a chemical process from COGNIS, Inc., Santa
Rosa, CA,
4-49
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Preliminary results from tests with the PIT process found that total mercury in sandy soils could be
reduced from 12,720 mg/kg to 0.07 mg/kg. TCLP testing of the untreated soil found 0.346 mg/L of
mercury in the leachate, compared to 0.0005 mg/L in the leachate following treatment in the PIT unit. In
clay soils, total mercury levels of 1,090 mg/kg were lowered to 0.12 mg/kg; while the TCLP values declined
from 0.065 mg/L to 0.0008 mg/L
Estimated Costs of Pyrometallurgical Technologies-
The HRD Rame Reactor at Monaca, Pennsylvania, participated in a SITE Demonstration test. The
results of the test program were the basis for developing cost estimates for several possible commercial
applications of Rame Reactor technology to site remediation. The cost analyses are summarized in Table
4-33. The cost estimates are in the range of $458 to $208/ton of waste treated in 1991 dollars.
Pyrometallurgtca! Technology Data Needs-
4-34.
The data needs for selection and application of pyrometallurgical technologies are shown in Table
4.3.2 Description of In Situ Technologies
This section addresses two in situ technologies (soil flushing and electrokinetic) potentially applicable
to the treatment of metal-contaminated soils.
4.3.2.1 Soil Rushing Technology
Soil flushing uses extraction through injection of aqueous solutions to remove contaminants from
the subsurface without excavation of the contaminated materials. The leaching solution must be selected
to remove the contaminant while not harming the in situ environment. Use of the leaching solution must
be consistent with LDRs and other regulatory requirements.
Description of Soil Flushing-
Soil flushing is the extraction of contaminants from the soil with an appropriate washing solution to
remove organic or inorganic contaminants from the soil. Water or an aqueous solution is injected into or
sprayed onto the area of contamination, and the contaminated elutriate is collected and pumped to the
surface for removal, recirculation, or onsite treatment and reinjection.
The contaminants are mobilized by stabilization, formation of emulsions, or a chemical reaction with
the flushing solutions. After passing through the contamination zone, the contaminant-bearing fluid is
collected by strategically placed wells or trenches and brought to the surface for disposal, recirculation, or
onslte treatment and reinjection. During elutriation, the flushing solution mobilizes the sorbed contaminants
by dissolution or emulsification.
Typical Treatment Combinations With Soil Flushing-
Soil flushing uses water, a solution of chemicals in water, or an organic extractant to recover
contaminants from the In situ material. One key to efficient operation of a soil flushing system is the ability
to reuse the flushing solution. A variety of water treatment techniques can be applied to remove the
recovered metals and render the extraction fluid suitable for reuse. Subsurface containment barriers should
be considered In conjunction with soil flushing technology to help control the flow of flushing fluids. Typical
treatment combinations are shown in Table 4-35.
4-50
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TABLE 4-33. ESTIMATED COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE HORSEHEAD RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT FLAME REACTOR SYSTEM (IN 1991 DOLLARS)
Scenario Number
Plant Location
Capital ($ million)
Annual capacity (tons)
Cost categories
Site and waste preparation
Excavation of waste
Transportation of waste
Pretreatment of waste
Permitting arid regulatory
requirements
Capital equipment
Startup
Labor
Consumables
Oxygen
Natural gas
Utilities
Effluent monitoring6
Shipping, handling, and
transporting residuals
Effluent slag
Oxide product9
Analytical test
Equipment repair and replacement
Site demobilization
Total Cost Per Ton of Waste
SITE
Test3
1
Monaca,
PA
2.5
6,700
Commercial Operations
(Scenarios 2-6)b
2
Monaca,
PA
2.5
6,700
3
On-site
3.1
6,700
4
Monaca,
PA
4.5
13,400
5
On-site
6.0
20,000
6
On-site
10.4
50,000
Estimated cost per ton of waste treated (1991 $)
c
93
129
246
10
64
1
114
d
131
81
11
0
f
15
-
3
34
6
932
c
10
60
21
10
64
1
78
d
93
58
11
0
f
15
-
3
34
0
458
c
10
6
21
10
79
1
93
d
93
58
11
0
f
15
~
4
37
10
448
c
10
60 .
20
10
58
1
39
d
60
34
11
0
f
15
•
2
30
0
350
c
10
6
19
10
52
1
31
d
49
26
11
0
f
15
-
2
24
7
263
c
10
6
17
10
36
1
18
d
41
21
11
0
f
15
-
1
15
6
208
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
SITE Demonstration test on secondary lead smelter-soda slag (see Subsection 4.3.1.2). '
Commercial operations assume metal content (lead and cadmium) 7.5% and moisture content 15% to 25%.
Reported separately as excavation of waste, transportation of waste, and pretreatment of waste. .
Consumables costs consist of oxygen and natural gas.
Costs for effluent monitoring are included in capital and labor cost categories.
Costs for shipping, handling, and transporting residuals reported separately for slag and product.
The credits or costs for disposal of oxide product are variable depending on market conditions and are not included.
Source: U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/540/A5-91/005.
4-51
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TABLE 4-34. SPECIFIC DATA NEEDS FOR PYROMETALLURGICAL TECHNOLOGIES
Factor Influencing Conditions Favoring
Technology Selection'8' Success of Treatment
Basis
Data Needs
Waste volume
Particle size
Moisture content
Large quantity of
material
Not specified
No free moisture
Pyrometallurgical processing typically
operates best with continuous feed
Specific particle-size requirements depend
on the process
Presence of water increases energy
requirements
Risk-based waste
delineation
Waste material
particle-size
distribution
Waste moisture
content
Metal content Concentration of
metals levels to be
recovered should
typically be in the
percent range
Heating value of waste Not specified
Thermal conductivity of Higher is preferred
waste
Types of metals present Not specified
Nitrates, sulfur
compounds,
phosphates, and halides
Alkaline metals
Ash content of waste
Not specified
Not specified
Not specified
High moisture increases material-handling
problems
Percentage concentrations are required to
make process feasible
Lower concentrations are typically processed
by hydrometallurgical methods
Combustibles in waste may provide some
heating
Treatment requires the ability to transfer heat
into the waste matrix
Mixtures of volatile and nonvolatile metals
require multiple processing steps
May form corrosive acid gases
Sulfur forms nonvolatile sulfides
Halides can form volatile metal species
Metals such as sodium and potassium
decrease the slag formation temperature and
increase the corrosiveness of the slag
Helps quantify expected slag volume
Waste composition
Waste composition
Thermal conductivity
Waste composition
Metals boiling point
Waste composition
Waste composition
Weight loss on
ignition
(a) Use hazardous substance list and site historical records to plan total waste analysis.
TABLE 4-35. TYPICAL TREATMENT TRAINS FOR SOIL FLUSHING AND ELECTROKINETIC
TREATMENT AT METAL-CONTAMINATED SITES
Pretreatment/Materials Handling
Separation/Concentration Technology Post-treatment/Residuals Management
Flushing fluid delivery system
Groundwater extraction system
Containment barriers
Soil flushing and electrokinetic
Rushing liquid/groundwater treatment
and disposal
Air pollution control
In situ soil treatment containment
barriers
4-52
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Applicability of Soil Flushing-
The four major elements in application of in situ flushing are (Palmer and Wittbrodt, 1991):
• Delivery of the extraction fluid to the required subsurface volume
• Interaction between the extraction fluid and the contaminant
• Recovery of the contaminant and extraction fluid from the subsurface
« Treatment of the recovered contaminant and fluid
Soil flushing requires a flushing solution that is available in sufficient quantity at a reasonable cost.
Flushing solutions may include water, acidic aqueous solutions (such as sulfuric, hydrochloric, nitric,
phosphoric, or carbonic acids), basic solutions (such as sodium hydroxide), chelating or complexing agents,
reducing agents, and surfactants. Water will extract water-soluble or water-mobile constituents. Inorganics
that can be flushed from soil with water are soluble salts such as the carbonates of nickel, zinc, and copper.
Adjusting the pH with dilute solutions of acids or bases can control inorganic mobility and removal. Acidic
solutions can be used to remove catiohic metals or basic organic materials. Basic solutions may be used
for some metals and some phenols. Chelating, complexing, and reducing agents may be needed for
recovery of some metals. Surfactants can assist in emulsification of hydrophobic organics (U.S. EPA, 1991,
EPA/540/2-91/021).
The technology may be easy or difficult to apply, depending on the ability to wet the soil with the
flushing solution and to install collection wells or subsurface drains to recover all the applied liquids.
Provisions also must be made for ultimate disposal of the elutriate. The, achievable level of treatment varies
and depends on the contact of the flushing solution with contaminants, the appropriateness of the solution
for contaminants, and the hydraulic conductivity of the soil. The extended treatment times needed to
remediate metal sites by pump-and-treat methods make it worthwhile to consider addition of soil flushing
chemicals to speed or enhance contaminant removal.
Status and Performance of Soil Flushing-
Soil flushing to remove organic materials has been demonstrated at both bench- and pilot-scale.
Studies have been conducted to determine the appropriate solvents for mobilizing various classes and types
of chemical constituents. Several systems are in operation and many systems are being designed for
remediation of Superfund sites. Most of the applications involve remediation of VOCs (U.S. EPA, 1992,
EPA/542/R-92/011).
Soil flushing for inorganic treatment is less well developed than soil flushing for organics, but some
applications at Superfund sites have been reported. One system is operational at a landfill with mixed
organics and metals, and another is operational at a chromium-contaminated site (U.S. EPA, 1992,
EPA/542/R-92/011). Several other inorganic treatment systems are in the design or predesign phases at
Superfund sites. Some Superfund metal-contaminated sites that have selected soil flushing as a remedy
are summarized in Table 4-36.
Estimated Costs of Soil Flushing-
Estimated costs for application of soil flushing range from $75 to $200/yd3 depending on the waste
quantity. These are rough estimates and are not based on field studi'es (U.S. EPA and U.S. Air Force, 1993).
The Superfund site at Palmetto Wood, South Carolina cited costs of $3,710,000 (capital) and $300,000
(annual operation and maintenance). These totals, on a unit basis, equal $185/yd for capital costs and
$15/yd3/yr for operation and maintenance (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/600/2-90/011).
4-53
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TABLE 4-36. SUMMARY OF SOIL FLUSHING TECHNOLOGY SELECTIONS/APPLICATIONS AT
SELECTED SUPERFUND SITES WITH METAL CONTAMINATION1"'
Region
2
Site Name/
Location
Upari Landfill,
New Jersey
Specific Technology
Soil flushing of a volume
of soil and wastes con-
tained by a slurry wall
Key Metal
Contaminants '
Chromium, lead,
nickel, mercury
Associated Technology
Slurry wall
Status(b)
1
3 U.S. Titanium,
Virginia
Dissolution of wastes
Ferrous sulfate
10
United Chrome
Products, Oregon
Soil flushing with water Chromium
Not stated
Pilot test of eiectrokinetic
removal conducted at site
Considering in situ
reduction process
(a) For more site information and implementation status, see Appendix D.
(b) Status codes: S - selected in ROD; I - in operation, not complete, C - completed.
Data Needs for Soil Flushing-
The data needs for selection and application of soil flushing options are shown in Table 4-37.
4.3.2.2 Eiectrokinetic Treatment Technology
Eiectrokinetic technology removes metals and other contaminants from soil and groundwater by
applying an electric field in the subsurface.
Description of Eiectrokinetic Treatment Technology-
Electrokinetic treatment uses a charged electric field to induce movement of ions, particulates, and
water through the soil (Hinchee et al., 1989). The eiectrokinetic phenomenon occurs when liquid migrates
through a charged porous medium, typically clay, sand, or other mineral paniculate that normally has a
negative surface charge.
The electrical field is applied through anodes and cathodes placed in the soil. Most metals form
positively charged ions that migrate toward the negatively charged electrode. Metal anions such as
chrornates migrate to the positively charged electrode, and concentration gradients in the soil solution are
established between the cathode and anode. The imposed electrical field drives diffusion of metal ions from
areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration. The viscous drag due to movement of the
cations also induces a net flow of water to the cathode (Marks et al., 1992).
The spacing of wells containing the cathode and anode depends on site-specific factors. The
cathode and the anode housings can be provided with separate circulation systems filled with different
chemical solutions to maximize recovery of metals. The contaminants are captured in these solutions and
brought to the surface for treatment in a purification system.
4-54
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TABLE 4-37. SPECIFIC DATA NEEDS FOR SOIL FLUSHING TECHNOLOGIES
Factor Influencing
Technology Selection'*0
Detailed understanding of
contaminant distribution
and subsurface geology
Hydraulic conductivity
Equilibrium partitioning of
contaminant between soil
and extraction fluid
PH
Buffering capacity
Contaminant solubility in
water
Complex waste mixture
Spatial variation in waste
composition
Conditions Favoring
Success of In Situ
Treatment
Not specified
>10"3 cm/sec; low
clay content
Not specified
No action levels
specified
No action levels
specified
>1,OOOmg/L
Less complexity is
beneficial
Less variation is
beneficial
Basis
Affects the ability to deliver and recover
flushing solution effectively
Good conductivity allows efficient delivery of
flushing fluids
Low partitioning of contaminant into the
extraction fluid increases fluid volume
required to attain cleanup goals
May affect treatment additives required,
compatibility with materials of construction,
or flushing fluid formulation
Indicates matrix resistance to pH change
Soluble compounds can be removed by
water flushing
Complex mixture increases difficulty in
formulation of a suitable extraction fluid
Changes in waste composition may require
reformulation of extraction fluid
Data Needs
Distribution of the
contaminant in relation
to subsurface features
Hydrogeologic flow
regime; Soil type
Equilibrium partitioning
coefficient
Bench- and pilot-scale
testing
Soil pH
Soil buffering capacity
Contaminant solubility
Contaminant
composition
Statistical sampling of
contaminated volume
Total metal concentration Not specified
Determine concentration targets or interfering Waste composition
constituents, pretreatment needs, and
extraction fluid
Leachable metal
concentration
Flushing fluid
characteristics
Presence of cyanides,
sulfides, and fluorides
Specific surface area of
matrix
Cation exchange capacity
(CEC)
Humic acid content
Not specified
Fluid should have low
toxicity, low cost, and
allow for treatment
and reuse
Fluid should not plug
or have other adverse
effects on the soil
Fluid viscosity should
be low
Low is preferred
<0.1 m2/g
< about 50 to 100
meq/kg
Low is preferred
Determine extractability of target constituents
and post-treatment needs
Toxicity increases health risks and increases
regulatory compliance costs
Expensive or nonreusable fluid increases
costs
If the fluid adheres to the soil or causes
precipitate formation, permeability may drop,
making continued treatment difficult
Waste teachability
Fluid characterization
Bench- and pilot-scale
testing
Fluid viscosity
Lower viscosity fluids flow through the soil
more easily
Determine potential for generating fumes at Waste composition
low pH
High surface area increases sorption on soil Specific surface area of
matrix
High CEC indicates the matrix has a high CEC of matrix
affinity for metal sorption
Humic content increases sorption Soil color, texture, and
composition
(a) Use hazardous substance list and site historical records to plan total waste analysis
Source: Adapted from U.S. EPA, 1988, EPA/540/2-88/004; U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/600/2-90/011; U.S. EPA, 1993, EPA/540/S-94/500
4-55
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Typical Treatment Combinations With Electrokinetic Treatment Technology-
Electroklnetlc treatment concentrates metals at the cathode to allow recovery of contaminants from
the In situ material. Typically the solution will require subsequent treatment for metals removal prior to
relnjectlon or discharge. A variety of water treatment techniques can be applied to remove the recovered
metals and render the extraction fluid suitable for reuse. Water treatment methods are referenced in
Subsection 4.5. Typical treatment combinations were shown in Table 4-35 (see page 4-52).
Applicability of Electrokinetic Treatment Technology--
Electrokinetlc separation may be applied to enhance phase separation, concentrate ionic species,
or both. Chemical species that form ions in solution that can migrate under the influence of the electrical
field can be effectively concentrated. Mobility of fluids also is enhanced by the electroosmosis so the
electrokinetlc method can be applied to improve dewatering of a material.
Electrokinetic treatment is most applicable to saturated soil with nearly static groundwater flow and
moderate to low permeability. A low groundwater flow rate is required so that ionic diffusion rather than
advective flow Is the main transport mechanism. Water is required to provide a polar medium for ion flow.
Electrokinetic treatment is less dependent on high soil permeability than are the in situ metals extraction
technologies such as soil flushing. The electrokinetic separation occurs due to ionic migration rather than
bulk fluid flow. Fine-grained clay soils are reported to be an ideal medium for electrokinetic treatment (U.S.
EPA, 1992, EPA/540/R-92/077). As a result, electrokinetic separation can be applied in soils where soil
flushing flow rates are too low for soil flushing to be practical.
Electrochemical reactions at the electrodes are unavoidable side effects of electrokinetic separation
techniques. The most likely reaction is electrolysis of the water. The reaction at the cathode is production
of hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions. The hydrogen gas escapes, causing the pH to rise. Increases of pH
to above 13 have been reported in the vicinity of the cathode (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/540/2-90/002).
Similarly, evolution of oxygen and production of hydrogen ions occurs at the anode causing acidification
of the anode area. During operation of electrokinetic treatment, the acid front migrates away from the anode
and can contribute to dissolution and mobilization of metal contaminants (Probstein and Hicks, 1993).
Other electrochemical reactions also may occur. Chloride ions, which are often present In natural
waters, may be reduced to form chlorine gas. Chemical and electrochemical processes may result in
precipitation of solid materials, such as Iron or chromium hydroxides, that plug pores in the formation and
reduce permeability to unacceptable levels (U.S. EPA, 1991, EPA/540/2-91/009).
Status and Performance of Electrokinetic Treatment Technology--
Commercial application of electrokinetic treatment has been pioneered In Europe by Geoklnetics
of Rotterdam, The Netherlands, and Is ongoing In the U.S. (Acar and Alshawabkeh, 1993). Field testing is
reported to Indicate that soil type is an Important parameter In successful application of electrokinetics.
Qeoklnetlcs has reported 90% contaminant removal from clayey soils but only 65% from porous soils
(Stelmle, 1992).
There are two major laboratory programs studying electrokinetic treatment processes. Research
at the University of Colorado Is currently funded by the Electric Power Research Institute. The experimental
results Indicate a 450% concentration factor for metal contaminants In water adjacent to the electrodes.
Researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are studying electrode emplacement geometries
and electrical field strengths under a grant for the Northeast Hazardous Substance Research Center
(Stelmle, 1992).
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A field test of electrokinetic treatment was conducted at the United Chrome Products Superfund Site
In Corvallis, Oregon. Groundwater chromium concentrations at the site ranged from 651 mg/L to 1 mg/L
A series of experiments compared chromium removal by water flushing alone to (1) electrokinetic migration
and (2) electrokinetic migration in combination with water flow. The testing Indicated that electric potential
can induce migration of chromium. The process of Ion migration was, however, found to be slow and could
be enhanced or suppressed depending on the direction of water flow (Banerjee, 1992).
Electroacoustic soil decontamination was evaluated as an emerging technology under the SITE
Program. Bench-scale testing indicated the feasibility of removing inorganic species such as zinc and
cadmium from clay soils. A report describing the test results has been published (U.S. EPA, 1990,
EPA/540/5-90/004).
The Electrokinetics, Inc. electrokinetic remediation system has been accepted for demonstration
under the SITE Program. Bench-scale tests of soil treatment to remove arsenic, benzene, cadmium,
chromium, copper, ethylbenzene, lead, nickel, phenol, trichloroethylene, toluene, xylene, uranium, and zinc
were completed under various programs Including the SITE Emerging Technology Program. Pilot testing
and field testing are ongoing (Acar, 1992; U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/540/R-92/077).
Estimated Costs of Electrokinetic Treatment Technology-
Electrokinetic treatment is still in the early development stage. This study found no reliable basis
for estimating costs for using electrokinetic technology to treat metal-contaminated solid materials.
Data Needs for Electrokinetic Treatment Technology-
The critical factors for selection of electrokinetic treatment technologies are shown in Table 4-38.
Because electrokinetic treatment of metal-contaminated solid materials is in early stages of pilot
testing, no action levels or more specific data requirements can be specified, as was done for other
technologies in this document.
TABLE 4-38. SPECIFIC DATA NEEDS FOR ELECTROKINETIC TECHNOLOGIES
Factor Influencing
Technology Selection^ Basis
Hydraulic conductivity
Depth to water table
Areal extent of contamination
Electroosmotic permeability
Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
Metals analysis
Salinity
Identification of half cell potentials
Technology applicable in zones of low hydraulic conductivity, particularly with
high clay content.
Technology applicable in saturated soils.
To assess electrode and recovery well placement. '
To estimate the rate of contaminant and water flow that can be induced.
Technology most efficient when CEC is low. .'
Technology applicable to acid soluble polar compounds, but not to nonpolar
organlcs and acid insoluble metals.
Technology most efficient when salinity is low. Chlorine gas can be produced by
reduction of chloride ions at the anode.
Characterizes possible reactions.
(a) Use hazardous substance list and site historical records to plan total waste analysis.
Source: U.S. EPA, 1991, EPA 540/2-91/009.
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4.4 TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR GROUNDWATER AND WASTEWATER
Chapter 4 of the Handbook: Stabilization Technologies forRCRA Corrective Actions describes data
collection, implementation, and technology application for groundwater pump-and-treat systems (U.S. EPA,
1991, EPA/625/6-91/026). A general review of methods to treat metals in groundwater is presented in
Resource Recovery Project Technology Characterization Interim Report (MSE, 1993). Specific information
on precipitation is available in Precipitation of Metals from Ground Water (NEESA, 1993). Bioremediation
technologies are detailed in Bioremediation of Metals (Mattison, 1993). A summary of water treatment
technologies is presented in Table 4-39. SITE Program technologies applicable to metal treatment are
summarized In Appendix B (Tables B-2 and B-4).
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TABLE 4-39. SUMMARY OF TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR METAL-BEARING WASTEWATER STREAMS
Process
Applicable Waste Streams
Stage of Development
Performance
Residuals Generated
Physical Treatment Technologies
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TABLE 4-39. (continued)
Process
Applicable Waste Streams
Stage of Development
Performance
Residuals Generated
Chemical Treatment Method*
Precipitation
(hydroxide &
sulfide)
Coagulation/
flocculation
Reduction
Flotation
Aqueous streams; restrictions based
on physical form, viscosity, and metal
solubility.
Aqueous streams; for ppb
concentrations, two-stage process
required; not readily applied to small,
intermittent flows.
Primarily, aqueous chrome-bearing
wastestreams although sodium
borohydride can treat most metals.
Aqueous streams containing 100
mg/L or less of metals. Restrictions
based on physical form, oil and
grease content.
Well-developed, reliable process,
suitable for automatic control.
Well developed and readily
available from commercial
vendors.
Well developed.
Not fully developed for metals
removal; primarily at pilot plant
stage of development.
Heavy metals: Cd, Cu, Pb, Hg,
NI, Ag, and Zn removed to 0.01
to 0.5 mg/L
Not considered a primary
treatment but can achieve low
residual levels.
Chromium removal to 0,01
mg/L Sodium borohydride
able to remove Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn,
Hg.Ag, Cd in the 0.01 to 1.0
mg/L range.
Heavy metals Pb, Cu, Zn, Cr3*
removed to 0.03 to 0.4 mg/L
Effluent stream will require
further processing to
remove and dispose of
precipitated solids.
Sludge requires secondary
processing and disposal.
Effluent stream will require
further processing to
remove and dispose of
reduced metal. Sodium
borohydride introduces
boron Into the effluent
stream.
Requires post-treatment of
metal-laden foam.
Biological Treatment Methods
Wetlands Constructed wetlands remove metals Pilot-scale
treatment by partitioning or precipitation.
Bioreduction Bioreduction Bench-scale
May be used as final treatment
for low concentrations of heavy
metals (10 mg/L or less).
Tested for conversion of
mercury salts to metal and
Cr(VI) reduction.
Metals remain
immobilized in wetland.
Reduced metal requires
post-treatment for
recovery or
immobilization.
Thermal Treatment Methods
Evaporation Aqueous wastes with low nonvolatile
metals content, or wastes with highly
volatile metals content.
Well developed and widely
available.
Can effect high-level recovery
of volatile metals or significant
volume reduction of aqueous
wastes.
Brine.
Crystallization Primarily used for wastes from
electroplating and pickling that
contain high levels of acids, water, or
low-molecular-weight organics.
Well developed. Often used in
conjunction with evaporation.
Can effect high-level recovery. Sludges.
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and Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1994.
98. Weingardt, K.M. Mixed Waste Solidification Testing Results on Thermosetting Polymer and Cement
Based Waste Forms in Support of Hanford's WRAP 2A Facility. In: T.M. Gilliam (Ed.), Third
International Symposium on Stabilization/Solidification of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed
Wastes. ASTM STP 1240, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
1994.
4-67
-------
99. Weftzman, L and LE. Hamel. Volatile Emissions from Stabilized Waste. In: Proceedings of the
Fifteenth Annual Research Symposium. EPA/600/9-90/006, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio, 1990.
100. Wills, B.A. Mineral Processing Technology (3rd ed.). Pergamon Press, New York, New York, 1985.
4-68
-------
APPENDIX A
STABILITY REGION DIAGRAMS
Phase relationships can be presented in a variety of formats. Two formats that are particularly useful
for evaluating the potential for metal mobility under conditions either present in situ or after treatment are
diagrams of solubility versus pH and stability region diagrams such as Eh-pH diagrams. Solubility diagrams
indicate the total dissolved metal concentration in equilibrium with a metal compound. Stability region
diagrams show the thermodynamically stable chemical species in liquid form in multicomponent systems
under all possible combinations of Eh-pH. Data from solubility and stability region diagrams can assist in
interpreting and validating site characterization data, evaluating environmental fate and transport, and
selecting treatment technologies.
Eh-pH diagrams are useful primarily for conceptual purposes in remediation, due to the complexity
of the systems and the fact that the boundary lines are regions of transition rather than sharp delineations.
Also, the diagram presupposes that the anionic species shown are in fact available in the system. Eh-pH
diagrams give important information regarding the potential fixation of an element in soil. For example,
below pH 2 and relatively high Eh, As will exist predominantly as H3AsO4 (Figure A-3). By utilizing Eh-pH
diagrams, one can qualitatively estimate if soil conditions are conducive to the fixation. One must verify that
the conditions assumed during the preparation of the diagrams are applicable to the conditions present at
the site of concern. If the conditions are not applicable, one can construct a diagram that is applicable to
a specific site (Dragun, 1988). The dotted lines in the Eh-pH diagrams represent the lower and upper limits
of water stability.
Several diagrams are presented to illustrate the effects of oxidizing potential and pH on the stability
of metal compounds. Figure A-1 illustrates the Eh-pH typical of water in a variety of natural settings (Garrels
and Christ, 1965). All solubility and stability diagrams were prepared for this document by Professor H.H.
Huang of Montana Tech, Butte, Montana, using the STABCAL computer model. The arsenate solubility
graph (Figure A-2) uses data from Robins (1987) and MINTEQA2. Conditions are as follows: arsenate, 0.1
m; divalent metals, 0.15 m; trivalent metals, 0.1 m. Note that the solubility of arsenic in the As/Fe system
is very sensitive to the ratio of arsenic to iron. For more detail, see Krause and Ettel (1989). The Eh-pH
diagrams for arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, and mercury (Figures A-3 to A-7) use data from MINTEQA2.
Conditions are as follows: metals, 0.001 m; S, 0.1 m; and carbonate, 0.1 m. The sulfur component included
all sulfur species. The carbon component included only carbonate (i.e., no elemental carbon, acetate, etc.).
REFERENCES
Dragun, J. The Soil Chemistry of Hazardous Materials. The Hazardous Materials Control Research
Institute, Silver Spring, Maryland, 1988.
Garrels, R.M. and C.L Christ. Minerals, Solutions, and Equilibria. Harper & Row Publishers, Inc.,
New York, NY, 1965..
Krause, E. and V.A. Ettel. Solubilities and Stabilities of Ferric Arsenate Compounds. Hydrometallurgy,
22:311-337,1989.
Robins, R.G. Arsenic Hydrometallurgy. In: Arsenic Metallurgy Fundamentals and Applications. The
Metallurgical Society, American Institute of Mining Engineers, 1987.
A-1
-------
w
.c
LU
1.5
1.0
E 0.5
0
0
-0.5
-1.0
Oxygen Pressure = 1 atm.
Mine
Waters
Sulfates
., = .
4£
.....................
................
"*""••«. ......
Rain/Streams Normal ............... ."
•Reduced Sulfur
Rain/Streams Normal
Ocean
Water
Groundwater
Species Water- ^^
Logged Soils ^^_
"•••••, ^^
Hvdroaen Pressure = 1 atm<^
' Organic-Rich
~,^":,. Saline Waters
Hydrogen Pressure = 1 a\mrr •
0
8
10
12
14
PH
Figure A-1. Approximate position of some natural environments as characterized by Eh and pH.
-------
Q.
Q_
0
C
(U
M
1000 -
100 -
o
>
_c
LJ
.1 \-
0
pH
Figure A-2. Solubilities of metal arsenates.
-2
0
pH
Figure A-3. Stability regions of arsenic species in the sulfur carbonate water system.
A-3
-------
CO
+J
o
LJ
6 .8, 10 12 . 14
Figure A-4. Stability regions of cadmium species in the sulfur carbonate water system.
JI
LU
6 8 10 12 14
pH
Figure A-5. Stability regions of chromium species in the sulfur carbonate water system.
A-4
-------
O
>
.c
Ld
0
— 1
-2
1 1
PbO2
Pb
j I
J I
8 10 . •'• - 12. . :• 14
Figure A-6. Stability regions of lead species in the sulfur carbonate water system.
o
>
_c
LJ
0 2
pH
Figure A-7. Stability regions of mercury species in the sulfur carbonate water system.
A-5
-------
-------
APPENDIX B
SUMMARY TABLES OF SITE PROGRAM
TECHNOLOGIES FOR METAL-CONTAMINATED SITES
The following tables summarize remediation technologies in the SITE Demonstration Program that
involve metals. Tables B-1 and B-2 include metal-remediating technologies that are part of the Demonstrated
Technologies Program, having undergone or scheduled a demonstration. Tables B-3 and B-4 summarize
the technologies that are part of the Emerging Technologies Program. These tables can act as a quick
reference for gaining a broad perception of the technologies available for metals remediation.
Technologies are listed alphabetically by the vendor's name. A brief technology summary presents
an overview of the technology. The test location is listed separately because often it is a site located away
from the vendor's location. Where available, the initial and treated contaminants and concentrations are
given. Because the waste matrix is an important factor in determining the applicability of a technology, it
is included. Reference documents are listed that can be accessed for more detail.
The SITE technology summary tables serve as a valuable tool in gaining familiarity with available
technologies. The tables do not enumerate all available technologies, but they do provide a broad range
of example treatment techniques.
B-1
-------
TABLE B-1. SUMMARY TABLE OF SITE PROGRAM DEMONSTRATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR
METAL-CONTAMINATED SOILS, SEDIMENTS, OR SLUDGES
Vendor/Technology
Babcock & Wilcox Co.
Alliance, OH
Cyclone Furnace
Bergmann USA
Gallatin, TN
Soil and Sediment
Washing Technology
BioTrol, Inc.
Chaska, MN
Soil Washing System
Brice Env. Services Corp.
Fairbanks, AK
Soil Washing Plant
Chemfix Technologies, Inc.
St. Rose, LA
Solidification and Stabiliza-
tion
Technology Summary
Contaminated solid Is injected into a
cyclone furnace to burn organlcs En
high-ash content wastes. The ash
residue exits the furnace as vitrified
slag.
Contaminated soil is separated ac-
cording to density and grain size.
Soil is then screened and mixed with
water and chemical additives to form
a slurry feed. The slurry feed flows
to an attrition scrubbing machine,
removing contaminated silts and
clay.
Contaminated soil is treated in an
intensive scrubbing circuit freeing
contaminated fine particles. In addi-
tion, surficial contamination is
removed from the coarse fraction by
the abrasive scouring of the particles
themselves.
High attrition water washing parti-
tions soil into fine and coarse frac-
tions and remove metal contami-
nants from the coarse particles.
Water is treated to remove contami-
nants and fine soil fraction is con-
tainerized.
Pozzolanic materials react with metal
ions to produce a stable solid
material. The metals are then immo-
bilized in a silicate matrix.
Demonstration
Site Location
Alliance, OH
Toronto, Ontario
and Saginaw Bay
Confined Disposal
Facility, Saginaw,
Ml
MacGillis and Gibbs
Superfund site in
New Brighton, MN
Alaskan Battery En-
terprises Superfund
site in Fairbanks,
AK
Portable Equipment
Salvage Co. in
Clackamas, OR
Typical
Applications
Non-specific In-
organics 7000 ppm
Pb, 1000 ppm Cd,
1500 ppm Cr
Metals (i.e., Cd, Cr,
Pb, Cu, Hg, Ni, Zn),
radionuclides
As, Cu, Cr removed
from 50-70%
Radioisotopes and
metals
Metals (i.e., Sb, As,
Pb, Cd, Cr, Hg, Cu,
Zn)
Matrix
Soils, sludges, Inor-
ganic hazardous waste
Soil, sediments
Soil
Soil
Solid wastes, soils,
sludges, ashes
Sources of Additional
lnformatlon(a)
AAR EPA/540/AR-92/017
DB EPA/540/MR-92/011
ETB EPA/540/F-92/010
TDS EPA/540/SR-92/017
DB EPA/540/MR-92/075
DB EPA/540/M5-91/003
AAR EPA/540/5-91/003
TDS EPA/540/S5-91/003
DB EPA/540/MR-93/503
AAR EPA/540/AR-93/503
DB EPA/540/M5-89/011
AAR EPA/540/A5-89/01 1
TER EPA/540/5-89/011
TDSEPA/540/S5-89/011
03
(a) AAR = Applications Analysis Report; DB = Demonstration Bulletin; ETB = Emerging Technology Bulletin;
SITE TP = SITE Technology Profiles EPA/540/R-92/077; TDS = Technology Demonstration Summary;
TER = Technology Evaluation Report.
EPA Project Manager and vendor contacts are listed in SITE Technology Profiles.
-------
TABLE B-1. (continued)
Vendor/Technology
Ensotech, Inc.,
Sun Valley, CA
Chemical Oxidation/
Chemical Rxation
Funderburk & Associates,
Fairfield, TX
(formerly HAZCON)
Dechlorination and Immo-
bilization
Geosafe Corp.
Richland, WA
In Situ Vitrification
Horsehead Resource Devel-
opment Co., Inc.,
Monaca, PA
Flame Reactor
International Waste
Technologies/Geo-Con,
Inc.
Wichita, KS and
Monroeville, PA
In Situ Solidification and
Stabilization
Technology Summary
A trailer-mounted unit treats con-
taminated soil with a chemical fixing
agent.
Hazardous waste is mixed with water
and a Chloranan reagent. Cement is
then added, solidifying the mixture
and immobilizing metal contami-
nants.
An electric current is used to melt
soil or sludge in situ. Electrodes
placed in contaminated zones pass
a current that generates melting
temperatures. The soil results in a
monolith with a silicate glass struc-
ture.
Wastes are processed in a flash-
smelting system, the flame reactor.
The waste is separated into slag and
heavy metal-enriched oxide product
(or in some cases, a metal alloy).
A deep soil mixing system me-
chanically mixes solidifying additives
to contaminated soil. Solidifying
additives from IWT and equipment
from Geo-Con.
Demonstration
Site Location
No site selected
Former Oil
Processing Plant,
Douglassville, PA
Demonstrated at 10
sites
Material from the
National Smelting
and Refining Com?
pany Superfund site
in Atlanta, GA-
A PCB and metal-
contaminated site In
Hialeah, FL
Contamination with
metals was low: Cr,
Cu, Pb, Zn
Typical
Applications
Metals
Metals
Non-specific in-
organics
Metals (i.e., Zn, Pb,
Cr, Cd, As, Cu, Ni)
Inorganic metals,
nonvolatile organics
Matrix
Soils
Soils, sludges, sedi-
ments
Soil or sludge
Granular solids, soil,
flue dusts, slags, and
sludges
Soil, sediments,
sludge-pond bottoms
Sources of Additional
Information (a)
SITETP
AAR EPA/540/A5-89/001
TER EPA/540/5-89/001 a
TDS EPA/540/S5-89/001
SITE TP
TC 540/R-94/520a
DB EPA/540/M5-91/005
AAR EPA/540/A5-91/005
TDS EPA/540/S5-91/005
TDS EPA/54Q/S5-89/004
AAR EPA/540/A5-89/004
TER EPA/540/5-89/004a
CD
W
(a) AAR = Applications Analysis Report; DB = Demonstration Bulletin; ETB = Emerging Technology Bulletin;
SITE TP = SITE Technology Profiles EPA/540/R-92/077; TDS = Technology Demonstration Summary;
TC = Technology Capsule; TER = Technology Evaluation Report.
EPA Project Manager and vendor contacts are listed in SITE Technology Profiles.
-------
CO
Vendor/Technology
MAECORP Inc.,
Chicago, IL
MAECTITE Treatment Pro-
cess
Ogden Env. Services,
Houston, TX
Circulating Bed Combustor
Recycling Sciences Interna-
tional, Inc., Chicago, IL
Desorption and Vapor Ex-
traction System
Remediation Technologies
Inc., Concord, MA
High Temperature Thermal
Processor
Retech, Inc., Ukiah, CA
Plasma Arc Vitrification
TABLE B-1. (continued)
Technology Summary
A proprietary powder is blended with
a lead-contaminated material. A re-
agent Is added to this mixture to
create Insoluble mineral crystals.
Waste is fed into the chamber of the
Circulating Bed Combustor. A high-
ly turbulent combustion zone mixes
the waste and produces a uniform
temperature. Metals are incorporat-
ed in slag.
Contaminated materials are mixed
with hot air which forces water and
contaminants into vapor phase. The
vapors are then processed in a gas
treatment system.
Waste is fed into the system where a
counter-rotational screw conveyor
moves waste through the thermal
processor. A molten salt eutectic
serves as the heat transfer medium.
Waste material is fed into a centri-
fuge where it is heated by a plasma
torch. The inorganic material is re-
duced to a molten phase that is dis-
charged as a homogeneous, glassy
slag.
