EPA
United States
Envirbhmentaf Protection
TAgency "'""^ --------
ooli'dWastBand
Emergency Response
(5102W)
(i')'i'1U!TP%i!'-".w'll:i.il«ii^W"Jili*' "'" ""f ' i"
EPA542-t-94-OQ7
!VfJrll1995
In Situ Remediation
Tec nnology Status
Electrokinetics
ClKin purge well
-------
EPA542-K-94-007
April 1995
In Situ Remediation Technology:
Electrokinetics
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
Technology Innovation Office
Washington, DC 20460
-------
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank all the researchers and technology developers described in this report for
their assistance in its preparation. We especially would like to thank Randy A. Parker for reviewing the
draft document and making valuable suggestions for improvement.
For more information about this project, contact:
Rich Steimle
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (5102W)
Technology Innovation Office
401M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
703-308-8846
Notice
This material has been funded by the United States Environmental Protection Agency under contract
number 68-W2-0004. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
-------
Foreword
The purpose of this document is to describe recent field demonstrations, commercial applications, and
research on technologies that either treat soil and ground water in place or increase the solubility and
mobility of contaminants to improve their removal by pump-and-treat remediation. It is hoped that this
information will allow more regular consideration of new, less costly, and more effective technologies to
address the problems associated with hazardous waste sites and petroleum contamination.
This document is one in a series of reports on demonstrations and applications of in situ treatment
technologies. To order other documents in the series, contact the National Center for Environmental
Publications and Information at (513) 489-8190 or fax your request to NCEPI at (513) 489-8695. Refer to
the document numbers below when ordering.
EPA542-K-94-003 Surfactant Enhancements
EPA542-K-94-004 Treatment Walls
EPA542-K-94-005 Hydrofracturing/Pneumatic Fracturing
EPA542-K-94-006 Cosolvents
EPA542-K-94-007 Electrokinetics
EPA542-K-94-009 Thermal Enhancements
Walter W. Kovalick, Jr., Ph.D.
Director, Technology Innovation Office
-------
-------
Contents
Introduction 1
Purpose and Process 1
Technology Needs 1
Technology Descriptions 1
Ongoing and Future Demonstrations 2
Isotron Corporation 2
Isotron Corporation 3
In Situ Remediation Technology Consortium 3
Electro-Klean™ Electrical Separation 4
Sandia National Laboratories and Sat-Unsat, Inc 5
Completed Commercial Applications 7
Environment & Technology Services 7
Current Research 8
Argonne National Laboratory 8
Louisiana State University and Electrokinetics, Inc 8
Electro-Petroleum, Inc. and Lehigh University 12
Lehigh University 13
Massachusetts Institute of Technology 15
Sandia National Laboratories 16
Texas A&M University 17
University of Massachusetts Lowell 18
West Virginia University 19
General References 20
Abbreviations
BTEX = Benzene, Ethylbenzene, Toluene, Xylene
CERCLA = Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
DNAPL = Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid
DOE = Department of Energy
PAH = Poly-Aromatic Hydrocarbon
PCE = Tetrachloroethylene
RCRA = Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
SITE = Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Program
SVE = Soil Vapor Extraction
SVOC = Semi-Volatile Organic Compound
TCA = 1,1,1-Trichloroethane
TCE = Trichloroethylene
TPH = Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon
VOC = Volatile Organic Compound
in
-------
IV
-------
Introduction
Purpose and Process
The purpose of this document is to describe demonstrations, field applications, and research on
electrokinetics for remediating contaminated soils and ground water at waste disposal and spill sites.
Information for this report came from computerized databases such as the Dialog Information Services and
the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Vendor Information System for Innovative Treatment
Technologies (VISITT) and Alternative Treatment Technologies Information Center (ATTIC). Additional
materials were obtained from publications such as the Hazardous Substance Research Center Annual
Reports, Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Technology Profiles and Department of Energy's
Office of Technology Development Program Summary as well as conference summaries, proceedings and
compendiums. Personal interviews and discussions with representatives of other federal agencies,
academic research centers, and hazardous waste remediation consulting firms provided supplementary
information.
Technology Needs
Although clay and silt tend to sequester large quantities of organic and inorganic contaminants, they are
resistant to remediation with traditional technologies because of their low hydraulic conductivities.
Recently, attention has focused on developing in situ electrokinetic techniques for the treatment of low
permeable soils contaminated with heavy metals, radionuclides, and selected organic pollutants. Although
electrokinetics has been used for decades in the oil recovery industry and to remove water from soils, in
situ applications of electrokinetics to remediate contaminated soil is new.
Technology Descriptions
Electrokinetics is a process that separates and extracts heavy metals, radionuclides, and organic
contaminants from saturated or unsaturated soils, sludges, and sediments. A low intensity direct current is
applied across electrode pairs that have been implanted in the ground on each side of the contaminated soil
mass. The electrical current causes electroosmosis and ion migration, which move the aqueous phase
contaminants in the subsurface from one electrode to the other. Contaminants in the aqueous phase or
contaminants desorbed from the soil surface are transported towards respective electrodes depending on
their charge. The contaminants may then be extracted to a recovery system or deposited at the electrode.
Surfactants and complexing agents can be used to increase solubility and assist in the movement of the
contaminant. Also, reagents may be introduced at the electrodes to enhance contaminant removal rates.
The following pages contain descriptions of completed, on-going, and future demonstrations and current
research on electrokinetics in the United States. Electrokinetics is being used commercially in Europe to
remove heavy metal contaminants such as uranium, mercury, and metal mixtures.
