United States
                Environmental Protection
                Agency
Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response
(5102G)
v>EPA       Solidification/Stabilization
                 Resource Guide
E PA/542-B-99-002
April 1999
www.epa.gov
clu-in.org

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SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION
         RESOURCE GUIDE
      U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
   Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
          Technology Innovation Office
           Washington, B.C. 20460
                April 1999

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                                     FOREWORD

This Solidification/Stabilization Resource Guide is intended to inform site cleanup managers of
recently-published materials such as field reports and guidance documents that address issues
relevant to solidification/stabilization technologies. In addition to a short abstract for each of the
resources listed, the guide includes a look-up table that allows the user to quickly scan the
contents. Information on how to obtain a specific document also is included.

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                                      NOTICE

This document was prepared by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under
EPA Contract Number 68-W5-0055. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

This document is part of a series of technology resource guides prepared by the Technology
Innovation Office.  The series includes the following technology guides: the Bioremediation
Resource Guide (EPA/542/B-93/004); the Ground-Water Treatment Technology Resource Guide
(EPA/542/B-94/009); the Physical/Chemical Treatment Technology Resource Guide
(EPA/542/B-94/008); the Soil Vapor Extraction Resource Guide (EPA/542/B-94/007); and the
Soil Vapor Extraction Enhancement Technology Resource Guide (EPA/542/B-95/003). These
and other technology-related documents are available over the Internet at the Hazardous Waste
Clean-Up Information (CLU-IN) Web Site at http://clu-in.org.

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                      TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section                                                         Page

INTRODUCTION 	3

HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE	4

HOW TO ORDER DOCUMENTS LISTED IN THIS GUIDE	5

TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY	7

SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX	9

ABSTRACTS OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES . . 29

GUIDANCE AND POLICY DOCUMENTS	31

OVERVIEW AND PROGRAM DOCUMENTS	34

STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS 	37

WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS	46

BOOKS AND DISSERTATIONS	55

JOURNAL REFERENCES	57

BIBLIOGRAPHIES  	74

IN SITU SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION RESOURCES	75

SOURCES OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY
INFORMATION/TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE	79

OTHER RESOURCE GUIDES  	83

REQUEST FOR COMMENTS	85

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                                    INTRODUCTION

EPA is committed to identifying the most effective and efficient means of addressing the thousands
of hazardous waste sites in the United States. In addition, EPA seeks to ensure that decision-makers
are aware of current information on the performance of remediation technologies, policies, and other
sources of assistance. This Guide was prepared to help identify documents that can directly assist
Federal and State site managers, contractors, and others responsible for the evaluation of
technologies. This Guide was developed for those who are considering solidification/stabilization
technologies for the  remediation of RCRA, UST, and CERCLA sites.

This Guide has abstracts of 125 solidification/stabilization technology guidance and policy
documents, overview/program documents, studies and demonstrations, workshops/conference
proceedings, books, journal references, bibliographies, in situ solidification/stabilization resources,
and other resource guides. A matrix is provided to allow easy screening of the abstracted references.

Documents listed in this Guide were found through a literature search conducted using several
commercial and Federal databases including EPA's web site at http://www.epa.gov/, the National
Technical Information Service (NTIS), and DIALOG One Search Databases.  The selected references
are not an exhaustive list of all available literature, but rather a representative sample of the available
literature. Because of the inherent lag time between document publication and subsequent listing in
electronic databases, there may be  more  recent references available than those included in the Guide.
Most of the references in the Guide are of documents published between 1994 and 1998. The
documents  are available from  sources such as EPA's National Service Center for Environmental
Publications (NSCEP), NTIS,  document delivery services, and a variety of libraries.  Further, all
documents  listed in this Guide as having been prepared by the Technology Innovation Office are
available over the Internet at http://clu-in.org. Information in this Guide does not represent an
endorsement by EPA.

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                             HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE

When using this Guide to identify resource information on solidification/stabilization technologies,
you may wish to take the following steps:

1  Turn to the Solidification/Stabilization Technology Resource Matrix located on page 9  This
   matrix lists alphabetically by document type 125 solidification/stabilization technology-related
   documents, identifies the type of information provided by each document, and provides a
   document ordering number.

2.  Select the document(s) that appear to fit your needs based on the information in the matrix.

3.  Check the abstract identification number. This number refers to an abstract of the document.

4.  Review the abstract that corresponds to the document in which you are interested to confirm that
   the document will fit your needs.

5.  If the document appears to be appropriate, note the document number presented under the
   abstract. For example:
                      EPA Document Number:  EPA/542/-B-95-003
6.  Turn to the section entitled "How to Order Documents Listed in this Guide" on page 5 of this
   Guide and order your document using the directions provided.

7.  When seeking information on technical assistance sources, turn to page 79 of this guide

8.  If you would like to comment on this Guide or would like additional information, turn to page 85
   of this Guide and follow the directions for mailing or faxing your comments/questions.

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            HOW TO ORDER DOCUMENTS LISTED IN THIS GUIDE

Documents listed in this Guide are available through a variety of sources. When ordering documents
listed in the Solidification/Stabilization Technology Abstracts section of this Guide, use the number
listed in the bar below the abstract.  If using the Solidification/Stabilization Technology Resource
Matrix, use the number listed below the document title. If multiple document ordering numbers are
identified, select the appropriate number based on the directions below. EPA/530, EPA/540,
EPA/600, and EPA/625 documents may be available through the Center for Environmental Research
Information (CERI); EPA/540 and EPA/542 documents may be obtained through the National
Service Center for Environmental Publications (NSCEP); and EPA/530 documents may be obtained
from the RCRA Information Center (RIC). These document repositories provide in-stock documents
free of charge, but document supplies may be limited. Documents obtained through the National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) are available for a fee; therefore, prior to  purchasing a
document through NTIS, you may wish to review a copy at a technical or university library, or a
public library that houses government documents. Out-of-stock documents may be ordered from
NSCEP or may be purchased from NTIS.  Several Portland Cement Association (PCA) publications
also can be obtained by contacting PCA's Publications Order Processing Department.
             Document Type
                  Document Source
 Publication numbers with the following
 prefixes:
   AD
   DE
   PB
   PR (free of charge)
To send a request:
Sales Desk:
                                         Subscriptions:
                                         TOD:
                                         To fax a request:
                                        Email:
National Technical Information Service
 (NTIS)
U.S. Department of Commerce
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
l-800-553-NTIS(6847) or
(703) 605-6000
Operates Monday - Friday, 8:00 a.m. -8:00
p.m., Eastern Time
1-800-363-2068 or (703) 605-6000
Operates Monday - Friday, 8:30 a.m. -
 5:00 p.m., Eastern Time
(703) 487-4639
Operates Monday - Friday, 8:30 a.m. -
5:00 p.m., Eastern Time
(703) 605-6900
Available 24 hrs, 7 days a week.
To verify receipt of fax, call
(703) 605-6090
Operates Monday - Friday, 7:00 a.m. -
 5:00
p.m., Eastern Time
orders@ntis.fedworld.gov
                                         http ://www. ntis.gov/ordering. htm

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     HOW TO ORDER DOCUMENTS  LISTED  IN THIS  GUIDE  (CONT'D)
             Document Type
                    Document Source
Publications with the following numbers:
   EPA/530 (limited collection)
   EPA/540 (limited collection)
   EPA/600
   EPA/625
To send a request:
                   Center for Environmental
                   Research Information (CERI)
                   Cincinnati, OH 45268
                   (513)569-7562
                   (513)569-7566
                   Operates Monday - Friday, 8:00 a.m. - 4:30
                   p.m., Eastern Time
                   http://www.epa.gov/docs/ORD
ORD Technologies Transfer highlights:
                   http://www.epa.gov/ttbnrmrl/ceri.htm
Email:              ord.ceri@epamail.epa.gov
Sales Desk:
To fax a request:
                                           ORD publications:
Publications with the following numbers:
   EPA/540
   EPA/542
To send a request:
                                           Sales Desk:
                                           To fax a request:
                                           email:
A document title or number is needed to place
an order with NSCEP. Some out-of-stock
documents may be ordered from CERI or may
be purchased from NTIS.
                   U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                   National Service Center for Environmental
                   Publications (NSCEP)
                   P.O. Box 42419
                   Cincinnati, OH 45242-2419
                   1-800-490-9198, (513)-489-8190
                   (513)489-8695
                   Operates Monday - Friday, 7:00 a.m. - 5:30
                   p.m., Eastern Time
                   ncepi. mail@epamail.epa. gov
http://www.epa.gov/ncepihom/ordering.htm
Publications with EPA/530 numbers
To send a request:
                                           Sales Desk:
                                           To fax a request:
                                           email:
                   U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                   RCRA Information Center (RIC)
                   401 M St., S.W.
                   Mailcode: 5305 W
                   Washington, DC 20460
                   (703) 603-9230
                   Operates Monday - Friday, 9:00 a.m. - 4:00
                   a.m., Eastern Time
                   (703)-603-9234
                   rcra-docket@epamail.epa.gov
                                           http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/general/ricorder.htm
If you have difficulty finding a document or
wish to obtain EPA/510 documents
RCRA/Superfund/EPCRA Hotline:
                   (800) 424-9346, (703) 412-9810
                   TDD: (800) 553-7672, (703) 412-3323
                   Operates Monday-Friday, 9:00 a.m. -
                   6:00 p.m., Eastern Time
Publications prepared by PCA
To send a request:
                                           Request Desk:
                                           email:
                   Order Processing Department
                   P.O. Box 726
                   Skokie, IL 60076-0726
                   1-800-868-6733
                   http ://www.portcement. org

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                              TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY

Solidification and stabilization are generic names applied to a wide range of discrete technologies
that are closely related in that both use chemical and/or physical processes to reduce potential
adverse impacts on the environment from the disposal of radioactive, hazardous, and mixed wastes.

Stabilization refers to techniques that chemically reduce the hazard potential of a waste by
converting the contaminants into less soluble, mobile, or toxic forms. The physical nature and
handling characteristics of the waste are not necessarily  changed by stabilization.

Solidification refers to techniques that encapsulate the waste, forming a solid material, and does not
necessarily involve a chemical interaction between the contaminants and the solidifying additives.
The product of solidification, often known as the waste  form, may be a monolithic block, a clay-like
material, a granular paniculate, or some other physical form commonly considered "solid."

Solidification as applied to fine waste particles, typically 2 mm or less, is termed
microencapsulation and that which applies to a large block or container of wastes is termed
macroencapsulation.

Solidification can be accomplished by a chemical reaction between the waste and solidifying
reagents or by mechanical processes.  Contaminant migration is often restricted by decreasing the
surface area exposed to leaching and/or by coating the wastes with low-permeability materials.  The
combined process of solidification/stabilization mixes wastes, soils, and sludges with treatment
agents to immobilize, both physically and chemically, the hazardous constituents in those substances.
The technologies are not regarded as destructive techniques; rather, they eliminate or impede the
mobility of contaminants.

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SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX




Abstract
Number




Document Title
Document Ordering No.




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CONTAMINANTS



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^
"3
1
1 Cyanides or Asbestos
1 Radioactive wastes



Organic
1 SVOCs
3
O
>
1 Low level PCBs
H.




Source/Originating
Office/Author
GUIDANCE AND POLICY DOCUMENTS
1




2


3




4


5


6





Guide Specification for
Construction,
Solidification/Stabilization
(S/S) of Contaminated
Material.
USAGE Document No. CEGS-
02160
Handbook for Stabilization/
Solidification of Hazardous
Wastes.
EPA Document No. EPA/540/2-
86/00 1
Innovative Site Remediation
Technology: Design and
Application, Volume 4,
Stabilization/Solidification.
EPA Document No. EPA 542-
B-97-007
Innovative Site Remediation
Technology: Volume 4,
Solidification/Stabilization.
EPA Document No. EPA 542-
B-94-001
Stabilization and
Solidification of Hazardous
Wastes.

Stabilization/Solidification of
CERCLA and RCRA Wastes:
Physical Tests, Chemical
Testing Procedures,
Technology Screening, and
Field Activities.
EPA Document No. EPA/625/6-
89/022
[1]
[2]



[1]
[2]

[1]
[2]



[1]
[2]

[1]
[2]

[1]
































































































































































































































































































•












•














•












•



•










•












•



•


























•










•



•











•



Department of the Army,
USAGE (1998).



EPA-HWERL, ORD
(1986).

EPA-OSWER/AAEE
(1997).



EPA-OSWER/AAEE
(1994).

Earth, E. and others.
(1990). Pollution
Technology Review No.
186.
EPA-CERI, RREL
(1989).




"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness

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SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX




Abstract
Number




Document Title
Document Ordering No.




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TYPE



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CONTAMINANTS



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W5
13
1
1 Cyanides or Asbestos
1 Radioactive wastes



Organic
1 SVOCs
3
O
>
1 Low level PCBs
H.




Source/Originating
Office/Author
GUIDANCE AND POLICY DOCUMENTS (continued)
7





8






9


OVERVIEW
10


11


12


Statutory Interpretive
Guidance on the Placement of
Bulk Liquid Hazardous Waste
in Landfills.
OSWER Policy Directive No.
9487.00-2A
Technical Resource
Document:
Solidification/Stabilization
and Its Application to Waste
Materials.
EPA Document No.
EPA/530/R-93/012
NTIS Document No: PB93-
237535
Treatability Studies for
Solidification/Stabilization of
Contaminated Material.
USAGE Technical Letter No.
1110-1-158
AND PROGRAM DOCUMENTS
Engineering Bulletin:
Solidification/ Stabilization of
Organics and Inorganics.
EPA Document No.
EPA/540/S-92/015
Guide to Improving the
Effectiveness of Cement-
Based
Solidification/Stabilization.
PC A Publication No. EB21 1
Innovative Treatment
Technologies: Animal Status
Report, 8th Edition.
EPA Document No. EPA-542-
R-96-010
[1]
[2]




[1]
[2]





[1]
[2]


[1]
[2]

[2]


[2]



































f


























































































































































Q





























Q






























Q



























































f






•













•







f






•













•







f






•













•







0






•













•





EPA-OSWER/OSW
(1986).




EPA-RREL. ORD
(1993).





Department of the Army.
USAGE (1995).


EPA-OERR, ORD
(1993).

Conner, J.R. Portland
Cement Association.
(1997).

EPA-OSWER(1996).


"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       10

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SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX











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Number











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Source/Originating
Office/Author
OVERVIEW AND PROGRAM DOCUMENTS (continued)
13




14



15



16



17





Portland Cement: A
Solidification Agent for Low-
Level Radioactive Waste.
INEL Technical Bulletin No.
EGG-LLW-8843
Potential
Solidification/Stabilization
Projects Under the Superfiind
Program.
PCA Publication No. IS500
Potential
Solidification/Stabilization
Superfund Projects - 1995
Update.
PCA Publication No. IS501
Solidification/Stabilization of
Wastes Using Portland
Cement.
PCA Publication No. EB071
Superfund Innovative
Technology Evaluation
Program: Technology
Profiles, 9th Edition.
EPA Document No.
EPA/540/R-97/502
[2]




[2]



[2]



[1]
[2]


[1]
[2]






•












•






*






















*


•












•






*


•



































•























•










•












•























•


































•



































•






*















•





























*















•






*
DOE - INEL, EG&G
Idaho, Inc. (1991).



Wilk, C.M. Portland
Cement Association.
/I OO/l'i
(1994).

Wilk, C.M. Portland
Cement Association.
(1995).

Adaska, A., and others.
Portland Cement
Association. Second
Edition. (1998).
EPA-CERI(1996).





*Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       11

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SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX




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Number




Document Title
Document Ordering No.




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Reagents
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1
o

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33



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CONTAMINANTS



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I
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1 Radioactive wastes



Organic
1 SVOCs
3
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1 Low level PCBs
X
H




Source/Originating
Office/Author
STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS
18







19







20







21






22








Chemfix Technologies, Inc.
Solidification/Stabilization
Process: Applications
Analysis Report.
EPA Document No.
EPA/540/ A5-89/011
NTIS Document No. PB-91-
187054
Evaluation of Solidification/
Stabilization for Treatment of
a Petroleum Hydrocarbon-
Contaminated Sludge from
Fort Polk Army Installation,
Louisiana.
NTIS Document No. ADA-320-
253/8
Evaluation of Solidification/
Stabilization Treatment
Processes for Municpal Waste
Combustion Residues.
EPA Document No.
EPA/600/R-93/167
NTIS Document No: PB-93-
229870
HAZCON Solidification
Process, Douglassville, PA:
Applications Analysis Report.
EPA Document No.
EPA/540/A5-89/001
NTIS Document No. PB-89-
20603 1
International Waste
Technologies/ Geo-Con In
Situ Stabilization/
Solidification: Applications
Analysis Report.
EPA Document No.
EPA/540/A5-89/004
NTIS Document No. PB-90-
269085
[1]
[2]






[1]
[2]






[1]
[2]






[1]
[2]





[1]
[2]










B







B







*







•















































•







B







f







*







•







•















































B























•







•







f







9































f















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f







9







*







•







•















































































































•







































•







•







B























•







•















f















•












EPA-RREL, ORD
(1991).






Channell, M.G. and K.T.
Preston. U.S. ACE-WES
(1996).





EPA- RREL, ORD
(1993).






EPA-RREL, ORD
(1989).





EPA-RREL, ORD
(1990).







"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       12

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SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX




Abstract
Number




Document Title
Document Ordering No.




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CONTAMINANTS



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^
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1
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1 Radioactive wastes



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O
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H<




Source/Originating
Office/Author
STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS (continued)
23


24




25





26






27








28




Investigation of Test Methods
for Solidified Waste
Evaluation - A Cooperative
Program.
Report EPS 3/HA/8
Literature Review of Mixed
Waste Components:
Sensitivities and Eifects Upon
Solidification/Stabilization in
Cement-Based Matrices.
NTIS Document No.
ORNL/TN- 12656
Onsite Engineering Report
for Solidification/Stabilization
Treatment Testing of
Contaminated Soils.
NTIS Document No. PB-93-
166965/AS
Physical and Morphological
Measures of Waste
Solidification Effectiveness.
EPA Document No.
EPA/600/D-91/164
NTIS Document No. PB91-
226340/XAB
Project Summary: Evaluation
of Solidification/Stabilization
as a Best Demonstrated
Available Technology for
Contaminated Soils.
EPA Document No.
EPA/600/S2-89/013
NTIS Document No. PB89-
169908
Project Summary:
Interference Mechanisms hi
Waste
Stabilization/Solidification
Process.
EPA Document No.
EPA/600/S2- 89/067
[1]
[2]

[2]




[1]
[2]




[1]






[1]








[1]
[3]
[4]



•



•




Q






•







•















































•



•




Q






•







•




















































•




Q






•







•
















•




































•




































•




f






•







•





















































































•
















•







•











•
















•







•











•
















•







•











•
















•







•










Environment
Canada/EPA/Alberta
Environment (1991).

Mattus, C.H. and T.M.
Gilliam. DOE-ORNL
(1994).


EPA-RREL, ORD
(1993).




EPA-RREL, ORD/
AWMA(1991).





EPA-RREL, ORD
(1990).







EPA-RREL, ORD
(1990).



"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       13

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SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX




Abstract
Number




Document Title
Document Ordering No.




•s
I
"9
CJ
'E.
o
TECHNOLOGY
TYPE



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W



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Additives
and
Binder
Reagents
1 Inorganic
1
o

MEDIA



1



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CONTAMINANTS



Inorganic
I
1 Cyanides or Asbestos
1 Radioactive wastes



Organic
1 SVOCs
3
p
1 Low level PCBs
X
H




Source/Originating
Office/Author
STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS (continued)
29






30










31











32






33



Project Summary: Onsite
Engineering Report for
Solidification/Stabilization
Treatment Testing of
Contaminated Soils.
EPA Document No.
EPA/600/SR-93/051
Silicate Technology
Corporation's
Solidification/Stabilization
Technology for Organic and
Inorganic Contaminants in
Soils. Applications Analysis
Report.
EPA Document No.
EPA/540/ AR-92/0 10
NTIS Document No. PB-93-
172948
Silicate Technology
Corporation
Solidification/Stabilization
Technology SITE
Demonstration at the SELMA
Pressure Treating Site, Selma,
CA. Technology Evaluation
Report.
EPA Document No.
EPA/540/R-95/010.
NTIS Document No. PB-95-
255709
Soliditech, Inc. Solidification/
Stabilization Process,
Applications Analysis Report.
EPA Document No.
EPA/540/A5-89/005
NTIS Document No. PB-91-
129817
Stabilization of Heavy Metals
with Portland Cement:
Research Synopsis.
PCA Publication No. IS007
[1]
[2]





[1]
[2]









[1]
[2]










[1]
[2]





[1]
[2]





•








•




















•




B








































B





•








•




















•




B














































•








•




















•




9












































































•










•








•




















•




B
































































































•




















•



















•




















•








































•



















•




















•







EPA-RREL, ORD
(1993).





EPA-RREL, ORD
(1992).









EPA- RREL, ORD
(1995).










EPA-RREL, ORD
(1990).





Wilk, C.M. Portland
Cement Association.
(1997).

"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       14

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Number




Document Title
Document Ordering No.




1 Topics Addressed*
TECHNOLOGY
TYPE



a
33
w
a



1 In Situ
Additives
and
Binder
Reagents
1 Inorganic
p^
1
O

MEDIA



1
»!



iff
&
DJJ
•o
_3
33



1 Industrial Wastes

CONTAMINANTS



Inorganic
~
"B
"S
S
1 Cyanides or Asbestos
1 Radioactive wastes



Organic
1 SVOCs
(J
O
>
1 Low level PCBs
H.