Demonstration
Site Location
Sioux Falls, SO
pilot-scale demon-
stration at Ogden's
Research Facility in
San Diego, CA
No site selected
Proposed site at the
Niagara-Mohawk
Power Company in
Harbour Point, NY
Component
Development and
Integration Facility
of the U.S. DOE in
Butte, MT
Typical
Applications
Lead
Metals
Volatile inorganics
Mercury
Metals
Matrix
Soil, sludge, baghouse
dusts
Soil, liquids, slurries,
sludges
Soils, sediments, and
sludges
Soils, sludges, sedi-
ment
Soil, sludge
Sources of Additional
Information(a)
SITETP
DB EPA/540/MR-92/001
TER EPA/540/R-92/001
SITETP
SITETP
DB EPA/540/M-91/007
AAR EPA/540/A5-91/007
TDS EPA/540/S5-91/007
(a) AAR = Applications Analysis Report; DB = Demonstration Bulletin; ETB = Emerging Technology Bulletin;
SITE TP = SITE Technology Profiles EPA/540/R-92/077; TDS = Technology Demonstration Summary;
TER = Technology Evaluation Report.
EPA Project Manager and vendor contacts are listed in SITE Technology Profiles.
-------
TABLE B-1. (continued)
Vendor/Technology
Risk Reduction Engineering
Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH
•ft
Volume Reduction Unit
Risk Reduction Engineering
Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH
Debris Washing System
Risk Reduction Engineering
Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH
Hydraulic Fracturing
S.M.W. Seiko, Inc.,
Hayward, CA
In Situ Solidification and
Stabilization
Separation and Recovery
Systems, Inc., Irvine, CA
SAREX Chemical fixation
Process
Technology Summary
The process includes soil handling
and conveying, soil washing and
coarse screening, fine particle, sepa-
ration, flocculation/clarification,
water treatment, and utilities.
A basket of debris is placed in a
tank where it is sprayed with an
aqueous detergent. High-pressure
water jets then blast contaminants
from the debris.
Water is injected into a borehole.
The water pressure is raised to a
level where it begins creating sub-
surface fractures. These fractures
create pathways for vapors and
fluids.
Hollow augers mounted on a
crawler-type base machine mix and
inject solidification and stabilization
reagents into contaminated soils in
situ.
Contaminated material is excavated
and neutralized. The material is
mixed with reagents to chemically
and thermally stabilize contami-
nants.
Demonstration
Site Location
Escambia Wood
Treating Company,
Pensacola, FL
Scheduled for the
EPA's Evaluation
Facility in Cin-
cinnati, OH
No full-scale site se-
lected
no site selected
No site selected
Typical
Applications
Metals
Non-specific in-
organics (i.e., Pb)
Non-specific in-
organics
Metals
Low concentration
' metals
Matrix
Soils
Metallics, masonry,
other solid debris
Soil, groundwater
Soils
Sludges, soils
Sources of Additional
lnformation(a)
DB EPA/540/MR-93/508
AAR EPA/540/AR-93/508
TER EPA/540/5-91/006a
SITE TP
SITE TP
SITETP
DO
01
(a) AAR = Applications Analysis Report; DB = Demonstration Bulletin; ETB = Emerging Technology Bulletin;.
SITE TP = SITE Technology Profiles EPA/540/R-92/077; TDS = Technology Demonstration Summary;
TER = Technology Evaluation Report.
EPA Project Manager and vendor contacts are listed in SITE Technology Profiles.
-------
TABLE B-1. (continued)
Vendor/Technology
Silicate Technology Corp.,
Scottsdale, AZ
Solidification and
Stabilization Treatment
Solidtech, Inc.
Houston, TX
Solidification and
Stabilization
Sonotech, Inc.
Atlanta, GA
Frequency Tunable Pulse
Combustion System
Texaco Syngas, Inc.,
White Plains, NJ
Entrained-Bed Desorption
TEXAROME, Inc.
Leakey, TX
Solid Waste Desorption
Toronto Harbour
Commission,
Toronto, Canada
Soil Recycling
Technology Summary
Contaminated material Is pretreated,
separated then fed Into a mixer
where a predetermined amount of
reagent Is added. These reactions
result in the formation of Insoluble
chemical compounds.
Contaminated waste is collected,
screened, and mixed with a variety
of substances rendering a solidified
mass.
The frequency tunable combustion
system is applied to the Incineration
of wastes. The system promotes
complete mixing along with heat
and mass transfer, increasing the
operational efficiency.
A slurry waste fee is passed through
a gasifier which produces a
synthesis gas. Metal contaminants
are immobilized in a glass-like slag.
Superheated steam is used as a
stripping gas to treat contaminated
solids. The gas may be condensed
and decanted to remove
contaminants.
Three technologies are used in
series to treat contaminants: soil
washing, metal dissolution, and
chemical hydrolysis.
Demonstration
Site Location
Selma Pressure
Treating wood-
preserving site in
Selma, CA
Imperial Oil
Co./Champion
Chemical Co.
Superfund site in
Morganville, NJ
Scheduled for the
EPA's Incinerator
Research Facility in
Jefferson, AK
Completed at
Texaco's Montebello
Research Laboratory,
S. Elmonte, CA
No site selected.
A site within the
Toronto Port
Industrial District,
Toronto, Ontario
Typical
Applications
Metals
Metals, non-specific
inorganics
Inorganics
Non-specific
inorganics
Volatile inorganics
Non-specific
inorganics
Matrix
Soils, sluges,
wastewaters
Soils, sludges
Soils, or any material
which can be treated
in an incinerator
Soils, sludges,
sediments
Soils, sludges,
sediments
Soils
Sources of Additional
lnformation(a)
DB EPA/540/MR-92/010
AAR EPA/540/AR-92/010
DB EPA/540/M5-89/005
AAR EPA/540/A5-89/005
TER EPA/540/5-89/005
TDS EPA/540/S5-89/005
SITETP
SITE TP
SITE TP
DB EPA/540/MR-92/015
00
(a) AAR = Applications Analysis Report; DB = Demonstration Bulletin; ETB = Emerging Technology Bulletin;
SITE TP = SITE Technology Profiles EPA/540/R-92/077; TDS = Technology Demonstration Summary;
TER = Technology Evaluation Report. ...
EPA Project Manager and vendor contacts are listed in SITE Technology Profiles.
-------
TABLE B-1. (continued)
Vendor/Technology
WASTECH, Inc.
Oak Ridge, TN
Solidification and
Stabilization
Technology Summary
Waste is excavated, then mixed with
a proprietary agent and cementitious
materials.
Demonstration
Site Location
Robins Air Force
Base in Warner
Robins, GA
Typical
Applications
Non-specific
inorganics,
radionuclides
Matrix
Soils, sludges,
liquid wastes
Sources of Additional
Information60
SfTETP
(a) MR = Applications Analysis Report; DB = Demonstration Bulletin; ETB = Emerging Technology Bulletin;
SITE TP = SITE Technology Profiles EPA/540/R-92/077; TDS = Technology Demonstration Summary;
TER = Technology Evaluation Report. . .
EPA Project Manager and vendor contacts are listed in SITE Technology Profiles.
03
-------
TABLE B-2. SUMMARY TABLE OF SITE PROGRAM DEMONSTRATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR
METAL-CONTAMINATED WATER
Vendor/Technology
Andco Env. Processes Inc.
Amherst, NY
Bectrochemlcal In Situ
Chromate Reduction and
Heavy Metal Immobilization
Bio-Recovery Systems Inc.
Las Cruces, NM
Biological Sorption
Chemical Waste
Management Inc., Geneva,
IL
PO*WW*ER Technology
Colorado Dept. of Health
Denver, CO
Wetlands-Based Treatment
Dynaphore, Inc.
Richmond, VA
FORAGER Sponge
Technology Summary
This process uses electrochemical
reactions to generate Ions for the re-
moval of chromium and other metals
from the groundwater.
A contaminated solution Is passed
through an algae system to sorb
metals. The metals can then be
removed from the algae sorb with
reagents.
Wastewater is vaporized to con-
centrate contaminants in a brine.
Contaminant vapors are then oxi-
dized and destroyed, or treated in a
scrubber.
A man-made wetland ecosystem
uses natural geochemical and bio-
logical processes to remove metals.
Metals are removed by filtration, ion
exchange, adsorption, absorption,
and precipitation.
Wastewater is passed through a
cellulose sponge with an amine-
containing polymer that has an
affinity for metal ions. The absorbed
ions can then be eluted from the
sponge, or the sponge can be
incinerated or dried depending on
preferred means of disposal.
Demonstration
Site Location
No site selected
Tested in 1989
Oakland, CA
Chemical Waste
Management's pilot
facility in Lake
Charles, LA
Proposed site at the
Burleigh Tunnel
near Silver Plume,
CO
Proposed site at the
NL Industries site in
Pedricktown, NJ
Typical Applications
Hexavalent chromi-
um 1-50 ppm, and
other heavy metals 2-
10 ppm (Zh, Cu, Ni,
Pb, Sb)
Metals
Radioactive Isotopes
and metals
Metals from acid
mine drainage
Various metals at
ppm or ppb concen-
trations
Matrix
Groundwater
Groundwater, process
wastewaters
Industrial and hazard-
ous wastewater
Influent waters
Industrial effluent, mu-
nicipal sewage, pro-
cess streams, acid
mine drainage waters
Sources of Additional
Information^
SITETP
ETB EPA/540/5-90/005a
AAR EPA/540/AR-93/506
SITE TP
SITE TP
00
OD
(a) AAR = Applications Analysis Report; DB = Demonstration Bulletin; ETB = Emerging Technology Bulletin;
SITE TP = SITE Technology Profiles EPA/540/R-92/077; TDS = Technology Demonstration Summary;
TER = Technology Evaluation Report.
EPA Project Manager and vendor contacts are listed in SITE Technology Profiles.
-------
TABLE B-2. (continued)
Vendor/Technology
E.I. Dupont de Nemours
and Co. and Oberlin Rlter
Co.,
Newark, DE and Waukesha,
Wl
Membrane Microfiltration
EPOC Water Inc.,
- Fresno, CA
Precipitation,
Microfiltration, and Sludge
Dewatering
Rlter Flow Technology,
Inc.,
League City, TX
Heavy Metals and
Radionuclide Sorption
Method
GEOCHEM, A Division of
Terra Vac, Lake wood, CO
In Situ Remediation of
Chromium in Groundwater
Hazardous Waste Control,
Fairfield, CT
NOMIX Technology
Technology Summary
Solid particles are removed from
liquid wastes by passing them
through a microfiltration system,
leaving a filter cake containing the
contaminants.
Contaminated water is treated to
precipitate -metals. The stream is
then dewatered in a tubular filter
press. Soils can be treated by acid
leaching of metals followed by pre-
cipitation and filtration.
Contaminated water is pumped to a
mixing vessel for pH adjustment and
chemical treatment, The mixture is
then passed through the Colloid
Sorption Unit, a specially designed
filtration apparatus.
Contaminated groundwater is
pumped to the surface and treated
using conventional methods. Next a
reductant is added and the treated
water is reinjected. This allows for in
situ reduction and subsequent
fixation of residual chromium.
A solidifying compound is added to
the waste fluid to promote solidifi-
cation. The process requires no
mixing between the waste and the
solidifying compound.
Demonstration
Site Location
Palmerton Zinc
Superfund site in
Palmerton, PA
Iron Mountain
Superfund site at
Redding, CA
No site selected
Will be demon-
strated at the Valley
Wood Treating site
in Turlock, CA
No site selected
Typical Applications
Metals at concentra-
tions <5000 ppm
(i.e., Cd, Pb, Zn)
Metals
Metals and radionu-
clides
Primarily hexavalent
chromium, in addi-
tion (i.e., U, As, Se)
Metal compounds
Matrix
Wastewater
Wastewater, soil, or
sludge
.Groundwater, pond
water, industrial waste-
water
Groundwater
Primarily aqueous
solutions of drum
waste, minor spills in
situ, waste lagoons
Sources of Additional
Information'3^
AAR EPA/540/A5-90/007
TER EPA/540/5-90/007
DB EPA/540/M5-90/007
TDS EPA/540/S-90/007
SITETP
SITETP
SITE TP
SITETP
0)
CD
(a) AAR = Applications Analysis Report; DB = Demonstration Bulletin; ETB = Emerging Technology Bulletin;
SITE TP = SITE Technology Profiles EPA/540/R-92/077; TDS = Technology Demonstration Summary;
- TER = Technology Evaluation Report.
EPA Project Manager and vendor contacts are listed in SITE Technology Profiles.
-------
TABLE B-2. (continued)
Vendor/Technology
Rochem Separation
Systems, Inc., Torrance, CA
Rochem Disc
Tube Module System
TechTran Env. Inc.,
Houston, TX
Combined Chemical
Precipitation, Physical
Separation, and Binding
Process
QUAD Env. Technologies
Corp., Northbrook, IL
Chemtact Gaseous Waste
Treatment
Technology Summary
A reverse osmosis membrane sys-
tem Is used In conjunction with an
ultrafiltration process to remove
contaminants.
A contaminated water stream Is
combined and mixed with the pro-
prietary RHM-100 powder along with
a complex mixture of oxides,
silicates, and other reactive binding
agents.
A gas scrubber removes contami-
nants from gaseous waste-streams.
This process produces lowvolumes
of liquid residuals which are treated
by conventional techniques.
Demonstration
Site Location
Planned for
Casmalla Resources
in Santa Barbara
County, CA
Scheduled for a
uranium mine in
Texas
No site selected
Typical Applications
Non-specific In-
organics
Metals and radioac-
tive isotopes
Non-specific in-
organics
Matrix
Wastewaters
Waste water, ground-
water, soils, sludges
Gaseous wastestream
Sources of Additional
Information^'
SITETP
SITETP
SITE TP
CD
O
MR = Applications Analysis Report; DB = Demonstration Bulletin; ETB = Emerging Technology Bulletin;
SITE TP = SITE Technology Profiles EPA/540/R-92/077; TDS = Technology Demonstration Summary;
TER = Technology Evaluation Report.
EPA Project Manager and vendor contacts are listed in SITE Technology Profiles.
-------
TABLE B-3. SUMMARY TABLE OF SITE PROGRAM EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES FOR METAL-CONTAMINATED SOILS,
SEDIMENTS, OR SLUDGES
Vendor/Technology
Allis Mineral Systems, Inc.
Oak Creek, Wl
Pyrokiln Thermal Encapsulation
Process
Babcock & Wilcox Co., Alliance,
OH
Cyclone Furnace
Battelle Memorial Institute,
Columbus, OH
In Situ Bectroacoustic Soil
Decontamination
Center for Hazardous Materials
Research, Pittsburgh, PA
Acid Extraction Treatment System
Center for Hazardous Materials
Research, Pittsburgh, PA
Lead Smelting
Center for Hazardous Materials
Research, Pittsburgh, PA
Organics Destruction and Metals
Stabilization
Technology Summary
The process modifies conventional
rotary kiln hazardous waste incineration
by adding fluxing agents to the waste to
promote incipient slagging or "thermal
encapsulating."
Contaminated solid is injected into a cy-
clone furnace to burn organics in high-
ash-content wastes. The ash residue
exits the furnace as vitrified slag.
An electric potential is applied to soils to
displace ions to their respective
electrodes. Acoustic fields increase
leaching and dewatering.
A soil washing process that uses HCI
(pH of 2) for extraction of-contaminants.
Following extraction the soil is rinsed,
neutralized, and dewatered.
Contaminated mixtures are added to
reverberatory and blast furnaces which
heat the mixtures and remove the lead
by a combination of melting, reduction,
and volatilization.
Elemental sulfur is combined with a
contaminated solid in a process which
stabilizes metals and metal ions.
Treatment involves mixing and heating.
Test Location
Test Center in
Oak Creek, Wl
Alliance, OH
Columbus, OH
Pittsburgh, PA
Exide secondary
lead smelter in
Reading, PA
Pittsburgh, PA
Typically Applicable
Contaminants
Metals (Sb, As, Ba,
Be, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb,
Ni, Se.Ag, Ta, Zn)
Inorganics (7000
ppm Pb, 1000 ppm
Cd, and 1500 ppm
Cr)
Metals (i.e., Zn, Cd)
Metals (i.e., As, Cd,
Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn)
Lead
Metals
Matrix
Soils, sludges
Soils, sludges,
in-organic haz-
ardous wastes
Fine-grained
clay soils
Soils
Lead-bearing
materials
Soils, sediments
Sources of Additional
Information^3'
SITE TP
ETB EPA/540/F-92/010
SITE TP
SITE TP
SITETP
SITE TP
(a) AAR = Applications Analysis Report; DB = Demonstration Bulletin; ETB = Emerging Technology Bulletin;
SITE TP = SITE Technology Profiles EPA/540/R-92/077; TDS = Technology Demonstration Summary;
TER = Technology Evaluation Report.
EPA Project Manager and vendor contacts are listed in SITE Technology Profiles.
-------
TABLE B-3. (continued)
Vendor/Technology
COGNIS, Inc.,
Santa Rosa, CA
Biological/Chemical Treatment
COGNIS, Inc.,
Santa Rosa, CA
Chemical Treatment
Davy Research and
Development, Ltd.,
Cleveland, England
Chemical Treatment
Electrokinetics, Inc.,
Baton Rouge, LA
Electrokinetic Remediation
Energy and Environmental
Research Corporation,
Irvine, CA
Hybrid Fluidized Bed System
Ferro Corporation
Independence, OH
Waste Vitrification Through
Electric Melting
Technology Summary
Treatment of soil for both organtcs and
metals, can be performed
simultaneously. Metals are exposed to
a leachant which is then treated for
removal of metals. Following metal
removal, organics are treated by bio-
logical action.
Contaminated material Is dry screened
and exposed to a leachant which
removes metals. Metals can then be
recovered through liquid ion exchange,
resin ion exchange, or reduction.
Contaminated soils are screened and
leached. Contaminants are removed
from the leachant in a resin-in-pulp or a
carbon-in-pulp system using ion
exchange resins or activated carbon,
respectively.
Electrodes and pore fluids are placed in
a contaminated area. An acid front is
created by electrolytic action to desorb
contaminants. The contaminants
migrate to the electrodes for recovery.
Contaminated soils are heated on a
spouted bed. Clean soil is then
removed and off-gases are treated.
An electric meter vitrifies contaminated
materials converting them into oxide
glasses.
Test Location
Santa Rosa, CA
Santa Rosa, CA
site selection
underway
Baton Rouge, LA
Irvine, CA
Independence,
OH
Typically Applicable
Contaminants
Metals (Cd, Cu, Hg,
Pb.Zn)
Metals, particularly
lead
Metals (i.e., Cu, Cr,
Zn, Hg, As)
Metals or radionu-
clides (i.e., Pb, As,
Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn,
U)
Volatile inorganics
Non-specific
inorganics
Matrix
Soils
Soils, sludges,
sediments
Soils,
sediments,
dredgings, solid
residues
Soils, sediments
Soils, sludges
Soils, sludges,
sediments
Sources of Additional
Information'8'
SITETP
SITETP
SITE TP
SITE TP
SITE TP
SITE TP
DO
ro
(a) AAR = Applications Analysis Report; DB = Demonstration Bulletin; ETB = Emerging Technology Bulletin;
SITE TP = SITE Technology Profiles EPA/540/R-92/077; TDS = Technology Demonstration Summary;
TER = Technology Evaluation Report.
EPA Project Manager and vendor contacts are listed in SITE Technology Profiles.
-------
TABLE B-3. (continued)
Vendor/Technology
IT Corporation, Knoxville, TN
Batch Steam Distillation and Metal
Extraction
IT Corporation, Knoxville, TN
Mixed Waste Treatment Process
Montana College of Mineral
Science & Technology, Butte, MT "
Campbell Centrifugal Jig
New Jersey Institute of Technology,
Newark, NJ
GHEA Associates Process
PSI Technology Company,
Andover, MA
Metals Immobilization and
Decontamination of Aggregate
Solids
Technology Summary
Waste soil slurried in water is heated to
100°C to vaporize the VOCs. Metals
are then removed by HCI extraction.
Acid extract is treated in a bath
distillation system, where the acid is
recovered and a metal concentrate
sludge is drawn off.
The process begins with thermal
treatment to remove volatiles.
Inorganics are removed by gravity
separation, chemical precipitation, and
chelant extraction.
Slurried material is fed into the
Campbell Centrifugal Jig. Heavy
contaminants pass through the jig bed
to become concentrates, while particles
with a lower specific gravity are flushed
off the jig head as tailings.
Soil is excavated, washed with
surfactants, and rinsed. Contaminants
are separated from the surfactants by
desorption and are isolated as
concentrate.
Contaminated material is incinerated
causing metals to concentrate in the fly
ash. The fly ash is then treated with a
sorbent to immobilize the metals.
Test Location
Knoxville, TN
Pilot scale at
Johnston Atoll in
the South Pacific
Butte, MT
Newark, NJ
Andover, MA
Typically Applicable
Contaminants
Metals
Non-specific in-
organics,
radioactive mate-
rials
Metals
Metals
Metals (particularly
As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Ni,
and Zn)
Matrix
Soils
Soils
Soils
Soils, sludges,
sediments,
groundwater,
surface water,
point source in-
dustrial effluent
Soils, sedi-
ments, sludges
Sources of Additional
Information13'
SITE TP
SITE TP
SITE TP
SITETP
SITE TP
00
_*
CO
(a) MR = Applications Analysis Report; DB = Demonstration Bulletin; ETB = Emerging Technology Bulletin;
SITE TP = SITE Technology Profiles EPA/540/R-92/077; TDS = Technology Demonstration Summary;
TER = Technology Evaluation Report.
EPA Project Manager and vendor contacts are listed in SITE Technology Profiles.
-------
TABLE B-3. (continued)
Vendor/Technology
Vortec Corporation, Coltegeville, PA
Oxidation and Vitrification Process
Warren Spring Laboratory
(changed to National
Environmental Technology Centre)
Hertsfordshire, United Kingdom
Physical and Chemical Treatment
Technology Summary
Contaminated soil Is Introduced to a
precombustor where moisture vaporizes
and organics oxidize. The material then
moves to a fossil-fueled combustor
where it is heated to form a molten
glass product This end product is
tapped into a slag tank.
Feed material is screened, scrubbed
with water, and sized into 10-50 mm, 1-
10 mm, and <1 mm. Less than 1 mm
fraction undergoes removal of days
(<0.1 mm), density separation,
magnetic separation, fresh flotation, or
multi-gravity separator separation.
Several clean and contaminated
streams result Water is treated and
recycled
Test Location
Collegeville, PA
Hertsfordshire,
United Kingdom
(Don facility)
Typically Applicable
Contaminants
Metals (As, Cd, Cr,
Cu,Pb,N5,Zh)
Organics and
metals As, Cd, Zh,
Pb, and cyanide
Matrix
Soils, sedi-
ments, sludges,
mill tailings
Soils, sedi-
ments, sludges
Sources of Additional
biformation(a)
SITETP
StTETP
GO
(a) MR = Applications Analysis Report; OB = Demonstration Bulletin; ETB = Emerging Technology Bulletin;
SITE TP = SITE Technology Profiles EPA/540/R-92/077; TDS = Technology Demonstration Summary;
TER = Technology Evaluation Report.
EPA Project Manager and vendor contacts are listed in SITE Technology Profiles.
-------
TABLE B-4. SUMMARY TABLE OF SITE PROGRAM EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES FOR METAL-CONTAMINATED WATER
Vendor/Technology
Atomic Energy of Canada, Ltd.
Chalk River, Ontario
Chemical Treatment and
Ultrafiltration
Bio-Recovery Systems, Inc.,
Las Cruces, NM
Biological Sorption
Colorado School of Mines,
Golden, CO
Wetlands-Based Treatment
Electro-Pure Systems, Inc.,
Amherst, NY
Alternating Current Electro-
coagulation Technology
Montana College of Mineral
Science & Technology, Butte, MT
Air-Sparged Hydrocyclone
University of South Carolina,
Columbia, SC
In Situ Mitigation of Acid Water
Technology Summary
Selective removal of metal contaminants
from water occurs through the use of
prefilters, two banks of filters, and
polyelectrolyte addition.
A contaminated solution is passed
through an algae-based sorbent system.
The algae matrix becomes saturated
with metals which can then be removed
with reagents.
Contaminated waters flow into the
zones of a man-made wetland
ecosystem. The metals are removed by
filtration, ion exchange, adsorption,
absorption, and precipitation.
Highly charged polyhydroxide
aluminum species are introduced to a
contaminated solution. An alternating
current field is applied to form a floc-
culant to trap contaminants.
The air-sparged hydrocyclone uses a
porous air cylinder with a traditional
cyclone header to separate
contaminated materials by flotation.
During mine construction, surface
depressions are installed to collect
" runoff. These funnel and divert the
water into the waste rock dump through
chimneys constructed of limestone.
This alkaline source material serves to
buffer acids in the water.
Test Location
Chalk River
Laboratories, and
a uranium mine
tailings site in
Ontario
A hazardous
waste site in
Oakland, CA
Proposed for the
Burleigh Tunnel
near Silver Plume,
CO
Amherst, NY
Butte, MT
University of
South Carolina
Typically Applicable
Contaminants
Metals (i.e., Cd, Pb,
Hg, U, Mn, Ni, Cr,
Ag)
Metals
Metals typically acid-
ic
Metals
Low concentration
metals, generally sul-
fide materials
Most metals
Matrix
Groundwater,
leachate, surface
runoff, industrial
effluent
Groundwater,
process waste-
waters
Acid mine drain-
age
Aqueous solu-
tions and sus-
pensions
Aqueous solu-
tions
Acid drainage
Sources of Additional
lnformation(a)
ETB EPA/540/F-92/002
ETB EPA/540/F-92/003
ETB EPA/540/F-92/001
ETBEPA/540/F-92/011
SITETP
SITE TP
DO
01
(a) ETB = Emerging Technology Bulletin; SITE TP = SITE Technology Profiles EPA/540/R-92/077.
EPA Project Manager and vendor contacts are listed in SITE Technology Profiles.
-------
TABLE B-4. (continued)
Vendor/Technology
University of Washington,
Seattle, WA
Adsorptive nitration
Western Product Recovery
Group, Inc.
Houston, TX
CCBA Physical and Chemical
Treatment
Technology Summary
A contaminated solution is adjusted to a
pH of 9 to 10 and passed through a
column of sand with adsorbent coating.
When adsorbed capacity is reached,
contaminants may be recovered in
concentrate with an acid.
Contaminated material is mixed with
clays and formed into pellets. The
pellets are fired in a rotary kiln where
silica in the clay bonds to metals to
form a metal silicate product.
Test Location
Seattle, WA
Houston, TX
Typically Applicable
Contaminants
Metals (Cd, Cu, Pb
at 0.5 ppm)
Metals
Matrix
Aqueous
wastestreams
Wastewaters,
sludges,
sediments, soils
Sources of Additional
Information'8'
ETB EPA/540/F-92/OOB
SITE TP
00
O)
(a) ETB = Emerging Technology Bulletin; SITE TP = SITE Technology Profiles EPA/540/Pr92/077.
EPA Project Manager and vendor contacts are listed in SITE Technology Profiles.
-------
APPENDIX C
SUMMARY OF METAL-CONTAMINATED WASTE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY VENDORS SHOWN
IN VISITT VERSION 3.0 (1994)
Notes:
Inclusion in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's VISITT (Vendor Information
System for Innovative Treatment Technologies) database does not mean that the
EPA approves, recommends, licenses, certifies, or authorizes the use of any of the
technologies. Nor does EPA certify the accuracy of the data. Listing in this
database means only that the vendor has provided information on a technology that
EPA considers to be eligible.
VISITT is updated periodically. For information on availability and updates, call the
VISITT Hotline at (800) 245-4505 or (703) 883-8448.
3. This Appendix includes only those companies that have identified metals as the
contaminant of treatment, except for the Materials Handling/Physical Separation
Technology category which is not contaminant-specific.
C-1
-------
TABLE C-1. SUMMARY OF METAL-CONTAMINATED WASTE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
VENDORS SHOWN IN VISITT VERSION 3.0
Technology
Vitrification
Vendor
B&W-Nuclear
Environmental Services,
Inc. (ex situ)
EET Corp.
(ex situ)
Battelle Pacific NW
Laboratories (ex situ)
Electro-Pyrolysis, Inc. (ex
situ)
Geosafe Corp.
(in situ)
ReTech (ex situ)
Vortec Corp.
(ex situ)
Cost
($/ton)W
460-530/wet
ton
No Data
50-300/wet
ton
No Data
300-500
600-1,200
40-100
Media
Soil
Sludge
Soil
Soil
Soil, Slag,
Sediment
Soil, Sediment
Sludge
Soil, Slag,
Sludge
Slag, Off-Gas
Slag
Contaminants
Uranium
Cr
Ni
Pb
Cd
Ag
No Data
Ba
Cd
Pb
Heavy metals
Hg
No Data
Cd
Cu
Ni
Pb
Cd
As
Ba
Cd
Untreated
Cone, Range
(ms/kg)W
30-150 pCi/g
500 ppm
100-500 ppm
250-500 ppm
15-500 ppm
200-500 ppm
No Data
0.76 ppm
0.23 ppm
0.73 ppm
0-500
60 ppm
No Data
0.067
4.6
0.22
8.4-14.1
ND-8.9
3,000
3,000
3,000
Treated
Cone. Range
(mg/kg)(a>
<10-30pCi/g
0.015-0.054 ppm
0.015-0.039 ppm
0.05-0.219 ppm
0.015-0.339 ppm
Not Detected
No Data
<0.05 ppm
0.05 ppm
<0.05 ppm
Not Detected
<0.1 ppm
No Data
< 0.039 mg/L
0.15 mg/L
<0.11 mg/L
<0.3-0.73
Not Detected
No Data
No Data
No Data
Scale of
Operation
Pilot
Pilot
Bench
Pilot
Pilot
Full
Full
Pilot
Pilot
Full
8
(a) Unless other units are stated with the value.
-------
TABLE C-1. (continued)
Technology
Vitrification
(cont)
Soil Washing
Vendor
Vortec Corp. (cont)
Alternative
Remedial
Technologies,-lnc.
(ex situ)
B&W-Nuclear
Environmental
Services, Inc. (ex
situ)
Bergman
(ex situ)
Cost
($/ton)^
40-100
85-225
6-12/ft3
75-125
Media
Slag (cont)
Soil (ex situ)
Soil
Soil
Sediment
Contaminants
Cr
Pb
Cesium
Cerium
As
Pb
Cd
Cr
Pb
Zn
CN
Cr
Ni
Cu
As
Cr
U
Cd
Cr
Hg
Ni
Pb
Zn
Untreated
Cone. Range
(mg/kg)
3,000
3,000
3,000
3,000
ND-274
ND-2,025
ND-181
ND-842
500-1,000
6,040
200-1,000
500-5,000
300-3,500
800-8,500
15-455
20-590
30-150 pCi/g
0.50
23.9
0.061
11.5
20.4
96.1
Treated
Cone. Range
(mg/kg)W
No Data
5
No Data
No Data
Not Detected
ND-0.087
ND-0.008
ND-0.063
90
90
5
73
25
110
20
16
10-30 pCi/g
0.06
10.8
0.008
3.3
7.42
17.1
Scale of
Operation
Full
Pilot
Full
Full
Pilot
Pilot
(a) Unless other units are stated with the value.
-------
TABLE C-1. (continued)
Technology
Soil Washing (cont)
Vendor
Bergman (cont)
Bio- Recovery
Canonle
Earth
Decontaminators
Inc. (ex situ)
Geochem
NUKEM
On-Site
Technologies
Scientific Ecology
Tuboscope Vetco
Cost
(S/ton)(a)
75-125
No Data
50-100
110-170
No Data
70-300
40-120
100-300
30-200/yd3
Media
Soil, Sediment
No Data
Soil, Sediment
Soil
Soil
Soil, Sediment
Soil, Sediment
Soil
Soil
Contaminants
Cu
Pb
Pb
Cu
No Data
Pb
Pb
Pb
Hg
Cu
Pb
As
Cr
Pb
Radium
Cu
U
Hg
Radium Sulfate
Pb
Ba
Cr
Pb
Untreated
Cone, Range
(mg/kg)W
9.2-42.2
63-127
280-14,000
190-9,500
No Data
2,700
8,000 ppm
500-700
80-120
1.0-100
1.0-100
250
150
12,000
3-21 pCi/g
1,000-2,000 ppm
100-200
1,000-5,000
50-225
3,300
2,000
1,000
500
Treated
Cone. Range
(mg/kg)®
13.8
23-82
0.1-1.5
0.1-4
No Data
5.8
<30 ppm
200-240
20-24
0.01-1.0
0.01-1.0
20
15
500
4 PCi/g
100-250 ppm
40-80
100-300
2-5
204 .
200
250
100
Scale Of
Operation
Full
Bench
Full
Pilot
Bench
Bench
Full
Full
Bench
Pilot
Full
(a) Unless other units are stated with the value.
-------
TABLE C-1. (continued)
Technology
Acid Extraction
Vendor
Center for
Hazardous
Materials Research
COGNIS
Earth Treatment
Technologies, Inc.
IT Corporation
Cost
($/ton)(a)
60-160
100-200
100-250
No Data
Media
Soil, Slag,
Sludge,
Sediment
Soil
Soil
Slag
Soil
Contaminants
Pb
Cd
Zn
Pb
Zn
Hg
Pb, Hg, Cu, Cd,
Sb, Ag, Cr, Ni
Pb
Cu
Pb
Hg
Hg-Soluble
Ni
Pb
Cr
Cd
Cu
Vanadium
As
Ba
Cd
Cr
Untreated
Cone. Range
(mg/kg)
900-30,000
200-2,000
1,000-30,000
1,000-100,000
1,000-100,000
5,000-15,000
500-86,000
780-5,700 ppm
2,000-7,300
470-130,000
32-1,200
32-1,200
315-1,520
1,000-4,900 ppm
400-1 ,000 ppm
400-1,200
500-2,200 ppm
27.8
8.5
417
5.2
224
Treated
Cone. Range
(mg/kg)^
500-1,000
20-100
50-1,000
50-50,000
50-50,000
<50
30-300
70-170 ppm
50-180
ND-162
2-14
ND-0.16
ND-2.2
ND-1.3ppm
Not Detected
ND-1
10-28 ppm
0.8
<0.12
4.7
0.017
5.1
Scale of
Operation
Pilot
Bench
Full
Bench
Full
Bench
Pilot
(a) Unless other units are stated with the value.
-------
s
Technology
Acid Extraction
(cont)
Electrical
Separation
Magnetic
Separation
Treatment
Materials
Handling/
Physical Separation
TABLE C-1. (continued)
Vendor
IT Corporation
(cont)
Electrokinetics, Inc.
(ex situ)
S.G. Frantz Co.,
Inc. (ex situ)
Canonie
ECOVA, Corp.
Microfluidics Corp.
(ex situ)
Onsite/Offstte
Inc./Battelle
Portec, Inc. (in situ
or ex situ)
Recra Environ-
mental, Inc. (ex
situ)
Cost
($/ton)(ffl)
No Data
20-100/yd3
60-6,000
100-150
50-150
No Data
No Data
20-200
1-5
Media
Soil
Soil
Sediment
Slag
Soil, Sediment
Soil, Sludge,
Sediment
Slag
Slag
Slag .
Sludge
Sludge
Soil, Sludge
Sludge
Soil, Slag,
Sludge,
Sediment
Soil, Slag,
Sludge,
Sediment
Contaminants
Pb
Hg
Ag
Zh
Pb
U
Heavy metals
Plutonium
Contaminating
minerals
U
Pb
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
Untreated
Cone. Range
(mg/kg}
2,300
1.2
3.3
979
500-130,000
1,000 pCi/g
No Data
15,500-15,700
10,000-50,000
4,000-14,000
100-200
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
Treated
Cone. Range
(mg/kg)W
7.8
0.8
<0.015
2.7
20-50,000
10-90 pCi/g
No Data
5,100-8,600
5-20
300-3,900
ND-5
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
Scale of
Operation
Pilot
Pilot
Bench
Full
Bench
Pilot
Pilot
Full
Pilot
Bench
Full
Full
(a) Unless other units are stated with the value.
-------
TABLE C-1. (continued)
Technology
Chemical
Treatment-Other
Slagging
Vendor
DAW Research &
Development, Ltd.
(ex situ)
EPS
Environmental, Inc.
Integrated
Chemistries, Inc.
Viking Industries
.ETUS, Inc.
(in situ or
ex situ)
Horsehead
Resource
Development Co.
Cost
($/ton)W
No Data
No Data
0.2/ft2
0.05/gal
20-50
150-300
Media
Soil
Slag
Slag
Sludge
Soil, GW,
Sediment
Soil, Sludge
Sludge
Soil, Slag,
Sludge, GW,
Sediment
Soil
Slag
Sludge
Contaminants
As
Cr
Pb
Hg
Zn
Hg
Cr
Zinc Cyanide
Nickel Cyanide
Cadmium Cyanide
As
Organic Pb
Ni
Pb
Cr (VI and total)
Pb
Pb
Cd
Pb
Cd
Untreated
Cone. Range
(mg/kg)
1,204
612
156
10-100-
414
0.022-0.697
569
8.14 mg/L
808 mg/L
605 mg/L
1-5 ppm
5-200
100-5,000
10-10,000 ppm
100-10,000 ppm
118,000
48,200-61,700
356-512
8.2%
0.7%
Treated
Cone. Range
(mg/kg)
112
74
10
0.4-2.0
68
ND-0.003
175
0.1 mg/L
3.4 mg/L
0.2 mg/L
0.001-0.005 ppm
0.01-1.0
1.0-5.0
0.01-5.0 ppm
0.1-2.0 ppm
2,100-8,900
1,560-11,400
<2.3-13.5
0.15%
0.005%
Scale of
Operation
Bench
Full
Full
Bench
Full
Full
Full
Full
Pilot
Full
Full
Full
o
(a) Unless other units are stated with the value.
-------
TABLE C-1. (continued)
Technology
Thermal Desorption
Vendor
Hazen Research,
Inc.
Pittsburgh Mineral
& Environmental
Tech.
Cost
($/ton)(a>
No Data
400-700
Media
Soil, Slag, Off-
gas, Sludge
Slag, Sludge
Soil
Contaminants
Hg
Hg
Hg
Untreated
Cone. Range
(mg/kgp
1,000-300,000
4-25,000 ppm
1,000-15,000 ppm
Treated
Cone. Range
jmg/kg)«
0.001-0.023
0.05-1 ppm
0.05-0.8 ppm
Scale of
Operation
Pilot
Bench
Pilot
(a) Unless other units are stated with the value.
2
-------
METAL-TREATMENT VENDORS, ADDRESSES, AND CONTACTS
Alternative Remedial Technologies, Inc.
Michael J. Mann, P.E.
14497 North Dale Mabry Hwy.
Tampa, FL 33618
(813)264-3506
B&W-Nuclear Environmental Services
LP. Williams
2220 Langhorne Rd.
Lynchburg, VA 24501
(804) 948-4610
Battelle Pacific NW Laboratories
Chris Johnson
Battelle Blvd.