-------
Ongoing and Future Demonstrations
Old TNX Basin, Savannah River Site, South Carolina
Isotron Corporation
Electrokinetic Remediation
Description of Demonstration: The purpose of this demonstration is to remediate mercury contamination
in unsaturated soil consisting primarily of sand and kaolinite. Isotron Corporation is using an Electrosorb®
process with a patented cylinder to control buffering conditions in situ and an ion exchange polymer
matrix called Isolock® to trap metal ions.
Wastes Treated: Mercury, lead, chrome
Status: This ongoing demonstration involving Isotron Corporation and Westinghouse Savannah River
Company is supported by the Department of Energy's Office of Technology Development.
Demonstration Results: Although mercury is the target contaminant in this demonstration, preliminary
results indicate that at the 5 ppm mercury concentrations found at the site and other conditions, mercury
will be difficult to remediate in the Basin. However, the process is showing good results on lead and
chrome in the Basin.
Contacts:
Henry L. Lomasney
Isotron Corporation
13152ChefMenteurHwy
New Orleans, LA 70129
504-254-4624
Fax:504-254-5172
Jane P. Bibler
Westinghouse Savannah River Company
803-725-5276
References:
Bibler, J.P.; Meaker, T.F.; and O'Steen, A.B. Electrokinetic Migration Studies on Removal of Chromium
and Uranyl Ions from 904-A Trench Soil. U.S. Department of Energy, WSCR-RP-92-1207. NTIS #:
DE93005074, 1992.
-------
Oak Ridge K-25 Facility, Tennessee
Isotron Corporation
Electrokinetic Extraction
Description of Demonstration: The objective is to demonstrate the effectiveness of electrokinetics to
move and capture uranium and organic contaminants in soil. The process involves the application of a
direct current across the soil and patented system to capture the radionuclide.
Wastes Treated: Uranium and organic contaminants
Status: A pilot-scale demonstration, supported by the Department of Energy's Office of Technology
Development, is underway. Laboratory tests completed in 1994 using site soil showed that the process
could move and capture uranium.
Demonstration Results: None.
Contact:
Henry L. Lomasney
Isotron Corporation
13152 Chef Menteur Highway
New Orleans, LA 70129
504-254-4624
Fax:504-254-5172
References:
U.S. DOE. In Situ Remediation Integrated Program: Technology Summary. U.S. Department of Energy,
Office of Environmental Management, Office of Technology Development, 1994.
DOE Gaseous Diffusion Plant, Paducah, Kentucky
In Situ Remediation Technology Consortium
Description of Demonstration: The demonstration will test the ability of an integrated technology to treat
TCE in clay. Highly permeable subsurface sorption zones will be created in a vertical configuration by
hydraulic fracturing or similar technology followed by the introduction of certain sorbents. The
electrodes, placed vertically on either side of the contaminant plume, will flush contaminants by electro-
osmotic flow into the sorption zones containing certain sorbents. (Electrodes and degradation zones may
be constructed horizontally or vertically depending on the site and contaminant characteristics.)
Wastes Treated: TCE
Status: Preliminary field trials began in the summer 1994, and in November 1994 COM Federal Programs
Corporation installed field demonstration equipment. Bench and pilot scale experiments will be conducted
in 1994-1995, and field demonstrations of the full process is planned for 1995-1996. Integrated in situ
remediation technology is being developed by a consortium consisting of Monsanto with its trademark
-------
process Lasagna,™ E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., and General Electric with participation from the U.S.
EPA and U.S. DOE.
Demonstration Results: None.
Contacts:
Sa Ho or B. Mason Hughes
Environmental Sciences Center
Monsanto Company
St. Louis, MO 63167
314-694-5179/314-694-1466
Fax:314-694-1531
Steven J. Bossart
U.S. Department of Energy
304-285-4643
Fax: 304-285-4403
U.S. Army Waterways Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Electrokinetics, Inc.
Electro-Klean™ Electrical Separation
Description of Demonstration: Electro-Klean™ is an in situ process that removes or captures heavy
metals, radionuclides, and selected volatile organic pollutants from saturated or unsaturated sands, silts,
fine-grained clays, and sediments. Electrodes are placed on each side of the contaminated soil mass, and
direct current is applied. Conditioning fluids may be added or circulated at the electrodes to enhance the
electrochemistry of the process. The concurrent mobility of the ions and pore fluid decontaminates the soil
mass. Contaminants are electroplated on the electrodes or separated in a post-treatment unit.
Wastes Treated: Lead
Status: The field demonstration of the in situ pilot-scale Electro-Klean™ process for removing lead at a
U.S. Army firing range is expected to be initiated by the Spring of 1995. Electrokinetics, Inc. and the U.S.
Army are preparing construction guidelines, and design and analysis processes for the demonstration.
Numerous bench-scale and pilot-scale laboratory studies involving the feasibility of removing lead,
uranium, and thorium from kaolinite have been completed under the SITE Emerging Technology
Program. Schemes which enhance transport and extraction of substances have been developed by
Electrokinetics, Inc., in collaboration with and support from the U.S. Army. Pilot-scale studies with 1.5
ton samples of a soil retrieved from the Army firing range and contaminated with lead leached from
bullets are ongoing. Electrokinetics, Inc.'s process was developed in conjunction with Louisiana Business
and Technology Center at the Louisiana State University.
Demonstration Results: None.
-------
Contact:
Robert Marks, General Manager
Electrokinetics, Inc.
Louisiana Business and Technology Center
Louisiana State University, Suite 155
South Stadium Drive
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803-6100
504-388-3992
Fax: 504-388-3928
References:
Acar, Y.B.; Puppala, S.; Marks, R.; Gale, R.J.; and Bricka, M. Investigation of Selected Enhancement
Techniques in Electrokinetic Remediation. Report presented to US Army Waterways Experiment Station,
Electrokinetics Inc., Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 1994, p 160.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response. Super fund
Engineering Issue: Treatment of Lead-Contaminated Soils. EPA/540/2-91/009. April, 1991.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development. Superfund Innovative
Technology Evaluation Program Technology Profiles. 7th ed. EPA/540/R-94/526. November, 1994. p
262-263.
