.-.i" COMMITTEE ON EPA/542/R-98/002
:j' f THE CHALLENGES OF May 1998
%I MODERN SOCIETY www.clu-in.com
www.echs.ida.org
NATO/CCMS Pilot Study
Evaluation of Demonstrated and
Emerging Technologies for the
Treatment of Contaminated Land
and Groundwater (Phase
1998
ANNUAL REPORT
Number 228
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION
-------
1998
Annual Report
NATO/CCMS Pilot Study
Evaluation of Demonstrated and Emerging
Technologies for the Treatment and Clean Up
of Contaminated Land and Groundwater
(Phase III)
Vienna, Austria
February 23-27, 1998
May 1998
-------
NOTICE
This report was prepared under the auspices of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's Committee on the
Challenges of Modern Society (NATO/CCMS) as a service to the technical community by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). The document was funded by U.S. EPA's Technology
Innovation Office under the direction of Michael Kosakowski. The Annual Report was edited and produced
by Environmental Management Support, Inc., of Silver Spring, Maryland, under U.S. EPA contract 68-W6-
0014. Mention of trade names or specific applications does not imply endorsement or acceptance by U.S.
EPA.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION iii
PROJECTS INCLUDED IN NATO/CCMS PHASE III PILOT STUDY 1
Bioremediation of Loamy Soils Contaminated With Hydrocarbons and Derivatives 3
Mercury Contamination, Spolchemie Plant 7
Permeable Treatment Beds 11
Rehabilitation of Land Contaminated by Heavy Metals 14
Application of Biowalls/Bioscreens 19
Rehabiliitation of a Site Contaminated by PAH Using Bio-Slurry Technique 21
Risk Assessment for a Diesel-Fuel Contaminated Aquifer Based
on Mass Flow Analysis During the Course of Remediation 23
Obstruction of Expansion of a Heavy Metal/Radionuclide Plume Around a
Contaminated Site by Means of Natural Barriers Composed of Sorbent Layers 25
Solidification/Stabilization of Hazardous Wastes 27
Metal-Biofilm Interactions in Sulfate-Reducing Bacterial Systems 29
Predicting the Potential for Natural Attenuation of Organic Contaminants in Groundwater 31
Treatability Test for Enhanced In Situ Anaerobic Dechlorination 33
Permeable Reactive Barriers for/« Situ Treatment of Chlorinated Solvents 36
Dynamic Underground Stripping 38
Phytoremediation of Chlorinated Solvents 41
COUNTRY TOURS de TABLE 45
Austria 46
Belgium 47
Canada 51
Czech Republic 52
Denmark 57
Finland 63
France 66
Germany 73
Greece 77
Hungary 81
The Netherlands 89
Norway 93
Slovenia 96
Sweden 102
Switzerland 105
Turkey 109
United Kingdom 115
United States of America 119
NATIONAL CONTACTS 124
PARTICIPANTS 128
PILOT STUDY MISSION 135
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
11
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
INTRODUCTION
The Council of the North Atlantic Treat}' Organization (NATO) established the Committee on the
Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS) in 1969. CCMS was charged with developing meaningful programs
to share information among countries on environmental and societal issues that complement other
international endeavors and to provide leadership in solving specific problems of the human environment.
A fundamental precept of CCMS involves the transfer of technological and scientific solutions among
nations with similar environmental challenges.
The management of contaminated land and groundwater is a universal problem among industrialized
countries, requiring the use of existing, emerging, innovative, and cost-effective technologies. This
document provides a report from the first meeting of the Phase III Pilot Study and is designed to share
information among countries on innovative treatment technologies. The United States is the lead country
for the Pilot Study, and Germany and The Netherlands are the Co-Pilot countries. The first phase
successfully concluded in 1991, and the results were published in three volumes. The second phase, which
expanded to include newly emerging technologies, concluded in 1997; final reports documenting 52
completed projects and the participation of 14 countries will be published early in 1998. Through these pilot
studies, critical technical information has been made available to participating countries and the world
community.
The Phase in study focuses on the technical approaches for addressing the treatment of contaminated land
and groundwater. This Phase will address issues of sustainability, environmental merit, and cost-effective-
ness, in addition to continued emphasis on emerging remediation technologies. The objectives of the study
are to critically evaluate technologies, promote the appropriate use of technologies, use information
technology systems to disseminate the products, and to foster innovative thinking in the area of contamina-
ted land. The Phase III Mission Statement is provided at the end of this report.
The first meeting of the Phase HI Pilot Study on the Evaluation of Demonstrated and Emerging Tech-
nologies for the Treatment and Clean Up of Contaminated Land and Groundwater convened in Vienna,
Austria, on February 23-27, 1998, with representatives of 20 countries attending. Each participating country
presents case studies or projects to the Pilot Study. At each meeting, these case studies are discussed and
commented on by experts. At this meeting, 15 projects were selected for consideration by participating
countries. Also, at this meeting, a special technical session was convened on treatment walls and related
permeable reactive barrier technologies. The proceedings of that special session are available in a companion
publication. Natural attenuation will be the specialty topic for the 1999 meeting.
This publication represents the first Annual Report of the Phase III Study. It contains abstracts of the first
15 remediation technology projects selected, reports on the legislative, regulatory, programmatic, and
research issues related to contaminated land in each participating country, and the statement of purpose for
the Phase III Pilot Study. General information on the NATO/CCMS Pilot Study may be obtained from the
Country Representatives listed at the end of this report, or—for each Pilot Study project—from the technical
contacts identified in each abstract.
Stephen C. James
Walter W. Kovalick, Jr., Ph.D.
Co-Directors
in
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
PROJECTS INCLUDED IN NATO/CCMS PHASE III PILOT STUDY
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
PROJECT
1. Bioremediation of Loamy Soils
Contaminated with Hydrocarbons
and Derivatives
2. Mercury-Contaminated
Spolchemie Plant
3. Permeable Treatment Beds
4. Rehabilitation of Land
Contaminated by Heavy Metals
5. Application of BioWalls/
BioScreens
6. Rehabilitation of a Site
Contaminated by PAH Using Bio-
Slurry Technique
7. Risk Assessment for a Diesel-Fuel
Contaminated Aquifer Based on
Mass Flow Analysis During the
Course of Remediation
8. Obstruction of Expansion of a
Heavy Metal/Radionuclide Plume
Around a Contaminated Site by
Means of Natural Barriers
Composed of Sorbent Layers
9. Solidification/Stabilization of
Hazardous Wastes
10. Metals Biofilms Interactions in
Sulfate-Reducing Bacterial
Systems
1 1 . Predicting the Potential for Natural
Attenuation of Organic
Contaminants in Groundwater
12. Treatability of Enhanced In Situ
Anaerobic Dechlorination
13. Permeable Reactive Barriers for In
Situ Treatment of Chlorinated
Solvents
14. Dynamic Underground Stripping
15. Phytoremediation of Chlorinated
Solvents
COUNTRY
Belgium
Czech
Germany
Greece
Netherlands
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
Turkey
UK
UK
USA
USA
USA
USA
MEDIUM
'o
w
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
Groundwater
S
S
/
s
s
/
/
/
/
/
/
CONTAMINANT
in
0
i
/
/
S
s
/
/
SVOCs
/
/
/
/
/
s
/
s
s
Pesticides/PCBs
/
/
in
O
X
CL
/
/
/
/
/
Inorganics
S
/
/
/
/
/
/
S
/
NOTES
PAHs, munitions
chemicals
Hg, metals, PAHs,
TPH
PAHs, BTEX, TCE,
PCE
Pb, Zn, Cd, As, H+,
S04=
Chlorinated
pesticides, BTEX,
TPH, HCH, PCE, TCE
PAHs, cyanides,
metals, ammonium
compounds
PHC
Pb, As, Cr, Cu, Cd,
Hg, Ni, Zn; 137Cs, 90Sr,
238U
PCBs, AOX, metals
Metals (Cu, Zn, Cd),
radionuclides (Lab-
scale)
Coal tars, phenols,
creosol, xylenols,
BTEX, NH4+
TCE, DCE, VC, PCE
PCE, TCE, DCE
PAHs, PCP
TCE, TCA, DCE, PCE,
xylene, methyl cloride,
TMB
KEY:
AOX = adsorptive organic halogens PCP = pentachlorophenol
BTEX = benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes PHCs = petroleum hydrocarbons
DCE = dichloroethene SVOCs = semivolatile organic compounds
HCH = hexachlorocyclohexane TMB = trimethylbenzene
PAHs = polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons TCA = trichloroethane
PCBs = polychlorinated biphenyls TCE = trichloroethene
PCE = tetrachloroethene VC = vinyl chloride
VOCs = volatile organic compounds
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Project No. 1
Bioremediation of Loamy Soils Contaminated With Hydrocarbons and Derivatives
Location
Former fuel depot "Site van
Oss"
Belgium
Project Status
New-
Media
Groundwater
Technology Type
In situ
Bioremediation
Technical Contact
Dr. Walter Mondt
Ecorem nv
Zwartzustersvest 22
2800 Mechelen, Belgium
tel. 32/(0)15.2L 17.35
fax 327(0)15.21.65.98
E-mail: Ecorem@glo.be
Prof. M. Penninckx
Universite Libre de Bruxelles
642, rue Engeland
1180 Brussels. Belgium
tel. 327(0)2.373.33.03
fax 327(0)2.373.31.74
Project Dates
1997 - 2001
Contaminants
Hydrocarbons and derivatives
Costs Documented?
Yes
Project Size
Pilot scale
Results Available?
Yes
1. INTRODUCTION
The current pilot project is proposed by the private partner Ecorem nv and the University of Brussels). The
main objective of the project is the evaluation of the effectiveness of several bioremediation techniques for
cleaning up loamy soils contaminated with hydrocarbons.
Bioremediation is currently used in numerous cases, nevertheless the present project is innovative because:
• most studies on bioremediation are focused on sandy soils, whereas this project will deal with loamy
soils. Loamy soils account for a lot of polluted sites in Europe, but they present inherent difficulties for
gas and solutes diffusion, which may hamper the processes of bioremediation;
• for each case to be treated, the relative performance of several bioremediation procedures will be
compared;
• the inventory of the microflora of the polluted sites will use the recent procedures of molecular biology.
This approach will result in a more objective picture of the microbial diversity of polluted sites, and will
allow the definition of optimal nutrients "cocktails" for boosting the degradation properties of the
microflora.
To date, the soil cleaning scenarios in Belgium have been mainly oriented towards selectively excavating
and removing the pollution, to be dumped in Flanders or Wallonia in waste depots. This results in very high
dumping costs and environmental taxes. Therefore it is important to develop a concept of soil cleaning so
that the transport of polluted material across regional borders is kept to a minimum.
For all these reasons, and in line with the BATNEEC principle, the current pilot project is of great
importance for all European countries dealing with cleaning problems of loamy soils and severe waste
policy. The use of bioremediation techniques, both ex situ and in situ, meets this objective.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
2. SITE DESCRIPTION
The necessary in situ and ex situ experiments and assays with regard to the current pilot project shall take
place at the future soil recycling plant of Ecoterres s.a. in Brussels. The SDRB (Brussels Regional Develop-
ment Co) is owner of the grounds where the pilot installations are planned and lets the site to Ecoterres s.a.
The plant will be constructed on the grounds of a former fuel depot "Site van Oss." The soil was heavily
polluted and recently cleaned, so that the construction of the plant can take place. A part of the plant will
be reserved for the pilot project and all required technical support will be given by Ecoterres s.a.
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS
In order to be able to dimension and adapt the new technologies with regard to the current pilot project a
research project is proposed, consisting of two main parts:
• Preparatory activities will characterize the contaminated soil, measure the microbial activity, and
determine the maximum potential biodegradability of the pollutants present (this phase will result in an
overview of the potential applicability of bioremediation as a cleaning technology for the various types
of pollutants).
• Pilot project—various alternatives will be developed on a laboratory-scale using soil column studies.
In order to get a realistic impression of the processes, one or more configurations will be developed on
a larger scale.
On the basis of the analysis results obtained from the first research phase, a number of cleaning strategies
will be extended into a pilot installation for the purpose of being able to realistically evaluate the
effectiveness of these processes. The execution of both phases will take approximately four years.
4. RESULTS AND EVALUATION
Results of laboratory experiments are not yet available. However, on the base of already executed and
comparative studies, there is a general knowledge of the possible difficulties encountered by the application
of the specific techniques, the efficiency of several systems and the operational parameters.
More specifically, the use of bioremediation techniques for cleaning up loamy soils has already proven its
effectiveness on the ''Site van Oss" itself—the prospective location of the soil recycling plant. Due to the
former activities on the "Site van Oss" as a fuel depot, a strong contamination (mainly mineral oil) of both
soil and groundwater was observed.
The remediation of the non saturated area on the "Site van Oss" was effected by excavation of the "'hot
spots" (mineral oil >5,000 ppm). The remaining soils, containing mineral oil concentrations up to 5,000
ppm, were bio-restored by means of in situ composting and bioventing. Therefore the soils were mixed with
compost and wood chips, in order to ameliorate structural properties and to provide a nutrient source for
indigenous micro-organisms. A bioventing unit was installed for maintaining aerobic conditions and to
eliminate volatile compounds.
