Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE)
Enhancement Technology
Resource Guide
Air Sparging
Biovenfing
Fracturing
Thermal Enhancements
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
Technology Innovation Office
Washington, D.C. 20460
October 1995
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FOREWORD
Identifying and accessing pertinent information resources that will help site cleanup managers evaluate innovative
technologies is key to the broader use of these technologies. This Guide is intended to increase awareness about
technical information and specialized support services/resources related to soil vapor extraction enhancement
technologies.
Specifically, this document identifies a cross section of information intended to aid users in remedial decision-
making, including abstracts of field reports and guidance documents and information to assist in the ordering of
publications. In addition, the look-up format of this document allows the user to quickly scan available resources
and access more detailed abstracts.
Please let us know about additional information that could make this Guide (and others in the series) more useful
to you.
Walter W. Kovalick, Jr., Ph.D.
Director, Technology Innovation Office
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How To USE THIS GUIDE
When using this Guide to identify resource information on SVB enhancement technologies, you may wish to take
the following steps:
1. Turn to the Soil Vapor Extraction Enhancement Technology Resource Matrices located in the section
titled "Technology Summaries" on pages 4 through 12 of this Guide. These matrices list alphabetically by
document type over 90 SVE enhancement technology-related documents, identify the type of information
provided by each document, and provide a document ordering number.
2. Select the documents) that appear to fit your needs based on the information in the matrices.
3. Check the abstract identification code. This number refers to an abstract of the document. The number
corresponds to a page number in the Guide and the letter corresponds to an abstract on that page.
For example:
Abstract
Identification
Code
13 A
I
Page 13 in the
Resource Guide
Abstract A on
i ) page 1 3 of the
Resource Guide
4. Review the abstract that corresponds to the document in which you are interested to confirm that the docu-
ment will fit your needs.
5. If the document appears to be appropriate, note the document number highlighted under the abstract. For
example:
EPA Document Number: EPA/540/S-92/003
[Note: Some documents do not have ordering numbers. These documents can be obtained through local,
technical, or university libraries.]
6. Turn to the section entitled "How to Order Documents Listed in this Guide" on page 3 of this Guide and order
your document using the directions provided.
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How To ORDER DOCUMENTS LISTED IN THIS GUIDE
Documents listed in this Guide are available through a variety of sources. When ordering documents listed in the
Soil Vapor Extraction Enhancement Technology Abstracts section of this Guide, use the number listed in the bar
below the document title, or refer to the journal or source indicated as part of the title. If using the Soil Vapor
Extraction Enhancement Technology Resource Matrices, use the number listed below the document title, or refer
to the journal or source indicated in the source column. If multiple document ordering numbers are identified,
select the appropriate number based on the directions below. EPA/540 and EPA/600 documents may be available
through the Center for Environmental Research Information (CERI); EPA/542 documents may be obtained
through the National Genter for Environmental Publications and Information (NCEPI); and EPA/530 documents
may be obtained from the RCRA Information Center (RIC). These document repositories provide in-stock
documents free of charge, but document supplies may be limited. Documents obtained through the National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) are available for a fee; therefore, prior to purchasing a document through
NTIS, you may wish to review a copy at a technical or university library, or a public library that houses govern-
ment documents.
Document Type
Publication numbers with the following prefixes:
AD.
DE
PB
NTIS provides documents for a fee.
Publications with the following numbers:
EPA/540 (limited collection)
EPA/600 .
Document Source
National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
(703) 487-4650
fax requests to (703) 321-8547
8:30 a.m. - 5 p.m., Eastern Time.
Center for Environmental Research Information
(CERI)
26 West Martin Luther King Drive
Cincinnati, OH 45268
(513)569-7562
fax requests to (513) 569-7585
8:00 a.m. - 4:30 p.m., Eastern Time
Out of stock documents may be ordered from NCEPI or may be purchased from NTIS.
Publications with the following numbers:
EPA/542 (limited collection)
A document Me or number is needed to place an order with NCEPI.
Some out-of-stock documents may be purchased from NTIS.
Publications with the following numbers:
EPA/530
.National Center for Environmental
Publications and Information (NCEPI)
11305 Reed Hartman Highway, Suite 219
Cincinnati, OH 45241
(513)489-8190
fax requests to (513) 489-8695
7 a.m. - 5:30 p.m., Eastern Time.
RCRA Information Center (RIC)
401 M St., S.W. Mailcode: 5305
Washington, DC 20460
(202) 260-9327
9 a.m. - 4 p.m., Eastern Time.
If you have difficulty finding a document or wish to obtain EPA/510 documents, call-
RCRA/Superfund/OUST Hotline : (800) 424-9346, (703) 412-9810, TDD: (800) 553-7672, (703) 412-3323
Operates Monday - Friday, 8:30 a.m. - 7:30 p.m., Eastern Time.
Hotline staff can help EPA staffer members of the public locate documents and assist callers with placing document orders.
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TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY: AIR SPARGING
Air Sparging
Air sparging, also referred to as in situ air stripping, is an in situ remediation
technology that involves the injection of air into the subsurface saturated zone
and venting through the unsaturated zone to remove subsurface contaminants.
During air sparging, air bubbles traverse horizontally and vertically through the
saturated and unsaturated zones, creating an underground stripper that removes
contaminants by enabling a phase transfer of hydrocarbons from a dissolved or
adsorbed state to a vapor phase. When used in combination with soil vapor
extraction (SVE), air bubbles carry vapor phase contaminants to a SVE system
which removes them. The SVE system controls vapor plume migration by
creating a negative pressure in the unsaturated zone through a series of extraction
wells. Using air sparging as an SVE enhancement technology increases
contaminant movement and enhances oxygenation in the subsurface which
increases the rate of contaminant extraction. Air sparging can employ horizontal
or vertical wells and is designed to operate at high flow rates. The target
contaminant groups for air sparging are volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and
fuels. Air sparging is generally more applicable to the lighter gasoline
constituents such as benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, and xylene. It is less
applicable to heavier constituents such as diesel fuel and kerosene.
SOIL VAPOR EXTRACTION ENHANCEMENT TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRI^
AIRSPARGING i
Abstract
Wentlfl-
c*tton
Coda
14(p*g*l)A
GUIDAN
is*
13C
14A
14B
140
Document TiUe1
Document Ordering Number
CE , s :vv^ 'v /' 1 * "
A CIlz«o% Gufcte lo Air Sparojng. Fact Sheet
EPAWaF-SaOIO. NTO PB92-235S97/XAB
Conceptual Design d AJr Sparge/SoJ1 Vent SysJems lor In S»u HemedUBon d
Potrotoun rrVoVocarbons, PETRC-SAFE "SZ Conference Papers, Conference
UuxXure,
How to Evalualo A*emalive Cleanup Technologies for Underground Storage Tank
S«et, A Ouido tor Corroctfvo Action Plan Reviewers.
EPA/SK1S9MXX3
RwnodUSon by In S«u Aerallon, The Power of Volafilfzalion and BfoOridafcn.
Journal ArSde.
Tiny Bubbku Pop to Deep Oean. Journal ArtWe.
Mii^ilRi^
Other Technologies
% A <*.'$. i '
Biovenling
Bioventkig
Bfosparging
Mwaa8
i
I
'
*
' Cof|faralhi|i||i
j
? "-~f
rf
Semi VOCs
&',
*, -v"
I
"*"
m
1
#
>
Source/
Originating
Office/Author
' X^' .* -
EPAOSWERmO
PETROSAFE'92: Third Annual Envjtonmental
and SaleV Conference for the Oi, Gas. and
Petrochemical Industries; Clodfetter
EPAOSWEROUST
Published In The National Environmental
Journal. July/August 1993: Vance
Published in Sofe October 1992: Marley.
Hazebrouck. Wafeh
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1wCiyS^!^AR<^ EXTRACTION ENHANCEMENT TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX %^ t;
SIIll:c!iiilB'@:V^ *-" x_ . AIR SPARGING (continued) :-.'^^W^-^^f^ :r *
Abstract
Identifi-
cation
Code
14 (page «) A
(abstract code)
OVERW
14E
ISA
15B
ISC
17C
17E
19E
200
20F
21 B
21C
21D
22B
23A
Document Title1
Document Ordering Number
1W/PRO6RAM DOCUMENTS
Air Sparging and Vapor Extraction as a Means of Removing Chlorinated and BTEX
Compounds in Complex Groundwater CondJions. Conference Literature.
Air Sparging in Conjunction With Vapor Extraction tor Source Removal at VOC Sp*
Sites, Conference Literature.
Air Sparging Technology Evaluation, Proceedbgs of Research and Development "92.
Conference Lterature.-
An Overview of In Situ Air Sparging. Journal Article.
Enhance Performance o( Soil Vapor Extraction. Journal Article.
Experimental Examination of Integrated Soil Vapor Extraction Techniques.
Conference Literature.
EPA/SOO/J-92/280, NTIS PB93-131738/XAB
LNAPL Remediation by Sol Vapor Extraction and Air Sparging. Journal Artcte.
REMEDIATION: Air Sparging Gains Acceptance for Remediation at Underground
Storage Tank Leaks, Journal Article.
Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix and Reference Guide, Second Eaton.
EPA/542/B-94A13, NTIS PB95-104782
Simulations of In Sftu Air Stripping Demonstration at Savannah River.
NTIS DE94-O13855/XAB
SVE, Air-Stripping Needed at Hastings Site. Journal Article.
Technology Assessment of Soa Vapor Extraction and Air Sparging.
EPAASOO/R-92/173. NTIS PB93-1001S4/XAB
The Application of In Situ Air Sparging as an Innovative Soils and Groundwaler
Remediation Technology, Journal Article.
VOCs in Non-Arid Soils Integrated Demonstration: Technology Summary.
NTIS DE94-008863/XA8
T$jjj&^Typ$£
Other Technologies
-,-
Water Table Drawdown
Steam Infection
Injection/Stripping
HfydrofractuTOQ
Biovenong
Electrical Heating
Pneumatic Fracturing
Ohmic Heating
Radio Frequency HeaUng
Hot Air Injection
Media?
1
*
*
*
*
e
*
*
Ground Water
4
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
||i;ew>li^^
.
."
Semi VOCs
j
Other Semi VOC«
_
Petrotoum Product
*
o
o
o
1
*
Source/
Originating
Office/Author
Superfund XTV Conference and Exhibition:
Barren
Fith National Outdoor Action Conference on
Aquler Restoration, Groundwater Monitoring.
and Geophysical Methods: Marley
Second National Research and Development
Conference on the Control of Hazardous
Materials: Loden, Fan
PuMshed in Groundwaler Mentoring and
Remediation, v13n4.Fal 1993: Johnson.
McWhorter. Hinchee. Goodman
PuMshed in Chemical Engineering Progress.
vS9n6, June 1993: Noonan, Gtym, Miller
Oregon Graduate Institute of Science and Tech..
Beaverton Dept of Env. Science and Eng.,
EPA/RREL; Johnson. Bagby, Perron, Chen
Published h Ground Water. V32n5:
September/October 1994; Holt
Published ii Waste Treatment Technology
News, v8n4. February 1993
U.S. DOD/E7TC/FRTO
Los Alamos National Lab., DOE: Robinson.
Rosenberg. Zyvdosfci. Viswanathan
Published in Superfund Week. V8n4 1 .
October 1994
Camp, Dresser and McKee, Inc.. EPA/RREL:
Loden
Published in Groundwater Monitoring Review.
v12n2. Spring 1992; Marley. Hazebrouck. Walsh
U.S. DOEOTD
ST4JDJBS AND DEMONSTRATIONS4 * ' .. ' "-,"",.,"- ^ \>/ ,;-" '? ' ,', ^ "'v - ,- ' "}
Documents Focusing on Test Design
23B
24A
248
24C .
24D
24E
25B
Air Sparging and Groundwaler Flow. Optimizing the Remediation Potential of Ar
Sparging Through a Horizontal Wed, Journal Article.
Etectrovcfce Site Demo Underway, Journal Article.