U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Electrochemical Decontamination of Soils or Slurries. Patent
#5,137,608, August 11, 1992.
Sandia National Laboratories Chemical Waste Landfill
Sandia National Laboratories and Sat-Unsat, Inc.
In Situ Electrokinetic Extraction
Description of Demonstration: Three to five electrode pairs, supplied with water and neutralization
chemicals, will be used to treat chromium-contaminated soil over a 120-day period. Between 25 and 120
kilograms of chromium are expected to be removed from 700 to 1,000 cubic feet of soil. Soluble
chromium concentrations range from 25 (background) to 10,000 ppm with the upper limit at 15 feet below
ground surface. Contaminants arriving at the electrodes will be removed using a vacuum system.
Wastes Treated: Chromium
Status: Sandia National Laboratories has requested that their planned field demonstration in the unlined
chromic acid pit at the landfill be conducted under the SITE program. Research and demonstrations at the
Sandia National Laboratories are supported by the U.S. Department of Energy.
Demonstration Results: None.
-------
Contact:
Eric R. Lindgren
Sandia National Laboratory
P.O. Box 5800, Mail Stop 0727
Albuquerque, NM 87185
505-844-3820
Fax: 505-844-1480
References:
Lindgren, E.R. and Mattson, E.D. SITE Demonstration Program Proposal: In Situ Electrokinetic
Extraction System. Sandia National Laboratories, New Mexico.
-------
Completed Commercial Applications
An Underground Storage Tank Spill
Environment & Technology Services
Electrokinetic Enhancement
Description of Demonstration: Direct current was applied through 56 electrodes installed in the upper
clay layer of this 2,400 square foot gasoline contaminated site to move contaminants and water down 15
feet into dense cemented conglomerate sandstone where contaminants were removed by bioventing.
Electrolysis of some water molecules, resulting from the electrical gradient, was thought to have produced
hydroxyl ions that promoted oxidation of the contaminants.
Wastes Treated: BTEX
Status: Completed.
Demonstration Results: Bioventing, enhanced by electrokinetics, reportedly reduced gasoline levels of
100-2,200 ppm to well below the target of 100 ppm after about 90 days at a cost of about $50/ton.
Contact:
Walter Loo
Environmental & Technology Services
2081 15th Street
San Francisco, CA 94114
415-861-0810
Fax: 415-861-3269
References:
"Firm Employs Electrokinetics to Assist Subsurface Cleanup" HazTECH News. 9(24) p 185 (1994).
-------
Current Research
Electrokinetic Soil Remediation
Argonne National Laboratory
Description of Research: Investigators at Argonne National Laboratory are studying the effects of
various system parameters such as temperature and applied voltage on the complex subsurface phenomena
that occur during electrokinetics soil remediation. Initial studies have focussed on the effect of temperature
on the removal/extraction of potassium dichromate from kaolinite soil.
Wastes Treated: Potassium dichromate
Contact:
Theodore R. Krause
Argonne National Laboratory
9700 South Cass Avenue
Argonne, Illinois 60439
708-252-4356
Fax: 708-252-5912
References:
Krause, T.R. and Tarman, B. "Preliminary Results from the Investigation of Thermal Effects in
Electrokinetics Soil Remediation." ANL/CMT/CP-79321. Conference Proceedings: Annual American
Chemical Society Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Division Special Symposium on Emerging
Technologies for Hazardous Waste Management, Atlanta Georgia. September 27-29, 1993. U.S.
Department of Energy.
Electrokinetic Remediation
Louisiana State University and Electrokinetics, Inc.
Description of Research: The primary goal of past and ongoing research at Louisiana State University
(LSU) is to explore, investigate, and use multi-species transport mechanisms in soils under electrical fields
for developing techniques to remediate soils from inorganic and organic substances and radionuclides. The
mission of Electrokinetics, Inc. is to translate the scientific knowledge developed by LSU and other
researchers into practice by carrying out the essential developmental work in deployment and
commercialization of the promising technologies.
Bench-scale studies are conducted at LSU to evaluate the feasibility of removing lead, chromium,
cadmium, zinc, uranium, radium, and thorium from spiked and natural contaminated soils. Bench-scale
studies also have been carried out to investigate the feasibility of transporting phenol, hexachlorobutadiene
and trinitrotoluene (TNT). Both clays/granular soils and spiked/natural specimens have been used in
testing. The feasibility and cost-effectiveness of electrokinetic remediation in extracting some of these
inorganic species have been demonstrated. The efficiency of extraction relies upon several factors such as
the type of species, their solubility chemistry in the specific soil, their electrical charge, their concentration
relative to other species, their location and form in the soil, available counter ions in the soil, type of soil,
-------
availability of organic matter in the soil, processing parameters used, and the type of conditioning and
enhancement scheme employed in the electrokinetic remediation process. Studies at LSU indicate that
polar species such as phenol may be removed under electrical fields below their solubility limit, but
removal of nonpolar species such as hexachlorobutadiene and TNT under electrical fields is possible only
if aqueous surfactant solutions are used in order to increase the solubility of the organic species and to
form charged micelles.
Pilot-scale studies have been conducted under a cooperative agreement between the U.S. EPA and
Electrokinetics, Inc. of Baton Rouge. The efficiency and feasibility of removing lead from spiked one ton
specimens of clay have been demonstrated in three separate pilot-scale tests. In research sponsored by the
U.S. EPA, researchers at LSU have developed a theoretical model for multi-species transport in soils
under electrical fields. The numerical implementation of the model has been verified through correlations
with the results of the pilot-scale studies.