P.O. Box 999
Richland, WA 99352
(509) 372-2273
Bergmann
Richard P. Traver, P.E.
1550 Airport Rd.
Gallatin, TN 37066-3739
(615) 452-5500
Bio-Recovery
Godfrey A. Crane
2001 Cooper Ave.
Las Cruces, NM 88005-7105
(505) 523-0405
Canonie
Alistair H. Montgomery
94 Iverness Terrace East
Suite 100
Englewood, CO 80112
(303) 790-1747
Center for Hazardous Materials Research
Stephen W. Paff
320 William Pitt Way
Pittsburgh, PA 15238
(412) 426-5320
COGNIS
Bill Fristad
2330 Circadian Way
Santa Rosa, CA 95407
(707) 575-7155
DAVY Research & Development, Ltd.
Dr. Graham Wightman
P.O. Box 37, Bowesfield Lane
Stockton-on-Tees
TS18 3HA England
44-642-607-108
Earth Decontaminators, Inc.
Steve Sawdon
2803 Barranca Pkwy.
Irvine, CA 92714
(714) 262-2290
Earth Treatment Technologies, Inc.
Troy DuGuay
Dutton Mill Industrial Park
396 Turner Way
Aston, PA 19014
(610) 497-6729
EET Corporation
Robert D. Peterson
11217 Outlet Dr.
Knoxville, TN 37932
(615) 671-7800 . . .
Electrokinetics, Inc.
Robert Marks/Yalcin Acer/Robert Gale
LA Business and Technology Center
South Stadium Drive, Suite 155
Baton Rouge, LA 70803-6100
(504) 388-3992
Electro-Pyrolsis, Inc.
Dr. J. Kenneth Wittle
996 Old Eagle School Rd.
Suite 118
Wayne, PA 19087
(610) 687-9070
EPS Environmental, Inc.
Noel Spindler
520 Victor Street
Saddle Brook, NJ 07662
(201) 368-7902
C-9
-------
ETUS, Inc.
Mark Wemhoff
1511 Kastner Place
Sanford, FL 32771
(407) 321-7910
GAIA Services, Inc.
TJ. Lowrance
Loop Sta., P.O. Box 314
Chicago, IL 60690
(312) 329-0368
Geochem
Dr. Roman Z Pyrih
12596 W. Bayaud Ave., Suite 205
Lakewood, CO 80228
(303) 988-8902
Geosafe Corp.
James E. Hansen
2950 George Washington Way
Richland, WA 99352
(509) 375-0710
Hazen Research, Inc.
Barry J. Jansen
4601 Indiana Street
Golden, CO 80403
(303) 279-4501
Horsehead Resource Development Co.
Regis J. Zagrocki
300 Frankfort Rd.
Monaca, PA 15061
(412) 773-2289
Integrated Chemistries, Inc.
Cathy Iverson
1970 Oakcrest Ave.
Suite 215
St. Paul, MN 55113
(612) 636-2380
IT Corporation
Edward Alperin
304 Directors Drive
Knoxville.TN 37933
(615)690-3211
Microfluidics Corp.
Irwin Gruverman
90 Oak Street
Newton, MA 02164-9101
(617) 969-5452
NUKEM
John R. Weber
3000 Richmond Ave.
Houston, TX 77098
(713) 520-9494
On-Site Technologies
Benjamin Roberts, Ph.D.
1715 South Bascom Ave.
Campbell, CA 95008
(408) 371-4810
Onsite * Offsite Inc./Battelle PNL
Norman Banns
2042 Central Ave
Duarte, CA 91010
(818) 303-2229
Pittsburgh Mineral & Environmental Tech.
William F. Sutton
700 Fifth Avenue
New Brighton, PA 15066
(412) 843-5000
Portec, Inc.
Mark Mulloy
904 West 23rd Street
P.O. Box 220
Yankton, SD 57078-0220
(605) 665-8770
Recra Environmental, Inc.
James F. LaDue
10 Hazelwood Drive, Suite 110
Amherst, NY 14228-2298
(716) 691-2600
ReTech
Ronald K. Womack
100 Henry Station Road
P.O. Box 997
Ukiah, CA 95482
(707) 462-6522
C-10
-------
Scientific Ecology
Patrick Keegan/David Grant
Nuclear Waste Technology Dept.
1501 Ardmore Blvd.
Pittsburgh, PA 15221
(412) 247-6255
S.G. Frantz Co., Inc.
Thomas D. Wellington
31 East Darrah Lane
Lawrence Township, NJ 08648
(609) 882-7100
Tuboscope Vetco
Dr. Myron I. Kuhlman
2835 Holmes Rd.
Houston, TX 77051
(713) 799-5289
Viking Industries
Don T. Pearson
1015 Old Lascassas Rd.
Murfreesboro, TN 37130
(615) 890-1018
Vortec Corporation
James G. Hnat
3370 Ridge Pike
Collegeville, PA 19426-3158
(610) 489-2255
C-11
-------
-------
APPENDIX D
SELECTED METAL-CONTAMINATED SITES
This appendix summarizes contaminant type, waste matrix, cleanup goals, remedial options, and
status at selected sites where metals are key contaminants of concern. The sites were selected based on
examination of Record of Decision (ROD), remedial investigation/feasibility study (RI/FS), Remedial
Design/Remedial Action (RD/RA), and RCRA corrective action information for metal-contaminated sites, with
emphasis on those having arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, or mercury contamination. These data are
compiled to indicate the range of conditions and types of remedial options selected for metal-contaminated
sites. The compilation is neither complete nor representative of all sites where metals are the prime
contaminants of concern. The selection of sites generally avoids lead-acid battery recycling sites, wood
preserving sites, pesticide sites, and mining and primary mineral sites because these sites are covered by
other technical resources documents. However, sites that have recently issued RODs selecting innovative
technologies are included. The sites cover the range of commercial and innovative technologies for metals
remediation with an emphasis on innovative technologies.
D-1
-------
TABLE D-1. SUMMARY OF SELECTED METAL-CONTAMINATED SITES
o
to
Region
1
2
Site Name/
Location/Site Type
Saco Tannery Waste
Pits (OU-1 Final)
Saco, Maine
Leather tannery
process wastes
disposed to two 2-acre
lagoons and 53
smaller disposal pits
De Rewal Chemical
(OU-1)
Frenchtown, New
Jersey
Chemical company
manufacturing textile
preservative and
fungicide
Contaminants
and Initial
Cone. Range
Cr(lll) (soli)
57,000 mg/kg
Cr(lll) (sediment)
50,000 mg/kg
Cr(VI) (soil)
2,625 mg/kg
Cr(VI) (sediment)
2,297 mg/kg
As (soil)
33 mg/kg
As (sediment)
1,210 mg/kg
As(GW)
79|ig/L
Cr (soil)
< 1,270 mg/kg
Cu (soil)
<4,160 mg/kg
Hg (soil)
<2.5 mg/kg
Cyanide (soil)
<304 mg/kg
organics
Matrix Cleanup Goal
Soil, sediment, Total Cr,
sludge, GW, 2,000 mg/kg
and SW based on
ecological
risk
assessment
Pb, 125
mg/Kg
As
60 mg/kg
Soil Cr (soil)
8,000 yd3 100 mg/kg
Cr(GW)
50//g/L
Cu
170 mg/kg
Hg
1 mg/kg
Cyanide
12 mg/kg
Technology status
Contingent upon the state desig- ROD date
natlng the site a permanent conser- 09/27/89
vation area: Groundwater pump and
treatment, revegetation, wetland Construction
compensation, Institutional controls complete1*'
10/26/93
.
Excavation and onsite incineration of ROD date
organics 09/29/89
Solidification of metal-contaminated
soils and ash from incineration
GW pumping and offsite treatment at
a wastewater treatment plant
Land use restrictions
.
<•
,
~ " — '-' — ! -'- - -__*
Source
EPA/625/6-89/022
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.&05
Annotated Tech-
nical Reference
Annotated Tech-
nical Reference
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
"Construction complete" indicates sites where all construction of cleanup remedies is complete but the site cannot yet be deleted from the NPL because long-term efforts
such as groundwater cleanup may be required. " ' '
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
Site Name/
Region Location/Site Type
2 Ewan Property (OU-2
Final)
Shamong Township,
New Jersey
43-aore industrial
waste disposal
area
2 GE Wiring Devices
(OU-1 Rnal)
Puerto Rico
5-acre site for
assembly of mercury
switches
2 Genzale Plating Co.
Franklin Square, New
York
0.5-acre electroplating
site
Contaminants
and Initial
Cone. Range
Cr
8 - 208 mg/L
Pb
3 - 292 mg/L
Cu
4.5 - 4,920 mg/L
Pb
2 - 56,600 mg/kg "
Organics
Hg (soil)
ND to 62 mg/kg
Hg (GW)
ND to 7,000 //g/L
-
Ba
36,400 mg/kg
Cr
37,300 mg/kg
Ni
58,000 mg/kg
TCE
53 mg/kg
Matrix
Soil and GW
34,000 yd3
22,000 yd3
(soil)
Soil, debris,
andGW
1,500yd3
(soil)
500,000 gal
(GW)
Soil and
groundwater
2,080 yd3
(soil and leach
pit material)
Cleanup Goal
Cr(GW)
50 //g/L
Pb(GW)
50//g/L
Treated soil
to meet State
Solid Waste
Regulations
Treated water
to meet state
water quality
criteria and
MCLs
Hg
16.4 mg/kg
or 21 ppb
according to
air monitoring
(soil, GW,
wastefill)
Ba
3,500 mg/kg
Cr
6.7 mg/kg
Ni
30 mg/kg
TCE
1 mg/kg
Technology
Excavating and treating soil with sol-
vent extraction and soil washing fol-
lowed by redepositing treated soil on
site as dean fill
Treating and disposing of spent
solvent off site
Treating spent washwater on site
using GW treatment system
Regrading and revegetation
GW pumping and treatment followed
by reinjection into the aquifer
Environmental monitoring
Onsite hydrometallurgical treatment
of the soil, perched GW, and
residues with treated material
disposed of in former waste-fill area
followed by cover with a clean soil
Onsite treatment of leaching agent
with residual discharge to POTW
GW monitoring
In situ vacuum extraction to remove
organics, excavation, and offsite
treatment and disposal, backfill with
clean offsite soil
Pumping and treatment of GW on
site using precipitation and air
stripping, GW reinjection, residuals
treated off site
Status
ROD date
09/29/89
Currently
preparing to
perform drum
removal and
GW pump and
treat
Metals soil
washing demo
on hold
Predesign
completion
planned 1995
ROD date
09/30/88
In design
Completion
planned 1993
ROD date
03/29/91
Construction
scheduled to
begin late
1993
Source
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
Innovative Treat-
ment Technologies
Annual Status
Report EPA/542-R-
93-003
Annotated Tech-
nical Reference
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
Contaminants and
Site Name/ Initial
Region Location/Site Type Cone. Range
2 King of Prussia Cr (soil, sludge, and
(OU-1) sediment 0 to 2 ft)
<8,010 mg/kg
Winslow Township, Cr (soil, sludge, and
New Jersey sediment 2 to 10 ft)
<1 1,300 mg/kg
10-acre abandoned Cr (GW)
waste disposal/ < 1 ,040 (jg/L
recycling facility
Cu (soil, sludge, and
sediment 0 to 2 ft)
< 9,070 mg/kg
Cu (soil, sludge, and
sediment 2 to 10 ft)
< 16,300 mg/kg
Cu (GW)
<1 2,500 //g/L
Pb (soil, sludge, and
sediment 0 to 2 ft)
<87 mg/kg
Pb (soil, sludge, and
sediment 2 to 10ft)
<389 mg/kg
Pb(GW)
No data
Hg (soil, sludge, and
sediment 0 to 2 ft)
<100 mg/kg
Hg (soil, sludge, and
sediment 2 to 10 ft)
< 1.7 mg/kg
Hg (GW)
Not detected
Matrix Cleanup Goal
Soil, sediment, Cr (soil)
debris, and 483 mg/kg
GW
Cr(GW)
50 //g/L
Cu (soil)
3,571 mg/kg
Cu(GW)
1,000 //g/L
Pb (soil)
250
- -1000 mg/kg
target
500 mg/kg
Hg (soil)
1 mg/kg
Hg(GW)
2 //g/L
Technology
Excavating lagoon sludge, soil
adjacent to the lagoons, and
sediment In the swale; treating
these materials by soil washing
for metals removal (using both
physical separation and polishing
with surfactants); and
redepositing the residual
materials In their original location
on site
Excavating and disposing of
buried drums, their contents, and
visibly contaminated soil on site
Removing deteriorating tank
trucks containing waste materials
for offsite disposal
GW pumping, treatment by air
stripping, followed by reinjecting
of GW and offsite disposal of
residuals
Environmental monitoring
Institutional controls including
GW use restrictions
Status
ROD date
09/28/90
Design
completed
ART performed
full-scale soil
washing from
June to October
1993. 19,200
tons of soils
were
remediated.
Approximately
85% of the soils
were redeposited
to their original
location.
Source
ROD Annual
Report EPA
9355.6-05
Alternative
Remedial
Technologies
(ART), Inc. News
Release
"• -
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
Region
2
2
2
Site Name/
Location/Site Type
King of Prussia
(continued)
Marathon Battery
Company (OU-3
Final)
Cold Spring, New
York
Nickel cadmium
battery maker
Nascolite
(OU-2 Rnal)
Millville,
Cumberland
County, New Jersey
17.5-acre former
plexiglas making
facility
Contaminants and
Initial
Cone. Range
Ni (soil, sludge,
and sediment 0 to
2 ft) <387 mg/kg
Ni (soil, sludge,
and sediment 2 to
10ft) < 11,100
mg/kg
Ni (GW) <4,670
//g/L
Gd
0.3-3,000 mg/kg
Ni
16-1 ,260 mg/kg
VOCs including
PCE and TCE
Pb (Soil)
< 41 ,800 mg/kg
Matrix Cleanup Goal
Ni (soil)
1,935 mg/kg
Ni (GW)
210 //g/L
Sediment Cd
30,083 yd3 10 mg/kg
6,100yd3 Ni
(soil) No ARARs for
sediments
5,000 yd3
(sediment)
Soil All unsaturated
8,000 yd3 soil containing
more than 500
mg/kg Pb will
be excavated
and stabilized
on site
Technology Status
Dredge sediments to a depth of 1 foot, ROD date
followed by onsite chemical fixation, and 09/29/89
offsite disposal at a sanitary landfill
Operational
Sediment monitoring Completion
planned fall
1995
Excavating, treating, and stabilizing ROD date
unsaturated and wetlands soil containing 06/28/91
lead above 500 mg/kg; backfilling
excavation pits using treated soil; Construction
transporting wetland sediment not planned 1994
suitable for stabilization to an offsite
facility; restoring any affected wetlands
Conducting asbestos abatement and
offsite disposal
.. -'**'• •
Source
Annotated
Technical
Reference
ROD Annual
Report EPA
9355.6-05
93/94 Guide
to Superfund
Sites',' Pasha
Publications,
Inc., 1993
ROD Annual
Report EPA
9355.6-05
93/94 Guide
Sites, Pasha
Publications,
Inc., 1993
accordance with asbestos regulations;
decontamination, onsite treatment,.
recycling, or offsite disposal of
associated debris
Institutional controls
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
Site Name/
Region Location/Site Type
2 Preferred Plating Corp
(OU-1)
Farmlngdale, New
York
1 Ulf\
0.5-acre plating facility
2 Ringwood Mines
. Landfill (OU-1 Rnal)
New Jersey
Paint sludge disposal
2 Roebling Steel (OU-2)
Roebling, New Jersey
34-acre slag area
Contaminants
and Initial
Cone. Range Matrix
Cr 56,3 - 5,850 GW
mg/L
Pb 4.6 -437
mg/L
Cd 8.4 - 399
mg/L
organlcs
Pb (soil) Soil
< 1,300 mg/kg
Pb(GW)
85 ppb
As (GW)
57 ppb
Petroleum
hydrocarbons
As 1.4 -64.3 Soil and slag
mg/kg
Cd 0.84 - 9.7
mg/kg
Cr 94.8-2,210
mg/kg
Hg 0.09 -458
mg/kg
Pb 10.3 - 10,400
mg/kg
Cleanup Goal
GW cleanup
goals based
on SDWA,
MCLs, and
State water
quality
regulations
Pb (soil)
250 mg/kg
Pb (GW)
50 ppb
As(GW)
50 ppb
" • • -•••• — • - - n | •
Technology
GW pumping and treatment using
precipitation, carbon adsorption, and
Ion exchange; GW rejection; offsite
disposal of treatment residues
Soil sampling and excavation if
needed, with offsite disposal, back-
filling, regrading, and revegetation
Groundwater and surface water
monitoring
Solidification of highly contaminated
slag material. Grading and capping
the entire slag area with a single
layer soil cover and vegetation.
Excavation of 160 yd3 of
contaminated soil and disposal at an
appropriate off-site facility.
w-i n S=
Status
ROD date
09/22/89
To start 9/93
To complete
summer 94
ROD date
09/29/88
Construction
complete''1
10/26/93
Scheduled to
delete from
NPL in 1996
ROD date
9/26/91
Source
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
Superfund Week
7(33):6
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
Annotated Tech-
nical Reference
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
Site Name/
Region Location/Site Type
2 Waldick Aerospace
(OU-1)
Wall Township, New
Jersey
2-acre aerospace parts
manufacturing facility
3 Aladdin Plating (OU-1)
Clarks Summit,
Pennsylvania
2-acre electroplating
facility
3 Brown's Battery
Breaking Site (OU-2)
Pennsylvania
Lead acid battery
brs&kino
Contaminants
and Initial
Cone. Range
Cd (soil)
< 16,200 mg/kg
Cr(soil)
<4,390 mg/kg
Zn (soil)
<3,840 mg/kg
Ni (soil)
<140 mg/kg
organics
Cr (soil)
1,000 mg/kg
Pb
No data
Sulfates
Acids
Organics
Matrix Cleanup Goal
Soil Cd (soil)
3.0 mg/kg
Cr (soil)
100 mg/kg
Zn (soil)
350 mg/kg
Ni (soil)
100 mg/kg
Soil Cr (soil)
12,000yd3 50 mg/kg
Soil, GW, and Pb
battery casings No data
Technology
Air stripping of saturated zone (8,000
yd3)
Excavation and offsite disposal of
2,500 yd3 of residuals
Demolition or decontamination of a
building selected depending on the
volume of contaminated soil below
the building
Institutional controls
Excavation and offsite stabilization,
followed by offsite disposal in a
landfill, and replacement by clean fill
Treatment of casings and soil off site
by innovative high-temperature lead
recovery
Pumping of GW with on-site
treatment and disposal
Status
ROD date
09/29/87
.
ROD date
09/27/88
Remedial
action (S/S)
completed
ROD date
07/02/92
Predesign
completion
planned late
1993
Source
Annotated
Technical Reference
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
nical Reference
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
Innovative Treat-
ment Technologies
Annual Status
Report EPA/542-R-
93-003
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
o
do
Contaminants
Site Name/ and Initial
Region Location/Site Type Cone. Range
3 Eastern Diversified Pb (fluff)
Metals (OU-3) 1,490 mg/kg -
>40,000 mg/kg
Pennsylvania
Metals reclamation for
wire and cable
Lead as additive in
electrical insulation -
chemical form lead
phthalate in plastic
—t,*-.—
chips
3 Halby Chemical (OU- As
1) No data
New Castle, Delaware organics
Production of sulfur
compounds and
chemical storage
Matrix
Waste in-
sulation from
wire (fluff)
consisting pri-
marily of poly-
vinyl chloride
and poly-
ethylene chips
(-60%),
fibrous
material,
paper, soil,
and metal
6,140 yd3
(fluff, soil)
Soil and debris
in process
plant area
10,300 yd3
(soil)
•••••
Cleanup Goal
Removal and
recycling
Background
levels
established
by sampling
and analysis
As
about 10
mg/kg
Technology status
Recycling of the fluff at an offsite ROD date
facility by direct formation Into 07/02/92
products such as flooring, plastic
lumber, or bumpers or recycling off
site by separation and processing to
produce usable plastic chip product
Residuals not suitable for recycling
will be tested for RCRA waste char-
acteristics. Nonhazardous residuals
will be disposed of to an offsite land-
fill. Hazardous residuals will be
treated to remove the hazardous
characteristic and disposed of to an
offsite landfill
Exposed soils will be sampled and
analyzed
Erosion and sedimentation controls
will be implemented
Consolidate all debris on site into ROD date
one area with possible offsite 06/28/91
disposal
In design
Perform treatability study to deter-
mine proper S/S formulation, ex-
cavate the top 6 inches of surface
soil, treat excavated soil by S/S,
return treated soil to the excavation,
cover with asphalt cap
====^=:
Source
ROD Annual Report,
EPA 9355.6-05
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inn 1QQ3
mi*. 1990
ROD Database
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
Long-term soil monitoring
Deed restrictions
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
o
cb
Site Name/
Region Location/Site Type
3 Palmerton Zinc (OU-1)
Pennsylvania
Defoliated
mountainside due to
zinc smelting
3 Palmerton Zinc (OU-2)
Pennsylvania i
Zinc smelting
3 Saltville Waste
Disposal Ponds (OU-1)
Virginia
Chloralkali plant
Contaminants
and Initial
Cone. Range
Cd (soil)
1,300 mg/kg
Pb(soil)
6,475 mg/kg
Zn (soil)
35,000 mg/kg
Cd (slag)
420 mg/L
Cd(GW)
24//g/L
Zn (slag)
42,000 mg/L
Zn(GW)
3,200 //g/L
Hg
10 to 120 //g/L
Matrix Cleanup Goal
Soil around Cd
zinc smelter 3 Ib/acre
27,500,000 Pb
tons 100 Ib/acre
Zn
200 Ib/acre
Cr
100 Ib/acre
Hg
3 Ib/acre
Slag from zinc Not
smelting, applicable
sediment, GW
Waste ponds Hg (water)
0.05 //g/L.
" ii
Technology
Onsite installation of concrete pad
with berms to mix bffsite sewage
sludge and fly ash; application of
lime and potash on target areas;
application of fly ash and offsite
sludge on target areas; application of
grass seed, seedlings, and mulch
Interim remedy
Limited excavations in high-risk
areas planned 4/93
Slope modification, non-RCRA
Subtitle C cap, and revegetation
Surface water diversion and treat-
ment with lime-activated filtration
lagoons and/or construction of
wetlands
Inspection, monitoring, and
maintenance
Wetlands restoration if needed
Upgrade run-on control
Treat pond outfall with sulfide
precipitation or carbon adsorption
Institutional controls
Interim remedy
Status
ROD date
09/14/87
Stabilization in
progress
Construction
expected to
be completed
in 1999
ROD date
06/29/88
ROD date
06/30/87
Construction
completed
Source
Annotated Tech-
nical Reference
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
Superfund Week
7(13):4
Annotated Tech-
nical Reference
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
Annotated
Technical Reference
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
Site Name/
Region Location/Site Type
3 Tonolli Corporation
Nesquehoning,
Pennsylvania
Battery recycling
3 Whitmoyer
Laboratories (OU-1
In4nyim\
interim)
Pennsylvania
Laboratory facility
Contaminants
and Initial
Cone. Range
Pb 8,300 mg/kg
As 61 mg/kg
Cd 10.6 mg/kg
As
<30,000 mg/kg
organics
69,000 gallons of
concentrated
liquid waste
Matrix
Soil, sludge,
GW, SW
Liquid
chemicals,
tanks, and
vessels
Cleanup Goal
PbSOO
mg/kg, near
residential
area
Pb 1,000
mg/kg in
non-
residential
area
Removal
Technology
Offsite recycling of battery scrap
Excavation and consolidation of soil,
S/S treatment for soil with Pb >
1,000 mg/kg, onsite landfill disposal
In situ groundwater treatment -
construct limestone barrier and inject
pH-adjusted water to enhance
groundwater flow to barrier
Decontaminate onsite building
Consolidating waste liquids into
three categories, transporting wastes
off site for treatment, disposing
treated liquids into offsite surface
water, and disposing of solid
residuals in an offsite landfill.
Organic compounds in the liquids
Status
ROD date
09/30/92
In predesign
1993
Federal
approval but
State has not
yet accepted
remedial
alternative
ROD date
06/30/89
Remedial
action
completed
-HI...!..- _=_J LJ. •
Source
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
will be destroyed by thermal treat-
ment or biodegradation, or will be
recycled.
Decontamination tanks and vessels
will be left on site.
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
Contaminants
Site Name/ and Initial
Region Location/Site Type Cone. Range Matrix Cleanup Goal
3 Whitmoyer As Soil, sediment, Target
Laboratories (OU-3 21 - 10,000 debris, and cleanup goal
Final) mg/kg GW
As (surface
Pennsylvania soil)
21 mg/kg
Laboratory facility
Action levels
As (unsatur-
ated soil)
450 mg/kg
As (saturated
soil)
210 pg/kg
As (principal
threat)
1,000 mg/kg
As (GW) 50
PS/L
Technology Status Source
Excavation and fixation of ROD date ROD Annual Report
soil/sediment using an iron-based or 12/31/90 EPA 9355.6-05
other fixation process ;
Design 93/94 Guide to
Biological treatment of organics prior schedule to be Superfund Sites,
to or after fixation completed Pasha Publications,
Spring of 1995 Inc., 1993
Offsite disposal
Excavating and consolidating in the
vadose zone lightly contaminated
soil or sediment followed by
capaping
Capping, any remaining surface soils
with arsenic levels over 21 mg/kg
anad other areas as needed
Grading and revegetation
Demolish surface structures
GW pump and treat followed by on-
site discharge, reinjection into the
aquifer, or both
Monitoring
Institutional controls
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
Contaminants
Site Name/ and Initial
Region Location/Site Type Cone. Range
4 Bypass 601 (OU-1) Pb (surface soil)
18-110,000
North Carolina mg/kg
Pb (subsurface
2-acre battery soil)
recycling facility 2.8 - 136,000
mg/kg
Pb(GW)
5-2,300//g/L
S04 (surface soil)
46 - 10,800
mg/kg
S04 (GW)
24.4-21,000
A3/L
Cr(GW)
15-t,000>Mg/L
Organics
Matrix Cleanup Goal Technology Status
Soil and debris Remedial Demolish onsite buildings ROD date
objectives for 08/31/90
57,000 yd3 soil Excavate and consolidate
(soil) excavation contaminated surface soils; treat by amended
S/S on site; onsite disposal of 04/20/93
Pb (soil) solidified materials; fill, regrade, and
500 mg/kg revegetate excavated area
Pb (sedi-
ment) 35
mg/kg
Sb 24 mg/kg
(residential
risk scenario)
820 mg/kg
(industrial risk
scenario)
Cr 56 mg/kg
Mn 4,200
mg/kg
S/S treated
material to
passTCLP
leach test
Source
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
o
CO
Contaminants
Site Name/ and Initial
Region Location/Site Type Cone. Range
4 Bypass 601 (OU-2) Pb (soil)
96 - 62,250
North Carolina mg/kg
Industrial area Sb (soil)
adjacent to a battery 21 • 140 mg/kg
recycling facility
Cr (soil)
6.5 - 52 mg/kg
Mn (soil)
481-3,100
mg/kg
Matrix Cleanup Goal
Soil and debris Pb (soil)
500 mg/kg
Pb (sedi-
ment) 35
mg/kg
Pb(GW)
15//g/L
Sb 24 mg/kg
(residential
risk scenario)
820 mg/kg
(industrial risk
scenario)
Cr(soil)
56 mg/kg
Cr (GW)
50//g/L
Mn (soil)
4,200 mg/kg
Mn (GW)
1,900//g/L
Soil ex-
. cavated to
' levels stated
above and
S/S treated
to pass TCLP
leach test
Technology Status Source
Demolish onsite buildings ROD date ROD Annual Report
04/20/93 EPA 9355.6-05
Excavate and consolidate
contaminated surface soils; treat by
S/S on site; onsite disposal of
solidified materials; fill, regrade, and
revegetate excavated area
Institutional and access controls
Pump and treat GW on site by
precipitation and air stripping and
discharge treated GW to the POTW
Continued GW monitoring
11
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
Contaminants
Site Name/ and Initial
Region Location/Site Type Cone. Range Matrix Cleanup Goal Technology Status
4 Rowood (OU-1 Final) Pb (surface soil) Soil and Pb (soil and Excavation and S/S of contaminated ROD date
3 to 30 mg/kg sediment sediment) soil and sediments followed by 09/30/88
Mississippi with hot spots to 500 mg/kg backfilling and capping with clean
4,000 mg/kg 6,000 yd3 fill, as necessary (ATR) Construction
Ceramic manufacture complete'*1
Pb (subsurface GW monitoring (ATR) 10/26/93
soil)
2.7 to 12 mg/kg
with hot spots to
3,620 mg/kg
Pb (sediments)
4.5 to 141,000
mg/kg
Pb (GW)
0.016 -11.0mg/L
Pb (SW) '
0.007 - 3.0 mg/L
Source
Annotated Tech-
nical Reference
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
o
01
Contaminants
Site Name/ and Initial
Region Location/Site Type Cone. Range Matrix
4 Independent Nail (OU- Cd (soil) Soil and
1) 15 mg/kg sediment
Beaufort, South Cd (sediment)
Carolina 65 mg/kg
24.6-acre Cr (soil)
electroplating facility 130 mg/kg
Cr (sediment)
2,000 mg/kg
Ni (soil)
30 mg/kg
Ni (sediment)
1,800 mg/kg
Zn (soil)
230 mg/kg
Zn (sediment)
15,000 mg/kg
cyanide (soil)
0.8 mg/kg
cyanide
(sediment)
77 mg/kg
Cleanup Goal
Cd (soil)
2.6 mg/kg
Cr (soil)
5.3 mg/kg
Ni (soil)
18.0 mg/kg
Zn (soil)
1,785 mg/kg
Technology Status Source
Excavation of metal-contaminated ROD date EPA/625/6-89/022
soil and lagoon sediments, treatment 09/28/87
with S/S, backfilling with a layer of Annotated Tech-
clean soil, placement of treated soil Remedial nical Reference
about 2 feet above the high GW action
level, and soil covering completed in ROD Annual Report
1988 EPA 9355.6-05
93/94 Guide to
(delisting in Superfund Sites,
progress 1989) Pasha Publications,
Inc.,. 1993
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
a
_j.
0)
Site Name/
Region Location/Site Type
4 Palmetto Wood
Preserving (OU-1)
South Carolina
Wood preserving
treatment facility
4 Pepper's Steel and
Alloys (OU-1 Rnal)
Medley, Rorida
30-acre general
industrial area
5 Northernaire Plating
(OU-1)
Cadillac, Michigan
Former electroplating
facility
Contaminants
and Initial
Cone. Range
Cr
No data
As
No data
Pb (soil)
1,000mg/kg
As •
1-200 mg/kg
organics
including PCB
Cr
10-499 mg/kg
Cd
10 -460 mg/kg
Matrix
Soil and GW
19,895 yd3
(soil)
10,500,000 gal
(GW)
Soil, sediment,
GW
9,000 yd3
(As)
21,500yd3
(Pb soil)
amounts not
additive
GW, soil, and
sewer sedi-
ment
Cleanup Goal
Soil cleanup
will attain
public health
levels which
include Cr
627 mg/kg
and As 200
mg/kg. GW
will attain
MCL values
which include
Cr50.0//g/U
Cu 1,000
//g/L, and As
50.0 //g/L
Pb (soil)
1,000 mg/kg
As (soil)
5 mg/kg
Cr
<50 mg/kg
Cd
< 10 mg/kg
Technology
Excavation of contaminated soil with
onsite washing and backfilling of
treated soil
Pumping wastewater to onsite
treatment facility
GW pumping and treatment with
offsite discharge to SW
Installation of municipal water line or
drilling new wells for affected
residents
Excavation, S/S, onsite disposal for
soils
Collection and offsite disposal for
free oil
Land use restrictions
Excavation and offsite disposal of
soil and sewer line to a privately
owned RCRA facility
Cleaning dust and hazardous residue
from building floor, breaking up of
floor and drywell, sampling of
exposed soil, disposal of any
contaminated debris and soil at a
RCRA Subtitle C facility
Status
ROD date
09/30/87
Remedial
action
completed
ROD date
03/12/86
S/S
completed
ROD date
09/11/85
Remedial
• action
completed
Source
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
EPA/625/6-89/022
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
Backfilling of excavations with clean
soil
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
Site Name/
Region Location/Site Type
5 Northernaire Plating
(OU-2)
Cadillac, Michigan
Former electroplating
facility
5 MacGillis & Gibbs
Co./Bell Lumber and
Pole
New Brighton, MN
Wood treating facility
5 Twin Cities Army
Ammunition Plant,
New Brighton, MN
Contaminants
and Initial
Cone. Range
Cr
No data
organics
Cr 146 mg/kg
As 221 mg/kg
Cr 5,830 ug/L
As 293 ug/L
PAHs
PCP
Pb 86,000 ppm
Hg 15 ppm
Cr 350 ppm
Cd 20 ppm
Matrix Cleanup Goal
GW Cr
<50//g/L
GW will meet
or exceed
state and
SDWA MCL
standards.
Soil, sedi- No data
ments, obtained
groundwater
Soil 5,000 yd3 Pb 300 ppm
Hg 0.3 ppm
Cr 100 ppm
Cd 4 ppm
Technology
Two-stage GW pumping and treat-
ment using carbon adsorption to re-
move metals and air stripping with
vapor-phase carbon adsorption to re-
move VOCs, treated water discharge
to SW
GW monitoring
Access and land use restrictions
SITE Demonstration of BioTrol, Inc.
biological aqueous treatment system
Soil washing/soil leaching
Status
ROD date
09/29/89
In design
Completed in
1989
AAR published
EPA/540/A5-
91/001
Scheduled to
complete
Summer 1994
Source
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
SITE Technology
Profiles
Fact Sheet No. 94-
14
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
o
_*
00
Contaminants
Site Name/ and Initial
Region Location/Site Type Cone, Range
5 Zanesville Well Reid Pb
(OU-1 Rnal) No data
Zanesville, Ohio As
No data
Cr
No data
Hg
No data
Inorganics
VOCs
6 Gurley Pit (OU-1) Pb (sludge)
14,000 mg/kg
Edmondson, Arkansas Pb (oil) 80 mg/kg
Pits used for disposal Ba (sludge)
of sludge from refin- 936 mg/kg
ing of used motor oil
Zn (sludge)
1,530 mg/kg
PCBs
Matrix
Soil and GW
37,800yd3
(soil)
Soil, sludge,
sediments, oil,
and water
432,470 ft3
(soil, sludge,
sediment)
4,100,000 gal
(water)
Cleanup Goal
Pb 12 mg/kg
Chemical-
specific soil
cleanup goals
based on
risk- based
levels for
cumu-lative
excess
lifetime can-
cer risk <1ffa
and an HI <1
Chemical
specific GW
cleanup goals
based on
SDWAand
No data
obtained
Technology
In situ soil vapor extraction for about
36,000 yd3 soil and source areas
contaminated with VOCs
Soil washing treatment for about
1,800 yd3 of inorganic contaminated
soil, treated soil replaced on site,
concentrated waste and treatment
residuals disposed of off site, with
further treatment, if needed
GW pumping and treatment by air
stripping
Site access restrictions
Onsite water treatment to meet
NPDES discharge criteria
Stabilization of pit sludge,
sediments, and contaminated soil
followed by onsite disposal in a
RCRAcell
Incinerate oils in a PCB approved
incinerator
Limit she access
Status Source
ROD date ROD Annual Report
09/30/91 EPA 9355.605
Predeslgn to
be completed
late 1993
ROD date Annotated Tech-
10/06/86 nical Reference
(interim) 93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Remedial Pasha Publications,
action Inc., 1993
completed
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
o
CD
Site Name/
Region Location/Site Type
6 Odessa Chromium
(OU-2)
Odessa, Texas
Groundwater probably
contaminated by elec-
troplating operations
6 Pesses Chemical
(OU-1 Final)
Fort Worth, Texas
Reclamation of nickel
cadmium batteries
and sludges
7 Shaw Avenue Dump
Site (OU-1) Charles
City, Iowa
Contaminants
and Initial
Cone. Range
Cr(GW)
5.5 mg/L
Cd (son)
<2,400 mg/kg
Mi (soil)
<3,200 mg/kg
Pb
No data
As (up to 50,000
mg/kg), PAHs
Matrix Cleanup Goal
GW and debris Cr (GW)
<0.05 mg/L
ortheMCL
promulgated
prior to
design
Soil, sludge, Cd
and debris 15 mg/kg
16.6yd3 Ni
(sludge) 100 mg/kg
Soil As (soil) 50
ppm
Technology
Extraction of GW from a perched
water-bearing zone and the Trinity
aquifer, treatment with electro-
chemical methods, reinjection of
treated GWto the aquifer
Demolition and disposal of building
Site monitoring for at least 30 years
Consolidate offsite contaminated
soils with onsite contaminated soils,
treat soils by in situ S/S, concrete
cap within fenced area, subtitle C
clay cap (or equivalent) on south
field
Metal warehouse and equipment
cleaned and left in place
Site maintained and inspected every
5 years
Fixation/stabilization of chemical fill
and contaminated soil.
Installation of a low permeability cap
to protect fixed/stabilized material.
Groundwater monitoring
Status
ROD date
03/18/88
Construction
underway
ROD date
12/22/83
S/S of 12,500
cu.yd soil
completed
ROD date
9/27/91
S/S com-
pleted Feb.