EPA Selects LJnemaster Cleanup. Journal Article.
Navy Hires Corps to Extract Hastings VOCs, Journal Article.
PfcBo SVE, UWOxklation System Eyed. Journal Article.
PJot-ScaJe Evaluation of Groundwaler Air Sparging: Sle-Specffic Advantages and
Umiations. Proceedings of Research and Development "92, Conference Literature.
Textron Eyes SVE at its Cone Drive Plant, Journal Article.
Carbon-Adsorption
Hot Air Injection
*
*
e
*
*
9
0
Published h Journal of Environmental Health.
vS6n3. October 1993: Wade. Holland. Wallace
Published in Superfund Week, v7n45,
November 19, 1993
Published in Superfund Week, V7n29. July 1393
Published in Defense Cleanup, vSnl 5.
April 15. 1994
Published in Superfund Week, y7n26. July 1993
Second National Research and Development
Conference on the Control of Hazardous
Materials: Martin. SameB: Walsh
Published in Superfund Week. V9n1,
January 1995
Documents Focusing on Study Results
30A
In Situ Air Stripping ot Contaminated Groundwater at U.S. Department of Energy.
Savannah River Site-Alien. South Carofna.
EPA/542/R-95/003 ' '
Pump and Treat
*
*
Published h RemedaSon Case Studtes:
Groundwaler Treatment Member
Agencies of the Federal Remediation
Technologies Roundtabte.
'TNa matrix proMgsniprasentatimexamp^olsof vapor extractan enhancement lechm Itisnottlixlusna.
*The Womation in this matrix is derived from abstracts and & only as detailed as fne abstracts.
3Bulets order the Oigankscohimninfaale a general r^ererxa to these contaminants. Further research into the docunenfs contents may be rocessary to
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TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY: BIOVENTING
"*.-, uAy^rv*^ s^
J
Bioventing Bioventing is an in situ remediation technology that uses microorganisms to
biodegrade organic constituents adsorbed on soils in the unsaturated zone.
Bioventing enhances the activity of indigenous bacteria and simulates the natural
in situ biodegradation of hydrocarbons in soil by inducing air or oxygen flow
into the unsaturated zone and, if necessary, by adding nutrients. During
bioventing, oxygen may be supplied through direct air injection into residual
contamination in soil. Bioventing primarily assists in the degradation of
adsorbed fuel residuals, but also assists in the degradation of volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) as vapors move slowly through biologically active soil.
Bioventing systems are typically operated at vapor extraction rates lower than
those used for soil vapor extraction (SVE) systems in an effort to provide only
enough oxygen to sustain microbial activity. Bioventing can be used to treat all
aerobically biodegradable constituents; however, it has proven to be particularly
effective in remediating releases of petroleum products including gasoline, jet
fuels, kerosene, and diesel fuel. Bioventing is most often used at sites with mid-
weight petroleum products, such as diesel and jet fuel. Lighter products such as
gasoline tend to volatilize readily and can be removed more rapidly using SVE
and heavier products such as lubricating oils generally take longer to biodegrade,
making bioventing a less effective option.
Abstract
MentHl-
catkxi
Code
Document Title1
Document Ordering Number
GUIDANCE
136 A CUzen* Guide to Bfawrtins. Technology Fact Sheet
Other Technologies
Semi VOCs
Source/
Originating
Office/Author
EPA/OSWBVTIO
How to Evaluate AtemaSvo CJo«nup Technologies (or Underground
Storage Tank Sites. A GuWo (or Corrective Action Plan Reviewers.
Mr Sparging
EPWOSWHM3
148
R«n '
IBS
Bfevenftxi RemedUIoj Hydrocaibon Cortamhation. Journal Article.
Published In The National Environmental
Journal. v3c>6. November-December 1993;
Morrow
178
engineering Foumtoue: CoraJdoratians in Deciding to Treal
CcnUmlnaied UnuturaSed Soib In Situ.
EPA(5«yS-9*SOO. NT1S PB94-177771/XAB
VHrlication
Son Flushing
Steam Injection
Radio Frequency Heating
Battele. EPA/RREL: Sm
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SO/L VW)R EXTRACTION ENHANCEMENT TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MAtfux--
±-^^&]^£&<^;::- ':' BIOVENTING(contihued)y -:-&£^.*^ ' '.
Abstract
Identifi-
cation
Code
14 (page ) A
(abstract coda)
OVSRV1
ISA
188
18C
ISO
19C
20E
20F
STUDiEJ
Document
25D
26A
268
zee
27A
278
27C
27D
310
34A
34B
Document Title1
Document Ordering Number
EW/PROGRAM DOCUMENTS (continued}
Fundamentals of Biovenling AppBed to Fuel Contaminated Sles, Journal
Article.
Give Sots a Breath ol Fresh Air. Journal Article.
Horizontal Wefts Can Lower Costs of Remediating Soil, Groundwater.
Journal Article.
Horizontal Weds in Subsurface Remedation. Proceedings of HMC-South
92 Exhibitor Conference and Exhibition. Conference Uerature.
Introducing USAGE'S Sol Vapor Extraction and Bioventlng Engineer
Manual. Conference Uterature.
Remediation of Contaminated Subsurface Soils by Bnventhg.
Conference Uerature.
Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix and Reference GUde.
Second Ediion.
EPA/542/B-94/013. NTIS PB95-104782
JAN»0£l«oi^T«ATn(ONS
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TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY: FRACTURING
J
Pneumatic Pneumatic fracturing is an enhancement technology designed to increase the
Fracturing efficiency of other in situ technologies in difficult soil conditions. Pneumatic
fracturing injects pressurized air beneath the surface to develop cracks in low
permeability and over-consolidated sediments to create additional subsurface air
flow. These new passageways increase the effectiveness of in situ processes,
including soil vapor extraction (SVE), and enhance extraction efficiencies by
increasing contact between contaminants adsorbed onto soil particles and the
extraction system. This technology is used primarily to fracture silts, clays, shale,
and bedrock. Pneumatic fracturing is applicable to a complete range of
contaminant groups with no particular target group.
Hydraulic
Fracturing
Hydraulic fracturing is an enhancement technology designed to increase the
efficiency of other in situ technologies in difficult soil conditions. The process
involves injecting a fluid which contains sand, polymers, or other compounds to
maintain open fractures in the subsurface soils and increase soil permeability. The
hydraulic fracturing process is repeated at varying depths (typically 5 to 30 ft)
creating a "stack" of sand-filled fractures. TWs technology is used primarily to
fracture silts, clays, shale, and bedrock. Hydraulic fracturing is applicable to a
complete range of contaminant groups with no particular target group.
SOIL VAPOR EXTRACTION ENHANCEMENT TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRI^
FRACTUftlNG i
Abstract
Wentlir-
cation
Code
14(paoe<)A
(itatndcodt)
OVERVH
1SA
ICO
SOF
22A
22C
£20
Document Title1
Document Ordering Number
EW/PROGRAM DOCUMENTS v ^\ -,
Hydraufc Fracturing to Improve RamediUon of Contaminated Son.
Conference Ueratura.
EP,VSC(VR-»U503
Bacon Rest** from the SITE Program. Journal Article.
Romedalten Technotoflle* Scrwnlno Matrix and Reference Quids.
Second Ecftkxi
EPA/S42&-94013. NTTS PB9S-1047S2
Technology Evaluation Report; SITE Program Demonstration Tea.
Accutach PnoumaSc Fracturing Extraction and Ho« Qas Injection.
Phuat. Volume 1.
EPA««VR-KVS09. NTIS PB93-2165W/XAB
Th» Appfcatkm of Pneumatic Fracturing Extraction (or Removal o( VOC
Contamination In low Pemwabto Formations. Conference literature.
Uling Pneumtfic Fracturing lor hi-Sku Rema«ation d Contaminaled
SXe*. Journal ArtfcJe.
,
,
«
Other Technologies
',- .- * ^ "f '
Biownting
Injection/Stripping
Hydi ufi aclui fc ig
Bectrical Healing
Air Sparging
i
S; 1
I
f
i
i
i*
.
A.'
SeflnVOCs
1
' A,
lotherSemlVOCs
rf
«
Source/
Originating
Office/Author
; ' * (,'
Univ. d Cincinnati: Slack. Kemper. Mtidoch
Published in Hazardous Waste Consultant.
Vl2n4. Januaiy/February 1994
U.S. DOO/ETTOFRTR
Science Applications International Corp..
EPA/RREL
McLaren/Hart. Accutech Remedal Systems.
NJIT. I4EC Special Symposium American
Chemical Society: Clcalese. Mack
PubTished in Remedbtion. Spring 1995:
Schuring. Chan. Boland
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i ; KSo/L VAPOR EXTRACTION ENHANCEMENT TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX
^M^it-Q^!,^-. x . : ' '. FRACTURING (continued} -: .. - iv^ - ::^:, ;-:;^ :- = : -
Abstract .
Identlfh
cation
Code
14
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TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY: THERMAL ENHANCEMENTS
^..Ng-.tr.':
Hot Air Hot air injection consists of delivering hot air into the subsurface via an injection
Injection well to heat the contaminated zone in an effort to strip and recover subsurface
contaminants. Hot air injection increases the phase-change and diffusion rates of
organic contaminants, liberating them from the porous soil and enabling them to
be captured by a SVE system. Hot air injection is often used in conjunction with
steam heating to ensure that stripped organics remain in the gas stream. Hot air
injection can raise soil temperature; however, because of the low heat capacity
of gases, it has limited applications compared to other heating mechanisms.
Target contaminant groups for hot air injection include VOCs and semi-volatile
organic compounds (SVOCs).
Steam In situ steam stripping involves: (1) delivering steam to the contaminated zone
Injection via injection wells; (2) heating the contaminated zone to vaporize the
contaminants and increase their mobility; and (3) creating a pressure gradient to
control movement of the contaminants and the steam condensate front to a
recovery point. The use of steam stripping results in the flow of contaminant
liquids ahead of the steam condensation front. Vaporized components rise to the
vadose zone where they can be removed by SVE and treated. The target
contaminant groups for steam stripping are VOCs, SVOCs, and fuels.
Electrical Electrical resistance heating uses an electric current to heat less permeable soils
Resistance such as clays and fine-grained sediments so that water and contaminants trapped
Heating in these relatively conductive regions are vaporized and ready for vacuum extrac-
tion. Electrodes are placed directly into the less permeable soil matrix and
activated so that an electrical current passes through the soil, creating a resistance
which then heats the soil. The heat dries out the soil causing it to fracture. These
fractures make the soil more permeable allowing the use of soil vapor extraction
(SVE) to remove the contaminants. The heat created by electrical resistance
heating also forces trapped liquids to vaporize and move to the steam zone for
removal by SVE. Target contaminant groups for electrical resistance heating
include volatile organic compounds (VOCs), semi-volatile organic compounds
(SVOCs), and VOC-oil mixtures.
Radio Radio frequency heating is used to increase the mobility of contaminants so they
Frequency can be removed more easily. The process involves delivering energy to the
Heating subsurface via radio-frequency waves which excite molecular motion and induce
heating (much in the same way a microwave oven heats food). Heating promotes
10
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the volatilization of a wider spectrum of soil contaminants and increases contaminant mobility, thereby
increasing extraction rates. After radio frequency heating, sub-surface conditions are excellent for
biodegradation of residual contaminants. Radio frequency heating has the potential to increase
subsurface temperatures well above the boiling point of water (100°C, 212°F), allowing for more rapid
removal of higher boiling point compounds than is possible with other heating mechanisms. Radio
frequency heating is used to extract volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds (VOCs and SVOCs)
as well as VOC-oil mixtures and other organic compounds that are difficult to remove with ambient
temperature vacuum extraction.