After remediation, the average residual concentration of mineral oil was lowered to 490 ppm, in comparison
with the imposed norm of 900 ppm.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
5. COSTS
The estimated costs of the project will mostly depend on manpower. The costs, including the site prepara-
tion, setup, measurements, equipment, laboratory experiments, are estimated at about 3.5 million/man/year.
A working period of four years for two persons for the technical and scientific support, this will bring the
total estimated cost of the project to about 28 million.
6. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ecorem nv (April 1995). Bioremediatie Site van Oss: Toelichting bij de voorgestelde bodemsanering-
stechniek. i.o.v. GOMB.
Applied Biotreatment Association (1989). Applied Biotreatment Association (ABTA) Case History
Compendium. ABTA Washington DC.
Aprill. W., Sims, R. C., Sims, J. L. & Matthews, J. E. (1990) Assessing detoxification and degradation of
wood preserving and petroleum wastes in contaminated soils. Waste Management and Research 8:45-
65.
Bourquin, A.W. (1989) Bioremediation of hazardous waste. Hazardous Materials 2:5-16.
Ceccaldi, P. (1993) Les bacteries rehabilitent le sol. Biofutur 15:50-52.
Eckenfelder, W. W. Jr, Patocza, J. & Watkin, A. T. (1985) Wastewater treatment. Chem. Eng. 92:60-74.
Heitkamp, M. A., Franklin, W. & Cemiglia, C. E. (1988) Microbial metabolism of poly cyclic hydrocarbons:
isolation and characterization of a pyrene-degrading bacterium. Appl. Environ, Microbiol. 54:2549-
2554.
Glazer, A. N. and Nikaido H. (1995) Microbial Biotechnology!. W.H. Freeman, ed.
Hopper, D. R. (1989) Cleaning up contaminated sites. Chemical Engineering. August 1989, 94-110.
Jorgensen, K., Puustinen, J. and Laine, M. (1994) Bioremediation of chemically contaminated soil.
Technical note of the National Board of Waters and Environment, Finland.
Khan. A., Tewari. R. and Walia, S. (1988) Molecular cloning of 3-phenylcatechol dioxygenase involved
in the catabolic pathway of chlorinated biphenyl fromPseudomonasputida and its expression in E. coli.
Appl. Environ, Microbiol, 54:2664-2671.
Lovley, D. R. and Lonergan, D. J. (1990) Anaerobic oxidation of toluene, phenol, and p-cresol by the
dissimilar iron-reducing organism GS-15. Appl. and Environ. Microbiol, 56:1858-1864.
McCarthy, A. J., Fermor, T. R., Jorgensen, K, Kostov, O., Penninckx, M. and Schmitt, T. (1995) the
development of composting systems for xenobiotic waste treatment and for bioremediation of
contaminated land. In: Proceedings of the 4th SETAC Symposium, Brussels, 1994, in press.
Mahaffey, W. R., Compeau, G.. Nelson, M. and Kinsella, J. (1991) Developing strategies for PAH and TCE
bioremediation. Water and Environmental Technology 3:83-88.
Nyer, E. K. (1985) Groundwater Treatment Technology. VanNostrand Reinhold, New York.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
Perry, J. J. (1984) Microbia
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Project No. 2
Mercury Contamination, Spolchemie Plant
Location
Spolchemie Plant, Usti nad Labem,
Czech Republic
Project Status
Contaminants
Mercury; chlorina-
ted hydrocarbons.
PAHs, TPH; heavy
metals
Technology Type
To be determined
following remedial
investigations
Technical Contact
Marek Stanzel
KAPLtd
Skokanska 80
16900Praha6
Prague
Czech Republic
Tel:+420 2 2431 3630
Fax: +420 2 5721 1255
E-mail: m.booth@prg.kap.cz
Project Dates
Accepted
1998
Media
Soil and Groundwater
Costs Documented?
No
Project Size
Full-Scale
Results Available?
No
1. INTRODUCTION
Although other sites in Central Europe are recognized as being contaminated with hazardous waste, the
Spolchemie Plant belongs to one of the largest and the most hazardous waste contaminated sites in Central
Europe. It is located in a large town with a population of 100.000 inhabitants and about 300 m from a
hospital. The plant has a high density of industrial buildings and service lines. The site is predominantly
contaminated by mercury. KAP. with considerable experience with site remediation has been contracted to
undertake studies to remediate the Spolchemie Plant.
2. SITE DESCRIPTION
The Spolchemie Plant is located in the center of the town of Usti nad Labem, which is about 110 Ion
northwest of Prague, Czech Republic. A number of different industrial products and semifinished products
are produced in the Spolchemie Plant. Production in Spolchemie commenced more than 140 years ago.
Now, more than 450 raw materials and semifinished products are utilized for chemical production. There
are about 30 main production units and each of them utilize a number of different technologies. The
estimated number of employees is about 2,500, and the area of the plant is about 52 ha.
3. MERCURY CONTAMINATION
Mercury contamination has been detected in the area of the electrolytic unit where chlorine and sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) are the main products of a sodium chloride (NaCl) electrolytic process. The mercury
results from the electrolytic process, but is mostly reclaimed. The contaminated area of the electrolytic unit
is about 200 x 200 m. Besides the mercury, other pollution has been detected on the facility, such as
chlorinated hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, and heavy metals.
The enormous mercury pollution of underlying soil is a result of long-term electrolytic treatment with little
or no mitigation measures concerning environmental protection at the plant. Pure liquid mercury was also
detected in the soil during drilling and sampling activities. Mercury, in this form, increases the risks even
more (mercury evaporation to atmosphere, possible oxidation-reduction reactions, etc.). Mercury
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
concentrations in the area of electrolytic unit reach are significant—the average concentration is 1,630
mg/kg, and the maximum concentration is 386,000 mg/kg.
The total amount of mercury in the soil to a depth of 15 m has been estimated to be about 100 tonnes.
Together with soil, there are about 1,600,000 tonnes of hazardous material on the site. The real mercury
content in the soil is probably higher because the sampling was not undertaken under the electrolytic unit
due to technical reasons.
Mercury pollution was also detected in the groundwater, with a with maximum measured concentration of
1.6 mg/1. The strata underlying the electrolytic unit are sedimentary rocks of Tertiary and Quaternary age.
These sediments are represented by brown clays with gravel and sand occasionally present. Loess loams
were also encountered on the site. The site is covered by a fill with a thickness of 0.5-2 m. A water-bearing
formation is bound to porous layers of fluvial and deluvio-fluvial gravel and sand. The groundwater table
is located at a depth from 0.5-12.5 m.
Mercury migrates in the soil along the preferential paths (cracks and large pores). The higher the porosity.
the lower the retardation, and mercury can thus migrate in to deeper soil layers. High mercury concentration
(in thousands of mg/kg) were also identified at depths of 15-20 m.
The Bilina River and Klissky Creek represent the local drainage base for the Spolchemie site. Consequently,
all pollutants that were not sorbed onto soil grains or degraded migrate to both the river and the creek.
Eventually, they will migrate to the Labe River, which is in the vicinity of the site (0.6 km away) and
represents the general drainage basin.
4. SERVICE DESCRIPTION AND STUDIES CONDUCTED AT SPOLCHEMIE PLANT
4.1. Service Description
4.1.1 Site Investigation
Hydrogeological investigations for soil and groundwater contamination are one of KAP's key activities. The
primary goal of these investigations is to identify the type and extent of contamination present, as well as
to document the geological and hydrogeological conditions at a given site. KAP provides this service in
accordance with current Czech legislation, but regularly works to Western European and North American
standards for clients when required. KAP's professionals efficiently perform all aspects of a project,
including the technical works. Since its foundation, KAP has completed several hundred of these
investigations throughout the country, establishing a reputation for consistently providing top-quality, cost-
effective studies.
4.1.2 Site Risk Assessment
Risk assessments examine and evaluate the risks from all types of pollution to the natural environment and
the surrounding population. Such an analysis includes an assessment of the environmental contaminants that
are present or which are likely to appear, the potential receptors of these contaminants (from populations
to ecosystems), and the pathways that the contaminants might take to reach these receptors (e.g., through
soil, air, water, or food). A risk assessment can be used, for example, to identify the potential risks to human
health and the environment arising from a company's activities. The basic steps in such a risk assessment
are:
• Hazard identification • Exposure Assessment
• Pathway identification • Risk characterization
• Target/receptor definition • Preliminary remediation feasibility study
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
4.1.3 Site Remediation Feasibility Studies
KAP professionals recognize that when identifying an appropriate site remediation program, many parties
have a stake in the selection. These parties represent the local community, industry (senior management of
the plant), environmentalists, scientific and engineering professionals, and the government. Their concerns
differ, as do their values. They will inevitably disagree about what is the best remedy and even as to what
level of protection is needed. In addition, technical reasons (i.e., site conditions, number of remedial
techniques that exist, etc.) further increase the difficulty of remedy selection. KAP has defined a system for
conducting "Site Remediation Feasibility Studies" at all its sites. The system is conducted in a step by step
manner (re-evaluation of each step can be conducted as necessary):
1. Define Problem (Establish what is the Hazard on the Site).
2. Establish Objectives (Defined in Site Risk Assessment Study).
3. Develop Alternatives (Technology Suitable for the Site In Question).
4. Analysis of Alternatives.
5. Implement and Monitor.
4.2 Studies Conducted at Spolchemie Plant
4.2.1 Spolchemie Site Investigation and Risk Assessment, 1995
KAP performed a Site Investigation and a Risk Assessment for the Spolchemie Plant in 1995. Both studies
focused on the entire plant and its vicinity. During the site investigation, 100 shallow probes (to a depth of
1.0 m below the surface) and 38 boreholes (to a depth of 6-20 m) were drilled. A sampling and analyses
program was conducted:
Sampling Activity
Soil Gas
Soil
Groundwater
Surface Water
Number of Samples
138
138
59
10
Ref: KAP, Spolchemie Site Investigation. 1995
Sampling and analyses found that the Spolchemie Facility is contaminated with chlorinated hydrocarbons,
aromatic hydrocarbons, petroleum hydrocarbons, and heavy metals. Following the Site Investigation, a Site
Risk Assessment was carried out, and the target limits for the site remediation program were defined.
Mercury was identified as the most hazardous pollutant on the site because of its extremely high measured
concentrations in the area of electrolytic unit.
4.2.2 Spolchemie Complimentary Site Investigation and Risk Assessment, 1996
KAP, recognizing that the electrolytic unit was the main source of mercury contamination in the plant,
conducted a complementary Site Investigation Risk Assessment in 1996 focusing on the area surrounding
the electrolytic unit. Drilling activities, mercurometry. and sampling were performed during the course of
both studies. The pollution in the area was defined more specifically, and potential pollutant migration
pathways were evaluated. The direction of contaminant transport were defined and potential risk for
particular pollutants were stated.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
4.2.3 Spolchemie Feasibility Stud}' For Site Remediation Program, 1997-ongoing
Based on the results from the Site Investigation
and Risk Assessments mentioned above. KAP
is currently conducting a Feasibility Study for
the site remediation. The Feasibility Study will
take into account that any proposed remedia-
tion program will be implemented while the
plant is in operation. Simultaneously with the
Feasibility Study, a cost-benefit study has been
carried out. The Feasibility Study will assess
all site remediation techniques with respect to
all possible site limitation factors, including:
intended construction activities on the plant;
possible demolition of buildings and other
objects; electrolytic unit operation; legislative
conditions and restrictions; and values of
reclaimed sources. The complete model for the
Spolchemie Feasibility Study Site Remediation
Program is shown in the figure.
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Lanq Term Kcnct
ImuMiifc-rlT.iafi.
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1 H?;p'.n;p,'
- IT. I m n u P<
IMnJcd A
i^tlj Tnilf
10
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Project No. 3
Permeable Treatment Beds
Location
Former solvent blending plant.
Essen. Germany
Project Status
Interim Report.
field tests finalized
Media
Groundwater
Technology Type
Permeable Reactive
Barrier
Technical Contact
Eberhard Beitinger
WCI Umwelttechnik GmbH
Sophie-Charlotten-Strafie 33
14059 Berlin
tel: +49-70)30-32609481
fax: +49-(0)30-32609472
E-mail: exbeitiO(S>wcc.com
Project Dates
Accepted 1997
Contaminants
Chlorinated and nonchlorinated solvents,
BTEX-aromates. TCE, PCE. PAHs
Costs Documented?
Only cost estimates
available
Project Size
Full-scale
Results Available?
Field test results
available
1. INTRODUCTION
This on-site remedial demonstration project will be conducted at an old solvent blending plant in the suburbs
of the city of Essen. The downstream plume of heavily contaminated groundwater will be treated by an
innovative permeable reactive barrier (PRB) technology. A full-scale field test was conducted to evaluate
the adsorption capacity of the filling material (activated carbon) and the performance time of a single filling.
Project objectives are to leam about implementation of the wall structure and long term efficiency of the
fillings regarding in-situ treatability of groundwater by passing the barrier.
