United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response
(5102G)
EPA 542-F-98-0-H
August 1998
clu-in.com
v°/EPA A Citizen's Guide to
Phytoremediation
Technology Innovation Office
Technology Fact Sheet
What is phytoremediation?
Phytoremediation is the direct use of living green
plants for in situ, or in place, risk reduction for con-
taminated soil, sludges, sediments, and ground
water, through contaminant removal, degradation,
or containment. Growing and, in some cases, har-
vesting plants on a contaminated site as a
remediation method is an aesthetically pleasing,
solar-energy driven, passive technique that can be
used to clean up sites with shallow, low to moder-
ate levels of contamination. This technique can be
used along with or, in some cases, in place of me-
chanical cleanup methods.
Phytoremediation can be used to clean up metals,
pesticides, solvents, explosives, crude oil,
polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and landfill leachates.
Phytoremediation has been studjed extensively in
research and small scale demonstrations, but full-
scale applications are currently limited to a small
number of projects. Further development and re-
search of the mechanisms described below likely
will lead to wider acceptance and use of
phytoremediation.
How does phytoremediation work?
Phytoremediation (the term phyto- means plant) is
a general term for several ways in which plants are
used to clean up, or remediate, sites by removing
pollutants from soil and water. Plants can break
down, or degrade, organic pollutants or contain and
stabilize metal contaminants by acting as filters or
traps. Some of the methods that are being tested are
described in this fact sheet.
Treating Metal Contaminants
At sites contaminated with metals, plants are used
to either stabilize or remove the metals from the soil
and ground water through three mechanisms:
phytoextraction, rhizofiteration, and
phytostabilization.
Phytoextraction, also called phytoaccumulation,
refers to the uptake and translocation of metal con-
taminants in the soil by plant roots into the
aboveground portions of the plants (Figure 1). Cer-
tain plants, called hyperaccumulators, absorb
unusually large amounts of metals in comparison to
other plants. One or a combination of these plants is
selected and planted at a particular site based on the
type of metals present, and other site conditions. Af-
ter the plants have been allowed to grow for some
time, they are harvested and either incinerated or
composted to recycle the metals. This procedure
may be repeated as necessary to bring soil contami-
nant levels down to allowable limits. If plants are
incinerated, the ash must be disposed of in a haz-
ardous waste landfill, but the volume of ash will be
A Quick Look at Phytoremediation
• Is an aesthetically-pleasing, passive, solar-energy driven cleanup technique.
• Is most useful at sites with shallow, low levels of contamination.
• Is useful for treating a wide variety of environmental contaminants.
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Recycled/Recyclable
Printed with Soy/Canola Ink on paper that
contains at least 50% recycled fiber
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Figure 1. Uptake of Metals (Nickel) by Phytoextraction
Ni
Ni
Nickel is removed from soil by moving up into plant roots, stems, and leaves. The plant is then harvested
and disposed of and the site replanted until the nickel in the soil is lowered to acceptable levels.
less than 10% of the volume that would be created
if the contaminated soil itself were dug up for treat-
ment.
Metals such as nickel, zinc, and copper are the best
candidates for removal by phytoextraction because
it has been shown that they are preferred by a
majority of the approximately 400 known plants
that uptake and absorb unusually large amounts of
metals. Plants that absorb lead and chromium are
currently being studied and tested.
Rhizofiltration (rhizo- means root) is the adsorp-
tion or precipitation onto plant roots or absorption
into the roots of contaminants that are in solution
surrounding the root zone. Rhizofiltration is similar
to phytoextraction, but the plants are used primarily
to address contaminated ground water rather than
soil. The plants to be used for cleanup are raised in
greenhouses with their roots in water rather than in
soil. To acclimate the plants once a large root sys-
tem has been developed, contaminated water is col-
lected from a waste site and brought to the plants
where it is substituted for their water source. The
plants are then planted in the contaminated area
where the roots take up the water and the contami-
nants along with it. As the roots become saturated
with contaminants, they are harvested. For ex-
ample, sunflowers were used successfully to re-
move radioactive contaminants from pond water in
a test at Chernobyl, Ukraine.
What Is An Innovative Treatment
Technology?
Treatment technologies are processes applied
to the treatment of hazardous waste or
contaminated materials to permanently alter
their condition through chemical, biological, or
physical means.
Innovative treatment technologies are those
that have been tested, selected or used for
treatment of hazardous waste or
contaminated materials but lack well-
documented cost and performance data under
a variety of operating conditions.
Phytostabilization is the use of certain plant spe-
cies to immobilize contaminants in the soil and
ground water through absorption and accumulation
by roots, adsorption onto roots, or precipitation
within the root zone of plants (rhizosphere). This
process reduces the mobility of the contaminant and
prevents migration to the ground water or air, and it
reduces bioavailability for entry into the food chain.
This technique can be used to reestablish a vegeta-
tive cover at sites where natural vegetation is
lacking due to high metals concentrations in surface
soils or physical disturbances to surficial materials.