SOIL VAPOR EXTRACTION -ENHANCEMENT TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX:*^-' :--'
'^x'-wi^ ^-.^'^M^---
Abstract
Identifi-
cation
Code
14 (page ») A
(abstract code)
OVERVH
*> f
16A
iec
16O
17A
17B
17C
T7D
19B
19D
20A
20C
20F
23A
STUDIES
Document
23C
240
24F
25A
Document Title1
Document Ordering Number
EW/PR06RAM DOCUMENTS
Application ct Steam Irjection/Vacuum Extraction Treatment
Systems to Contaminated Soils.
EPA/600/A-93/274, NTIS PB94-122579/XAB
Cleaning Up Underground Contaminants. Journal Article.
Comparison of the Effectiveness of Emerging In Situ
Technologies and Traditional Ex S»u Treatment of Sotwnt-
Contaminaled Sols, Conference Lleralure.
Dual Process Strips Contaminants to Son. Journal Article.
Engineering Forum Issue: Considerations in Deciding to Treat
Contaminated Unsaturated Soils In Situ.
EPA/540/S-94/500. NTIS PB94-17T771OAB
Enhance Performance of Soil Vapor Extraction. Journal Article.
Enhancing Vacuum Extraction of Volatle Organtes Using
Beclrical Heating. Conference Literature.
NTISDE93KM5978/XAB
In SHu Radto Frequency Heating to Enhance Vapor Extraction
of Contaminants from Son. Journal Article.
Livermore Dynamic Stripping Method Cleans Gasofine Leaking
Underground, Journal Article.
Radio Frequency Heating Technology Enhances Soi Vapor
Extraction. Journal Article.
Refinements Upgrade Vapor Extraction: New Developments
Enhance Use and Performance, Journal Article.
Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix and Reference
Quide. Second Edition.
EPAS42/B-94A>13. NTIS PB95-104782
VOCs In Non-Arid Soils Integrated Demonstration: Technology
Summary.
NTIS DE94-008863/XAB
^APib'pSWONSTSAHONKM4 ' ;
s Focusing on Test Design
Application of Microbial Biomass and Activity Measures to
Assess In Silu Bioremediatlon of Chlorinated Solvents.
International Symposium.
NT1S DE94-0024S9/XAB
Pkno SVE. UV/Oxidation System Eyed, Journal Anicto.
Sandia National Laboratories Mixed Waste Landf* ktegrded
Demonstration, Conference Literature.
NTIS DE92-015005/XAB
Scientists Test Mixed Waste Remedies at Sandia LandOb.
Journal Article.
' - ,* Technology Type*
Hot Air Injection
9
§
1
'
I
Radio Frequency
e
e
Other Technologies
-
Low-Temperature
Thermal Treatment
Aeration
Vitrification
Soil Flushing
Bioventing
Air Sparging
Air Sparging
Bioventing
Hydrotracturing
Pneumatic Fracturing
Ohmic Heathg,
Methane Injection
Sfedia*
i
p round Water
«
9
* r
' /
; .
1
r~
'-
]
f
m
I
\
1
6
,.
?
..-,
Source/
Originating
Office/Author
EPA/RREUde Pen*
Published In Energy and Technology
Review, May 1994
ACS Symposium 518; Jus), Stockml
PubSshod in Environmental Protection,
v4n11. November 1993; Dieter
Baflele. EPA/RREU Smith
PubEshed in Chemical Engineering
Progress v69n6. June 1993; Noonan.
Gtym. Miler
Lawrence Uvermore National Lab^
DOE; Buettner. DaSy. Rameriz
Published in Industrial Health and
Hazards Update v94n1 . January 1995
Published in Grand Water Monitor.
v9n25. December 1993
Published in Hazardous Waste
Consulant,v12n4, July/August 1994
Published in Sols, March 1994
U.S. DOOyETTC/FRTR
OS.DOE/OTD
Oak Ridge National Lab.. DOE; Pholps,
Herbes, Palumbo, Plilnor, Mackowsfci
Published in Supertax! Week. v7n26.
Jury 1993
Sandia National Labs.. DOE; Tyler.
Phelan, Prindte
Published In Ground Water Monior.
venZO, October 1992
11
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SOIL VAPOR EXTRACTION ENHANCEMENT TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX 1
THERMAL ENHANCEMENTS (continued) . r 1
Abstract
ktentm-
c«tk>n
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STUDIES
Document Title1
Document Ordering Number
, AND DEMONSTRATJONS VconWrt^d
Documents Focusing on Study Results
2M
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30C
30E
32A
sac
32D
93A
33C
94C
Dyiumfc Underground Stripping Demonstrated at Lawrence
Uverocre National Ubnuy QasoSne Spit SHe. Lhwmore.
Callomia.
EPA542/R-9VD03
Decbfcal Sc< Cleaning Process. Journal Amcie.
Final Report: k) Situ Raoio Frequency Healing Demonstration.
Progress Report.
NTIS DB-KXXH74WB
hStuRemedUtkn Technology Status Report: Thermal
Enhancements.
EPAA4ZK-94AX19
New So* Cleanup Technology, Journal Artfcte.
Rapid Removal o( Underground Hydrocarbon SpKs, Journal
ReMMchen Ah) to Make Pump and Treat Technology
ObeoMe, Journal Article.
SITE Technology Demonstration Summary: Acculech
Pneumatic Fracturing Extraction and Hot das Infection.
Phis* L Federal Government Report.
EPA/S4CVSR.93/S09
Sol and Groundwater Restoration by Steam Enhanced
Extraoion. Journal Article.
Steam hfectkxvVaeuum Extraction. Phase 2, TreatabBry
tawrtfenicn. Sle Characterization, and Design. Final Report.
NTIS A0-A24374S7/XAB
Using Geophysical Techniques to Control In SBu Thermal
RemecUloh. Symposium.
: . / ;; , ";, Technology T.yp**
Hot Air Infection |
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Technotogieo RoundUHe
Pubished in Water Environmental
&Technology.v5n1,Januaiy1993
Westinghouse Savannah River Co,
DOE Jaroech, BelesW. Faust
EPA/OSWER/TK)
Pubished In New Jersey Industry
Envionmenlai Alert. v3n12. September
1932
Review. JuV 1992; Aines, Newma*
Pubished ki Environment Week, v«n49.
December 1993
EPA/RREL; Stovrenek
Published in Ground Water. vSlnS,
September-October 1993: Udel
CH2M HI; Hegle, Koster. Pexton.
Stewart
Lawrence Uvermore National Lab.. DOE:
Boyd Dafly. Ramirez. Wit. Goldman
SOIL VAPOR EXTRACTION ENHANCEMENT TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE lyiAtR^
MISCELLANEOUS * 11
Abstract
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Code
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Document Ordering Number
Source/
Originating
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12
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ABSTRACTS OF SOIL VAPOR EXTRACTION
ENHANCEMENT TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES
The abstracts below describe the contents of pertinent S VE enhancement technology documents. The abstracts are organized
alphabetically within each of the five following document types:
Begins on Page
Guidance Documents _ 13
Overview/Program Documents ..., 14
Studies and Demonstrations: Test Design 23
Studies and Demonstrations: Study Results _ 25
Other Resource Guides 34
To quickly identify documents pertinent to your interest area, see the Soil Vapor Extraction Enhancement Technology
Resource Matrices in the section tided 'Technology Summaries" on page 4-12 of this Guide. The documents in the matri-
ces are organized alphabetically within the document types identified above. The document listings in the matrices can be
cross-referenced with the abstracts using the code to the left of the document rides on the matrices. In an effort to limit the
number of resources listed here, Records of Decision (RODs) and documents more than five years old are not included.
Those seeking RODs may wish to contact the hotlines, dockets, or other sources. These abstracts were obtained from several
databases, including NTIS, Energy Science and Technology, Compendex Plus. Enviroline, PTS Newsletter, PTS PROMT,
SciSearch, and CA Search.
GUIDANCE DOCUMENTS
J 13A
A Citizen's Guide to Ah* Sparging, Fact Sheet
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid
Waste and Emergency Response, Technology Innovation
Office, March 1992.
EPA Document Number: EPA/542/F-92/010
NTIS Document Number: PB92-235597/XAB
The fact sheet contains a description of air sparging and how it
works, the reasons for using this treatment method, an explanation
of its performance reliability where air sparging is being used, and
a contact for obtaining more information on Ms treatment.
J 13B
$/ *>* f,,~""''
A Citizen's Guide to Bioventing, Technology Fact Sheet
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid
Waste and Emergency Response, Technology Innovation
Office, March 1992.
EPA Document Number: EPA/542/F-92/008
This fact sheet provides a general overview of bioventing and
bioremediation. It includes abrief discussion of how bioventing
works in conjunction with soil vapor extraction and lists some
advantages of using bioventing as a remediation technology.
This document includes information on site conditions that are
most compatible with bioventing and provides examples of
sites where bioventing is being applied.
J 13C
Conceptual Design of Air Sparge/Soil Vent Systems for
In Situ Remediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons,
PETRO-SAFE '92 Conference Papers: Volume 7 (Pro-
cessing and Refining 2), Volume 8 (Transportation and
Storage), Volume 9 (Spill Control, Disposal, and Reme-
dial Treatment 1) and Volume 10 (Spill Control, Dis-
posal, and Remedial Treatment 2), Conference Litera-
ture.
Clodfelter, C. L., PETRO-SAFE '92: Third Annual Environ-
mental and Safety Conference for the Oil, Gas, and Petro-
chemical Industries, Houston, TX, January 1992.
A conceptual design for a sparge and vent system is presented.
A sparge and vent system consists of air sparging or in situ
aeration in combination with soil vapor extraction. With air
sparging, a compressed air source provides sparging of the
groundwater through aeration points, volatizes dissolved hy-
drocarbons, and elevates dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in the
groundwater. Volatile hydrocarbon vapors migrate more readily
than liquid in soil, and are extracted to the atmosphere with the
vapor extraction system. Increased oxygen levels in the ground-
water and unsaturated soil promotes natural, aerobic biodegra-
dation of the hydrocarbons without nutrient addition. Design
considerations for sparge systems include spacing and depth of
installation of tire sparging points, air injection rates and pres-
sures, and die air source. The design techniques for the soil
vapor extraction system have been discussed extensively in the
literature, but generally involve spacing of the extraction wells
to capture all die hydrocarbons stripped from the groundwater.
The soil vapor extraction system can also be modified to
enhance oxygen (air) delivery to the unsaturated zone and thus
promote natural biodegradation of the petroleum hydrocarbons
13
-------
Overview/Program Documents
in the soil. Techniques formonitoringtheprogressofremediation
include: measurement of oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in
the soil; DO levels in the groundwater; subsurface air pressures;
and petroleum hydrocarbon levels in the discharged air, soil,
and groundwater.
1 14A
How to Evaluate Alternative Cleanup Technologies for
Underground Storage Tank Sites, A Guide for Corrective
Action Plan Reviewers.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid
Waste and Emergency Response, Office of Underground
Storage Tanks, October 1994.
EPA Document Number: EPA/510/B-94/003
This manual provides detailed technical guidance for state
regulators who oversee cleanups and evaluate corrective ac-
tions plans (CAPs) for leaking underground storage tank sites.
The technologies addressed in the manual include soil vapor
extraction, bioventing, biopiles, landfarming, low-temperature
thermal desorption, air sparging, biosparging, and natural at-
tenuation. The text focuses on engineering-related consider-
ations for evaluating each technology; however, this manual
does not provide instruction on the design and construction of
remedial systems or guidance on regulatory issues. Examples
of issues evaluated for each technology include effectiveness,
site characteristics, constituent characteristics, pilot scale stud-
ies, system components, system design, and operation and
monitoring plans. References are provided for each technol-
ogy.
:ii4B
Remediation by In Situ Aeration: The Power of Volatil-
ization and Bio-Oxidation, Journal Article: Published in
The Notional Environmental Journal, v3n4, July-August
1993.
Vance, D. B.