LSU researchers and Electrokinetics Inc. personnel, in a collaborative effort with the Department of
Energy (DOE) and the U.S. EPA also have initiated a research and development program which aims to
deploy multi-species transport processes under electrical fields in injection of process additives and
nutrients for effective in situ bioremediation of organic species. Bench and pilot-scale studies investigating
transport rates of selected species in heterogenous soil conditions are ongoing. Pilot-scale studies and field
demonstration studies are planned.
Wastes Treated: Heavy metals, radionuclides, organics.
Contact:
Yalcin Acar
Louisiana State University
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Center for Engineering and Business Administration
Baton Rouge, LA 70803-6100
504-388-8638
Fax: 504-388-8652
References:
Acar, Y.B. "Electrokinetic Soil Processing." In Handbook on Approaches for the Remediation of Federal
Facility Sites Contaminated with Explosive or Radioactive Wastes. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office and Research and Development, EPA/625/R-93/013, p 77-83.
Acar, Y.B. "Electrokinetic Soil Processing; A Review of the State of the Art." Conference Proceedings:
1992 ASCE Specialty Conference on Grouting, Soil Improvement and Geosynthetics. Geotechnical
Publication, 30 (2), p 1420-1432.
Acar Y.B. and Alshawabkeh, A. "Electrokinetic Remediation: An Assessment of Principles." Conference
Proceedings: EPRI Electrokinetics Workshop, 1994, Palo Alto, CA., EPRI TR-104170, p 49-54.
Acar, Y.B. and Alshawabkeh, A. "Modeling Transport of Species Under an Electric Field". Conference
Proceedings: XIII International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Oxford and
IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India, 2: 662-669.
Acar, Y.B. and Alshawabkeh, A. "Principles of Electrokinetic Remediation." Environmental Science and
Technology, 27 (13), 1993, p 2638-2647.
-------
Acar, Y.B. and Gale, R. J. Electrochemical Decontamination of Soils and Slurries. US Patent No.
5,137,608, Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks, Washington, B.C., August 11, 1992.
Acar, Y.B. and Hamed, J. "Electrokinetic Soil Processing in Remediation/Treatment; Synthesis of
Available Data." Bulletin of the Transportation Research Board, National Academy of Sciences,
Geotechnical Engineering 1312, 1991, p 152-161.
Acar, Y.B.; Alshawabkeh, A.N.; Gale, R.J.; Puppala, S.; Parker, R; Bricka, M. "Electrokinetic Soil
Remediation: Technology Status." Conference Proceedings: 21st Annual RREL Hazardous Waste
Research Symposium, Abstract Proceedings. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1995 (in press).
Acar, Y.B.; Gale, R.J.; Alshawabkeh, A.; Marks, R.E.; Puppala, S.; Bricka, M.; and Parker, R.
"Electrokinetic Remediation: Basics and Technology Status." Journal of Hazardous Materials, 40 (3),
1995,p 117-137.
Acar, Y.B.; Puppala, S.; Marks, R.; Gale R.J. and Bricka, M. An Investigation of Selected Enhancement
Techniques in Electrokinetic Remediation. Report presented to US Army Waterways Experiment Station,
Electrokinetics Inc., Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 1994, 160p.
Acar, Y.B.; Hamed, J.; Alshawabkeh, A.; and Gale R.J. "Cadmium Removal From Saturated Kaolinite by
Electrokinetics." Geotechnique, 44 (3), 1994, p 239-254.
Acar, Y.B.; Alshawabkeh, A.N.; and Gale R.J. 1994. "Electrokinetic Soil Remediation: A Pilot-Scale
Study." Conference Proceedings: 20th Annual RREL Hazardous Waste Research Symposium, Abstract
Proceedings, 1994, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/R-94/01154, p 168-172.
Acar, Y.B.; Alshawabkeh, A. and Gale, R.J. "Fundamental Aspects of Extracting Species from Soils by
Electrokinetics." Journal of Waste Management, 12(3), 1993, p 1410-1421.
Acar, Y.B.; Gale, R.J.; Ugaz, A.; and Marks, R. "Feasibility of Removing Uranyl, Thorium and Radium
from Kaolinite by Electrokinetics." Conference Proceedings: 19th Annual RREL Hazardous Waste
Research Symposium, Abstract Proceedings, 1993, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/R-
93/040,p 161-165.
Acar, Y.B.; Li, H. and Gale R.J. "Phenol Removal from Kaolinite by Electrokinetics." Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, 118 (11), 1992, 1837-1852.
Acar, Y.B.; Gale, R.J.; Ugaz, A.; Puppala, S.; Leonard, C. Feasibility of Removing Uranium, Thorium and
Radium from Kaolinite by Electrochemical Soil Processing. EK-BR-009-0292, Final Report-Phase I of
EK-EPA Cooperative Agreement CR816828-01-0, Electrokinetics Inc., Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 1992,
243p.
Acar, Y.B.; Gale, R.J.; and Putnam, G.; Hamed, J. and Wong, R. "Electrochemical Processing of Soils:
Theory of pH Gradient Development by Diffusion and Linear Convection." Journal of Environmental
Science and Health, 25 (6), 1990, p 687-714.
Acar, Y.B.; Gale, R.J.; Putnam, G.; and Hamed, J. "Electrochemical Processing of Soils: Its Potential Use
in Environmental Geotechnology and Significance of pH Gradients." Conference Proceedings: 2nd
International Symposium on Environmental Geotechnology, Shanghai, China, 1989. Envo Publishing,
Bethlehem, PA, p 25-38.