1994
Source
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
Annotated Tech-
nical Reference
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
i
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
Contaminants
Site Name/ and Initial
Region Location/Site Type Cone. Range
7 Vogel Paint and Wax Cd (soil)
(OU-1 Final) 0.2-6.4 mg/kg
Maurice, Iowa Cr(lll) (soil)
4.9-21 ,000 mg/kg
2-acre paint waste Cr(lll) (GW)
disposal facility BDL-80//g/L
Cr(lll) (SW)
BDL-12//g/L
Pb (soil)
5.2-4,000 mg/kg
Pb (GW)
BDL-320//g/L
Pb(SW)
BDL-26/^/L
As (soil)
4.8-65 mg/kg
Hg (soil)
BDL-65 mg/kg
Hg(GW)
BDL-110mg/L
Ni (soil)
10.3-25.9 mg/kg
Zn (soil)
15.5-12,000
mg/kg
Zn(GW)
BDL-240//g/L
Zn(SW)
30-40 //g/L
organios
Matrix Cleanup Goal Technology Status Source
Soil, GW, and Soil treat- Biotreatment of low metal content ROD date Annotated
SW mentwili soils In a fully contained surface unit 09/20/89 Technical Reference
achieve
3,000 yd3 leaching Incineration of high metals soils Construction ROD Annual Report
(soil) standards underway EPA 9355.6-05
Stabilization and onsite disposal of
Cr (GW) 0.10 treated soils 93/94 Guide to
m9/L Superfund Sites,
Offsite incineration and recycling of Pasha Publications,
Pb (GW) 0.005 leachate and offsite treatment of . .Inc., 1993
mg/L excess leachate at POTW
- Pump and treat groundwater by air
stripping followed by discharge
Groundwater and air monitoring
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
ro
Site Name/
Region Location/Site Type
7 El. DuPont De
Nemours (OU-1)
West Point, Iowa
Paint waste disposal
7 Mid-America Tanning
(OU-1)
Sergeant Bluff, Iowa
Leather tanning waste-
water and debris dis-
charge to surface soil
or disposal trenches
Contaminants
and Initial
Cone. Range
As
2.7 -23.40 mg/kg
Cd
5^4 - 510 mg/kg
Cr
15.10-1,830 .
mg/kg'
Pb
60-38,950
mg/kg
brganics
Cr
No data
Pb
No data
•
Matrix
Soil and debris
Soil, sludge,
sediment,
debris, and
SW
8,300 yd3
(soil)
44,500 yd3
(sediment)
1,293yd3
(sludge)
Cleanup Goal
As
No data
obtained
Cd (soil)
20//g/kg
Cr (soil)
No data
Pb (soil)
350 //g/kg
Cr
2,490 mg/kg
Technology
S/S treatment of soil followed by
covering the stabilized mass with
clean soil and vegetation
Removing and disposing off site any
debris not amenable to S/S
treatment at an authorized RCRA
landfill
GW monitoring
Institutional controls
In situ S/S of contaminated soil and
impoundment sediment
Immobilizing consolidated trench
sludge on site followed by disposal
off site or on site
Removing and disposing of debris
off site
Discharging impoundment water on
site through an NPDES-permitted
outfall or treatment, if needed, with
offsite discharge to a POTW,
Status Source
ROD date ROD Annual Report
05/28/91 EPA 9355.6-05
Construction
complete'"1
10/26/93
ROD date ROD Annual Report
09/24/91 EPA 9355.6-05
In design 93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
Capping, grading, and seeding
contaminated areas
GW monitoring
Institutional controls
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
I
Site Name/
Region Location/Site Type
9 Beckman Instruments
(OU-1 Final)
Porterville, California
Manufacture and
repair of electronic
instruments
9 Selma Treating Co.
Selma, California
Wood treatment
facility
10 Alaskan Battery
Enterprises
Fairbanks, Alaska
Battery recycling
Contaminants
and Initial
Cone. Range Matrix
Pb (soil) Soil and GW
1,280mg/kg
740yd3
chlorinated (soil)
orgnics (GW)
As 4,120 mg/kg GW and soil
Cr 3,910 mg/kg
Cu 1,870 mg/kg
Pentachlorphenol
Pb Soil
No data obtained
Cleanup Goal
Pb (soil)
200 mg/kg
As (soil) 50
mg/kg
Cr (GWJ 50
/fg/kg
No data
obtained
Technology
Excavation and offsite disposal of
lead-contaminated soil
Groundwater pump and treat and
discharge to infiltration basins or
Irrigation canals
Groundwater monitoring
Excavation of soil, on-site treatment
using S/S; on-site disposal, RCRA
cap. GW pumping and treatment
with precipitation, coagulation, and
flocculation; reinfection into the
aquifer or off-site discharge. SITE
Demonstration of Silicate Tech-
nology Corporation Chemical Fixa-
tion/Solidification Treatment Tech-
nology
SITE Demonstration of Brice Environ-
mental Services (BESCORP) USA soil
washing technology
Status
ROD date
09/26/89
Construction
complete1'1
10/26/93
ROD date
09/24/88
SITE Demo
AAR
completed
EPA/540/AR-
92/010
SITE Demo
AAR in
preparation
Construction
complete1'1
10/26/93
Source
Annotated Tech-
nical Reference
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
SITE Technology
Profiles
SITE Technology
Summary
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
X
CO
Contaminants
Site Name/ and Initial
Region Location/Site Type Cone. Range Matrix
10 Frontier Hard Chrome Cr Soil and
(OU-1) No data obtained structures
Vancouver, Soil 7,400 yd3
Washington
Chromium plating
10 Frontier Hard Chrome Cr GW
(OU-2) No data obtained
45,000 ft2
Vancouver, organics (plume area)
Washington
Chromium plating
Cleanup Goal
Soil with
chromium
>550 mg/kg
will be treated
Cr
< 0.050 mg/L
Remedy pre-
vents public
exposure to
drinking
water which
exceeds
MCLs
Treated water
must also
meet NPDES
and other
applicable
limits
Technology Status
Excavation of soil, onsite treatment ROD date
using chemical stabilization, onsite 12/30/87
disposal of treated materials
Demolition of site buildings
Placement of final cover
GW pumping and treatment using ROD date
selective media ion exchange to re- 07/05/88
move chromium followed by carbon
adsorption to remove VOCs, treated
. water discharged to river or city
sewer system
Institutional controls on GW usage
and new well drilling
Source
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
-------
TABLE D-1. (continued)
Region
10
Site Name/
Location/Site Type
Gould Site (OU-1)
Portland, Oregon
Lead smelter
Contaminants
and Initial
Cone. Range
Pb (soil)
14-19,000
mg/kg
Pb (GW)
<0.05 mg/L
Pb(SW)
<0.28 mg/L
Pb (sediment)
16 - 12,000
mg/kg
Matrix
Soil and
sediment
80,800 yd3
(battery
casings)
3,370 yd3
(surface soil)
13,650 yd3
(subsurface
soil)
5,500 yd3
(sediment)
6,000 yd3
(matte)
Cleanup Goal
Pb (surface
soil)
1000 mg/kg
Pb
(subsurface
soil)
EPTox
Pb (air)
1.5//g/m3
Technology
Excavation and separation of battery
casings and matte, recycling of those
components that can be recycled,
offsite RCRA landfill disposal of
hazardous nonrecyclable compo-
nents; and onsite disposal of non-
hazardous nonrecyclable
components.
Excavation, S/S treatment, and on-
site disposal of contaminated soils,
sediment
Construction of soil cover and
revegetation
Status
ROD date
03/31/88
Operational
Completion
planned 1995
Source
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
Annotated
Technical Reference
o
Decontamination of buildings and
debris with offsite disposal of
residues
Drainage control
Installation of new residential well
Deed restrictions
GW and SW monitoring
-------
TABLE D-1. (Continued)
Site Name/
Region Location/Site Type
a
Ol
Contaminants
and Initial
Cone. Range
Matrix
Cleanup Goal Technology
Status
The Dalles, Oregon
Aluminum
manufacturing potliner
and cathode wastes
used as fill
fluoride (soil)
< 2,880 mg/kg
SO* (landfill
leachate)
< 2,660 mg/L
PAHs
64,870 yd3
Ruoride (GW)
9.7 mg/L
SO4 (GW)
3,020 mg/L
Soil cover over scrubber/sludge
ponds
Plugging abandoning wells and con-
necting users to municipal water
supply
Collection and treatment of leachate
and perched water by oxidation/
reduction with discharge to existing
sewer ATR or onsite recycling pond
ROD Summary
Recover contaminated GW
GW monitoring and institutional
controls
Operational
Source
10 Martin Marietta (OU-1
Final)
As (soil)
no data
Soil, GW, and
debris
As (soil)
65 mg/kg
Consolidation of cathode waste
material into an existing landfill
followed by capping
ROD date
09/29/88
Annotated Tech-
nical Reference
93/94 Guide to
Superfund Sites,
Pasha Publications,
Inc., 1993
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.^05
10 United Chrome
Products (OU-1)
Corvallis, Oregon
Electroplating
Cr Soil and GW
142 -689 mg/L
350 tons
(offsite
disposal)
Cr (confined
aquifer)
0.05 mg/L
Cr (uncon-
fined aquifer)
10 mg/L
Cr (treated
water dis-
charge)
0.3 to 0.4
mg/L typical
expected
In situ soil flushing in unsaturated
zone
Excavation and offsite disposal for
soils in the saturated zone
Groundwater pump and treat using
chemical reduction and precipitation
with discharge to POTW or SW
ROD date
09/12/86
Construction
complete'1'
10/26/93
Operation
started
summer 1988
and will
continue
indefinitely
Innovative Treat-
ment Technologies
Annual Status
Report EPA/542-R-
93-003
ROD Annual Report
EPA 9355.6-05
"' v
(a) "Construction complete" indicates sites where all construction of cleanup remedies is complete but the site cannot yet be deleted from the NPL because long-term
efforts such as groundwater cleanup may be required.
-------
-------
APPENDIX E
SUMMARY OF BEST DEMONSTRATED AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES FOR
METAL-CONTAMINATED WASTES
In the mid-1980s to early 1990, U.S. EPA collected and evaluated performance data to identify
Best Demonstrated Available Technologies (BDATs) for treatment of RCRA wastes (McCoy and
Associates, Inc., 1993). The EPA has proposed modifications to the hazardous waste recycling
regulations to streamline regulatory decisions regarding certain types of recycling (58 FR 48092,
September 14, 1993). These studies included critical analysis of treatability data for metal-contaminated
wastes. The following subsections summarize conclusions about treatment options for metal-
contaminated wastes. The regulatory basis for BOAT standards development requires application of
proven, commercially available technology. These requirements focus the BDATs on conventional
technology. The technologies provide a good starting basis for review of treatment of wastes at
CERCLA sites. However, technology selection at CERCLA sites should be developed based on site-
specific characteristics and risks and should consider innovative technologies. Space is not available to
describe all of the material the U.S. EPA considered in developing the BOAT standards for metal wastes.
This appendix contains tables showing the treatment standards and BDATs for RCRA waste codes
having arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, or mercury as a constituent of concern. In addition to the
final BOAT documents, references in this section contain detailed tabulations of treatability data for
RCRA wastestreams. Typical types of BDATs for metal-contaminated waste are summarized in Table E-
1. Examples of RCRA wastes that often can be found at Superfund sites are shown in Table E-2.
BDATs for a variety of RCRA wastes are summarized in Table E-3.
TABLE E-1. SUMMARY OF BDATs FOR METAL-CONTAMINATED RCRA WASTES
Example BDATs for Metal Wastes
Metal Contaminant
Nonwastewater
Wastewater
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Mercury
Lead
Vitrification
Stabilization or metal recovery
Chromium reduction and S/S
Metal recovery (>260 mg/kg) or acid
leaching followed by chemical precipitation
Stabilization or metal recovery
Chemical precipitation
Chemical precipitation
Chromium reduction and S/S
Chemical precipitation with
sulfide
Chemical precipitation
E-1
-------
TABLE E-2. LISTED HAZARDOUS WASTES FREQUENTLY FOUND AT METAL-CONTAMINATED
SITES (FROM PART 251 SUBPART D, LISTS OF HAZARDOUS WASTES""
Section 261.31 Hazardous Wastes from Nonspecific Sources
F006
Wastewater treatment sludges from electroplating operation except from the following processes: (1)
sulfuric acid anodizing of aluminum; (2) tin plating on carbon steel; (3) zinc plating (segregated basis) on
carbon steel; (4) aluminum or zinc-aluminum plating on carbon steel; (5) cleaning/stripping associated
with tin, zinc, and aluminum plating on carbon steel; and (6) chemical etching and milling of aluminum.
Section 261.32 Hazardous Wastes from Specific Sources
The following Inorganic pigments are listed wastes because hexavaient chromium and/or lead are the hazardous
constituents.
K002 Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of chrome yellow and orange pigments
K003 Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of molybdate orange pigments
K004 Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of zinc yellow pigments
K005 Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of chrome green pigments
K006 Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of chrome oxide green pigments (anhydrous and
hydrated)
K007 Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of iron blue pigments
K008 Oven residue from the production of chrome oxide green pigments
The following wastes from petroleum and metals refining are listed wastes because hexavaient chromium, lead, and/or
cadmium are the hazardous constituents. ^
K048 Dissolved air flotation (DAP) float from the petroleum refining industry
K049 Slop oil emulsion solids from the petroleum refining industry
K050 Heat exchanger bundle cleaning sludge from the petroleum refining industry
K051 API separator sludge from the petroleum refining industry
K052 Tank bottoms Beaded) from the petroleum refining industry
K061 Emission control dust/sludge from the primary production of steel in electric furnaces
K062 Spent pickle liquor generated by steel finishing operation of facilities within the iron and steel industry
K069 Emission control dust/sludge from secondary lead smelting
K100 Waste leaching solution from acid leaching of emissions control dust/sludge from secondary lead
smelting
K086 Solvent washes and sludges, caustic washes and sludges, or water washes and sludges from cleaning
tubs and equipment used in the formulation of ink from pigments, driers, soaps, and stabilizers
containing chromium and lead
The following are listed wastes because arsenic is the hazardous constituent.
Wastewater treatment sludges generated during the production of veterinary Pharmaceuticals from
arsenic or organoarsenic compounds
Distillation tar residues from the distillation or aniline-based compounds in the production of veterinary
Pharmaceuticals from arsenic or organoarsenic compounds
Residue from the use of activated carbon for decolorization in the production of veterinary
Pharmaceuticals from arsenic or organoarsenic compounds
By-product salts generated in the production of MSMA and cacodylic acid
K084
K101
K102
K031
Tha following are listed wastes because mercury is the hazardous constituent.
K071
K106
Brine purification muds from the mercury cell process in chlorine production, where separately prepurified
brine is not used
Wastewater treatment sludge from the mercury cell process in chlorine production
E-2
-------
TABLE E-2. (continued)
The following are listed wastes because lead is the hazardous constituent
K046 Wastewater treatment sludges from the manufacturing, formulation, and loading of lead-based initiating
compounds
Section 261.33 Discarded Commercial Chemical Products, Off-Specification Species, Container Residues, and Spill
Residues Thereof
U15134
Mercury
(a) The listed hazardous wastes are included for reference purposes and to provide a familiarity with the type of wastes that
are listed. Even if listed, certain wastes may be excluded from regulation (40 CFR 261.4).
Source: U.S. EPA, Annotated Technical Reference.
Different BDATs and treatment standards are usually assigned for nonwastewater and waste-
water. Nonwastewater is the U.S. EPA designation for solid or high solids-content materials such as
soils, slags, sludges, slurries, or organic liquids. Wastewaters are low-solids-content aqueous wastes.
E.1 BEST DEMONSTRATED AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES FOR ARSENIC WASTES
The U.S. EPA established vitrification as the BOAT for the nonwastewater from a variety of
arsenic-containing wastes including:
• K031 (by-product salts generated in the production of MSMA and cacodylic acid)
• K084 (wastewater treatment sludges generated during the making of veterinary pharma-
ceuticals from arsenic and organoarsehic compounds)
• K101 (distillation tar residues from the distillation of aniline-based compounds in the
production of veterinary Pharmaceuticals from arsenic and organoarsenic compounds)
• K102 (residue from the use of activated carbon for decolorization in the production of
veterinary Pharmaceuticals from arsenic and organoarsenic compounds)
• D004 (arsenic characteristic)
• Arsenic-containing P and U wastes
E-3
-------
TABLE E-3. TABULATION OF BEST DEMONSTRATED AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY
STANDARDS FOR METAL-CONTAMINATED WASTE
Hazardous Waste
Description/Code
D004 - Arsenic
D006 - Cadmium
D006 - Cadmium
batteries sub-
category
D007 - Chromium
D008 - Lead
D008 - Lead acid
batteries1'1
D009 - Mercury
• High-mercury
subcategory
• Low-mercury
subcategory
F006 - Wastewater
treatment sludges
from electroplating
operations
F007 - Spent
cyanide plating
bath solutions from
electroplating
operations
Constituents of
Concern (Remaining
Constituents)
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium (total)
Lead
Mercury
Cadmium
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Cyanides, cither
metals)
Cadmium
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Cyanides, other
metals)
Concentration-Based Standard
for Nonwastewater
TCLP
(mg/L)
5.0
1.0
-
5.0
5.0
-
0.20
0.066
5.2
0.51
0.066
5.2
0.51
BOAT
Vitrification
Stabilization or metal
recovery
(Treatment method
specified)
Chromium reduction,
stabilization
Stabilization
(Treatment method
specified)
(Treatment method
specified)
Acid leaching followed
by chemical
precipitation, dewatering
Chemical precipitation,
settling, filtration, and
stabilization (metals);
alkaline chlorination
(cyanides)
Chemical precipitation,
settling, filtration, and
stabilization (metals);
alkaline chlorination
(cyanides)
Concentration-Based Standard
for Wastewater
Total
Composition
(mg/L)
5.0
1.0
-
5.0
5.0
-
0.20
0.20
1.6
0.32
0.040
0.32
0.04
BOAT
Chemical precipitation
Chemical precipitation
-
Chromium reduction,
precipitation
Chemical precipitation,
sludge dewatering
-
Chemical precipitation
with sulfide
Chemical precipitation
with sulfide
Chromium reduction,
precipitation with lime
and sulfides, sludge
dewatering (metals);
alkaline chlorination
(cyanides)
Chemical precipitation,
settling, sludge
dewatering (metals);
alkaline chlorination
(cyanides)
Treatment Method
Specified for
Technology-Based
Standard
Thermal recovery of
metal in an industrial
furnace
Thermal recovery of
lead
Thermal recovery*1
m
-------
TABLE E-3. (continued)
Hazardous Waste
Description/Code
F008 - Plating ,
bath sludges from
the bottom of
plating baths from
electroplating
operations where
cyanides are used
in the process
F009 - Spent strip-
ping and cleaning
bath solutions from
electroplating
operations where
cyanides are used
in the process
F011 - Spent
cyanide solutions
from salt bath pot
cleaning from metal
heat treating
operations
F012 - Quenching
wastewater treat-
ment sludges from
metal heat treating
operations where
cyanides are used
in the process
Constituents of
Concern (Remaining
Constituents)
Cadmium
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Cyanides, other
metals)
Cadmium
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Cyanides, other
metals)
Cadmium
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Cyanides, other
metals)
Cadmium
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Cyanides, other
metals)
Concentration-Based Standard
for Nonwastewater
TCLP
(mg/L)
0.066
5.2
0.51
0.066
5.2
0.51
0.066
5.2
0.51
0.066
5.2
0.51
BOAT
Chemical precipitation,
settling, filtration, and
stabilization (metals);
alkaline chlorination
(cyanides)
Chemical precipitation,
settling, filtration, and
stabilization (metals);
alkaline chlorination
(cyanides)
Chemical precipitation,
settling, filtration, and
stabilization (metals);
electrolytic oxidation
followed by alkaline
chlorination (cyanides)
Chemical precipitation,
settling, filtration, and
stabilization (metals);
electrolytic oxidation
followed by alkaline
chlorination (cyanides)
Concentration-Based Standard
for Wastewater
Total
Composition
(mg/L)
-
0.32
0.04
0.32
0.04
_
0.32
0.04
-
0.32
0.04
BOAT
Chemical precipitation,
setting, sludge,
dewatering (metals);
alkaline chlorination
(cyanides)
Chemical precipitation,
settling, sludge
dewatering (metals);
alkaline chlorination
(cyanides)
Chemical precipitation,
settling, sludge
dewatering (metals);
alkaline chlorination
(cyanides)
Chemical precipitation,
settling, sludge
dewatering (metals);
alkaline chlorination
(cyanides)
Treatment Method
Technology-Based
Standard
-------
m
TABLE E-3. (continued)
Hazardous Waste
Description/Code
F019 - Wastewater
treatment sludges
from the chemical
conversion coating
of aluminum
F024 - Wastes
from the production
of chlorinated
aliphatic
hydrocarbons
F039 - Multisource
leachate organics
K001 - Bottom
sediment sludge
from the treatment
of wastewaters from
wood-preserving
processes that use
creosote and/or
pentachloraphenol
Constituents of
Concern (Remaining
Constituents)
Chromium (total)
(Cyanides)
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Organics, nickel)
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium (total)
Lead
Mercury
(Organics, other
Lead
(Organics)
Concentration-Based Standard
for Nonwastewater
TCLP
(mg/L)
5.2
0.073
[Reserved]
5.0
0.066 .
5.2
0.51
0.025
0.51
BOAT
Stabilization (chromium);
alkaline chlorination
(cyanides)
Rotary kiln incineration;
stabilization of
incinerator ash (metals)
Stabilization (metals);
incineration (organics)
Rotary kiln incineration,
followed by stabilization
of the ash
Concentration-Based Standard
for Wastewater
Total
Composition
(mg/L)
0.32
0.35
1.4
0.20
0.37
0.28
0.15
0.037
BOAT
Chromium reduction,
chemical precipitation
with lime and sulfides,
sludge dewatering
(metals); alkaline
chlorination (cyanides)
Incineration for organics
(treatment method
specified)
Biological treatment
followed by chemical
precipitation; or wet-air
oxidation followed by
carbon adsorption
followed by chemical
precipitation
Chemical precipitation
Treatment Method
Specified for
Technology-Based
Standard
-------
TABLE E-3. (continued)
Hazardous Waste
Description/Code
K002 - Wastewater
treatment sludge
from the production
of chrome yellow
and orange
pigments
K003 - Wastewater
treatment sludge
from the production
of molybdate
orange pigments
K004 - Wastewater
treatment sludge
from the production
of zinc yellow
pigments
K005 - Wastewater
treatment sludge
from the production
of chrome green
pigments
K006 - Wastewater
treatment sludge
from the production
. of chrome oxide
green pigments
• Anhydrous
• Hydrated
Constituents of
Concern (Remaining
Constituents)
Chromium (total)
Lead
Chromium (total)
Lead
Chromium (total)
Lead
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Cyanides)
Chromium (total)
Lead
Chromium (total)
Lead
Concentration-Based Standard
for Nonwastewater
TCLP
(mg/L)
0.094
0.37
0.094
0.37
0.094
0.37
0.094
0,37
0.094
0.37
5.2
BOAT
Chemical precipitation,
filtration, sludge
dewatering (metals)
Chemical precipitation,
filtration, sludge
dewatering (metals)
Chemical precipitation,
filtration, sludge
dewatering (metals)
Chemical precipitation,
filtration, sludge
dewatering (metals)
Chemical precipitation,
filtration; stabilization
(chromium)
Chemical precipitation,
filtration; stabilization
(chromium)
Concentration-Based Standard
for Wastewater
Total
Composition
(mg/L)
0.9
3.4
0.9
3.4
0.9
3.4
0.9
3.4
0.9
3.4
0.9
3.4
BOAT
Chromium reduction,
precipitation, sludge
dewatering (metals)
Chromium reduction,
precipitation, sludge
dewatering (metals)
Chromium reduction,
precipitation, sludge
dewatering (metals)
Chromium reduction,
precipitation, sludge,
dewatering (metals);
alkaline chlorination
(cyanides)
Chromium reduction,
precipitation, sludge
dewatering (metals) '
Chromium reduction,
precipitation, sludge
dewatering (metals)
Treatment Method
Technology-Based
Standard
-------
oo
Hazardous Waste
Description/Code
K007 - Wastewater
treatment sludge
from the production
of iron blue
pigments
KQ08 _ Oven
residue from the
production of
chrome oxide green
pigments
K015 - Still
bottoms from the
distillation of
benzyl chloride
K022 - Distillation
bottom tars from
the production of
phenol/acetone
from cumene
K028 - Spent
catalyst from the
hydrochlorinator
reactor in
production of 1,1,1 -
trichloroethane
K031 - By-product
salts generated in
producing MSMA
and cacodylic acid
TABLE E-3. (continued)
Constituents of
Concern (Remaining
Constituents)
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Cyanides)
Chromium (total)
Lead
Chromium (total)
(Organics, Nickel)
Chromium (total)
(Organics, Nickel)
Cadmium
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Organics, Nickel)
Arsenic
Concentration-Based Standard
for Nonwastewater
TCLP
(mg/L)
0.094
0.37
0.094
0.37
1.7
5.2
0.073
0.021
5.6
BOAT
Chemical precipitation,
filtration; sludge
dewatering (metals)
Chemical precipitation,
filtration, sludge
dewatering (metals)
Stabilization (metals);
incineration (organics)
Incineration or fuel
substitution,
solidification of ash
Stabilization (metals);
rotary kiln incineration
(organics)
Vitrification
Concentration-Based Standard
for Wastewater
Total
Composition
(mg/L)
0.9
3.4
0.9
3.4
0.32
0.35
6.4
0.35
0.037
0.79
BOAT
Chromium reduction,
precipitation, sludge
dewatering (metals);
alkaline chlorination
(cyanides)
Chromium reduction,
precipitation, sludge
dewatering (metals)
Separate BOAT for
wastewaters not specified
Biological treatment,
steam stripping, carbon
adsorption, or liquid
extraction (organics);
chemical precipitation
(metals)
Sulfide precipitation
followed by settling,
filtration, and dewatering
for metals removal
Chemical precipitation
Treatment Method
Specified for
Technology-Based
Standard
-------
m
cb
TABLE E-3. (continued)
Hazardous Waste
Description/Code
K046 - Wastewater
treatment sludges
from the manufac-
turing, formulation,
and loading of lead-
based initiating
compounds
K048 - Dissolved
air flotation float
from the petroleum
refining industry
K049 - Slop oil
emulsion solids
from the petroleum
refining industry
K050 - Heat
exchanger bundle
cleaning sludge
from petroleum
refining industry
K051 - API
separator sludge
from the petroleum
refining industry
K052 - Tank
bottoms (leaded)
from the petroleum
refining industry
Constituents of
Concern (Remaining
Constituents)
Lead
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Organics, Nickel)
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Organics, Nickel)
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Organics, Nickel,
Cyanides)
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Organics, Nickel,
Cyanides)
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Organics, Nickel,
Cyanides)
Concentration-Based Standard
for Nonwastewater
TCLP
(mg/L)
0.18
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
BOAT
Deactivation, if reactive,
followed by stabilization
Solvent extraction or
incineration (organics);
stabilization of ash
Solvent extraction or
incineration (organics);
stabilization of ash
Solvent extraction or
incineration (organics);'
stabilization of ash
Stabilization (lead);
solvent extraction or
incineration (organics)
Solvent extraction or
incineration (organics);
stabilization of ash
Concentration-Based Standard
for Wastewater
Total
Composition
(mg/L)
0.037
0.20
0.037
0.20
0.037
0.20
0.037
0.20
0.037
0.20
0.037
BOAT
Alkaline precipitation,
settling, and filtration
Chromium reduction,
chemical precipitation,
vacuum filtration
(metals); incineration
(cyanides)
Chromium reduction,
chemical precipitation,
vacuum filtration
(metals); incineration
(cyanides)
Chromium reduction,
chemical precipitation,
vacuum filtration
(metals); incineration
(cyanides)
Chemical precipitation
(lead); chromium
reduction, chemical
precipitation, vacuum
filtration (chromium);
incineration (organics)
Chromium reduction,
chemical precipitation,
vacuum filtration
(metals); incineration
(cyanides)
Treatment Method
Specified for
Technology-Based
Standard
-------
\
o
TABLE E-3. (continued)
Hazardous Waste
Description/Code
K061 - Emission
control dust/sludge
from the primary
production of steel
in electric furnaces
• High zinc
subcategory
(a 15% zinc)
• Low zinc
subcategory
(< 15% zinc)(c)
K062 - Spent
pickle liquor
generated by steel
finishing operations
at facilities within
the iron and steel
industry (SIC codes
331 and 332)
K069 — Emission
control dust/sludge
from secondary
lead smelting
• Calcium sulfate
subcategory
• Non-calcium
sulfate sub-
category
Constituents of
Concern (Remaining
Constituents)
Cadmium
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Nickel)
Cadmium
Chromium (total)
Lead
IM\r-\eal\
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Nickel)
Cadmium
Lead
Cadmium
Lead
Concentration-Based Standard
for Nonwastewater
TCLP
(mg/L)
0.14
5.2
0.24
0.14
5.2
0.24
0.094
0.37
0.14
0.24
BOAT
(Treatment method
specified)
Stabilization
Chromium reduction,
chemical precipitation,
filtration, sludge
dewatering
Stabilization
(Treatment method
specified)
Concentration-Based Standard
for Wastewater
Total
Composition
(mg/L)
1.61
0.32
0.51
1.61
0.32
0.51
0.32
0.04
1.6
0.51
1.6
0.51
BOAT
Chromium reduction,
chemical precipitation with
lime and sulfides, sludge
dewatering; chemical
precipitation with magnesium
hydroxide, filtration (lead)
Chromium reduction,
chemical precipitation with
lime and sulfides, sludge
dewatering; chemical
precipitation with magnesium
hydroxide, filtration (lead)
Separate BOAT for
wastewaters not specified
Chemical precipitation with
lime and sulfides (cadmium);
chemical precipitation with
magnesium hydroxide (lead)
Chemical precipitation with
lime and sulfides (cadmium);
chemical precipitation with
magnesium hydroxide (lead)
Treatment Method
Specified for
Technology-Based
Standard
Thermal recovery
Thermal recovery
-------
TABLE E-3. (continued)
Hazardous Waste
Description/Code
K071 - Brine puri-
fication muds from
the mercury cell
process in chlorine
, production, where
separately purified
brine is used
K084 - Wastewater
treatment sludges
generated during
the production of
veterinary pharma-
ceuticals from
arsenic or organo-
arsenic compounds
K086 - Solvent
washes and
sludges; caustic
washes and
sludges, or water
washes and sludges
from cleaning tubs
and equipment
used to formulate
ink from pigments,
driers, soaps, and
stabilizers
containing
chromium and lead
K087 - Decanter
tank tar sludge from
coking operations
Constituents of
Concern (Remaining
Constituents)
Mercury
Arsenic
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Organios, Cyanides)
Lead
(Organics)
Concentration-Based Standard
for Nonwastewater
TCLP
(mg/L)
0.025
5.6
0.094
0.37
0.51
BOAT -•
Acid leaching, chemical
oxidation, dewatering
Vitrification
Chromium reduction,
lime precipitation,
filtration (metals);
incineration (organics)
:>.?-•-
Rotary kiln incineration,
- stabilization of ashes
Concentration-Based Standard
for Wastewater
Total
Composition
(mg/L)
0.030
0.79
0.32
0.037
0.037
BOAT
Sulfide precipitation,
filtration
Chemical precipitation
Chromium reduction,
lime precipitation,
filtration (metals); alkaline
chlorination (cyanides)
Chemical precipitation,
filtration
Treatment Method
Sp6cifi6u for
Technology-Based
Standard
-------
5
io
TABLE E-3. (continued)
Hazardous Waste
Description/Code
K100 - Waste
leaching solution
from acid leaching
of emission control
dust/sludge from
secondary lead
smelting
K101 - Distillation
tar residues from
the distillation of
aniline-based
compounds in the
production of
veterinary pharma-
ceuticals from
arsenic or organo-
arsenic compounds
K102 - Residue
from the use of
activated carbon for
decolorization in the
production of
veterinary pharma-
ceuticals from
arsenic or organo-
arsenic compounds
Constituents of
Concern (Remaining
Constituents)
Cadmium
Chromium (total)
Lead
Arsenic
Cadmium
Lead
Mercury
(o-Nitroanaline)
Arsenic
Cadmium
Lead
Mercury
(o-Nitrophenol)
Concentration-Based Standard
for Nonwastewater
TCLP
(mg/L)
0.066
5.2
0.51
5.6
5.6
BOAT
Stabilization
Vitrification
Vitrification
Concentration-Based Standard
for Wastewater
Total
Composition
. (mg/L)
1.6
0.32
0.51
0.79
0.24
0.17
0.082
0.79
0.24
0.17
0.082
BOAT
Chromium reduction,
lime and sulfide
precipitation (cadmium
and chromium); chemical
precipitation with
magnesium hydroxide
(lead)
Chemical precipitation
Chemical precipitation
Treatment Method
Specified for
Technology-Based
Standard
-------
TABLE E-3. (continued)
Hazardous Waste
Description/Code
K106 - Wastewater
treatment sludge
from the mercury
cell process in
chlorine production
• High-mercury
subcategory
(> 260 mg/kg)
• Low-mercury
subcategory
(< 260 mg/kg)
P010 - Arsenic
acid (H3As04)
P011 - Arsenic
oxide (As2O6)
P012 - Arsenic
oxide (As203)
P036 - Dichloro-
phenylarsine
P038 - Diethyl-
arsine
P065 - Mercury
fulminate
• High-mercury
subcategory
(> 260 mg/kg)
• Low-mercury
subcategory
(< 260 mg/kg)
Constituents of
Concern (Remaining
Constituents)
Mercury
Mercury
Arsenic
Arsenic
Arsenic
Arsenic
Arsenic
Mercury
Mercury
Concentration-Based Standard
for Nonwastewater
TCLP
(mg/L)
0.025(d)
0.020(
-------
Hazardous Waste
Description/Code
P092 - Phenyl-
mercuric acetate
• High-mercury
subcategory
(a 260 mg/kg)
• Low-mercury
subcategory
(< 260 mg/kg)
P110 - Tetraethyl
lead
U032 - Calcium
chromate
U051 - Creosote
U136 - Cacodylic
acid
U144 - Lead
acetate
U145 - Lead
phosphate
U146 - Lead
subacetate
TABLE E-3. (continued)
Constituents of
Concern (Remaining
Constituents)
Mercury
Mercury
Lead
{Organics)
Chromium (total)
Lead
(Organics)
Arsenic
Lead
Lead
Lead
Concentration-Based Standard
for Nonwastewater
TCLP
(mg/L)
0.20(d)
0.025(d|
0.51
0.094
0.51
5.6
0.51
0.51
0.51
BOAT
(Treatment method
specified)
Acid leaching
Chemical precipitation
Stabilization (lead);
incineration organics)
Chromium reduction,
lime or sulfide
precipitation, sludge
dewatering
Stabilization (lead);
incineration (organics)
Vitrification
Incineration followed by
stabilization
Incineration followed by
stabilization
Incineration followed by
stabilization
Concentration-Based Standard
for Wastewater
Total
Composition
(mg/L)
0.030
0.030
0.040
0.32
0.037
0.79
0.040
0.040
0.040
BOAT
Chemical precipitation
with sulfides
Chemical precipitation
with sulfides
Chemical precipitation,
filtration, settling
Chromium reduction,
lime or sulfide
precipitation, sludge
dewatering
Chemical precipitation
(lead); incineration
(organics)
Chemical precipitation
Chemical oxidation
followed by chemical
precipitation
Chemical oxidation
followed by chemical
precipitation
Chemical reduction, lime
or sulfide precipitation,
sludge dewatering
Treatment Method
Specified for
Technology-Based
Standard
Thermal recovery"1'
-------
TABLE E-3. (continued)
Hazardous Waste
Description/Code
U151 - Mercury
• High-mercury
subcategory
(a 260 mg/kg)
• Low-mercury
subcategory
(< 260 mg/kg)
Constituents of
Concern (Remaining
Constituents)
Mercury
Mercury
Concentration-Based Standard
for Nonwastewater
TCLP
(mg/L)
0.20ld)
0.025(dl
BOAT
(Treatment method
specified)
Acid leaching, chemical
precipitation
Concentration-Based Standard
for Wastewater
Total
Composition
(mg/L)
0.030
0.030
BOAT
Chemical precipitation
with sulfides
Chemical precipitation
with sulfides
Treatment Method
Specified for
Technology-Based
Standard
Thermal recovery*1
m
01
(a) D008 lead acid battery standard only applies to lead acid batteries that are identified as RCRA hazardous wastes and that are not excluded elsewhere from
regulation under the LDRs of 40 CFR Part 268 or exempted under other EPA regulations (see 40 CFR 266.80).
(b) Mercury-containing nonwastewaters are subject to two specified treatment methods if they are in the high-mercury subcategory (i.e., a 260 mg/kg total mercury).
If the nonwastewaters are inorganic, they must be roasted or retorted. If they contain organics, one additional option of incineration is allowed; the incinerator
residues would have to be roasted/retorted if they contain £ 260 mg/kg total mercury. P065 nonwastewaters must be incinerated; if the incinerator residues
contain > 260 mg/kg total mercury, they must be roasted or retorted. P092 nonwastewaters may be incinerated (if.they contain organics) or roasted/retorted;
residues from either process must be roasted/retorted if they contain a: 260 mg/kg total mercury. Incinerator residues (not retorting/roasting residues) containing
< 260 mg/kg total mercury must meet a TCLP mercury standard of 0.025 mg/L. Roasting/retorting residues containing < 260 mg/kg total mercury must meet a
TCLP mercury standard of 0.20 mg/L
(c) The EPA has proposed combining high- and low-zinc subcategories with metal recovery as BOAT, see 57 FR 958, January 9, 1992.
(d) Low-mercury subcategory - less than 260 rng/kg Hg [K106, P065, P092, and U151]. For low-mercury subcategory, the nonwastewater standard of 0.025 mg/L
applies to nonwastewaters that are not residues from mercury retorting or roasting. The 0.20 mg/L standard applies to nonwastewater residues from retorting or
roasting. t:
(e) The mercury standard of 0.020 established by the 1/31/91 technical amendment (56 £R 3882) appears to be a typographical error. The correct value is believed to
be 0^20 mg/L [K106].
-------
Prior to land ban, most arsenic wastes were managed by disposal to a hazardous waste landfill.
The U.S. EPA considered incineration, stabilization, and vitrification as demonstrated technologies for
arsenic-bearing nonwastewaters. Incineration would transfer arsenic to ash or slag that would probably
require further treatment. A variety of stabilization techniques including cement, silicate, and pozzolan
and ferric coprecipitation were evaluated. Due to concerns about long-term stability and the waste
volume increase, particularly with ferric coprecipitation, stabilization was not accepted as BOAT.
The U.S. EPA BOAT analysis recognized the theoretical possibility of recovering arsenic trioxide
from Incineration or other thermal processes due to its low sublimation temperature of 193°C (380°F).
The U.S. EPA Identified a copper smelter in Canada that was being considered for accepting wastes
from the wood-preserving Industry. The wastes would be processed in the smelter to recover, for sale,
arsenic trioxide. One wood-preserving plant was identified that used arsenic-bearing lead smelter flue
dust containing about 50% arsenic to produce arsenic acid. However, the U.S. EPA determined that,
although possible, arsenic recovery Is not sufficiently attractive economically to be generally available
(U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/530-SW-90-059A).