Source/Originating
Office/Author
STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS (continued)
34








35








36










37








Technology Evaluation
Report: Chemflx
Technologies, Inc.
Solidification/Stabilization
Process, Clackamas, Oregon.
EPA Document No. EPA/540/5-
89/0 1 la
NTIS Document No. PB-91-
127696
Technology Evaluation
Report: SITE Program
Demonstration Test,
HAZCON Solidification,
Douglassville, Pennsylvania.
EPA Document No. EPA/540/5-
89/00 la
NTIS Document No. PB-89-
158810
Technology Evaluation
Report: SITE Program
Demonstration Test,
International Waste
Technologies In Situ
Stabilization/Solidification,
Hialeah, Florida
EPA Document No. EPA/540/5-
89/004a
NTIS Document No. PB-89-
194161
Technology Evaluation
Report: SITE Program
Demonstration Test,
Soliditech, Inc. Solidification/
Stabilization Process
EPA Document No. EPA/540/ 5-
89/005a
NTIS Document No. PB-91-
129817
[1]
[2]







[1]
[2]







[1]
[2]









[1]
[2]











•








•



















•



























•


















•








•









•









•














































•








•









•









•








•





































•




























•








•








•









•









•





























































































•



















•

















•









•









•

















•









•









•

















•



















•




EPA-RREL, ORD
(1990).







EPA-RREL, ORD
(1989).







EPA-RREL. ORD
(1990).









EPA-RREL. ORD
(1990).







"Topics Addressed:
[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       15

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SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX




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Number




Document Title
Document Ordering No.




1 Topics Addressed*
TECHNOLOGY
TYPE



3
'ft
w
a



1 In Situ
Additives
and
Binder
Reagents
1 Inorganic
^
1
O

MEDIA



1
»!



VI
&
en
•a
_3
33



1 Industrial Wastes

CONTAMINANTS



Inorganic
^
"3
1
1 Cyanides or Asbestos
1 Radioactive wastes



Organic
1 SVOCs
3
O
>
1 Low level PCBs
H<




Source/Originating
Office/Author
WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
38



39




40


41




42


43




44


45



Capability of Cementitious
Materials in the
Immobilization Process of
Hazardous Waste Materials.
Cement-Based Solidification
of Ferro- Alloy Flue Dusts.



Chemical Aspects of
Incorporating Contaminated
Soil Into Cold-Mix Asphalt,
Chemical Stabilization of
Contaminated Soils and
Sludges Using Cement and
Cement By-Products.


Chemistry and
Microstructure of Solidified
Waste Forms.
Designing a Better Matrix for
Solidification/Stabilization of
Hazardous Waste with the
Aid of Bagasse (Lignin) as a
Polymer Additive to Cement
Environmental Aspects of
Stabilization and
Solidification of Hazardous
and Radioactive Wastes.
ASTM Publication No. 04-
010330-56
Evaluation of Long-Term
Effectiveness of Solidified and
Stabilized Wastes.
Superfund XVI Proceedings
[1]
[2]


[1]
[2]



[1]
[2]

[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]


[1]
[2]

[2]




[1]
[2]

[1]
[4]



o




•



•








•



•








•




































o




•












•



•








•











•












•











Q








•








•












•


o

















•















o




•











•



•











o




•



•



•



•



•








•



























































•



















•











•



















•











•



















•



























•



•

















Poellmann,H. (1993).
1 5th International
Conference on Cement
Microscopy, p. 108-126.
Cohen, B., and J.G.
Price. (1995). Canadian
Institute of Mining.
Metallurgy, and
Petroleum, p. 297-308.
Testa, S.M. (1994).
SuperfundXV. p. 1439-
1448.
Conner, J.R., Cotton, S.
and Lear, PR. (1992).
First International
Symposium on Cement
Industry Solutions to
Waste Management, p.
73-97.
Spence, R.D. (Editor).
(1993). Lewis Publishers.

Bourgeois, J.C and
others. (1996). American
Chemical Society, p.
416.

Cote, P. and T.M.Gillian
(Editors). (1989). ASTM
STP-1033. Volume 1.

Badamchian, B., and
others. (1995).
Superfund XVI. p. 599-
608.
"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       16

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Abstract
Number






Document Title
Document Ordering No.





Idressed*
1 Topics Ac
TECHNOLOGY
TYPE





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W





53
Additives
and
Binder
Reagents


I


1
O

MEDIA





1





VI
&
en
•a
_3
33




1 Wastes
1 Industrial

CONTAMINANTS



Inorganic


I
s
1
VI
O
1 Cyanides

ve wastes
•s



Organic


1 SVOCs


(J
O

1
1 Low level


B
H






Source/Originating
Office/Author
WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS (continued)
46


47




48






49





50




51






Immobilization Technology
Seminar Speaker Slide Copies
and Supporting Information.
EPA Document No. CERI-89-
222
Laboratory and Field-Scale
Test Methodology for Reliable
Characterization of Solidified/
Stabilized Hazardous Wastes.

Laboratory, Regulatory and
Field Leaching of Solidified
Waste.




Material Handling Equipment
for the Preparation of Wastes
for Stabilization Treatment.
A&WMA Reprint No. 95-
RP130.01

Petrographic Techniques
Applied to Cement Solidified
Hazardous Wastes.


Portland Cement-Based
Solidification/Stabilization
Treatment of Waste.




[1]
[2]
[4]

[1]




[1]
[4]





[1]
[2]




[1]
[3]



[1]
[2]











•





•











•



















































•





•











•



















































•

















•
















•


































•





•




























•





•











•



















































•


























































































































•


































•










EPA-RREL, ORD
(1998).

Gray, K.E.. and others.
(1995). Air & Waste
Management Association
International
Symposium, p. 575-582.
Stegemann, J.A.,
Caldwell, R.J. and Shi,
C. (1996). International
Conference on
Incineration and Thermal
Treatment Technologies.
p. 75-80.
Lear, PR., Schmitz, D.J.
and Brickner, R.J.
(1995). Ail- & Waste
Management Association
88* Annual Meeting &
Exhibition.
Wakeley, L.D., and
others. (1992). 14th
International Conference
on Cement Microscopy.
p. 274-289.
Wilk, CM. (1998).
Fourth International
Symposium and
Exhibition on
Environmental
Contamination in Central
and Eastern Europe. To
be available on CD-ROM
or by contacting PC A.
"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       17

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SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX




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Number




Document Title
Document Ordering No.




*
•o
I
•a
5
CJ
'E.
o
TECHNOLOGY
TYPE



3
ft
«
ta



1 In Situ
Additives
and
Binder
Reagents
1 Inorganic
p^
1
O

MEDIA



1
»!



VI
&
en
•a
_3
33



1 Industrial Wastes

CONTAMINANTS



Inorganic
^
"3
1
1 Cyanides or Asbestos
1 Radioactive wastes



Organic
1 SVOCs
3
O
>
1 Low level PCBs
H.




Source/Originating
Office/Author
WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS (continued)
52





53



54







55


56



57




Quality Analysis of Field
Solidified Waste.




Recent Advances in
Stabilization and
Solidification.

Remediation of Oil Refinery
Sludge Basin.






Stabilization and
Solidification of Hazardous,
Radioactive, and Mixed
Wastes.
ASTM Publication No. 04-
011230-56
Stabilization and
Solidification of Hazardous,
Radioactive, and Mixed
Wastes.
ASTM Publication No. 04-
012400-56
Synthesis, Crystal Chemistry
and Stability of Ettringite, a
Material With Potential
Applications in Hazardous
Waste Immobilization.
[1]





[1]
[2]
[4]

[1]
[2]






[1]
[2]
[4]

[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

[1]
[2]
[4]




Q





•




















•
















•



















Q





•




















•
















•

























•





•














•










•





•














•




Q





•




















•




f





•





•














•




















































•

























•




•

























•




•






























•
























•








•






Stegemann, .T.A., and
others. (1995). 5th
Annual Symposium on
Groundwater and Soil
Remediation, p. 553-
555.
Cocke, D.L.. and others.
(1994). American
Chemical Society, p.
537-541.
Adaska, W.S., Bruin,
W.T. and Day, S.R.
(1992). First
International
Symposium, Cement
Industry Solutions to
Waste Management. P.
119-134.
Gilliam T.M. and
C.C.Wiles (Editors).
(1992). ASTM
STP-1123. Volume 2.

Gilliam T.M. and
C.C.Wiles (Editors).
(1996). ASTM
STP-1240. Volume3.

McCarthy, G.J., and
others. (1992). Materials
Research Society
Symposium., p. 129-
140.
"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       18

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Number




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Document Ordering No.




1 Topics Addressed*
TECHNOLOGY
TYPE



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W



1 In Situ
Additives
and
Binder
Reagents
1 Inorganic
1
O

MEDIA



1



eu
•a
_3
33



1 Industrial Wastes

CONTAMINANTS



Inorganic
I
1 Cyanides or Asbestos
1 Radioactive wastes



Organic
1 SVOCs
3
p
1 Low level PCBs
H.




Source/Originating
Office/Author
WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS (continued)
58





59




BOOKS
60



61
62



63


64



The Present State-of-the-Art
of Immobilization of
Hazardous Heavy Metals hi
Cement-Based Materials.


Treatability Study of the
Stabilization of Chromium-
Contaminated Waste.



A Surface Characterization of
Priority Metal Pollutants hi
Portland Cement.

Chemical Fixation and
Solidification of Hazardous
Wastes.
Effectiveness of Sulfur for
Solidification/Stabilization of
Metal Contaminated Wastes.

Permanence of Metals
Containment hi Solidified and
Stabilized Wastes.
Stabilization of Arsenic
Wastes.
Report No. HWRIC RR-073

[3]
[4]




[2]





[1]
[2]


[1]
[2]
[2]



[1]
[3]
[4]
[2]











•




a









•



»






































•




9









•












































•














•














•





























•




B









•














•




9









•











































•








































































































































Bonen, D. and S.L.
Sarkar. (1994).
Engineering Foundation
Conference on Advances
in Cement and Concrete.
ASCE. p.481-498.
McGahan, J.F. and D.
Martin. (1994).
Proceedings of Waste
Management '94.
p. 1493-1497.

McWhinney, H.G.
(1990). Doctoral
Dissertation, Texas A&M
University.
Conner, J.R. (1990). Van
Nostrand Reinhold
Lin, S.L. (1995).
Doctoral Dissertation,
Georgia Institute of
Technology.
Klich, I. (1997). Doctoral
Dissertation, Texas A&M
University.
Taylor, M. and R.W.
Fuessle. (1994). Illinois
DoE and Natural
Resources and Hazardous
Waste Research
Information Center.
"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       19

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SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX




Abstract
Number




Document Title
Document Ordering No.




1 Topics Addressed*
TECHNOLOGY
TYPE



-g
W



1 In Situ
Additives
and
Binder
Reagents
1 Inorganic
1
O

MEDIA



1



V3
&
en
•a
_3
35



1 Industrial Wastes

CONTAMINANTS



Inorganic
I
1 Cyanides or Asbestos
1 Radioactive wastes



Organic
1 SVOCs
(J
O
1 Low level PCBs
H.




Source/Originating
Office/Author
JOURNAL REFERENCES
65




66




67



68

69

70





71




72



A Critical Review of
Stabilization/Solidification
Technology.


A Long-Term Leachability
Study of Solidified Wastes by
the Multiple Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching
Procedure.
A Model to Predict the TCLP
Leaching of Solidified
Organic Wastes.

A Proposed Protocol for
Evaluation of Solidified
Wastes.
A Review of
Solidification/Stabilization
Interferences.

Cement-Based
Solidification/Stabilization of
Lead-Contaminated Soil at a
Utah Highway Construction
Site.
PCA Publication No. RP332
Cement-Based Stabilization/
Solidification of Organic
Contaminated Hazardous
Wastes Using Na-Bentonite
and Silica Fume.
Cement Binders for Organic
Wastes.


[1]
[2]



[1]
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[1]



[1]

[2]

[1]
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[2]




[2]











•



B



•
.



%





•



%












































•



B










%





•



%














B



































9










B









B



































9










•




















•



a










•














9





•























































































B















•


















B















•



B














B


































9






















Conner, J.R. and
Hoeffner, S.L. (1998).
Critical Reviews in
Environmental Science
and Technology.
28(4):397-462.
Lee, C.H., and others.
(1994). Journal of
Hazardous Materials
38:65-74.

Faschan, A., and others.
(1996). Hazardous Waste
and Hazardous
Materials 13:333-350.
Stegemann, J.A. and PL.
Cote. (1996). Science of
the Total Environment
178:103-110.
Trussell, S. and R.D.
Spence. (l994).Waste
Management 14:507-
519.
Wilk, CM. and Arora, R.
(1995). Remediation. The
Journal of
Environmental Cleanup
Costs, Technologies &
Techniques.
Shin, H.S. andK.S. Jim.
(1995). Journal of
Environmental Science
and Health 30:651-668.

Owens, J. and S. Stewart.
(1996). Magazine of
Concrete Research
48:37-44.
"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       20

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Number




Document Title
Document Ordering No.




1 Topics Addressed*
TECHNOLOGY
TYPE



-g



1 In Situ
Additives
and
Binder
Reagents
1 Inorganic
1
O

MEDIA



1



eu
•a
_3
33



1 Industrial Wastes

CONTAMINANTS



Inorganic
I
1 Cyanides or Asbestos
1 Radioactive wastes



Organic
1 SVOCs
3
p
1 Low level PCBs
X
H




Source/Originating
Office/Author
JOURNAL REFERENCES (continued)
73


74



75




76



77


78




79



80




81




Durability Study of a
Solidified Mercury-
Containing Sludge.
Effect of Adsorbents on the
Leachability of Cement
Bonded Electroplating
Wastes.
Effect of Carbonation on
Microbial Corrosion of
Concretes.


Electron Microscopy of Heavy
Metal Waste in Cement
Matrices.

Evaluation of Solid Waste
Stabilization Processes By
Means of Leaching Tests.
Evaluation of the Leaching
Properties of Solidified Heavy
Metal Wastes.


Factors For Selecting
Appropriate
Solidification/Stabilization
Methods.
Feasilibilty of Using a
Mixture of an Electroplating
Sludge and a Calcium
Carbonate Sludge as a Binder
for Sludge Solidification.
Fundamental Aspects of
Cement Solidification and
Stabilization.


[1]
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•



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•




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•


B




•



B



•



•



f




•




•

















































•



B



•







f









•



•







•



f







•



f









•






a




•



f











9




•




•



•


f








u



•



•



f




•




•











































































•
































•

























































































































Yang, G. (1993). Journal
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34:217-223
Tamas, F.D., and others.
(1992). Cement and
Concrete Research
22:399-404.
Ismail, N., and others.
(1993). Journal of
Construction
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Ivey, D.G., and others.
(1990). Journal of
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Albino, V., and others.
(1996). Environmental
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Herrera, E., and others.
(1992). Journal of
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998.
WeitzmaruL. (1990).
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Materials 24:457-468.

Yang, G. and K.L. Kao.
(1994). Journal of
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36:81-88.

Roy, A and F.K.
Cartledge. (Editors).
(1997). Journal of
Hazardous Materials
52:151-354.
"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       21

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Number




Document Title
Document Ordering No.




1 Topics Addressed*
TECHNOLOGY
TYPE



3
53



1 In Situ
Additives
and
Binder
Reagents
1 Inorganic
1
O

MEDIA



1



VI
&
en
•a
_3
33



1 Industrial Wastes

CONTAMINANTS



Inorganic
"3
1
1 Cyanides or Asbestos
1 Radioactive wastes



Organic
1 SVOCs
O
1 Low level PCBs
X
H




Source/Originating
Office/Author
JOURNAL REFERENCES (continued)
82




83


84




85


86



87



88



89




90



Immobilization Mechanisms
in Solidification/Stabilization
of Cadmium and Lead Salts
Using Portland Cement Fixing
Agents.
Immobilization of Chromium
in Cement Matrices.

Immobilization of Zinc and
Lead From Wastes Using
Simple and Fiber-Reinforced
Lime Pozzolana Admixtures.

Immobilization Science of
Cement Systems.

Impact of Carbon Dioxide on
the Immobilization Potential
of Cemented Wastes:
Chromium.
Leachability of Lead From
Solidified Cement-Fly Ash
1 tinders.

Long-Term Behaviour of
Toxic Metals in Stabilized
Steel Foundry Dusts.

Long-Term Leaching of
Metals From Concrete
Products.


Long-Term Stability of
Superplasticized Monoliths of
a Solidified Electroplating
Sludge.
[1]
[2]



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[1]
[2]


[1]
[2]
[4]

[1]
[2]
[4]


[1]
[2]




•



•



•



•


B



B








•



B









































•



•



•



•


B



B








•



f




































B
















•
























•







•



•



















f








•



•



•


f



u








•



f




•



•



•



•


f



u








•



f














































































































B




































B












































































Cartledge, F. and others.
(1990). Environmental
Science and Technology
24:867-873.

Kindness, A., and others.
(1994). Waste
Management 14:3-11.
Debroy, M. and S.S.
Dara. (1994). Journal of
Environmental Science
and Health A29:339-
355.
Macphee, D.E. and P.P.
Glasser. (1993). MRS
Bulletin 3:66-71.
Macias, A., and others.
(1997). Cement and
Concrete Research
27:215-225.
Wang, S.Y. and C.
Vipulanandan. (1996).
Cement and Concrete
Research 26:895-905.
Andres, A. and others.
(1995). Journal of
Hazardous Materials
40:31-42.
Webster, M.T. and R.C,
Loehr. (1996). Journal
of Environmental
Engineering 122:714-
721.
Yang, G.C.C, and C.F.
Chang. (1994). Journal
of Hazardous Materials
37:277-283.
"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       22

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SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX




Abstract
Number




Document Title
Document Ordering No.




1 Topics Addressed*
TECHNOLOGY
TYPE



-g
W



1 In Situ
Additives
and
Binder
Reagents
1 Inorganic
1
O

MEDIA



1



iff
o>
CD
•d



1 Industrial Wastes

CONTAMINANTS



Inorganic
"3
1
1 Cyanides or Asbestos
1 Radioactive wastes



Organic
1 SVOCs
3
p
1 Low level PCBs
X
H




Source/Originating
Office/Author
JOURNAL REFERENCES (continued)
91



92



93


94



95



96



97
98



99



Metals Distribution in
Solidified/Stabilized Waste
Forms After Leaching.

Ordinary Portland Cement
Based Solidification of Toxic
Wastes: The Role of OPC
Reviewed.
Portland Cement Gives
Concrete Support to
Solidification/Stabilization,
Potential Application of
Ettringite Generating Systems
for Hazardous Waste
Stabilization.
Preliminary Investigation into
the Effects of Carbonation on
Cement-Solidified Hazardous
Wastes.
Reaction of CO2 With
Alkaline Solid Wastes to
Reduce Contaminant
Mobility.
Recent Findings on
Immobilization of Organics as
Measured by Total
Constituent Analysis.
Soil Stabilization Provides In-
Situ Toxic Containment


Solidification/Stabilization of
a Heavy Metal Sludge by a
Portland Cement/Fly Ash
Binding Mixture.
[1]



[1]



[1]
[2]

[1]
[2]


[1]



[1]
[2]


[1]
[2]
[1]
[2]


[1]
[2]







*



f


0







^


«





B



























o











*



£


0







^


«

0



^

























«

















f


0










•

£











*



Q


o
















9







*



0


o







f
















*



0


0







f




0



9












































































0
































0
































0
































0























Cheng, K. and P. Bishop.
(1992). Hazardous Waste
and Hazardous
Materials 9:l61-\ll.
Hills, CD., and others.
(1993). Cement and
Concrete Research
23:196-212.
Wilk, CM. (1995).
Environmental Solutions
May.
Albino, V., and others.
(1996). Journal of
Hazardous Materials
51:241-252.
Lange, L.C., and others.
(1996). Environmental
Science Technology
30:25-30.
Reddy, K.J., and others.
(1994). Water Research
28:1377-1382.

Conner, J.R. (1995).
Waste Management
15:359-470.
Bomstein, R. and Well]',
F. (1991). California
Builder and Engineer.
CB&E: 35-36.
Roy, A,, and others.
(1991). Hazardous
Waste and Hazardous
Materials 8:33-41.
"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       23

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SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX






Abstract
Number






Document Title
Document Ordering No.




•s
a
•S
1 Topics Ac
TECHNOLOGY
TYPE





3
53





1 In Situ
Additives
and
Binder
Reagents


I


1
O

MEDIA





1





eu
•a
_3
53



K
QJ
t/1
_C5
1 Industrial

CONTAMINANTS



Inorganic


^
"3
1
1
VI
O
1 Cyanides
i«
ve wasi
•s



Organic


1 SVOCs


O
O

S
1 Low level


B
H






Source/Originating
Office/Author
JOURNAL REFERENCES (continued)
100




101



102

103



104




105




106


107



Solidification/Stabilization of
Arsenic: Effects of Arsenic
Speciation.


Solidification/Stabilization of
Hazardous Waste: Evidence
of Physical Encapsulation.

Solidification/Stabilization of
Heavy Metals in Latex
Modified Portland Cement
Matrices.
Stabilization and
Solidification of Lead in
Contaminated Soils.

The Binding Chemistry and
Leaching Mechanisms of
Hazardous Substances in
Cementious Solidification/
Stabilization Systems.
The Effects of Simulated
Environmental Attack on
Immobilization of Heavy
Metals Doped in Cement-
Based Materials.
The History of
Stabilization/Solidification
Technology

The Intel-facial Chemistry of
Solidification/Stabilization of
Metals.