This article provides an overview of soil vapor extraction
(SVE), air sparging, bioventing, and biosparging. There is a
discussion of SVE and bioventing which includes information
on the circumstances under which each technology is optimally
effective and a comparison of hydrocarbon removal rates. In
addition, the effect of contaminant vapor pressure on SVE
remediation rates and the effect of indigenous bacteria on
biosparging viability are discussed. The article concludes with
a case study on the use of biosparging at a facility where a
RCRA hazardous waste drum storage area was being closed-
Soil contaminants at the site include ethlybenzene, toluene,
total xylenes, and naphthalene; groundwater contaminants
include ethylbenzene and total xylenes. Results of the case
study, including trends in VOC and CO2 content of recovered
soil gas, is provided.
J 14C
Test Plan and Technical Protocol for a Field Treatability
Test for Bioventing, 2nd Revision.
Downey, D. C; Frand, R.; Hinchee, R. E.; Miller, R. N.; and
Ong, S. K., Battelle, U.S. Air Force Center for Environmen-
tal Excellence, Environmental Services Office, Engineering-
Sciences, Inc., May 1992.
This test plan and technical protocol describes methods for
conducting field treatability tests for bioventing technology. The
purpose of these field test methods is to measure the soil gas
permeability and microbial activity at a contaminated site and to
evaluate the potential application of the bioventing technology to
remediate the contaminated site. Bioventing is the process of
aerating subsurface soils to stimulate in situ biological activity.
This report includes an overview of bioventing, various applica-
tions of this technology, and discussions of specific sites including
Hill Air Force Base (AFB) and TyndallAFB. ,
J 14D
J
Tiny Bubbles Pop to Deep Clean, Journal Article:
Published in Soils, October 1992.
Marley, M.; Hazebrouck, D.; and Walsh, M.
This article provides an overview of factors that should be
considered when designing, installing, and operating an in situ
air sparging system for remediating contaminants found in
saturated zone soils. The factors discussed include: bubble
geometry and gas channeling; contaminants most amenable to
air sparging (i.e., petroleum compounds and chlorinated sol-
vents); gas (air) flow rate; gas (air) injection pressure; site
geometry considerations; site geology considerations; injec-
tion point interval (i.e., the sparging well screened interval and
the depth location of the screened interval with respect to the
static water table); radius of injection point influence; and air
sparging equipment. A brief discussion of the advantages and
disadvantages of air sparging is also Included.
OVERVIEW/PROGRAM DOCUMENTS
Air Sparging and Vapor Extraction as a Means of Remov-
ing Chlorinated and BTEX Compounds in Complex
Groundwater Conditions: Published in the SuperfundXIV
Conference and Exhibition Conference Proceedings, Vo/-
M/ne7,Wasnington,D.C.,November30-Deceniber2,1993.
Barrera, J.A., 1994.
This paper presents full scale air sparging and vapor extraction
applications in difficult and atypical conditions. Air sparging,
or enhanced groundwater aeration, is an innovative in situ
technique used to restore groundwater conditions. Site candi-
14
-------
Overview/Program Documents
dates are usually limited to permeable sediments impacted with
highly volatile aromatic and aliphatic compounds. Air sparging
involves stripping dissolved volatile organic compounds (VOGs)
in shallow or perched aquifers. Typical sparging systems
consist of pressurized air injection wells advanced into an
aquifer. Controlled air injection encourages aqueous phase
VOCs to mobilize upward into the unsaturated soil. Soil vapor
extraction (SVE) wells or trenches are employed to recover
VOCs transferred into the unsaturated soils. Vapor extraction
is typically used in combination with air sparging to recover
VOCs and to prevent vapor phase transport off-site.
i ISA
Air Sparging in Conjunction With Vapor Extraction for
Source Removal at VOC Spill Sites, Conference Litera-
ture.
Marley, M. C., Fifth National Outdoor Action Conference on
Aquifer Restoration, Groundwater Monitoring, and Geo-
physical Methods, Las Vegas, NV, May 1991.
Effective source removal is the singularly most important
activity in achieving remediation at a contaminated site. Vapor
extraction (soil venting) has been demonstrated to be a success-
ful and cost effective remediation technology for removing
VOCs from vadose (unsaturated) zone soils. However, in many
cases, seasonal groundwater table (GWT) fluctuations, GWT
drawdown associated with pump and treat remediation tech-
niques, and spills involving dense, non-aqueous phase liquids
(DNAPL) create residually saturated soils below the water
table. Vapor extraction alone is not considered to be an optimal
remediation technology to address these areas of contamina-
tion. Artificial water table drawdown is one approach that may
be utilized to expose the contaminated soils, thereby increasing
the efficiency of the soil venting process. However, in some
cases, this is not a practical, nor cost effective approach. An
alternative approach is the use of sparging (injection) wells to
inject a hydrocarbon free gaseous medium (standardly air) into
the saturated zone below the areas of contamination. The
contaminants are dissolved in the groundwater and sorbed on
the soil partition into the advective air phase effectively simu-
lating an in situ air stripping system. The stripped contaminants
are transported in the air phase to the vadose zone, within the
radius of influence of the vapor extraction system. The con-
taminant vapors are drawn through the vadose zone to a vapor
extraction well where they are treated utilizing standard vapor
extraction off-gas control system(s).
J 15B
J
Air Sparging Technology Evaluation, Proceedings of
Research and Development '92, Conference Literature.
Loden, M. E. and Fan, L., Second National Research and
Development Conference on the Control of Hazardous
Materials, San Francisco, CA, Hazardous Materials Control
Resources Institute, February 1992.
Air sparging, which is also referred to as in situ air stripping and
in situ volatilization, involves the injection of air into the
saturated zone to strip VOCs dissolved in groundwater and
absorbed to soils from the saturated zone. The vapor phase
contaminants transferred to the unsaturated zone are then
captured using soil vapor extraction (SVE). In addition to
contaminant removal via mass transfer, the introduction of
oxygen by injection of air also enhances subsurface biodegra-
dation of contaminants. The air sparging system design re-
quires consideration of system component compatibility and
operation to ensure optimization of blower selection, well
configuration design, and air emissions treatment. The technol-
ogy is applicable to gasoline, solvents, and other volatile
contaminants. Air sparging systems are almost always coupled
with soil vapor extraction to control the subsurface ah- flow.
Proper hydraulic control is key to preventing migration of
contaminants to uncontaminated areas. Air sparging is a
relatively new treatment technology. Research efforts to date
have not fully elucidated the scientific bases of the system, and
the associated engineering aspects are not completely defined.
However, a substantial amount of information is available
describing the effectiveness and characteristics of air sparging
systems. This paper summarizes the available literature and
case studies regarding the use of air sparging technology as it
has been implemented to date and identifies research needs.
J 15C
An Overview of In Situ Air Sparging, Journal Article:
Published in Ground Water Monitoring and Remediation,
v!3n4, Fall 1993.
Johnson, R. L.; Johnson, P. C.; McWhorter, D. B.; Hinchee,
R. E.; and Goodman, I.
In situ air sparging (IAS) is becoming a widely used technology
for remediating sites contaminated by volatile organic materi-
als such as petroleum hydrocarbons. Published data indicate
that the injection of air into subsurface water saturated areas
coupled with soil vapor extraction (SVE) can increase removal
rates in comparison to SVE alone for cases where hydrocarbons
are distributed within the water saturated zone. However^ the
technology is still in its infancy and has not been subject to
adequate research, nor have adequate monitoring methods been
employed or even developed. Consequently, most IAS appli-
cations are designed, operated, and monitored based upon the
experience of the individual practitioner. The use of in situ air
sparging poses risks not generally associated with most prac-
ticed remedial technologies; air injection can enhance the
undesirable off-site migration of vapors and groundwater con-
tamination plumes. Migration of previously immobile liquid
hydrocarbons can also be induced. Thus, there is an added
incentive to fully understand this technology prior to applica-
tion. This overview of the current state of the practice of air
sparging is a review of available published literature, a consul-
tation with practitioners, and a range of unpublished data
15
-------
Overview/Program Documents
reports, as well as theoretical considerations. Potential strengths
and weaknesses of the technology are discussed and recom-
mendations for future investigations are given.
II 16A
J
Application of Steam Injection/Vacuum Extraction
Treatment Systems to Contaminated Soils: Published in
Proceedings of Environmental Protection Agency/Air
and Waste Management Association, In Situ Treatment
of Contaminated Soil and Water, 1992.
de Percin, P. R., U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, OH, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory.
EPA Document Number: EPA/600/A-93/274
NTIS Document Number: PB94-122579/XAB
Steam Injection/Vacuum Extraction (SIVE) is a method to
enable vacuum extraction to treat soils contaminated with
semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) and to speed the
cleanup of soils contaminated with volatile organic compounds
(VOCs). The steam injection raises the soil temperature caus-
ing more VOCs and SVOCs to vaporize into the soil air spaces.
The vacuum extraction wells create a pressure drop in the soil
causing gas flow to the well and thus removing the vaporized
organics. Th'is pressure drop maintains the concentration
gradient forcing the organics contaminants into the vaporphase
and 'allowing for further removal of the organics. After a
considerable amount of laboratory research, SI VE is now being
applied to field situations. One full-scale remediation has been
performed and several pilot-scale systems have been installed
and are now being studied. This paper discusses each of these
systems, the data that will be obtained, and the information that
still needs to be developed.
i IBB '"-* "-;
J
Bioventing Remediates Hydrocarbon Contamination,
Journal Article: Published in The Notional Environmen-
tal Journal, v3n6, November-December 1993.
Morrow, S.
This article discusses the uses of bioventing to remediate soils
contaminated with organic contaminants, in particular fuel
hydrocarbons, and heavy organic contaminants such as No. 2
oil and diesel fuel. A brief discussion of ways to analyze the
effectiveness of boiventing is included, and advantages and
disadvantages of boiventing are presented. The article con-
cludes with the results of a boiventing treatability study. The
study was conducted to determine the best treatment for
remediating a landfill contaminated with volatile chloroform
and semivolatile organic waste, including trichloroethylene,
phthalates, and highly organic sludge.
, ,,« -.^xjo.s s «,s.-,5 -"'"{": 1 iff, f''' '">/"{'#'', "/#/''/," » ''
?, *. , v"- /"I 16C
-------
Overview/Program Documents
17A
Dual Process Strips Contaminants in Soil, Journal
Article: Published in Environmental Protection, v4nll,
November 1993.
Dieter, D. K.
This article provides an overview of the steam injection and
vacuum extraction (SIVE) process, which uses injection wells
to introduce steam into the subsurface in conjunction with
extraction wells to remove both groundwaterand vapors from
subsurface soils. The steam, as it flows from injection well to
extraction well, strips contaminants from subsurface soils. The
heat transferred to the subsurface increases the phase-change
and diffusion rates of volatile and semi volatile organic com-
pounds (VOCs and S VOCs) thereby reducing the time required
for contaminant extraction. Included in the discussion are
advantages of using SIVE over other injection techniques,
benefits of using SIVE to remove chlorinated solvents, as well
as equipment needs for implementing this technology.
J 17B
Engineering Forum Issue: Considerations in Deciding to
Treat Contaminated Unsaturated Soils In Situ.
Smith, L. A., Battelle, Columbus, OH, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, Risk Reduction Engi-
neering Laboratory, December 1993.
EPA Document Number: EPA/54Q/S-94/500
NTIS Document Number: PB94-177771/XAB
The purpose of the document is to provide assistance in decid-
ing in situ treatment of contaminated soils as a potentially
feasible remedial alternative. Technical considerations that
affect the decision to treat soils in situ are discussed. General
factors which influence the selection of in situ treatment are
hydrogeologic flow regime, regulatory standards, time avail-
able for remediation, removal logistics, and waste conditions.
The document also provides information relevant to reviewing
and screening in situ technologies. Factors important to the
following in situ technologies are discussed: solidification/
stabilization, soil vapor extraction, bioremediation, bioventing,
vitrification, radio frequency heating, soil flushing, and steam
injection and extraction. Systems for delivery and recovery of
liquids, vapors, and energy to and from the subsurface are
included.
J 17C
, I
Enhance Performance of Soil Vapor Extraction, Journal
Article: Published in Chemical Engineering Progress,
v89n6, June 1993.