The U.S. EPA considered chemical precipitation, ion exchange, and carbon adsorption as
demonstrated technologies for removal of arsenic from wastewaters. Reliable performance data were
available only for precipitation processes. The U.S. EPA did not believe that ion exchange or carbon
adsorption would offer Improved performance. Therefore, treatment standards for the wastewater forms
of arsenic wastes are established based on chemical precipitation. The concentration-based standard is
set at the toxicfty characteristic concentration level (5.0 mg/L) (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/530-SW-90-59A).
E.2 BEST DEMONSTRATED AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES FOR CADMIUM WASTES
Cadmium nonwastewaters are regulated at the toxicity characteristic level (1.0 mg/L) based on
metal recovery or stabilization depending on the waste type. BDATs are identified for two subcategories
of D006 (cadmium characteristic) nonwastewaters:
• cadmium-containing batteries
• nonwastewater (other than cadmium-containing batteries).
The U.S. EPA considered stabilization and incineration as demonstrated technologies for
cadmium nonwastewaters. Stabilization was selected as BOAT for all cadmium nonwastewaters other
than cadmium-containing batteries (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/SW/530/90-059U).
The BOAT for cadmium-containing batteries is thermal recovery (55 FR 22562 June 1, 1990).
The U.S. EPA determined that a well-designed and well-operated pyrometallurgical recovery process can
treat D006 wastes such that the concentration levels of cadmium in the furnace residues are allowable
for land disposal under Section 3004(m) of the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA). Air
pollution control for the process may produce wastewater and nonwastewater forms of D006 wastes.
Any such wastes that have the TCLP toxicity levels for D006 wastes are not considered to be in the
battery subcategory. These air pollution control wastes are instead considered D006 wastes other than
batteries and must meet the applicable treatment standards (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/SW/530/90-059U).
The U.S. EPA found data indicating that pyrometallurgical recovery could be applied to forms of
cadmium nonwastewaters in addition to the battery subcategory. Recovery is preferred over treatment
for wastes with cadmium concentrations similar to the concentrations in batteries. The U.S. EPA was,
however, unable to establish a concentration level for economic high-temperature cadmium recovery
from nonbattery nonwastewaters. In the absence of an established limit, stabilization was determined to
be the best technology for all D006 nonwastewaters other than batteries.
E-16
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Both pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes for recovery of cadmium are described
in the literature. Despite the availability of hydrometallurgical processes, established commercial
processes rely mainly on pyrometallurgy to recover cadmium. Pyrometallurgical processing of cadmium
presents several challenges. Molten cadmium metal is corrosive and tends to form a finely divided oxide
fume that is difficult to remove from the process off-gas. The hydrometallurgical processes avoid
handling molten cadmium metal but also have limitations. Hydrometallurgical processing requires a
sequence of processing operation In separate vessels and produces a variety of wastewater streams
requiring special treatment.
i
Cadmium can be recovered from solid wastes by heating the waste material to vaporize
cadmium. The operating temperature Is typically about 800 to 1200°C (1470 to 2200°F). A reducing
agent Is supplied In the melt to release cadmium metal. The atmosphere over the melt may be operated
in the oxldiziny mode to give cadmium oxide or in the reducing mode to give cadmium metal. If the
starting material is whole batteries, the residue will have high iron and nickel levels and may be marketed
as high-grade metal scrap .(Cole and Carr, 1986).
For large rectangular cells it may be economical to disassemble the battery prior to feeding it to
the furnace. The positive plates contain about 18% nickel and less than 0.5% cadmium. It may be
possible to remove the positive plates for disposition as scrap without additional processing. The
negative plates, which contain 10 to 25% cadmium, can be fed to the processing furnace.
Smaller sealed cells typically are fed directly to the furnace. The furnace is held at 400 °C
(750°F) to destroy the plastic in the cases before proceeding with the higher temperature processing to
recover the cadmium (Anulf, 1989).
Treatment standards for the wastewater forms of cadmium wastes are established based on
chemical precipitation. The concentration-based standard is set at the toxicity characteristic
concentration level (1.0 mg/L).
E.3 BEST DEMONSTRATED AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES FOR CHROMIUM WASTES
Both trivalent and hexavalent chromium are regulated for wastes with a total TCLP chromium
level over 5.0 mg/L The treatment standard is established as the toxicity characteristic concentration
level (5.0 mg/L),
The U.S. EPA considered stabilization and metal recovery as demonstrated technologies for
chromium nonwastewaters. Stabilization was established as the BOAT for chromium nonwastewaters
such as D007 (chromium characteristic) and U032 (chromic acid).
The U.S. EPA considered thermal processing to recover chromium as a possible BOAT for the
refractory bricks subcategory of D007 wastes. The U.S. EPA determined that the International Metals
Reclamation Corporation (INMETCO) recovers chromium from refractories by high-temperature thermal
processing. The U.S. EPA reports that recovery technology is used for bricks containing up to 20%
chromium and believes it can treat bricks containing up to 40% chromium. The presence of phosphate
impurities reduces the quality of the recovered chromium product. (See the discussion of pyrometallurgi-
cal processing in Subsection 4.4.1.2 for more detail on the INMETCO process.) The U.S. EPA
determined that thermal recovery is an alternative for some forms of refractory bricks. However, the
agency was unable to establish the general applicability of thermal recovery to all types of refractory
bricks and, therefore, did not establish thermal recovery as the BOAT (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/530-SW-90-
59V).
Treatment standards for the wastewater forms of chromium wastes are established based on
chromium reduction followed by chemical precipitation (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/530-SW-90-59V).
E-17
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E.4 BEST DEMONSTRATED AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES FOR LEAD WASTES
The BOAT standards for D008 (lead characteristic) nonwastewaters, except explosive
compounds and wastes from the recycling of lead-acid batteries, are based on stabilization or
vitrification. For the lead-acid battery subcategory of D008, where the batteries are hazardous waste and
are not exempt, the BOAT standard is thermal recovery in secondary lead smelters.
The BOAT for P110 (tetraethyl lead), U144 (lead acetate), U145 (lead phosphate), and U146 (lead
subacetate) nonwastewaters is stabilization for inorganics and incineration (and stabilization of the ash if
needed) for organolead wastes.
The BOAT for K069 (emission control dust/sludge from secondary lead smelting)
nonwastewaters in the noncalcium sulfate subcategory is thermal recovery in secondary lead smelters
(55 FR 22573, June 1, 1990). The noncalcium sulfate subcategory is defined as those emission control
sludges from secondary lead smelting that are not generated as calcium sulfate from secondary wet
scrubbers using lime neutralization (53 FR 31165, August 17,1988).
Selection of BOAT for lead nonwastewater was based on lead recovery, incineration, and
stabilization as demonstrated technologies. The U.S. EPA noted that a variety of nonwastewater forms
of D008 as well as K061 wastes with up to 50,000 mg/kg of lead can be treated by thermal recovery
methods. The resulting residues have a leachate concentration of lead below the characteristic level of 5
mg/L Some consideration was given to establishing recovery as the BOAT for inorganic nonwastewater
lead wastes containing 2.5% or more lead. Commentors on the proposal indicated that a lead
concentration of 25% .would be required for lead recovery to be economical (55 FR 22565, June 1,
1990). Most feedstocks are >65% for economical lead recovery. The agency also noted that not all
forms of D008 are readily amenable to recovery processes. Lead may be present in refractory solid
matrices making extraction difficult (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/530-SW-90-059W). As a result, lead recovery
was established as BOAT only for the D008 lead acid battery subcategory.
Treatment standards for the wastewater forms of lead wastes are established based on chemical
precipitation. The concentration-based standard is set at the toxicity characteristic concentration level
(5.0 mg/L) (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/530-SW-90-059W).
E.5 BEST DEMONSTRATED AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES FOR MERCURY WASTES
Different BDATs were identified as applicable in four general types of mercury wastes:
• high-mercury nonwastewaters
• low-mercury nonwastewaters
• organic mercury nonwastewaters .
• mercury wastewaters.
The U.S. EPA study indicated that mercury is difficult to reliably stabilize when present either at
high concentration or in elemental form. The analysis of treatability data did, however, Indicate that low
concentrations of elemental mercury could be stabilized to meet the leachability levels acceptable for
land disposal.
Due to the concerns about the ability to stabilize wastes containing high levels of mercury, the
U.S. EPA examined a range of extraction and concentration techniques for recovery of mercury for
reuse. The classical technologies for recovery of mercury from sludges are roasting or retorting. These
are thermal processes that sublimate mercury from metal-bearing wastes and capture mercury for further
refining prior to reuse. Aqueous-based mercury recovery methods also were considered, including acid
leaching to form a solution which is then further concentrated by amalgamation, ion exchange,
E-18
-------
eiectrodialysis, or electrowinning. Mercury concentrated by the amalgamation or ion exchange unit will
require further treatment such as roasting followed by triple vacuum distillation to produce a refined
product (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/530-SW-90-59Q). , :
Due to a lack of data on mercury waste treatment by acid leaching followed by solution
processing, the U.S. EPA established roasting and retorting as the BOAT for all mercury nonwastewaters
having total mercury concentrations above 260 mg/kg, except for radioactive mixed wastes. The
affected RCRA wastes are D009 (mercury characteristic), P065 (mercury fulminate), P092
(phenylmercuric acetate), U151 (mercury), and K106 (wastewater treatment sludge from the mercury cell
process in chlorine production). The U.S. EPA also established incineration as a pretreatment step for
P065, P092, and D009 (organics) prior to retorting in its June 1, 1990 rule (June i, 1990, 55 FR 22572
and 22626).
The BOAT technology code RMERC is defined as retorting or roasting in a thermal processing
unit capable of volatilizing mercury and subsequently condensing the volatilized mercury for recovery.
The retorting or roasting unit (or facility) must be subject to one or more of the following:
• a National Emissions Standard for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) for mercury
• a Best Available Control Technology (BACT) or a Lowest Achievable Emission Rate (LAER)
standard for mercury imposed pursuant to a Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD)
permit
• a state permit that establishes emission limitations (within the meaning of section 302 of
the Clean Air Act) for mercury. '
All wastewater and nonwastewater residues derived from this process must then comply with the
corresponding treatment standards per waste code with consideration of any applicable subcategories
(e.g., high- or low-mercury subcategories).
The U.S. EPA determined that acid leaching is the only demonstrated treatment technology
available for inorganic mercury nonwastewaters with a total mercury content below the thermal recovery
limit. Acid leaching solubilizes low concentrations of mercury in wastes, reducing the concentration of
mercury in the nonwastewater residuals. The mercury in the acid leachate must then be treated to
precipitate mercury as in the mercury wastewater category.
BOAT treatment standards for organomercury nonwastewaters require pretreatment to remove or
destroy the organic material. The organic constituents may interfere with the recovery or treatment of
mercury-bearing wastes. Ash and off-gas treatment residuals from the incinerator must be treated by the
BOAT specified. These residuals may be inorganic high- or low-mercury nonwastewaters (depending on
the mercury concentration) and/or mercury-containing wastewaters.
The U.S. EPA identified chemical precipitation followed by filtration, carbon adsorption, and ion
exchange as demonstrated technologies for treatment of mercury-containing wastewaters where the
mercury content is in an inorganic form. The U.S. EPA identified chemical oxidation followed by
chemical precipitation followed by filtration, carbon adsorption, and ion exchange as demonstrated
technologies for treatment of mercury-containing wastewaters containing organomercury content or
inorganic mercury in an organic matrix. Mercury typically is precipitated as the'sulfide at an alkaline pH
(U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/530-SW-90-59Q).
E-19
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E.6 BEST DEMONSTRATED AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES FOR STEELMAKING WASTE
The approximate annual production of dust from steelmaking is 1.8 x 106 metric tons (2 x 10s
tons). The dust comes from one of three furnace types:
• basic oxygen furnace
• electric arc furnace "
• open hearth furnace.
About 0.45 x 106 metric tons (0.5 x 10s tons) of the dust is produced by electric arc furnaces
(Collins, 1991). In the electric arc furnace, less than 2% of the input is converted to dust. An off-gas
treatment system, typically using scrubbers and baghouse filters, captures the dust. Furnaces
processing carbon and low-alloy steels recycle more galvanized or terne-coated scrap than do furnaces
processing stainless or high-alloy steels. The dust from furnaces processing lower alloy, therefore, tends
to have higher zinc and lead concentrations. The dust from carbon and low alloy steel contains about
11 to 30% zinc and about 1 to 4% lead. The zinc and lead levels in electric arc furnace (EAF) dust from
higher alloy steels typically are 2 to 6% and 0.23 to 0.78%, respectively (Krishnan, 1983). EAF dust is
listed as a RCRA hazardous waste and is covered by BOAT standards.
Nonwastewaters listed as K061 (emission control dust/sludge from the primary production of
steel in electric furnaces) are divided into two subcategories (U.S. EPA, 1988, EPA/350-SW-88-031D):
• low zinc (< 15% zinc)
• high zinc (>15% zinc).
The BOAT for the high zinc subcategory is high-temperature metals recovery (HTMR). Non-
wastewater residuals from HTMR of K061 waste are granted a generic exclusion from land ban
restrictions as long as they meet concentration requirements, are disposed of in units as specified in
Subtitle D, and do not exhibit hazardous characteristics (56 FR 41164, August, 1991). The U.S. EPA
reports that a significant fraction of the emission control nonwastewaters is in the high-zinc subcategory.
The BOAT for the low-zinc subcategory is stabilization (55 FR 22599, June 1, 1990).
After the First Third rulemaking, the U.S. EPA received data and comments concerning the
decision to divide K061 based on zinc content. Commentors indicated that K061 wastes with zinc
contents less than 15% were processed for zinc recovery. In addition, data were submitted indicating
that other metals such as chromium or nickel could be recovered from K061 wastes. As a result, the
U.S. EPA has proposed eliminating the 15% cutoff for K061 wastes (57 FR 974, January 9, 1992).
Metal-bearing wastes also are generated by acid conditioning of steel. Wastes from spent pickle
liquor generated by steel finishing operations of facilities within the iron and steel industry (SIC 331 and
332) are listed as K062. The U.S. EPA received a comment indicating that K062 nonwastewaters can be
treated by HTMR. The U.S. EPA was unable to sufficiently verify the applicability of metals recovery from
K062 nonwastewater to allow development of treatment standards (53 FR 31164, August 17, 1988).
Standards for nonwastewater K062 wastes are developed on the basis of chromium reduction, sulfide
precipitation, settling, filtering, and dewatering (U.S. EPA, 1988, EPA/530-SW-88-031E).
Based on additional data, the U.S. EPA has proposed HTMR as an alternative standard for K062
nonwastewaters. The metal recovery standard is not proposed as a replacement for the existing
stabilization standard. The U.S. EPA also has proposed a generic exclusion of nonwastewater residuals
from HTMR of K062 wastes similar to the exclusion for K061 residuals (57 FR 960, January 9, 1992).
E-20
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E.7 BEST DEMONSTRATED AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES FOR PLATING WASTES
Treatment standards for F006 nonwastewaters were derived from performance data for stabiliza-
tion. The U.S. EPA examined recycling as a candidate BOAT for F006 (wastewater treatment sludges
from nonexempted electroplating operations), Stabilization and metal recovery were considered as
demonstrated technologies for plating wastes (U.S. EPA, 1988, EPA/530-SW-88-031L). The U.S. EPA
reports some indications of success in recovery of metals from metal-bearing sludges. However, the
Agency noted that the metal concentrations and form and matrix composition vary depending on the
plating process. Recovery is unlikely to be generally applicable to all electroplating sludges. The U.S.
EPA was not able to define a subcategory of electroplating wastes that would be amenable to recovery
and, therefore, did not establish metals recovery as the BOAT (53 FR 31153, August 17, 1988). However,
comments and data submitted to the U.S. EPA indicate that HTMR is applicable to certain electroplating
sludges. Therefore, HTMR was proposed as an alternative standard for F006 nonwastewaters. The
metal recovery standard is not proposed as a replacement for the existing stabilization standard. The
U.S. EPA also has proposed a generic exclusion of nonwastewater residuals from HTMR of F006 wastes
similar to the exclusion for K061 residuals (57 FR 960, January 9, 1992).
Treatment standards for cadmium, total chromium, lead, and nickel in F006 wastewaters were
developed based on treatabilfty data for chromium reduction followed first by chemical precipitation
using lime and sulfide and then by sludge dewatering (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/530-SW-90-059M).
E.8 BEST DEMONSTRATED AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES FOR PIGMENT WASTES
Wastes listed as K002, K003, K004, K005, K006, K007, and K008 are generated from the
production of inorganic pigments. These wastes are designated as:
K002 Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of chrome yellow and orange pigments
K003 Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of molybdate orange pigments
K004 Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of zinc yellow pigments
K005 Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of chrome green pigments
K006 Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of chrome oxide green pigments
(anhydrous and hydrated)
K007 Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of iron blue pigments
K008 Oven residues from the production of chrome oxide green pigments.
The K002, K003, K004, K005, K006, K007, and K008 wastes contain chromium and some of the
wastes, such as K002, K003, and K005, also contain lead. The BOAT standards for metal constituents in
K002, K003, K004, K005, K006 (anhydrous), K007, and K008 nonwastewaters are based on the
performance of chemical precipitation, sludge dewatering, and filtration. BOAT for chromium in hydrated
K006 is based on the performance of stabilization of F006 wastes. The treatment standards for cyanide
in K005 and K007 nonwastewaters are being developed (55 FR 22583, June 1, 1990).
The U.S. EPA identified one facility recycling a mixed K002/K003 waste. The recycle process
involves the addition of lead salts to the process wastewater to precipitate a high lead sludge. The
sludge contains lead chromate and lead carbonate forming a synthetic analog of the natural lead-bearing
minerals crocoite and cerussite. A lead smelter buys the sludge as a substitute for its normal lead-
bearing scrap feedstock. The BOAT review also noted that the chromium hydroxide solids generated by
E-21
-------
wastewater treatment wastestreams from chrome green pigments can be recycled directly back to the
pigment production process. However, the U.S. EPA believed that recycling opportunities would be
waste- and plant-specific and did not give a sufficient basis for establishing recycling as the BOAT (U.S.
EPA, 1990, EPA/530-SW-90-059Y).
E.9 REFERENCES
Anulf, T. SAB NIFE Recycling Concept for Nickel-Cadmium Batteries - An Industrialized and Environ-
mentally Safe Process. In: Proceedings of the Sixth International Cadmium Conference. Sidney A.
Hiscock and Rosalind A. Volpe (Eds.), Paris, France, April 19-21, 1989. pp. 161-163.
Cole, J.F. and D.S. Carr. New Cadmium Technology. In: Proceedings of the Fifth International
Cadmium Conference. Edited by David Wilson and Rosalind A. Volpe, San Francisco, California,
February 4-6,1986. pp. 17-22.
Collins, J.F. Waste Movement Issues Raised. American Metal Market, November 7, 1991. p. 10.
Horn, G. and G. Holt. The Recycling of Nickel-Cadmium Batteries - Experimental Studies. In:
Proceedings of the Sixth International Cadmium Conference. Sidney A. Hiscock and Rosalind A. Volpe
(Eds.), Paris, April 19-21,1989. pp. 7-11.
Krishnan, E.R. Recovery of Heavy Metals from Steelmaking Dust. Environmental Progress, 2(3):184-187,
1983.
McCoy and Associates, Inc. The RCRA Land Disposal Restrictions: A Guide to Compliance. Lakewood,
Colorado, 1993.
U.S. EPA. Final Best Demonstrated Available Technology (BOAT) Background Document for
Characteristic Arsenic Wastes (D004), Characteristic Selenium Wastes (D010), and P and U Wastes
Containing Arsenic and Selenium. EPA/530-SW-90-059A, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, DC, 1990.
U.S. EPA. Final Best Demonstrated Available Technology (BOAT) Background Document for K061.
EPA/530-SW-88-031D, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, DC, 1988.
U.S. EPA. Final Best Demonstrated Available Technology (BOAT) Background Document for K062.
EPA/530-SW-88-031E, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, DC, 1988.
U.S. EPA. Final Best Demonstrated Available Technology (BOAT) Background Document for F006.
EPA/530-SW-88-031L, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, DC, 1988.
U.S. EPA. Final Best Demonstrated Available Technology (BOAT) Background Document for F006
Wastewaters. EPA/530-SW-90-059M, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, DC, 1990.
U.S. EPA. Final Best Demonstrated Available Technology (BOAT) Background Document for Mercury-
Containing Wastes D009, K106, P065, P092, and U151. EPA/530-SW-90-059Q, Office of Solid Waste,
Washington, DC, 1990.
U.S. EPA. Final Best Demonstrated Available Technology (BOAT) Background Document for D006
Cadmium Wastes. EPA/530-SW-90-059U, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, DC, 1990.
U.S. EPA. Final Best Demonstrated Available Technology (BOAT) Background Document for Chromium
Wastes D007 and U032 Volume 22. EPA/530-SW-90-059V, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, DC, 1990.
E-22
-------
U.S. EPA. Final Best Demonstrated Available Technology (BOAT) Background Document for D008 and
P and U Lead Wastes Volume 23. EPA/530-SW-90-059W, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, DC, 1990.
U.S. EPA. Final Best Demonstrated Available Technology (BOAT) Background Document for Inorganic
Pigment Wastes. EPA/530-SW-90-059Y, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, DC, 1990.
E-23
-------
-------
APPENDIX F
REVIEW OF METAL RECYCLING OPTIONS FOR METAL-CONTAMINATED
WASTES FROM CERCLA SITES
A variety of options are available to recycle solid materials contaminated with metals. These
recycling options will be in competition with conventional and innovative offsite and onsite treatment
methods. The site logistics, waste matrix type, waste composition, economics, and regulatory requirements
all Influence the attractiveness of recycling alternatives (Bishop and Melody, 1993). Recycling usually entails
a creative search of users for what would otherwise be waste materials.
F.1 CONTAMINANT COMPOSITION
The contaminant composition Is a major consideration in selection of a recycling option. The critical
features of waste composition are:
The type and concentration of metal
Additional processing that may make waste suitable for reuse
Other metals in the waste that may complicate recovery or reuse
Inorganic salts In the waste that may complicate recovery or reuse
Organics in the waste that may complicate recovery or reuse
F.2 WASTE MATRIX EFFECTS
Review of waste matrix effects should consider:
• Waste matrix compatibility with the existing recycling processing techniques and equipment
• Waste matrix compatibility with the intended end use
• Waste matrix effects on contaminant mobility .
• Value of the matrix as a bulk commodity
• < t
F.3 SITE CHARACTERISTICS ! .
Some site characteristics may favor or hinder recycling independent of the contaminant or matrix.
These factors can be generally characterized as removal logistics. Removal logistics considers the feasibility
of excavation, handling, and transporting the contaminated solid. Examination of removal logistics is
directed at answering questions such as: :
• Accessibility of the materials for excavation
• Ability to move the contaminated solid efficiently by conventional bulk material handling
equipment and techniques
• Availability of onsite and offsite infrastructure for transportation of waste materials
F.4 ECONOMIC FACTORS
Economic factors play a major role in the identification and selection of recycling options.
F-1
-------
F.4.1 Operating and Capital Costs
The selection of a recycling option will be based on economics. The economic analysis will need
to consider the overall cost of the recycling versus treatment and disposal.
• Potential cost recovery of recycling option
• Consideration of life-cycle factors can improve the competitive position of recycling
• Intangible factors may be favorable to recycling
• Recycling can require major investment of capital
If a paying recycling market is identified for the metal-bearing material, treatment and disposal
should not be considered. The value or cost of recycling a metal-bearing material will be determined by
competition with other raw materials in the marketplace.
For most of the materials covered in the scope of this document there will be a fee associated with
recycling. Recycling options will then need to be evaluated in competition with treatment and disposal
alternatives, except where treatment and disposal is precluded by land ban requirements. The economic
analysis should include both direct costs and avoided expenses through the life-cycle of the alternative
considered. In addition, intangible factors such as improved public image or the potential for liability should
be considered.
The relative capital costs can also influence a decision. Even if one option if favorable overall, a
more costly option with lower capital cost may be chosen due to limited availability of capital.
F.4.2 Recycling Market
Potentially recyclable material must face competition from conventional materials filling the same
needs. The competitive position of the contaminated material needs to be considered to address questions
such as:
• Shipping distance between site and markets
• The volume of material available in relation to market supply and demand
The location of the site and the volume of material can influence the economic viability of recycling.
Location near an end user will reduce shipping costs.
Both the matrix composition and the contaminant levels in the wastestreams can be highly variable.
Industrial users prefer a steady supply of consistent materials. The desire for a homogeneous feedstock
Is often not consistent with the realities of waste production. If possible, preprocessing the waste to improve
homogeneity is one approach to improving market acceptance. Table F-1 tabulates the apparent
consumption and amounts of recycling for some metals in the U.S. economy.
F.5 APPROACH TO SELECTION OF RECYCLING OPTIONS
The following discussion of recycling options and how to identify and evaluate them is intended to
set a few guidelines. These discussions can give a preliminary idea of the possible markets for metal-
bearing material and start the search for recycling options. The analysis is a complex task which must be
prepared for a specific waste type. Due to the lack of clear definition of what constitutes valid recycling,
the user needs to be particularly careful when identifying options for hazardous material recycling. The
ultimate interpretation rests with the Federal, State, and local regulators.
F-2
-------
TABLE F-1. DATA ON USE AND RECYCLING OF SELECTED METALS IN THE UNITED STATES
New Scrap Old Scrap Apparent
Recycle® Recycletb) Total Recycle Consumption*"0
Metal (metric tons) (metric tons) (metric Tons) (metric tons)
Arsenic None None None 20,700
Cadmium No Data No Data Small 3,100
Chromium No Data No Data No Data 423,000
Copper 679,882 533,338 1,213,220 2,783,000
Lead 54,172 829,563 883,735 1,246,000
Mercury No Data . 217(f) No Data • 720
Nickel No Data . No Data 32,520 128,050
Zinc 233,000 120,000 353,000 1,134,000
(a) New scrap is scrap resulting from the manufacturing process including metal and alloy production
(b) Old scrap is scrap resulting from consumer products.
(o) Apparent consumption is production plus imports plus stock changes.
Metal Price Range
Recycle in Reporting Year
(%) ($/metric ton)
0
Small 5,950
(6) , 7,830
44 2,650 to 2,100
71 770 to 700
14m 8,490 to 5,295
25 9,215 to 7,030
31 1,540 to 1,370
.
(d) Arsenic prices are not easily available from published sources. Mexican arsenic trioxide cost in 1990 was about $500/metric ton and has been
declining. The cost spread between high and low grade oxide is .typically about $220/metric ton.
resulting in large price savings for arsenic metal.
(e) Recycling of chromium in stainless steel filled about 21 percent of the total chromium demand.
Reporting Year
1990
1990
1990
1991
1991
1990
1991
1991
generally
Chinese metal supply (for lead alloys) has fluctuated
(f) Average annual recycling between 1985 and 1989.
No Data = No data available.
Source: Compiled from Jolly et al., 1993; Espinosa, 1993; Bureau of Mines, 1993; and Bureau of Mines, 1991.
-------
Once the potential markets are identified, some basis must be found for establishing specifications
for materials. Reliable materials commerce requires some acceptable standards describing the composition,
quality, and properties of recycled materials. The specifications may be based on the material origin,
composition, end use performance, or other characteristics. Potential end users may avoid recycled material
If they are uncertain about the Impurity levels or how well the quality of the material will be controlled (van
den Berg, 1991).
In general, developing a specification will require negotiation between the supplier and user. Some
guidance is available. ASTM or other specifications include or can be applied to recycled materials. EPA
under the provisions of RCRA are encouraging government agencies to allow use of recycled materials.
However, most existing specifications are written to ignore or possibly even preclude recycled materials.
Creative use of existing specifications may be needed to reach a definition of material composition and
properties that is acceptable to the buyer and seller.
Material characterization for recycling requires a somewhat different outlook and approach than is
typical for waste treatment studies. Waste characterization for waste treatment and disposal usually focuses
mainly on the amount of contaminant present. The mineral form of the contaminant and the composition
and form of the matrix are considered only in light of how they may affect performance of treatment or
disposal options. Recycling requires thinking of the entire body of waste material as a product. As a result,
Its total composition, chemical speciation, and physical form need to be established early in the
characterization process.
Waste materials, particularly those from CERCLA sites, usually have highly variable compositions.
End users prefer a reliable stream of materials with predictable composition. The waste supplier may,
therefore, need to provide pretreatment to homogenize and sample the material to prepare a product that
Is acceptable for the user.
In the face of competition from traditional raw materials sources, the waste generator or supplier
often needs to take an active role to seek out uses for the waste material. Recycling can succeed only if
there are markets for the waste material. In general, users of recycled materials are in a buyer's market.
A large new source of waste materials available for recycling can saturate end-use markets. Elements that
can help In finding uses for waste materials are:
• Established and effective specifications
• Creative effort to identify possible uses
• Providing a reliable supply of consistent material
• Programs to improve public awareness of recycling potential
Table F-2 provides a review of recyclers of metal-contaminated wastes from CERCLA sites.
Following the table is a list of the names and addresses of the recyclers given in the headings in Table F-2.
Vendors of recycling services were surveyed to provide RMs with specific information sources on possible
alternatives. The listing is as complete as possible. Due to the extent and dynamic nature of the waste
treatment field, some recycling companies probably have been overlooked in this survey. Mention of
specific companies is not intended as an endorsement. The permit or environmental compliance status of
the listed companies was not investigated by the authors of this report. Superfund site wastes sent offsite
must be sent to properly permitted and compliant facilities.
F-4
-------
TABLE F-2. RECYCLERS OF METAL-CONTAMINATED WASTES FROM CERCLA SITES
Pb-Bearinq Materials
Sludge
Slag
Glass
Ceramics
Pigments
Paint Removal Debn's
Projectiles from Soils
Superfund Soils
Firing Range Soils
Superfund Wastes
Hg-Bearing Materials
Liguid Hg Refining
Contaminated Solids
Spill Collection Kits
Devices Made with Hg
Amalgams
RCRA Wastes
D001
D002
D003
D004 .
D005
D006
D007
D008
D009
D010
D011
F006
F019
K061
K062
U151 |
D Metals Characteristic-Catalysts I
Other/Mixed Metals |
I ASARCO |
| East Helena, MT ||
. *
>
*
*
•
•
•
>
Advance Environmental Recycling Corp. 11
Allentown, PA |]
>
•
>a
y
aP
oo
CO CD
•
*
•
•
+
•
*
*
•
*
-*
i^ flf
rsj »K
to °
CQ5
*
I Bethlehem Apparatus Company ||
Hellertown, PA ||
*•
*
I CP Chemicals II
Fort Lee, NJ
>°
ICanonie Environmental
Englowood, CO
•
>
I Ceramic Bonding II
Mountain View, CA
•*
I CRI-MET II
Brailhwaite, LA
*>
*b
t
is
13
-¥
25
at
+
•
*
•
*
•
*
*
*
*
* '
Doe Run Co. II
Boss, MO ||
•
*
•
•
•
*
*
•
*
•
Doe Run Co. ' II
Herculaneum, MO ||
•
•
+
East Penn Manufacturing Co., Inc. ||
Lyon Station, PA ' ' ||
»
*
Encycle Texas, Inc. ||
Corpus Christ!. TX ||
»
+
•
*
•
*
•
•
>
>
. z
•i
1
£
ScC
•
•
>
*
•
*
•
z
' C QJ
innr
•
•
•
*
>
>
>'
••
3
Mi
(s8
•
Gopher Smelting and Refining II
Eagan, MN
*
(a) Not including soils & sludges (b) Cr-bearing sludges only (c) Recovers Ni or Cu; permitted for ail D,F, or K wastes
Adapted from: Lead Recycling Directory-1992; used with permission of the publisher, Lead Industn'es Association, New York, New York.
F-5
-------
TABLE F-2. (Continued)
Pb-Bearinq Materials
Baqhouse Filtrate
SliKkje
Slaq
Glass
Ceramics
Pkxnents
Paint Removal Debris
Proiectiles from Soils
Suoerfund Soils
FWx) Ranqa Soils
Superfund Wastes
Hq-Bearlnq Materials
Liquid Hq Refining
Contaminated Solids
Spl Collection Kits
Devices Made with Hq
Amalgams
HCHA Wastes
D001
D002
D003
D004
D005
D006
D007
0008
D009
D010
D011
F006
F019
K061
K062
U151 |
D Metals Characteristic-Catalysts |
Other/Mixed Metals
I Gulf Chemical and Metallurgical I
Freeport. TX I
I *
I
Horsehead Resource Development Co.
| Plants in IL, PA, TN, and TX J
*
*e
MI
.HO
li
i<§
*d
+d
1 INMETCO - Int'l Melals Reclamation Co. ]
1 Ellwood City, PA |
•
•
*
*
•
•
•
*
*
I Mercury Refining Company II
Latham, NY
*
+
*
+
INoranda Minerals II
Belledune, New Brunswick, Canada ||
•
+
*
*
*
•
»
+
*
*
1 Nova Lead, Inc. II
Ville Ste. - Catherine, Quebec, Canada I
*
+
+
•
*
*•
*.
NSSI/Sources and Services
Houston, TX
*
*'
IP
« C
jg'w
CO O
O-IC
4
1 Pittsburgh Mineral and Env. Technology ']
New Brighton, PA
+d
4d
1 Quicksilver Products
Brisbane, CA
•
*
4
Refined Metals Corporation II
Memphis, TN; Beech Grove, IN
*
*
*
•
•
•
•
*
*
Schuylkill Metals Corporation II
Baton Rouge, LA; Forest City, MO ||
*
•
4
•
*
•
Seaview Thermal System
Blue Bell, PA
•
Vulcan Lead Resources II
Milwaukee, Wl ||
*
Westinghouse Electric II
Pittsburgh, PA ||
*d
IZia Technology of Texas II
Caldwell, TX ||
•
(d) Provides on-site recycling system, (e) Recovers Cd, Pb, and Zn. (0 Accepts a wide range of RCRA wastes for recycling.
Adapted from: Lead Recycling Directory-1992; used with permission of the publisher, Lead Industries Association, New York, New York.
F-6
-------
RECYCLERS OF METAL-BEARING WASTES
ASARCO, Inc.
Headquarters
180 Maiden Lane
New York, NY 10038
Glendon Archer
(212) 510-2215
Plant is in E. Helena, MT
Advance Environmental
Recycling Corporation
2591 Mitchell Avenue
Allentown, PA 18103
Jane E. Buzzard
(215) 797-7608
(215) 797-7696
Alpha Omega Recycling, Inc.
315SouthWhatleyRoad
White Oak, TX 75693
(903) 297-7272
Bay Zinc
Moxee, WA 98936
Robert Chase
(509) 248-4911
Bethlehem Apparatus Co.
890 Front Street
Hellertown, PA 18055
Bruce Lawrence
(215) 838-7034
CP Chemicals
ERS Division
1 Parker Plaza
Fort Lee, NJ 07024
(800) 777-1850
(201) 944-7916 Fax
Plants in CA, IL, SC, and TX
Canonie Environmental
94 Iverness Terrace East
Suite 100
Englewood, CO 80112
John A. Meardon
(303) 790-1747
(303) 799-0186 Fax
Ceramic Bonding
939 San Rafael Avenue
Suite C
Mountain View, CA 94043
(415)940-1146
(415) 940-1634 Fax
CRI-MET
Recycle Facility, Braithwaite
LA 70040
Sales Office, 101 Merritt 7
Corporate Park
P.O. Box 5113
Norwalk, CT 06856-5113
(203) 854-2958
Cyprus Miami Mining
Highway 60
Claypool, AZ 85532
(602) 473-7100
The Doe Run Co.
Highway KK
Boss, MO 65440
Louis J. Magdits
(314) 626-3476
The Doe Run Co.
881 Main Street
Herculaneum, MO 63048
Anthony Worchester
(314) 933-3107
East Penn Mfg. Co., Inc.
Deka Road
Lyon Station, PA 19536
Dan Breidegam, Rick Leiby
(215) 682-6361
Encycle Texas, Inc.
5500 Up River Road
Corpus Christi, TX 78407
R.N. George, Jill Albert
(512) 289-0300
(800) 443-0144
Eticam - East Coast
410 South Main Street
Providence, Rl 02903
(800) 541-8673
(401) 738-3261
(401) 738-1073 Fax
Eticam - West Coast
2095 Newlands Drive, East
Fernley, NV 89408
(800) 648-9963
(702) 575-2760
(702) 575-2803 Fax
Exide Corp.
P.O. Box 14205
Reading, PA 19612-4205
Robert Jordan
*800) 437-8495
2nd plant in Muncie, IN
GNB, Inc.
Box 2165, Joy Road
Columbus, GA 31902
Kenneth H. Strunk
(404) 689-1701
Gopher Smelting & Refining
3385 Highway 149
Eagan, MN 55121
Maier Kutoff
(612) 454-3310
Gulf Chemical and
Metallurgical Corp..
302 Midway Road
P.O. Box 2290
Freeport, TX 77541
(409) 233-7882
(409) 233-7171
Horsehead Resource
Development Company
613 Third Street
Palmerton, PA 18071
Jerry C. Odenwelder
(800) 253-5579
(610) 826-8835
(610) 926-8993 Fax
Plants in IL, PA, TN, and TX
F-7
-------
Inorganic Service
Corporation
4374 Tuller Road
Dublin, OH 43017
Alan B. Sarko
(614) 798-1890
(614) 798-1895 Fax
INMETCO -The International
Metals Reclamation Co.
P.O. Box 720
245 Portersvllle Road
EllwoodCity, PA 16117
John J. Llotta
(412) 758-5515
(412)758-9311 Fax
Mercury Refining Company
790 Watervllet-Shaker Road
Latham NY 12009
Vicki Hart
(518) 785-1703
Noranda Minerals
Brunswick Mining & Smelting
Corp. Ltd.
Belledune, New Brunswick
Canada EOB 1GO
P. Evans (506) 522-2100
K. McGuire (416) 982-7495
Nova Lead, Inc.
1200 Garnler
Vllle Ste.-Catherlne
Quebec, Canada JOL 1EO
Brian Mclver
(514) 632-9910
NSSI/Sources and Services
P.O. Box 34042
Houston, TX 77234
(713) 641-0391
Parkans International
5521 Armour Drive
Houston, TX 77220
(713) 675-9141
(713) 675-4771 Fax
Pittsburgh Mineral and
Environmental Technology
700 Fifth Avenue
New Brighton, PA 15066-1837
William F. Sutton
(412) 843-5000
(412) 843-5353 Fax
Quicksilver Products
200 Valley Drive, Suite #1
Brisbane, CA 94005
(415) 468-2000
(800) 275-2554
Refined Metals Corp.
257 W. Mallory
Memphis, TN 38109
Bill Freudiger
(901) 775-3770
2nd plant In Beech Grove, IN
Schuylkill Metals Corp.