2. BACKGROUND/SITE DESCRIPTION
From 1952 to 1985, a chemical factory was situated on an area of about 10,000 m2 located in a city in the
Ruhr area. Mostly solvents like hydrocarbons, volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons, PAHs, petroleum,
turpentine oil substitute, ketones, monoethylene glycol, and alcohols were handled, stored, and processed.
Today, a residential building is left on the site, while underground and above ground tanks were demolished.
The ground was backfilled 2.0 m over silly soil (approximately 4-11 m thick). Below the silt, a layer of sand
and gravel (0.8-7.4 m) and marly sands (7.0-16.3 m deep) have been detected. The marly sands are the first
waterproof layer.
The first aquifer is about 1.0-3.2 m thick, and the flow velocity is very slow. The following coefficients of
permeability exist:
first aquifer:
waterproof layer:
kf = 6.6- 10-6m/s
kf = <10-7m/s
A groundwater spring emerges north of the site; due to this, the surface water in a small creek downstream
the source is contaminated. The main contaminant concentrations in groundwater are petroleum hydro-
carbons (23.6-164.0 mg/1), volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons (27.0 mg/1), and aromatic hydrocarbons (153.0
mg/1). Furthermore, high concentrations of manganese and iron are present.
The project is funded by the city of Essen and the state Nordrhein-Westfalen, as the former owner went
bankrupt.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS
Three alternatives of permeable treatment wall types have been developed and evaluated by WCI for specific
site conditions. Regarding construction costs, treatment efficiency and groundwater control, "Alternative
2" has been evaluated as best. This alternative consists of a short treatment wall section of 35 m length with
additional vertical barriers along the two endings of the treatment bed. The total width of the plume to
approximately 145 m is covered. The groundwater will be directed to the treatment section, and
contaminants will be recovered by adsorption.
A PRB is a passive in situ treatment zone of reactive material that degrades or immobilizes contaminants
as groundwater flows through it. Natural gradients transport contaminants through strategically placed
treatment media. The media degrade, sorb, precipitate, or remove dissolved organics, metals, radionuclides,
and other pollutants.
WCI-Umwelttechnik GmbH, the German subsidiary of Woodward-Clyde, has developed and patented a
barrier construction system that allows the removal of used reactive material and the refill of fresh media
without destroying or rebuilding the wall system. This design will enable potential users to operate the
treatment barrier for several decades without severe reduction of effectiveness. The permeable wall con-
struction can be installed in open trenches down to 10 or more meters. The system includes filter layers to
prevent losses of hydraulic capacity by fine soil particles, and a permanent open space for the reactive
material, as well as measures to control effectiveness and monitor the groundwater quality.
In comparison with pump-and treat methods to clean groundwater contaminations, the passive PRB concept
is technically sound and, in most cases, less expensive to install. Operational costs are very low and limited
to monitoring, since no pumping of groundwater is necessary.
4. RESULTS AND EVALUATION
Installation of the PRB will be started in 1998, and performance evaluation will be executed in the following
years by monitoring groundwater qualities and the remaining adsorption capacities of the filling material.
The results of the field testing with two carbon filter columns was conducted successfully in the second half
of 1997. Both columns were operated under in situ conditions regarding groundwater quality and contamin-
ant concentrations. No problems with fines or precipitating iron or manganese have been detected during
a five-month operation period. One column was operated during actual time conditions, and the second with
a much faster scale (1 month simulating 25 years of operation). The calculated operation time of one filling
was a minimum of 30 years. Test results showed performance times up to 5 times longer. Also, no negative
effects by biological activity such as bio-clogging could be detected during the field testing.
These results will be presented to the relevant water authorities for their permit review. After the permit
process is finalized, the construction of the full-scale PRB will be started immediately.
5. COSTS
The costs for conducting the field tests have been DM 100,000. The overall costs to erect the wall system
and the fill with activated carbon is estimated to be DM 1,500,000. Included are additional costs for
monitoring the water quality for 30 years, which is as long as the minimum performance time of one single
filling will be.
In comparison with traditional pump-and-treat groundwater remediation costs, the proposed permeable
reactive barrier system will be at least 25 percent less expensive.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
6. REFERENCES
1. Eberhard Bellinger, and Eckart Biitow. Machbarkeitsstudie zum Einsatz einer Adsorberwand -
"Schonebecker Schluchf' in Essen, Internal Report, WCI, Wennigsen, 1997 (not published)
2. Eberhard Beitinger, and Eckard Biitow. Abschlussbericht zur Durchfilhrung von Pilotversuchen fur eine
geplante Adsorberwand - „ Schonebecker Schlucht" in Essen, Internal Report, WCI, Wennigsen, 1998
(not published).
13
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Project No. 4
Rehabilitation of Land Contaminated by Heavy Metals
Location
Lavrion, Kassandra (Greece)
Sardinia (Italy)
Estarreja (Portugal)
Burgas (Bulgaria)
Baia, Navodari, (Romania)
Technical Contact
Prof. A. Kontopoulos
National Technical University
of Athens,
GR-15780Zografos,
Greece
tel: +30-1-7722167
fax: +30-1-7722168
E-mail: kontop@metal.ntua.gr
Project Status
1st Progress Report
Project Dates
Accepted 1998
Final Report 2002
Costs Documented?
Alkaline additives:
YES
Soil leaching,
chemical fixation-
stabilization: NO
Media
Mining Tailings, Soil
Technology Type
Alkaline additives
soil leaching
chemical fixation-
immobilization
Contaminants
Lead, zinc, cadmium, arsenic, acidity, sulfates
Project Size
Laboratory,
Demonstration-scale,
Full-scale
Results Available?
Yes
1. INTRODUCTION
The Project objectives are to develop innovative and cost-effective technologies for the environmental
rehabilitation in polymetallic sulfide mining and processing operations. These industrial activities often
result in the generation of millions of tones of wastes and tailings that are characterized as toxic and
hazardous. Improper environmental management practiced in the past, and, to a lesser degree in current
operations as well, has resulted in extensive, in spatial terms, and intensive, in terms of concentrations,
contamination of land and groundwater. Almost all of polymetallic sulfide mines in Europe are now
redundant; however the mining works and tailings remain active pollution sources for decades or even
centuries after mine closure. The Project aims at developing an integrated management scheme involving
neutralizing the active sources of pollution and cleaning-up or stabilization of the contaminated land and
groundwater.
Technologies under development include:
• Control of acid generation and migration from sulfidic tailings by preventive, containment and remedial
technologies
• Rehabilitation of land contaminated by heavy metals by chemical immobilization techniques
• Rehabilitation of land contaminated by heavy metals by integrated leaching techniques
The Project is funded by the European Commission (LIFE, BRITE-EURAM, ENVIRONMENT AND
CLIMATE and INCO-COPERNICUS Programmes), by a number of Industries and one Consulting firm.
Total cost for research and development is 3,000,000 ECU over the period 1993-2001.
The status of the technologies is bench and demonstration-scale. One particular technology has been applied
in full-scale (Rehabilitation of a 150,0001/2,500 ha sulfidic tailings dam in Lavrion, using ground limestone
as an inhibitor for the acid-generating reactions).
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
2. SITES
The project aims at developing technologies of a generic nature applicable to all polymetallic sulfide mining
operations. The following sites are being included as case studies:
• Lavrion mines, Greece. Redundant galena-sphalerite-pyrite mines. Extensive sulfidic and oxidic tailings
act as active pollution sources. The land has been heavily contaminated by heavy metals over an area
of 3x6 km.
• Kassandra mines, Greece. Active galena-sphalerite-auriferous pyrite mines. Interest is focused on the
rehabilitation of the acid-generating waste rock dumps.
• Monteponi and Montevecchio mines, Sardinia, Italy. Redundant lead-zinc pyrite mines. Extensive
flotation tailings dams and calamina leach residues (calamina red muds) constitute active sources of
pollution that result in contamination of the surrounding land. Interest is focused on rehabilitation of
the tailings dams and of the contaminated soils.
• Estarreja industrial site. Portugal. Extensive pyrite cinders from a sulfuric acid plant. Interest is on
inhibiting the mobilization of heavy metals from the cinders.
• Burgas copper mines, Burgas, Bulgaria and Baia copper flotation plant, Romania.. Interest is focused
on the rehabilitation of the extensive tailings dam that contains toxic and radioactive tailings. Also on
the use of engineered wetlands as a passive treatment scheme for contaminated waters from the Burgas
mine
• Navodari, Romania. An industrial plant producing sulfuric acid and superphosphates has generated
extensive pyrite cinders and phosphogypsum tailings. A methodology for environmental rehabilitation
is under development.
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESSES
Three processes are under development. The first aims at inhibiting acid generation and contaminant
mobilization from sulfide tailings as a preventive measure against further pollution. The second is a remedial
process for cleaning-up of contaminated land by removing the heavy metals using leaching techniques. The
third is again a remedial process aiming at the in situ chemical immobilization of the heavy metals.
3.1 Inhibition of the acid generation from sulfidic tailings.
Acid generation from sulfidic tailings may be inhibited (a) by excluding contact of the tailings with either
oxygen or water or both and (b) by inhibiting the acid-generating reactions:
(a) Exclusion of contact with oxygen. The method adopted is the application of a composite dry cover that
includes a clay layer maintained in saturated condition at all times. Saturation inhibits diffusion of
oxygen from the atmosphere to the tails and the clay layer acts as an effective oxygen transport barrier.
The technique has been widely practiced in wet climates. Aim of this project is to develop a composite
cover configuration that will maintain saturation in arid Mediterranean climates. Demo-scale application
is under way.
(b) Inhibition of the acid-generation reactions. This is practiced by the addition of ground limestone to the
acid-generating tailings so that the acid-generation reactions are impeded. Limestone additions at a rate
stoichiometrically equivalent to the acid-generation capacity of the tails will effectively hinder acid
generation. Aim of this project is to investigate the possibility of forming a hard pan within the tails by-
adding only 10-20% of the stoichiometrically required limestone. Other alkaline additives, such as fly
ash, will also be tested. Bench- and demo-scale tests are being carried out. Full-scale rehabilitation of
a flotation tailings dam in Lavrion (-2,500 ha, -150,000 t of tails) has been done with limestone
additions equal to the stoichiometric requirement.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
3.2 Leaching methods for the clean-up of contaminated land
Integrated treatment flow-sheets are being developed on a bench-scale; pilot-plant applications will follow.
They include the following unit operations: (a) Soil leaching, using acidic chloride solutions (HCl+CaCl2)
or organic complexing agents (citric acid, Na-EDTA, Ca-EDTA), (b) metals removal and recovery from the
leach liquors in the form of a low-volume residue appropriate for controlled disposal or recycling, (c)
regeneration and recycling of the leach solution, (d) final polishing of liquid effluents in order to become
compatible with disposal regulations.
3.3 Chemical fixation-immobilization methods for the rehabilitation of contaminated land
Chemical stabilization of the heavy metals in situ in soils involves admixing with stabilizing agents that will
transform the existing metal species to others of lower solubility-bioavailability and mobility. The process
is under development in bench- and demonstration-scale experiments. A number of inorganic and organic
wastes or low-cost materials are being tested as stabilizing agents, including: phosphates, fly ash, bentonite,
cement kiln dust, biological sludge, compost, saw dust. The efficiency of stabilization during bench-scale
experiments is examined by chemical extraction tests as well as by in vivo tests involving plant growth using
Phaseolus vulgaris starazagorski as plant indicators. Demonstration-scale applications involve in situ
rehabilitation of soil and development of an aesthetic vegetative cover by planting a mixture of 15 seeds.
4. RESULTS AND COSTS
4.1 Inhibition of acid generation from sulfide tailings
Full-scale rehabilitation of the flotation tailings dam in Lavrion proved to be quite successful; after two
years, pore water improved from the initial value of pH 2.2 to pH 6.5 and is slowly rising. The cost of the
application was (1996 prices) US$290,000 for an area of 2,500 ha or US$11.5 per m2.
The other processes are still under development.
4.2 Leaching methods for the clean-up of contaminated land
Leaching is being applied to a highly contaminated soil from Lavrion with composition Pb 3.48%, Zn
2.02%, Cd 100 mg/kg, AS 2800 mg/kg, Ca 7.28%. Leaching with CaClTHCl resulted in the removal of
>90% of Pb, Zn and Cd. Citric acid and EDTA removed between 60-90% of the heavy metals. Reagent
consumption was high because of the dissolution of calcium carbonate from the soil. Leaching with Ca-
EDTA seems to overcome this problem. Removal of the heavy metals from the leach liquors is being studied
with hydroxide and/or sulfide precipitation and reagent regeneration by resin treatment.
4.3 Chemical fixation methods for the rehabilitation of contaminated land.
Bench-scale stabilization experiments revealed that both the EPA-TCLP toxicity and the bioavailable
fraction of Pb, Zn and Cd in soils can be drastically reduced by additions of fly ash, biological sludge and
phosphates as stabilizing agents. However, in vivo experiments with indicator plants did not reveal any
change in the metal uptake pattern of the plants from the stabilized soils. Phytomass production increased
with the biological sludge additions, but decreased with fly ash and phosphate additions. The results are
being evaluated in demo-scale applications in the "Neraki" site, Lavrion
5. COSTS
Not available.