[1]
[2]



[1]
[2]


[1]
[2]
[3]

[1]
[2]


[1]
[2]



[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

[1]
[2]

[1]
[2]




•



f


.







•




•













































•



%











•




•














































•















•




•












•















•




•












•



a











•




•












•



9











•




•
















































































































































































































Bueehler, P., and others.
(1996). Journal of
Environmental Science
and Health A3 1:747-
754.
Roy, A, and others.
(1992). Environmental
Science and Technology
26:1349-1353.
Daniali, S. (1990).
Journal ofHazardous
Materials 24:225-230.

Lin. S.L., and others.
(1996). Journal of
Hazardous Materials
48:95-110.
Cocke, D.L. (1990).
Journal ofHazardous
Materials 24:231-253.


Bonen, D. and S.L.
Sarkar. (1995). Journal
ofHazardous Materials
40:321-335.

Conner, J.R. and
Hoeffner, S.L. (1998).
Critical Reviews in
Environmental Science
and Technology. 28(4):
325-396.
Mollah, Y., and others.
(1995). Waste
Management 15:137-
148.
*Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       24

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SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX




Abstract
Number




Document Title
Document Ordering No.




1 Topics Addressed*
TECHNOLOGY
TYPE



-g
W



1 In Situ
Additives
and
Hinder
Reagents
1 Inorganic
1
O

MEDIA



1



in
v
eu
•a
_3
33



1 Industrial Wastes

CONTAMINANTS



Inorganic
§
1 Cyanides or Asbestos
1 Radioactive wastes



Organic
1 SVOCs
3
p
1 Low level PCBs
H.




Source/Originating
Office/Author
JOURNAL REFERENCES (continued)
108




109



110




111




The Limitation of the Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching
Procedure for Evaluating
Cement-Based Stabilized/
Solidified Waste Forms.
Tune Effects of Three
Contaminants on the
Durability and Permeability
of a Solidified Sand.
Treatment of Metal Industrial
Wastewater by Flyash and
Cement Fixation.



Variability of Field Solidified
Waste



[1]




[1]
[3]
[4]

[1]
[2]



[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]



•



f




•




•























•



B




•




•























•



%














•


















•








•




•




•



9




•




•




















































































































Poon, C.S. and K.W. Lio.
(1997). Waste
Management 17:15-23.


Al'Tabbaa, A. and S.
King. (1998).
Environmental
Technology 19:401-407.
Weng, C.H. and C.P.
Huang. (1994). Journal
of Environmental
Engineering 120:1470-
1488.
Stegemann, J.A..
Caldwell, R.J. and Shi,
C. (1991). Journal of
Hazardous Materials.
52: 335-348.
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
112




113


Hazardous Wastes - Fixation,
Solidification, and
Vitrification Excluding
Radioactive Materials.
NTIS Document No. PB96-
855945INI
http :// www. ntis . go v
Radioactive Waste Processing
- Fixation in Cements and
Bitumens.
NTIS#PB96-855135INI
http :// www. ntis . go v
[1]
[2]



[1]
[2]
































































































«



«







•







•







•





DOE-Energy Science and
Technology Database
(1998).


NTIS Bibliographic
Database (1998).

IN SITU SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION RESOURCES
114




Engineering Issue:
Considerations in Deciding to
Treat Contaminated Soils In
Situ.
EPA Document No.
EPA/540/S-94/500
NTIS Document No. PB94-
177771/XAB
[1]
[2]






























































«




•




•




•


EPA-OSWER(1993).




"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       25

-------
SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX




Abstract
Number




Document Title
Document Ordering No.




1 Topics Addressed*
TECHNOLOGY
TYPE



3
'ft
w
a



1 In Situ
Additives
and
Binder
Reagents
1 Inorganic
^
1
O

MEDIA



1
»!



iff
&
en
•a
_3
33



1 Industrial Wastes

CONTAMINANTS



Inorganic
^
"3
1
1 Cyanides or Asbestos
1 Radioactive wastes



Organic
1 SVOCs
3
O
>
1 Low level PCBs
H<




Source/Originating
Office/Author
IN SITU SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION RESOURCES (continued)
115




116








117
118



119




120










Handbook on In Situ
Treatment of Hazardous
Waste-Contaminated Soils.
EPA Document No. EPA/540/2-
90/002
NTIS Document No. PB90-
155607/XAB
International Waste
Technologies/ Geo-Con In
Situ Stabilization/
Solidification: Applications
Analysis Report
EPA Document
No.EPA/540/A5-89/004
NTIS Document No. PB-90-
269085
Overview of In Situ Waste
Treatment Technologies.
NTIS Document No. DE92-
018012/XAB
Pilot In Situ Auger Mixing
Treatment of a Contaminated
Site, Part I: Treatability
Study.
Recent Developments for In
Situ Treatment of Metal-
Contamianted Soils.
EPA Document No.
EPA/542/R-97/004
Technology Evaluation
Report: SITE Program
Demonstration Test,
International Waste
Technologies In Situ
Stabilization/Solidification,
Hialeah, Florida.
EPA Document No. EPA/540/5-
89/004A
NTIS Document No. PB-89-
194161
[1]
[2]



[1]
[2]







[2]
[1]
[2]


[1]
[2]



[1]
[2]






















































•







o




•







•















•







o




•







•




















































•







9




•







•

























































































•







o




•







•













































































•











•






















•






•




•














•







•






•




•














•







•











•




















EPA- RREL, ORD
(1990).



EPA- RREL, ORD
(1990).







Hyde, R.A., and others.
(1992). EG&G Idaho,
Inc.
Al'Tabbaa, A. and C. W.
Evans. (1998).
Geotechnical
Engineering 131:52-59
EPA-OSWER. TIO
(1997).



EPA-RREL, ORD
(1989).









"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       26

-------
SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX





Abstract
Number





Document Title
Document Ordering No.
OTHER RESOURCE GUIDES
1


2


3


4

5



Bioremediation Resource
Guide
EPA Document No. EPA/542-
B-93/004
NTIS Document No. PB-94-
112307
Ground Water Treatment
Technology Resource Guide.
EPA Document No. EPA/542-
B-94/009
NTIS Document No. PB-95-
138657
Physical/Chemical Treatment
Technology Resource Guide.
EPA Document No. EPA'542-
B-94/008
NTIS Document No. PB-95-
138665
Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE)
Enhancement Technology
Resource Guide.
EPA Document No. EPA/542-
B-95/003
Soil Vapor Extraction
Treatment Technology
Resource Guide.
EPA Document No. EPA/542-
B-94/007
NTIS Document No. PB-95-
138681




•K
"9
Topics Address

[i]
[2]
[3]


[1]
[2]


[1]
[2]


[1]
[2]

[1]
[2]



TECHNOLOGY
TYPE ME




-g
W





In Situ

Additives
and
Binder
Reagents

^
55 'S <
E" a 4
1 £ « ]
S O »! ~J

DIA CONTAMINANTS



Inorganic Organic
o
^ *
S ^flj £ ^
•^ . w
^ 0 > *H
•3 g ^,"!>O 1 £
TECHNOLOGIES ADDRESSED
Bioremediation
Vapor extraction, air stripping, and biological treatment




Soil washing/flushing, solvent extraction, thermal desorption, and chemical
dehalogenation




Air sparging, bioventing, hydraulic and pneumatic fracturing, and thermal
enhancements


Soil Vapor Extraction





Soui'ce/Oiiginating
Office/Author

EPA-OSWER, TIO
(1993).


EPA-OSWER, TIO
(1994).


EPA-OSWER, TIO
(1994).


EPA-OSWER, TIO
(1995).

EPA-OSWER, TIO
(1994).



"Topics Addressed:
[1]  Performance Evaluation or Testing Protoeols
[2]  Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]  Durability and Degradation
[4]  Long-term Effectiveness
                                                                       27

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            ABSTRACTS OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION
                         TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES

The abstracts below describe the contents of pertinent Solidification/Stabilization technology
documents. The abstracts are organized alphabetically within each of the nine following
document types:

                                                                     Begins on Page
•  Guidance and Policy Documents 	 31
•  Overview and Program Documents  	 34
•  Studies and Demonstrations	 37
•  Workshops  and Conference Proceedings  	 46
•  Books  and Dissertations	 55
•  Journal References	 57
•  Bibliographies  	 74
•  In Situ Solidification/Stabilization Resources	 75
•  Other Resource Guides  	 83

To quickly identify documents pertinent to your interest area, see the Solidification/Stabilization
Technology Resource Matrix beginning on page 6 of this Guide. The documents in the matrix
are organized alphabetically within the document types identified above. The document listings
in the matrix can be cross-referenced with the abstracts using the code to the left of the document
titles on the matrix.  In an effort to limit the number of resources listed here, Records of Decision
(RODs) and for most part, documents more than five years old are not included. Those seeking
RODs may wish to contact the hotlines, dockets, or other sources.
                                         29

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[This Page Intentionally Left Blank]

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                          SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION
                                  RESOURCE GUIDE
GUIDANCE AND POLICY DOCUMENTS

1.  Guide Specification for Construction, Solidification/Stabilization (S/S) of Contaminated
    Soil

Department of the Army.  1998. United States Army Corps of Engineers. Washington, D.C.

    USAGE Document No.:  CEGS-02160

This guide specification covers the requirements for solidification/stabilization of materials
contaminated with hazardous and toxic waste. The guide is a model specification for actual field
work, and USAGE and other project personnel can easily incorporate their site- and project-
specific requirements electronically by downloading the document at USAGE's Techlnfo web
site at  [1], [2].

2.  Handbook for Stabilization/Solidification of Hazardous Wastes

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1986. Hazardous Waste Engineering Research
Laboratory.  Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

    EPA Document No.: EPA/540/2-86/001

This handbook is intended for designers and reviewers of remedial action plans at hazardous
waste disposal sites.  The handbook provides information and guidance needed to judge the
feasibility of stabilization/solidification technology in controlling contaminant migration from
hazardous wastes disposed of on land. The document describes reagents and methodologies that
have been useful in the stabilization/solidification of hazardous wastes; such information is
useful to industrial and engineering firms that work with handling and disposal of hazardous
waste,  as well as regulatory agencies and environmental groups that need to  assess the feasibility
of technical solutions proposed at sites requiring remedial action [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                            31

-------
3.  Innovative Site Remediation Technology:  Design and Application,
    Stabilization/Solidification, Volume 4.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1997. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
Washington, DC.

    EPA Document No.:  EPA 542-B-97-007

The monograph covers the design, applications and implementation of stabilization/
solidification technologies and provides guidance on innovative processes considered ready for
full-scale application.  It is one of a series of monographs covering the description, evaluation,
and limitations of the technology.  This monograph's objective is to furnish guidance for
experienced professionals with site remediation responsibility, and it is intended to aid in the
implementation of stabilization and solidification technologies at specific sites [1], [2].

4.  Innovative Site Remediation Technology:  Volume 4, Solidification/Stabilization

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1994. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
Washington, DC.

    EPA Document No.:  EPA 542-B-94-001

This monograph addresses innovative stabilization and solidification technologies that have been
sufficiently developed for use in full-scale applications for site remediation and waste treatment.
The purpose of the monograph is to further the use of innovative solidification and stabilization
site remediation and waste-processing technologies, particularly where their use can provide
better, more cost-effective performance than conventional methods.  The monograph documents
the current state of the technology for a number of innovative solidification and stabilization
processes and considers all waste matrices to which solidification and stabilization can be
reasonably applied, such  as soils, liquids, and sludges [1], [2].

5.  Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous Wastes

Barth E., and others.  1990. Pollution Technology Review. No. 186. Noyes Data Corporation.
New York, NY.

This handbook provides a detailed overview of the state-of-the-art of solidification and
stabilization of hazardous wastes through 1990 and includes inorganic and organic processes, as
well as physical and chemical testing procedures used to evaluate solidification and stabilization
technologies.  Guidance is also provided on the selection and use of solidification and
stabilization technologies through bench- and pilot-scale screening.  Full-scale treatment
operations are presented  with numerous examples of ex situ and in situ technologies.  In addition,
quality control, safety, and environmental considerations for waste treatment, as well as
equipment, costs, and regulatory requirements are discussed [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                             32

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6.  Stabilization/Solidification of CERCLA and RCRA Wastes: Physical Tests, Chemical
    Testing Procedures, Technology Screening, and Field Activities

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1989. Center for Environmental Research Information.
Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory.  Office of Research and Development.  Cincinnati, OH.

    EPA Document No.: EPA/625/6-89/022

A practical reference guide used for interpreting information on stabilization and solidification
technologies including a comprehensive list of references through 1989.  The document covers a
wide range of applications useful for all technical and professional working in the
stabilization/solidification field, including state and local environmental protection agencies,
private industry, commercial treatment and disposal facilities, and environmental consultants, as
well as EPA regional staff responsible for reviewing CERCLA remedial action plans and RCRA
permit applications [1].

7.  Statutory Interpretive Guidance on the Placement of Bulk Liquid Hazardous Waste in
    Landfills

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1986. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
Washington, D.C.

    OSWER Policy Directive No.:  9487.00-2A

Section 3004(c)(l) was added to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, as amended by
the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments  of 1984. This statutory interpretive guidance
addresses the amendment's prohibition on the placement of bulk liquid hazardous wastes in
landfills.  The guidance discusses the legal requirements of the amendment and presents
technical guidance to assist an owner or operator in complying with the amendment. The
guidance recommends the use of an unconfmed compressive strength test to determine that liquid
wastes have been chemically stabilized or merely treated by the addition of a sorbant.  The
guidance recommends that unconfmed compressive strength above 50 pounds per square inch be
used to demonstrate that liquids  in waste have been chemically stabilized [1], [2].

8.  Technical Resource Document: Solidification/Stabilization and Its Application to
    Waste Materials

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1993. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office
of Research and Development, Washington, DC.

    EPA Document No.: EPA/530/R-93/012
    NTIS Document No.: PB93-237535

This technical resource document is intended for site managers considering solidification/
stabilization as an option for treating hazardous wastes. It provides technology transfer to
persons responsible for selection and design of solidification/stabilization treatment methods.

Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

                                           33

-------
Information about solidification/stabilization is presented in detailed text descriptions supported
by summary tables, checklists, and figures.  The document gives the user a summary of
solidification/stabilization technologies through 1993. The technology areas covered include
binding agents and binding mechanisms, waste interferences with solidification/stabilization
processes, solidification/stabilization treatment of organic contaminants, air emissions for
solidification/stabilization processes, leaching mechanisms, long-term stability, reuse and
disposal of solidification/stabilization treated waste, and economics. Information is also
provided to clarify the limitations of solidification/stabilization technology and ongoing research
to fulfill future development needs [1], [2].

9.  Treatability Studies for Solidification/Stabilization of Contaminated Material

Department of the Army.  1995. United States Army Corps of Engineers.  Washington, D.C.

    USACE Technical Letter No.: 1110-1-158

This technical letter provides information and guidance on scoping a treatability study for
solidification/stabilization of contaminated material.  The letter focuses on treatability studies for
soils and sludges, and includes an outline of topics which should be considered for inclusion in a
solidification/stabilization treatability scope of work [1], [2].

OVERVIEW AND PROGRAM DOCUMENTS

10. Engineering Bulletin:  Solidification/Stabilization of Organics and Inorganics.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993.  Office of Emergency and Remedial Response.
Washington, DC. Office of Research and Development.  Cincinnati, OH.

    EPA Document No.:  EPA/540/S-92/015

This bulletin provides general information on the applicability of solidification/stabilization
technologies, limitations of solidification/stabilization, and a description of the
solidification/stabilization treatment processes for organic and inorganic hazardous waste
contaminants. The document summarizes factors that may interfere with the
solidification/stabilization process and indicates the effectiveness of solidification/stabilization
for general contaminant groups in soil and sludges.  The report also identifies sites where full-
scale solidification/stabilization has been implemented under CERCLA or RCRA [1], [2].

11. Guide to Improving the Effectiveness of Cement-Based Solidification/Stabilization

Conner, J.R. 1997. Portland Cement Association.  Skokie, IL.

    PC A Publication No.: EB211

This guide discusses additives and techniques that can be applied to specific solidification
problems such as development of set, compressive strength, and free liquids. The guide also
provides lists and describes additives and techniques that can be applied to immobilization of
specific hazardous constituents such as lead, cadmium, and chromium, as well as classes of
constituents such as volatile organics, organo-metallics, and soluble salts. The guide includes a
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

                                             34

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list of a variety of generic additives for specific desired stabilization/solidification effects,
including those that can be used to control pH of wastes; to reduce, oxidize, and co-precipitate
constituents; and to accelerate or retard set [2].

12. Innovative Treatment Technologies: Annual Status Report, 8th Edition

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1998.  Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
Technology Innovation Office. Washington, DC.

    EPA Document No.:  EPA-542-R-96-010
    http://clu-in.com

This yearly report and website database documents and analyzes the selection and use of
innovative treatment technologies at Superfund sites and some non-Superfund sites under the
jurisdiction of DoD and DOE. The information provides information for experienced technology
users and those who are considering innovative technologies to clean up contaminated sites.  In
addition, the information will enable technology vendors to evaluate the market for innovative
technologies in Superfund for the next several years.  The database is used by the EPA
Technology Innovation Office to track progress in the application of innovative  treatment
technologies.  Alternative technologies are defined as alternatives to land disposal; innovative
technologies include alternative technologies for which there is a lack of data on cost and
performance.  The ninth edition of the report and database (to be released in the Fall of 1998)
also tracks the implementation and use of solidification/stabilization technologies. [2].

13. Portland Cement: A Solidification Agent for  Low-Level Radioactive Waste

U.S. Department of Energy.  1991. Idaho National Engineering Laboratory. EG&G Idaho, Inc.

    INEL Technical Bulletin No.:  EGG-LLW-8843

This technical bulletin provides an understanding of solidification of low-level radioactive waste
to provide the structural stability required by 10 Code of Federal Regulations 61, Licensing
Requirements for Land Disposal of Radioactive Waste. Topics addressed include regulatory
requirements,  current and past practices, packaging efficiencies, problem wastes, available
solidification systems, and quality control [2].

14. Potential Solidification/Stabilization Projects  Under the Superfund Program

Wilk, C.M.  1994. Portland Cement Association.  Skokie, IL.

    PCA Publication No.: IS500

This publication contains a list of 166 existing and prospective Superfund projects involving the
potential use of solidification/stabilization technology for waste remediation. The list is derived
from a database  developed and maintained by the Public Works Department of the Portland
Cement Association. The document is designed to provide a quick reference for general
information on each listed site, including location,  industry type, contaminated media,
contaminants, amount of contaminated media, project costs, record of decision (ROD) date,
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

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remediation program, EPA region number, and a site description. Following the listing is an
index of sites grouped into industry types [2].

15. Potential Solidification/Stabilization Superfund Projects -1995 Update

Wilk, C.M. 1995.  Portland Cement Association. Skokie, IL.
PCA Publication No.: IS501

This publication describes 42 Superfund cleanup projects involving the use of
solidification/stabilization technology as part of the cleanup or site remedy.  The list is mostly
derived from EPA's Records of Decisions signed in Fiscal Year 1993 and 1994.  The publication
is an update to PCA's 1994 publication - Potential Solidification/Stabilization Projects Under the
Superfund Program (IS500) [2].

16. Solidification/Stabilization of Wastes Using Portland Cement

Adaska A., and others.  Second Edition.  1998.  Portland Cement Association. Skokie, IL.
PCA Publication No.: EB071

This engineering bulletin clarifies the role of Portland cement in the solidification/stabilization of
hazardous wastes and is intended for consulting engineers, material suppliers, government
officials, waste site owners, and the general public. The publication summarizes the chemistry of
Portland cement and the cement hydration process as influenced by solidification/stabilization
treatment additives, and organic and inorganic contaminants. In addition, the report discusses the
regulatory basis for use of solidification/stabilization  and outlines the various test methods for
treatment characterization [1],  [2].

17. Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Program: Technology Profiles, 9th
   Edition

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1996.  National Risk Management and Research
Laboratory. Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati,  OH.

   EPA Document No.:  EPA/540/R-97/502

The  Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation (SITE) Program evaluates new and promising
treatment, and monitoring, and measurement technologies for cleanup of hazardous waste sites.
The program  was created to encourage the development and routine use of innovative treatment
technologies.  As a result, the SITE Program provides environmental decision-makers with data
on new, viable treatment technologies that may have  performance or cost advantages compared
to traditional treatment technologies.  Each technology profile presented in the document
contains the following:  (1) a technology developer and process name; (2) a technology
description, including a schematic diagram or photograph of the process; (3) a discussion of
waste applicability; (4) a project status report;  and 5) EPA project manager and technology
developer contacts.  The profiles also include summaries of demonstration results if available.
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

                                            36

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The technology description and waste applicability sections are written by the developer. EPA
prepares the status and demonstration results sections [2].

STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS

18. Chemfix Technologies, Inc. Solidification/Stabilization Process: Applications Analysis
   Report

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1991. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office
of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

   EPA Document No.: EPA/540/A5-89/011
   NTIS Document No.:  PB-91-187054

This Applications Analysis Report evaluates the treatment efficiency of the Chemfix
Technologies, Inc. (Chemfix), solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils
contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls, lead, copper, and other metals. The Chemfix
demonstration was conducted under EPA's Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation
Program in March 1989, at the Portable Equipment Salvage Company  site in Clackamas County,
Oregon. The Chemfix treatment process was evaluated based on contaminant mobility,
measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity of the solidified material, measured by
physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations; and an economic analysis, using
cost information supplied by Chemfix and  supplemented by information generated during the
demonstration.  This report summarizes the results of the Chemfix demonstration, the vendor's
design and test data, and other laboratory  and field applications of the technology. It discusses
the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations as well as estimated costs of the technology  [1],
[2]

19. Evaluation of Solidification/Stabilization for Treatment of a Petroleum Hydrocarbon
   Contaminated Sludge from Fort Polk Army Installation, Louisiana

Channell, M.G., and K.T  1996. Preston.  Army Corps of Engineers - Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, MS.