Baton Rouge
Box 74040
Baton Rouge, LA 70874
Glen Krause
(800) 621-8236
Schuylkill Metals Corp.
Canon Hollow
P.O. Box 156
Forest City, MO 64451
Ken Fisher
(816) 446-3321
Seaview Thermal System
P.O. Box 3015
Blue Bell, PA 19422
Cheryl Camuso
(215) 654-9800
Vulcan Lead Resources
1400 W. Pierce
Milwaukee, Wl 53204
Paul See
(800) 776-7152
Westinghouse Electric
Pittsburgh, PA
Robert J. Benke
(412) 642-3321
(412) 642-4985 Fax
Zia Technology of Texas
Burleson County Road 105
P.O. Box 690
Caldwell, TX 75240
(409) 567-7777
F-8
-------
WASTE EXCHANGES
Waste exchanges are information clearinghouses with the goal of matching waste generators and
waste users. The waste exchanges typically publish catalogs on a quarterly or bimonthly basis describing
wastes available and desired. The catalogs contain brief descriptions of the type and quantity of material
wanted or available. The listings typically are classified by waste type. In addition to the paper copy, many
exchanges maintain an online computer database.
To ensure confidentially, listings are assigned a unique code number. The waste description in the
catalog or online listing is associated with a code rather than a company name or phone number. All
listings are identified by code but may be either confidential or nonconfidential. The exchange forwards any
inquiries about confidential listings to the listing company. That company then chooses the respondents
with whom it wishes to negotiate. To expedite inquiries about nonconfidential listings, the exchange will
send a company name directly in response to requests about a waste listing.
North American Waste Exchanges
Alabama Waste Materials
Exchange
Ms. Linda Quinn
404 Wilson Dam Avenue
Sheffield, AL 35660
(205) 760-4623
Alberta Waste Materials
Exchange
Alberta Research Council
Ms. Cindy Jensen
6815 Eight Street North
Digital Building, 3rd Floor
Calgary, Alberta
Canada T2E 7H7
(403) 297-7505
(403) 340-7982 Fax
Arizona Waste Exchange
Mr. Barrie Herr
4725 East Sunrise Drive
Suite 215
Tucson, AZ85718
(602) 299-7716
(602) 299-7716 Fax
Arkansas Industrial
Development Council (b)
Mr. Ed Davis
#1 Capitol Hill
Little Rock, AR 72201
(510) 682-1370
B.A.R.T.E.R. Waste
Exchange
Mr. Jamie Anderson
MPIRG
2512 Delaware Street, SE
Minneapolis, MN 55414
(612)627-6811
Bourse Quebecoise des
Matrieres Secondaires
Mr. Francois Lafortune
14 Place Du Commerce
Bureau 350
Le-Des-Squeurs, Quebec
Canada H3E 1T5
(514) 762-9012
(514) 873-6542
British Columbia Waste
Exchange
Ms Jill Gillet
1525 West 8th Ave., Suite 102
Vancouver, BC,
Canada V6J 1T5
(604) 731-7222 - Gen. Info
(604) 734-7223 Fax
Bureau of Solid Waste
Management (b)
Ms. Lynn Persson
P.O. Box 7921
Madison, Wl 53707
(608) 276-3763
California Materials
Exchange (CALMAX)
Ms. Joyce L Mason
Integrated Waste Management
Board
8800 Cal Center Drive
Sacramento, CA 95826
(916) 255-2369
(916) 255-2221 Fax
California Waste Exchange
Ms. Claudia Moore
Hazardous Waste Manage-
ment Program
Department of Toxic
Substances Control
P.O. Box 806
Sacramento, CA 95812-0806
(916) 322-4742
Canadian Chemical
Exchange (a)
Mr. Philippe LaRoche
P.O. Box 1135
Ste-Adele, Quebec
Canada JOR 1LO
(514) 229-6511 or
(800)561-6511
(514) 229-5344 Fax
F-9
-------
Canadian Waste Materials
Exchange
ORTECH International
Dr. Robert Laughlin
2395 Speakman Drive
Misslssauga, Ontario
Canada L5K1B3
(416) 822-4111, ext. 265
(416) 823-1446 Fax
Department of Environ-
mental Protection (b)
Mr. Charles Peters
18 Riley Road
(502) 564-6761
Durham Region Waste
Exchange
Mr. Elaine Collis
Region of Durham
Works Department
Box 603, 105 Conaumers Dr.
Whrtby, Ontario
Canada L1N8A3
(416) 668-7721
(416) 668-2051 Fax
Essex-Windsor Waste
Exchange
Mr. Steve Stephenson
Essex-Windsor Waste
Management Committee
360 Fairview Avenue West
Essex, Ontario
Canada N8M 1Y6
(519) 776-6441
(519) 776-4455 Fax
Hawaii Materials Exchange
Mr. Jeff Stark
P.O. Box 1048
Pala, Hawaii 96779
(808) 579-9109
(808) 579-9109 Fax
Hudson Valley Materials
Exchange
Ms. Jill Gruber
P.O. Box 550
NewPaltz, NY 12561
(914) 255-3749
(914) 255-4084 Fax
Indiana Waste Exchange
Mr. Jim Brrtt
c/o Recyclers Trade Network,
Inc.
P.O. Box 454
Carmel, IN 46032
(317) 574-6505 or
(317) 844-8764
Industrial Materials
Exchange (IMEX)
Mr. Bill Lawrence
110 Prefontaine Place, South
Suite 210
Seattle, WA 98104
(206) 296-4899
(206) 296-3997 Fax
Industrial Materials
Exchange Service
Ms. Diane Shockey
P.O. Box 19276, #34
Springfield, IL 62794-9276
(217) 782-0450
(217) 782-9142 Fax
Intercontinental Waste
Exchange
Mr. Kenneth J. Jucker
5200 Town Center Circle
Suite 303
Boca Raton, FL 33486
(800) 541-0400
(407) 393-6164 Fax
Iowa Waste Reduction
Center By-Product and
Waste Search Service
(BAWSS)
Ms. Susan Salterberg
University of Northern Iowa
Cedar Falls, IA 50614-0185
(800) 422-3109
(319) 273-2079
(319) 273-2893 Fax
Louisiana/Gulf Coast Waste
Exchange
Ms. Rita Czek
1419 CEBA
Baton Rouge, OA 70803
(504) 388-8650
(504) 388-4945 Fax
Manitoba Waste Exchange
Mr. Todd Lohvinenko
c/o Recycling Council of
Manitoba, Inc.
1812-330 Portage Ave.
Winnipeg, Manitoba
Canada R3C OC4
(204) 942-7781
(204) 942-4207 Fax
MISSTAP
Ms. Caroline Hill
P.O. Drawer CN
Mississippi State, MS 39762
(601) 325-8454
(601) 325-2482 Fax
Missouri Environmental
Improvement Authority (b)
Mr. Thomas Welch
325 Jefferson Street
Jefferson City, MO 65101
(314) 751-4919
Minnesota Technical
Assistance Program (b)
Ms. Helen Addy
1313 Fifth Street, Suite 307
Minneapolis, MN 55414
(612) 627-4555
Montana Industrial Waste
Exchange
Montana Chamber of
Commerce
P.O. Box 1730
Helena, MT 59624
(406) 442-2405
F-10
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New Hampshire Waste
Exchange
Ms. Emily Hess
122 N. Main Street
Concord, NH 03301
(603) 224-5388
(603) 224-2872 Fax
New Jersey industrial
Waste Information Exchange
Mr. William Payne
50 West State Street
Suite 1110
Trenton, NJ 08608
(609) 989-7888
(609) 989-9696 Fax
New Mexico Material
Exchange
Mr. Dwight Long
Four Corners Recycling
P.O. Box 904
Farmington, NM 87499
(505) 325-2157
(505) 326-0015 Fax
New York City Department
of Sanitation
Ms. Patty Tobin
44 Beaver Street, 6th Floor
New York, NY 10004
Northeast Industrial Waste
Exchange, Inc.
Ms. Carrie Mauhs-Pugh
620 Erie Boulevard West
Suite 211
Syracuse, NY 13204-2442
(315) 422-6572
(315) 422-4005 Fax
Oklahoma Waste Exchange
Program
Mr. Fenton Rude
P.O. box 53551
Oklahoma City, OK 73152
(405) 271-5338
Olmsted County Materials
Exchange
Mr. Jack Stansfield
Olmsted County Public Works
2122 Campus Drive
Rochester, MN 55904
(507) 285-8231
(507) 287-2320 Fax
Ontario Waste Exchange
ORTECH International
Ms. Mary Jane Hanley
2395 Speakman Drive
Mississauga, Ontario
Canada L5K1B3
(416) 822-4111, ext. 512
(416) 823-1446 Fax
Peel Regional Recycling
Assistance
(Publishes Directory of Local
Recyclers)
Mr. Glen Milbury
Regional Municipality of Peel
10 Peel Center Drive
Brampton, Ontario
Canada L6T 4B9
(416) 791-9400
PenCyCIe
Manager
PA Recycling Council
25 West Third Street
Media, PA 19063
(215) 892-9940
(215) 892-0504 Fax
Portland Chemical
Consortium
Dr. Bruce Brown .
P.O. Box 751
Portland, OR 97207-0751
(503) 725-4270
(503) 725-3888 Fax
RENEW
Ms. Hope Castillo
Texas Natural Resource
Conservation Commission
P.O. Box 13087
Austin, TX 78711-3087
(512) 463-7773
Review Materials Exchange
Mr. Adam Haecker
345 Cedar Street, Suite 800
St. Paul, MN 55101
(612) 222-2508
(612) 222-8212 Fax
ResourceExchangeServices
Mr. Brendan Prebo or
Mr. Howard Hampton
213 East Saint Joseph
Lansing, Ml 48933
(517) 371-7171
(517)485-4488
Rhode Island Department
of Environmental
Management
Ms. Marya Carr
Brown University
P.O. Box 1943
Providence, Rl 02912
(410) 863-2715
Rocky Mountain Materials
Exchange
Mr. John Wright
812 South Vine Street
Denver, CO 80209
(303) 692-3009
(303) 744-2153 Fax
SEMREX
Ms. Anne Morse
171 West Third Street
Winona, MN 55987
(507) 457-6460
South Carolina Waste
Exchange
Mr. Doug Woodsoh
155 Wilton Hill Road
Columbia, SC29212
(803) 755-3325
(803) 755-3833 Fax
Southeast Waste Exchange
Ms. Maxie May
Urban Institute
UNCC Station
Charlotte, NC 28223
(704) 547-2307
F-11
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Southern Waste Information
Exchange
Mr. Eugene B. Jones
P.O. Box 960
Tallahassee, FL 32302
(800) 441-SWIX (7949)
(904) 644-5516
(904) 574-6704 Fax
Vermont Business Materials
Exchange
Ms. Connie Leach Bisson or
Mr. Muriel Durgin
Post Office Box 630
Montpelier, VT 05601
(802) 223-3441
(802) 223-2345 Fax
Wastelink, Division of
Tecon, Inc.
Ms. Mary E. Malotke
140 Wooster Pike
Milford, OH 45150
(513) 248-0012
(513) 248-1094 Fax
Waterloo Waste Exchange
Mr. Mike Birett
Region of Waterloo
925 Erb Street West
Waterloo, Ontario
Canada N2J 324
(519) 883-5137
(519) 747-4944 Fax
(a) For profit waste information exchange
(b) Industrial materials exchange service distributors
F-12
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OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON RECYLCING TECHNOLOGIES AND MARKETS
American Metals Market
P.O. Box 1085
Southeastern, PA 19398-1085
Publishes newspapers and books providing information
on the metals market and traditional scrap and bulk
metals recyblers.
California Waste Exchange
Department of Toxic
Substances Control
P.O. Box 806
Sacramento, CA 9812-0806
Directory of Industrial Reoyclers - Classified listing of
businesses in and around California providing recycling
services for acids, antifreeze, catalysts, caustics, metal-
working coolants, dry cleaning wastes, metals and
metal salts, lead, mercury, precious metals, oils, oil
filters, solvents, transformers, and miscellaneous and
surplus supplies.
Citizen's Clearinghouse for Hazardous Wastes
P.O. Box 6806
Falls Church, VA 22040
(703) 237-2249
Fact Packs - News clippings and other information
giving the grassroots view of hazardous waste topics,
including information on recycling.
Lead Industries Association
295 Madison Ave.
New York, NY
(212) 578-4750
Lead Recycling Directory -1992 - This directory gives
information on the types of lead-bearing materials
processed by 35 facilities in 15 states and Canada.
Forms of lead range from near pure lead sheeting,
through lead alloys and drosses, to firing-range soils
and paint removal debris.
Minnesota Trade Office
Department of Trade and Economic Development
1000 Minnesota World Trade Center
30 East Seventh Street
St. Paul, MN 55101-4902
(612) 297-4222 or (800) 657-3858
(612) 296-3555 Fax
Minnesota Environmental Protection Industry -
Classified directory for Minnesota companies providing
a wide range of environmental services.
Texas Water Commission
Recycle Texas
P.O. Box 13087
Austin, TX 78711
(512) 463-7761
Recycle Texas - A Reuse. Recycling, and Products
Directory - This comprehensive guide describes
recyclers of industrial materials and suppliers of
products with recycled content. Over 300 recycling
companies are profiled. Directory of material accepted
and RCRA waste code accepted allow identification of
recyclers for a wide range of materials. Emphasis is on
Texas vendors, but there are entries from all of North
America.
' U.S. Bureau of Mines
Washington, DC
MINES-DATA database -
system operator (202) 501-0406,
modem (202) 501-0373 (1,200 or 2,400 baud,
8 data bits, no parity, 1 stop bit)
This bulletin board system allows a user online access
to Bureau of Mines reports on mining and mineral use,
such as Mineral Industry Surveys.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, DC
RCRA/Superfund/UST - (800) 424-9346
Hotline providing information on RCRA, Superfund, and
underground storage tank regulations.
Solid Waste Information Clearinghouse -
(800) 677-9424
Hotline providing information on recycling of
waste (mainly municipal wastes).
Toxic Substances Control Act Hotline -
(202) 554-1404
Hotline providing information on TSCA regulators.
VISITT - Vendor Information System for Innovative
Treatment Technologies
VISITT Hotline (80) 245-4505 or (703) 883-8448
Document Number: EPA/542/R-93/001
VISITT is an IBM PC-compatible database of treatment
technology vendors. The main focus is on waste
treatment but a number of recycling systems are
discussed.
F-13
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F.6 REFERENCES
Mineral Commodity Summaries. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC, 1991.
Mineral Yearbook. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC, 1993.
Bishop, J. and M. Melody. Inorganics Treatment and Recovery - Using Old Technologies in New Ways
Hazmat Work, 6(2):20-30,1993.
Esplnosa, J (Ed.). Metal Statistics 1993: The Statistical Guide to the Metals Industries. 85th edition,
Published annually by American Metal Market, Chilton Publications, New York, NY, 1993.
Jolly, J.LW., J.F. Papp, and P.A. Plunkert. Recycling - Nonferrous Metals. U.S. Bureau of Mines
Washington, DC, 1993.
Van der Berg, J.W. Quality of Environmental Aspects in Relation to the Application of Pulverized Fuel Ash.
In: JJ.J.M. Goumans, H.A. van der Sloot, and Th. G. Aalbers (Eds.), Waste Materials in Construction, Studies
In Environmental Science 48. Elsevier, New York, NY, 1991. pp. 441-450.
F-14
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APPENDIX G
SUMMARY OF EPA EVALUATION CRITERIA OF REMEDIAL TECHNOLOGIES
FOR SOILS, SEDIMENTS, AND SLUDGES
The following table (Table G-1) summarizes remedial technologies applicable to metal-
contaminated sites. Each technology is evaluated for six of the nine evaluation criteria developed by
EPA: Long-term Effectiveness and Permanence; Reduction of Toxicity, Mobility, or Volume; Short-term
Effectiveness; Implementability; Cost; and Protection of Human Health and the Environment. They are
not, however, evaluated against compliance with ARARs, and State and community acceptance because
they must be determined based on site-specific evaluations.
G-1
-------
TABLE G-1. SUMMARY OF EPA EVALUATION CRITERIA OF REMEDIAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR SOILS, SEDIMENTS, AND SLUDGES
Remedial
Technology
No action
Excavation
and offsite
disposal
Barriers/
containment
(Sec. 4.2.1)
Protection of Human
Health and the
Environment^
Threat is not mitigated.
This alternative involves
moving the waste from
one site to another. Can
be protective if the waste
is disposed of in a
RCRA-permitted landfill.
Can significantly reduce
release rates, but not a
permanent remedy.
Frequently used in
conjunction with a
treatment technology
(e.g., cap employed to
cover S/S waste or to
control groundwater flow
during a pump-and-treat
Drocess).
Long-term Effectiveness
and Permanence
Contaminants would con-
tinue to migrate offsite
and downward through
the subsurface soil.
Ground-water monitoring
would determine degree
of contaminant leaching
and provide a warning
mechanism.
Long-term effectiveness
for the waste site is
excellent because the
waste is being removed;
however, the contaminant
has not been treated or
removed from the waste.
Provides protection of
public health from
exposure to onsite soil
contamination and con-
trols offsite migrations of
contaminants. Not con-
sidered a permanent
remedy. Groundwater
monitoring required to
verify that no leaching of
contaminants occurs at
downgradient locations.
Reduction of Toxicity,
Mobility, or Volume
Does not reduce toxicity.
mobility, or volume of
contamination in the soil.
Does not reduce toxicity
or volume of contami-
nants in the soil.
Mobility is reduced by
placing contaminants in
a permitted landfill.
Does not reduce toxicity
or volume of contamina-
tion at the site. .Reduces
downward and lateral
mobility of contaminants
and reduces offsite
migration of contam-
inants due to wind
erosion, surface water
run-off, and leaching.
Short-Term Effectiveness
Remedial action not
involved. Protection of
workers, community, and
environment during
remediation activities is
not a consideration. Mini-
mal protection of public
health from exposure to
on-site surface soils.
Dust may be generated
during excavation and
handling activities.
Respiratory protection,
fugitive dust control
procedures, and air
monitoring may be
required to protect
workers and community.
Depending on the
volume, large amounts of
Dust may be generated
during excavation and
handling activities.
Respiratory protection,
fugitive dust control
procedures, and air
monitoring may be
required to protect
workers and-community.
Implementability
No implementability
considerations. Would
not interfere with future
remedial actions.
Technologies are
demonstrated and
commercially available.
Land disposal restric-
tions may apply.
Would not interfere
with future remediation
actions at the site.
Uses standard
construction equipment
and labor.
Readily implemented,
except for horizontal
barriers under in situ
materials.
Technologies are
reliable and commer-
cially available. Uses
standard construction
equipment and labor.
Cost
No capital costs.
There will be costs
associated with
sampling and
snslvsis
Typically $300-
$500/ton, or more.
Generally less
expensive than
most forms of
treatment.
o
rb
(a)
Technology compliance with ARARs, and State and community acceptance must be determined based on site-specific evaluation.
-------
o
TABLE G-1. (continued)
Remedial
Technology
Solidification/
stabilization
(ex situ or in
situ) (Sec.
4.2.2)
Vitrification
(ex situ or
in situ) (Sec.
4.2.3)
Protection of
Human Health and
the Environment'3'
Potentially protective
because it reduces the
potential for release of
the contaminant to
water or air. However,
contaminant is not
removed.
If successful,
permanent remedy
with good long-term
effectiveness. Can
simultaneously treat a
wide variety of
contaminants, both
organic and inorganic.
Long-Term Effectiveness
and Permanence
Data on long-term
effectiveness of S/S are
limited. Contaminant is
not removed from the
waste.
If successful, yields inert
product, with low leach-
ability. Data on long-
term effectiveness of
vitrification are limited.
Products have potential
reuse options.
Reduction of Toxicity,
Mobility, or Volume
Increases volume of
contaminated soil
(approximately 10 to
100%). Can reduce the
mobility of many metals
in the soil.
Pretreatment such as
reduction of Cr(VI) to
Cr(lll) or oxidation of
arsenite to arsenate may
be needed.
Metals are immobilized
in vitrified solid. Volume
reduction occurs.
Volatile metals (e.g.,
arsenic oxide), which can
be difficult to retain in
vitrified solid requires
pretreatment to convert
to less volatile forms.
I
Short-Term Effectiveness
Dust may be generated
during excavation and
handling activities. Respira-
tory protection, fugitive dust
control procedures, and air
monitoring may be required
to protect workers and com-
munity.
Dust may be generated dur-
ing excavation and handling
activities (ex situ only). Res-
piratory protection, fugitive
dust control procedures, and
air monitoring may be re-
quired to protect workers
and community. Dust con-
trol, respiratory protection,
and air monitoring usually
warranted. Significant off-
gas control issues.
Implementability
Widely implemented
and reliable. Large
staging area required.
Many vendors, mobile
systems available for
processing excavated
soil. Bench-scale
testing usually
recommended.
Presence of interfering
compounds such as
organics may inhibit
solidification process.
Effective binder is
difficult to formulate
when many contaminant
types are present.
Significant off-gas
production. Volatile
metals such as mercury
and cadmium may exist
in off-gas. Extensive
pilot-scale testing
required. Labor-
intensive; requires
highly skilled personnel
and sophisticated facili-
ties and instrumentation.
Significant interferences
and incompatibilities.
Limited commercial
availability. High energy
intensive
Cost
Generally $50-
$150/ton.
High cost and
energy intensive,
usually > $500/
ton. Probably
economically
practical for only a
small portion of
existing metal
waste sites.
(a)
Technology compliance with ARARs, and State and community acceptance must be determined based on site-specific evaluation.
-------
0
TABLE 6-1. (continued)
Remedial
Technology
Physical
separation
(e.g.,
screening,
gravity
separation, or
flotation) (Sec.
4.3.1.1)
Pyrometal-
lurgical
treatment
(Sec. 4.3.1.3)
Protection of
Human Health and
the Environment^
Can be protective if
separation process
produces output
stream with metal
concentrations below
health risk concerns
and if metal concen-
trate is properly
recycled or disposed.
Typically additional
treatment (e g
leaching S/S) is
required to meet the
cleanup goal with
some fractions.
Can be protective if it
recovers metals from
waste materials.
Long-Term Effectiveness
and Permanence
Excellent if high removal
efficiencies are attained
and if the metal concen-
trate Is properly recycled
or disposed.
Very high if high removal
efficiencies are attained.
Enriched products can
be reused or recycled.
Reduction of Toxicity,
Mobility, or Volume
Permanently reduces
toxicity of soil by
removing metals.
Concentrations of metals
into much smaller
volumes is a requirement
for a successful system.
Permanently removes
majority of metals and
effectively immobilizes
remainder of metals in
the slag or residue.
Short-Term Effectiveness
Dust may be generated
during excavation and
handling activities. Dust
control, respiratory
protection, and air
monitoring usually
warranted.
Dust due to excavation.
Thermal air emissions
require treatment.
Implementabllity
Bench- and pilot-scale
testing required to
assess all implement-
ability considerations.
Large staging area
required. High removal
efficiencies may be diffi-
cult to achieve and/or
process. Requires spe-
cialized (but not
necessarily expensive)
facilities and equipment.
Many commercial smelt-
ing facilities do not have
permits for hazardous
waste. Requires special-
ized facilities and highly
trained labor.
Significant off-gas and
need for air emissions
scrubbing.
Cost
Varies greatly, from
$10 to several
hundred dollars per
ton, depending on
the complexity of
the process.
Variable; depends
on metal concen-
tration, distance to
processor, market
for the metal, and
the marketability of
the form of the
metal in the waste.
(a)
Technology compliance with ARAFls, and state and community acceptance must be determined based on site-specific evaluation.
-------
o
TABLE G-1. (continued)
Remedial
Technology
Soil washing
(ex situ or in
situ) (e.g.,
aqueous or
chemical
leaching) (Sec.
4.3. 1.2 and
4.3.2.1)
Electrokinetics
(Sec. 4.3.2.2)
Protection of
Human Health and
the Environment'3'
Very protective if high
removal efficiencies
are attained. Requires
subsequent treatment
of washing fluid.
Contaminants can be
permanently removed
Irom waste.
Long-Term Effectiveness
and Permanence
Excellent if high removal
efficiencies are attained.
Very permanent, in that
metals are recovered and
recycled.
Reduction of Toxicity,
Mobility, or Volume
Permanently reduces
toxicity of soil by
removing metals. Con-
centrates contaminants
into a much smaller vol-
ume. In order to reduce
volume, process must
provide a satisfactory
method for treating
washing fluids.
Permanently reduces
toxicity of soil by
removing metals and
concentrating them.
• !
Short-Term Effectiveness
Dust may be generated dur-
ing excavation and handling
activities (note: applies only
to ex situ processing). Res-
piratory protection, fugitive
dust control procedures,
and air monitoring may be
required to protect workers
and community.
Air emissions can be a
concern. Can release
gasses at electrodes.
Implementability
Subject to a number of
incompatibilities and
interferences. Soils
which are high in clay,
silt, or fines have proven
difficult to treat. Most
extraction solutions are
effective orily for a
narrow range of metals
and matrix combination.
Bench- and pilot-scale
testing required to
assess all implement-
ability considerations.
High removai efficien-
cies can be very difficult
to achieve and/or result
in complex process.
Requires fairly simple
facilities and equipment
and unspecialized labor.
Large staging area
required.
Bench- and pilot-scale
testing required. High
removal efficiencies
difficult to achieve.
Requires specialized
facilities. Multimetal-
contaminated sites pose
complications.
Applicable to clayey
soils.
Cost
Generally several
hundred dollars per
ton. Value of
recovered metal
may partially offset
treatment costs if a
suitable concentrate
can be produced.
Relatively
expensive. Limited
data on full-scale
projects.
(a)
Technology compliance with ARARs, and state and community acceptance must be determined based on site-specific evaluation.
-------
-------
APPENDIX H
GUIDE TO INFORMATION SOURCES
H.1 Purpose
This section gives brief descriptions of several information sources that were selected for their
relevance to planning and conducting a site remediation project. Subsection H.2 is a tabulation of
essential references for metal-contaminated sites. EPA-produced online and PC-based databases are
described in Subsections H.3 and H.4. Subsection H.5 is a brief description of two PC-based databases
(ReOpt and Hazrisk) from non-EPA sources.
H.2 TABULATION OF ESSENTIAL REFERENCES FOR METAL-CONTAMINATED SITES
TABLE H-1. POLICY REFERENCES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF CONTENT
Policy Reference
Description
Corrective Action for Solid Waste Management Units at
Hazardous Waste Management Facilities: Proposed Rule. 55
FR 30798, July 27, 1990
Revised Interim Soil Lead Guidance for CERCLA Sites and
RCRA Corrective Action Facilities: OSWER Directive 9355.4-
12, July 14, 1994, 25 pp.
This is the proposed Subpart S rule that defines
requirements for conducting remedial Investigations and
selecting and implementing remedies at RCRA sites.
This interim directive establishes a streamlined approach for
determining protective levels for lead in soil at CERCLA and
RCRA sites. It recommends screening levels for lead in soil
for residential land use (400 ppm); describes how to develop
site-specific preliminary remediation goals; and, describes a
plan for soil lead cleanup at sites that have multiple sources
of lead.
TABLE H-2. TECHNICAL REFERENCES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF CONTENT
Technical Reference
Description
Guidance for Conducting Remedial Investigations and
Feasibility Studies under CERCLA (U.S. EPA, 1988,
EPA/540/G-89/004)
RCRA Facility Investigations (RFI) Guidance, Volumes 1-4
(U.S. EPA, 1989, EPA 530/SW-89-031)
Guide for Conducting Treatability Studies Under CERCLA
(U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/540/R-92/071a)
This document provides the user with an overall
understanding of the remedial investigation/feasibility study
(RI/FS) process.
These documents recommend procedures for conducting an
investigation and for gathering and interpreting the data
from the investigation.
This report describes the necessary studies that determine a
technology's effectiveness in remediating a CERCLA site.
Guide for Conducting Treatability Studies Under CERCLA:
Soil Washing (U.S. EPA, 1991, EPA/ 540/2-91/020A)
Engineering Forum Issue: Considerations in Deciding to
Treat Contaminated Unsaturated Soils In Situ (U.S. EPA,
1993, EPA/540/S-94/500)
This document provides guidance for planning,
implementing, and evaluating soil washing treatability tests
to supporUhe remedy evaluation process for CERCLA sites
This paper assists the user in deciding if in situ'treatment of
contaminated soil is a potentially feasible remedial
alternative and to assist in the process of reviewing and
screening in situ technologies.
H-1
-------
TABLE H-2. (continued)
Technical Reference
Description
Summary of Treatment Technology Effectiveness for
Contaminated Soil (U.S. EPA, 1989, EPA/540/2-89/053)
Technology Screening Guide for Treatment of CERCLA Soils
and Sludges (U.S. EPA, 1988, EPA/540/2-88/004)
Innovative Treatment Technologies: Annual Status Report
(Fifth Edition) (U.S. EPA, 1993. EPA/542/R-93/003)
Guide to Treatment Technologies for Hazardous Wastes at
Superfund Sites (U.S. EPA, 1989, EPA/540/2-89/052)
The Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Program:
Technology Profiles, Sixth Edition (U.S. EPA, 1993,
EPA/540/R-93/526)
Arsenic and Mercury - Workshop on Removal, Recovery,
Treatment, and Disposal (U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/600/R-
92/105)
A Review of Remediation Technologies Applicable to
Mercury Contamination at Natural Gas Industry Sites (Gas
Research Institute, 1993, GRI-93/0099)
Selection of Control Technologies for Remediation of Lead
Battery Recycling Sites (U.S. EPA, 1991, EPA/540/2-91/014)
Contaminants and Remedial Actions at Wood Preserving
Sites (U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/600/R-92/182)
Engineering Bulletin: in Situ Soil Rushing (U.S. EPA, 1991,
EPA/540/2-91/021)
Engineering Bulletin: Landfill Covers (U.S. EPA, 1993
EPA/540/S-93/500)
Engineering Bulletin: Selection of Control Technologies for
Remediation of Lead Battery Recycling Sites (U.S. EPA,
1992, EPA/540/S-92/011)
Engineering Bulletin: Solidification/Stabilization of Organics
and Inorganics (U.S. EPA, 1993, EPA/540/S-92/015)
Engineering Bulletin: In Situ Vitrification Treatment (U.S.EPA,
1994, EPA/540/S-94/504)
Engineering Bulletin: Slurry Walls (U.S. EPA, 1992
EPA/540/S-92/008)
Engineering Bulletin: Technology Preselection Data
Requirements (U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/540/S-92/009)
Engineering Bulletin: Granular Activated Carbon Treatment
(U.S. EPA, 1991, EPA/540/2-91/024)
Engineering Bulletin: Chemical Oxidation Treatment (U.S.
EPA. 1991. EPA/S40/2-91/025)
This report presents information on a number of treatment
options that apply to excavated soils and explains the BOAT
contaminant classifications.
This guide contains information on technologies that may be
suitable for managing soil and sludge containing CERCLA
waste. •
This report documents the status of innovative treatment
technology use in the Superfund Program.
This guide addresses alternative technologies that can be
used to treat wastes at Superfund sites.
This document profiles 170 demonstration, emerging, and
monitoring and measurement technologies being evaluated
under the SITE Program.
This document describes a broad range of issues and
technologies related to arsenic and mercury recovery,
treatment, and disposal.
This report describes remediation technologies that may
have application for use at mercury-contaminated natural
gas metering sites.
This document provides information to facilitate the selection
of treatment alternatives and cleanup services at lead battery
recycling sites.
This document provides information that facilitates
characterization of the site and selection of treatment
technologies at wood preserving Sites.
This provides the latest information available on soil flushing
technology and related issues.
This provides the latest information on landfill covers and
related issues.
This provides the latest information on selected treatment
technologies for remediation of lead battery recycling sites.
This provides the latest information on
solidification/stabilization and related issues.
This summarizes (8 pp.) in situ vitrification technology
description, performance, status, and references.
This summarizes the latest information available on slurry
walls and related issues.
This provides a listing of soil, water, and contaminant data
elements needed to evaluate the potential applicability of
technologies for treating contaminated soils and water.
This summarizes the latest information on granular activated
carbon treatment and related issues.
This provides the latest information available on chemical
oxidation treatment and related issues.
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TABLE H-2. (continued)
Technical Reference
Description
Engineering Bulletin: Soil Washing Treatment (U.S. EPA,
1990, EPA/540/2-90/017)
Handbook for Stabilization/Solidification of Hazardous
Wastes (U.S. EPA, 1986, EPA/540/2-86/001)
Technical Resource Document: Solidification/ Stabilization
and its Application to Waste Materials (U.S. EPA, 1993,
EPA/530/R-93/012)
Vitrification Technologies for Treatment of Hazardous and
Radioactive Wastes (U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/625/R-92/002)
Handbook: Stabilization Technologies for RCRA Corrective
Actions (U.S. EPA, 1991, EPA/625/6-91/026)
Handbook on In Situ Treatment of Hazardous Waste
Contaminated Soils (U.S. EPA, 1990, EPA/540/2-90/001)
This provides the latest information available on soil washing
treatment and related issues.
This handbook provides remedial action plans for hazardous
waste disposal sites with the information and general
guidance necessary to judge the feasibility of
stabilization/solidification technology for the control of
pollutant migration from hazardous wastes disposed of on
land. ,
This document promotes the best future application of S/S
processes.
This document presents applications and limitation of
vitrification technologies for treating hazardous and
radioactive wastes.
This document provides guidance on identification of the
types of environmental settings that should be the focus of
stabilization actions, on technical approaches to accelerate
data gathering in support of decisions on appropriate
stabilization measures, and on phasing the RCRA Facility
Investigation process to gather the necessary data to make
timely decisions within the frame work of the existing
corrective action program.
This handbook provides state-of-the-art information on in situ
technologies for use on contaminated soils.
Final Covers on Hazardous Waste Landfills and Surface
Impoundments (U.S. EPA, 1989, EPA/530/SW-89/047)
Lining of Waste Containment and Other Impoundment
Facilities (U.S. EPA, 1988, EPA/600/2-88-052)
Design, Construction, and Evaluation of Clay Liners for
Waste Management Facilities (U.S. EPA, 1988,
EPA/530/SW-86/007F)
Technical Guidance Document: Inspection Techniques for
the Fabrication of Geomembrane Reid Seams (U.S. EPA,
1991, EPA/530/SW-91/0151)
Technical Guidance Document: Construction Quality
Management for Remedial Action and Remedial Design
Waste Containment Systems (U.S. EPA, 1992, EPA/540/R-
92/073)
This document recommends and describes a design for
landfill covers that will meet the requirements of RCRA
regulations ,
This report provides technological information on liner and
cover systems for waste storage and disposal units with
particular emphasis on polymeric flexible membrane liners.
This Technical Resource Document (TRD) is a compilation of
available information on the design, construction, and
evaluation of clay liners for waste landfills, surface
impoundments, and wastepiles.
This document is focused on all current methods of
producing geomembrane seams including HOPE and
VLDPE, PVC, PVC-R, CSPE, CSPE-R, CPE, EIA and EIA-R.
This document reviews the significant physical properties
associated with the construction materials used in waste
containment designs and reviews the sampling and
acceptance stategies required for Construction Quality
Management.
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TABLE H-3. TECHNICAL SUPPORT SERVICES AND DESCRIPTION OF CONTENT
Title
Description
Engineering Technical Support Center (ETSC)
Contact: Ben Blaney
(513) 569-7406
Testability Study Assistance Program (TSAP)
Contact: Ben Blaney
513-569-7406
Superfund Technical Assistance Response Team (START)
Contact: Ben Blaney
(513) 569-7406
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas
(EMSL-LV)
Contact: Ken Brown
(702) 798-2270
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory (RSKERL)
Contact: Don Draper
(405) 332-8800
Environmental Response Team (ERT)
Contact: Joseph Lafornara
(908) 321-6740
Environmental Research Laboratory, Athens (ERL-Athens)
Contact: Dermont Bouchard
(404) 546-3130
The ETSC provides quick-response technical assistance to
Remedial Project Managers, on focused, site-specific
problems on Superfund and RCRA sites through the use of
technology teams from RREL
The TSAP consults on and conducts treatabillty studies for
Regional Remedial Project Managers.
The START provides technical support on Superfund site
remediation from the point of Initial site evaluation through
post-ROD design phases of remedial actions.
The EMSL-LV provides scientific and technical assistance In
contaminant detection, hydrologic monitoring, site
characterization, sample analysis, data interpretation, and
geophysics. Services include X-ray fluorescence field survey
methods and saturated and unsarurated zone monitoring.
The RSKERL provides technical assistance such as
evaluating remedial alternatives, reviewing RI/FS and RA/RD
work plans, and providing technical information.
The ERT, Edison, New Jersey provides support In
responding to releases of hazardous waste, chemicals, and
oil. .
The ERL, Athens emphasizes multimedia exposure and risk
assessment modeling (eg., MINTEQA2) of remedial action
alternatives.
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TABLE H-4. BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF CONTENT
Title
Description
The Federal Data Base Finder (Information USA, 1990)
Technical Support Services for Superfund Site Remediation
and RCRA Corrective Action (U.S. EPA, 1991, EPA/540/8-
91/091)
Bibliography of Federal Reports and Publications Describing
Alternative and Treatment Technologies for Corrective Action
and Site Remediation (U.S. EPA, 1991, EPA/540/8-91/007)
Compendium of Superfund Program Publications (U.S. EPA,
1991, EPA/540/P.-91/014)
Catalogue of Hazardous and Solid Waste Publications (U.S.
EPA, 1992, EPA/530-B-92-001)
Bibliography of Articles from Commercial Online Databases ,
Describing Alternative and Innovative Technologies for
Corrective Action and Site Remediation (U.S. EPA, 1991)
Bibliography of Articles from the NTIS Database Describing
Alternative and Innovative Technologies for Corrective Action'
and Site Remediation (U.S. EPA, 1991)
Superfund Information Access Series (U.S. EPA, 1993.
EPA/220-B-91-027 - EPA/220-B-92-033)
A comprehensive listing of Federal databases and data files.
Discussion of technical support services available to field
staff.
Information for EPA remedial managers and contractors who
are evaluating cleanup remedies.
A comprehensive catalog of documents on the Superfund
program.
A selected list of documents produced by EPA's Office of
Solid Waste (OSW) on hazardous and solid wastes,
Compiled by EPA's Hazardous Waste Superfund Collection
for use by EPA remedial managers and contractors who are
evaluating cleanup options.
Complied by EPA Library's Hazardous Waste Superfund
Collection for use by EPA remedial managers and
contractors who are evaluating cleanup options.