16
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
6. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Kontopoulos: Acid mine drainage control. In: S.H. Castro, F. Vegara and M.A. Sanchez, eds, Effluent
treatment in the mining industry. University of Conception-Chile 1997. pp. 1-40.
A. Kontopoulos. K. Komnitsas. A. Xenidis, N. Papassiopi: Environmental characterisation of the sulphidic
tailings in Lavrion. Minerals Engineering, vol. 8, 1995, pp. 1209-1219
K. Adam. A. Kourtis, B. Gazea, A. Kontopoulos: "Evaluation of static tests used to predict the potential for
acid drainage generation at sulphide mines". Trans. Inst. Mining and Metallurgy, Section A, vol. 106
(1997), pp. A1-A8.
A.L. Page, R.H. Miller, D.R. Keeney: Methods of soil analysis, part 2. AGRONOMY Series No 9. part 2.
Am. Soc. of Agronomy, Soil Sci. of America, Madison, Wisconsin, USA 1982.
A. Kontopoulos, K. Komnitsas, A. Xenidis: Pollution, risk assessment and rehabilitation at the Lavrion
Technological and Cultural Park, Greece. To be presented, SWEMP '97 Conference, Ankara 1998.
E. Mylona, K. Adam, A. Kontopoulos: "Mechanisms involved in the control of acid generation from
sulphide wastes with limestone addition", International Conference, Protection and Restoration of the
Environment ???, Chania, Greece, 1996. pp 474-483.
A. Kontopoulos, K. Komnitsas, A. Xenidis, E. Mylona, K. Adam: "Rehabilitation of the flotation tailings
dam in Lavrion. Part I: Environmental characterisation and development studies Clean Technologies
for the Mining Industry, M. A. Sanchez, F. Vegarra, S.H. Castro, ed., University of Concepcion, Chile
1995. pp. 377-390.
A. Kontopoulos, K. Komnitsas, A. Xenidis: "Rehabilitation of the flotation tailings dam in Lavrion. Part
II: Field application", Clean Technologies for the Mining Industry, M. A. Sanchez, F. Vegarra, S.H.
Castro, ed., University of Concepcion, Chile 1995. pp. 391-400.
A. Kontopoulos, K. Komnitsas, A. Xenidis: "Environmental characterisation of the lead smelter slags in
Lavrion", Minerals, Metals and the Environment II Conference, IMM, London, 1996, pp 405-419.
J.R. Conner: Chemical fixation and solidification of hazardous wastes, N. York: Van Nostrand Reinhold,
1990.
P.B. Trost: Soil washing. In D.E. Daniel (ed) Geotechnical practice for waste disposal. 585-603. Chapman
and Hall, London 1990.
W.E. Fristad, K.E. Weerts: Leaching adapted for metals in soil. Environmental Protection. May 1993: 35-
36.
A. Kontopoulos, P. Theodoratos: Rehabilitation of heavy metal contaminated land by stabilization methods.
In: M.A. Sanchez, F. Vegara and S.H. Castro, eds: Environment and innovation in mining and mineral
technology!. Univ. of Conception-Chile, 1998.
A. Kontopoulos, A. Xenidis, K. Komnitsas, N. Papassiopi: "Environmental characterisation and monitoring
of the wastes in Lavrion", in: Environmental Issues and Waste Management in Energy and Minerals
Production, R. Ciccu, ed., Cagliari 1996, Vol. 1, pp. 209-216.
A. Kontopoulos, A. Xenidis, K. Komnitsas. N. Papassiopi: "Environmental implications of the mining
activities in Lavrion", in P.G Marines et al., edrs: Engineering Geology and the Environment, Athens,
1997, vol. 3, pp 2575-80.
C. Skoufadis, N. Papassiopi, A. Kontopoulos: "Removal of heavy metals from soils by organic acids", in
P.G. Marinos et al., edrs: Engineering Geology and the Environment, Athens, 1997. vol. 2, pp 2173-78.
N. Papassiopi, S. Tampouris, C. Skoufadis, and A. Kontopoulos: Integrated leaching processes for the
removal of heavy metals from heavily contaminated soils. To be presented, Contaminated Soil 1998,
Edinburg 1998
N. Papassiopi, S. Tambouris, A. Kontopoulos: Removal of heavy metals from calcareous contaminated soils
by EDTA leaching. Accepted for publication, Water, Air and Soil Pollution.
N. Papassiopi, P. Theodoratos, T. Georgoudis, A. Kontopoulos: Selective removal of lead from calcareous
polluted soil using the Ca-EDTA Salt. Submitted, Water, Air and Soil Pollution.
E.G. Roche, J. Doyle & C.J. Haig: Decontamination of site of a secondary zinc smelter in Torrance
California. \nHydrometallurgy '94 pp. 1035-1048. IMM, Chapman & Hall, London 1994
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
B. Gazea, K. Adam. A. Kontopoulos: A review of passive systems for the treatment of acid mine drainage.
Minerals Engineering, vol. 9, 1996, pp.23-42.
B. Gazea, K. Adam, A. Kourtis, A. Kontopoulos: "Anoxic limestone drains for the treatment of acid mine
drainage", in: Environmental Issues and Waste Management in Energy and Minerals Production, R.
Ciccu, ed., Cagliari 1996, Vol. 2, pp. 729-737.
C. Due, K. Adam, A. Kontopoulos: Mechanisms of metal removal in anaerobic passive systems. To be
presented, SWEMP '97 Conference, Ankara 1998
A. Kontopoulos: Biorehabilitation of the acid mine drainage phenomenon by accelerated bioleaching. In:
Recycling technologies, treatment of waste and contaminated sites, J. Barton et al., edrs, EC, DGXII
and Austrian Research Centre Seibensdorf 1996, pp. 463-474.
18
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Project No. 5
Application of Biowalls/Bioscreens
Location
Refmer>', dry cleaner, chemical plant
Project Status
Initial report
Media
Groundwater
Technology Type
Bioscreens/biowalls
Technical Contact
Huub Rijnaarts
TNO Institute of Environmental
Sciences, Energy Research and
Process Innovation
Laan van Westenenk 501
7334 DT Apeldoorn
The Netherlands
tel:+31 555493380
fax:+31 555493410
E-mail: H.H.M.Rijnaarts@mep.tno.nl
Project Dates
Accepted 1998
Final Report 1999
Contaminants
Oil. BTEX, chlorinated solvents,
chlorinated pesticides, and benzene
Costs Documented?
Not yet
Project Size
Lab- and pilot-scale
Results Available?
End of 1998
1. INTRODUCTION
The objective of this demonstration is to develop and demonstrate the technical and economical feasibility
of various biowall/bioscreen configurations for interception of mobile groundwater contaminants, as a more
cost-effective and groundwater resources saving alternative for currently used pump-and-treat approaches.
2. SITE DESCRIPTIONS
Chlorinated solvent site. The Rademarkt Site (Groningen, The Netherlands) contaminated with
perchloroethylene (PCE) and trichlorethylene (TCE), mixed redox conditions, i.e., separate reducing and
oxidizing zones. Transformation rates of especially vinyl chloride as observed in the field (and in the
laboratory) are too slow to prevent migration of this hazardous compound to areas to be protected. Plume
interception is therefore required.
Oil refinery site. At this oil refinery site in the Rotterdam Harbor area, it is required to manage a plume of
the dissolved fraction of a mineral oil/gasoline contamination (80% of the compounds belong to the C6-C12
fraction).
Aromatic hydrocarbon (BTEX) sites. At three sites in the north part of the Netherlands, deep anaerobic
aquifers contaminated with benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene or xylenes (BTEX) have been investigated.
Under the existing sulfate-reducing conditions, the intrinsic biodegradation of toluene and ethylbenzene
could be demonstrated in the field and in microcosm studies. Benzene was shown to be persistent. Managing
the benzene plumes, i.e., by enhanced in situ bioprocesses, is therefore required.
Chlorinated pesticides site. Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers are important pollutants introduced
by the production of lindane (gamma HCH). At the site of investigation, interception of the HCH/chloro-
benzene/benzene plume is needed.
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS
Chlorinated solvent site. Laboratory experiments identified that a mixture of electron-donors is most
suitable to enhance the in situ reductive dechlorination. An in situ pilot test with an anaerobic activated zone
designed for complete reductive dechlorination is planned this fall.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
Oil refinery site. A reactive trench with a biosparging unit will be used. Bench scale experiments have been
finished and established: i) optimal grain-size and packing density for the porous media used in the trench;
and ii) optimal oxygen supply rates to sufficiently initiate aliphatic hydrocarbon biodegradation and to
minimize clogging with iron(III)oxides.
Aromatic hydrocarbon (BTEX) sites. Microcosms were used to investigate possibilities to stimulate
biodegradation of BTEX compounds. Especially, addition of nitrate and low amounts of oxygen to the
anaerobic systems appears to be the appropriate way to create down-stream biostimulated zones. The
laboratory results are currently used for designing pilot demonstration tests to be performed this summer/fall.
Chlorinated pesticide site. A bioactivated zone as an alternative to conventional large scale pump-and-treat
is currently being investigated. At present, laboratory process research aimed at developing a combination
of anaerobic-microaerophilic in situ stimulation in such a bioactivated zone is being performed.
4. RESULTS AND EVALUATION
The status of most projects is in bench-scale testing or in preparing a pilot-phase. First evaluations of
technology performance are to be expected at the end of this year.
5. COSTS
In a separate cost-analyses project the costs of investment and operation of various bioscreen configurations
(i.e.. the funnel-and-gate™, the reactive trench and the biostimulated zone configuration) is being evaluated
for various sites. The results can be reported at end 1998/1999.
6. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brunia, A., Van Aalst-van Leeuwen, M. A., Bosma, T.N.P., Rijnaarts, H.H.M. (1997). Haalbaarheidsstudie
naar de in situ biologische bodemsanering van chlorkoolwaterstofverontreiniging met bioschermen met
in situ opwekking van waterstof. Internal TNO-report.
Rijnaarts, H. H. M. (1997). Data requirements for in situ remediation. NIC OLE-workshop ''Site Assessment
and Characterization." TNO-MEP, Apeldoorn. 22-23 January.
Rijnaarts, H. H. M., Brunia, A., Van Aalst, M.A. (1997). In situ bioscreens. In situ and on-site
bioremediation, the 4th International Symposium, New Orleans, Louisiana, April 28-May 1.
Rijnaarts, H. H. M., De Best, J.H., Van Liere, H.C., Bosma, T.N.P. (1997). Intrinsic biodegradation of
chlorinated solvents: from thermodynamics to field. Nobis report, in press.
Schippers, B. P. A., Bosma, T.N.P., Van den Berg, J.H., Te Street, C.B.M., Van Liere, H.C., Schipper, L.,
Praamstra, T.F. (1997). Intrinsieke biodegradatie en bioreactieve schermen bij bodemverontreinigingen
bij textielreinigingsbedrijven, Fase 1: Probleemdifinitie en inventarisatie. NOBIS-report, in press.
Van Aalst-van Leeuwen. M. A.. Brinkman. J., Keuning. S., Nipshagen, A. A.M.. Rijnaarts, H.H.M. (1997).
Afbraak van per- en trichlooretheen onder sequentiele redoxomstandigheden; Fase 1; deelresultaat 2-6:
Veldkarakterisatie en laboratoriumexperimenten Nobis report, in press.
Van Aalst-van Leeuwen, M. A., Van Heiningen. W.N.M., Rijnaarts, H.H.M. (1997). Bioremediatie van
HCH locaties. Nobis-report, in prep.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Project No. 6
Rehabiliitation of a Site Contaminated by PAH Using Bio-Slurry Technique
Location
Former railroad unloading
area, northern Sweden
Technical Contact
Erik Backlund
Eko Tec AB
Nasuddsvagen lo
93221 Skelleftehamn
Sweden
tel: +46/910-33366
fax: +46/910-33375
E-mail:
erik. backlund@ebox.tninet. se
Project Status
Interim
Project Dates
Accepted 1996
Final Report 1999
Costs Documented?
No
Media
Soil
Technology Type
Ex situ
bioremediation
Contaminants
coal tars, phenols, cyanides, metals,
ammonium compounds
Project Size
Full-scale (3,000 tons)
Results Available?
Yes
1. INTRODUCTION
Eko Tec AB is a Swedish environmental engineering company dealing with problems posed by hazardous
wastes, soil, and water pollution. Main clients are the oil industry, Swedish National Oil Stockpile Agency,
and the Swedish State Railways.
In 1995, Eko Tec was contracted for biosluny remediation of approximately 3,000 tons of creosote-
contaminated soil and ditch sediments from a railway station area in the northern part of Sweden. A clean-up
criterion of 50 ppm total-PAH was decided by the environmental authorities. For the specific PAH
compounds benzo(a)pyrene and benzo(a)anthracene, a cleanup criterion of 10 ppm was decided.
Full-scale treatment has been preceded by bench- and pilot-scale treatability studies carried out at the Eko
Tec treatment plant in Skelleftehamn, Sweden.