Noonan, D..C; Glynn, W. K.; and Miller, M. E.
Hydrocarbon recovery as a means of soil and groundwater
remediation has received considerable attention in the last few
years as the shortcomings of groundwater pump-and-treat
technologies have become more evident. A previous article
covered a wide range of in situ cleanup technologies and
provided guidance on how to choose among them. This article
examines soil vapor extraction (SVE) in more detail and ex-
plains how to improve the performance of SVE by combining
it with air sparging or steam injection. Air sparging injects air
below the groundwater surface to promote the volatilization of
volatile organic compounds (VOC) from the groundwater into
the vadose zone so that the VOCs can be removed via the SVE
system. Steam injection injects steam into the vadose zone to
increase the subsurface temperatures, thereby volatilizing or-
ganic compounds with high boiling points.
J 17D
Enhancing Vacuum Extraction of Volatile Organics
Using Electrical Heating, Conference Literature.
Buettner, H. M.; Daily, W.; and Ramirez, A., Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory, CA, U.S. Department of
Energy, Washington, DC, September 1991.
NTIS Document Number: DE93-015978/XAB
Vacuum extraction is an effective tool for the in situ removal of
liquid, residual, and vapor phase volatile hydrocarbons from
subsurface soils (Trowbridge, 1990). The vacuum extraction
process creates air flow through soils by decreasing the gas
phase pressure in the soil matrix. As the air flows through the
pore spaces, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are volatil-
ized and moved from the soil towards an extraction well. The
effectiveness of the process varies with the permeability of the
soil. For a given vacuum pressure applied to a well, higher air
flow rates will be observed in coarser-grained sediments which
have higher gas permeabilities, than fine-grained sediments.
Soils with lower gas permeabilities such as silts and clays,
require a stronger vacuum to induce air flow through the soil.
The capacity to induce air flow through fine-grained materials
reaches an upper limit when the required vacuum capacity
cannot be achieved. Remediation of fine-grained soils using
vacuum extraction may be ineffective because a closer spacing
between extraction wells will be required, or in fact may
become impossible for soils with very low permeabilities.
17E
J
Experimental Examination of Integrated Soil Vapor
Extraction Techniques, Journal Article: Published in
Proceedings of the Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic
Chemicals in Ground Water: Prevention, Detection, and
Restoration, Houston, TX, November 4-6,1992.
Johnson, R. L.; Bagby, W.; Perrott, M.; and Chen, C. T.,
Oregon Graduate Institute of Science and Technology,
17
-------
Overview/Program Documents
Beaverton Department of Environmental Science and
Engineering, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, OH, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory.
J 18B
J
EPA Document Number: EPA/600/J-92/280
NTIS Document Number: PB93-131738/XAB
Soil vapor extraction (S VE) has been shown to be effective at
removing hydrocarbons from the unsaturated zone. However,
at many spill sites significant fractions of the mass are at or
below the water table, in which case SVE is far less effective.
To improve its efficiency in cases where gasoline is trapped
below the water table, SVE can be used in conjunction with
other techniques to reach the trapped mass. In the last few years
the direct injection of air into the formation below the water
table (i.e., in situ sparging) has become a popular technique.
Another approach is to lower the water table to improve air flow
in the vicinity of the trapped product. This can be accomplished
either in the localized area of a groundwater drawdown cone or
as the result of larger scale dewatering. In experiments con-
ducted at the Oregon Graduate Institute (OGI), hydrocarbon
spills into a large three-dimensional physical model filled with
sand are being used to study the efficiencies of SVE combined
with other techniques. Experiments to date have examined
SVE operating as a stand-alone technique, as well as in con-
junction with air sparging below the water table, dewatering of
the 'smear zone' (i.e., where product is trapped as residual
below the water table), and air injection into the dewatered
smear zone.
.".1
Fundamentals of Bioventing Applied to Fuel Contami-
nated Sites, Journal Article: Published in Environmental
Progress, v!2nl, February 1993.
Dupont, R. R.
Bioventing entails the use of soil vapor extraction (SVE)
systems for the transport of oxygen to the subsurface, where
indigenous organisms are stimulated to aerobically metabolize
fuel components. Bioventing systems are designed and config-
ured to optimize oxygen transfer and oxygen utilization effi-
ciency, and are operated at much lower rates and with configu-
rations much different than those of conventional SVE systems.
Bioventing system applications and design are contrasted to
those of conventional SVE systems, and the two key elements
of bioventing system design evaluation, i.e., in situ microbial
activity and air permeability determinations, are highlighted hi
this paper. The application of bioventing to vadose zone
bioremediation was reviewed with particular emphasis on its
advantages over aqueous based bioremediation systems in
terms of its superior oxygen transfer efficiency. Finally, the
application of bioventing and bioventing design concepts are
illustrated through a case study of JP-4jet fuel contaminated
soil remediation at Hill AFB, Utah.
Give Soils a Breath of Fresh Air, Journal Article:
Published in Soils, November-December 1991.
Heuckeroth. R. W.
This article provides a brief overview of in situ remediation
technologies including pump and treat, soil washing, vapor
abatement. SVE, and SVE enhancement technologies. The
SVE enhancement technologies discussed include air sparging,
as it is used to remediate contaminated soil and ground water,
and bioventing, as it is used to remediate contaminated soil.
Each discussion includes a brief description of how the technol-
ogy works as well as advantages and disadvantages of the
technology. The article concludes with a general discussion of
ex situ remediation technologies.
J 18C
Horizontal Wells Can Lower Costs of Remediating Soil,
Groundwater, Journal Article: Published in Oil and Gas
Journal, v91n48, November 1993.
Conventional approaches to soil and groundwater remediation
make extensive use of vertical wells that penetrate the various
contamination phasesliquid, absorbed, dissolved, and vapor.
But advances in horizontal drilling have added anew dimension
to the remediation of hazardous soils and groundwater. Whereas
conventionally drilled wells are perpendicular to the central
axis of hazardous waste, horizontal wells can travel parallel to
the axis. Dual wells can flank entire plumes for aggressive
treatment, and,sparge points can become sparge barriers
boundaries against migration of the contaminants. Under the
right conditions, a single horizontal well can treat areas that
previously required as many as 10 vertical wells. This not only
reduces drilling costs, but also eliminates redundant hardware
for groundwater pumping or soil vapor extraction. The paper
briefly describes five applications and discusses limitations to
the use of the technology.
J 18D
J
Horizontal Wells in Subsurface Remediation, Proceed-
ings of HMC-South '92 Exhibitor Conference and
Exhibition, Conference Literature.
Losonsky, G. and Beljin, M. S., HMC-South '92: Hazardous
Materials Control Research Institute Meeting, New Orleans,
LA, February 1992.
This paper reports on horizontal wells which offer an effective
alternative to vertical wells in various environmental remediation
technologies. Hydrogeological advantages of horizontal wells
over vertical wells include a larger zone of influence, greater
screen length, higher specific capacity, and lower groundwater
screen entrance velocity. Because of these advantages, hori-
zontal wells can reduce treatment time and costs of groundwa-
18
-------
Overview/Program Documents
ter recovery (pump-and-treat), in situ groundwater aeration
(sparging), and soil gas extraction (vacuum extraction). Hori-
zontal wells are also more effective than vertical wells in
landfill leachate collection (under-drains), bioremediation, and
horizontal grout injection.
J 19A
Hydraulic Fracturing to Improve Remediation of Contami-
nated Soil, Conference Literature.
Slack, W.W., OH; Kemper, M.; and Murdoch, L.C., University
of Cincinnati, May 1994.
EPA Document Number: EPA/540/R-94/503
This paper provides an overview of the applications of hydrau^
lie fracturing to enhance the performance of in situ remediation
technologies, such as bioremediation and SVE. The paper.also
includes a discussion of the benefits of hydraulic fracturing.
For example, hydraulic fractures can increase the area of
influence around an extraction well by a factor of ten, which
greatly enhances the ability of the extraction system to remove
contaminants. The paper indicates that low permeability silts,
clays, or rock are most favorable to hydraulic, fracturing.
Descriptions of hydraulic fracturing technology demonstra-
tions at field sites are included.
19B
J
In Situ Radio Frequency Heating to Enhance Vapor
Extraction of Contaminants from Soil, Journal Article:
Published in Industrial Health and Hazards Update,
v94nl, January 1995.
This report provides an overview of a radio frequency heating
field demonstration program. The demonstration site is con-
taminated with residual solvents, namely trichloroethylene and
perchoroethylene, which are held in vadose zone clay deposits.
The field demonstration is using radio frequency heating to
enhance the effectiveness of SVE in site remediation, by
increasing the contaminant vapor pressure, diffusivity, and the
permeability of the clay.
Introducing USACE's Soil Vapor Extraction and
Bioventing Engineer Manual: Published in Proceedings
ofHMCRI Federal Environment Restoration IVand
Defense Cleanup Southeast Conference, Atlanta, Georgia,
March 14-15.
Baker, R.S., ENSR Consulting and Engineering, Acton, MA;
Becker, D.J., U.S. Army Corps of Engineers-Missouri River
Division, Omaha, ME, 1995.
This document provides a preview of the information that is
contained in an engineering manual (EM) prepared for the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers (USAGE) on the engineering and
design of SVE and bioventing systems. The EM assembles and
consolidates design considerations and guidance information
for practitioners of SVE and bioventing. This document dis-
cusses the purpose and intended audience of the EM and
provides a general overview of the topics addressed in the
manual. The topics include tools and resources; SVE and
bioventing application strategy; fundamental principles; site
characterization and technology screening; bench- and pilot-
scale testing for SVE and bioventing; design and full-scale
SVE and bioventing systems; design documents; start-up
requirements; operations and maintenance; system shutdown
and confirmation of cleanup; cost estimating and other consid-
erations; and appendices.
J 19D
J
Livermore Dynamic Stripping Method Cleans Gasoline
Leaking Underground, Journal Article: Published in
Ground Water Monitor, v9n25, December 1993.
This article discusses using "dynamic" underground stripping,
a combination of steam and electric heating, with soil vapor
extraction (SVE) to remove gasoline from the soil. Results
from the first full-scale test conducted at the Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory are evaluated. This article also discusses
the possibility of using "dynamic" underground stripping to
remove chlorinated solvents such as trichloroethylene and
perchloroethane.
J 19E
J
LNAPL Remediation by Soil Vapor Extraction and Air
Sparging, Journal Article: Published in Ground Water,
v32n5, September/October 1994;
Holt, W., Marion Environmental Inc., Chattanooga, TN,
September/October 1994
The use of soil vapor extraction (SVE) in combination with in
situ air sparging (IAS) has the potential to be effective at quickly
removing volatile organic contamination from soils and ground
water in a cost effective manner. IAS is a process for treating
volatile organic contaminants in ground water and soil in the
saturated zone by the injection of air. The air displaces water in
the soil matrix, creating a transient porosity, and increases
dissolved oxygen levels in the ground water. The injected air
removes contaminants through volatilization and biodegrada-
tion. Innovative enhancement technologies such as IAS are
rapidly replacing more conventional excavation and
pump-and-treat remediation methods.
19
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Overview/Program Documents
J 20A '~^^S^..".T:...f..''..". ''. I
Radio Frequency Heating Technology Enhances Soil
Vapor Extraction, Journal Article: Published in Hazard'
ous Waste Consultant v!2n4, July/August 1994.
This article discusses the benefits of using radio frequency
heating as an SVE enhancement technology, including its
ability to increase subsurface permeability, temperature, and
contaminant vapor pressure. The article includes a discussion
of two field tests which showed reduced levels of No. 2 fuel oil
and organchlorine pesticides when radio frequency heating was
applied.
J20B
Recent Results from the SITE Program, Journal Article:
Published in Hazardous Waste Consultant, v!2nl,
January-February 1994.