10
-------
Alshawabkeh, A. Theoretical and Experimental Modeling of Removing Species from Soils by
Electrokinetics. PhD Thesis, Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana, 1994, 375p.
Alshawabkeh, A. and Acar, Y.B. "Electrokinetic Remediation: I. Pilot-Scale Study; II. Theory". Journal
of Geotechnical Engineering, 1995, (in press).
Alshawabkeh, A., Acar Y.B. "Electrokinetic Remediation: Modeling the Process." Conference
Proceedings: 207th Annual Meeting of the American Chemical Society, San Diego, CA, 1994.
Alshawabkeh, A. and Acar, Y.B. "Removal of Contaminants from Soils by Electrokinetics: A Theoretical
Treatise." Journal of Environmental Science and Health, 27 (7), 1992, p 1835-1861.
Hamed, J. Decontamination of Soil Using Electro-Osmosis. PhD Thesis, Louisiana State University and
Agricultural and Mechanical College, Baton Rouge, LA, 1990.
Hamed, J.; Acar, Y.B.; and Gale, R.J. "Pb(II) Removal from Kaolinite Using Electrokinetics." Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, 112 (2), 1991, p 241-271.
Li, H.L.; Gale, R.J. and Acar; Y.B. "Soil Decontamination Using Electrokinetic Processing." In:
Environmental Oriented Electrochemistry, C.A.C. Sequeira (Editor), Elsevier Science Publishers, 1994.
Marks, R.E.; Acar, Y.B.; Gale, R.J. 1994. "In Situ Remediation of Contaminated Soils Containing
Hazardous Mixed Wastes by Bio-Electrokinetic Remediation and Other Competitive Technologies." In:
Remediation of Hazardous Waste Contaminated Soils. Donald L. Wise and Debra J. Trantolo (eds.),
Marcel Dekker Inc., 1994, Chapter 18, p 405-436.
Puppala, S.K.; Marks, R.E.; Acar, Y.B.; Gale, R.J. "Enhancement Techniques in Electrokinetic
Remediation." Conference Proceedings. I&EC Special Symposium, the American Chemical Society,
Atlanta, GA, 1994, p 1192-1195.
Tran, N.K. and Gale, R.J. "Micellar Electrokinetic Soil Decontamination." Conference Proceedings:
Environmental Aspects of Electrochemistry and Photoelectrochemistry. May 16-21, 1993, Honolulu, HI.
Ugaz, A.; Puppala, S.; Gale, R.J.; and Acar, Y.B. "Complicating Features of Electrokinetic Remediation
of Soils and Slurries: Saturation Effects and the Role of the Cathode Electrolysis." Communications in
Chemical Engineering, December 1994.
11
-------
In Situ Electrokinetic Soil Processing
Electro-Petroleum, Inc. and Lehigh University
Description of Research: Laboratory studies conducted by Electro-Petroleum, Inc. and Lehigh University
have shown mobilization of 15 metals and 6 organic compounds in five soil matrices with an electro-
kinetic process developed by Electro-Petroleum, Inc. (Some of the research has been conducted under two
contracts through the Argonne and Sandia National Laboratories.) The electrokinetic process can treat
soils, sludges, and sediments contaminated with heavy metals and organic hydrocarbons but works best on
clay-type soils with low hydraulic permeability. Electrokinetic permeabilities for aqueous systems in clays
have been demonstrated to be up to one thousand times greater than normal hydraulic permeabilities, and
some heavy metals have exhibited removal efficiencies of up to 100%. Based on laboratory-scale
experiments, Electro-Petroleum, Inc. estimates the cost of in situ remediation should be approximately $50
per cubic yard.
The only field testing of Electro-Petroleum, Inc.'s electrokinetic process has been under confidentiality
agreements in oil fields. Two full-scale systems are in the design phase of development.
Wastes Treated: Heavy metals, volatile and semivolatile organic compounds, solvents, BTEX,
radioactive metals, inorganic cyanides
Contact:
J. Kenneth Wittle
Electro-Petroleum, Inc.
Suite 1118
996 Old Eagle School Road
Wayne, PA 19087
610-687-9070
Fax: 610-964-8570
References:
Khan, L.I.; Pamukcu, S.; Wittle, J.K.; and Titus, C.H. "Electrokinetic Treatment of Contaminated Soil."
AIChE Meeting, Pittsburgh, PA, August 1991.
Pamukcu, S. and Wittle, J.K. "Electrokinetic Removal of Selected Heavy Metals from Soil."
Environmental Progress, 11 (3), 1992, p 241-250.
Pamukcu, S. and Wittle, J.K. "Electrokinetically Enhanced Decontamination of Soils, Sludges, and
Groundwater." Fine Particle Society Symposium, Chicago, Illinois, August 1993.
Pamukcu, S. and Wittle, J.K. "Electrokinetics for Removal of Low-Level Radioactivity from Soil."
Fourteenth Annual Department of Energy Low-Level Radioactive Waste Management Conference.
Phoenix, AZ, November 18-20, 1992, Conf-921137-Proc, p 256-278.
Pamukcu, S. and Wittle, J.K. "Electrokinetics for Use as an Innovative Insitu Remediation Process." I&EC
Special Symposium, American Chemical Society, Atlanta, GA, September 1994.
12
-------
Pamukcu, S.; Newhart, G.; Wittle, J.K. "Electrokinetically Enhanced Transport of Surrogate
Radionuclides and Mixed Organic Contaminants in Soil." I&EC Special Symposium, American Chemical
Society, Atlanta, GA, September 1993.
Pamukcu, S.; Newhart, G.; Wittle, J.K. "Use of Electrokinetics to Control the Mitigation of Heavy Metals
from Landfill Sites." Green '93, Bolton, England, June 1993.