A series of handbooks prepared by EPA Library's Hazardous
Waste Superfund Collection to provide information to assist
EPA staff and promote technology transfer. Covers various
categories of publications and databases.
H.3 ONLINE (DIAL-UP) DATABASES
The databases described in this section can be accessed via modem. Most are bibliographic in
nature and have some messaging or bulletin board system (BBS) capabilities. Information needed to
access these databases is provided. Most can be used free of charge, except for telecommunications
costs. Several have toll-free (800) numbers or Internet access codes, which essentially eliminate the
telecommunication cost.
H.3.1 Alternative Treatment Technology Information Center (ATTIC)
The ATTIC network Is maintained by the Technical Support Branch of EPA's Risk Reduction
Engineering Laboratory (RREL). ATTIC includes: databases (e.g., Treatment Technology Database,
RREL Treatability Database, The Underground Storage Tank (LIST) abstracts database (available in Fall
1994); full text documents (e.g., EPA Engineering Bulletins); and a calendar of events that contains as
extensive list of conferences, seminars, and workshops on treatment of hazardous waste.
The Technical Assistance Directory lists experts from government, universities, and consulting
firms who can provide guidance on technical issues or policy questions.
There is no charge for the ATTIC service. It is available via modem over standard telephone
lines. The phon«fnumber for the ATTIC modem contact is (703) 908-2138 (1200 or 2400 baud) and the
modem settings are no parity, 8 data bits, 1 stop bit, and full duplex. For more information on ATTIC,
call Dan Sullivan, EPA, (908) 321-6677 or FAX (908) 906-6990.
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Alternative Treatment Technology Information Center (ATTIC): User's Manual, Version 1.0: Prepared by
the U.S. EPA Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, Technical Support Branch. EPA/600/R-92/130.
H.3.2 Clean-Up Information Bulletin Board System (CLU-IN)
CLU-IN is run by the Technology Innovation Office, which is part of EPA OSWER. Its scope is
hazardous waste cleanup technologies and activities. It provides an online messaging and BBS and
several Special Interest Groups (SIGs) to facilitate communication and information sharing. There are
also a number of bulletins that can be searched and downloaded. They include certain publications
prepared by the Hazardous Waste Superfund Collection, abstracts of Federal Register notices on
hazardous waste, Information on training programs, and directories of EPA contacts for questions related
to hazardous waste cleanup.
Access to CLU-IN is available to the public, and a user ID can be obtained simply by dialing up
and registering. However, access to a few special interest groups is restricted to EPA employees The
dial-in number Is (301) 589-8366 (1200/2400/9600 baud), and the modem settings are 8 data bits 1 stop
bit, no parity, and full duplex. H
CLU-IN: Cleanup Information Electronic Bulletin Board - User's Guide. Can be obtained by calling the
system operator at (301) 589-8368 or sending an online message to the designation topic "SYSOP."
H.3.3 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Information
System (CERCLIS)
The CERCUS database provides access to information on more than 37,000 waste sites from
their initial identification as potentially hazardous to being listed on the National Priorities List. Data
provided for each site include location, classification, assessment data, remedial information, and points
of contact. CERCLIS is sponsored by EPA's Office of Emergency and Remedial Response.
The CERCLIS database is maintained on EPA's central computing system, the National Computer
Center (NCC), In Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Employees of EPA, other Federal agencies,
State agencies, and contractors working on EPA projects first must obtain an NCC user ID and then
register for the CERCLIS database by contacting the CERCLIS staff at (703) 603-9091. Others may call
the CERCUS Hotline at (703) 538-7234 to request a search of the database.
H.3.4 EPA Online Library System (OLS)
The EPA library network maintains EPA OLS, which contains bibliographic citations to EPA
reports as well as book and articles. These citations are received from NTIS and the Regional EPA
libraries. OLS has several databases, of which the most applicable for readers of this document are
described below. Records can be searched by title, authors, corporate sources, keywords, year of
publication, and EPA, NTIS, or other report number.
The National Catalog contains bibliographic data and holdings information on EPA reports listed
In the NTIS database and the National Catalog.
The Hazardous Waste Superfund Data Collection contains bibliographic citations to hazardous
waste materials that are available in the Hazardous Waste Superfund Collection at EPA's Headquarters
Library. (Note: HWSDC is also available on diskette; see following section on PC-based products.)
The Chemical Collection System has citations to copies of articles in the Office of Toxicological
Substances (OTS) Chemical Collection System.
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OLS resides on the mainframe at EPA's National Computer Center. Access is available through
the Federal BBS, (202) 512-1387; via Internet (EPAIBM.RTPNC.EPA.GOV - Public Access OLSA); or
through the Library Online System, (919) 549-0720, 9600 baud, and the modem settings are 7 data bits,
1 stop bit, even parity, and half duplex.
Public Access to EPA's Online Library System (OLS) and Public Access Online Library System (OLS),
EPA 220-F-92-006 and EPA 220-B-92-017, respectively, can be obtained by calling the Public Information
Center at (202) 260-2080.
H.3.5 Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS)
IRIS contains health risk and EPA regulatory information on more than 500 chemicals, along with
more than 600 risk summaries. It summarizes chemical hazard identification and dose-response
assessment, and presents EPA's consensus opinion on human health hazards associated with the
referenced chemicals. In addition to bibliographic citations, IRIS contains data on and EPA scientific
points of contact for oral and inhalation dose reference concentrations for noncarcinogenic effects and
risk factors for chronic exposure to carcinogens.
IRIS is also available to EPA staff on diskette and then can be updated online through the EPA
mainframe. Public access to IRIS is through the National Library of Medicine's Toxicology Network
(TOXNET) or NTIS.
For more information, contact the IRIS User Support Unit at (513) 569-7254.
H.3.6 Center for Exposure Assessment Modeling (CEAM)
CEAM has implemented an electronic bulletin board for CEAM-supported models. The CEAM
bulletin board serves four main purposes. ,
1. The downloading of CEAM-supported models
2. The uploading of user input datasets for staff review and troubleshooting assistance
3. The dissemination of current information concerning CEAM software, activities.a nd events
(this includes announcements for CEAM workshops and training sessions, model version
and update information, helpful hints for model use, and model documentation)
4. The ability to exchange information quickly between users and CEAM personnel
concerning model use, problems, and enhancements.
The number to call for more information is (706) 546-3549. The phone number for dial-up access
is (706) 546-3402. Modem settings are no parity, 8 data bits, and 1 stop bit.
H.3.7 Resource Conservation and Recovery Information System (RCRIS)
RCRIS contains information on facilities that handle hazardous waste and corrective-action
information trjat supports the permit-writing and enforcement activities of the corrective-action program.
The information contained in RCRIS is collected by the EPA Regional Offices and the states from permit
applications, notification forms, and inspection reports.
The RCRIS database is maintained on EPA's central computing system, the National Computer
Center (NCC), in Research Triangle Park. Employees of EPA, other federal agencies, state agencies,
and contractors working on EPA projects first must obtain an NCC user ID and then register for the
RCRIS database by contacting Patricia Murray at (202) 260-4697. ,.
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H.3.8 RODs Database
The RODs database contains the full text of all Superfund Records of Decision (RODs) that have
been signed and published. It Is sponsored by the EPA's Office of Emergency and Remedial Response.
(Note: CERCLJS contains abstracts of all RODs prepared, whether or not they have been signed and
published.) RODs can be searched by various indexed fields as well as by strings of words in the
abstract and the full text of the Records of Decision. Indexed fields include site location, contaminated
media, key contaminants, and selected remedy.
The RODs database is maintained on EPA's central computing system, the National Computer
Center (NCC), In Research Triangle Park. Employees of EPA, other federal agencies, state agencies,
and contractors working on EPA projects first must obtain an NCC user ID and then register for the
RODs database by contacting the RODs staff at (703) 603-9091. Others may call the CERCLIS Hotline
at (703) 538-7234 to request a search of the RODs database.
Records of Decision System: The Training Manual - Published in 1990, this document can be obtained
by calling the RODs staff at the number given above.
Superfund Automated Records of Decision System (RODs): User Manual - Published in 1988 as
EPA/540/G-89/005, this can be purchased through NTIS. The NTIS number is PB90-193004.
H.3.9 Subsurface Remediation Technology (SRT) Database
The SRT Database is a program designed to provide site-specific information concerning
subsurface contamination and remediation activities presently being conducted or proposed at
Superfund sites throughout the United States. The purpose of the database is to provide a single
comprehensive source of information that can be shared and compared to other sites having similar
problems or scenarios. The SRT Database consists of five related components: site characterization,
methods of remediation, contaminants, consulting firms, and references cited.
The SRT Database allows searching for more than 60 contaminants that are most frequently
found at hazardous waste sites. These represent contaminant classes, including metals, pesticides,
chlorinated solvents, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), hydrocarbons and derivatives, and a
general class composed of such contaminants as cyanide, pentachlorophenol, and vinyl chloride.
The SRT Database also allows searching based on the type or types of remediation technology
being applied at a site. The technologies included range from the passive, such as barriers, drains, and
covers, to the active, such as pump and treat, in situ biological, and soil vacuum extraction.
The SRT Database will be accessible through an online BBS located at the R.S. Kerr
Environmental Research Laboratory in Ada, Oklahoma. The BBS should be in place approximately June,
1994. Contact Dr. David S. Burden, (405) 436-8606, for further information.
H.3.10 U.S. Bureau of Mines Database
The U.S. Bureau of Mines produces a wide range of documents on metals processing and
economics. The latest information is available through the MINES FaxBack Document-on-Demand
System. MINES FaxBack is a simple to operate automated fax response system, a service provided to
facilitate rapid dissemination of publications produced by the U.S. Bureau of Mines. MINES FaxBack
can be used to order documents to be delivered to your fax machine in minutes, 24 hours a day, 7 days
a week by dialing (412) 892-4088 from a touch-tone telephone attached to a fax machine. Using MINES
FaxBack, callers can retrieve the Bureau's monthly and quarterly Mineral Industry Surveys as soon as
they are ready for printing, 2 to 3 weeks before the date of their public distribution. Comments or
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suggestions regarding the MINES FaxBack system can be faxed to (202) 501-3751. To learn more
about the technology behind FaxBack, request document #999 from MINES FaxBack.
H.3.11 Air Model Clearinghouse Bulletin Board
This is an information exchange providing updates on regional air quality regulations and updates
on air model status. For on-line access dial (919) 541-5742 with modem setting no parity, 8 data bits,
and 1 stop bit. Baud rates of 1,200 to 14,400 are supported.
H.3.12 Pollution Prevention Information Exchange System (PIES)
PIES is a bulletin board system that links to several databases and provides messaging
capabilities and forums on various topics related to pollution prevention. Through its link to the United
Nation's International Cleaner Production Information Clearinghouse, it provides a communication link
with international users. PIES is part of the Pollution Prevention Information Center (PPIC), which is
supported by EPA's Office of Environmental Engineering and Technology Demonstration and Office of
Pollution Prevention and Toxics.
PIES contains information about current events and recent publications relating to pollution
prevention. Summaries of Federal, State, and corporate pollution prevention programs are provided.
The two sections of the database cover case studies and general publications and can be searched by
keywords related to specific contaminants, pollution prevention technologies, or industries.
The phone number for dial-up access is (703) 506-1025; qualified state and local officials can
obtain a toll-free number by calling PPIC at (703) 821-4800. Modem settings are 2400 baud, no parity, 8
data bits, 1 stop bit, and full duplex.
H.4 PC-BASED DATABASES PRODUCED BY EPA
H.4.1 Cost of Remedial Action (CORA)
CORA was developed by the EPA to guide technology screening and assist in remedial action
costing for Superfund sites. It also can be used for RCRA corrective actions. CORA has two separate
modules.
The expert system is used for technology screening. It guides the user through technology by
means of a series of questions, mostly of the yes/no and true/false type, and allows the user to enter
site information of the type that is usually available at the remedial investigation stage. It then
recommends remedial actions from a range of technologies.
The cost system is the better known of the CORA modules and is one of the most widely used
cost estimating programs for remediation projects. Users can enter available information about a site,
such as extent of contamination, types of contaminants, and the contaminated matrix. This information
is then used by CORA to calculate the cost of remediation.
CORA is MS-DOS compatible. It is available at no cost to EPA offices, and can be purchased by
others. Contact Jaya Zieman of CH2M Hill at (703) 478-3566.
H.4.2 Hazardous Waste Superfund Data Collection (HWSDC)
The content of this database is described in a previous paragaraph under dial-in databases. The
PC version is available at EPA's Headquarters Library and at a few Region libraries. For information
about obtaining the PC version, call Felice Sacks at (202) 260-3121.
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H.4.3 Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS)
This database is described above, in the section on dial-in databases. For information about the
PC-based version, contact the IRIS User Support Unit at (513) 569-7254.
H.4.4 RREL Treatabilitv Database
This database is produced by the Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory (RREL) within EPA's
Office of Research and Development. The purpose of the database is to provide information on the
removal and destruction of chemicals in such media as soil, water, sludge, sediment, and debris. It
provides physical/chemical properties for each chemical along with treatability data. The types of
treatment available for a specific compound are given, along with the type of waste treated, the size of
the study/plant, and the treatment levels achieved.
As mentioned above, the RREL Treatability Database is available online through ATTIC. The PC
version Is distributed to a wide range of users at no cost. Requests for copies of the database should
be addressed to: Glenn M. Shaul, Water and Hazardous Waste Treatment Research Division,
EPA/RREL, 26 West Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, OH, 45268. Requests can be faxed to Mr.
Shaul at (513) 569-7787 [voice number (513) 569-7589].
H.4.5 Vendor Information System for Innovative Treatment Technologies (VISITT)
VISITT was assembled by the EPA OSWER to provide current information on innovative treatment
technologies. Users of VISITT can screen innovative technologies for engineering feasibility and identify
vendors who provide treatability studies and cleanup services for candidate technologies.
VISITT can be searched by waste, technology, vendor, or site. Within each category, a submenu
allows Identification of specific parameters that can be used to refine the search.
Information on VISITT availability and updates can be obtained by calling the VISITT Hotline at
(800) 245-4505 or (703) 883-8448.
H.5 PC-BASED DATABASES FROM NON-EPA SOURCES
H.5.1 REOPT/RAAS Databases
ReOpt is a stand-alone PC database developed for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) at the
Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL) as a part of the Remedial Action Assessment System (RAAS). DOE
intends that RAAS will become a full-scale expert system on hazardous and radioactive waste
remediation. Currently, RMS exists in prototype form that is being beta-tested and refined. When
complete, RAAS will serve as a computerized guide to the complete RI/FS process.
ReOpt, which is available both commercially from Sierra Geophysics and under government
license from PNL, is a subset of RAAS that contains information about technologies that potentially could
be used for cleanup at DOE or other waste sites, auxiliary information about possible hazardous or
radioactive contaminants at such sites, and the Federal regulations that govern disposal of wastes
containing these contaminants. The ReOpt user can view information on the screen, print specific
Information about a particular technology, or print complete ReOpt technology information for reference
use.
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ReOpt te a self-contained software package that requires no additional software to run. It is
available for both Apple Macintosh (Macintosh II series running System 6.0 or higher, with a minimum of
5 MB of RAM, 12 MB disk storage, and a 13" color monitor) and IBM-compatible computers (386 series
or higher running Microsoft Windows, minimum of 4 MB RAM, 12 MB of disk storage, and a VGA
monitor). The government licensing agreement specifies that ReOpt may be used only for government
projects - a contract number must be filed with PNL for each copy received. For industrial projects, the
commercial version of ReOpt must be purchased from Sierra Geophysics, Inc.
H.5.2 HAZRISK Models
The HAZRISK Models are a commercially available PC-based database system for generating
cost estimates and project cleanup schedules and identifying possible risks and contingencies. The
models apply statistical analysis of actual cost data for completed projects. For more information,
contact Jennifer Painter, Independent Project Analysis, Inc., at (703) 709-0777.
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APPENDIX
REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGY COSTS ESTIMATED BY THE CORA MODEL
The Cost of Remedial Options (CORA) computer code contains an expert system to evaluate
technical feasibility of remedial options and' a cost estimation module. The types of metal site
remediation technologies included and the required input data are summarized in this appendix. Also,
example estimates for four- technologies are presented to indicate the application of CORA for cost
estimating.
The cost model will prepare budget cost estimates for capital and first year operations and
maintenance costs. The model is intended for preliminary cost estimates to identify major cost elements
and allow comparison of technologies on a consistent basis. The detail and accuracy is not sufficient
for feasibility study cost estimates.
CORA is an MS-DOS compatible program, available at no cost to EPA offices and can be
purchased by others. For more information, call the CORA Hotline (703) 478-3566.
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CORA VERSION 3.0
COST MODULE INPUT PARAMETERS (METALS REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES)
Region
Site Name
Operable Unit
Scenario
Year of Start (FY)
EPA Contact
Cost Module
Input Parameters
101
Soil Cap
_, Soil type (1-4) 1. gravel; 2. lopsoil; 3. loam; 4. clay , Soil leveling layer
Site area (AC) .25-100
thickness (ft) 0-1 , Soil protective layer thickness (ft) 6-1 , Topsoil layer Thickness (ft) 0-2
Level of protection (A,B,C,D,N) , Avg. temp. (F) , Level of confidence (H.M.L)
102
Asphalt Cap
Site area (AC) .25-100. , Soil leveling layer thickness (ft) .5-1 , Level of protection
(A,B,C,D,N) , Avg. temp. (F) , Level of confidence (H.M.L)
ro
103
Mullilayered RCRA Cap
Site Area (AC) .25-100
:, Soil type (1-4) 1. gravel; 2. topsoil; 3. loam; 4. clay _ _
, Clay barrier thickness (ft) 2-4 (Def 2) , Synthetic membrane thickness
_, Soil-leveling layer
thickness (ft) 0-1 (Def 1)
(mils) 0-80 (Def 60) .Drainage layer thickness (ft) 1-2 (Def 1) , Filter fabric thickness (02) 4, 6,
8 or 10 , Soil protection layer thickness (ft) .5-3.5 (Def 5) , Topsoil layer thickness (ft) .5-2
(D
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Cost Module
Input Parameters
201
Soil Excavation
Soil type (1-4) 1. gravel; 2. topsoil; 3. loam; 4. clay, Excavation depth (ft) max 25 , If depth >5* pick
1. steel sheet or 2. side slope _/ , For each excavation, excavation length at max depth (ft) , Width
at max depth (ft) _, Cover dep«.h above contaminated materials (ft) , In this operable
contaminated excavation depth, continuous sampling (ft) , Sampling lift thickness (in) 6, 12, or
24 , If drums present: (unit) number of drums . -. or % contaminated zone occupied by
drums , Base air monitoring? (Y/N) , Avg. temp. (F) , Protection level (A,B,C,D,N) -
unconiaminated materials , contaminated materials , Level of confidence (H,M,L) ___
202
Sediment Excavation and
Dredging
Avg. excavation length (ft) , width (ft) , depth (ft) 1-15:
0-9 , Materials submerged? (Y/N) , Submerged depth (ft) _
50) , Sediment contain a lot of oil/non-dissolved organics (Y/N).
volume , Avg. temp. (F) , Level of protection (A,B,C,D,N)
(H.M.L)
, Excavation side slope ratio (X:l)
_, % Solids in sediment (1-
, If yes, % organics by
, Level of confidence
203
Pumping Contained Wastes
Gallons water between .01% and 7% solids , Cone, of solids in this range (%) , Volume
organics (gal) _, gal. sludge between >7% and 20% solids , Cone, of solids in this range
(%) , Onsite treatment feasible (Y/N) __, Treat sludge to 50% solids? (Y/N) , Following
tests required (Y/N): water cation .water organic , water anion , general water
organic phase _, sludge phase , Vol. batches to analyze (gal) , Level of protection
(A,B,C,D,N) _, Avg. temp. (F) ___, Level of confidence (H,M,L) __^
204
Drum Removal
_, No. of drums requiring: removing&taging (10 or greater) _
, Waste compatibility characterization , Avg. % for all
Level of protection (A,B,C,D,N) , Avg. temp. (F) , Level of confidence
No. of drums ready for transport
Overpacks , Consolidation
drums
(H.M.L) _
206
Groundwater Extraction
No. of wells known? (Y/N) _, Depth to top of target vol (ft) (1-2,000) , Width of target vol. (ft)
(1-999,999) , Length of target vol. (ft)(l-999,999) , Thickness of target volume (ft) (1-
500) , Porosity of aquifer (0.01-0.5) , Aquifer transmissivity (ft2/day) (10-1,000,000) ,
Aquifer thickness (ft) (10-2,000) , Depth to top of aquifer (ft) , Depth to static GW level
(ft) , Hydraulic gradient (0.0-0.1) , GW recharge into target volume (in/yr)(0-100) (if
unknown, assume 20% of annual avg. precipitation), Aquifer flushing factor (0.01-1.0) , Min. well
spacing allowable (ft) (5-9,999) , Primary contaminant name _, Initial concentration (ug/1)
Target concentration (ug/l) ._. Dist. coefficient (kdj (ml/g) -, Time to clean (yrs) (0-100,000) __
If full containment is desired, enter 0, Bulk Density (g/cm3)( 1.6-2.1)
(Y/N) __, Length of transfer piping (ft) , Avg. temp. (F)
(H.M.L)
_, Will wells be gravel-packed
, Level of confidence
, Projection during active drilling operations (A,B,C,D,N) , During setup of drill rig
and installation above-grade piping (A,B,C,D,N)
-------
Cost Module
303
311
312
313
315
316
317
Soil Flushing
Metals Precipitation
Ion Exchange
Pressure Filtration
Offsite RCRA Treatment
Solidification
In Situ Stabilization
Input Parameters
Flush area length (ft) , width (ft) , Municipal water available within 100 feet? (Y/N) , Avg.
temp. (F) . Level of protection (A.B.C.D.N) . Level of confidence (H,M,L)
Flow (gpm) 20-1,000 , pH (1-14) , Adjust pH with lime or caustic (L/C) , Avg. temp.
(F) , Level of confidence (H.M.L) , Level of protection (A,B,C,D,N) , Concentrations
(mg/l)~TSS (50-1,000) , 'Acidity (0-1,000) , 'Alkalinity (0-1,000) , Cd (.1-10)
Zn (.5-500) ,Ni (.5-100) , Pb (.5-5) . Cu (.5-75) . Hp (.01-10) . Cr6 (.5-
50) ,Cr3(.5-50) , Ba (1-5) , Al ( 1-1,000) , Ca (1-1,000) . Fe (1-10.000)
MR (1-50) . Mn (1-500) .804(10-10.000)
*If unknown, see Scope Definition Section of Users Manual for estimating procedure.
Flow (gpm) 50-600 , Level of protection (A,B,C,D,N) , Avg. temp. (F) , Level of
confidence (H.M.L) . Concentrations (me/I)--Cd . Zn . Ni , Pb . Cu
NOTE: If ion exchange follows metals precipitation system, metals concentrations to ion exchange can be
estimated from solubilities at pH 10 shown in the metals precipitation fact sheet.
Flow (gpm) 30-1,000 _, TSS (mg/1) 5-50 , Level of protection (A,B,C,D,N) , Avg. temp.
(F) , Level of confidence (H,M,L)
RCRA treatment-Metals and/or cyanides waste vol. (drums or gal) ; Metals only waste vol. ;
Miles to facility ; Recycling and recycling volume (drums or gal) ; Cost per gal or drum ($)~neg.
no. is recyc. credit ; Miles to facility , Level of confidence (H.M.L) , Cost for offsite
treatment a capital or O&M cost (C or O)? , Cost for transportation a capital or O&M cost (C or
0)?
Waste volume (cy) , Unit weight of waste (pcf) 80-110 , Agent/waste proportion (tons agent/tons
waste) 1-3 , % by weight of: Flyash (0-90) , Cement kiln dust (0-90) , Portland cement (0-
100) , Hydraled lime (0-20) , Level of protection (A,B,C,D,N) , Avg. temp. (F)
Level of confidence (H,M,L)
Volume to be solidified (cy)(500-200,000) , Proportion stabilizing agent to contaminated material
(tons agent/tons waste) (1-3), Total unit weight of waste (Ib/fl3)(8-110 solids/63-80 liquids), Stabilizing
formulation; Flyash (wt %) (0-90) . Cement kiln dust (wt %)(0-90) , Portland cement (wl %)(0-
100) . Hvdrated lime (wt %)(0-20) ; Site conditions: easy, moderate, difficult (E.M.D) ;
Level of protection (A,B,C,D,N) , Ave. temp. (F) . Level of confidence (H,M,L)
-------
WI
Cost Module
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
501
Offsite RCRA Landfill
Onsite RCRA Landfill
(above grade)
Onsile RCRA Landfill
(below grade)
Offsite Solid Waste Landfill
Discharge to POTW
Discharge to Surface Water
Water Reinjection
Water Infiltration
Transportation
Input Parameters
Volume of waste containing metals and organics (drums or cy) , Volume of waste containing PCBs
(<500ppnO , Miles to facility , Level of confidence (H.MJL) , Is landfill cost a capital or
O&M cost (C or O)? , Is transportation cost a capital or O&M cost (C or O)?
Contaminated material (cy) 7,000-220,000 , Avg. annual rainfall (in) 0-100 . , 25-Yr, 24-hr rainfall
(in) 0-12 , Time to treat above grade stormwater (hrs) 8-120 , Level of protection (A,B,C,D,N)
for: Cell construction , Filling and cap placement , Avg. temp. (F) , Level of confidence
(H.M.L)
Contaminated material (cy) 7,000-220,000 , Avg. annual rainfall (in) 0-100 , 25-Yr, 24-hr rainfall
(in) 0-12 , Time to treat above grade stormwater (hrs) 8-120 , Level of protection (A,B,C,D,N)
for: Cell construction , Filling and cap placement , Avg. temp. (F) , Level of confidence
(H,M,L)
Waste volume (cy) , Landfill cost ($/cy) , Miles to facility , Avg. demurrage time period
(hrs) , Level of confidence (H.M.L) , Is landfill cost a capital or O&M cost (C or O)? , Is
transportation cost a capital or O&M cost (C or O)?
Will the transmission be gravity flow or pressure (G or P)? , Flow (gpm) 20-2,000 , Pipe length
(ft) 20-999,999 , Avg. trench depth (ft) 6-15 for gravity; 4-8 for pressure , Sewer use fee (S/1,000
gal) .42- 1.78 , AVR. temp. (F) , Level of protection (A,B,C,D,N) , Level of confidence 1
(H.M.L) 1
Will the transmission be gravity flow or pressure (O or P)? , Flow (gpm) 20-2,000, Pipe length (ft) 1-
999 999 t Avg. trench depth (ft) 6-15 for gravity; 4-8 for pressure , Diffuser required? (gravity
nnly)(Y/N) ~NPDES permit cost . Avp. temp. (F) , Level of protection
(A,B,C,D,N) .Level of confidence (H.M.L)
Number of wells , Avg. well depth (ft) __, Longest site dimension (ft) , Groundwater
extraction rate (gpm) , Level of protection (A,B,C,D,N) above grade ; below grade, Avg. temp.
(F) , Level of confidence (H,M,L)
Flow (gpm) 100-2,000 , , Depth to water table (ft in multiples of 5) 10-25 , Soil permeability (1-
3): 1. high; 2. mid; 3. low , Level of protection (A,B,C,D,N) _, Avg. temp. (F) , Level of
confidence (H,M,L)
Miles to offsite facility , Containerized wastes (drums) , Volume of bulk liquids (gal) ,
Volume of bulk solids (cy): Hazardous ; Non-hazardous , Bulk sludges (cy) , Level of
confidence (H,M,L)
-------
Muitilayered RCRA Cap Cost Module
Input Parameters
Clay bamer thickness (ft):
Filter fabric thickness (ft):
Above membrane protection:
Below membrane protection:
Average temperature:
Level of confidence:
Soil type:
Site area (.acre): 0.25 20
60 80
Soil leveling layer thickness (ft): 0.5
Soil protective layer thickness (ft): 0.5
Topsoil layer thickness (ft): 0.5
Drainage layer thickness (ft): 1.0
Synthetic membrane thickness fmls):
40
' 100
1.0
3.5
2.0
ZO
60.0
none
none
"OF
high
coosoil
Outout
CaoitaiCosidOOOSI
Area (acre)
0.5/1.0/0.5/0.5
1.0/1.0/0.5/0.5
0.5/2.0/0.5/0.5
0.5/1.0/0.5/2.0
0.5/1.0/3.5/0.5
1.0/2.0/0.5/0.5
1.0/1.0/0.5/2.0
0.5/2.0/0.5/2.0
1.0/1.0/3-5/0.5
0.5/2.0/3.5/0.5
0.5/1.0/3.5/2.0
1.0/2.0/0.5/2.0
1.0/2.0/3.5/0.5
1.0/1.0/3.5/2.0
0.5/2.0/3.5/2.0
1.0/2.0/3.5/2.0
0.25
130
140
150
170
190
150
180
190
190
200
230
190
200
230
240
240
20
3800
4100
4400
5000
5500
4600
5200
5500
5800
6100
6700
5800
6300
6900
7200
7500
40
7700
3100
8800
9900
11000
9300
10000
11000
11000
12000
13000
12000
13000
14000
14000
15000
60
12000
12000
13000
15000
17000
14000
16000
17000
17000
18000
20000
17000
19000
• 21000
22000
22000
80
15000
16000
18000
20000
22000
19000
21000
22000
23000
24000
27000
23000
25000
27000
29000
30000
100
19000
21000
22000
25000
28000
24000
26000
28000
29000
31000
33000
29000
32000
34000
36000
37000
O & M Cost (1000S)
• (all the same)
a/b/c/d
15
36
a: soil leveling layer thickness (ft)
b: drainage layer thickness (ft)
40
c:
d:
43
45
47
soil protection layer thickness (ft)
topsoil layer thickness (ft)
CORA: Muitilayered Cap
30000
25000 ••
20000 -
Ci 15000 f
o 10000 •-
5000 ••
0.25
• 0.5/1.0/0.5/0.5
1.0/1,0/0.5/0.5
• 0.5/2.0/0.5/0.5
• 0.5/I.O/0.5/ZO
• 0.5/1.0/3.5/0.5
20 40 60 80
Area (acre)
100
1-6
-------
Soil Flushing Cost Module
Inmit Parameters
Hush area (ft2): 100 200
700 800
1300 1400
Availability of municipal water within 100 ft
Level of protection: none
Average temperature: 70 F
Level of confidence: hizh
300
900
1600
yes
400
1000
1800
500
1100
2000
600
1200
OutDUt
Length
(ftt
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
Width
(ft)
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1600
1800
2000
Area
("1000 ft2}
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1600
1800
2000
Capital Cost
(1000S1
470
360
1300
1700
2100
2500
2900
3300
3700
4000
4500
4800
5300
5600
6400
7200
8000
O&MCost
(1000S)
58
110.
170
220
280
330
390
450
500
550
610
670
720
780
890
1000
1100
CORA: Soil Flushing
500 1000 1500
Area (x 1000 ft2)
___
2000
-------
Solidification Cost Module
Waste volume (cy):
Agent/waste proportion (w/w): *
% by weight of Portland cement:
Unit weight of waste (pcf):
Level of protection:
Average temperature:
Level of confidence:
500
75000
150000
1
95
none
70 F
high
25000
100000
175000
2
100
5000
125000
200000
3
Volume
(xlOOOcy)
0.5
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
A/W=l
120
3100
6100
9100
12000
15000
18000
21000
24000
Capital Cost
(1000$),
A/W = 2
ISO
5900
12000
18000
24000
29000
35000
41000
47000
A/W = 3
240
8800
18000
26000
35000
44000
53000
61000
70000
A/W=1
1005
50265
100531
150796
201061
251326
,301592
351857
402122
Stabilized
Waste (cy)
15H
75531
151061
226592
302122
377653
453183
528714
604294
2016
100796
201592
302387
403183
503979
604775
705570
306366
CORA: Solidification
10000
50 100 150 200
Initial Waste Volume (x 1000 cy)
High binder to waste ratio required by model input
1-8
-------
In Situ Stabilization Cost Module
Volume to be solidified (cy):
it
Agent/waste proportion (w/w):
% by weight of Portland cement:
Total unit weight of waste (pcf):
500
10000
150000
1
100
95
1000
50000
200000
2
5000
100000
3
Site conditions: Easy (E)
Medium (M)
Difficult (D)
Level of protection: none
Average temperature: 70 F
Level of confidence: high
Output
Initial Waste
Volume
(x 1000 cv)
0.5
1
5
10
50
100
150
200
Capital Cost
(xlOOOS)
1/E 1/M 1/D
88 88 98
130 130 160
580 600 710
1100 1200 1400
5200 5400 6200
10000 11000 12000
15000 16000 18000
20000 21000 23000
2/E 2/M 2/D
130 130 140
220 220 250
1000 1000 1100
2000 2000 2200
9500 9700 11000
19000 19000 21000
28000 29000 31000
37000 38000 41000
3/E 3/M 3/D
170 170 180
300 310 330
1400 1500 1600
2800 2900 3100
14000 14000 15000
27000 28000 29000
41000 42000 44000
55000 55000 58000
1: agent/waste (w/w) = 1
E: site condition = easy
2: agent/waste (w/w) = 2
M: site condition = moderate
3: agent/waste (w/w) = 3
D: site condition = difficult
CORA: In-Sitn Stabilization
60000-
50000 -
50 100 150
Waste Volume (x 1000 cy)
200
* High binder to waste ratio required by model input
1-9
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-------
APPENDIX J
SUMMARY OF MAJOR REGULATORY SOURCES OF
CLEANUP GOALS
J.1 THE SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT (40 USC 300)
This act promulgated National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (40 CFR Part 141) and
National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (40 CFR Part 143). Primary maximum contaminant limits
(MCLs) are enforceable standards for contaminants in public drinking water supply systems. They
consider health factors, economic feasibility, and technical feasibility of removing a contaminant from a
water supply system. Secondary MCLs are intended as guidelines to protect the public welfare.
Contaminants covered are those that may adversely affect the aesthetic quality of drinking water, such
as taste, odor, color, and appearance, and may deter public acceptance of drinking water provided by
public water systems.
Maximum contaminant limit goals (MCLGs) exist for several organic and inorganic compounds
found in drinking water. MCLGs are non-enforceable guidelines that consider only health factors.
During the Feasibility Study, MCLs or MCLGs may be used to determine remedial actions for
groundwater and surface waters that are current or potential sources of drinking water. The NCP
requires that MCLGs set at levels above zero (i.e., non-zero MCLGs) be attained during a CERCLA
cleanup. In cases where the MCLG equals zero, the corresponding MCL is applicable (40 CFR 300.430
(e)(2)(i)(B) and (Q).
Underground injection control regulations (40 CFR Parts 144-147) provide for the protection of
underground sources of drinking water. These may apply if remedial design includes reinjection of
water.
J.2 CLEAN WATER ACT (33 USC 1251-1376)
This act sets standards and requirements for pollutant discharge. The National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) (40 CFR Parts 122 and 125) requires permits for the discharge of
pollutants from any point source into the waters of the United States. General Pre-Treatment
Regulations are enforceable standards promulgated under 40 CFR Part 403 for discharge to a publicly
owned treatment works (POTW). They can be ARARs if groundwater remediation results in discharge to
aPOTW.
J.3 U.S. WATER QUALITY CRITERIA, 1986
The water quality criteria are standards for ambient surface water quality. The water quality
criteria apply to specific bodies of water and typically are set by the states (40 CFR Part 131). They are
not rules and they do not have regulatory impact. Rather, these criteria present guidance on the
environmental effects of pollutants that can be a useful reference in environmental work. These water
quality criteria may be included as "to be considered" conditions when setting cleanup goals.
J.4 RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY ACT
For RCRA requirements to be applicable or relevant and appropriate to CERCLA actions, a
RCRA hazardous waste or a waste sufficiently similar to a RCRA hazardous waste must be present at the
site. A review of site records and information may help determine if a RCRA hazardous waste is present.
J-1
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There are several listed hazardous wastes from nonspecific sources (40 CFR 261.31), specific sources
(40 CFR 261.32), and discarded commercial chemical products, off-specification species, container
residues, and spill residues thereof (40 CFR 261.33) that are regulated under RCRA. RCRA waste types
and Land Disposal Restrictions (LDRs) required treatment standards are summarized in Appendix E.
Wastes contaminated with metals may be determined to be characteristic RCRA wastes as
defined In 40 CFR Part 261, Subpart C, if the waste exhibits one of the following characteristics:
Ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity.
J.4.1 Land Disposal Restrictions
RCRA prohibits land disposal of untreated hazardous wastes. For treated hazardous waste to be
disposed on land (e.g., in a landfill or by deep-well injection), Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments
(HSWA) required EPA to develop, on a phased schedule, contaminant concentration levels or waste
treatment methods that would reduce substantially the toxicity or mobility of hazardous constituents.
Alternatively, untreated hazardous waste could be disposed in a unit from which there would be "no
migration." By May 1990, EPA had developed restrictions and waste treatment standards for all wastes
listed or identified as hazardous at the time that HSWA became law in 1984. Requirements to comply
with these restrictions and standards were phased in over a period of several years; the last became
effective in May 1993. In addition, on August 8, 1992, EPA published a final rule establishing treatment
and recycling standards for 20 "newly listed" wastes that were identified or listed after HSWA was signed
into law.
In addition to normal wastes or contaminated soils and water, debris such as wood, rocks, or
manmade materials that has been contaminated may be present at CERCLA sites and pose difficulties
for cleanup. Under RCRA, debris contaminated with hazardous wastes is treated as hazardous waste
and Is regulated under the land disposal regulations. EPA finalized the treatment standards for debris in
57 FR 37194 (August 18, 1992).
Hazardous debris is prohibited from land disposal (40 CFR 268.35) unless it has been treated to
the standards specified in 40 CFR 268.45. Under 40 CFR 268.45, hazardous debris must be treated for
each "contaminant subject to treatment" as defined in the regulation using the technology or
technologies specified in the regulations (see Table 1 in 40 CFR 268.45). "Contaminants subject to
treatment" include toxicity characteristic debris, debris contaminated with listed waste, and cyanide-
reactive debris. Hazardous debris that has been treated using one of the specified extraction or
destruction technologies and that does not exhibit a characteristic of hazardous waste after treatment is
not a hazardous waste and does not need to be managed in a Subtitle C hazardous waste facility.
However, hazardous debris that is treated with an immobilization technology specified in the regulations
Is considered hazardous waste and must be handled in a permitted facility. Residue from treatment of
hazardous debris must be separated from the treated debris using simple physical or mechanical means
and generally is subject to the waste-specific treatment standards for the waste contaminating the
debris, with a few minor exceptions.