Metal-tolerant species can be used to restore veg-
etation to the sites, thereby decreasing the potential
migration of contamination through wind erosion
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Table 1. Examples of Sites Demonstrating Phytoremediation*
Location
Edgewood, MD
Fort Worth, TX
New Gretna, NJ
Ogden, UT
Portsmouth, VA
Portland, OR
Trenton, NJ
Anderson, SC
Chernobyl, Ukraine
Ashtabula, OH
Upton, NY
Milan, TN
Beaverton, OR
Texas City, TX
Amana, IA
Application
phytovolatilization
rhizofiltration
hydraulic control
phytodegradation
phytovolatilization
rhizodegradation
hydraulic control
phytodegradation
hydraulic control
phytoextraction
rhizodegradation
phytodegradation
rhizodegradation
phytodegradation
phytoextraction
phytostabilization
rhizofiltration
rhizofiltration
phytoextraction
phytodegradation
vegetative cover
vegetative cover
rhizodegradation
riparian corridor
phytodegradation
Contaminants
chlorinated solvents
chlorinated solvents
chlorinated solvents
petroleum
hydrocarbons
petroleum
PCP, PAHs
heavy metals,
radionuclides
heavy metals
radionuclides
radionuclides
radionuclides
explosives wastes
metals, nitrates,
BOD
PAHs
nitrates
Medium
ground water
ground water
ground water
soil
ground water
soil
soil
soil
soil
ground water
ground water
soil
ground water
not applicable
soil
ground water
Plant(s)
hybrid poplar
eastern
cottonwood
hybrid poplar
alfalfa, poplar
juniper, fescue
grasses,
clover
ryegrass
indian mustard
hybrid poplar,
grasses
sunflowers
sunflowers
indian mustard,
cabbage
duckweed
parrotfeather
cottonwood
mulberry
hybrid poplar
* Not all waste types and site conditions are comparable. Each site must be Individually investigated and tested.
Engineering and scientific judgment must be used to determine if a technology is appropriate for a site.
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dense root mass that takes up large quantities of wa-
ter. Poplar trees, for example, can transpire between
50 and 300 gallons of water per day out of the
ground. The water consumption by the plants de-
creases the tendency of surface contaminants to
move towards ground water and into drinking wa-
ter. The use of plants to rapidly uptake large
volumes of water to contain or control the migra-
tion of subsurface water is known as hydraulic
control. There are several applications that use
plants for this purpose, such as riparian corridors/
buffer strips and vegetative caps.
Riparian corridors (the term riparian means lo-
cated on the bank of a river) or buffer strips are
applications of phytoremediation that also may in-
corporate aspects of phytodegradation,
phylovolatilization, and rhizodegradation to control,
intercept, or remediate contamination entering a
river or ground-water plume. Riparian corridor re-
fers to plants that may be applied along a stream or
river bank, while buffer strips may be applied
around the perimeter of landfills. Applications of
these systems prevent contamination from spread-
ing into surface water and/or ground water.
Vegetative cover is a long-term, self-sustaining cap
composed of soil and plants growing in and/or over
waste in a landfill. This type of cover is an alterna-
tive to composite clay or plastic layer caps. Plants
control erosion and minimize seepage of water that
could otherwise percolate through the landfill and
form contaminated leachate. In addition, vegetative
caps can be designed not only to control erosion
and seepage of water, but to enhance the degrada-
tion of underlying materials in the landfill.
Does phytoremediation work at every
site?
Phytoremediation has been used to clean up metals,
pesticides, solvents, explosives, crude oil,
polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and landfill leachates.
Phytoremediation can be used in combination with
other cleanup approaches as a "finishing" or "pol-
ishing" step. Although some phytoremediation
applications are slower than mechanical methods
and are limited to the depths that are within the
reach of the plant roots.
Generally, the use of phytoremediation is limited to
sites with low to medium contaminant concentra-
tions and contamination in shallow soils, streams,
and ground water. Researchers are finding that the
use of trees (rather than smaller plants) allows them
to treat deeper contamination because tree roots
penetrate more deeply into the ground. Very deep
lying contaminated ground water may be treated by
pumping the water out of the ground and using
plants to treat the contamination.
Further research is needed to study the effects on
the food chain that could occur if insects and small
rodents eat the plants that are collecting contami-
nants and are then eaten by larger mammals. Also,
scientists still need to establish whether contami-
nants can collect in the leaves and wood of trees
used for phytoremediation and be released when the
leaves fall in the autumn or when firewood or
mulch from the trees is used.
Where has it been used?
Phytoremediation has been successfully tested in
many locations, but full-scale applications are still
limited. In Maryland at a U.S. Army testing facility,
hybrid poplar trees were planted in a one acre area
over a shallow ground water plume contaminated
with organics from several toxic disposal pits. The
poplar trees act as hydraulic pumps to prevent the
spread of contaminants to a nearby marsh. In addi-
tion to hydraulic control, researchers have deter-
mined that phytovolatilization and rhizofiltration
are other mechanisms by which the system is treat-
ing the contaminated plume. After the second grow-
ing season, the trees are successfully containing the
contaminated ground water plume with rates esti-
mated at 2-10 gallons of water per day for each tree.