2. SITE DESCRIPTION
Not available
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESSS
3.1 Pretreatment
The contaminated soil was initially treated to reduce volume. Stones and boulders were separated from the
rest of the soil. In the next step, the soil was screened in a 10 mm sieve. Soil with a grain size less than 10
mm was mixed with water and later pumped to wet-screening equipment, in which particles >2 mm were
separated from the process. The remaining soil fraction (<2 mm) was pumped to a 60 m3 slurry-phase
bioreactor for further treatment. The volume of the treated soil fraction (<10 mm) was approximately 25 m3
Samples were taken from the soil before water was added.
3.2 Slurry-Phase Bioreactor Treatment
Slurry-phase treatment was carried out in a 60 m3 Biodyn reactor. During treatment, the soil/water mixture
was continuously kept in suspension. In order to optimize the degradation rate, an enrichment culture
containing microorganisms that feed on PAH was added to the slurry, together with nutrients and soil
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
activators. During the treatment phase, dissolved oxygen, nutrient concentration, temperature, and pH were
monitored continuously.
After 27 days of treatment, the cleanup criteria were met and the slurry-phase treatment process was closed.
The slurry was pumped to a concrete basin where the treated soil was separated from the water by
sedimentation. The waster was stored for reuse in the text treatment batch. The treated soil will be reused
as fill material.
3.3 Monitoring Program
In order to determine the initial PAH concentration, a soil sample was taken from the soil fraction <10 mm.
During the wet screening process, a soil sample was taken from the separated soil (<2 mm fraction). Samples
were also taken from the slurry phase during treatment. Soil samples were stored by freezing, and then sent
to the laboratory. The same accredited laboratory was used during the project period.
4. RESULTS
Cleanup criteria were met in 14 days. The initial PAH concentration (total PAH) was 219.9 ppm. Final
concentration after 27 days of treatment was 26.97 ppm, which is well below the cleanup criterion of 50
ppm. PAH compounds benzo(a)pyrene and benzo(a)anthracene were occurring in concentrations below the
cleanup criterion of 10 ppm.
5. COSTS
Not yet available
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Project No. 7
Risk Assessment for a Diesel-Fuel Contaminated Aquifer Based
on Mass Flow Analysis During the Course of Remediation
Location
Menziken / Studen, Switzerland
Technical Contact
Mathias Schluep
BMG Engineering AG
Ifangstrasse 1 1
8057 Schlieren
Switzerland
tel: +41/1-732-9286
fax: +41/1-730-6622
E-mail:
mathias.scUuep@bmgeng.ch
Project Status
Interim
Project Dates
Accepted 1997
Final Report 2000
Costs Documented?
No
Media
Groundwater
Technology Type
In situ
Bioremediation
Contaminants
Petroleum hydrocarbons (diesel fuel, heating
oil)
Project Size
Results Available?
Yes
1. INTRODUCTION
The studies are aimed to give a scientific basis for an evaluation procedure, allowing to predict the
treatability of sites contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons with in situ bioremediation technologies,
such as biorestoration and intrinsic bioremediation [Schluep et al, 1998]. This includes the description of
the risk development with time by identifying critical mass flows. The focus of the project lies on the
modeling of movement and fate of PHC in the subsurface.
2. SITE DESCRIPTION
At the Menziken site [Bregnard et al., 1996;Hunkeler, 1997; Hunkeler ef a/., 1995] the contaminated aquifer
was remediated based on the stimulation of indigenous microbial populations by supplying oxidants and
nutrients (biorestoration). Detailed investigations were made from 1988 until 1995. The engineered in situ
bioremediation took place from 1991-1995.
At the Studen site [Bolliger et al, 1998] no engineered remedial actions were taken. The investigations
started in 1993 and led to a better understanding of the biological processes occurring in the aquifer. It could
be shown that intrinsic bioremediation is a major process in the removal of PHC at this site.
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH ACTIVITY
For the risk assessment two processes in PHC contaminated aquifers are of special interest. 1) Dissolution
of soluble PHC from the oil phase into the mobile phase water, 2) Biodegradation of PHC, which mainly
takes place in the water phase. Since both processes are slow under natural conditions and in most cases
cannot be measured separately in the field, laboratory experiments were set up to study them.
4. RESULTS AND EVALUATION
Preliminary results of the laboratory studies were implemented in order to perform a risk assessment for the
Menziken site in a diploma thesis at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology ETH [Wyrsch and Zulauf,
1998]. The attenuation of some selected PHCs was calculated from the time when the spill occurred until
the end of the corrective actions taken. Although some uncertainties about site specific data and model
development remain, the results show good con-elation with actual concentrations measured at the Menziken
site [Wyrsch and Zulauf, 1998].
23
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Menziken
Studen
contamination
initial remedial action
in situ bioremediation
period of bioremediation
aquifer
water table
hydraulic conductivity
average flow velocity
distance to the closest
drinking water wells
references
diesel fuel
10,000 -12,000 It
10 % recovered by pumping
- 50 % removed by excavation
engineered (biorestoration)
1991-95
glaciofluvial outwash deposits
3 - 4 m below surface
4.5 ± 2.5xl()-3 m s'1
4-6md-'
70 m upstream
150 m downstream
Bregnard ef a/., 1996
Hunkeler. 1997
Hunkeler ef a/., 1995
heating oil
~ 40,000 It
70 - 95 % recovered by
pumping
intrinsic
1993 -now
glaciofluvial outwash deposits
2 - 4 m below surface
2xlO-4-5xlO-3ms-'
~ 0.3 m d'1
1000 m upstream
no well downstream
Bolligerefa/.. 1998
5. COSTS
Not available.
6. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bolliger, C.. P. Hoehener. D. Hunkeler, K. Haeberli and J. Zeyer. 1998. Intrinsic bioremediation of a
petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated aquifer: assessment of mineralization. Ground Water, submitted.
Bregnard, T.P.-A., P. Hshener, A. HSner and J. Zeyer, 1996. Degradation of weathered diesel fuel by
microorganisms from a contaminated aquifer in aerobic and anaerobic microcosms. Environ. Tox.
Chem. 15, 299-307.
Hunkeler, D., 1997. Assessment and quantification of petroleum hydrocarbon mineralization in anaerobic
aquifers. Dissertation, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology ETH, No. 12268, 146 p.
Hunkeler. D., P. Hshener, A. HSner, T. Bregnard and J. Zeyer, 1995. Quantification of hydrocarbon
mineralization in a diesel fuel contaminated aquifer treated by in situ biorestoration. In: "Groundwater
qualify: remediation and protection, Prague", IAHS, 225, 421-430.
Schluep, M., R. Gaelli and J. Zeyer, 1998. Risk assessment for a diesel fuel contaminated aquifer based on
mass flow analysis during the course of remediation, project presentation, NATO/CCMS Pilot Study
Meeting, "Evaluation of emerging and demonstrated technologies for the treatment of contaminated
land and groundwater - phase III", Vienna/Austria, February 22-28 1998.
Wyrsch, B. and C. Zulauf, 1998. Risikobewertung eines mit Dieselsl kontaminierten Standortes.
Diplomarbeit, Eidgenoessische Technische Hochschule ETH, 57 p.
24
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Project No. 8
Obstruction of Expansion of a Heavy Metal/Radionuclide Plume Around a
Contaminated Site by Means of Natural Barriers Composed of Sorbent Layers
Location
Not applicable
Project Status
Interim Report
Media
Soil and ground water
Technology Type
In situ absorption
and solidification/
stabilization
Technical Contact
Resat Apak
Istanbul University
Avcilar Campus. Avcilar 34850
Istanbul
Turkey
tel: 90/212-591-1998
fax: 90/212-591-1997
e-mail: rapak@istanbul.edu.tr
Project Dates
Accepted
Final Report
1998
2000
Contaminants
Heavy metals (Pb, As, Cr, Cu, Cd, Hg, Ni,
Zn) and radionuclides (137Cs, 90Sr, 23SU)
Costs Documented?
No
Project Size
Bench-scale
Results Available?
No
1. INTRODUCTION
Development of unconventional sorbents for heavy metals/radionuclides; determination of sorption/desorp-
tion parameters and solidification/stabilization conditions; exhibition of in situ physical/chemical treatment
technologies applicable to a spill site.
2. DESCRIPTION OF SITE
Not applicable
3. DESCRIPTION OF METHODS
Physical/chemical characterization of developed sorbents; batch and column tests for contaminant removal.
collection of kinetic and equilibrium data, laboratory and field testing of solidification/stabilization process
in terms of metal teachability and setting times of hardened blocks.
4. ANTICIPATED RESULTS AND EVALUATION
Results not available. Performance will be evaluated in terms of capacity and speed of sorbents, and of
solidification/stabilization efficiency of the contaminants.
5. COSTS
Not available
6. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Arayycy, R. Apak and V. Apak, "Equilibrium modeling of pH in environmental treatment processes,"
J. 'Environ. Sci. and Health, Pt. A-Environ. Sci. andEng., 31 (1996) 1127-1134.
R. Apak, G. Atun, K. Guclii, E. Tiitem and G. Keskin, "Sorptive removal of cesium-137 and strontium-90
from water by unconventional sorbents. I. Usage of bauxite wastes (red muds)," J. Nucl. Sci. Techno!.,
32(1995)1008-1017.
25
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
R. Apak, G. Atun, K. Guclii and E. Tutem, "Sorptive removal of cesium-137 and strontium-90 from water
by unconventional sorbents. II. Usage of coal fly ash,'" J. Nucl. Set. Technol., 33 (1996) 396-402.
F. Kylynckale, S. Ayhan and R. Apak. "Solidification-stabilization of heavy metal-loaded red muds and fly
ashes," J. Chem. Technol Biotechnol, 69 (1997) 240-246.
R. Apak. E. Tutem, M. Hiigul and J. Hyzal, "Heavy metal cation adsorption onto unconventional sorbents
(red muds and fly ashes)," Water Research (1997) in press.
R. Apak. "Heavy metal and pesticide removal from contaminated groundwater by the use of metallurgical
waste sorbents," NATO/CCMS International Meeting, 18-22 November 1991. Washington, DC, USA.
R. Apak, "Uranium(VI) adsorption by soil in relation to speciation," Mediterranean Conference on
Environmental Geotechnology, 24-27 May 1992, Cepme, Turkey.
E. Tutem and R. Apak. "The role of metal-ligand complexation equilibria in the retention and mobilization
of heavy metals in soil," Contaminated Soil "95 Proceeding of the Fifth International FZK/TNO
Conference on Contaminated Soil, 30 Oct.-3 Nov. 1995, Maastricht, Netherlands, W. J. van den Brink,
R. Bosman and F. Arendt (eds.), Kluwer Academic Publishers, Vol. I, 425-426.
R. Apak, "Sorption/solidification of selected heavy metals and radionuclides from water", NATO/CCMS
Pilot Study International Meeting on "Evaluation of Emerging and Demonstrated Technologies for the
Treatment of Contaminated Land and Groundwater." 17-21 March, 1997. Golden. Colorado, USA.
26
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Project No. 9
Solidification/Stabilization of Hazardous Wastes
Location
Middle East Technical
University, Ankara, Turkey
Technical Contact
Kahraman Unlii
Middle East Technical
University
Environmental Engineering
Dept.
06531 Ankara
Turkey
tel: 90-312-210-5869
fax: 90-312-210-1260
E-mail:
kunlu@rorqual.cc.metu.edu.tr
Project Status
Initial Project
Description
Project Dates
Accepted 1998
Final Report 2000
Costs Documented?
No
Media
Soil and Solid Wastes
from mining and paper
and pulp industries
Contaminants
Technology Type
Solidification/
Stabilization
PCBs. AOX, heavy metals
Project Size
Bench-scale
Results Available?
No
1. INTRODUCTION
With the enforcement of the regulation of the Control of Hazardous Wastes (C of HW) in August 1995, the
direct or indirect release of hazardous wastes into the receiving environment in such a manner that can be
harmful to human health and the environment is banned in Turkey. The main purpose of the regulation is
to provide a legal and technical framework for the management of hazardous wastes throughout the nation.
In this regard, the regulation is applicable not only to hazardous wastes generated in the future, but also with
existing hazardous wastes and their safe disposal in compliance with the current regulation.
Solidification/stabilization (S/S) technology- is recognized by the Turkish regulation of the C of HW as a
promising new emerging technology for the safe disposal of hazardous wastes. Thus, this project focuses
on investigating the effectiveness of S/S technology by conducting bench-scale treatability tests with
contaminated soils and various types of hazardous waste materials. The major objectives of the project are
to: (i) investigate the effectiveness and reliability of the S/S technology for the safe disposal of hazardous
wastes containing metal and organic contaminants; (ii) determine the appropriate technical criteria for
applications based on the type and composition of hazardous wastes; and (iii) determine the unit costs
associated with the field-scale applications of the S/S technology.
2. SITE DESCRIPTION
(not applicable)
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS
The following technical criteria will be considered for the evaluation of the effectiveness of the S/S
technology for the safe disposal of hazardous wastes containing metal and organic contaminants: (i) deter-
mining the mobility of contaminants in the waste via conducting leaching and permeability tests on
solidified/stabilized samples; and (ii) detennining the strength of solidified samples against deformation and
27
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
deterioration by conducting comprehensive strength tests on, and measuring microstructural characteristics
of, solidified samples. In this study, metals will be tested on a waste from gold mining, organics on PCB-
contaminated soil, and sludge and/or wastewater from paper and pulp industry for adsorbable organic
halides (AOX). If necessary, synthetic waste materials representing the composition of "typical wastes"
containing metal and organic contaminants will also be prepared.