Pamukcu, S.; Wittle, J.K.; and Titus, C.H. "Electrokinetics: Emerging Technology for In Situ Soil
Remediation." Conference Proceedings: Hazardous Materials Control Research Institute Federal
Environmental Restoration Conference and Exhibition, Vienna, Virginia, April 15-17, 1992.
Wittle, J.K. and Pamukcu, S. Electrokinetic Treatment of Contaminated Soils, Sludges, and Lagoons.
Final Report. DOE/CH-9206. U.S. Department of Energy, Argonne National Laboratory, 1993.
Wittle, J.K. and Pamukcu, S. "Electrokinetics and Its Enhancement in In-Situ Soil Treatment of
Manufactured Gas Plant Wastes." I&EC Special Symposium, American Chemical Society, Atlanta,
Georgia, September 1992.
Wittle, J.K.; Pamukcu, S.; and Reed, B. "Electrokinetic Removal of Inorganic Contaminants." EPRI
Workshop on In Situ Electrochemical Soil and Water Remediation, Palo Alto, CA, February 1994.
Electrokinetic Soil Processing
Lehigh University
Description of Research: The critical parameters of electroosmosis and flow enhancing ions have been
investigated in a series of laboratory experiments. The study demonstrated successful removal of 16
targeted PAH compounds from the soil (clay or granular) at a removal rate of 44 to 70% upon 2 to 9 pore
volumes of electroosmotic water flow through the soil specimens. In general, the degree of success of
decontamination by electrokinetic process appeared to be parameter specific; more dependent on the type
of the contaminant to be removed than the type of medium being decontaminated. Electroosmosis
appeared to be the dominant mechanism of transport when the contaminants present in the aqueous phase
were nonpolar or nonionic, neutral micelles or surface-coated colloids.
Investigations of clay or clay mixtures and a known concentration of a selected heavy metal salt solution
or an organic compound showed up to 99% heavy metal removal and high removal levels of some organic
compounds such as phenol, acetic acid, and O-nitrophenol. Transient pH change through the soil had an
effect on the metal movement as evidenced by accumulation of the metals at the discharge ends of the soil
specimens. The accumulation was attributed to the precipitation of the metals and increased cation
retention capacity of the clay in high pH environment at the cathode end. In general, precipitation, reduced
mobility, and reduced dissociation of the ionic species as they encountered areas of higher ionic
concentration in their path of migration resulted in the accumulation of the metals at the discharge ends of
the soil specimens.
Wastes Treated: Coal tar, radionuclides, priority heavy metals
13
-------
Contact:
Sibel Pamukcu
Lehigh University
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Fritz Engineering Laboratory
13 East Packer Ave.
Bethlehem, PA 18015
610-758-3220
Fax: 610-758-4522
E-Mail: SP01@Lehigh.edu
References:
Khan, L.I. Study ofElectroosmosis in Soil: A Modified Theory and Its Application in Soil
Decontamination. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1992, 52(12-B), p 6546.
Khan, L.I. and Pamukcu, S. "Validity of Electro-Osmosis for Soil Decontamination." Conference
Proceedings of the 1989 Specialty Conference, Austin, TX, July 10-12, 1989, p 563-570.
Pamukcu, S. Electrokinetic Removal of Coal Tar Constituents from Contaminated Soils. Electric Power
Research Institute Report, EPRI-TR-103320, Palo Alto, CA, 1994. 92p.
Pamukcu, S.; Khan, L.I.; and Fang, H.Y. "Zinc Detoxification of Soils by Electro-Osmosis."
Transportation Research Record, 1288, 1990, p 41-46.
Pamukcu, S.; Newhart, G.; and Wittle, J.K. "Use of Electrokinetics to Control the Migration of Heavy
Metals from Landfill Sites." Proceedings of Green '93, an International Symposium on Geotechnics
Related to the Environment, Balkema Publ., Netherlands, 1995.
Pamukcu, S. and Wittle, J.K. "Electrokinetic Removal of Selected Heavy Metals from Soil."
Environmental Progress, 11 (3), 1992, p 241-250.
Pamukcu, S. and Wittle, J.K. "Electrokinetically Enhanced Insitu Soil Decontamination." in Remediation
of Hazardous Waste Contaminated Soils, Chapter 13. Wise and Trantolo (eds.). New York: Marcel
Dekker, 1993. p 245-298.
Pamukcu, S. and Wittle, J.K. "Electrokinetics for Removal of Low-Level Radioactivity from Soil."
Fourteenth Annual Department of Energy Low-Level Radioactive Waste Management Conference.
Phoenix, AZ, November 18-20, 1992, Conf-921137-Proc, p 256-278.
Whittle, J.K. and Pamukcu, S. Electrokinetic Treatment of Contaminated Soils, Sludges, and Lagoons.
U.S. Department of Energy, Argonne National Laboratories. DOE/CH-9206, No. 02112406, 1993. 65p.
14
-------
Electroremediation
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Description of Research: The purpose of the research is to develop and verify a mathematical model that
can be used in identifying optimal operating conditions for electrokinetic decontamination of waste sites.
The model is intended to take into account the complex interaction of subsurface effects that occur
simultaneously when a direct current is applied in soil. Tests are being conducted in laboratory test cells to
identify the multiple parameters that influence the electrokinetic process and to verify the model.
Experimental results of up to 94% removal for some chemicals such as phenol or acetic acid and 98%
removal of heavy metals such as zinc in compacted kaolin were in good agreement with model predictions
when important parameters, such as electrode reactions and pH, were accounted for. This research, which
is sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, is expected to improve the efficiency and reduce the cost
of practical applications of the technology.