   NTIS Document No.:  ADA-320-253/8

This study used solidification/stabilization to treat the oily sludge found in the vehicle washrack
oil-water separators. Solidification/stabilization is usually used to treat soils and sludges that
contain heavy metals.  Organic compounds, such as petroleum hydrocarbons found in the sludge,
interfere with the setting of the solidification binding materials and thus are typically not treated
using solidification/stabilization. This study incorporates the use of dicalcium silicate as an
additive to the solidification process to increase the strength and reduce the teachability of the
petroleum hydrocarbons found in the sludge.  This study shows that dicalcium silicate improves
the handling characteristics of the sludge and reduces contaminant teachability from the
washrack sludge [1], [2].

Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

                                           37

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20. Evaluation of Solidification/Stabilization Treatment Processes for Municipal Waste
   Combustion Residues

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1993.  Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory.  Office
of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

   EPA Document No.: EPA/600/R-93/167
   NTIS Document No.: PB-93-229870

This report provides results of evaluations conducted to determine the effectiveness of
solidification/stabilization processes, as well as information useful in designing and evaluating
solidification/stabilization processes for treating municipal waste combustion residue.  A full
factorial experimental design was used to evaluate five solidification/stabilization processes to
treat bottom ash, air pollution, control residue, and combined ash. The solidification/
stabilization processes included a control using Portland cement only, as well as Portland cement
with soluble silicates, dry carbonaceous material, and other proprietary additives; cement kiln
dust and proprietary additives; and soluble phosphates. The evaluations included analysis of
chemical composition, physical properties, durability, and leaching characteristics.  Based on
comparison of untreated and treated residues, the solidification/stabilization processes evaluated
generally did not decrease the potential for the release of target contaminants, including metals,
dioxins, and furans.  However, a phosphate process did reduce the potential of lead to be released
[1], [2]

21. HAZCON Solidification Process, Douglassville, PA: Applications Analysis Report

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1989.  Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory.  Office
of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

   EPA Document No.: EPA/540/A5-89/001
   NTIS Document No.: PB-89-206031

This Applications Analysis Report evaluates the treatment efficiency of the HAZCON
solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils containing a wide range of
organic and heavy metal contaminants. The HAZCON demonstration was conducted under
EPA's Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Program in October 1987, at the
Douglassville, Pennsylvania, Superfund site. The HAZCON treatment process was evaluated
based on contaminant mobility, measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity of the
solidified material, measured by physical  and engineering tests and morphological examinations;
and economic analysis, using cost information supplied by HAZCON and supplemented by
information generated during the SITE demonstration.  This report summarizes the results of the
HAZCON SITE demonstration, the vendor's design and test data, and other laboratory and field
applications of the technology. It discusses the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations as
well  as estimated costs of the technology [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                            38

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22. International Waste Technologies/Geo-Con In Situ Stabilization/Solidification:
   Applications Analysis Report

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office
of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

   EPA Document No.:  EPA/540/A5-89/004
   NTIS Document No.:  PB-90-269085

This Application Analysis Report evaluates the International Waste Technologies HWT-20
additive and the Geo-Con, Inc., deep-soil-mixing equipment for an in situ stabilization/
solidification process and its applicability as an on-site treatment method for waste site cleanup.
The in situ treatment technology demonstration was conducted under EPA's Superfund
Innovative Technology Evaluation Program in April 1988, at the General Electric Company
electric service shop in Hialeah, Florida.  Soil  at the site contained polychlorinated biphenyls and
localized concentrations of volatile organics and heavy metal concentrations. This report
discusses the in situ process based on test results of the demonstration, as well as other data
provided by the technology developer and the general capabilities of cement-based systems. It
also discusses the applicability of the technology to other sites [1],  [2].

23. Investigation of Test Methods for Solidified Waste Evaluation - A Cooperative Program

Stegemann,  J.  A., and PL. Cote.  1991. Environment Canada, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, and Alberta Environment.

   Report EPS 3/HA/8

This study was initiated by Environment Canada, in conjunction with Alberta Environment, and
15 American, Canadian, and European industrial participants involved in developing or
marketing solidification technology.  The purpose of the study was to develop and evaluate 16
laboratory test methods for characterizing the physical  and chemical properties of a variety of
solidified wastes.  The cooperative objectives  included (1) developing a set of laboratory test
methods for characterizing the physical and  chemical properties of a wide variety of solidified
wastes, (2) evaluating the set of test methods by using real wastes and actual commercial
solidification processes and by generating information on the reproducibility of the test methods,
(3) developing an international database of properties of solidified wastes achievable with
present technology to  assist regulatory agencies and the waste treatment industry in  setting
guidelines, (4) providing a basis for continued development of test methods and mathematical
models, and (5) promoting international use of the test methods for uniform comparative
evaluation of solidified wastes. To maximize universal applicability of the tests, no attempt was
made to simulate specific disposal conditions;  therefore, the  properties measured relate to the
waste form and are independent of the disposal scenario [1], [2].

24. Literature Review of Mixed Waste Components: Sensitivities and Effects Upon
   Solidification/Stabilization in Cement-Based Matrices
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

                                            39

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Mattus, C.H., and T.M. Gilliam. 1994. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. U.S. Department of
Energy.

   NTIS Document No.: ORNL/TN-12656

The report discusses the hydration mechanisms of Portland cement, mechanisms of retardation
and acceleration of cement set-factors affecting the durability of waste forms, and regulatory
limits as they apply to mixed wastes. This report also reviews (1) inorganic compounds that
interfere with the development of cement-based waste forms and (2) radioactive species that can
be immobilized in cement-based waste forms. In addition, the report also reviews organic
species that may interfere with various waste-form properties [2].

25. Onsite Engineering Report for Solidification/Stabilization Treatment Testing of
   Contaminated Soils

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1993. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory.  Office
of Research and Development.  Cincinnati, OH.

   NTIS Document No.: PB-93-166965/AS

This report provides the full documentation of the Project Summary:  Onsite Engineering Report
for Solidification/Stabilization Treatment Testing of Contaminated Soils (see abstract number
29) [1], [2].

26. Physical and Morphological Measures of Waste Solidification Effectiveness

Grube, W.E. 1991.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Risk Reduction Engineering
Laboratory.  Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

   EPA Document No.: EPA/600/D-91/164
   NTIS Document No.: PB91-226340/XAB

The paper describes and discusses physical testing to characterize wastes treated by the
Soliditech cement solidification/stabilization process.  Morphological measurements included
documented observations and measurements of the structure and form of the treated materials.
The paper provides data to relate easily measured physical and morphological properties with
intensive chemical extraction and solute teachability information obtained from standardized
tests [1].

27. Project Summary: Evaluation of Solidification/Stabilization as a Best Demonstrated
   Available Technology for Contaminated Soils

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory.  Office
of Research and Development.  Cincinnati, OH.

   EPA Document No.: EPA/600/S2-89/013
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

                                           40

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   NTIS Document No.:  PB89-169908

This project summary evaluates the performance of solidification/stabilization as a means of
treating contaminated soils at Superfund sites.  Tests were conducted on artificially contaminated
soils thought to be representative of the types of contaminated soils found at Superfund sites.
Soils were solidified and stabilized using Portland cement, lime kiln dust, and a mixture of lime
and fly ash.  Solidification/stabilization significantly reduced the amount of metal salt
contaminants released, as measured by the EPA Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
(TCLP). Because of large losses of organics during the mixing process, the effect of
solidification/stabilization on the organic leachate could not be quantitatively determined.  The
volatile and semivolatile organic contaminants appeared to  decrease as a result of the
solidification/stabilization process; however, this decrease can be attributed to the compounds'
release to air during processing and curing.  No correlation was observed between unconfined
compressive strength and the results of the leaching tests [1].

28. Project Summary: Interference Mechanisms in Waste Stabilization/Solidification
   Process

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1990.  Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory.  Office
of Research  and Development.  Cincinnati, OH.

   EPA Document No.:  EPA/600/S2-89/067

This project summary presents key findings from a literature search and review concerning
Portland cement and pozzolan chemistry, the effects of admixtures on concrete setting
characteristics, and the effects of common organic waste components on the physical and
containment properties of the final treated waste product.  These topics are presented so that
conclusions may be drawn as to possible types of interferences that may be encountered in typical
waste binder systems. The summary concludes that further experimental work is needed to
obtain physical and chemical data about cementitious and asphaltic treatment systems and that
sufficient basic information should be developed so that waste/binder interactions can be
modeled and testing of each specific waste/binder combination for possible interference can be
overcome [1], [3], [4].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                            41

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29. Project Summary:  Onsite Engineering Report for Solidification/Stabilization
   Treatment Testing of Contaminated Soils

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office
of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

   EPA Document No.: EPA/600/SR-93/051

This project summary evaluates the mechanism of lead fixation by portland cement,
quicklime/fly ash, and cement kiln dust/fly ash on contaminated soil from a Superfund site.  The
study was performed to supply information to the best demonstrated available technology
(BOAT) data base for soil remediation, used to develop soil standards for Land Disposal
Restrictions. Results from the study indicate that soil can be treated to reduce the amount of
teachable lead below the regulatory limit of 5 mg/L with the use of certain binder mixtures.
Portland cement mixtures appear to provide  the best results for stabilizing lead in contaminated
soil used in the tests. The results of the study also indicate the organic content of the soil may
effect the ability of binders to stabilize lead in the soil.  Full characterization of soil being treated
should therefore be performed to determine characteristics that may inhibit stabilization and what
pretreatment procedures should be performed to improve stabilization [1], [2].

30. Silicate Technology Corporation's Solidification/Stabilization Technology for Organic
   and Inorganic Contaminants in Soils.  Applications Analysis Report

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1992. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office
of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

   EPA Document No.: EPA/540/AR-92/010
   NTIS Document No.: PB-93-172948

This Applications Analysis Report evaluates  the solidification/stabilization treatment process of
Silicate Technology Corporation (STC) for the on-site treatment of hazardous waste. The  STC
treatment technology demonstration was conducted under EPA's Superfund Innovative
Technology Evaluation Program in November 1990, at the Selma Pressure Treating wood
preserving site in Selma, California.  STC's contaminated soil treatment process was evaluated
based on contaminant mobility, measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity of the
solidified material, measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations;
and an economic analysis, using cost information supplied by STC and  supplemented by
information generated during the demonstration. This report summarizes the results of the STC
demonstration, the vendor's design and test data, and other laboratory and field applications of
the technology.  It discusses the advantages,  disadvantages, and limitations as well as estimated
costs of the technology [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                            42

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31. Silicate Technology Corporation Solidification/Stabilization Technology SITE
    Demonstration at the SELMA Pressure Treating Site, Selma, CA. Technology
    Evaluation Report

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1995. Risk Reduction Laboratory, Office of Research
and Development.  Cincinnati, OH.

    EPA Document No.: EPA/540/R-95/010.
    NTIS Document No.: PB-95-255709

This Technology Evaluation Report evaluates the solidification/stabilization process of Silicate
Technology Corporation (STC) for the on-site treatment of soils contaminated with organics,
predominantly pentachlorophenol (PCP), and inorganics, mainly arsenic, chromium, and copper.
The STC immobilization technology uses a proprietary product (FMS Silicate) to (1) chemically
stabilize and microencapsulate organic and inorganic wastes and (2) physically solidify the
contaminated soils.  The STC demonstration was conducted under EPA's Superfund Innovative
Technology Evaluation Program in November 1990, at the Selma Pressure Treating wood
preserving site in Selma, CA.  STC's contaminated soil treatment process was evaluated based
on contaminant mobility, measured by numerous leaching tests, and structural integrity of the
solidified material, measured by physical, engineering, and morphological examinations. This
report provides a comprehensive description of the STC demonstration and its results, including
a description of data collection activities, testing procedures, and quality assurance and quality
control results [1],  [2].

32. Soliditech, Inc., Solidification/Stabilization Process, Applications Analysis Report

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory.  Office
of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

    EPA Document No.: EPA/540/A5-89/005
    NTIS Document No.: PB-91-129817

This Applications Analysis Report evaluates the treatment efficiency of the Soliditech, Inc.
(Soliditech), solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils contaminated
with polychlorinated biphenyls, various metals, and petroleum hydrocarbons.  The Soliditech
demonstration was conducted under EPA's Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation
Program in December 1988, at the Imperial Oil Company/Champion Chemical Company
Superfund site in Morganville, New Jersey. The Soliditech treatment process was evaluated
based on contaminant mobility, measured by numerous leaching tests;  structural integrity of the
solidified material, measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations;
and an economic analysis, using cost information supplied by Soliditech and supplemented by
information generated during the demonstration. This report summarizes the results of the
Soliditech demonstration, the vendor's design and test data, and other laboratory and field
applications of the technology.  It discusses the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations as
well as estimated costs of the technology [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

                                            43

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33. Stabilization of Heavy Metals with Portland Cement: Research Synopsis

Wilk, C.M.  1997.  Portland Cement Association.  Skokie, IL.

    PCA Publication No.: IS007

This publication summarizes research on establishing the mechanisms by which portland cement
and portland cement-based reagents immobilize certain toxic heavy metals in inorganic form by
solidification/stabilization treatment. The metals studied include lead, chromium, cadmium,
arsenic, and mercury. This work confirms that cement-based stabilization involves far more than
simple pH control,  and suggests some possible mechanistic explanations for its effectiveness.
The research also investigated certain additives designed to enhance stabilization mechanisms,
and suggests modifications to further improve the immobility of metals [1], [2].

34. Technology Evaluation Report:  Chemfix Technologies, Inc. Solidification/ Stabilization
    Process, Clackamas, Oregon

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory.  Office
of Research and Development.  Cincinnati, OH.

    EPA Document No.:  EPA/540/5-89/01 la
    NTIS Document No.: PB-91-127696

This Technology Evaluation Report evaluates the treatment efficiency of the Chemfix
Technologies, Inc. (Chemfix), solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils
contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls, lead, copper, and  other metals. The Chemfix
demonstration was conducted under EPA's Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation
Program in March 1989, at the Portable Equipment  Salvage Company site in Clackamas County,
Oregon. The Chemfix treatment process was evaluated based on contaminant mobility,
measured by numerous leaching tests;  structural integrity of the solidified material, measured by
physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations; and an economic analysis, using
cost information supplied by Chemfix and supplemented by information generated during the
demonstration.  This report provides a  comprehensive description of the Chemfix demonstration
and its results, including a description of data collection activities, testing procedures, and quality
assurance and quality control results [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                           44

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35. Technology Evaluation Report:  SITE Program Demonstration Test, HAZCON
   Solidification, Douglassville, Pennsylvania

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office
of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

   EPA Document No.: EPA/540/5-89/00 la
   NTIS Document No.: PB-89-158810

This Technology Evaluation Report evaluates the treatment efficiency of the HAZCON
solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils containing a variety of
organic and heavy metal contaminants. The HAZCON demonstration was conducted under
EPA's Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Program in October 1987, at the
Douglassville, Pennsylvania, Superfund site.  The HAZCON treatment process was evaluated
based on contaminant mobility, measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity of the
solidified material,  measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations;
and an economic analysis, using cost information supplied by HAZCON and supplemented by
information generated during the  demonstration.  This report provides a comprehensive
description of the HAZCON demonstration and its results, including a description of data
collection activities, testing procedures, and quality assurance and quality control results [1], [2].

36. Technology Evaluation Report:  SITE Program Demonstration Test, International
   Waste Technologies In Situ  Stabilization/Solidification, Hialeah, Florida

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Office
of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

   EPA Document No.: EPA/540/5-89/004a
   NTIS Document No.: PB-89-194161

This Technology Evaluation Report evaluates the International Waste Technologies HWT-20
additive and the Geo-Con, Inc., deep-soil-mixing equipment for an in situ stabilization/
solidification process and its applicability as an on-site treatment method for waste site cleanup.
The in situ treatment technology demonstration was conducted under EPA's Superfund
Innovative Technology Evaluation Program in April 1988,  at the General Electric Company
electric service shop in Hialeah, Florida. Soil at the site contained polychorinated biphenyls and
localized concentrations of volatile organics and heavy metal concentrations. This report
provides an interpretation of the available data and presents conclusions on the results of the
demonstration, as well as the potential  applicability of the technology at other sites [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                           45

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37. Technology Evaluation Report: SITE Program Demonstration Test, Soliditech, Inc.
    Solidification/Stabilization Process

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989.  Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory.  Office
of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

    EPA Document No.: EPA/540/5-89/005a
    NTIS Document No.:  PB-91-129817

This Technology Evaluation Report evaluates the treatment efficiency of the Soliditech, Inc.
(Soliditech), solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils contaminated
with polychlorinated biphenyls, various metals, and petroleum hydrocarbons. The Soliditech
demonstration was conducted under EPA's Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation
Program in December 1988, at the Imperial Oil Company/Champion Chemical Company
Superfund site in Morganville, New Jersey. The Soliditech treatment process was evaluated
based on contaminant mobility, measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity of the
solidified material, measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations;
and an economic analysis, using cost information supplied by Soliditech and supplemented by
information generated during the demonstration. This report provides a comprehensive
description of the Soliditech demonstration and its results, including a description of data
collection activities, testing procedures, and quality assurance and quality control results [1], [2].

WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

38. Capability of Cementitious  Materials in the Immobilization Process of Hazardous
    Waste Materials

Poellmann, H. 1993. In Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Cement
Microscopy.  Dallas, TX. Pages  108-126.

This paper investigates and summarizes the capabilities of cementitious materials in
immobilizing  hazardous waste materials, including inorganic  and organic contaminants. The
fixation of chlorine, anions, heavy metals, and some organic compounds is discussed and
strongly depends on the type of waste and cement used.  Depending on the chemical and mineral
compositions, various systems must be used,  and detailed investigations are necessary for every
waste material. In most cases, fixation in the crystal lattice plays an important role,  and the
formation of a microporous structure of the hydrated material intensifies the quality of the
fixation and solidification process. The combination of different mineral reservoirs,  for example
anhydrous material and hydration products, can increase the  immobilization process of hazardous
materials.  In  the fixation process, incorporation of toxic substances in crystal lattices is
necessary for the immobilization, but a dense microstructure can improve leaching tendencies
[1], [2]
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                            46

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39. Cement-Based Solidification of Ferro-Alloy Flue Dusts

Cohen, B., and J.G. Price. 1995. In Proceedings of the Canadian Institute of Mining,
Metallurgy, and Petroleum on Waste Processing and Recycling in Mineral and Metallurgical
Industries. Vancouver, Canada. Pages 297-308.

Flue dusts from ferro-alloy furnaces contain metal phases with a potential mobility that precludes
them from being disposed of directly into landfills. This paper describes the use of cement-based
solidification/stabilization in the treatment of such wastes. A review is given of the binding and
retention mechanisms of metals within cement products.  In this work, a model is presented for
the containment of solid waste products where water is present only to promote cement
hydration.  The metals chromium and zinc are considered in detail due to their differing
mechanisms of containment [1], [2].

40. Chemical Aspects of Incorporating Contaminated Soil Into Cold-Mix Asphalt

Testa, S.M.  1994. In Proceedings Superfund XV:  Environmental Conference and Exhibition
for the Hazardous Materials/Hazardous Waste Management Industry. Washington, DC.  Pages
1,439-48.

This paper presents the chemical aspects associated with the incorporation of petroleum
hydrocarbons and metals-contaminated soil into an asphalt mix with an emphasis on pavement
properties, leaching behavior, sensitivities to moisture damage, and functional group analysis.
This study provides information that can be used to evaluate the stability of these constituents in
soil after being incorporated as an ingredient in asphalt, and it indicates that cold-mix asphalt that
incorporates contaminated soil will be highly stable and will perform adequately as an end
product.  Maximum chemical performance is achieved when the asphalt consists of high
concentrations of pyridinic, phenolic, and ketone groups, which can be achieved by selectively
choosing the source material. If the situation requires special stability or redundancy, small
amounts  of shale oil and lime can be used as additives. Situations and conditions that favor the
presence of inorganic sulfur, monovalent salts, and high strength solutions in the asphalt should
be avoided because these conditions decrease the chemical stability of the asphalt cement by (1)
disruption the functional group aggregate bonds and (2) increasing the overall permeability [1],
[2]

41. Chemical Stabilization of Contaminated Soils and Sludges Using  Cement and Cement
    By-Products

Conner, J.R., Cotton, S. and Lear, PR. 1992. In Proceedings of the First International
Symposium, Cement Industry Solution to Waste Management. Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
Published by Canadian Portland Cement Association.  Pages 73-97.

There are three basic elements in the chemistry of stabilized wastes:  the waste, the stabilization
reagents, and the environment in which the stabilized waste will exist. Proper formulation of the
most cost-effective stabilization method that provides  long-term stability requires a good
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

                                            47

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understanding of the chemistry of the waste-reagent-disposal system. This paper describes the
basics of this chemistry, relating them to a wide range of treatability study results and on-site
project case histories.  Stabilization data on both metals and low-level organics is presented [1],
[2], [3], [4]

42. Chemistry and Microstructure of Solidified Waste Forms

Spence, R.D.  1993. Editor. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL.