For solidification of waste and encapsulation of contaminants, portland cement as a binding agent will be
mixed with waste materials at different ratios. This ratio will be determined based on the particle size
distribution of waste materials. In general, as the fraction of fine particles in the waste increases, the amount
of portland cement to be used decreases. On the other hand, as the fraction of coarse particles in the waste
increases, the strength of solidified waste against deformation increases at the same ratio of portland cement
and waste material mixture. Waste material and portland cement mixing ratios will be determined
considering these general facts.
In this project, for each of the mining waste and PCB-contaminated soil materials, three samples,
representing fine, medium and coarse particle size distributions, will be prepared (for a total of six samples).
For each waste material representing a given particle size distribution class, two different portland cement
mixing ratios will be used: for metal contaminants (mining waste) 5 and 15%; for PCB-contaminated soil
20% and 35%; and for AOX-containing sludge or wastewater 1:6 and 1:8 waste:portland cement. A total
of 14 waste samples prepared in this manner will be cured nearly 28 days to solidify. The following physical
tests and measurements will be performed on these solidified samples: comprehensive strength and
microstructural tomography, permeability, porosity, and bulk density. In addition to these tests and
measurements, standard TCLP tests of the U.S. EPA will be performed on the same solidified waste
samples. The same leaching tests will also be performed on unsolidified samples. On the leachate,
concentrations of the following contaminants will be measured: As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, Zn, Ca, Mg, Na,
K, Cl, SO4, HCO3, pH, PCB and AOX. Based on the results of the physical tests and comparisons of the
leachate compositions obtained from solidified and unsolidified waste samples, for each waste type, the
effectiveness of the S/S technology in terms of contaminant encapsulation will be accomplished. For all
chemical analyses, U. S. EPA SW-846 standard methods will be used.
4. RESULTS AND EVALUATION
Not available
5. COSTS
Not available
28
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Project No. 10
Metal-Biofilm Interactions in Sulfate-Reducing Bacterial Systems
Location
Under development in
consortium's laboratories
Project Status
Accepted
1998
Media
Liquid effluents in
Groundwater
Technology Type
Biological
treatment
Technical Contact
Dr. Harry Eccles
R&T Group
BNFL
Springfields, Preston PR4 OXJ
Lancashire. UK
tel: +44/1772-762566
fax: +44/1772-762891
Project Dates
1996-1999
Contaminants
Toxic heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Cd) and
radionuclides (U)
Costs Documented?
No
Project Size
Laboratory-scale
Results Available?
No
1. INTRODUCTION
The development of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) to remove toxic heavy metals and radionuclides from
liquid effluents or contaminated groundwater is currently at laboratory scales to provide fundamental data
to enable engineers to better design the bioreactors.
SRB technology for removal of toxic heavy metals has ben used on a limited number of occasions. In
general, the bioreactors have been over-engineered, thus increasing both the capital and operational costs.
Consequently, the technology- the technology is not perceived as competitive. With intrinsic bioremediation,
under anaerobic conditions such as wetlands technology. SRB plays a role in the sequestration of metals.
It is not fully understood if this SRB role is complementary or pivotal. If the latter function predominates
then understanding SRB-metal precipitation mechanisms could enable the wetlands to be better engineered/
controlled leading to more effective in situ treatment.
The goal of this project is to generate new metal -biofilm fundamental data by:
• further developing the laboratory biocell to produce precise data.
• investigating factors affecting growth of sulfate-reducing bacterial (SRB) biofilms.
• examination of the influence of this SRB biofilm on metal immobilization.
• quantification of important biofilm parameters on metal immobilization.
2. SITE DESCRIPTION
The studies are being carried out in the consortium's laboratories
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS
Biological processes for the removal of toxic heavy metals are presently less favored than their chemical and
physicochemical counterparts. Reasons for this are several, one of which is the inability to intensify the
technology due to the lack of fundamental data. BNFL and its partners intend, using a novel biofilm reactor
design to provide such information which can be used by the consortium's biochemical engineers and
biofilm modelers to design better, smaller and more efficient bioreactors incorporating SRB technology.
These bacteria are capable of reducing sulfate ions in liquid waste streams to hydrogen sulfide, which with
many toxic heavy metals, will precipitate them from solution as their insoluble sulfides.
29
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
As the solubility products of these sulfides are very small (at least 10~10 less than the corresponding metal
hydroxide) the final treated effluent will meet the most stringent specification. Just as the biological system
is an active metabolic one, the initial metal concentrations can be comparatively high—a few hundred parts
per million.
The project commenced on 1 April 1996 and should terminate on the 31 March 1999.
4. RESULTS AND EVALUATION
Key components of this project are to consistently grow uniform well characterized SRB biofilms at two
independent research institutions and to generate kinetic and thermodynamic metal adsorption and precipita-
tion data. These quality criteria have required:
• verified analytical and experimental protocols to be developed.
• the design and construction of a biocell which satisfies some of the above criteria.
• biofilm characterization procedures.
• the identification of initially, simple models for both biofilm and bioreactor which can be modified to
accommodate experimental data.
All of the above have been fully achieved or are ongoing.
5. COSTS
Not applicable at this stage.
6. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
There are numerous SRB publications but little is relevant to this particular project. One scientific paper is
currently awaiting publication whist the consortium members are at present writing a specific textbook
addressing SRB-metal removal and modeling of bioreactors and biofilms.
30
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Project No. 11
Predicting the Potential for Natural Attenuation of Organic Contaminants in Groundwater
Location
Operational coal tar processing and
organic chemicals manufacturing
plant, West Midlands, U.K.
Project Status
First progress report
Media
Groundwater
Technology Type
Intrinsic bioremedia-
tion. natural attenuation
Technical Contact
Dr Steve Thornton,
Groundwater Protection &
Restoration Group
Dept. of Civil & Structural
Engineering
University of Sheffield, Mappin St.
SHEFFIELD SI 3JD
United Kingdom
tel: 01142225744
fax: 01142225700
E-mail: s.f.thornton@sheffield.ac.uk
Project Dates
Accepted 1998
Final Report 1999
Contaminants
Coal tars, phenol, creosols, xylenols,
BTEX
Costs Documented?
Not applicable
Project Size
Not
applicable
Results Available?
Yes
Active restoration of contaminated aquifers is technically difficult and costly. A cheaper and potentially-
more effective alternative is to use natural attenuation (intrinsic bioremediation). This is an emerging
technology, which uses natural biological and chemical processes occurring in aquifers to reduce
contaminants to acceptable levels. The technology has been used successfully in shallow North American
aquifers but has not been developed for the deep, fractured, consolidated aquifer systems found in the U.K.
The project objectives are (a), to understand processes controlling the natural attenuation of a complex
mixture of organic pollutants in a U.K. sandstone aquifer, (b), to develop practical techniques to estimate
the potential for natural attenuation and (c), to understand the value of intervening to increase attenuation.
The key issues under research are (a), estimating the timing and duration of degradation, (b), understanding
the degradation processes and potential inhibitors, (c), quantifying the role of mineral oxidants in degrada-
tion, (d), assessing the supply of soluble electron acceptors from dispersion and diffusion at the plume
fringe, and (e), assessing the contribution of fermentation to degradation.
The research site is an operational coal-tar processing and phenols manufacturing plant in the U.K. West
Midlands. The plant lies on a deep, unconfmed, fractured sandstone aquifer and has contaminated the
groundwater with a range of phenolic compounds, including phenol, cresols, xylenols and BTEX, some at
concentrations up to 12,OOOmg/L. Groundwater levels are shallow (<5 meters below ground level) and the
horizontal groundwater velocity is 4-llm/yr. The regional groundwater flow is controlled by abstraction
from a public supply borehole, 2km from the site. A large contaminant plume (3Mm3 volume) has developed
as a result, which has dived 60m over 500m from the plant. The aquifer is naturally aerobic, calcareous at
depth and contains abundant Fe and Mn oxides as grain coatings.
The project began in September 1996, in collaboration with the British Geological Survey and Institute of
Freshwater Ecology, and is 3 years duration. Simultaneous field investigations, laboratory studies and
reactive transport modeling is underway. The range of redox and microbial processes identified in the plume
has demonstrated the aquifer potential for aerobic and anaerobic degradation of the organic contaminants.
Degradation rates and microbial activity are highly variable and are correlated with contaminant concen-
trations, nutrient supply and electron acceptor availability in the plume. A carbon and electron acceptor mass
balance for the plume has constrained the plume source term and suggests that degradation has not been
significant (Thornton, etal., submitted). High-resolution multilevel samplers (MLS) have been installed in
the plume to quantify solute fluxes, degradation rates and identify' redox processes.
31
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
Microcosm studies using acclimated ground-water and aquifer sediment are underway to examine the
degradation rates of phenolic mixtures under the range of redox and environmental conditions found in the
plume. Additional process studies are planned, using a core of contaminated aquifer material, which will
examine the spatial variability in aquifer degradation potential, and also to quantify the bioavailability of
mineral oxidants in degradation. Reactive transport modeling of biodegradation processes in the plume is
in progress. The necessary parameter values, rate data and processes required for modeling are obtained
from the laboratory and field studies. This will provide an independent assessment of the utility of the
approach in predicting contaminant fate at field-scale.
REFERENCE
Thornton, S.F., Davison, R.M., Lerner, D.N. and Banwart, S.A. (submitted). Electron balances in field
studies of intrinsic bioremediation. GQ98 International IAHS conference on Groundwater Quality:
Remediation and Protection, 21-25th September, Tubingen, Germany.
32
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Project No. 12
Treatability Test for Enhanced In Situ Anaerobic Dechlorination
Location
Five DOD locations in the U.S.
Project Status
Five treatability tests to
be conducted during
1998-1999
Media
Groundwater
Technology Type
In situ anaerobic
biodegradation of
chlorinated ethenes
in groundwater
Technical Contact
Catherine Vogel
AFRL/MLQE
Tyndall AFB, FL 32403-5323
Tel: 850-283-6208
Fax: 850-283-6064
E-mail: cathy_vogel@
ccmail.aleq.tyndall.af.mil
Gale Onorato (BDM)
Same address as above
Tel: 850-283-6256
Fax: 850-283-6064
E-mail:
gale_onorato@
ccmail.aleq.tyndall.af.mil
Project Dates
Accepted
1998
Contaminants
Chlorinated solvents: PCE, DCE, TCE,
VC
Costs Documented?
No
Project Size
Treatabilitv Studv
Results Available?
No
1. INTRODUCTION
• Name and type of technology: In situ anaerobic dechlorination for chlorinated ethenes in groundwater.
• Status of technology: Emerging/innovative.
• Project objectives: To develop and validate a protocol for conducting a treatability test for enhanced
anaerobic dechlorination. The protocol will be applied and evaluated at five Department of Defense
(DOD) sites within the United States.
2. SITE DESCRIPTION
The first site is located at Cape Canaveral Air Station. FL. A shallow groundwater contamination plume
containing primarily TCE, DCEs, and VC exists in a remote portion of the facility. Other DOD sites are
currently being screened for inclusion in this project.
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS
In situ enhanced anaerobic dechlorination involves stimulating native aquifer microorganisms to reduce
chlorinated aliphatic contaminants. This is achieved by supplying excess electron donor to the contaminated
aquifer. As the natural electron acceptors (sulfate, nitrate, iron, etc.) are depleted, microorganisms capable
of utilizing the chlorinated contaminants as electron acceptors gain a selective advantage. The intricacies
of these microbial communities are complex, but recent research has provided some insight into methods
for enhancing populations of contaminant degrading microorganisms.
The reductive dechlorination of tetrachloroethene (PCE) to ethene proceeds through a series of
hydrogenolysis reactions (see Figure 1). Each reaction becomes progressively more difficult to carry out;
33
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
subsequently, the dichloroethenes (DCEs) particularly cis-DCE. and vinyl chloride (VC) tend to accumulate
in anaerobic environments.
Cl Cl
PCE
Figure 1. Reductive Dechlorination of PCE
The selection of an appropriate electron donor may be
the most important design parameter for developing a
healthy population of dechlorinating microorganisms.
Recent studies have indicated a prominent role for
molecular hydrogen (H2) in the reductive dechlorination
of chloroethenes (Figure 2). Most known dechlorinators
can use H2 as an electron donor, and some can only use
H2. Because more complex electron donors are broken
down into metabolites and residual pools of H2 by other
members of the microbial community, they may also be
used to support dechlorination.
Figure 2: Role of Hydrogen
in Reductive Dechlorination
The rate and quantity of H2 made available to a
degrading consortium must be carefully engineered to limit competition for hydrogen from other microbial
groups, such as methanogens and sulfate-reducers. Competition for H2 by methanogens is a common cause
of dechlorination failure in laboratory studies. As the methanogen population increases, the portion of
reducing equivalents used for dechlorination quickly drops and methane production increases. The use of
slowly degrading non-methanogenic substrates helps to prevent this type of system shutdown and allow a
larger zone of treatment in the subsurface.