This paper presents results from the Superfund Innovative
Technology Evaluation (SITE) program testing of 12 innova-
tive technologies. Two SVE enhancement technologies in-
cluded in the paper are pneumatic fracturing and hydraulic
fracturing. Both pneumatic and hydraulic fracturing are used to
fracture rock and compacted soil which creates conductive
channels, thereby increasing contaminantextractionrates. The
discussion of each includes a process description, SITE demon-
stration results, and average costs. For the pneumatic fracturing
test, the primary contaminant of concern was trichloroethylene.
For the hydraulic fracturing test, the contaminants of concern
include ethylbenzene, benzene, toluene, xylene, a number of
chlorinated solvents, and petroleum hydrocarbons. Contact
names are provided.
J20C
Refinements Upgrade Vapor Extraction: New Develop-
ments Enhance Use and Performance, Journal Article:
Published in SoUs, March 1994.
This article provides a brief overview of three SVE refinements.
The first refinement is a turnkey SVE package that can be
customized to meet specific site needs. The second is a two-
phase SVE system which is a single treatment method appli-
cable to all states of volatile hydrocarbon contamination. The
key to the two-phase system is that the well screening extends
below the natural water table and upwards into the vadose zone
which allows soil gases drawn into the well to entrain the liquid
phase so that both the gas and liquid phases are transported to
the surface. The third enhancement technology is a hot air
injection vapor extraction system which features a network of
hot air injection ducts placed within a soil matrix. The hot air
is able to volatilize and absorb the contaminants as it passes
through the soil to reach the vapor extraction ducts.
_J 20D
REMEDIATION: Air Sparging Gains Acceptance for
Remediation of Underground Storage Tank Leaks,
Journal Article: Published in Waste Treatment Technol-
ogy News, v8n4, February 1993.
EPA Region 5 has acknowledged BP Company for its role in
demonstrating the effectiveness of using air sparging technol-
ogy, in combination with soil vapor extraction (SVE), to
remediate leaks from underground storage tanks. This method
is reported to reduce cleanup time at an average site by more
than one year over using SVE alone. This article provides an
overview of air sparging, as well as contact names and phone
numbers.
20E
Remediation of Contaminated Subsurface Soils by
Bioventing, Conference Literature.
Litherland, S. T.; Anderson, D. W.; Allen, P. G.; and Dykes,
R. S., Hazardous Materials Control/Superfund 92: 13th
Annual Conference and Exhibition, Hazardous Materials
Control Resources Institute, December 1992.
Soil venting or soil vapor extraction is a technology which has
in recent years been fairly widely accepted for the remediation
of soils contaminated with volatile organic compounds (VOC).
To affect VOC removal, a vacuum is applied to the vadose or
unsaturated zone to volatilize the residual organics and pull the
vapors to the surface for treatment A relatively new adaptation
of soil vapor extraction is bioventing. Although the systems
used for soil venting and bioventing are very similar, the
approaches are slightly different Soil vapor extraction (SVE)
primarily relies on the stripping of VOCs which then often
require treatment. SVE also is limited to volatile compounds.
A bioventing system promotes degradation of the organic
chemicals in.the subsurface soil so that the required above
ground treatment of extracted vapors is minimized. Although
most of the work in bioventing completed to date has been with
jet fuels, the technology shows significant promise in the cost-
effective remediation of sites affected not only with fuels, but
also with some of the less volatile hydrocarbons.
20F
Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix and Refer-
ence Guide, Second Edition.
U.S. Department of Defense, Environmental Technology
Transfer Committee, Federal Remediation Technologies
Roundtable, October 1994.
EPA Document Number: EPA/542/B-94/013
NTIS Document Number: PB95-104782
20
-------
Overview/Program Documents
This guide can be used to screen and evaluate candidate cleanup
technologies for contaminated installations and waste sites.
The guide incorporates cost and performance data to the maxi-
mum extent possible and focuses primarily on demonstrated
technologies. The guide addresses contaminant properties and
behavior, and identifies potential treatment technologies based
on their applicability to specific contaminants and media. It
also provides an overview of each treatment process and how it
will impact technology implementation. The SVE enhance-
ment technologies discussed in the guide include bioventing,
pneumatic fracturing, thermally enhanced SVE, high tempera-
ture thermal desorption, low temperature thermal desorption,
oxygen enhancement with air sparging, air sparging, hot water
or steam flushing/stripping, hydrofracturing, and air stripping.
Each technology profile, contained in this guide, includes a
description, applicability, limitations, data needs, performance
data, cost, site information, points of contact, and references.
The five contaminant groups highlighted are VOCs, SVOCs,
fuels, inorganics, and explosives.
J 21A
J
Scaling Up Vertical Soil Vapor Extraction Pilot Tests to
Horizontal Systems: Published in the Superfund XIV
Conference and Exhibition Conference Proceedings,
Volume 2, Washington, D.C., November 30 - December 2,
1993.
Bass, D.H., Groundwater Technology, Inc., Norwood, MA,
1994.
A design tool has been developed which estimates the vacuum/
flow performance of both horizontal and vertical SVE wells of
varying diameters, screened over various intervals, based on
pilot tests data from a single well. Equations describing the
relationship between these parameters are generated by modi-
fying and adapting the standard transport equations for a buried
vertical sheet to represent vertical well, horizontal well, and
vented trench SVE systems respectively. This approach yields
reliable results so long as the screened intervals do not intercept
strata of significantly differing permeability. Two examples of
scaling up a vertical well SVE pilot test to a horizontal SVE
system are presented and discussed.
21B
!l
Simulations of In Situ Air Stripping Demonstration at
Savannah River.
Robinson, B. A.; Rosenberg, N. D.; Zyvoloski, G.A.; and
Viswanathan, H., Los Alamos National Laboratory, NM,
U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, June 1994.
NTIS Document Number: DE94-013855/XAB
This report assesses the performance of the in situ air stripping
technology demonstrated at the Savannah River Integrated
Demonstration (SRID) site. This technology is a combination
of air injection below the water table and vacuum extraction in
the vadose zone, using a pair of horizontal wells. Our approach
is based on the construction of a site-specific numerical model
using the FEHM flo\y and transport code. We use the model as
a tool to investigate improvements to performance, to improve
the prediction of the performance of this technology over longer
periods of time and at different sites, and to compare perfor-
mance with other remediation technologies.
\ 21C
SVE, Air-Stripping Needed at Hastings Site, Journal
Article: Published in Superfund'Week, v8n41, October
1994.
This article briefly discusses the proposed use of SVE and air
sparging to remediate contaminated groundwater at the Hastings
site in Hastings, Nebraska. An overview and cost estimate of
the work being conducted at various operable units is included.
Costs slated for the groundwater remediation effort are between
6 and 7 million dollars. The contaminants of concern at the site
are primarily chlorinated solvents and include trichloroethene,
1,1,1-trichloroethane, tetrachloroethene, and 1,1-
dichloroetbene. The project is still in the design phase and
construction is scheduled to begin in February 1995. Contacts
names are provided. ,
J21D
J
Technology Assessment of Soil Vapor Extraction and Air
Sparging.
Loden, M. E., Camp, Dresser and McKee, Inc., Cambridge,
MA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati,
OH, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, September
1992.
EPA Document Number: EPA/600/R-92/173
NTIS Document Number: PB93-100154/XAB
Air sparging, also called 'in situ air stripping' and 'in situ
volatilization' injects air into the saturated zone to strip away
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) dissolved in groundwater
and absorbed into soil. These volatile contaminants transfer in
a vapor phase to the unsaturated zone where soil vapor extrac-
tion (SVE) can then capture and remove them. In addition to
removing VOCs viamass transfer, the oxygen in the injected air
enhances subsurface biodegradation of contaminants. Air
sparging is a relatively new treatment technology. Research
efforts have not yet fully elucidated the scientific basis (or
limitations) of the system, nor completely defined the associ-
ated engineering aspects. However, a substantial body of
available information describes the effectiveness and charac-
teristics of air sparging systems. This document summarizes
the available literature and addresses case studies of practical
21
-------
Overview/Program Documents
air sparging applications. It also identifies needs for further
research.
22A f
Technology Evaluation Report: SITE Prograir Demon-
stration Test, Accutech Pneumatic Fracturing Extraction
and Hot Gas Injection, Phase 1, Volume 1.
Science Applications International Corp., Hackensack, NJ,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH,
Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, July 1993.
EPA Document Number: EPA/540/R-93/509
NTIS Document Number: PB93-216596/XAB
The Pneumatic Fracturing Extraction (PFE) process developed
by Accutech Remedial Systems, Inc., makes it possible to use
vapor extraction to remove volatile organics at increased rates
from a broader range of vadose zones. The low permeability of
silts, clays, shales, etc., would otherwise make such formations
unsuitable for cost-effective vapor extraction and require more
costly approaches. Pneumatic fracturing provides an innova-
tive means of increasing the permeability of a formation, thus
extending the radius of influence so contaminants can be,
effectively extracted In the PFE process, fracture wells are
drilled in the contaminated vadose zone and left open bore
(uncased) for most of their depth. A packer system is used to
isolate small (2 ft) intervals so that short bursts 0- 20 sec) of
compressed air (less than 500 psig) can be injected into the
interval to fracture the formation. The process is repeated for
each interval. The fracturing extends and enlarges existing
fissures and/or introduces new fractures, primarily in the hori-
zontal direction. When fracturing is complete, the formations
are then subjected to vapor extraction.
of contamination. The contaminants dissolved in the ground-
water and sorbed onto soil particles partition into the advective
air phase, effectively simulating an in situ air-stripping systeni
The stripped contaminants are transported in the gas phase to
the treatment system. In situ air sparging is a complex multi-
fluid phase process, which has been applied successfully in
Europe since the mid-1980s. To date, site-specific pilot tests
have been used to design air-sparging systems. Research is
currently underway to develop better engineering design meth-
odologies for the process. Major design parameters to be
considered include contaminant type, gas injection pressures
and flow rates, site geology, bubble size, injection interval
(areal and vertical) and the equipment specifications. Correct
design and operation of this technology has been demonstrated
to achieve groundwater cleanup of VOC contamination to low
part-per-billion levels.
_J22B £
J
The Application of In Situ Air Sparging as an Innovative
Soils and Groundwater Remediation Technology,
Journal Article: Published in Ground Water Monitoring
Review, v!2n2, Spring 1992.
Marley, M. C.; Hazebrouck, D. J.; and Walsh, M. T.
Vapor extraction (soil venting) has been demonstrated to be a
successful and cost-effective remediation technology for re-
moving VOCs from the vadose (unsaturated) zone. However,
in many cases, seasonal water table fluctuations, drawdown
associated with pump-and-treat remediation techniques, and
spills involving dense, non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPL)
create contaminated soil below the water table. Vapor extrac-
tion alone is not considered to be an optimal remediation
technology to address this type of contamination. An innova-
tive approach to saturated zone remediation is the use of
sparging (injection) wells to inject a hydrocarbon-free gaseous
medium (typically air) into the saturated zone below the areas
J 22C
J
The Application of Pneumatic Fracturing Extraction for
Removal of VOC Contamination in Low Permeable
Formations, Conference Literature.
Cicalese, M. E. and Mack, J. P., McLaren/Hart; Accutech
Remedial Systems; New Jersey Institute of Technology;
I&EC Special Symposium, American Chemical Society,
Atlanta, Georgia, September 27-29,1993.
This document provides a description of pneumatic fracturing
at a site impacted by dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DN APLs)
in clay and bedrock formations. Equipment specifications and
construction requirements are also highlighted with the use of
graphics. This paper also highlights plans for the Hillsborough
Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation (SITE) demon-
stration comprised of the McLaren/Hart Environmental Engi-
neering Corp., Accutech Remedial Systems Inc., the Hazardous
Substance Management Research Center (HSMRC), and the
New Jersey Institute of Technology team.
J 22D
Using Pneumatic Fracturing for In-Situ Remediation of
Contaminated Sites, Journal Article: Published in
Remediation, Spring 1995.
Schuring, J.R.; Chan, P.C.; and Boland, T.M., 1995.