This book contains proceedings from the Chemistry and Microstructure of Solidified Waste
Forms Symposium sponsored by the Environmental Division of the American Chemical Society
at the National Meeting in New York City in 1991.  These published proceedings contain written
versions of most, but not all, of the papers presented orally. The symposium and its proceedings
were limited to cementitious, or cement-based, solidified or stabilized waste forms.  The book
represents the level of knowledge of the chemistry, microstructure, and mechanisms of
solidification/stabilization among prominent research centers in the United States and Europe.
Authors were asked to summarize or review their organization's contribution over the years and
to specifically introduce the reader to their organization's achievements and past publications.
For example, information is presented on materials other than cement that are used to generate
cementitious waste forms, including lime, fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, and
combinations. In addition, cementitious waste forms do not include waste encapsulated in
polymers, such as bitumen, polyethylene, and vinyl ester styrene, or vitrified in glass waste
forms. The book is intended to reflect the current state-of-the-art in the chemistry and
microstructure of solidified waste forms.  The book also informs professionals working the field
about the experiences  and accomplishments at other sites and provides a wealth of references [1],
[2]

43. Designing a Better Matrix for Solidification/Stabilization of Hazardous Waste With the
   Aid of Bagasse (Lignin) as a Polymer Additive to Cement

Bourgeois, J.C.,  and others.  1996.  In Proceedings  of the Spring National Meeting of the
American Chemical Society.  New Orleans, LA. Page 416.

The proceedings address the need for a better solidification/stabilization matrix to help solve the
hazardous waste disposal problem.  In this  study, the waste-cement matrix is improved by
incorporating a polymer additive into the matrix.  The polymer enhances the encapsulation and
penetration of the cement system into the interstitial spaces of the waste.  To make the  process
more economically feasible, the source polymer was lignin obtained from the large excess of
bagasse produced each year from sugar cane processors. The studies were conducted with lead
as the initial heavy metal waste source [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                            48

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44. Environmental Aspects of Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous and
   Radioactive Wastes, Volume 1, STP-1033

Cote, P., and T.M. Gilliam.  1989. Editors.  American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM).  West Conshohocken, PA.

   ASTM Publication Code No.: 04-010330-56

This Special Technical Publication contains 33 peer-reviewed papers of the 62 papers presented
at the 4th International Hazardous Waste Symposium on Environmental Aspects of
Stabilization/Solidification of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes, held in Atlanta, Georgia, in
1987. Although the two scientific communities work with chemically hazardous or low-level
radioactive waste and are faced with similar problems and technologies, the symposium
represented the first forum for technology exchange between them. The symposium provided an
occasion to understand the gap that separates the two groups, which use a shortly different
vocabulary and are subject to markedly different regulations.  The papers in this Special
Technical Publication are grouped into four chapters: (1) processes, (2) regulatory aspects and
testing methods, (3) laboratory evaluation, and (4) large-scale evaluation or demonstration [1],
[2]

45. Evaluation of Long-Term Effectiveness of Solidified and Stabilized Wastes

Badamchian, B., and others. 1995. In Proceedings Superfund XVI: Environmental Conference
and Exhibition for the Hazardous Materials/Hazardous Waste Management Industry.
Washington, DC. Pages 599-608.

This paper evaluates chemical,  physical, and leaching data from field samples of solidified and
stabilized wastes collected 6 years after the Soliditech, Inc., and Chemfix Technologies, Inc.
Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation demonstrations. The study is the first of a two-part
study that evaluates the long-term effectiveness of the solidification/stabilization processes used
to treat  contaminated soils and hazardous  wastes. Part II is a doctoral dissertation that evaluates
the mineralogical alteration of the treated wastes over time  and explores the fundamental
mechanisms of degradation that affect the  permanent containment of metals and the durability of
solidified and stabilized wastes [1], [4].

46. Immobilization Technology Seminar Speaker Slide Copies and Supporting Information

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989.  Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory.  Office
of Research  and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

   EPA Document No.: CERI-89-222

This document provides  copies of speaker slides and supporting text regarding the use of
solidification/stabilization and vitrification technologies to immobilize hazardous waste.  The
seminar material is comprised of eight sections: (1) immobilization processes  overview; (2)
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

                                            49

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descriptions of solidification and stabilization technologies; (3) description of vitrification
technology; (4) physical testing methods for determining effectiveness of
solidification/stabilization processes; (5) chemical testing methods for determining effectiveness
of solidification/stabilization processes; (6) technology screening procedures for determining if
solidification/stabilization should be implemented; (7) field implementation procedures utilized
for solidification/stabilization; and (8) quality assurance procedures for ensuring long-term
performance [1], [2], [3], [4].

47. Laboratory and Field-Scale Test Methodology for Reliable Characterization of
   Solidified/Stabilized Hazardous Wastes

Gray, K.E., and others.  1995. In Proceedings Air & Waste Management Association
International Symposium on Field Screening Methods for Hazardous Wastes and Toxic
Chemicals. Las Vegas, NV. Pages 575-82.

This paper presents a method for flow-through leach testing and discusses preliminary testing
using strontium-doped, cement-based solidification/stabilization samples. The complementary
and necessary characterization of the solidification/stabilization matrix, before and after testing,
is discussed in relation to the total evaluation of the laboratory- and field-scale testing for
predicting long-term performance of solidification/stabilization technology as well as its design
and improvement. This report describes existing laboratory testing systems that are well suited
for accelerated testing of solidification/stabilization waste forms. An overview of the available
testing systems is given, and a prototype test, including preliminary test results, is discussed. The
document also outlines complementary materials characterization methods currently being
applied [1].

48. Laboratory, Regulatory, and Field Leaching of Solidified Waste

Stegeman, J.A., Caldwell, R.J. and Shi, C.  1996.  In Proceeding of the International Conference
on Incineration and Thermal Treatment Technologies. Savannah, GA. Pages 75-80.

This paper presents the results of a field solidification study to validate a proposed laboratory
evaluation protocol for solidified wastes. A project was initiated which involved placement of
63m  of solidified electric arc furnace dust in a field test. Field leaching data were compared
with the results from a low liquid-to-solid ratio distilled water batch extraction, a buffered
extraction with a target pH of 5, and a regulatory  leaching test based on 2 eq/kg acetic acid
solution, for the  contaminants boron, cadmium, lead, and mercury. Equilibrium modeling was
performed to assist in interpretation of the laboratory and field data.  The distilled water
extraction test provided a good estimate of initial  leachate  concentrations in the field for boron,
cadmium, chromium, and lead, but peak teachability of mercury was underestimated
significantly.  The pH 5 test was developed to estimate long-term availability of contaminants
under severe environmental conditions.  The pH regime created by the regulatory test is arbitrary
and therefore less useful  in  predicting field teachability [1], [4].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                             50

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49. Material Handling Equipment for the Preparation of Wastes for Stabilization
    Treatment

Lear, P.R., Schmitz, DJ. and Brickner, RJ. 1995.  In Proceedings of the Air & Waste
Management Association 88th Annual Meeting & Exhibition. San Antonio, TX.

    A&WMA Paper Reprint No. 95-RP130.01

Stabilization treatment at hazardous waste sites contaminated with heavy metals can be
complicated by the materials handling aspects of the waste material and associated debris.  The
proper materials handling equipment must be selected and assembled to efficiently handle,
prepare, and/or separate the waste material and debris before the stabilization treatment process
occurs.  This paper discusses the types of materials handling equipment available, the efficacy of
the equipment for dealing with waste material and debris, and the effect of the equipment on the
stabilization treatment process based on full-scale experience [1], [2].

50. Petrographic Techniques Applied to Cement Solidified Hazardous Wastes

Wakeley, L.D., and others.  1992. In Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Cement Microscopy. Costa Mesa, CA. Pages 287-89.

The proceedings present data from petrographic and nondestructive analytical techniques applied
to treated waste forms to show that  such data is needed to determine if treated waste materials
have stable phase composition and if their microstructures demonstrate uniform waste disposal.
The cementitious solids of a solidified waste bind the waste physically and may bind it
chemically, allowing it to pass performance tests required for its transportation and disposal. A
largely separate family  of standard test methods has evolved for solidified wastes because it
represents an entirely separate use for cements. Some of these  methods  refer to or were based on
standard methods from concrete technology. This paper reviews several of the concrete
technology techniques to determine  if they are appropriate for such waste forms and what unique
and useful information they can provide for determining the likelihood of waste form  durability
[1], [3]

51. Portland Cement-Based Solidification/Stabilization Treatment of Waste

Wilk, C.M.  1998.  In Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium and Exhibition on
Environmental Contamination  in Central and Eastern Europe.

This paper discusses the applicability of the portland cement-based solidification/stabilization
technology to various wastes; basic  cement chemistry relating to solidification/stabilization; tests
used to design treatability studies and to verify treatment; basics on implementation of the
technology in the field; and examples of actual projects [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                            51

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52. Quality Analysis of Field Solidified Waste

Stegemann, J.A., and others.  1995. In Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Symposium on
Groundwater and Soil Remediation. Toronto, Canada. Pages 553-55.

Factors responsible for variation in solidified products under field conditions, such as dosing and
homogenization of binder and waste conditions, were reviewed to establish a method that could
predict the magnitude of such variations and make solidification technology acceptable to
regulators and waste generators. Random samples of solidified electric arc furnace dust were
tested for bulk density, moisture content, specific gravity, contaminant concentrations, initial
teachability, acid neutralization capacity, unconfmed compressive strength, and freeze-thaw
resistance.  Variability in these properties were expressed in common statistical parameters and
were compared with the design formulation prepared at laboratory scale. Within the field
samples, chemical and leaching properties varied considerably. Despite the variations, the
overall characteristics of the field samples met the performance criteria for physical
encapsulation of contaminants recommended by Environment Canada's Wastewater Technology
Center solidified waste evaluation protocols  [1].

53. Recent Advances in Stabilization and  Solidification

Cocke, D.L., and others. 1994. In Proceedings Spring National Meeting of the American
Chemical Society.  San Diego, CA. Pages 537-41.

Recent advances in the use of cement, cementitious products, pozzolanic, and mixed
environmental materials for stabilization and solidification of priority pollutants are discussed in
the context of recently developed concepts and models.  These advances in understanding are
being achieved by using modern analytical techniques to  examine the surface and bulk properties
of solidification/stabilization systems.  Substantial progress has been made in understanding the
binding chemistry and leaching mechanisms of priority pollutants in cement-based systems;
however, future challenges will require that waste management researchers extend such progress
to more complex hazardous waste problems  than those being attacked today. Commercial
vendors will need to  design more complex solidification/stabilization schemes to meet the
growing use of this technology for hazardous waste management in complex waste systems
containing  both organics and  inorganics.  The recent findings are summarized and correlated with
the design of improved solidification/stabilization systems by using effective models to aid in the
long-term management of toxic wastes [1], [2],  [4].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                            52

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54. Remediation of Oil Refinery Sludge Basin

Adaska, W.S., Bruin, W.T. and Day, S.R.  1992. In Proceedings of the First International
Symposium, Cement Industry Solutions to Waste Management. Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
Published by Canadian Portland Cement Association.  Pages 119-134.

This paper discusses the remediation of a 5.5 acre storm water sludge basin for an oil refinery
company. The closure plan included a combination cement-bentonite slurry wall and jet grouting
along the perimeter of the basin.  The sludge and contaminated soil beneath the basin were
solidified in place using a specifically developed soil mixing technique. The paper presents the
site evaluation, closure plan, preconstruction testing programs, and field testing and construction
that occurred and summarizes the results of the remediation [1], [2].

55. Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes, Volume
   2, STP-1123

Gilliam, T.M., and C.C. Wiles.  1992.  Editors.  American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM). West Conshohocken, PA.

   ASTM Publication Code No.: 04-011230-56

This publication contains papers presented at the symposium on Stabilization and Solidification
of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes,  held in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1990. The
symposium series provides a forum for technical exchange between researchers working with
solidification/stabilization technologies for both low-level radioactive and chemically hazardous
wastes.  The papers presented in this publication are grouped into six sections:  (1) regulatory and
technical guidance; (2) speciality wastes: organics, ashes, and resins; (3) laboratory-scale
teachability studies; (4) laboratory-scale process and development; (5) test  method development;
and (6) large-scale evaluation or demonstration [1], [2], [4].

56. Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes. Volume
   3, STP-1240

Gilliam, T.M., and C.C. Wiles.  1996.  Editors.  American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM). West Conshohocken, PA.

   ASTM Publication Code No.: 04-012400-56

The conference proceedings present papers given at the symposium on Stabilization and
Solidification of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes, held in Williamsburg, Virginia, in
1993. The symposium series provides a forum for technical exchange between researchers
working  with solidification/stabilization technologies for both low-level radioactive and
chemically hazardous waste. The scientific community has been focusing attention on
understanding and predicting the long-term containment prospects of waste treated with this

Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

                                            53

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technology.  Consequently, most papers presented in this publication address to some extent one
or both of the two principal issues associated with long-term containment:  teachability and
durability. As defined in the overview of the proceedings, teachability refers to the release of
contaminants from the waste upon exposure to an aqueous media, whereas durability refers to the
ability of the waste to maintain its structural integrity upon exposure to expected environmental
conditions [1], [2], [3],  [4].

57. Synthesis, Crystal Chemistry and Stability of Ettringite, a Material with Potential
    Applications in Hazardous Waste Immobilization

Me Carthy, G.J., and others.  1992.  In Proceedings of the Materials Research Society
Symposium.  Volume 245.  Pages 129-140.

These proceedings present results of the synthesis, crystal chemistry, structure, and stability of
ettringite with specific reference to the use of this mineral in hazardous waste immobilization.
The potential connection between reductions in leachate hazardous element concentrations and
ettringite formation led to the ongoing research program to investigate and then optimize the
immobilization of hazardous elements in solid wastes and sludges particularly after solidification
with ettringite-forming cementitious coal residuals or commercially-available cements. The
long-term stability and hazardous element teachability of the ettringite-containing products is
then evaluated.  As research moves from the laboratory to the field, more attention to latent
ettringite potential will be necessary.  Future research should include a detailed evaluation of the
stability of such composite waste forms under geochemically relevant conditions [1], [2], [4].

58. The Present State-of-the-Art of Immobilization of Hazardous Heavy Metals in Cement-
    Based Materials

Bonen, D., and S.L. Sarkar. 1994. In Proceedings of an Engineering Foundation Conference on
Advances in Cement and Concrete.  American Society of Civil Engineers. Durham, NH. Pages
481-498.

This paper discusses the current state of knowledge involving solidification/stabilization of
metals in cement-based materials. The common notion that no further reaction occurs between
the waste and the binder after solidification/stabilization does not hold for Portland cement,
because it overlooks possible long-term deterioration due to environmental corrosion.  The report
discusses the various types of chemical attack that Portland cement-based materials are prone to,
including corrosion by soft water, ground water, and carbon dioxide-bearing water. This paper is
aimed at stimulating awareness  on the complexities involved in immobilizing waste in
cementitious materials [3], [4].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                             54

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59. Treatability Study of the Stabilization of Chromium Contaminated Waste.

McGahan, J.F., and D. Martin.  1994. In Proceedings of Waste Management '94: Working
Towards a Cleaner Environment, Technology and Programs for Radioactive Waste Management
and Environmental Restoration. Tucson, AZ.  Pages 1493-1497.

This paper presents a process developed to immobilize chromium in calcined uranyl nitrate
mixed waste, resulting in a waste form that can be disposed of as radioactive, nonhazardous
waste.  A treatability test program was initiated to define the optimum conditions for the
chemical reduction pretreatment step needed to stabilize the contaminated waste. Sodium
dithionite was determined to be the reducing agent of choice.  A dithionite demand experiment
was run to determine the optimum dithionite dose. This dose, plus 67 percent excess, was added
to each sample. Four stabilization systems at three dosage levels were investigated. The best
performing reagent system was chosen for scale-up and more stringent performance testing.  In
one of the tested reagent systems involving Portland cement sodium silicate and dithionite, all of
the samples exhibited TCLP extract concentrations for chromium well below the regulatory limit.
One sample of Portland cement and blast furnace  slag blend passed, and none of the samples of
cement-fly ash and cement alone passed for teachable chromium.  The scaled-up  samples passed
the performance criteria, and the process has successfully converted mixed waste into radioactive
waste for disposal [2].

BOOKS AND DISSERTATIONS

60. A Surface Characterization of Priority Metal Pollutants in Portland Cement

McWhinney, H.G.  1990. Doctoral Dissertation,  Texas A&M University.

This dissertation characterizes the binding mechanisms of selected metal pollutants in Portland
cement used in solidification/stabilization technologies. Surface analytical techniques were used
to evaluate the relationship of lead, chromium, zinc, cadmium, mercury, and barium to the
hydrated cementitious material.  The location of metal ions with respect to the bulk and surface
of the cement matrix was evaluated as a function of the interfacial phenomena of the alkaline
medium in the synthetic wastes. Chromium tended to concentrate in the bulk, while lead
concentrations were high on the surface. Zinc, cadmium, and mercury exhibited  similar
chemistries in the highly buffered alkaline medium, but their distribution in the final
solidification product differed.  Mercury, as mercuric oxide, occurred in isolated  deposits within
the cement matrix.  Barium-doped cement contained large areas rich in calcium.  There is also
evidence that barium sulfate and carbonate will form.  All cation-doped cement showed increases
in surface carbonate content [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                            55

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61. Chemical Fixation and Solidification of Hazardous Wastes

Conner, J.R.  1990. Van Nostrand Reinhold.  New York, NY.

This reference book discusses in detail the principles of chemical fixation (stabilization) and
solidification of hazardous wastes. Information is provided for using various inorganic binder
materials, including Portland cement, soluble silicates, lime, fly ash, kiln dust, and other lime-
based products.  Organic binders also are described in the text. Hazardous wastes and waste
sources, as well as in situ and ex situ treatment processes are discussed. The text also includes
descriptions of commonly used test methods, including the EPA Extraction Procedure Toxicity
Test, Multiple Extraction Procedure, Oily Wastes Extraction Procedure, and Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching Procedure, as well as California's Waste Extraction Test (WET) and the
American Nuclear Society ANS 16.1 Test Procedure. Information sources, computer
applications,  and research developments also are included [1], [2].

62. Effectiveness of Sulfur for Solidification/Stabilization of Metal Contaminated Wastes

Lin, S.L.  1995.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Georgia Institute of Technology.

This research evaluates the use of over-supplied materials recovered from waste streams (such as
sulfur) to  stabilize lead-contaminated soils; such soils can then be used as construction materials,
such as roadway fill.  Sulfur polymer cement (SPC) was considered a possible binder or
stabilizing agent for the solidification and stabilization of hazardous, low-level radioactive, and
mixed wastes. Elemental sulfur recovered from industrial waste streams was also used to
supplement asphalt cement by blending it with the asphalt to form sulfur-extended asphalt.  The
sulfur-extended asphalt is used for pavement and construction and has  excellent performance
characteristics.  The research found that the use of sulfur alone (or SPC) could  not stabilize lead
compounds satisfactorily. However,  more promising results were obtained with the use of sulfur
modified by sodium sulfide or sodium sulfite.  The sodium-sulfur compounds chemically react
with the heavy metals and physicochemically bind them to form stable compounds, significantly
reducing the teachability of the metals.  Metal levels in sulfur-treated wastes may be reduced to
the point that the wastes can be used in some forms of construction materials [2].

63. Permanence of Metals Containment in  Solidified and Stabilized Wastes

Klich, I.  1997.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Texas A&M University.

This dissertation reviews the current literature available on containing metals  in solidified and
stabilized wastes treated with inorganic binders, such as Portland cement, fly  ash, and other
soluble silicates. The research examines the mineralogic  alterations of seven metal-bearing
solidified and stabilized wastes that were landfilled or stored aboveground for up to 6 years. The
extent of degradation after the 6 years was found to be slight to moderate; however, pervasive
cracking was observed at the macro-, micro-,  and  submicroscopic scales.  In addition, chemical
weathering features were documented.  The research verified that wastes treated with cement,
like hardened concrete, are metastable both physically and chemically under ambient conditions.

Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

                                             56

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Over time, treated wastes will attempt to reach equilibrium with the surrounding environment.
Therefore, the same environmental concerns that affect the durability of concrete must be
considered when evaluating the durability and permanence of cement-stabilized and solidified
wastes.  Burial of cement-based solidified and stabilized wastes in deleterious environmental
zones, such as acid or saline soils, as well as fluctuating ground water systems, are not
recommended [1], [3], [4].

64. Stabilization of Arsenic Wastes

Taylor, M., and R.W. Fuessle.  1994.  Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources and
Hazardous Waste Research Information Center. Champaign,  IL. Report No. HWRIC RR-073.

The focus of this research is the development and understanding of a treatment technology for
arsenic wastes that are not wastewaters.  The document addresses a research need by developing
a greater microchemical and microstructural understanding of why stabilization works in some
cases and not in others and by comparing methods of pretreatment to eliminate or minimize
interferences and to predict whether the treatment will last or not.  These guidelines aid in
deciding which arsenic wastes are amenable to stabilization.  The recommendations include
pretreatment dosages and mix design parameters. These guidelines are intended to improve the
design and operation of commercial arsenic stabilization processes  [2].

JOURNAL REFERENCES

65. A Critical Review of Stabilization/Solidification Technology

Conner, J.R. and Hoeffner. S.L.  1998. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and
Technology. 28(4): 397-462.