Wastes Treated: Heavy metals, organics
Contact:
Ronald F. Probstein
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Department Mechanical Engineering
Cambridge, MA 02139
617-253-2240
Fax: 617-258-8559
References:
Shapiro, A.P. and R.F. Probstein. 1993. Removal of contaminants from saturated clay by electroosmosis.
Environ. Sci. Technology 27(2):283.
Hicks, R.E. and S. Tondorf. 1994. Electrorestoration of metal contaminated soils. Environ. Sci.
Technology 28(12):2203.
Jacobs, R.A., M.Z. Sengun, R.E. Hicks and R.F. Probstein. 1994. Model and experiments on soil
remediation by electric fields. J. Environ. Sci. Health A29(9):1933.
Probstein, R.F. and R.E. Hicks. 1993. Removal of contaminants from soils by electric fields. Science
260:498.
15
-------
Electrokinetics
Sandia National Laboratories
Description of Research: The purpose of this research program is to develop an in situ electrokinetic
process for remediating unsaturated soils contaminated with heavy metals. The results of laboratory
electrokinetic studies on large anionic organic dyes in unsaturated soil (as low as about 25% saturation)
indicate that electrokinetics is a feasible alternative for remediating in situ anionic heavy metals like
chromate and uranium. In sandy soils with approximately 40 to 60% moisture saturation, the bench-scale
electrokinetic process removed 75 to 90% of initial chromium.
Wastes Treated: Chromium
Contact:
Eric R. Lindgren
Sandia National Laboratory
P.O. Box 5800, Mail Stop 0727
Albuquerque, NM 87185
505-844-3820
Fax: 505-844-1480
References:
Lindgren, E.R., M.W. Kozak and E.D. Mattson. 1991. Electrokinetic remediation of contaminated soils.
SAND-91-0726C. Conference Proceedings: Environmental Remediation '91 Conference, September 8-11,
1991. Pasco, Washington. U.S. Department of Energy. NTIS: DE91018683/XAB.
Lindgren, E.R., M.W. Kozak and E.D. Mattson. 1992. Electrokinetic remediation of anionic contaminants
from unsaturated soils. SNAD-92-0818C. Conference Proceedings: International Symposium on
Environmental Contamination, October 12-16. Budapest, Hungary. U.S. Department of Energy. NTIS:
DE93002479/XAB.
Lindgren, E.R., M.W. Kozak, E.D. Mattson. 1992. Electrokinetic remediation of unsaturated soils. SAND-
92-0817C. Conference Proceedings: Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Special Symposium of the
American Chemical Society, September 21-23, 1992. Atlanta, Georgia. U.S. Department of Energy. NTIS:
DE9300074 I/CAB.
Lindgren, E.R., R.R. Rao and B.A. Finlayson. 1993. Numerical simulation of electrokinetic phenomena.
Conference Proceedings: Annual American Chemical Society Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
Division Special Symposium on Emerging Technologies for Hazardous Waste Management, September
27-29, 1993. Atlanta Georgia. U.S. Department of Energy.
Mattson, E.D. and E.R. Lindgren. 1993. Electrokinetic extraction of chromate from unsaturated soils.
SAND-93-7077C. Conference Proceedings: Annual American Chemical Society Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry Division Special Symposium on Emerging Technologies for Hazardous Waste
Management, September 27-29, 1993. Atlanta Georgia. U.S. Department of Energy. NTIS:
DE94002042/XAB.
16
-------
Electrokinetic Extraction
Texas A&M University
Description of Research: Researchers formulated a coupled flow theory for the transport of fluid,
electricity, and contaminants under the combined influences of hydraulic, electrical, and chemical
gradients to describe the contaminant transport during the electrokinetic extraction process.
Electrochemical reactions associated with the processes and soil-contaminant interactions are also
included. A numerical model was developed to simulate the contaminant transport, electrochemical
reactions, and soil-contaminant interactions during the extraction processes. Bench scale experiments were
performed to evaluate the validity of the theory and numerical model.
Wastes Treated: Sodium chloride, lead nitrate, phenol, acetic acid
Contact:
Albert T. Yeung
Department of Civil Engineering
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843-3136
409-845-2538
Fax: 409-845-6554
E-mail: ALYEUNG@tamu.edu
References:
Datla, S. and Yeung, A.T. "Subsurface Migration of Contaminants under the Coupled Influences of
Hydraulic, Electrical, and Chemical Gradients." Proceedings of the 8th International Conference of the
International Association for Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics. Morgantown, West
Virginia, 1994, 2, p 1042, 1048.
Mitchell, J.K. and Yeung, A.T. "Electro-Kinetic Flow Barriers in Compacted Clay." Geotechnical
Engineering, 1990, Transportation Research Record 1288, p 1-9.
Mitchell, J.K. and Yeung, A.T. Waste Containment and Cleanup Using Electro-Osmosis. Technical
Completion Report of Project W-699. University of California Water Resources Center, 1989.
Yeung, A.T. "Complicated Phenomena of Electro-Kinetic Extraction of Contaminants from Soil."
Conference Proceedings: 207th American Chemical Society National Meeting, March 13-18, 1994. San
Diego, CA. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, March 1994.
Yeung, A.T. "Coupled Flow Equations for Water, Electricity, and Ionic Contaminants through Clayey
Soils Under Hydraulic, Electrical, and Chemical Gradients." Journal of Non-Equilibrium
Thermodynamics, 15 (3), 1990, p 247-267.
Yeung, A.T. "Electro-Kinetic Barrier to Contaminant Transport" Proceedings of the International
Conference on Environmental Management: Geo-Water & Engineering Aspects. Wollongong, Australia,
1993, p 239-244.
Yeung, A.T. "Electro-Kinetic Flow Processes in Porous Media and Their Implications." Advances in
Porous Media, 2, 1994, p 309-395.