This articles provides a general description of the concept of
pneumatic fracturing and a discussion of pneumatic fracturing
apparatus. Key technological considerations are also dis-
cussed, including fracture initiation, fracture orientation, frac-
ture flow, and treatable contaminants and soils. The article
contains three case studies which describe different pneumatic
fracturing applications. The case studies include enhancement
of vapor extraction inclay; enhancement of vapor extraction in
bedrock; and enhancement of product recovery in stratified
deposits. The article concludes with a discussion of cost
benefits associated with pneumatic fracturing.
22
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Studies and Demonstrations
J23A
VOCs in Non-Arid Soils Integrated Demonstration:
Technology Summary.
U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, Office of
Technology Development, February 1994.
NTIS Document Number: DE94-008863/XAB
The Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in Non-Arid Soils
Integrated Demonstration (ID) was initiated in 1989. The
objectives for ID included testing the integrated demonstration
concept, demonstrating and evaluating innovative technolo-
gies/systems for the remediation of VOC contamination in soils
and groundwater, and transferring technologies and systems to
internal and external customers for use in full-scale remediation
programs. The demonstration brought together technologies
from DOE laboratories, other government agencies, and indus-
try for demonstration at a single test bed. The Savannah River
Site was chosen as the location for this ID as the result of VOC
contamination of soil and groundwater. The primary contami-
nants, trichlorethylene and tetrachloroethylene, originated from
an underground process sewer line servicing a metal fabrication
facility at the M-Area. Some of the major technical accomplish-
ments for ID included the successful demonstration of the
following: in situ air stripping coupled with horizontal wells to
remediate sites through air injection and vacuum extraction;
crosshole geophysical tomography to map moisture content
and lithologic properties of the contaminated media; in situ
radio frequency and ohmic heating to increase, mobility of the
contaminants, thereby speeding recovery and the remedial
process; high-energy corona destruction of VOCs in the off-gas
of vapor recovery wells; application of a Brayton cycle heat
pump to regenerate carbon adsorption media used to trap VOCs
from the off-gas of recovery wells; in situ permeable flow
sensors and the colloidal borescope to determine groundwater
flow; chemical sensors to rapidly quantify chlorinated solvent
contamination in the subsurface; and in situ bioremediation
through methane/nutrient injection to enhance degradation of
contaminants by methanotrophic bacteria.
STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS
TEST DESIGN
J23B
Air Sparging and Groundwater Flow: Optimizing the
Remediation Potential of Air Sparging Through a
Horizontal Well, Journal Article: Published in Journal
of Environmental Health, v56n3, October 1993.
Wade, A.; Holland, B.; and Wallace, G., Association of
Groundwater Scientists and Engineers (AGWSE) Educa-
tional Seminar on Chlorinated Volatile Organic Compounds
In Groundwater.
Soil Vapor Extraction (S VE) systems are effective in volatiliz-
ing and extracting TCE from the soil in the vadose zone. When
used in combination with air sparging systems, SVE systems
can also be effective in volatilizing TCE from soil and ground-
water in the saturated zone. At a site in the Midwest, several
plumes of TCE-contaminated groundwater, with concentra-
tions ranging from several hundred to several thousand [mu]g/
1, have been identified in an unconfined sand and gravel aquifer
in which the groundwater flows at approximately 0.5 feet/day.
TCE concentrations of several thousand [mu]g/l have been
detected in the vadose zone. A pilot study will be conducted of
a new design of air sparging at the site. A horizontal sparging
well and associated SVE system will be located perpendicular
to a plume down gradient from its source, but within the
associated area of vadose zone contamination. In addition, a
vertical air sparging well and SVE system will be located at the
source to accelerate volatilization of VOCs from the soil and
groundwater in the area of greatest contamination.
J 23C
Application of Microbial Biomass and Activity Measures
to Assess In Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents,
International Symposium.
Phelps, T. J.; Herbes, S. E.; Palumbo, A. V.; Pfifmer, S. M.;
and Mackowski, R., Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TN,
U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, 1993.
NTIS Document Number: DE94-002489/XAB
Evaluating the effectiveness of chlorinated solvent remediation
in the subsurface can be a significant problem given uncertain-
ties in estimating the total mass of contaminants present If the
remediation technique is a biological activity, information on
the progress and success of the remediation may be gained by
monitoring changes in the mass and activities of microbial
populations. The in situ bioremediation demonstration at the
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Savannah River Site (SRS)
is designed to test the effectiveness of methane injection for the
stimulation of sediments. Past studies have shown the potential
for degradation by native microbial populations. The design
and implementation of the SRS Integrated Demonstration is
described in this volume. A control phase without treatment
was followed by a phase withdrawing air. The next phase
included vacuum extraction plus air injection into the lower
horizontal well located below the water table. The next period
included the injection of 1 percent methane in air followed by
injection of 4 percent methane in air. Literature hypothesizes
that the injection of methane would stimulate methanotrophic
populations and thus accelerate biological degradation of TCE.
Measuring the success of bioremediation is a complex effort
that includes monitoring changes in microbial populations
associated with TCE degradation. These monitoring efforts are
described in this paper and in related papers in this volume.
23
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Studies and Demonstrations
24A C.r\T".
J24E
j
Electrovoice Site Demo Underway, Journal Article:
Published in Superfund Week, v7n45, November 19,1993.
This brief article discusses a Superfund Innovative Technology
Evaluation (SITE) demonstration which is investigating the
effectiveness of air sparging and soil vapor extraction in
remediating soil and groundwater that are contaminated with
VOCs. The year-long demonstration project is taking place at
the Electrovoice Superfund site in Buchanan, Michigan. This
article includes contact names and phone numbers.
24B
J
EPA Selects Linemaster Cleanup, Journal Article:
Published in Superfund Week, V7n29, July 1993.
Soil vapor extraction (SVE), in conjunction with air stripping
and carbon adsorption, was selected as the remedy for removing
volatile organic compounds, including TCE, at the Linemaster
Switch Corporation Superfund site. This brief article describes
the site conditions and provides contact names and phone
numbers.
24C
Navy Hires Corps to Extract Hastings VOCs, Journal
Article: Published in Defense Cleanup, vSnlS, April 15,
1994.
A pilot study using soil vapor extraction and air sparging to
remediate soil and groundwater at five sites in the Hastings East
Industrial Park is going to be conducted by the Kansas City
(Missouri) District of the Army Corps of Engineers. Contami-
nants at the five sites include trichloroethene, 1,1,1-
trichloroethane, and other volatiles found in the vadose zone.
This brief article includes contact names and phone numbers.
Pilot-Scale Evaluation of Groundwater Air Sparging:
Site-Specific Advantages and Limitations, Proceedings of
Research and Development '92, Conference Literature.
Martin, L. M.: Sarnelli, R. J.; and Walsh, M. T., Second
National Research and Development Conference on the
Control of Hazardous Materials, San Francisco, CA, Hazard-
ous Materials Control Resources Institute, February 1992.
Vapor extraction (soil venting) has been demonstrated to be a
successful and cost-effective remediation technology for re-
moving VOCs from vadose (unsaturated) zone soils. However,
in many cases, spills involving heavier than water solvents
create residually contaminated soils below the water table. The
use of air sparging wells to inject air into the saturated zone
below the areas of contamination in combination with vapor
extraction in the unsaturated zone is a possible approach to
remediating these saturated zone soils. The contaminants
dissolved in the groundwater and absorbed on the soil are
partitioned into the vapor phase by the introduction of pressured
air, which effectively simulates an in situ air stripping system.
Ideally, the stripped contaminants are transported in the vapor
phase to the vadose zone, within the radius of influence of the
vapor extraction system. A pilot-scale air sparging/vapor
extraction (AS/VE) system was installed at the site of a closed
manufacturing facility located in Connecticut to evaluate the
effectiveness of remediating saturated zone soils contaminated
with VOCs (mainly trichloroethene, TCE) which are impacting
groundwater quality. The system was operated continuously
for 4 weeks with air sparging at varying depths, flow rates, and
pressures, as well as continuous monitoring of total VOCs
removed in the vapor phase. Water levels, dissolved oxygen,
VOC levels and vapors were also monitored in 10 shallow wells
within the vicinity of the pilot study area before, during, and
after system operation.
J24D
Picillo SVE, UV/Oxidation Systems Eyed, Journal
Article: Published in Superfund Week, v7n26, July 1993.
Soil vapor extraction (SVE) using hot air injection as an
enhancement technology is a selected remedy for the Picillo Pig
Farm Superfund site in Rhode Island. Ground water, surface
water, soil, and sediments are contaminated with volatile and
semi-volatile organic compounds. The injected hot air would
volatilize the contaminants, while catalytic oxidation would
break down the volatile organics. In addition, ground water
would be pumped and treated using carbon adsorption and UV/
oxidation. Depending upon costs, ground water may be treated
by means of air stripping with carbon adsorption instead of hot
air injection. Contact names and phone numbers are provided.
J 24F
Sandia National Laboratories Mixed Waste Landfill
Integrated Demonstration, Conference Literature.
Tyler, L. D.; Phelan, J. M.; Prindle, N. K.; Purvis, S. T.; and
Stormont, J. C., Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque,
NM, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, 1992.
NTIS Document Number: DE92-015005/XAB
The Mixed-Waste Landfill Integrated Demonstration (MWLID)
has been assigned to SandiaNational Laboratories (SNL) by the
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Technology
Development. The mission of the MWLID is to assess, imple-
ment, and transfer technologies and systems that lead to quicker,
safer, and more efficient remediation of buried chemical and
mixed-waste sites. The MWLID focus is on two landfills at
SNL in Albuquerque, New Mexico: the Chemical Waste
24
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Studies and Demonstrations
Landfill (CWL) and the Mixed-Waste Landfill (MWL). These
landfills received chemical, radioactive, and mixed wastes
from various SNL nuclear research programs. A characteriza-
tion system has been designed for the definition of the extent
and concentration of contamination. This system includes
historical records, directional drilling, and emplacement mem-
brane, sensors, geophysics, sampling strategy, and on site
sample analysis. In the remediation task, in situ remediation
systems are being designed to remove volatile organic com-
pounds (VOCs) and heavy metals from soils. The VOC
remediation includes vacuum extraction with electrical and
radio-frequency heating. For heavy metal contamination, elec-
trokinetic processes are being considered. The MWLID uti-
lizes a phased, parallel approach. Initial testing is performed at
an uncontaminated site adjacent to the CWL. Once character-
ization is underway at the CWL, lessons learned can be directly
transferred to the more challenging problem of radioactive
waste in the MWL. The MWL characterization can proceed in
parallel with the remediation work at CWL. The technologies
and systems demonstrated in the MWLID are to be evaluated
based on their performance and cost in the real remediation
environment of the landfills.
J 25A
J
Scientists Test Mixed Waste Remedies at Sandia Land-
fills, Journal Article: Published in Ground Water Moni-
tor, v8n20, October 1992.
Electrical and radio-frequency heating are being used with soil
vapor extraction (S VE) to remove VOCs from ground water at
two landfills at Sandia National Laboratories. In addition,
electrokinetic processes are being employed to remove heavy
metals. This brief article describes site conditions and provides
contact information.
J 25B
Textron Eyes SVE at its Cone Drive Plant, Journal
Article: Published in Superfund Week, v9nl, January
1995.
This article discusses Textron Inc.'s proposal to use SVE in
combination with air sparging to remediate the Cone Drive
Textron gear plant site in Travese City, MI. The soil at the site
is contaminated with perchloroethylene (PCE). The PCE has
impacted the groundwater plume which migrates off-site and
beneath an adjacent property. The site and contaminant migra-
tion path is described in detail. In addition to the PCE, oily, non-
aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) may be floating on the water
table, and xylene and naphthalene can be found in the ground.
The proposed SVE/air sparging system would be installed to
remediate the source area of the plume at the plant site. Contact
names are provided.
STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS
STUDY RESULTS
J 25C
Accutech Pneumatic Fracturing Extraction and Hot Gas
Injection, Phase 1. Applications Analysis Report
Skovronek, H. S., Science Applications International Corp.,
Hackensack, NJ, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, Office of Emergency and Remedial
Response, March 1993.