The EPA renewed the exemptions of debris contaminated with hazardous wastes from LDRs
beyond the May 8,1993 expiration. The extension was granted due to limited capacity availability. To
use the exemption, the generator must show that a genuine effort was made to locate treatment
capacity. The estimated volume of hazardous debris generation in 1994 was 1.2 to 1.8 million tons.
About 30% of this amount would come from Superfund sites (Superfund Week, 1993).
The EPA has proposed alternative treatment standards for soil contaminated with LDR-prohibited
hazardous wastes. The proposed standards are intended to encourage consideration of the full range of
Innovative technologies available to treat contaminated soil. Several approaches are proposed as a
basis for review and comment (58 FR 48092, September 14, 1993).
J-2
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J.4.2 Corrective Action Management Units
EPA recently amended the regulations for RCRA facilities to allow more flexibility in treatment of
waste generated during corrective actions (58 FR 8658, February 16, 1993). These regulations allow the
EPA Regional Administrator to designate Corrective Action Management Units (CAMUs) at a RCRA
facility for treatment of remediation wastes; however, the regulations specifically exclude using CAMUs to
treat normal "as-generated" wastes. Although these regulations were developed specifically for
corrective actions at RCRA hazardous waste facilities, the regulations also may be applied as ARARs to
CERCLA sites, particularly where CERCLA remediation involves management of RCRA hazardous
wastes. In the past, wastes that were removed from the ground (e.g., excavation of contaminated soils)
were required to comply with the treatment standards established under the LDR. An important
provision of the new regulations is the specification in 40 CFR 264.552(a)(1) and (2) that:
1. Placement of remediation wastes into or within a CAMU does not constitute land disposal
of hazardous wastes
2. Consolidation or placement of remediation wastes into or within a CAMU does not
constitute creation of a unit subject to MTRs (minimum technology requirements)
As a result, an area or several areas at a RCRA facility (or CERCLA site) can be designated as a
CAMU and the wastes can be removed from the ground, treated, and replaced within the boundaries of
that CAMU without being required to comply with the LDR treatment standards. EPA's goal in issuing
these regulations is to encourage the use of more effective treatment technologies at a specific site. The
regulatory impact analysis of the CAMU regulation indicated that the regulation will result in more onsite
waste management, less reliance on incineration, greater reliance on innovative technologies, and a
lower incidence of capping waste in place without treatment.
J.5 THE CLEAN AIR ACT (CAA) OF 1990 (42 USC 7401-7642)
The CAA promulgated the following standards that may or may not be ARAR at the site due to
the following reasons:
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). NAAQS apply to total suspended
paniculate, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, and lead
concentrations in ambient air, and are not applicable to individual emission sources.
"Prevention of significant deterioration" (PSD) regulations may apply preconstruction
guidelines and monitoring to statutory sources.
• New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) were developed for specific industrial
categories to provide a ceiling for emissions from new sources.
• National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPS) regulate asbestos,
beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, coke oven emissions, benzene, radionuclides, and
inorganic arsenic.
J.6 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT (OSHA) (29 USC 651-678 AND 29 CFR PARTS
1904, 1910, AND 1926)
This act provides occupational safety and health requirements applicable to workers engaged in
onsite field activities. The regulations are applicable to onsite work performed during implementation of
a remedial action. They are applicable to nearly all remedial action options.
J-3
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J.7
DOT RULES FOR HAZARDOUS MATERIALS TRANSPORT (49 USC 1801-1813) (49 CFR
PARTS 107 AND 171-177)
These rules regulate the transport of hazardous materials including packaging, shipping
equipment, and placarding. These rules are considered applicable to hazardous and nonhazardous
wastes shipped offsite for laboratory analysis, treatment, or disposal.
J-4
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APPENDIX K
GLOSSARY
Abrasives - powdered, granular, or solid materials used to grind, smooth, cut, or polish other
substances.
Absorption - assimilation of fluids into interstices.
Acidity - the quantitative capacity of materials to react with hydroxyl ions.
Active Biomass - living plants, animals, or microorganisms.
Additives - materials included in the binder to improve the S/S process. Examples of some types of
additives are (1) silicates or other materials that alter the rate of hardening, (2) clays or other sorbents to
improve retention of water or contaminants, or (3) emulsifiers and surfactants that improve the
incorporation of organic compounds.
Administrative Record - material documenting EPA's selection of cleanup remedies at Superfund sites,
usually placed in the information repository near the site.
Adsorption - attraction of solid, liquid, or gas molecules, ions, or atoms to particle surfaces by
physicochemical forces. The adsorbed material may have different properties from those of the material
in the pore space at the same temperature and pressure due to altered molecular arrangements.
Advection - unidirectional, progressive bulk movement, such as water under the influence of a hydraulic
gradient. •
Alkalinity - the quantitative capacity of aqueous media to react with hydrogen ions.
Amalgamation - in general, the formation of a solid solution of two dissimilar metals. As used in
mineral processing, a method for recovering metals from solids or sludges by treatment with mercury to
form a metal/mercury alloy.
Anion - an ion that is negatively charged. ;
Applicable or Relevant and Appropriate Requirements (ARARs) - Cleanup standards, standards of
control, and other substantive requirements, criteria, or limitations promulgated under Federal, State, or
local environmental laws or facility siting laws that are applicable, that specifically address a hazardous
substance, pollutant, contaminant, remedial action, location, or other circumstance found at CERCLA
sites, or are relevant and appropriate, that address problems or situations similar to those encountered
at CERCLA sites (40 CFR 300.5, pp. 7 and 12).
Aquifer - underground formation of sand, soil, rock, or gravel that can store and supply groundwater to
wells or springs.
Asphalt - a brown, black, hard, brittle, or plastic bituminous material composed principally of
hydrocarbons. It is found in nature or can be prepared by pyrolysis of coal tar, certain petroleums, and
lignite tar. It melts on heating and is insoluble in water but soluble in gasoline.
Bartles-Mozley fable - a multideck gravity concentration shaker table using an orbital motion rather
than pure horizontal motion to develop shear in the layer of particles on the table.
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Bentontte - a clay formed from volcanic ash decomposition and largely composed of montmorillonite
and beldellite. Usually characterized by high swelling on welting.
Best Demonstrated Available Technology (BOAT) - a concentration or technology-based treatment
standard applied to RCRA waste under the Land Disposal Restrictions.
Binder - a cement, cement-like material, or resin (possibly in conjunction with water, extender or other
additives) used to hold particles together.
Bioaccumulation - the transfer of metal from a contaminated matrix to biomass.
Blobeneficiation - chemical action or particle surface modification by microorganisms to improve
physical separation of a contaminated solid matrix into contaminant-rich and contaminant-poor streams.
Bioconcentration - increase of metal contaminant concentration by the metabolic activity of a suitable
animal, plant, or microorganism.
Bioleaching - a process developed in the mining industry as an inexpensive method to recover metals
The technology involves microbial solubilization of metals from a solid or semisolid matrix.
Biomagnification - a process whereby certain substances such as pesticides or heavy metals move up
the food chain, work their way into a river or lake and are eaten by aquatic organisms such as fish
which in turn are eaten by birds, other animals, or humans. The substances become concentrated in
tissues or internal organs as they move up the chain.
Biological Treatment Options - the application of biological metabolism or materials to the treatment of
metals.
Bttumen - naturally occurring or pyrolytically-obtained dark or black colored, tarry hydrocarbons
consisting almost entirely of carbon and hydrogen, with very little oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur.
BNA - base, neutral, and acid (organic) compounds, a chemical analysis identification for organic
compounds based on extraction properties.
Buffer - a solution selected or prepared to minimize changes in pH (hydrogen ion concentration) Also
known as buffer solution.
Calcination - in general, heating a material to a temperature below its melting point to cause chemical
decomposition or phase transition other than melting. Used in this document to designate a process for
further refining the mixed cadmium, lead, and zinc oxide product from a Waelz kiln. By controlling the
temperature profile in the kiln and using oxidizing conditions, the cadmium and lead are volatilized and
oxidized while zinc oxide remains as a solid. The cadmium and iead fumes are collected for further
refining to separate cadmium and lead for reuse.
Capping Systems - capping systems are designed to reduce surface water infiltration, control gas and
odor emissions, Improve aesthetics, and provide a stable surface over the waste.
Cation - a positively-charged atom or group of atoms.
Cation Exchange Capacity - quantity of available hydrated cation exchange sites, usually expressed as
mllllequlvalents per unit mass of volume.
Cement - a mixture of calcium aluminates and silicates made by combining lime and clay under heating.
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Centrifugation - uses centrifugal force created by a rotating bowl Instead of gravity to bring about
separation.
CERCLA Hazardous Substance - any substance, pollutant, or contaminant as defined in CERCLA
sections 101(14) and 101(33), except where otherwise noted in the Hazard Ranking System (see 40 CFR
302.4).
CERCLA Hazardous Wastestream - any material containing CERCLA hazardous substances that was
deposited, stored, disposed, or placed in or migrated to a site being evaluated by the HRS; any material
listed in the NPL.
CERCLA Waste - a term with no regulatory meaning that is often used as a shortened form of CERCLA
hazardous wastestream.
Characteristic Waste - see RCRA characteristic waste
Chemical Leaching - an option for metal contaminants bound so tightly to the solid matrix that soil
washing is not effective. The methods and equipment used in chemical leaching are similar to those
used for soil washing. The major requirement is to obtain good contact between the contaminated
1 matrix and the extraction solution.
Chemical Reduction - a process in which the oxidation state of an atom is decreased.
Chemical Oxidation - alters the oxidation state of an atom through loss of electrons.
Chemical Neutralization - involves equalizing the concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxide ions in a
solution.
Chemical Treatment Options - various treatment agents that may be added to the contaminated matrix
to adjust conditions to favor less toxic or less mobile forms of metal contaminants.
Classification - a technique of separating particles into two or more fractions based on the velocity with
which the particles fall through air (air classification) or a water medium (hydroclassiflcation).
Clay - fine-grained soil or the fine-grained portion of soil that can be made to exhibit plasticity (putty-like
properties) within a range of water contents and that exhibits considerable strength when air-dried.
Colloid - the phase of a colloidal system made up of particles having dimensions of 1 to 1000
nanometers and which is dispersed in a different phase.
Colloidal System - an intimate mixture of two substances, one of which, the dispersed phase (or
colloid), is uniformly distributed in a finely divided state through the second substance, the dispersion
medium.
Combustion - rapid reaction of a gas, liquid, or solid fuel with an oxidizer, which releases heat and
usually light.
Compressive Strength (unconfined or uniaxial compressive strength) - the load per unit area at which
an unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil or rock will fail in a simple compression test. Commonly the
failure load is the maximum that the specimen can withstand in the test.
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Containment Technologies - reduce the mobility of metal contamination through construction of
physical barriers (containment) to reduce the flow of water through contaminated media or the flow of
contaminated groundwater.
Contaminant - typically undesirable minor constituent that renders another substance impure.
Corroslveness Characteristic - exhibiting the hazardous characteristic of corrosivity due to extreme pH
or failing under the test conditions defined in 40 CFR 261.22.
Cost - refers to the Initial capital cost to design, purchase, and install the remediation option as well as
the cost of operating and maintaining the option.
Data Quality Objective (DQO) - a planned quantitative measure of precision, accuracy and
completeness of data.
Density, Apparent (of solids and liquids) - the mass of a unit volume of a material at a specified
temperature. Only the volume that is impermeable is considered.
Density, Bulk (of solids) - the mass of a unit volume of the material at a specified temperature.
Destruction-removal Efficiency (DRE) -The combined efficiencies of one or more processes intended
to reduce the target contaminants). The DRE may be expressed as a ratio or percentage.
Dewatering - reducing the water content of a slurry.
Diffusion - movement of molecules towards an equilibrium driven by heat or concentration gradients
(mass transfer without bulk fluid flow).
DIffusIvity - diffusion coefficient, the weight of material, in grams, diffusing across an area of 1 square
centimeter in 1 second due to a unit concentration gradient.
Dimensional Stability - the ability of the S/S waste to retain its shape.
Direct Capital Costs - include costs for remedial action construction, component equipment, land and
site development, buildings and services, relocation of affected populations, and disposal of waste
materials.
Disposal Facility - a facility or part of a facility at which waste is intentionally placed into or on any land
or water, and at which waste will remain after closure.
Durability - the ability of S/S wastes to resist physical wear and chemical attack over time.
Dynamic Leach Test (DLT) - a leaching test where the specimen is exposed to an actual or simulated
flow of the leachant.
Economic Evaluation/Cost Analysis (EE/CA) - CERCLA technology screening process for a removal
action per 40 CFR 300.415.
Electrokinetics - removes metals and other contaminants from soil and groundwater by applvina an
electric field in the subsurface.
Electrowlnning - recovery of elemental metal from water solution by application of electrical potential.
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Embedment -the incorporation of waste masses into a solid matrix before disposal.
Emerging Technologies - technologies that are still being designed, modified, and tested in the
laboratory and are not available for full-scale implementation (e.g., plasma-arc ultrahigh-temperature
process, or hydrodehalogenation with atomic or molecular hydrogen under the presence of heat,
pressure, and catalyst).
Emulsifier - a substance used to produce an emulsion of two liquids which do not naturally mix.
Emulsion - a colloidal mixture of two immiscible fluids, one being dispersed in the other in the form of
fine droplets.
Equilibrium Leach Test (ELT) - a leaching test in which, under the conditions of the test, an equilibrium
between the specimen and the leachant is attained.
e
Ettringite - a mineral composed of hydrous basic calcium and aluminum sulfate. The formula for
Expression - physical removal of liquid from a solid/liquid mixture by application of pressure.
Extender - an additive the primary function of which is to increase the total bulk of the S/S-treated
waste. '
Extraction Procedure Toxicity Test (EP Tox) - a regulatory leaching test used since 1980 to determine
if a waste is toxic (40 CFR Part 261 , Appendix II).
Fate and Transport - analysis of movements and transformations of contaminants through the
environment from a source to a receptor.
Feasibility Study (FS) - a study undertaken to develop and evaluate options for a treatment process.
Filtration - a process that involves passing a slurry through a porous medium in which the solids are
trapped and the liquid passes through. :
Flame Reactor - a treatment method developed by the Horsehead Resource Development Company
(HRD) to recover cadmium, lead, and zinc from complex solid materials. The HRD Flame Reactor
technology is a two-stage treatment method. In the first stage, carbonaceous fuel is combusted with
oxygen-enriched air under fuel-rich conditions (burner section). The combusted waste is pneumatically
injected into the hot (2,200 to 2,500°C) reducing flame in the second stage (reactor section). The
intensive process conditions allow reaction times to be short (less than one-half second) and permit a
high waste throughput. Close control of the operating parameters enables extraction of valuable metals
and destruction of hazardous organic constituents.
Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) - a pollution abatement process.
Fly Ash - the finely divided residue from the combustion of ground or powdered coal which is
transported from the firebox through the boiler by flue gas.
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) - a microcharacterization method.
Free Water - water that is free to move through a soil or rock mass under the influence of gravity.
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Freeze/Thaw Cycle - alternation of a sample temperature to allow determination of weight loss and
visual observation of sample disintegration resulting from phase change from water to ice.
Froth Flotation - involves more chemistry than the other physical separation techniques and is based
on the fact that different minerals have different surface properties. These differences in surface
properties can be accentuated by adding suitable chemicals to a slurry containing the minerals. Air is
sparged from the bottom of a tank or column containing the slurry. The desired metal selectively
attaches to the air bubbles and rises to the top, and the froth that forms at the top is collected to
recover the metal.
Fumes - fine particulates that evaporate and recondense to form the fume.
Geomembrane Curtains - vertical barriers used in applications where chemical degradation of
conventional grouts Is anticipated. Geomembranes can be useful as liners in lagoons and landfills where
contaminant levels in the ieachate may be high.
Gravity Concentration - a physical separation technique based on particle density.
Groundwater - water found beneath the earth's surface that fills the pores between materials such as
sand, soil, or gravel.
Grout - as used in soii and rock grouting, a material injected into a soil or rock formation to change the
physical characteristics of the formation. The term "grout" is not used in this document but is frequently
encountered in the S/S industry as a synonym for the term "binder."
Grout Curtains - containment barriers formed by grout injection.
Hazardous Characteristics - ignitable, corrosive, reactive, and toxic as defined in 40 CFR Part 261.10.
Hazard Ranking System (HRS) - the primary mechanism for considering sites for inclusion on the NPL.
Hazardous Substance List (HSL) - a list of designated CERCLA hazardous substances as presented in
40 CFR 302.4.
Hazardous Waste - see RCRA hazardous waste, CERCLA hazardous substance, and CERCLA
hazardous wastestream.
Heat of Hydration (in S/S reactions) - the heat generated due to the reaction of cementitious or
pozzolanic materials with water.
Heavy Medium Separation - heavy medium separation is based on a density separation of particles as
they settle in a liquid (heavier than water) the density of which is between that of the two minerals to be
separated.
Horizontal Barriers - low-permeability structures placed horizontally, typically under the contaminated
volume, to contain the contaminants.
Hydrate - a compound containing structural water.
Hydrocyclone - the hydrocyclone consists of a vertical cone into which the feed (in the form of a slurry)
Is introduced tangentially at the top. A vortex is created with a low-pressure zone along the vertical axis
of the cone. Faster settling particles (those having larger size or higher density) are accelerated to the
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wall of the cyclone by centrifugal force, and move in spiral form along the wall down to the bottom
opening.
Hydrometallurgical Separation - a process in which aqueous or organic solutions are used to
chemically extract metals from a solid matrix. .
Hydrotreating - a catalytic process used in oil refining to remove impurities such as oxygen, sulfur,
nitrogen, or unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Ignitability Characteristic - exhibiting the hazardous characteristic of ignitability as defined in 40 CFR
261.21.
Immobilization - the reduction in the ability of contaminants to move through or escape from S/S-
treated waste.
Immobilization Treatment Options - immobilization treatment options reduce contaminant mobility by
containment or by S/S.
Implementability - The feasibility of implementing a technology from a technical and administrative
standpoint must be determined, and the availability of various goods and services as well as monitoring
requirements should be considered.
Inactive Biomass - non-living plants, animals, or microorganisms.
Incineration - a treatment technology involving destruction of waste by controlled burning at high
temperatures.
Indirect Capital Costs - include costs for engineering expenses, contingencies, and project
management.
Information Repository - file of data and documents located near a Superfund site.
Inhibitor - a material that stops or slows a chemical reaction from occurring. Used in this document to
apply to stopping or slowing the setting of S/S-treated material.
Innovative Treatment Technologies - alternative treatment technologies (i.e., those "alternative" to land
disposal) for which use at Superfund-type sites is inhibited by lack of data on cost and performance.
Interference (S/S) - an undesirable change in the setting of the S/S material resulting in lower strength,
poorer leach resistance, or evolution of noxious or hazardous gases, or other degradation of the S/S-
treated material.
Interstitial - see pore water.
Ion - an atom or molecule which by loss or gain of one or more electrons has acquired a net electric
charge.
Ion Exchange - a chemical reaction in which ions associated with charged sites in a solid matrix are
exchanged, mole for mole, with ions of like charge in solution.
Ion Partitioning - ions partition from the water phase to a solid mineral surface by physical adsorption,
chemical adsorption, and incorporation into a mineral phase.
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Jig - one of the oldest gravity separation devices, this device achieves particle stratification by
introducing the feed particles into a pulsating water column.
Kaolin - a variety of clay containing a high percentage of kaolinite.
Kaolinite - a common clay mineral having the general formula AI2(Si2O5)(OH4).
Kiln - a heated and usually rotating enclosure used for drying, burning, or firing materials such as ore or
ceramics. In this document kiln typically refers to a kiln used for production of lime or cement.
Kiln Dust - fine paniculate by-product of cement production or lime calcination.
s.
Landfill - a subgrade waste-holding or disposal facility.
teachability - a measure of release of constituents from a waste or S/S waste. Leachability is one
measure of the mobility of a constituent. High teachability means high constituent mobility.
Leachant - liquid that comes in contact with a material either from natural exposure (e g water in a
disposal site) or in a planned test of leachability. The typically used leachants are pure distilled water or
water containing salts, acids, or both. .
Leachate - any liquid, including any suspended components in the liquid, that has soaked, percolated
through, or drained from material during leaching.
Leaching -the release of constituents from a solid through contact with the leachant. The leaching
may occur by either natural mechanisms at waste sites or as part of a laboratory leaching test.
Leaching Agent - leachant.
Leaching Rate - the amount of a constituent of a specimen or solid waste form which is leached during
a unit of time (usually normalized by sample volume, area, or weight).
Leaching Resistance - the inverse of leachability. High leach resistance means low contaminant
mobility.
Leaching Test - exposure of a representative sample of contaminated waste, S/S-treated waste or
other material to a leachant under controlled conditions to measure the release of constituents.
Lime - specifically, calcium oxide (CaO); also, loosely, a general term for the various chemical and
physical forms of quicklime, hydrated lime, and hydraulic hydrated lime.
Listed Waste - see RCRA listed waste:
Long-Residence-Time Metters - these waste vitrification melters use a molten reservoir that allows a
relatively long residence time for the waste to mix and blend with previously fed material and allow
greater time average variability in the feed stream for longer times without adversely influencing the
uniformity of the discharged material.
Long-Term Effectiveness - refers to the ability of an alternative to maintain reliable protection of human
health and the environment over time once the cleanup levels have been met.
Long-Term Stability - the ability of S/S wastes to maintain their properties over time while exposed to
the environment.
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Macroencapsulation - a process of encasing a mass of solid or S/S-treated waste in a protective layer,
such as bitumen (thermoplastic).
Magnetic Separation - magnetic separation is based on the differences in magnetic properties of the
various minerals, especially for separating ferrous from nonferrous materials.
Matte - a mixture of metal sulfides produced by pyrometallurgical processing of sulfide ores.
Mercury Cell Chloralkali Process Sludge (K106) - a mercury-bearing sludge resulting from treatment
of effluents from electrolytic processing to generate chlorine gas and sodium hydroxide.
Metals in Polymer Matrices - metals incorporated in polymer matrices to act as fillers, improve
mechanical properties, or provide colors.
Microencapsulation - containment of the contaminants on a microscopic or molecular scale.
Microstructure - the structure of an object or material as revealed by a microscope at a magnification
greater than 10 times.
Mixer - machine employed for blending the constituents of grout, mortar, or other mixtures.
Modified Clays -r clays (such as bentonite) that have been modified by ion exchange with selected
organic compounds that have a positive charged site (often a quaternary amine), hence rendering the
clay/organo complex hydrophobic.
Monitoring - collection of data on contaminants in different environmental media (air, surface or
groundwater, sediments, soils) to determine extent and impact or effectiveness of a cleanup action.
Monofilied Waste Extraction Procedure (MWEP) - a leaching test.
Monolith - a free standing solid consisting of one piece.
Monomer - a simple molecule which js capable of combining with a number of like or unlike molecules
to form a polymer.
Montmorillonite - a group of clay minerals characterized by a weakly bonded sheet-like internal
molecular structure; consisting of extremely finely divided hydrous aluminum or magnesium silicates that
swell on wetting, shrink on drying, and have ion exchange capacity.
Multimedia - air, land, and water.
Multiple Extraction Procedure (FMEP) - a leaching test in which the sample is repeatedly leached with
fresh batches of leachant.
National Oil and Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan (NCP) - provides the organizational
structure and procedures for preparing and responding to discharges of oil and releases of hazardous
substances, pollutants, and contaminants (40 CFR 300.1).
National Priorities List (NPL) - list of CERCLA sites (40 CFR Part 300, Appendix B).
Nonaqueous-phase Liquids (NAPLs) - organic fluids that will partition to a separate organic phase or
to the vapor, water, or sqrbed phases depending on the volume of organic present and the site and
contaminant properties.
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Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR) - a mlcrocharacterization method.
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) - O&M costs are those that must be Incurred after construction,
but during the remediation phase, to ensure continued efficiency of the treatment process. The major
components of O&M costs include: operating labor; maintenance materials and labor; auxiliary materials
and energy; purchased services; administrative costs; insurance, taxes, and licenses; and maintenance
reserve and contingency costs.
Oxidation/Reduction (Biological) - the oxidation or reduction of a metal as a result of a reducing
agent produced by the organism.
Oxidation/Reduction (Chemical) - the oxidation (or reduction) of a metal due to chemical action.
Paint Filter Test (PFT) - a physical characterization test.
Partitioning - equilibrium distribution of a solute between two material phases.
parts per billion (ppb) - units commonly used to express concentrations of chemicals in environmental
media. For example, 1 ounce of a chemical or substance in 1 billion ounces of soil or water is 1 ppb.
parts per million (ppm) - units commonly used to express concentrations of chemicals in
environmental media. For example, 1 ounce of a chemical or substance in 1 million ounces of soil or
water Is 1 ppm.
Percolation - movement of water under hydrostatic pressure or gravity through the smaller interstices of
rock, soil, wastes, or S/S-treated wastes.
Performance Criterion -,- a measurable performance standard set for an individual property or
parameter.
Performance Indicator - an easy-to-measure property or parameter selected to characterize the S/S
process or S/S-treated waste.
Permeability - a measure of flow of a fluid through the tortuous pore structure of the waste or S/S-
treated waste. It is expressed as the proportionality constant between flow velocity and the hydraulic
gradient. It is a function of both the fluid and solid media. If the permeating fluid is water, the
permeability Is termed as hydraulic conductivity.
Phase (of a material) - a region of a material that is physically distinct and is homogeneous in
composition and morphology.
Physical Separation/Beneficiation - these techniques involve the physical separation of particles from
each other based on size, weight, density, surface condition, or other physical characteristics.
Plume - area of or extent of contamination in groundwater.
Polymer - a chemical with repetitive structure formed by the chemical linking of single molecules
(monomers).
Pore - a small cavity or void in a solid.
Pore Size Distribution - variations in pore sizes in solids; each material has its own typical pore size
distribution and related permeability.
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Pore Water - water contained in voids in the solid material.
Porosity - the ratio of the aggregate volume of voids or interstices to the total volume of the medium.
Portland Cement - a hydraulic cement produced by pulverizing clinker consisting essentially of
hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or more of the forms of calcium sulfate.
Potentially Responsible Party (PRP) - potentially liable for the contamination and cleanup of CERCLA
sites.
Pozzolan - a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material, which in itself possesses little or no
cementitious value but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with
calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds with cementitious properties. The term
is derived from an early source of natural pozzolanic material, Pozzuoli, Italy.
Proposed Plan - Superfund public participation fact sheet that summarizes the preferred cleanup
strategy, the rationale, and the RI/FS.
Proven (or Established) Technologies - technologies that have been used on a commercial scale and
established for use1 in full-scale remediations (e.g., on-site or off-site incineration, capping, S/S.
Pyrometallurgical Separation - methods using high-temperature processes to treat a metal-
contaminated solid for recovery of metals as metal, metal oxide, ceramic product, or other useful form.
RCRA Characteristic Waste - any solid waste exhibiting a characteristic of ignitability, corrosivity,
reactivity or toxicity, as defined in 40 CFR 261, Subpart C.
RCRA Hazardous Waste - any RCRA solid waste, as defined by 40 CFR 261.3, that is not excluded
from regulation under 40 CFR 261.4 and that meets any one of the characteristic or listing criteria
(including mixtures) described in 40 CFR 261.3(a)(2).
RCRA-Listed Waste - any solid waste listed in 40 CFR 261, Subpart D; or a mixture that contains a
solid waste listed in 40 CFR 261, Subpart D that has not been excluded under the provisions of 40 CFR
261.3 in accordance with 40 CFR 260.20 or 40 CFR 260.22.
RCRA Solid Waste - any garbage, refuse, or sludge; or any solid, liquid, semi-solid or contained
gaseous material that is: (1) discarded, (2) no longer to be used for its original purpose, or (3) a
manufacturing or mining by-product and is not excluded by the provisions of 40 CFR 261.4(a). For
more detail, see 40 CFR 260, Appendix 1. Also note that the definition of solid waste includes materials
that are not "solids" in the normal sense of the word.
Reactivity Characteristic - exhibiting the hazardous characteristic of reactivity as defined in 40 CFR
261.23.
Record of Decision (ROD) - a document prepared to explain and define the final remedy selected for a
CERCLA site (40 CFR 300.430 (f)(4)(i)).
Redox - abbreviation for oxidation-reduction, now accepted as a word.
Reduction of Toxicity, Mobility, and Volume - the three principal measures of the overall performance
of a remediation option. The 1986 amendments to the Superfund statute emphasize that, whenever
possible, the EPA should select a remedy that uses a treatment process to permanently reduce the level
of toxicity of contaminants at the site, the spread of contaminants away from the source, and the volume
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or amount of contaminants at the site. The primary goal of any treatment technology should be to
adequately safeguard human health and the environment.
Refractory Bricks - high-performance ceramic materials used to line high-temperature processing
equipment.
Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study (RI/FS) - see Remedial Investigation (Rl) or Feasibility Study
(FS).
Remedial Investigation (Rl) - a process undertaken by the lead agency to determine the nature and
extent of the problem presented by a CERCLA site (40 CFR 300.430(d)).
Remediation Manager (RM) - the official designated by the lead agency to coordinate, monitor, or
direct remedial or other response actions under subpart E of the NCR (40 CFR 300.5).
Residual Liquid -free liquid remaining in the S/S-treated waste after treatment.
Responsible Party (RP) - persons or corporate entities found to be responsible for contamination and
cleanup at a CERCLA site.
Retorting - thermal treatment to extract a metal from a solid matrix by vaporization.
Roasting - thermal treatment to effect a chemical change prior to smelting. For example, heating
mercury compounds to form mercury metal or heating metal sulfides in air to form metal oxides.
ROD - see Record of Decision.
Rotary Kiln - a cylindrical kiln with the axis Inclined at a slight angle. The kiln rotates around the axis.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) - a microcharacterization method.
Screening -the process of segregating solids according to particle size by passing the solids through a
sieve with specifically sized openings.
Sedimentation - the settling of solid particles in water.
Separation/Concentration Treatment Options - separation/concentration technologies employ
physical, chemical, or thermal processes to separate contaminants from the associated medium. These
technologies do not alter the fundamental nature of the contaminant toxicity or mobility, but rather
function to collect contaminants into a concentrated form and smaller volume or to transform them into
a different medium (such as by soii washing) that is easier to handle for further treatment and disposal.
Sequential Chemical Extraction (SCE) - a leaching test with a variety of aqueous chemicals used
sequentially to characterize the contaminant bonding.
Sequential Extraction Test (SET) - a leaching test with a series of sequential acid extractions used to
determine the sample buffering capacity.
Shaking Table - the shaking table operates according to a principle similar to that of the spiral
concentrator. This device consists of a slightly inclined deck to which a 25% solids slurry is introduced
at the higher corner. The flowing film separates the small dense particles (which move quickly to the
lower, slower-moving layer of the film) from the coarse, light particles as shown in Figure 4-14. The
effect Is enhanced by vibrating the table at right angles to the water flow in a slow forward stroke and a
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fast return stroke. The net effect is that the particles move diagonally across the table. Stratification is
enhanced by riffles that run along the long axis of the table parallel to the vibrations. The small, dense
particles settle down quickly into the riffles near the feed end. These particles travel along the riffles to
the side of the table. The coarser, lighter particles go over the riffles to the front of the table.
Concentrate, middlings, and tailings can be isolated as required by adjustable splitters placed along the
edges of the table.
Sheet Piles - vertical groundwater barriers constructed by driving pilings into the formations.
Short-Residence-Time, Intensive Melters - these waste vitrification melters provide more intensive
mixing, allowing the melter to be smaller.
Short-Term Effectiveness - refers to the control of adverse impacts on human health and the
environment posed during the construction and implementation of an alternative until cleanup goals are
achieved.
Silica Fume - very fine silica dust produced by condensation of silica fumes.
Sludge - in this document, sludge means a viscous semisolid or fluid containing contaminants requiring
treatment. The regulatory definition is any solid, semisolid, or liquid waste generated from a municipal,
commercial, or industrial wastewater treatment plant, water supply treatment plant, or air pollution
control facility with the exception of specific exclusions such as the treated effluent from a wastewater
treatment plant (40 CFR 260.10).
Slurry Walls - are constructed in a vertical trench excavated under a slurry.
Soil - loose material on the surface of the earth, as distinguished from solid rock, consisting of mineral
grains and organic materials in varying proportions.
Soil Flushing - involves extraction and injection of aqueous solutions to remove contaminants from the
subsurface without excavation of the contaminated materials.
Soil Washing - a broad term often used to describe any system that effects a physical or chemical
separation/concentration of contaminants using a fluid.
Solid Waste - see RCRA solid waste.
Solidification - a process in which materials are added to the waste to convert it to a solid or to simply
improve its handling and physical properties. The process may or may not involve a chemical bonding
between the waste, its contaminants, and the binder. In solidification, the mechanical binding of
contaminants can be on the microscale (microencapsulation, absorption, or adsorption) or the -
macroscale (macroencapsuiation).
Solidification/Stabilization (S/S) - used in this document to encompass the variety of processes that
may contribute to increased physical strength and/or contaminant immobilization.
Solubility - the maximum concentration of a substance dissolved in a solvent at a given temperature.
Solubility Product - a type of simplified equilibrium constant defined for and useful for equilibria
between solids and their respective ions in solution.
Soluble Threshold Limit Concentration (STLC) - limit applied to Cal WET leaching results (Ca 22
California Code of Regulations 66699). :
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Solution - a single, homogeneous phase of liquid, solid, or gas in which a solute is uniformly
distributed.
Sorption - a general term used to encompass the processes of adsorption, absorption, desorption, ion
exchange, ion exclusion, ion retardation, chemisorption, and dialysis.
Spiral Concentrator - another popular type of gravity separator, this device consists of a helical
channel that winds down a central pole. Feed is introduced at the top of the spiral as a 10 to 40%
solids slurry. As the slurry flows down the spiral, a velocity gradient is created along the thickness of the
water film. The water closest to the channel surface flows very slowly due to friction, whereas the
velocity Increases toward the top of the water film. The smallest particles submerge in the slower
moving layer of the film. The larger particles and the bulk of the fluid are faster moving and are subject
to centrifugal force along the curved path, which causes them to move outward.
S/S Technologies - inhibit mobility or interaction in the environment through chemical reactions and/or
physical interactions to retain or stabilize the contaminants.
S/S Treated Waste - a waste liquid, solution, slurry, sludge, or powder that has been converted to a
stable solid (granular or monolithic) by an S/S treatment process.
Stability - the stabilization and solidification provided by an S/S process.
Stabilization - a process by which a waste is converted to a more chemically stable form. The term
may Include solidification, but also includes chemical changes to reduce contaminant mobility.
Storage - the holding of hazardous waste for a temporary period, at the end of which the hazardous
waste is treated, disposed of, or stored elsewhere (40 CFR 260.10).
Superfund - common name used for Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act (CERCLA), as amended by the Superfund Authorization Act (SARA) and also used to refer to
sites listed on the National Priorities list (NPL) and the Trust Fund established by the Act to fund
response to releases of hazardous substances and cleanup of hazardous waste sites.
Surface Water - bodies of water that are directly accessible at the ground surface, such as rivers lakes
streams, and ponds.
Surfactant - surface-active agent, a soluble compound that reduces the surface tension of liquids, or
reduces Interracial tension between two liquids or a liquid and a solid.
Thermoplastic Resin - an organic polymer with a linear macromolecular structure that will repeatedly
soften when heated and harden when cooled; for example styrenes, acrylics, cellulosics, polyethylenes,
vinyls, nylons, and fluorocarbons.
Thermosetting Resin - an organic polymer that solidifies when first heated under pressure, and which
cannot be remelted or remolded without destroying its original characteristics; for example epoxies,
melamines, phenolics, and ureas.
Tortuosity - the ratio of the length of a sinuous pathway between two points and the length of a straight
line between the points.
Total Organic Carbon (TOG) - a chemical analysis.
Total Threshold Limit Concentration (TTLC) - limit applied to Cal WET leaching results (Ca 22
California Code of Regulations 66699).
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Total Waste Analysis (TWA) - total concentration of priority pollutants, organics, and metals in the
waste
Toxicity Characteristic - exhibiting the hazardous characteristic of toxicity as defined in 40 CFR 261.24.
Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) - the primary leach testing procedure required by
40 CFR 261.24 and the most commonly used test for degree of immobilization offered by an S/S
process,
Transportation - the movement of hazardous waste by air, rail, highway, or water (40 CFR 260.10).
Treatability Study - a study in which hazardous waste is subjected to a treatment process to determine:
(1) whether the waste is amenable to the treatment process, (2) what pretreatment (if any) is required,
(3) the optimal process conditions needed to achieve the desired treatment, (4) the efficiency of a
treatment process for a specific waste or wastes, or (5) the characteristics and volumes of residuals from
a particular treatment process (40 CFR 260.10).
Treatment - any method, technique, or process, including neutralization, designed to change the
physical, chemical, or biological character or composition of any hazardous waste so as to neutralize
such waste, or so as to recover energy or material resources from the waste, or so as to render such
waste nonhazardous, or less hazardous; safer to transport, store, or dispose of; or amenable for
recovery, amenable for storage, or reduced in volume (40 CFR 260.10).
Triaxial Compression - compression caused by the application of normal stress in lateral directions
(ASTM D 653, p. 152).
Triaxial Shear Test (triaxial compression test) - a test in which a cylindrical specimen encased in an
impervious membrane is subjected to a confining pressure and then loaded axially to failure.
Trommel - cylindrical screen rotated around its centeriine, used to attrition scrub and physically grade
coarse particulates.
Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) - the load per unit area at which an unconfined cube or
cylindrical specimen of material will fail in a simple compression test without lateral support.
Vertical Barriers - when placed at the perimeter of a metal-contaminated site, can reduce movement of
contaminated groundwater off site or limit the flow of uncontaminated groundwater through the site.
Vitrification Technologies - technologies that apply high-temperature treatment aimed primarily at
reducing the mobility of metals by incorporation in a vitreous material.
Vegetative Uptake - metals are concentrated as they are taken up through the root systems of plants
and deposited in the leaves.
Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) - an organic compound with a low boiling point.
Waelz Kiln - a rotary kiln used to vaporize cadmium, lead, and zinc from a complex oxide/silicate
matrix and recover the vaporized metals as mixed oxide condensed fume.
Wastewater - the water media group includes groundwater, surface water, and contaminated washwater
or process water from soils, sediments, and sludge treatment processes.
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Wastewater Treatment Sludge - hydroxide or hydroxide/sulfide precipitates from treatment of
wastewater.
Wet/Dry Cycle - alternation of soaking and drying a sample to allow determination of material loss and
visual observation of sample disintegration resulting from repeated soaking and drying cycles.
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1995-650-006/22049
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