This effort includes the development and multi-site validation of a protocol for conducting atreatability test
for enhanced in-situ anaerobic dechlorination. During 1997, the protocol was developed and peer-reviewed
twice. The document is now available to the general public through AFRL. Components of the protocol
include; hydrogeologic and geochemical site characterization, microcosm studies, design/construction of
the field treatability test, test monitoring, and data interpretation.
Through 1998-1999, the protocol will be applied at five DoD chlorinated solvent contamination sites.
Microcosm studies are conducted to determine what electron donor/nutrient formulation will be field tested
to provide optimum biological degradation performance. The design for the field-scale treatability study
consists of three injection wells, two extraction wells and a series of nested monitoring wells located
between the injection and extraction wells. The three closely spaced injection wells inject contaminated site
groundwater that has been extracted from a down-gradient extraction well and amended with electron donor
and nutrients. The simultaneous injection and extraction of site groundwater at opposite ends of the test plot
imposes a hydraulic gradient that directs local groundwater flow. The systems will be operated and
monitored for a minimum of six months at each site.
The final, validated protocol will be released in spring 2000.
34
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
4. RESULTS AND EVALUATION
Results not available at this time.
5. COSTS
Specific costs are not available at this time. However, this technology offers an in-situ, destructive approach
to remediating chlorinated groundwater contamination plumes. It is estimated that the Air Force alone has
800 sites requiring some land of remediation action. Natural Attenuation, the preferred approach, is
estimated to only be applicable at 15-20% of these sites. The remainder will most likely require some type
of active cleanup. This in-situ cleanup approach will help to fill this technology gap.
35
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Project No. 13
Permeable Reactive Barriers for In Situ Treatment of Chlorinated Solvents
Location
Dover AFB, DE
Project Status
Field Work On-
going
Media
Groundwater
Technology Type
In situ abiotic
destruction of
contaminants
Technical Contact
ILt Dennis O"Sullivan
AFRL/MLQE
Tyndall AFB, FL 32403-5323
Tel: 850-283-6239
Fax: 850-283-6064
E-mail: dennis_o'sullivan@
ccmail.aleq.tyndall.af.mil
Randy Wolf (BDM)
Same address as above
Tel: 850-283-6187
Fax: 850-283-6064
E-mail: randy_wolf@
ccmail.aleq.tyndall. af.mil
Project Dates
Accepted 1998
Contaminants
Chlorinated solvents: PCE, DCE. TCE
Costs Documented?
Yes
Project Size
Pilot-scale
Results Available?
No
1. INTRODUCTION
The use of the funnel-and-gate approach to treat groundwater is being commercialized. However.
researchers are currently working on improved reactive materials to place in the gate portion of the wall. The
objectives of the project are to determine the effectiveness of alternative reactive media for the funnel-and-
gate system at the field-scale level. Generate engineering and cost data which will be included in a validated
design guidance manual (to be published in late 1999).
2. SITE DESCRIPTION
Area 5 at Dover Air Force Base (AFB), Delaware, was selected for the permeable barrier demonstration
because it has a suitable aquifer containing perchloroethylene (PCE), trichloroethylene (TCE), and dichloro-
ethylene (DCE). It has a reasonably deep aquifer, competent aquitard (confining layer), and significant
concentrations of chlorinated solvents (several parts per million). This site has several challenges that have
not been studied in barrier installations to date. Shallow regions of the aquifer have high levels of dissolved
oxygen (DO). Ffigh DO causes precipitation at the front end of the barrier that may result in plugging of the
reactive media and development of preferential flow paths over time. DCE, which exists in relatively high
concentrations, is somewhat more resistant to reduction than PCE and TCE. Significant variability in the
seasonal groundwater flow direction could affect the hydraulic capture of the plume. Finally, underground
utilities complicated the barrier installation.
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS
The main objective of this technology demonstration is the testing of alternative reactive media at a field-
scale, proof-of-principle demonstration for in situ permeable reactive barriers. A funnel-and-gate system
consisting of two separate 8-foot wide gates was installed in December 1997. This demonstration includes
the testing of two reactive media schemes and also involved innovative emplacement methods to reduce the
construction costs of permeable barrier systems. The 45-foot deep barriers were constructed with 8-foot
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
diameter caissons that were removed after media emplacement. The funnel sections were constructed using
Waterloo interlocking sheet piling driven to the 45-foot depth and keyed into the underlying clay aquitard.
One gate was filled with zero-valent iron filings with a 10 percent iron/sand pretreatment zone to stabilize
flow and remove dissolved oxygen. The second gate was also filled with zero-valent iron but is preceded
by a 10 percent py rite/sand mixture to moderate the pH of the reactive bed, thereby decreasing precipitate
formation.
Monitoring wells were placed in the aquifer (both up gradient and down gradient from the reactive barrier)
and within both of the treatment gates. Monitoring of these wells during a period of one year after the barrier
installation will study the following parameters:
• contaminant and byproduct concentrations along the flow paths
• reaction rates of dechlorination processes
• dissolved oxygen consumption in the pretreatment zone of each gate
• water levels within the gates to evaluate residence times
• upgradient water levels to evaluate flow divides and capture zones
• downgradient water levels to gain knowledge of remixing and flow conditions downstream from the
barrier
• homogeneous or preferential flow
• inorganic water quality parameters
A permeable barrier design guidance document was concurrently developed and reviewed by state and
federal regulators. The design guidance addresses treatability testing, design, installation, and monitoring
of barrier technologies in variable geological settings. The design guidance includes input from the Air
Force, Army, Navy, numerous industry partners, state and federal regulators and the Remediation
Technologies Development Forum Permeable Barriers Action Team. Data from the Dover AFB demonstra-
tion will be used to "validate" the design guidance manual.
At least two rounds of performance data will be available for presentation at the Spring 1999 NATO/CCMS
meeting. The validated design guidance manual will be available for distribution to the NATO/CCMS group
at the Year 2000 meeting.
4. RESULTS AND EVALUATION
Results not available at this time.
5. COSTS
Permeable reactive barriers may reduce operations and maintenance costs by at least 50 percent over pump-
and-treat systems throughout the life of the treatment. The use of this technology could result in total US
Air Force savings of $25 million. The technology enhancements gained from this field demonstration will
result in even greater savings through the use of alternative media and the ability to emplace the media to
greater depths.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Project No. 14
Dynamic Underground Stripping
Location
Southern California Edison Co.
Pole Treating Site, Visalia, CA
Project Status
New
Media
Groundwater and soil
Technology Type
Hydrous
Pvrolvsis/Oxidation
Technical Contact
Paul M. Beam
U.S. Department of Energy
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20874-1290
United States
tel: 301-903-8133
fax: 301-903-3877
e-mail: paul.beam@em.doe.gov
Project Dates
Accepted 1998
Contaminants
PAHs and pentachlorophenol
Costs Documented?
Yes
Project Size
Full-Scale; 4.3 acres
Results Available?
Yes (Preliminary)
1. INTRODUCTION
In the early 1990s, in collaboration with the School of Engineering at the University of California, Berkeley,
Lawrence Livermore developed dynamic underground stripping, a method for treating subsurface
contaminants with heat that is much faster and more effective than traditional treatment methods. More
recently, Livermore scientists developed hydrous pyrolysis/oxidation, which introduces both heat and
oxygen to the subsurface to convert contaminants in the ground to such benign products as carbon dioxide,
chloride ion, and water. This process has effectively destroyed all contaminants it encountered in laboratory
tests.
2. SITE DESCRIPTION
During the summer of 1997, both processes were used for cleanup of a four-acre site in Visalia, California.
owned by Southern California Edison. The utility company had used the site for 80 years to treat utility
poles by dipping them into creosote, a pentachlorophenol compound, or both. By the 1970s, these highly
toxic substances had seeped into the subsurface to depths of approximately 100 feet.
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS
In the heating process in hydrous pyrolysis/oxidation, the dense, nonaqueous-phase liquids and dissolved
contaminants are destroyed in place without surface treatment, thereby improving the rate and efficiency
of remediation by rendering the hazardous materials benign by a completely in situ process. Hydrous
pyrolysis/oxidation also takes advantage of the large increase in mobility that occurs when the subsurface
is heated, which makes contaminants more available for destruction. Many remediation processes are limited
by the access of the reactants to the contaminant, making mobility the bane of remediation efforts in low-
permeability materials such as clays.
Most early Livermore experiments on the hydrous pyrolysis/oxidation process, funded by the Department
of Energy, were with trichloroethylene (TCE), a solvent that used to be widely used in degreasing and other
industrial processes. TCE is the most common solvent ground water contaminant in the Department of
Energy complex. Unlike gasoline, TCE and similar solvents are heavier than water, which mans that they
can sink below the water table, making cleanup extremely difficult if not impossible with conventional
methods.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
The oxidation process occurs natural!}', but without heat it is very slow. So the Livermore team needed to
know how hot the soil needed to be. They learned that with TCE, just a few degrees can make an enormous
difference in how quickly the breakdown occurs. At 90°C, it takes a few weeks, at 100°C, a few days, and
at 120°C. it occurs in just a few hours. Laboratory results indicated that the contaminants at Visalia would
react at similar rates to TCE.
4. RESULTS AND EVALUATION
Southern California Edison and Steam Tech of Bakersfield, California, the first commercial site licensee
of the dynamic underground stripping technology, are cleaning up the Visalia site, with Livermore staff
periodically on hand as operational consultants. During the first six weeks of operation, between June and
August 1997, the team removed or destroyed in place approximately 300,000 pounds of contaminant, a rate
of about 46,000 pounds per week. For nearly 20 years, Southern California Edison had been removing
contaminant from the subsurface using the standard cleanup method, known as pump-and-treat, most
recently at a rate of just 10 pounds per week. In fact, the amount of hydrocarbons removed or destroyed in
place in those six weeks was equivalent to 600 years of pump-and-treat. Needless to say, the Visalia cleanup
using dynamic underground stripping and the first field use of hydrous pyrolysis/oxidation is considered a
wild success by everyone involved.
The demonstration of hydrous pyrolysis/oxidation at Visalia confirmed the effectiveness of this technology
for dense heavier-than-water ground water pollutants. So resistant to cleanup in the past, these contaminants
include such widely used compounds as carbon tetrachloride, a chemical used as a refrigerant and a dry-
cleaning solvent, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), a chemical used in electrical transformers and
capacitors. The method can be used to clean up ground water and soils to almost any depth.
Work at Visalia is not yet complete. The boilers are no longer running, but the heated soil continues to
vaporize contaminants at a high rate. The amount of total contamination is not known, so it is yet unclear
how long Southern California Edison will have to continue monitoring. The best estimates today are that
cleanup will be complete in a year, with another four years of monitoring the site.
5. COSTS
The first application of dynamic underground stripping cost about $110 per cubic yard, although Livermore
scientists felt that they could repeat the project for about $65 per cubic yard. Because contamination at the
gasoline spill was deep, digging up the contaminated soil and disposing of it would have cost almost $300
per cubic yard. (Soil removal and disposal costs are more typically in the $100 to $200 range.) The pump-
and-treat method costs are as high or higher than soil removal.
With dynamic underground stripping, the contaminants are vaporized and vacuumed out of the ground,
leaving them still to be destroyed elsewhere. In fact, about half the cost of a typical cleanup is in treating
the recovered ground water and hauling away and disposing of the contaminated material that is brought
to the surface.
Livermore" s hydrous pyrolysis/oxidation technology takes the cleanup process one step further by
eliminating the treatment, handling, and disposal requirements and destroying the contamination in the
ground. The Visalia pole yard cleanup is the only application of this method to date, but indications are that
large-scale cleanups with hydrous pyrolysis/oxidation may cost less than $25 per cubic yard., an enormous
savings over current methods. Best of all, the end product of a hydrous pyrolysis/oxidation cleanup with
bioremediation as a final step is expected to be a truly clean site.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
6. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Newmark, R. L. (ed). (1994), Dynamic underground stripping demonstration project, LLNL gasoline spill
demonstration report. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, UCRL-ID-116964.
Udell, K and McCarter, R (1996) Treatability Tests of Steam Enhanced Extraction for the Removal of Wood
Treatment Chemicals from Visalia Pole Yard Soils, University of California, Report to Southern
California Edison. ()
Knauss, KG Aines, RD., Dibley, M. J. Leif, RN, and Mew, DA (1997) Hydrous Pyrolysis/Oxidation: In-
Ground Thermal Destruction of Organic Contaminants. Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, UCRL-JC-
126636.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Project No. 15
Phytoremediation of Chlorinated Solvents
Location
Aberdeen Proving Grounds
Edgewood Area J-Field Site,
Edgewood, MD
Edward Sears Site,
New Gretna, NJ
Carswell Air Force Base.