EPA Document Number: EPA/540/AR-93/509
NTIS Document Number: PB94-117439/XAB
The report summarizes and analyzes the SITE demonstration of
Accutech's Pneumatic Fracturing Extraction (PFE) process at
an industrial park in New Jersey. Based on the results of 4-hour
tests before and after fracturing, extracted air flow rate in-
creased an average 600 percent and trichloroethene (TCE) mass
removal rate increased about 675 percent, primarily due to the
increased air flow. The radius for effective vapor extraction
also was enlarged by fracturing; extracted air flow rates in-
creased 700 percent to 1,400 percent in wells at a lOftradiusand
200 percent to 1,100 percent in wells 20 ft from the fracture
well. With passive air inlets, the extracted air flow rate
increased about 19,500 percent, and TCE mass removal rate
increased 2,300 percent The estimated cost for full-scale
remediation of the site with PFE is $307/kg ($140/lb) of TCE
removed based on the SITE demonstration experience and
information provided by the developer. Major contributing
factors include: labor (29 percent); capital equipment (22
percent); and emissions collection/disposal (19 percent). Nu-
merous assumptions are used in arriving at this cost. The results
of the two Hot Gas Injection (HGI) tests are inconclusive.
J 25D
J
A Full-Scale Bioventing Test to Remediate Fuel Hydro-
carbons in Clay Soils at a Federal Installation, Confer-
ence Literature.
Makdisi, R. S.; Stanin, F. T.; Phelps, M. B.; and Downey, D.
C, Second Annual Federal Environmental Restoration
Conference and Exhibition, Washington, DC, May 1993.
A long-term leak from a No. 2 diesel fuel tank resulted in the
contamination of approximately 10,000 cubic yards of soil
beneath, and adjacent to, an office building on a U.S. Air Force
installation. Soils had been contaminated to a depth of over 40
feet, with fuel residuals ranging from approximately 500 to
2,000 mg total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH)/kg. The primary
regulatory concern at this site is the potential for groundwater
contamination from alkylbenzenes and polyaromatic hydrocar-
bons. An in situ bioventing technique that removes fuel
25
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Studies and Demonstrations
residuals through the introduction of oxygen (via air) to the
subsurface to promote microbial fuel degradation was selected
for full-scale testing on the site. A primary vapor extraction
well (VEW-1) was constructed near the center of the spill site
in the backfill material and connected to a 50 scfm vacuum
system. A secondary vapor extraction well (VEW-2) was
installed in the undisturbed soils to estimate soil gas permeabil-
ity. Nine multi-depth vapor monitoring points (VMPs) were
used to analyze soil gas permeability, radius and influence,
oxygen enhancement, and the biological respiration of fuel
hydrocarbons. Three primary tests were conducted. The first
test measured the vacuum influence at varying depths and
distances from the central extraction well. The results clearly
demonstrated the ability of this low-rate vacuum to stimulate
soil vapor flow at the 35 to 40 foot depth and up to 100 feet
laterally from the central extraction well.
>- OCA £"
J
An Integrated Approach to the Remediation of a UST
Leak: Pilot-Scale Studies at Cameron Station, Research
Article: Published in Federal Facilities Environmental
Journal, vSnl, Spring 1994.
Shepard, L. T.; Martino, L. E.; Reed, L. L.; Dziewulski, D.
M.; Joss, C. J.; and Sydelko, T. G.
This articles discusses the process Argonne National Labora-
tory (ANL) used in apilot-scale remediation study to determine
theeffectiveness of an innovative S VE technology at remediating
an underground gasoline spill at the Cameron Station Military
Reservation in Alexandria, Virginia. The innovative SVE
technology consists of an internal-combustion engine which is
used to volatilize the contaminants in-situ, extract them, and
bum any hazardous vapors. As part of this study, ANL
investigated the applicability of indigenous bacteria for in-situ
bioremediationandtheusefulnessofbioventingfor remediating
residual, heavier gasoline fractions left after SVE remediation
of the lighter gasoline fractions. The study determined that as
a result of the geohydrologic conditions at the site and the
associated problems with using horizontal wells for SVE, it was
inappropriate to design a system using horizontal wells at the
site. Instead, the option of using a dual vacuum extraction
system with vertical wells to extract and treat soil gas and
groundwater was suggested. Such a system would also enhance
the in-situ biodegradation of the gasoline present in the subsur-
face by bioventing.
Z326B
BioventingAn Emerging Remediation Technology,
Conference Literature.
Ross, D. and Sudano, P., Proceedings of the 25th Mid-
Atlantic Industrial Waste Conference, Bucknell University;
University of Cincinnati; University of Delaware; Drexel
University; Howard University; et al, Hazardous and
Industrial Wastes, 1993.
This paper provides a description of bioventing and discusses
how the effects of bioventing can be measured by monitoring
soil oxygen concentrations, soil carbon dioxide concentrations,
and microbial activity in soil. This paper includes two bioventing
case studies. The first case study evaluates the potential use of
bioventing to remediate unsaturated waste and soil layers
contaminated with VOCs and SVOCs (including PAHs). Pa-
rameters evaluated in this study include microbial activity,
oxygen concentration, carbon dioxide concentration, VOCs
and SVOCs. Results of the first case study indicate that
bioventing is a viable remediation alternative for the site. The
second case study discusses the use of bioventing in combina-
tion with soil vapor extraction (SVE) to remediate VOC con-
taminated soil and groundwater at an active industrial manufac-
turing facility. This case study includes a brief description of
the S VE/bioventing system used at the manufacturing facility
and a discussion of the results of the study. Parameters such as
oxygen and carbon dioxide soil concentrations indicate that the
SVE/bioventing system has been effective at the site.
J 26C
J
BioventingA New Twist on Soil Vapor Remediation of
the Vadose Zone and Shallow Groundwater, Conference
Literature.
Yancheski, T, B. and McFarland, M. A., Sixth National
Outdoor Action Conference on Aquifer Restoration, Ground-
water Monitoring and Geophysical Methods, Las Vegas,
NV, May 1992.
Bioventing, which is a combination of soil vapor remediation
and bioremediation techniques, may be an innovative, cost-
effective, and efficient remedial technology for addressing
petroleumcontamination in the vadose zone and shallow ground-
water. The objective of bioventing is to mobilize petroleum
compounds from the soil and groundwater into soil vapor using
soil vapor extraction and injection technology, and to promote
the migration of the soil vapor upward to the turf root zone for
degradation by active near-surface microbiological activity.
Promoting and maintaining optimum microbiological activity
in the turf root rhizosphere is a key component to the bioventing
technique. Preliminary ongoing U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency bioventing pilot studies (Kampbell, 1991) have
indicated that this technique is a promising remediation tech-
nology, although feasibility studies are not yet complete. How-
ever, based on the preliminary data, it appears that proper
bioventing design and implementation will result in substantial
reductions of petroleum compounds in the capillary zone and
shallow groundwater, complete degradation of petroleum com-
pounds in the turf root zone, and no surface emissions. A
bioventing system was installed at a site in southern Delaware
with multiple leaking underground storage tanks in early 1992
to remediate vadose zone and shallow groundwater contami-
nated by petroleum compounds. The system consists of a series
of soil vapor extraction and soil vapor/atmospheric air injection
points placed in various contamination areas and a central core
26
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Studies and Demonstrations
remediation area (a large grassy plot). This system was chosen
for this site because it was least costly to implement and operate
as compared to other remedial alternatives (soil vapor extrac-
tion with carbon or catalytic oxidation of off-gas treatment, in
situ bioremediation, etc.), and results in the generation of no
additional wastes.
£|27A
J
Bioventing: A Successful Soil Vapor Remediation
Technique for the Vadose Zone and Shallow Groundwa-
ter, Conference Literature.
Yancheski, T. B. and McFarland, M. A., Hazardous Materi-
als Control/Superfund 92: 13th Annual Conference and
Exhibition, Hazardous Materials Control Resources Institute,
December 1992.
Bioventing, a combination of soil vapor remediation and
bioremediation techniques, is an innovative, cost-effective, and
efficient remedial technology for addressing petroleum con-
tamination in the vadose zone and shallow groundwater. The
objective of bioventing is to transfer petroleum compounds
from the soil and groundwater into soil vapor using soil vapor
extraction and injection technology and to promote the migra-
tion of the soil vapor upward to the turf root zone for degrada-
tion by active near-surface microbiological activity. Promoting
and maintaining optimum microbiological activity in the turf
root rhizosphere is a key component of the bioventing tech-
nique. A bioventing system was installed at a site in southern
Delaware with multiple leaking underground tanks during the
Summer of 1992 to remediate the vadose zone and shallow
groundwater contaminated by petroleum compounds. The
system, a combination of soil vapor extraction and injection
points, has very successfully reduced concentrations of petro-
leum compounds in the soil and has reduced the amount of free
product and petroleum concentrations in the shallow ground-
water to the extent that nearby residential wells are no longer
threatened. Soil and groundwater cleanup goals for the site are
expected to be reached within 1 to 2 years of operation. Total
remediation costs to date have been less than $35,000. The
bioventing system is a promising low cost and effective alter-
native for the cleanup of petroleum related soil and groundwa-
ter contamination and has application at hundreds of similar
sites where there is little money available for remediation.
27B
Bioventing Feasibility Study of Low Permeability Soils
for Remediation of Petroleum Contamination, Confer-
ence Literature.
Brackney, K.M., Idaho State Government, Boise, ID, March
1994.
A site characterization of leaking underground gasoline and
diesel storage tanks at the University of Idaho, West Farm
Operations Center, identified approximately 800 cubic yards of
petroleum-contaminated soil exceeding regulatory action lim-
its of 100 ppm TPH. Bioventing, a combination of in situ soil
vapor extraction and microbial degradation, was selected as a
remedial alternative on the basis of the presumably unsaturated
paleo-soil with a 45-foot depth to groundwater, and a microbial
study which concluded that indigenous petroleum-degrading
microorganisms existed throughout the contamination. Soil
vapor extraction tests were conducted by applying a 60-inch
water column vacuum to a soil vapor extraction well and
monitoring pneumatic pressure drawdown in 12 adjacent pneu-
matic piezometers and vertically distributed piezometer clus-
ters. Pressure drawdown versus time data plots indicated that
air permeability was inadequate every where at the site except at
20 feet below ground surface. Low soil permeability created
conditions for a perched water table that was documented
during the investigation, resulting in unsatisfactory conditions
for in situ bioventing.
1 27C
Bioventing Petroleum Contaminated Soils, Proceedings
of Emerging Technologies for Hazardous Waste Manage-
ment, Conference Literature.
Vogel, C. M. and Tedder, D. W., American Chemical
Society (ACS) Special Symposium on Emerging Technolo-
gies in Hazardous Waste Management, Atlanta, GA,
September 1992.
Soil vapor extraction (SVE) is a cost effective method for
removing volatile hydrocarbons from unsaturated soils. This
process also provides oxygen to the subsurface which enhances
the biodegradation of the volatile and nonvolatile hydrocarbon
contaminants. Bioventing technology combines the oxygen
delivery capabilities of SVE with nutrient and moisture man-
agement to maximize the amount of hydrocarbon removal by
biodegradation and minimize the amount of removal attributed
to volatilization. There is a growing list of bioventing field
demonstrations designed to remove a wide range of petroleum
hydrocarbons from the vadose zone. In this paper bioventing
field data is presented from a pilot-scale study at Tyndal AFB
FL, a full-scale cleanup effort at Hill AFB UT, and a feasibility
study in cold weather environment.
J 27D
J
NTIS Document Number: DE94-014144/XAB
Bioventing with Soil Warming in Alaska, Conference
Literature.
Sayles, G. D.; Brenner, R. C.; Hinchee, R. E.; and Vogel, C.
M., 86th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air and
Waste Management Association (AWMA), Denver, CO, Air
and Waste Management Association, June 1993.
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