This article reviews the methods of solidification/stabilization critically in light of the current
regulatory atmosphere that controls and often mandates their use.  The processes and techniques
of solidification/stabilization have matured into an accepted and important  part of environmental
technology.  As a result, many methods have been promoted recently and offered for the
treatment of hazardous and other wastes from industry, municipalities, and government sources.
An overview of the technology is provided. The generic and proprietary
solidification/stabilization processes (chemical, physical, and thermal) are described.  Of those,
six generic chemical processes that dominate the field and encompass nearly  all the treatment
work and proprietary products to date are discussed. Current and anticipated major waste
streams using the technology today are summarized and the solidification/stabilization approach
for each are reviewed [1], [2].

66. A Long-Term Leachability Study of Solidified Wastes by the Multiple Toxicity
    Characteristic Leaching Procedure

Lee, C.H., and others.  1994. Journal of Hazardous Materials.

This paper discusses the use of the multiple toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (MTCLP)
to evaluate the long-term teachability of solidified wastes.  Two cement-based, solidified,
mercury-containing wastes and one untreated waste were evaluated by the MTCLP to simulate

Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

                                            57

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the long-term leaching behavior of heavy metal contaminants in these wastes in an improperly
designed sanitary landfill.  The MTCLP combines multiple extraction procedure and the TCLP,
which are being used by the EPA. The study presents the experimental procedures of the
MTCLP as well as the results of the chemical analysis of leachates obtained from the MTCLP of
the mercury-bearing wastes [1], [4].

67. A Model to Predict the TCLP Leaching of Solidified Organic Wastes

Faschan, A., and others.  1996. Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Materials.   13:333-350.

This study evaluates the effects of organoclay adsorption on the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching
Procedure results for solidified organic wastes. Linear adsorption isotherms were developed for
the adsorption of 1,2-dichlorobenzene (DCB) and nitrobenzene (NB) by five organoclays on
simulated wastes solidified with various combinations of Type I Portland cement.  A model was
developed to predict the teachability of organic wastes solidified using organoclays. The model
is limited to predictions for nonionic organic compounds and predicts the slope of linear
adsorption isotherms dependent on (1) the Kow of the organic compound solidified and (2) the
percent organic matter of the organoclay utilized. The predicted adsorption isotherm slope is
then corrected using several factors developed in the study.  One factor corrects for differences in
actual leaching results compared to results predicted by the isotherm based on the encapsulation
of the organic-organoclay mixture by cement. Another  factor corrects for differences in actual
and predicted leaching results due to different sample curing times [1].

68. A Proposed Protocol for Evaluation of Solidified Wastes

Stegemann, J.A., and PL. Cote.  1996. Science of the Total Environment.  178:103-110.

Solidification technologies are potentially useful for improving the chemical and physical
properties of hazardous wastes to the extent that they are suitable for less expensive disposal or
even utilization.  Unfortunately, in most jurisdictions worldwide, there is no mechanism for
reclassifying a treated, previously hazardous waste, as nonhazardous. In response to the need for
such a mechanism, this study proposes a protocol of test methods for cement-based solidified
wastes.  The suggested test methods examine contaminant partitioning as a result of chemical
specification, potential for slow release of contaminants, mobility of the  contaminants in the
solidified waste matrix, and the durability of the matrix.  Most of the suggested tests are
standards from the fields of hazardous and radioactive wastes, some of which have been
evaluated in a cooperative study initiated by Environment Canada with vendors of solidification
processes. Based on the performance of a solidified product in the tests, it is considered for four
utilization and disposal scenarios, including unrestricted utilization, controlled  utilization,
segregated landfill, and sanitary landfill.  The protocol represents  a first attempt to develop a
management tool for solidified waste that accounts for its physical and leaching characteristics in
different disposal scenarios [1].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
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69. A Review of Solidification/Stabilization Interferences

Trussell, S., and R.D. Spence.  1994. Waste Management.  14:507-519.

This paper reviews the literature on interferences between hazardous wastes and cement and the
fundamental chemical mechanisms that inhibit the setting of cement. From this fundamental
information, it is possible to reach some conclusions about the potential effects of most waste
constituents even in the absence of particular studies on specific compounds.  Decisions on the
appropriate disposition of wastes containing both organic and inorganic compounds should first
determine whether any waste constituents compromise the strength or stability of the waste form
or are highly teachable. Often interferences can be mitigated decrease the teachability of the
waste constituents.  Organic and inorganic wastes, as well as low-level radioactive wastes are
considered [2].

70. Cement-Based Solidification/Stabilization of Lead-Contaminated Soil at a Utah
   Highway Construction Site

Wilk, C.M. and Arora, R.  1995.  Remediation, The Journal of Environmental Cleanup Costs,
Technologies & Techniques.  Reprints available through PCA (PCA Publication No.: RP332).

This article describes portland cement-based solidification/stabilization treatment of heavy metal-
contaminated soil.  The soil was discovered during highway construction in West Jordan, Utah.
The article includes a discussion of the excavation; size segregation; reduction of oversized
particles; addition and mixture of portland cement and cement kiln dust; and beneficial use of the
treated soil as a subbase for building a pavement for composting operations at a municipal
landfill [1], [2].

71. Cement-Based Stabilization/Solidification of Organic Contaminated Hazardous Wastes
   Using Na-Bentonite  and Silica Fume

Shin, H.S., and K.S. Jun.  1995. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. 30:651-668.

This study investigates the use of (1) bentonite and briquette ash as adsorbents for organic
components and heavy metals in industrial wastes and (2) silica fume as an admixture to improve
the solidified wastes with cement.  Chrome tanning wastes containing up to 1.5 percent organic
carbon and 1.2 percent chromium were treated with sodium montmorillonite (bentonite) and
briquette ash. The organic components and heavy metals of the waste were well adsorbed.
Solidification of the waste, clay, and silica-fume mixtures produced a monolithic mass with high
strength and very low leaching of the organic compounds and the metals.  This study showed that
bentonite and briquette ash could be successful adsorbents for the organic contaminant and heavy
metals in industrial wastes, which enabled them to be treated by cement-based solidification.
Also, the use of silica-fume was highly effective in achieving high compressive strength and low
permeability.  Cement-based solidification with the bentonite, briquette ash, and silica-fume gave
solid products which set rapidly and were far stronger and more homogeneous than the sole

Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

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cement-based solidification.  The total organic carbon was reduced by 60 to 78 percent for the
wastes tested compared with the conventional cement-based solidified waste, and the release of
heavy metals was reduced by 52 to 70 percent [2].

72. Cement Binders for  Organic Wastes

Owens, J.W., and S. Stewart. 1996. Magazine of Concrete Research. 48:37-44.

Three cyclic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, and ortho-xylene), each a known volatile organic
compound (VOC), is produced in large quantities by the synthetic chemical manufacturing
industry.  The hydrocarbons were loaded into Portland cement matrices and stored in a similar
organic solvent, o-dichlorobenzene, for 2 months. The leaching characteristics of these three
VOCs were measured using gas chromatography and a flame ionization detector.  The objective
of this study was to assess the comparative leaching characteristics of these organic contaminants
in cement matrices stored in another organic solvent compared with storage in air.  The leaching
characteristics of benzene, toluene, and ortho-xylene from Portland cement stored in o-
dichlorobenzene were compared with reported values for similar organic contaminants loaded
into cement matrices stored in water.  Results indicate that the leaching of benzene, toluene, and
ortho-xylene from Portland cement is erroneously high when measured using a weight loss
method [2].

73. Durability Study of a Solidified Mercury-Containing Sludge

Yang, G. C. C.  1993.  Journal of Hazardous Materials.  3 4:217-223.

This paper presents research findings on the durability of a solidified mercury-containing sludge.
A sludge sample was obtained from a chloro-alkali plant and solidified using a commercially
available sludge treatment agent (STAII).  The solidified monoliths were subjected to physical
and chemical durability tests. The physical durability tests (freezing/thawing and wetting/drying
tests) were followed by measurements of unconfined compressive strength and mercury
concentrations resulting from the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP).  The
multiple TCLP was employed for the chemical durability test. The smaller the sludge-to-binder
ratio was, the better the physical and chemical properties a solidified monolith would have. Test
results showed that solidification using the binder STA II reduced the cumulative amount of
mercury leached from 11 percent to less than 0.7 percent by weight [1], [2], [3].

74. Effect of Adsorbents on the Leachability of Cement Bonded Electroplating Wastes

Tamas, F.D., and others.  1992.  Cement and Concrete Research.  22:399-404.

Results from this study indicate that water-soluble cadmium and nickel salts are quantitatively
transformed into insoluble hydroxides within Portland cement matrices; this suggests that other
heavy metals capable of giving insoluble hydroxides in alkaline surroundings would behave
similarly.  Chromates and dichromates formed no insoluble hydroxides, but they were partly

Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

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bound in the cement matrix. Adsorbents (silica fume, fly ash, and activated carbon), with the
exception of fly ash, did not improve the bonding. The use of clinker instead of cement caused a
more intensive bond. Chromium bonding appears to be affected by the presence of gypsum or its
hydration products with clinker aluminates. However, further research is needed to determine if
this sort of disposal is really risk-free, because carbonation may transform insoluble hydroxides
to more soluble carbonates or even hydrocarbonates.  In addition, research is necessary to
determine the durability of the cemented products among extreme conditions, such as
carbonation or other types of acid attack [1], [2].

75. Effect of Carbonation on Microbial Corrosion of Concretes

Ismail, N., and others.  1993.  Journal of Construction Management and Engineering.
20:133-138.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of carbonation on microbial corrosion of
concretes.  The carbonation process involves the reduction of surface pH of concrete and is the
prerequisite for microbial corrosion to occur. Results showed that the carbonated surface layer of
concrete accelerated the surface colonization of sulfur oxidizing bacteria (Thiobacilli thioxidans)
and induced microbial corrosion.  Corrosion rates corresponded well with the carbonation rates.
The formation of gypsum and ettringite in cured products may further result in the complete
decomposition of the hardened concrete [3].

76. Electron Microscopy of Heavy Metal Waste in Cement Matrices

Ivey, D.G., and others.  1990.  Journal of Material Science.  25:5055-5062.

In this study, cements were mixed with various amounts of chromium metal in the form of
nitrates to simulate industrial waste. The mixtures were then investigated to better understand
the distribution and stability of chromium contaminants within solidified and stabilized waste
matrices.  Chromium is known to accelerate the hydration reaction and strength development  in
cement, which may be of practical benefit.  Electron microscopy techniques, including scanning
electron and scanning transmission electron microscopy, were used to study the complex
microstructures associated with the mechanisms of solidification/stabilization. Results showed
that trivalent chromium is chemically contained within the cement structure,  a feature that
appears consistent with accelerating additives.  Cement hydration retarders, such as divalent lead
and zinc, tend not to be chemically contained, but rather may form insoluble salts and tend to
precipitate as dense coatings on the hydrating phases. Accelerators, such as chromium, have
soluble calcium salts and are thus more easily incorporated into the cement hydration products
[1], [2]
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
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77. Evaluation of Solid Waste Stabilization Processes By Means of Leaching Tests

Albino, V, and others. 1996. Environmental Technology. 17:309-315.

The effectiveness of two novel stabilizing matrices were tested in systems where 5 or 10 percent
of soluble nitrates of cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, and zinc were added. The
matrices are based on blast furnace slag, fly ash, gypsum, hydrated lime, and Portland cement.
They owe their effectiveness to the formation of calcium trisulphoaluminate and silicate
hydrates.  The study involved three leaching tests using deionized water,  acetic  acid/sodium
acetate with a pH of 4.74 in a buffer solution, and controlled pH 4 nitric acid solution. In each
test, metals were released to an extent that depends on the nature and initial metal concentration
as well as on the matrix nature.  The results of the leaching tests have shown that neither the
prevailing entrapment mechanism can be understood, nor the long-term release  behavior can be
predicted from a single leaching test [1], [4].

78  Evaluation of the Leaching Properties of Solidified Heavy Metal Wastes

Herr era, E., and  others. 1992. Journal of Environmental Science and Health.  A27:983-998.

The effects of three inorganic materials on the leaching properties of Type I Portland cement
solidification matrix were studied. Cadmium nitrate and  hydroxide sludges of cadmium and lead
were used as the inorganic materials.  Cure times of up to 28 days were studied. Leachability
effects were determined by the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure. Leaching results
indicate that divalent cadmium, in hydroxide or nitrate form, was contained in the cement matrix.
Divalent lead was not found to be readily contained as indicated by the large amounts of lead
leached.  Approximately all of the divalent cadmium was immobilized by the addition of cement
after a 1-day cure time, whereas a considerable amount of divalent lead was still left in a
teachable form after 28 days  [1], [2].

79. Factors for Selecting Appropriate Solidification/Stabilization Methods

Weitzman, L.  1990. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 24:457-468.

This paper presents information that can be used to select solidification/stabilization methods for
treating a given waste. It also discusses binders, including: Portland cement; cement kiln dust;
fly ash mixtures; lime-based binders; absorbents, such as  hydro and organophilic clays, wood
chips, saw dust, and rice hulls; and thermoplastic materials, such as asphalt bitumen and
thermoplastic polymers. Absorbents (such as sawdust or expanded clay) are generally not
considered to be an acceptable method of solidifying liquids.  Solidification/stabilization is
generally not suitable for the stabilization of organics, although it can be used in combination
with other treatment schemes which remove the organics from the waste [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
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80. Feasibility of Using a Mixture of an Electroplating Sludge and a Calcium Carbonate
   Sludge as a Binder for Sludge Solidification

Yang, G.C.C., and K.L. Kao.  1994.  Journal of Hazardous Materials.  36:81-88.

In this work, two industrial wastes, an electroplating sludge and a water purification calcium
carbonate sludge, were obtained, mixed, and heated at 1,000°C for 4 hours. The resulting
material was then tested to determine whether it could be used as a binding material to solidify
the original electroplating sludge.  The heat-treated sludge mixture  did exhibit binding capability
in a cement-based solidification of its original electroplating sludge.  In this study, a modified
Taguchi method was employed for the experimental design of solidification. The heat-treated
sludge mixture was used to partially replace the Type I Portland cement as a binding material up
to 40 weight percent.  The solidified monoliths were then tested to  determine their unconfmed
compressive strengths, Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure  (TCLP) toxicity, and long-
term chemical durability, using the Multiple TCLP. Experimental results were found to be
satisfactory. The concepts of "wastes treating wastes" and resource recycling are thus realized
[1], [2]

81. Fundamental Aspects of Cement Solidification and Stabilization

Roy, A., and F.K. Cartledge.  1997.  Editors.  Journal of Hazardous Materials.  52:151-354.

This special issue of the Journal of Hazardous Materials is  dedicated to peer-reviewed
publications on recent research findings in the  advancement of solidification and  stabilization
technologies that incorporate cement binders.  Various parts of the community involved in
solidification/stabilization research are well represented in the issue, which includes articles from
academia, industry, and government laboratories.  The work reported in this volume shows the
importance of a multidisciplinary approach in dealing with  complex problems.  The topics also
include a number of specific problems, such as long-term matrix changes, that have often been
suggested to be important but are seldom investigated in practice [1], [2], [4].

82. Immobilization Mechanisms in Solidification/Stabilization of Cadmium and Lead
   Salts Using Portland Cement Fixing Agents

Cartledge, F.K., and S.L. Yang. 1990. Environmental Science and Technology.  24:867-873.

This study investigates the behavior of cadmium and lead salts toward cement-based
solidification using the Toxicity Characteristic  Leaching Procedure, conduction, calorimetry, and
solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance as a function of time. Even though cadmium hydroxides
and lead hydroxides have comparable, and very low solubilities, the situation with respect to
cement solidification of aqueous sludges produced by lime treatment of solutions containing
divalent cadmium and lead was found to be quite different.  Concentrations of cadmium in the
leachates were very low, while lead concentrations were considerably higher and would represent
a serious threat to groundwater. Explanations are presented for these differences [1],  [2].

Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

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83. Immobilization of Chromium in Cement Matrices

Kindness, A., and others.  1994.  Waste Management.  14:3-11.

One of the encouraging features of this study has been the ability to isolate the solubility
controlling mechanisms of solidification/stabilization treatment processes.  The physical
potential of cements to immobilize relatively soluble chromium waste species is complemented
by a chemical potential. The nature of the chemical potential varies with concentration, time,
and chromium specification. Conditions favorable for retaining chromium in cement are
characterized by the available alumina to form calcium aluminate hosts and by the chemical
reducing conditions to stabilize trivalent chromium and reduce hexavalent chromium to the less
soluble trivalent species.  Slag cement blends performed well because they meet both criteria.
Other combinations, such as Portland cement with an appropriate reducing agent as well as other
alumina sources, such as  class F fly ash, are also thought to perform well [1], [2].

84. Immobilization of Zinc and Lead From Wastes Using Simple and Fiber-Reinforced
    Lime Pozzolana Admixtures

Debroy, M., and S.S. Dara.  1994. Journal of Environmental Science and Health.  A29:339-355.

This study evaluates the immobilization of zinc and lead present in waste sludges by chemical
fixation and encapsulation methods using lime pozzolana and fiber-reinforced lime-pozzolana
admixtures.  In addition, the report explains fixation and encapsulation techniques. Fixation and
coating with sodium silicate solution produced good results for immobilizing lead and zinc ions,
but encapsulation of heavy metal hydroxide sludge in simple and fiber-reinforced lime-fly ash
mixtures was more efficient. Fiber additives to the admixture may increase the structural
strength of the monolith.  Coating of an encapsulated admixture may provide an additional
immobilization barrier.  The implications of these results for long-term storage  of hazardous
wastes are discussed [1],  [2], [4].

85. Immobilization Science of Cement Systems

Macphee, D.E., and F.P. Glasser.  1993. MRS Bulletin. 3:66-71.

This article highlights recent uses of cements in solidification/stabilization treatment processes
and summarizes results of studies in the interactions of specific waste species and  cement
systems. Various aspects of waste species-cement interactions are reviewed and discussed.  The
differing chemistry of the elements induces a wide range of reactions, and with few exceptions,
each element presents a separate challenge.  Moreover, the nature of the reaction products is
largely time-dependent.  Satisfactory leaching methods developed for metals and glass are not
applicable to cements without some reservations.  The development and interpretation of leach
tests are worthy of attention in order to match the material science with  legislative requirements
[1], [2], [4]
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                            64

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86. Impact of Carbon Dioxide on the Immobilization Potential of Cemented Wastes:
   Chromium

Macias, A., and others.  1997.  Cement and Concrete Research. 27:215-225.

In this paper the effect of carbonation on the immobilization of trivalent and hexavalent
chromium has been studied in both Portland cements and blended cements containing granulated,
glassy, blast furnace slag. Carbon dioxide attack, or carbonation, is the most common form of
concrete environmental attack, and it promotes changes to the cement chemical composition and
physical properties that can affect the durability and long-term retention of heavy metals. The
results show that blends of ordinary Portland cement (Type I) and blast furnace slag are more
suitable matrices for chromium-containing waste and are capable of maintaining chromium pore
fluid contents below 1 part per million  (ppm), even in a completely carbonated state.  Slag, by
virtue of its slow hydration, continues to release  sulfur ions that inhibit any tendency of
chromium to oxidize to hexavalent chromium.  The development of a zonal structure, with
separate chromium-rich and chromium-poor zones, with overall depletion of chromium from the
near-surface layers of carbonated but unleached samples, requires further study. This affects
carbonation rates and will have implications for the modeling of chromium leaching from
matrices [2], [3], [4].

87. Leachability of Lead  from Solidified Cement-Fly Ash Binders

Wang, S.Y., and C. Vipulanandan. 1996.  Cement and Concrete Research. 26:895-905.

The potential of partially replacing cement with class C fly ash to immobilize lead was
investigated.  Lead nitrate up to a concentration of 10 percent (by weight of binder) was
solidified with Type I Portland cement  and a cement-fly ash (equal proportion) mixture.
Addition of fly ash to cement reduced the initial and final setting times, but with the addition of
lead nitrate, setting times were increased. The compressive strength of the solidified cement
decreased with the addition of fly ash and lead nitrate.  Lead teachability from the solidified
binder matrix was studied using the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure. The quantity of
divalent lead leached depended on the initial lead nitrate concentration and the binder systems
adopted. Lead solidified with cement-fly ash mixture showed slightly less leaching compared to
the cement binder [1], [2].

88. Long-Term Behaviour of Toxic Metals in Stabilized Steel Foundry Dusts

Andres, A., I. Ortiz, and others.  1995. Journal of Hazardous Materials.  40:31-42.

This study examines the long-term behavior of stabilized steel foundry dust wastes  using a
dynamic leach test. Two solidified and stabilized waste forms containing lead, chromium,
cadmium,  and zinc were produced using  either cement or cement and anhydrite (waste material)
as binders.  The results of the dynamic leaching test were fitted to a semi empirical mathematical
model based on simple leaching rate mechanisms, which permitted the evaluation of an apparent

Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

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diffusion coefficient and a leachability index; these in turn provided a measure of the
contaminants' mobility in the solidified waste.  In the case of lead and zinc, the rate of leaching
was controlled by either an initial resistance or an initial wash off, followed by diffusion of the
metallic contaminants.  The leaching indices obtained in both cases were higher than 12,
suggesting that both solidification/stabilization processes are acceptable [1], [2], [4].

89. Long-Term Leaching of Metals from Concrete Products

Webster, M.T., and R. C. Loehr. 1996. Journal of Environmental Engineering.  22:714-721.