In addition, preliminary results have indicated that
the poplar trees are degrading the contaminants in
the ground water plume. Table 1 lists some other
phytoremediation projects.
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and transport of exposed surface soils and leaching
of soil contamination to ground water.
Treating Organic Contaminants
Organic contaminants (those that contain carbon
and hydrogen atoms) are common environmental
pollutants. There are several ways plants can be
used for the phytoremediation of these contami-
nants: phytodegradation, rhizodegradation, and
phytovolatilization.
Phytodegradation, also called phytotransfor-
mation, is the breakdown of contaminants taken up
by plants through metabolic processes within the
plant, or the breakdown of contaminants external to
the plant through the effect of compounds (such as
enzymes) produced by the plants. Pollutants
(complex organic molecules) are degraded into
simpler molecules and are incorporated into the
plant tissues to help the plant grow faster (Figure 2).
Plants contain enzymes, complex chemical
substances (proteins), that cause rapid chemical
reactions to occur. Some enzymes breakdown and
convert ammunition wastes, others degrade
chlorinated solvents such as trichloroethylene
(TCE), and others degrade herbicides.
Rhizodegradation, also called enhanced
rhizosphere biodegradation, phytostimulation, or
planted-assisted bioremediation/degradation, is the
breakdown of contaminants in the soil through
microbial activity that is enhanced by the presence
of the root zone (the rhizosphere) and is a much
slower process than phytodegradation.
Microorganisms (yeast, fungi, or bacteria) consume
and digest organic substances for nutrition and
energy. Certain microorganisms can digest organic
substances such as fuels or solvents that are
hazardous to humans and break them down into
harmless products in a process called
biodegradation. Natural substances released by the
plant roots—sugars, alcohols, and acids—contain
organic carbon that provides food for soil
microorganisms and the additional nutrients
enhance their activity. Biodegradation is also aided
by the way plants loosen the soil and transport
water to the area. The fact sheet entitled A Citizen's
Guide to Bioremediation describes the
biodegradation process in detail (see page 6).
Phytovolatilization is the uptake and transpiration
of a contaminant by a plant, with release of the con-
taminant or a modified form of the contaminant to
the atmosphere from the plant. Phytovolatilization
occurs as growing trees and other plants take up
water and the organic contaminants. Some of these
contaminants can pass through the plants to the
leaves and evaporate, or volatilize, into the atmo-
sphere. Poplar trees at one particular study site have
been shown to volatilize 90% of the TCE they take
up.
Hydraulic Control of Contaminants
Plants can act as hydraulic pumps when their roots
reach down toward the water table and establish a
Figure 2. Destruction of Organic Contaminants by Phytodegradation
/
/fragments
!T\
Enzymes in plant roots break down (degrade) organic contaminants. The fragments are incorporated into
new plant material.
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For More Information
The publications listed below can be ordered free of charge by faxing your request to NCEPI at
513-489-8695. If NCEPI is out of stock of a document, you may be directed to other sources. If
you choose, you may write to NCEPI at:
National Center for Environmental Publications and Information (NCEPI)
P.O. Box 42419
Cincinnati, OH 45242
• Recent Developments for In Situ Treatment of Metal Contaminated Soils, March 1997, EPA
542-R-97-004.
• A Citizen's Guide to Bioremediation, April 1996, EPA 542-F-96-007.
• Soil Stabilization Action Team, April 1996, EPA 542-F-96-01 Od.
• Phytoremediation Handbook, prepared by EPA (in Draft).
The following references are not available through NCEPI:
Phytoremediation Bibliography, prepared by the EPA Phytoremediation Handbook Team in
conjunction with the RTDF Phytoremediation of Organics Action Team, updated April 1998.
http://www.rtdf.org/phytobib.htm
Phytoremediation of TCE in Groundwater by Jonathan Chappell, EPA NNEMS Fellow, February
1998.
http://clu-in.com/phytotce.htm
Phytoremediation Technology Evaluation Report, prepared by Jerry Schnoor for GWRTAC,
October 1997, TE-98-01.
http://www.gwrtac.org/html/tech_eval.html
Development of a Phytoremediation Handbook: Considerations for Enhancing Microbial
Degradation in the Rhizosphere by Todd A. Anderson, AAAS/EPA Environmental Science and
Engineering Fellow, August 1997.
Claudia Sturges, 202-326-6700, science_polict@aaas.org
Phytoremediation Technology Overview Report, prepared by Ralinda R. Miller for GWRTAC,
October 1996, TO-96-03.
http://www.gwrtac.org/html/tech_over.html
Soil & Groundwater Cleanup. February/March 1998.
"Phytoremediation: A new technology gets ready to bloom," by Jim Bishop in Environmental
Solutions Magazine. May/June 1997.
"Mother Nature's Pump and Treat," by Kalle Matso in Civil Engineering. October 1995, pages
46-49.
The Green Clean," by Kathryn Brown Sargeant in BioScience. October 1995, pages 579-582.
NOTICE; This fact sheet Is Intended solely as general guidance and information. It is not intended, nor can it be relied upon, to create any rights enforceable
by any party In titigatfon with the United States. The Agency also reserves the right to change this guidance at any time without public notice.
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