17
-------
Yeung, A.T. Enhancement ofln-Situ Bioremediation of Contaminated Soil by Electrokinetics. Final
Research Completion Report Submitted to the Gulf Coast Hazardous Substance Research Center,
Beaumont, Texas, February 1995.
Yeung, A.T. "Environmental Engineering Applications of Electro-Kinetic Flow Processes: State-of-the-
Art." Hong Kong Engineers. 21 (11), 1993, p 25-30.
Yeung, A.T. "Waste Containment Using Electro-Kinetics." Proceedings of the International Symposium
on Geology and Confinement of Toxic Wastes. Montpellier, France, 1993, p 585-590.
Yeung, A.T. and Datla, S. "Fundamental Formulation of Electro-Kinetic Extraction of Contaminants from
Soil." Canadian GeotechnicalJournal, 1995 (in press).
Yeung, A.T.; Gopinath, S.; Menon, R.M.; Scott, T.B.; and Datla, S. "Electro-Kinetic Extraction of
Contaminants from Polluted Soil." Waste Management, 13 (5-7), 1993, p 539.
Electrokinetics
University of Massachusetts Lowell
Description of Research: Researchers have been conducting laboratory and bench-scale research on the
effectiveness of electroosmosis for removing hydrocarbons and heavy metals from clay. Benzene, toluene,
TCE, and m-xylene—all of which have relatively high water solubilities—were more easily removed from
fine-grained soils than hexane and isooctane and other compounds with low water solubilities and high
distribution coefficients. Researchers also are studying the physical and chemical characteristics of
electroosmotic contaminant transport. The data are being used to gain insights into electroosmotic organic
contaminant displacement and how soil and pore water characteristics affect the process.
Wastes Treated: BTEX, hexane, isooctane, other hydrocarbons, and lead
Contact:
Clifford J. Bruell
University of Massachusetts Lowell
Civil Engineering Department
One University Avenue
Lowell, MA 01854
508-934-2280
Fax: 508-934-3052
References:
Bruell, C.J., B.A. Segall and M.T. Walsh. 1992. Electroosmotic removal of gasoline hydrocarbons and
TCE from clay. J. Environ. Engineering 118(l):68-83.
Segall, B.A. and C.J. Bruell. 1992. Electroosmotic contaminant-removal processes. J. Environ.
Engineering 118(1):84-100.
18
-------
In Situ Electrokinetics
West Virginia University
Description of Research: The Department of Energy has sponsored laboratory and bench-scale studies on
the use of electrokinetics to remediate fine-grained soil contaminated with lead. The research included an
evaluation of the impact of initial conditions on the efficiency of electrokinetics to drive liquids and
contaminants through soil samples. An electrokinetic soil reactor designed to mimic in situ electrokinetic
flushing was applied to silt loam artificially contaminated with lead. Studies of the removal of lead from
soils indicate that the efficiency of lead removal is related to the flow of the acid front generated by the
positive electrode.
Wastes Treated: Lead
Contact:
Brian Reed
West Virginia University
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
647 Engineering Science Building
Morgantown, WV 26506
304-293-3031x613
References:
Reed, B.E. and Berg, M.T. Removal of Contaminants from Fine-Grained Soils Using Electrokinetic
Flushing. Final Report. September 30, 1987-June 30, 1993. U.S. Department of Energy, National
Research Center for Coal and Energy, DOE/MC/24207-3532, 1993.
19
-------
General References
Acar, Y.B., R.J. Gale, G. Putnam and J. Hamed. 1989. Electrochemical Processing of Soils: Its Potential
Use in Environmental Geotechnology and Significance of pH Gradients. Conference Proceedings: 2nd
International Symposium on Environmental Geotechnology, Shanghai, China, Envo Publishing,
Bethlehem, PA, 1:25-38.
Acar, Y.B., R.J. Gale, G. Putnam, J. Hamed and R. Wong. 1990. Electrochemical Processing of Soils:
Theory of pH Gradient Development by Diffusion and Linear Convection. J. Environmental Science and
Health, Part (A); Envir. Sci. and Engineering, 25(6):687-714.
Acar, Y.B. and J. Hamed. 1991. Electrokinetic Soil Processing in Remediation/Treatment; Synthesis of
Available Data. Bulletin of the Transportation Research, National Academy of Sciences, Geotechnical
Engineering 1312:152-161.
Acar, Y.B. 1992. Electrokinetic soil processing; a review of the state of the art. Conference Proceedings:
ASCE Specialty Conference on Grouting, Soil Improvement, and Geosynthetics. New Orleans, LA.
Getotechnical Publication 30(2): 1420-1432.
Acar, Y.B. and A. Alshawabkeh. 1993. Principles of Electrokinetic Remediation. Envir. Sci. Tech.
27(13):2638-2647.
Acar, Y.B. "Electrokinetic Soil Processing." In: Handbook on Approaches for the Remediation of Federal
Facility Sites Contaminated with Explosive or Radioactive Wastes. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office and Research and Development, EPA/625/R-93/013, 1993, p 77-83.
Acar, Y.B., Alshawabkeh, A. and Gale, R.J. "Fundamental Aspects of Extracting Species from Soils by
Electrokinetics." Journal of Waste Management, 12(3), 1993, p 1410-1421.
Acar Y.B. and Alshawabkeh, A. "Electrokinetic Remediation: An Assessment of Principles." Conference
Proceedings: EPRI Electrokinetics Workshop, Palo Alto, CA, 1994, EPRI TR-104170:49-54.
Murdoch. L., Patterson, B.; Losonsky, G. and Harrar, W. Technologies of delivery or recovery for the
remediation of hazardous waste sites. EPA/600/2-89/066. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Risk
Reduction Engineering Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1990. NTIS: PB90-156225.
20
------- |