The long-term leaching of metals from concrete products made with spent abrasive media was
investigated using a sequential procedure that employed both an acidic extraction fluid and
seawater. By using seawater, leaching behavior could be determined under conditions
encountered in the environment (especially coastal areas).  Chromium, cadmium, and lead
concentrations were substantially less for the seawater sequential extractions than for the acidic
sequential extractions.  The environment created during the acidic sequential extractions resulted
in the leaching of substantial amounts of alkalinity from the concrete, and leachate pH levels
dropped below 4 where metals are highly soluble.  The integrity of the calcium matrix within the
concrete seemed to play an important role in the successful stabilization of cadmium and lead
[1], [2], [4]

90. Long-Term Stability of Superplasticized Monoliths of a Solidified Electroplating Sludge

Yang, G.C.C., and C.F. Chang. 1994. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 37:277-283.

In this work, physicochemical durability of Superplasticized monoliths, solidified from an
electroplating sludge, were investigated.  Two categories  of superplasticizer; modified
lignosulphonates and sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensates, were employed in this
study. Each was used as an auxiliary binding agent or as a modifier to ordinary Portland cement,
which was the major binder for solidification.  The solidified monoliths were then subjected to
various physical and chemical tests, including  unconfined  compressive strength (UCS); leaching
toxicity  by the TCLP method; physical durability by freeze/thaw and wet/dry tests; and chemical
durability by the multiple TCLP test. Results  show that Superplasticized, solidified monoliths
outperformed the corresponding control monoliths (without addition of any superplasticizer) in
terms of various physical and chemical properties. Generally, the performance of both
superplasticizers was found to be comparable  in this study. Physical durability testing resulted in
less than 1 percent of corrected, cumulative weight loss for the solidified monoliths modified by
any type of superplasticizer. However, results of UCS measurements have shown that these
same  solidified specimens have deteriorated to some degree after the physical weathering tests.
As for the resistance of solidified monoliths against the leaching of contaminants due to
repetitive precipitation of a synthetic acid rain, multiple TCLP test results indicate that using
either superplasticizer is satisfactory [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
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91. Metals Distribution in Solidified/Stabilized Waste Forms After Leaching

Cheng, K.Y., and P. Bishop.  1992. Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Materials. 9:163-171.

This study examines the morphology, physical structure, and metal compositions of leached
cement-based waste forms using various testing procedures. A series of leach tests were
conducted in the laboratory.  After a sample had been leached for a given period of time, the
leached surface layer was physically separated from the remaining portion of the cement-based
waste form. The metal contents of the surface layer and the remaining unleached waste form
were examined individually.  Data generated from this research is useful in understanding the
fate and transport of metal contaminants leaching out of solidification/stabilization waste forms.
In addition, the metal distribution information is crucial in determining appropriate models used
to predict metal leaching behavior [1].

92. Ordinary Portland Cement Based Solidification of Toxic Wastes: The Role of OPC
   Reviewed

Hills, C.D., and others.  1993.  Cement and Concrete Research.  23:196-212.

The work presented here is part of a wider study of the use of ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
solidification technology. One common concern in the waste management industry is the
vulnerability of OPC hydration to specific waste components. For this study, a mixed waste
stream was solidified in the laboratory using OPC and fly ash in a variety of proportions. The
solidified products were subjected to calorimetric, physical, and microstructural analyses.  The
heat of hydration for OPC and waste mixtures showed that a progressive poisoning of normal
hydration reactions occurred with increasing concentrations of waste. Once poisoned, OPC
failed to act as a cement and was substituted for with fly ash and other products.  Strength
development was found to be related to the heat of hydration, suggesting that conduction
calorimetry could be used to determine the suitability of a particular waste for OPC-based
solidification [1].

93. Portland Cement Gives Concrete Support to Solidification/Stabilization

Wilk, C.M.  1995.  Environmental Solutions.  May.

This report summarizes the role of Portland cement in the solidification/stabilization of
hazardous wastes and discusses the general binding mechanisms of cement components.
Although Portland cement chemistry favors solidification/stabilization processes for inorganic
wastes compounds, the principles of cement-based solidification/stabilization of organic wastes
also  are discussed.   In addition, solidification/stabilization performance criteria for the individual
priority metals are  reviewed, including arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury,
selenium, and silver, as well as copper, nickel, and zinc [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
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94. Potential Application of Ettringite Generating Systems for Hazardous Waste
    Stabilization

Albino, V, and others. 1996. Journal of Hazardous Materials.  51:241-252.

The advantages of ettringite-based stabilization systems over traditional cement-based ones are
presented.  The potential of ettringite generating systems in hazardous waste stabilization
processes is also studied by means of a mixture of anhydrous calcium sulphoaluminate
(ettringite) and anhydrite doped with the nitrates, and six heavy metals including, cadmium,
chromium, copper, iron, lead, and zinc. The presence of metals has only a small negative effect
on the hydration kinetics.  The hydrated samples retain their structural integrity when submitted
to the dynamic leaching test in water and  in pH 4 nitric acid solution; however, they disintegrated
when the leachant is a pH 4.74 acetate buffer.  The ettringite can partially accommodate any
metal in the crystal lattice, thus giving rise to chemical entrapment [1], [2].

95. Preliminary Investigation into the Effects of Carbonation on Cement-Solidified
    Hazardous Wastes

Lange, L.C., and others.  1996.  Environmental Science Technology.  30:25-30.

This paper reports results from preliminary investigations into the effects of carbonation on
cement-solidified waste material.  The waste, which was a commercially blended product, was
solidified using different amounts of ordinary Portland cement (Type I) and cured in three
different environments: nitrogen, air, and  carbon dioxide.  After 28 days, the samples were
investigated for leachate metals fixation, strength,  and microstructural development.
Carbonation solidified products were characterized by enhanced calcite  contents, higher strength
values, and a significant reduction in teachable metals extracted compared to air-cured samples.
Samples cured under a nitrogen atmosphere showed significant retardation of hydration, resulting
in low strength values but improved fixation of teachable metals [1].

96. Reaction of CO2 With Alkaline Solid Wastes to Reduce Contaminant Mobility

Reddy, K.J., and others.  1996.  Water Research.  28:1377-1382.

This study  evaluates the effects of carbon dioxide treatment on the pH and  soluble concentrations
of inorganic contaminants in alkaline fly ash and spent shale solid wastes. A two-level (low and
high), three variable (moisture, time, and  pressure) statistical experiment was used to determine
optimum carbon dioxide conditions. Treated and untreated samples were subjected to solubility
and X-ray diffraction studies. Carbon dioxide treatment conditions of 40 pounds per square inch
of pressure, 20 percent moisture, and  120 hours effectively precipitated  calcite.  These conditions
lowered the pH and teachable concentrations of certain inorganic contaminants, including
cadmium, lead, zinc, manganese, arsenic,  and selenium in alkaline fly ash and spent shale
samples. The  results suggest that reaction with carbon dioxide under slightly elevated pressures
is an effective  means of reducing the soluble concentrations of certain inorganic contaminants in

Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

                                            68

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alkaline solid wastes, which would prevent their migration from disposal environments into
groundwater [1], [2].

97. Recent Findings on Immobilization of Organics as Measured by Total Constituent
    Analysis

Conner, J.R.  1995. Waste Management. 15:359-470.

New hazardous waste stabilization additives and formulations are tested to help waste managers
meet the new EPA total constituent analysis regulatory requirements. The findings evaluate four
cement-based formulations applied to soils containing 50 hazardous organic compounds. Two
proprietary rubber particulate additives were superior relative to carbon organoclay for
stabilization of most constituents. Any of the four additives or their combinations may prove
valuable in immobilizing specific constituents [1], [2].

98. Soil Stabilization Provides In-Situ Toxic Containment

Bornstein, R. and Wehr, F. (1991). California Builder and Engineers. CB&E: 35-36.

This article describes the in situ stabilization of contaminated material at a commercial burning
yard in Rosamond, CA. Included in the article is a discussion of EPA laboratory tests to
determine the best mixture for the soil stabilization, the technique used to excavate and stabilize
the waste, and the results of analysis to determine whether EPA specifications were met. Project
results showed that soil mixture strength, durability,  and permeability met or exceeded the EPA
specifications [1], [2].

99  Solidification/Stabilization of a Heavy Metal Sludge by a Portland Cement/Fly Ash
    Binding Mixture

Roy, A., H.C. Eaton, and others.  1991. Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Materials. 8:33-41.

This paper is another in a series of studies of microchemical mechanisms involved in
solidification/stabilization. A Portland cement/class F fly ash binder was used to solidify a heavy
metal sludge  containing cadmium, chromium, mercury, and nickel. Results indicate a wide
variability in the composition  of partially dewatered sludges.  Such variability can lead to
localized differences in the chemical composition of the solidified material.  Microanalyses of
the cement and fly ash mixtures indicate that fly ash spheres reacted with the Portland cement
component to form a variety of reaction products, including ettringite. The results show that the
sludge had an effect on cementing reactions, and it inhibited the rate  and extent of hydration. To
a minor degree, fly ash was involved in the chemical entrapment of the waste elements [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                            69

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100. Solidification/Stabilization of Arsenic: Effects of Arsenic Specification

Buechler, P., and others.  1996. Journal of Environmental Science and Health.  A31:747-754.

This study evaluates the chemical identity of arsenic compounds subjected to solidification/
stabilization in determining eventual teachability from the treated material. Arsenic compounds
have major effects on the developing cement matrix when Portland cement is the binder.  Of the
compounds studied, the organoarsenic species, arsanilic acid, has the least effect on the
formation of the hydrated cement matrix, but it shows the greatest Toxicity Characteristic
Leaching Procedure effects.  Arsenic trioxide has the greatest effect on the matrix, reducing the
hydration from 70 to 40 percent at 28 days of cure. Arsenate and arsenite salts have intermediate
effects on matrix formation, but they show low teachabilities. An organoarsenic fungicide waste
treated with Portland cement alone showed significant teachability, but teachability was greatly
reduced in the presence of tetramethylammonium bentonite [1], [2].

101. Solidification/Stabilization of Hazardous Waste:  Evidence of Physical Encapsulation

Roy, A.,  and others.  1992. Environmental Science and Technology. 26:1349-1353.

The nature of a synthetic electroplating sludge (EPA waste classification F006) containing
cadmium, chromium, mercury, and nickel, as well as its solidification/stabilization mechanisms
were evaluated by investigating the microscopic morphologies and microchemistry  of the
solidified and stabilized products. The sludge consisted of impure, submicrometer-sized
crystallites  of heavy metal salts that retarded hydration of the ordinary Portland cement (Type I).
However, the hydration products were the same as those formed in the absence of the  sludge.
Morphologies observed in the ordinary Portland cement/sludge samples were distinctly different
from those normally observed in hardened cement.  Physical encapsulation on a microscopic
scale was the principal  mechanism of stabilization [1], [2].

102. Solidification/Stabilization of Heavy Metals in Latex Modified Portland  Cement
     Matrices

Daniali, S.  1990.  Journal of Hazardous Materials. 24:225-230.

This paper  presents preliminary research data to develop latex-modified cement systems for the
solidification/stabilization of inorganic wastes  containing lead and chromium.  Polymers have
long been used to improve the properties of concrete and cement mortar, especially when these
materials are subjected to severe chemical attack.  Results of freeze/thaw durability tests
conducted on the  synthetic wastes show little or no weight loss after 50 cycles.  In addition,
unconfined compressive strength tests show no loss of strength due to the presence of lead and
chromium.  Preliminary Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure and extraction procedure
tests indicate  considerable improvement over regular Portland cement [1], [2], [3].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                            70

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103. Stabilization and Solidification of Lead in Contaminated Soils

Lin. S.L., and others.  1996. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 48:95-110.

In this study, a sulfur waste material was employed as a binder to stabilize and solidify lead-
contaminated soils. Soil samples collected from a battery recovery plant had high levels of
inorganic lead.  Results obtained from the study indicated that sulfur binders can be used to
solidify and stabilize inorganic lead-contaminated soil, which may or may not contain organic
compounds.  However, control samples, which used Portland cement to solidify the same
contaminated soils, showed that Portland  cement was also an effective binder.  The potential
applications of these solidified matrixes also are discussed. Due to the excellent physical,
engineering, and chemical leaching characteristics, sulfur-solidified wastes could be used as
construction fills, such as road fill in pavement construction. Under some circumstances, use of
the sulfur stabilization/solidification process will be a viable choice, especially where excess
sulfur, recovered from various industrial desulfurization sites, becomes a waste product that
requires disposal.  The excess waste (sulfur) can be used as a stabilization agent to treat lead-
contaminated soil locally. Thus the two waste materials can be combined and converted into an
environmentally stable material for recycling without having to be deposited in a landfill  site [1],
[2]

104. The Binding Chemistry and Leaching Mechanisms of Hazardous Substances in
     Cementitious Solidification/Stabilization Systems

Cocke, D.L.  1990. Journal of Hazardous Materials.  24:231-253.

The aim of this  work is to provide information for (1) the design of new or improved
solidification/stabilization systems and (2) mathematically modeling the leaching.  The chemistry
of binding and the mechanisms of leaching of hazardous substances, particularly priority heavy
metal pollutants, in cementitious systems  are discussed in terms of their bulk and surface states.
Particular attention is  given to the nature  of the surface and solution chemistries.  Key to
understanding the binding and leaching processes in  cement is the characterization of the
chemical and physical states involved. Recent efforts in the surface bulk and morphological
characterization of solidification/stabilization hazardous metal-Portland cement systems are
presented, with the results summarized in physical and chemical concepts [1], [2].

105. The Effects of Simulated Environmental Attack on Immobilization of Heavy Metals
     Doped in Cement-Based Materials

Bonen, D., and S.L. Sarkar. 1995. Journal of Hazardous Materials.  40:321-335.

This study investigates the effects of long-term simulated corrosive environmental conditions for
the leaching characteristics of selected heavy-metal oxides stabilized in Portland cement  as well
as the leaching from paste and mortar.  Portland cement-based materials, which are often used  as
binders for hazardous waste immobilization, are prone to various types of chemical attack,

Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

                                            71

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including corrosion by soft water and ground water.  Carbon dioxide-bearing water is most
deleterious, affecting the teachability characteristics of waste-based cement over time. Heavy
metals analyzed include cadmium, nickel, lead, and mercury. Results from aggressive carbon
dioxide attack indicated the formation of a peripheral decalcified zone (the leached zone) and an
apparent intact unleached zone.  The leached zone was characterized by a depleted heavy metal
content, in which nickel and cadmium were converted into hydroxides, and mercury remained in
its original oxide form.  The leaching rate of the metals was lowest for lead and increased for
nickel and cadmium. Increasing the metal load increased the amount of metals leached at any
given time [1], [2], [3], [4].

106. The History of Stabilization/Solidification Technology

Conner, J.R. and Hoeffner, S.L.  1998.  Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and
Technology. 28(4): 325-396.

This article describes the history of solidification/stabilization.  The processes and techniques of
solidification/stabilization have matured into an accepted and important part of environmental
technology. How it came about is presented in both an interesting and instructive way. The
article includes a definition of terms; overview of the basics of solidification/stabilization
technology; a discussion of the origins of solidification/stabilization before 1970, its pre-RCRA
use (1970-1976), the post-RCRA solidification/stabilization industry (1976-1990), the current
solidification/stabilization technology (1990 to present), and the future of
solidification/stabilization [1], [2].

107. The Interfacial Chemistry of Solidification/Stabilization of Metals

Mollah, Y.M.A., and others.  1995.  Waste Management.  15:137-148.

This study investigates the chemistry of cement, its hydration, and mechanisms of
solidification/stabilization of toxic metals by cement-based systems, near surface, and interfacial
phenomena. The adsorption conditions and the selectively strong affinity of hazardous metals
towards clay minerals, certain hydrated metal oxides and oxyhydroxides, and cementitious
substances also play an important role in the solidification/stabilization process for the
immobilization of contaminants. Recent work involving metal ions and superplasticizers have
elucidated the mechanics of reactions that retard cement hydration and subsequent setting as well
as their interactions with silicate-based systems.  This paper delineates the current status of
interfacial chemistry at the solid-liquid boundary and places it in perspective with present and
future solidification/ stabilization processes based on Portland cement and pozzolanic materials.
The importance of surface charge, the role of interfacial phenomena on adsorption, and the
importance of calcium and other types of anions and cations in solidification/stabilization are
also discussed. A surface charge control reaction model that accounts for the importance of
calcium and other cations and anions is outlined and is used to discuss the chemical nature and
microstructure of the interfacial transition zone [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                             72

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108. The Limitation of the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure for Evaluating
     Cement-Based Stabilized/Solidified Waste Forms

Poon, C.S., andK.W. Lio. 1997.  Waste Management.  17:15-23.

The EPA Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) is commonly used as a regulatory
tool to determine whether or not a waste can be classified as a hazardous waste.  The validity of
the test procedure for assessing cement-based stabilized and solidified heavy metal wastes is
examined in this paper. Synthetic cement-based heavy metal waste forms with different acid
neutralizing capacity were prepared and subjected to TCLP to study the effect of waste acid
neutralizing capacity metal leaching. A real waste was also obtained from a local commercial
treatment facility and tested to verify the findings.  The  results showed that as long as the
stabilized and solidified waste forms neutralize the  acidity of the leachant, the leaching of metals
will be small, and the performance of the different waste forms cannot be differentiated. The test
therefore has limited use in comparing the performance of different cement-based waste forms.
A modified test procedure is proposed [1].

109. Time Effects of Three Contaminants on the Durability and Permeability of a
     Solidified Sand

Al'Tabbaa, A., and S.D. King. 1998. Environmental Technology. 19:401-407.

This paper examines the effect of three contaminants in low and high concentrations on the
durability (wet/dry and freeze/thaw) and permeability of stabilized and solidified contaminated
sand.  The effect was investigated in terms of the development of the two properties with time
under the influence of the contaminants after two curing periods results provide some insight into
the development of the behaviour with time. The results show that in some cases the behaviour
depends not only on the type of the contaminant, but also on its concentration. In general, both
the durability (as measured by wet/dry and freeze/thaw tests) and permeability results improved
with time as the curing period increased from 28 to 56 days.  These results were attributed to the
continual hydration  of cement. This means that the design of solidified and stabilized soil is
based on 28-day durability, and permeability would lead to an uneconomical design unless the
effect of continual hydration of the cement products, and hence continual development of the two
properties, is allowed for in some way. This emphasizes the need to develop appropriate tests
that model in situ long-term behavior of solidified and stabilized ground [1], [3], [4].

110. Treatment of Metal Industrial Wastewater by Flyash and Cement Fixation

Weng, C.H., and C.P Huang.  1994. Journal of Environmental Engineering.  120:1470-1488.

This paper presents  a technique for treating industrial waste waters contaminated with heavy
metals.  The proposed method employs fly ash adsorption and cement fixation of the metal-
contaminated adsorbent compound to isolate the metals. Fly ash can provide an acceptable level
of metal adsorption  for zinc and cadmium in dilute wastewater streams with adsorption
capacities of 0.27 and 0.05 milograms per gram, respectively. Tests of leachates derived from
the fixed metal-laden fly ash indicated that concentrations of the metals in the leachates were
lower than the existing drinking water standards [1], [2].

Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or  Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

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111. Variability of Field Solidified Waste

Stegemann, J.A., Caldwell, RJ. and Shi, C.  1997. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 52: 335-
348.

There is little information available regarding the effect of field variability on solidified waste
properties. In a field test conducted by the Wastewater Technology Centre it was found that the
proportions of the waste (electric arc furnace dust) and binder (activated blast furnace slag) could
be controlled within 2 percent, expressed as a fraction of the mix. Comparisons of
comprehensive physical and chemical test results for laboratory and field solidified specimens of
electric arc furnace  dust showed that the physical properties of the field solidified material were
sensitive to changes in water addition. Chemical properties and teachability were most affected
by changes in pH and acid neutralization capacity. However, both physical and chemical
properties remained within the desired range [1], [2], [3], [4].

BIBLIOGRAPHIES

112.       Hazardous Wastes - Fixation, Solidification, and Vitrification Excluding
           Radioactive Materials

Energy Science and Technology Database.  1998. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC.

    NTIS Document No.: PB96-855945INI
    http: //www. nti s. gov

This bibliography contains the latest citations concerning the fixation or solidification of
hazardous wastes.  Articles discuss methods of fixation, such as use of cements, concretes,
silicates, fly ash, and vitrified glass.  Citations are continuously updated to examine the ability of
various techniques to immobilize hazardous  materials; immobilization is determined by leach
tests and experimental verification. Materials discussed include furnace wastes, contaminated
soils, sludges, asbestos wastes, organic wastes, and ashes. The bibliography contains as many as
250 citations and includes a subject term index and title list [1], [2].

113. Radioactive Waste Processing - Fixation in Cements and Bitumens

Energy Science and Technology Database.  1998. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC.

    NTIS Document No.: PB96-855135INI
    http: //www. nti s. gov

This bibliography contains citations concerning the fixation or solidification of radioactive
wastes using cements, bitumens, or asphalts. Formulation, physical strength, degradation, and
teachability of these materials is presented.  Specific full-scale production plants are described.
Wastes that can be contained through fixation include gaseous wastes, nitrate salts, borate salts,

Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness

                                             74

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spent fuels, contaminated soils, sludges, and liquid wastes.  The bibliography contains about 250
citations and includes a subject term index and title list [1], [2].

IN SITU SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION RESOURCES

114. Engineering Issue:  Considerations in Deciding to Treat Contaminated Soils In Situ

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1993.  Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
Washington, DC.

   EPA Document No.: EPA/540/S-94/500
   NTIS Document No.:  PB94-177771/XAB

The purpose of this document is to assist in deciding whether consideration of in situ treatment
of contaminated soil  is worthwhile and to assist in the selection and review of in situ
technologies. This document addresses issues associated with assessing the feasibility of in situ
treatment and selecting appropriate in situ technologies, including characteristics of the
contaminants, the site, the technologies, and how these factors and conditions interact to allow
for effective delivery, control, and recovery of treatment agents and contaminants. The document
focuses on established and innovative in situ treatment technologies already available or
available for full-scale application within 2 years, including in situ solidification/stabilization.
The document is intended to assist in identifying applicable alternatives early in the technology
screening process and is not a source for final determinations [1], [2].

115. Handbook on  In Situ Treatment of Hazardous Waste-Contaminated Soils

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1990.  Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory.  Office
of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.

   EPA Document No.: EPA/540/2-90/002
   NTIS Document No.:  PB90-155607/XAB

This publication discusses various alternatives for in situ treatment of hazardous waste in
contaminated soils.  Several in situ technologies are described, including in situ solidification/
stabilization treatment processes. Delivery and recovery systems also are discussed. The
document includes a description of the treatment process and its advantages and disadvantages.
An extensive list of references is included [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                            75

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116. International Waste Technologies/Geo-Con In Situ Stabilization/Solidification:
     Applications Analysis Report

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1996. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory.  Office
of Research and Development.  Cincinnati, OH.

    EPA Document No.:  EPA/540/A5-89/004
    NTIS Document No: PB-90-269085

This Application Analysis Report evaluates (1) the International Waste Technologies HWT-20
additive and the Geo-Con, Inc., deep-soil-mixing equipment for an in situ stabilization/
solidification process and (2) its applicability as an on-site treatment method for waste site
cleanup. The in situ treatment technology demonstration was conducted under EPA's Superfund
Innovative Technology Evaluation Program in April 1988, at the General Electric Company
electric service shop in Hialeah, Florida. Soil at the site contained polychlorinated biphenyls and
localized concentrations of volatile organics and heavy metal concentrations.  This report
discusses the in situ process based on test results of the demonstration, as well as other data
provided by the technology developer and the general capabilities of cement-based systems.  It
also discusses the probable applicability of the technology to  sites other than the  General Electric
Company electric service shop [1], [2].

117. Overview of In Situ Waste Treatment Technologies

Hyde, R.A., and others. 1992.  EG&G Idaho, Inc.  Idaho Falls, ID.

    NTIS Document No.:  DE92-018012/XAB

In situ technologies are an attractive remedial alternative when addressing environmental
problems, and they typically reduce risks and costs  associated with retrieving, packaging, and
storing or disposing of wastes. Each in situ technology has specific applications; to provide the
most economical and practical solution to a waste problem, these applications must be
understood. This paper presents an overview of 30 in situ remedial technologies for buried
wastes or contaminated soil areas.  The objective of this paper is to familiarize those involved in
waste remediation activities with available and emerging  in situ technologies so that they may
consider these options in the remediation of hazardous and radioactive waste sites.  Several
types of in situ technologies are discussed, including solidification/stabilization. Much of the
information on in situ treatment technologies was obtained directly from vendors and
universities, and this information has not been verified [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
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118. Pilot In Situ Auger Mixing Treatment of a Contaminated Site - Part I:  Treatability
     Study

ATTabbaa, A., and C.W. Evans. 1998.  GeotechnicalEngineering.  131:52-59.

The work presented in this two-part publication covers certain findings of a research contract and
related studies to develop an in situ stabilization/solidification treatment methodology using
auger mixing at a contaminated site at West Drayton. This paper, Part  1,  contains the
introduction, site details, and results of the laboratory treatability study; Part 2 details the
prototype auger development, site trial, and assessment of the in situ treatment. The objective of
the treatability study was to  develop soil-grout mixes appropriate for the site soils and in situ
application process, with an emphasis on low cement and grout content. Cement-based soil-
grout mixes were developed based on available strength, durability, permeability,
compressibility, and leachate pH design criteria.  Constituents of the soil-grout mixes, which
included cement, pulverized fuel ash and lime, and their ratios were varied.  Contradicting
requirements for satisfying some of the criteria meant that the developed mixes had to  be a
compromise. The applicability of the permeability and freeze/thaw durability criteria considered
for the stabilized contaminated soil was questioned [1], [2].

119. Recent Developments for In Situ Treatment of Metal Contaminated Soils

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1997. Technology Innovation Office. Office of Solid
Waste and Emergency Response. Washington, DC.

    EPA Document No.: EPA-542-R-97-004

This report provides a status update on  available and promising technologies for in situ
remediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals. It is intended to assist in the remedy
selection process by providing information on  four in situ technologies, including
solidification/stabilization. The report discusses different techniques currently in practice or
under development, identifies vendors and summarizes  performance data, and discusses
technology attributes that should be considered during early screening of potential remedies.
EPA-sponsored demonstrations reviewed in the report indicate that in situ
solidification/stabilization is  effective in reducing teachable concentrations of metals to within
regulatory or risk-based limits. Failure to meet the design specifications in the field most often
stems from poor grout control, such as inconsistently formulated slurries or clogged injection
ports that cause  incomplete  mixing or a spray pattern that is not uniform [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                             77

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120. Technology Evaluation Report:  SITE Program Demonstration Test, International
     Waste Technologies In Situ Stabilization/Solidification, Hialeah, Florida

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1989. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory.  Office
of Research and Development.  Cincinnati, OH.

   EPA Document No.:  EPA/540/5-89/004a
   NTIS Document No.: PB-89-194161

This Technology Evaluation Report evaluates the International Waste Technologies HWT-20
additive and the Geo-Con, Inc. deep-soil-mixing equipment for an in situ stabilization/
solidification process and its applicability as an on-site treatment method for waste site cleanup.
The in situ treatment technology demonstration was conducted under EPA's Superfund
Innovative Technology Evaluation (SITE) Program in April 1988, at the General Electric
Company  electric service shop in Hialeah, Florida, where the soil contained polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) and localized concentrations of volatile organics and heavy metal
concentrations. This report provides an interpretation of the available data and presents
conclusions on the results of the demonstration, as well as the potential applicability of the
technology at other sites  [1], [2].
Topics Addressed:
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
                                            78

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      SOURCES OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY
	INFORMATION/TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE	

Numerous World Wide Web sites, publications/search systems, dockets, hotlines/regulatory/technical
assistance centers, and library resources are available to provide information or technical assistance
related to issues concerning solidification and stabilization.  Many of these sources are available through
EPA's main web address, www.epa.gov.  This web site provides access to a variety of EPA offices,
laboratories, and regions; the reader is referred to the following EPA offices as providing information
that is particularly relevant to solidification and stabilization: Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response (OSWER), Office of Emergency and Remedial Response (OERR),  Office of Solid Waste
(OSW), and Office of Research and Development (ORD).  Specific sources of information are identified
below, with information about how to access these sources.
WORLD WIDE WEB SITES:

•   Hazardous Waste Cleanup Information
    (CLU-IN)
    CLU-INprovides information about innovative
    remediation and site characterization
    technologies for hazardous waste cleanup
    professionals. It includes information on
    publications and software, partnerships and
    consortia, regulatory items, vendor support,
    internet and on-line resources, and international
    activities.

    Help Line	301-589-8368
    Internet address: http://clu-in.org

•   Alternative Treatment Technologies
    Information Center (ATTIC)
    ATTIC is a comprehensive computer database
    system that provides up-to-date information on
    innovative treatment technologies.  ATTIC
    provides users with access to several
    independent databases, as well as a mechanism
    for obtaining full-text technical publications.
    The database contains information on
    biological, chemical, and physical treatment
    technologies; solidification and stablization
    technologies; and thermal treatment
    technologies.

    Help Line	513-569-7272
    Internet address: http://www.epa.gov/attic

•   Federal Remediation Technologies
    Roundtable (FRTR)
    FRTR is an interagency working group that
    provides a forum for the exchange  of
    information about the development and
    demonstration of innovative technologies for the
    remediation of hazardous waste sites. The
    forum also synthesizes the technical knowledge
    that federal agencies have compiled and
    provides a comprehensive record of
performance and cost of the technologies.
Participating agencies include the U.S.
Department of Defense, the U.S. Department of
Energy, and the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.
Internet address: http://www.frtr.gov

Remediation Technologies Development
Forum (RTDF)
RTDFwas established by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to
foster partnerships of public and private-sector
entities that conduct laboratory and applied
research to develop, test, and evaluate
innovative remediation technologies.  To date,
seven action teams have been established by
RTDF, including: the Bioremediation of
Chlorinated Solvents Consortium, the
LASAGNA™ Partnership, the Permeable
Reactive Barriers Action Team, the Sediments
Remediation Action Team, the In-Place
Inactivation and Natural Ecological Restoration
Technologies (IINERT) Soil-Metals Action
Team, the Phytoremediation of Organics Action
Team, and the In Situ Flushing Action Team.
Internet address: http://www.rtdf.org

Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation
(SITE) Demonstration Program
The SITE program was established by EPA 's
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
(OSWER) and the Office of Research and
Development (ORD) to encourage the
development and implementation of innovative
treatment technologies for the remediation of
hazardous waste sites and for monitoring and
measurement technologies.  Through the
program, technologies are field-tested and
engineering and cost data are gathered.
Internet address:
http://www. epa.gov/ORD/SITE
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      SOURCES OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY
             INFORMATION/TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE (CONT'D)
PUBLICATIONS/SEARCH SYSTEMS:

•   Site Remediation Technology InfoBase.
    A Guide to Federal Programs, Information
    Resources, and Publications on
    Contaminated Site Cleanup Technologies
    (EPA/542/B-98/006; August 1998)

    This publication was prepared under the
    auspices of the Federal Remediation
    Technologies Roundtable and summarizes
    information about federal cleanup programs
    within the U.S. DoD, U.S. DOE, and EPA; site
    remediation technology development assistance
    programs; site remediation technology
    development electronic databases; and
    electronic resources for site remediation
    technology information.  It also provides a
    selected bibliography of publications and
    identifies technology program contacts.

•   DIALOG Database	800-3-DIALOG
    Contains files relevant to hazardous waste
    including: Enviroline, CA Search, Pollution
    Abstracts, Compendex, Energy Science and
    Technology, National Technical Information
    Service (NTIS), and others.
    Internet address: http://www.dialog.com

DOCKETS:

•   Federal Agency Hazardous Waste
    Compliance Docket Hotline 800-548-1016
    Provides the name, address, NPL status, agency,
    and Region for the Federal facilities listed on the
    Federal Agency Hazardous Waste Compliance
    Docket. Facilities are on the docket because
    they reported being a RCRA TSDF or having
    spilled or having the potential to release
    CERCLA hazardous waste. Operates Monday -
    Friday 8:00 a.m.- 6:00p.m., Eastern  Time.

•   UST Docket	703-603-9230
    Provides documents and regulatory information
    pertinent to RCRA Subtitle 1 (the Underground
    Storage Tank program).
    Operates Monday - Friday, 9:00 a.m. - 4:00
    p.m., Eastern Time.
    To send a request:   U.S. Environmental
                     Protection Agency
                     Office of Underground
                     Storage Tank Docket
                     401 M Street, SW, 5305W
                     Washington, DC 20460
    To fax a request:    703-603-9234
•   RCRA Information Center...703-603-9230
    Indexes and provides public access to all
    regulatory materials supporting the Agency's
    actions under RCRA, and disseminates current
    Office of Solid Waste publications.
    Operates Monday - Friday, 9:00 a.m. - 4:00
    a.m., Eastern Time.

•   Superfund Docket	703-603-9232
    Provides access to Superfund regulatory
    documents, Superfund Federal Register Notices,
    andRODs.
    Operates Monday - Friday, 9 a.m. - 4 p.m.,
    Eastern Time.
    To fax a request:    703-603-9240
    email: superfund. docket@epamail. epa.gov

HOTLINES/REGULATORY/TECHNICAL
ASSISTANCE:

•   RCRA/Superfund Hotline...800-424-9346,
    703-412-9810, TDD: 800-553-7672, 703-412-
    3323
    Provides regulatory assistance related to RCRA,
    CERCLA,  and UST programs. Serves as a
    liaison between the regulated community and
    EPA personnel and provides information on the
    availability of relevant documents.
    Operates Monday - Friday, 9:00 a.m. - 6:00
    p.m., Eastern Time.
    Internet address:
    http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hotline/

•   Superfund Health Risk Technical Support
    Center.	513-569-7300
    Provides EPA Regional Superfund risk
    assessors,  State agencies, and those working
    under EPA contract with technical, typically
    chemical-specific, support and risk assessment
    review.
    Operates Monday - Friday, 8 a.m. - 5 p.m.,
    Eastern Time.
    To fax a request:    513-569-7159

•   TSCA Hotline	202-554-1404
    Answers public and private regulatory questions
    on TSCA.  Refers callers to appropriate EPA
    contacts, and takes TSCA-relevant document
    orders.
    Operates Monday - Friday, 8:30 a.m. - 5:00
    p.m., Eastern Time.
    To fax a request:    202-554-5603
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     SOURCES OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY
             INFORMATION/TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE (CONT'D)
LIBRARIES:

•   The EPA Headquarters and Regional Libraries
    provide information services covering a wide
    range of environmental and related subjects,
    including hazardous waste, air and water
    pollution and control, environmental law, solid
    waste, toxic substances, and test methods. These
    libraries also provide a collection of materials on
    social, economic, legislative, legal,
    administrative, and management projects related
    to all aspects of environmental policy. EPA
    Headquarters and Regional Libraries contact
    information is provided below. In addition to
    resources available through EPA libraries, users
    may also access relevant documents through
    university libraries or other public libraries that
    house government documents.

    EPA Headquarters Library
    Headquarters Information
    Resources Center
    To send a request:    Environmental Protection
                      Agency
                      401 M Street, SW
                      Mail Code 3404
                      Washington, DC 20460
    Operates Monday - Friday, 8 a.m. - 5 p.m.,
    Eastern Time.
    Phone	202-260-5922
    Fax	202-260-5153
    email: library-hq@eparnail.epa.gov

    EPA Region 1 Library (Boston, MA)
    To send a request:  JFK Federal Building
                    Boston, MA 02203-0001
    Operates Monday - Friday, 8:30 a.m.  - 5 p.m.,
    Eastern Time
    Phone	617-565-3300
    Fax	617-565-9067
    e-mail:  library-regl@epamail. epa.gov
    Internet address:
    http://www.epa.gov/region01/oarm/index.html

    EPA Region 2 Library (New York, NY)
    To send a request:    290 Broadway, 16th Floor
                      New York, NY 10007
    Operates Monday - Thursday, 9 a.m. - 4:30
    p.m., Friday 9 a.m. - 1 p.m., Eastern Time
    Phone	212-637-3185
    Fax	212-637-3086
    e-mail:  library-reg-2@epamail. epa.gov
    Internet address:
    http://www.epa.gov/Region2Aibrary/
EPA Region 3 Library (Philadelphia, PA)
To send a request:    1650 Arch Street
                   (3PM52)
                   Philadelphia, PA 19103
Operates Monday - Friday, 8 a.m. - 4 p.m.,
Eastern Time
Phone	215-814-5254
Fax	215-814-5253
e-mail: Iibrary-reg3@epamail. epa.gov
Internet address:
http://www.epa.gov/region3/r3lib/index.html

EPA Region 4 Library (Atlanta, GA)
To send a request:    Atlanta Federal Center
                   61ForsythSt, SW
                   9th Floor Tower
                   Atlanta, GA 30303-3104
Operates Monday - Friday, 8 a.m. - 4 p.m.,
Eastern Time
Phone	404-562-8190
Fax	404-562-8114
Internet address:
http://www.epa.gov/recoreds/a00220.html

EPA Region 5 Library (Chicago, IL)
To send a request:    77 West Jackson
                   Boulevard
                   Chicago, IL 60604-3590
Operates Monday - Friday, 7:30 p.m. - 5 p.m.,
Central Time
Phone	312-353-2022
Fax	312-353-2001
e-mail: library. reg5@epamail. epa.gov
Internet address:
http://www.epa.gov/region5/library/

EPA Region 6 Library (Dallas, TX)
To send a request:    1445 Ross Avenue
                   Dallas, TX 75202
Operates Monday - Friday, 7:30 a.m. -4:30
p.m., Central Time
Phone	214-665-6424
Fax	214-665-2714
e-mail: Hbrary-reg6@epamail. epa.gov
Internet address:
http://www. epa.gov/6mol/6lib. htm
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  SOURCES OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY
          INFORMATION/TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE (CONT'D)
EPA Region 7 Library (Kansas City, KS)
To send a request:  Information Resource
                Center
                726 Minnesota Avenue
                Kansas City, KS 66101-
                2728
Operates Monday - Friday 10 a.m. - 3 p.m.
(walk-in), 8:30 a.m. - 5p.m. (phone), Central
Time
Phone	913-551-7241/7358
Fax	913-551-7467
e-mail: Hbrary-reg7@eparnail.epa.gov
Internet address:
http://www.epa.gov/earthlOO/records/
a00222.html

EPA Region 8 Technical Library (Denver,
CO)
To send a request:  999 18th Street, Suite 500
                (8OC-L)
                Denver, CO 80202
Operates Monday - Friday, (except
Wednesday), 12:00 noon - 4:00p.m., Mountain
Time, operates Wednesday 10 a.m. - 4p.m.,
Mountain Time
Phone	303-312-6312
Fax	303-312-7061
e-mail: R8EISC@epamail.epa.gov
Internet address:
http://www.epa.gov/region08/html/eisc.html

EPA Region 8 Library (Denver, CO)
Environmental Information Service Center
(EISC)
Phone	303-312-6312
and 1-800-227-8917 (for region 8 states only)
Fax	303-294-1087

EPA Region 9 Library (San Francisco, CA)
To send a request:    75 Hawthorne Street
                  San Francisco, CA 94105
Operates Monday - Friday, 9 a.m. - 4 p.m.,
Western Time
Phone	415-744-1510
Fax	415-744-1474
e-mail: Iibrary-reg9@epamail. epa.gov
Internet address:
http://www. epa.gov/region 09/library/
EPA Region 10 Library (Seattle, WA)
To send a request:    1200 Sixth Avenue,
                  Mail code OMP-104
                  Seattle, WA 98101
Operates Monday - Friday, 9 a.m. - 4 p.m.,
Western Time
Phone	206-553-1289
Fax	206-553-0110
email: library<-regl 0@epamail. epa.gov
Internet address:
http://www.epa.gov/earthlOO/records/
a00225.html

RREL/Site Superfund Videotape Library
Provides composite videotapes containing a
number of EPA produced documentaries on
specific Superfund Innovative Technology
Evaluation (SITE) Program demonstrations.
Operates Monday - Friday, 8:30 a.m. -4:30
p.m., Eastern time
Phone	201-535-2219
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OTHER RESOURCE GUIDES

The following documents are intended to support decision-making by Regional and State
Corrective Action permit writers, Remedial Project Managers (RPMs), On-Scene Coordinators,
contractors, and others responsible for the evaluation of innovative treatment technologies.
These guides direct managers of sites being remediated under RCRA, UST, and CERCLA to
bioremediation, ground water, physical/chemical, soil vapor extraction (SVE), SVE
enhancement, and solidification/stabilization treatment technology resource documents;
databases;  hotlines; and dockets, and identify regulatory mechanisms (for example, Research
Development and Demonstration Permits) that have the potential to ease the implementation of
these technologies  at hazardous waste sites.  Collectively, the guides provide abstracts of over
400 guidance/workshop reports, program documents, studies and demonstrations, and other
resource guides, as well as easy to use Resource Matrices that identify the technologies and
contaminants discussed in each abstracted document. The title and document number is provided
for each.

1. Bioremediation Resource Guide

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. September, 1993.  Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response. Technology Innovation Office. Washington, DC.  [1], [2], [3].

   EPA Document No.: EPA/542-B-93/004
   NTIS Document No.: PB-94-112307

2. Ground Water Treatment Technology Resource Guide

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. September, 1994.  Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response. Technology Innovation Office. Washington, DC.  [1], [2].

   EPA Document No.: EPA/542-B-94/009
   NTIS Document No.: PB-95-138657

3. Physical/Chemical Treatment Technology Resource Guide

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. September, 1994.  Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response. Technology Innovation Office. Washington, DC.  [1], [2].

   EPA Document No.: EPA/542-B-94/008
   NTIS Document No.: PB-95-138665
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OTHER RESOURCE GUIDES (CONT'D)

4. Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) Enhancement Technology Resource Guide

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  October, 1995. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response. Technology Innovation Office.  Washington, DC. [1], [2].

   EPA Document No.: EPA/542-B-95/003

5. Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) Treatment Technology Resource Guide.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  September, 1994. Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response.  Technology Innovation Office. Washington, DC. [1], [2].

   EPA Document Number: EPA/542-B-94/007
   NTIS Document Number: PB-95-138681
Topics Addressed
[1]     Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols
[2]     Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures
[3]     Durability and Degradation
[4]     Long-term Effectiveness
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                    WE WOULD LIKE YOUR COMMENTS

We would like your comments about this guide, especially on:
   •   Questions about solidification/stabilization technologies
   •   Information about solidification/stabilization technology documents that you have drafted
       or completed which may be suited for inclusion in an update to this Guide.

Mail this form:

   •   Fold the form into thirds (along the dotted lines) so that the address shows on the outside.
   •   Tape the form closed.
   •   Add a first class stamp (EPA employees use interoffice or pouch mail).
   •   Drop it in the mail.

or Fax this form:

   TIO - (703) 603-9135 or (703) 603-9167
                                   COMMENTS
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Return Address:
Place
Stamp
Here
                    U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                    TECHNOLOGY INNOVATION OFFICE
                    401 M STREET, SW (5102G)
                    WASHINGTON, DC 20460
                                   86

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