Fort Worth. TX
Project Status
Interim Report
Media
Groundwater
Technology Type
Phvtoremedi ati on
Technical Contact
Ham1 Compton (Aberdeen Site)
U.S. EPA
Environmental Response Team (ERT)
2890 Woodbridge Avenue -Building 19
Edison, NJ 08837
tel: 732-321-6751
fax: 732-321-6724
E-mail:
compton.harry@epamail.epa.gov
Steve Hirsh (Aberdeen Site)
U.S. EPA, Region 3
841 Chestnut Bldg. / 3HS50
Philadelphia, PA 19107
tel: 215-566-3352
E-mail: hirsh. steven@epamail.epa.gov
George Prince (Edward Sears Site)
U.S. EPA Facilities
Environmental Response Team (ERT)
2890 Woodbridge Avenue
Edison, NJ 08837-3679
tel: 732-321-6649
E-mail: prince.george@epamail.epa.gov
Greg Harvey (Carswell AFB Site))
U.S. Air Force, ASC/EMR
1801 10th Street- Area B
Wright Patterson AFB, OH
tel: 937-255-7716 ext. 302
tax: 937-255-4155
E-mail: harveygj@emsmtp.wpafb.af.mil
Project Dates
Accepted 1998
Contaminants
Chlorinated solvents: TCE, PCE, DCE, TMB,
xylene, methyl chloride
Costs Documented?
Yes (preliminary)
Project Size
Full-Scale Field
Demonstration
Results Available?
Yes (preliminary)
1. INTRODUCTION
The efficacy and cost of phytoremediation with respect to the cleanup of shallow groundwater contaminated
with chlorinated solvents, primarily trichloroethylene (TCE), is being evaluated at the field scale in
demonstration projects at Aberdeen Proving Grounds Edgewood Area J-Field Site in Edgewood, Maryland,
the Edward Sears site in New Gretna, New Jersey, and Carswell Air Force Base in Fort Worth, Texas. These
projects will demonstrate the use of hybrid poplars to hydraulically control the sites and ultimately to
remove the contaminants from the groundwater. The objective of this study will be to evaluate and compare
the results for these three sites with respect to the efficacy of phytoremediation under varied site conditions
and in different climatic regions.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
2. SITE DESCRIPTION
Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Maryland
The site is located at the tip of the Gunpowder Neck Peninsula which extends into the Chesapeake Bay. The
Army practiced open trench (Toxic Pits) burning/detonation of munitions containing chemical agents,
dunnage from the 1940s to the 1970s. Large quantities of decontaminating agents containing solvents were
used during the operation. The surficial groundwater table had been contaminated with solvents (1122-TCA,
TCE, DCE) at levels up to 260 parts per million (ppm). The contamination is 5-40 ft below ground surface.
The plume is slow moving due to soils tight, silty sand. The impacted area is a floating mat-type fresh water
marsh approximately 500 ft southeast. A low environmental threat is presented by the contaminant plume.
Edward Sears Site, New Jersey
From the mid-1960s to the early 1990s, Edward Sears repackaged and sold expired paints, adhesives, paint
thinners, and various military surplus materials out of his backyard in New Gretna, NJ. As a result, toxic
materials were stored in leaky drums and containers on his property for many years. The soil and ground-
water were contaminated with numerous hazardous wastes, including methylene chloride, tetrachloro-
ethylene (PCE), TCE, trimethylbenzene (TMB), and xylene. There is a highly permeable sand layer about
4-5 ft below ground surface (bgs), but below that exists a much less permeable layer of sand, silt, and clay
from 5-18 ft bgs. This silt, sand, and clay layer acts as a semiconfining unit for water and contaminants
percolating down toward an unconfmed aquifer from 18-80 ft bgs. This unconfmed aquifer is composed
primarily of sand and is highly permeable. The top of the aquifer is about 9 ft bgs, which lies in the less
permeable sand, silt, and clay layer. The top of the aquifer is relatively shallow and most of the contamina-
tion is confined from 5-18 feet bgs.
TCE concentrations in the groundwater ranged from 0-390 ppb. Most of the TCE is concentrated in a small
area on site.
Car swell AFB, Texas
The U.S. Air Force Plant 4 (AFP4) and adjacent Naval Air Station, Fort Worth, Texas, has sustained
contamination in an alluvial aquifer through the use of chlorinated solvents in the manufacture and assembly
of military aircraft. Dissolution and transport of TCE and its degradation products have occurred, creating
a plume of contaminated groundwater. This project is led by the U.S. Air Force (USAF) and is being
conducted as part of the Department of Defense's (DOD's) Environmental Security Technology Certifica-
tion Program (ESTCP), as well as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (US EPA's) Superfund
Innovative Technology Evaluation (SITE) Program. Planting and cultivation of Eastern Cottonwood
(Populus deltoides) trees above a dissolved TCE plume in a shallow (<12 ft) aerobic aquifer took place in
spring 1996. Data are being collected to determine the ability of the trees, planted as a short-rotation woody
crop, to perform as a natural pump-and-treat system.
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS
Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Maryland
• After agronomic assessment, one acre plantation of two year old Hybrid Poplar 510, were planted 5-6
ft deep. Surficial drainage system installed to remove precipitation quickly, allow trees to use ground-
water.
• 1122-TCA and TCE are 90% of the contaminants (total approx. 260 ppm solvents). USGS estimated
7000 gals/day removal would achieve hydraulic containment.
• Planted in the spring of 1996, trees have grown substantially. Duration of evaluation will be five years.
• Currently monitoring aquifer, contaminants and drawdown, transpiration gas, soil emissions, soil
community and structure, sap flow, weather, and plantation emissions.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
Edward Sears Site, New Jersey
• 118 hybrid poplar saplings (Populus charkowiiensis x incrassata. NE 308) were planted in a plot
approximately one-third of an acre in size. The trees were planted 10 ft apart on the axis running from
north to south and 12.5 ft apart on the east-west axis. The trees were planted using a process called deep
rooting: 12-ft trees were buried nine feet under the ground so that only about 2-3 ft remained on the
surface.
• Extra poplars that were left after the deep rooting was completed were planted to a depth of 3 ft or
shallow rooted. These extra trees were planted along the boundary of the site to the north, west, and east
sides of the site. These trees will prevent rainwater infiltration from off-site.
• Planted in the December 1996, trees have grown substantially.
• Monitoring of the site includes periodic sampling of groundwater. soils, soil gas, plant tissue, and
evapotranspiration gas. Continued growth measurements will also be made as the trees mature. Site
maintenance also involves the prevention of deer and insect damage.
Car swell AFB, Texas
• The USAF planted 660 eastern cottonwoods in a one acre area. The species P. deltoides was chosen
over a hybridized species of poplar because it is indigenous to the region and has therefore proven its
ability to withstand the Texas climate, local pathogens, and other localized variables that may affect tree
growth and health.
• Two sizes of trees were planted: whips and 5-gallon buckets. The 5-gallon bucket trees are expected to
have higher evapotranspiration rates due to their larger leaf mass.
• Planted in the April 1996, trees have grown substantially (5-gallon buckets have grown faster than
whips).
• Site managers plan to increase monitoring at the site to include a whole suite of water, soil, air, and tree
tissue sample analysis. Some of the more unique data they are collecting (in relation to the other case
study sites) are analyses of microbial populations and assays of TCE degrading enzymes in the trees.
4. RESULTS AND EVALUATION
Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Maryland
• Currently using sap flow instrumentation, during growing season trees are pumping approximately
1.500-2.000 gals/day with demonstrated aquifer drawdown. There are measurable parent compounds
in the transpiration gas of leaves. OP-FTIR demonstrated non-detectable off-site migration of emissions
from transpiration gas. Limitations include depth of contamination, but not concentrations of up to 260
ppm solvents. Weather and growing season are the most influential factors.
• Lessons learned include better pre-planting assessment of soil community and to anticipate the
contribution from natural attenuation. Unfortunately, no formal monitoring was established to assess
the progress of technology.
Edward Sears Site, New Jersey
• Sampling of evapotranspiration gas was conducted by placing Teflar bags over entire trees. Data from
these air samples suggest that the trees are evapotranspimg some VOCs.
• Future sampling designs will attempt to determine accurate background VOCs.
• Site managers plan to sacrifice one tree either after or during the next growing season to determine the
extent of root growth.
Car swell AFB, Texas
• Seventeen months after planting, tree roots had reached the water table (10 feet bgs).
• Transpiration measurements indicate that the largest planted trees transpired approximately 3.75 gpd
during summer 1997; a nearby 19-year-old, 70-ft cottonwood tree growing southeast of the area was
determined to transpire approximately 350 gpd.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
• Experiments indicate that cottonwoods and willows produce enzymes that can degrade PCE and TCE,
and that tree enzymes will likely contribute to attenuation of TCE at the site.
• TCE concentrations in groundwater samples collected beneath the 19-year-old cottonwood tree during
summer 1997 were about 80 percent less than concentrations in groundwater beneath the planted trees.
and concentrations of a TCE degradation by-product (cis-1.2-dichloroethylene) were about 100 percent
greater.
• Trees are not yet hydraulically controlling the plume. Results of a groundwater flow model
(MODFLOW) and a transpiration model (PROSPER) will be combined to determine when hydraulic
control of the plume might occur. A solute-transport model (MOC3D) is planned to help determine the
relative importance of various attenuation processes in the aquifer to guide data collection at future sites.
• Extensive studies of the subsurface biomass, chemistry, geochemistry, tree enzymes/kinetics, and
microbial ecology of the cottonwood populations and nearby mature trees have been initiated.
5. COSTS
Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Maryland
Before treatment — $5,000
Capital — $80,000 for UXO clearance of soil during planting; $80/tree.
Operation and maintenance — $30,000, due to no established monitoring techniques
After treatment — None (trees remain in place)
Edward Sears Site, New Jersey
None
Car swell AFB, Texas
Before Treatment
Preparatory Work
Site Characterization — $12,000
Site Design —$10,000
Site Work
Monitoring (research level) well installation — $90,000
Development of Plantations - 1 acre (includes landscaping costs) — $41,000
Weather Station — $3,100
Survey — $25,000
Purchase of Trees
Whips ($0.20 each) — $100
Five-gallon buckets ($18 each) — $2,000
Treatment
Installation of Irrigation System — $10,000
Yearly O&M
Landscaping — $2,000
Groundwater. soil, vegetation, transpiration, climate, soil moisture, and water-level monitoring (research
level) — $250,000
After Treatment — None
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
COUNTRY TOURS de TABLE
45
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
AUSTRIA
Austria has a new "Landfill Ordinance." This new law specifies parameters related to the quality of the
waste to be deposited in landfills in terms of limit values for total pollutant content and related contaminant
constituent values in waste samples. In addition, this law specifies four types of landfills: landfills for
excavated soils, landfills for demolition waste, landfills for residual materials and solid or mass waste
landfills, with each type of landfill legally accepting only certain types of waste. The following aspects of
landfill operation are defined in the new landfill ordinance: waste acceptance inspections; waste generator
identity checks; waste sample collection and analysis; special provisions for solidified wastes; precipitation
run-off and management; and requirements for bottom-sealing systems (i.e., landfill liner systems). This new-
law calls for the pre-disposal segregation of waste streams as well as improved pre-treatment of waste prior
to disposal.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
BELGIUM
1. Legal and Administrative issues
a. Background information
The Belgian institutional framework dividing the authority between the Federal State and the Regions
confers the responsibility of environment protection policy almost exclusively to the Regions, with very few
exceptions. And soil is no exception.
This means that there cannot be such thing as a federal legislation on Soil protection; the only common
framework could come (as it is the case for Air, Water and Waste legislation) from the European
Commission, where a proposal on civil liability for environmental damages is considered since 1993, but
with limited chances of implementation in the near future.
Therefore, the three Regions, Flanders, Brussels Region and Wallonia, are free to act or not, in this issue,
according to their own policy, the requirements of their citizens, and the constraints of their economy.
Until now, only Flanders has adopted a full legislative framework, although Brussels and Wallonia will
probably present this year their own propositions.
b. Summary of Legislation
The Flemish Decree on soil remediation, adopted in 1995, has been brought into force in different stages
through the end of 1996. The main characteristics cover five key issues:
• a register of contaminated land;
• the difference between historical and new soil contamination;
• the difference between duty and liability for decontamination;
• the soil decontamination compulsory procedure and control; and
• the transfer of land.
In addition, soil standards, background levels and intervention values have been adopted by the Flemish
Government. The intervention values depend on future land use. Five groups of land uses have been
distinguished. There is also a list of activities which could create soil pollution, and will need to be
investigated (see §2).
c. The Concept of Contaminated Sites
One of the most significant features in the Flemish Decree is the difference created between "historical" and
"new" pollution.
'Historical" soil pollution are those originated before the decree came into force; "new" soil pollution are
those produced since the decree came into force. A "mixed" situation is also considered.
The clean-up of "new" pollution is, according to the decree, required as soon as the intervention values for
soil clean-up are exceeded. For "historical" pollution on the contrary, the decision to clean-up will depend
on the danger to man and the environment. So a site specific risk-assessment approach will be followed in
this situation. Considering the limited financial resources available, the clean-up of historic pollution will
follow a priority classification established by the Flemish government.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
d. Administrative Aspects
For institutional reasons (see §l.a), there is no Federal Agency for the Environment:
• OVAM (Public Waste Agency of Flanders) is the responsible authority for soil control and remediation
in the Flemish Region.
• In Wallonia, as long as no decree on soil remediation has been passed, responsibilities are shared
between two administrative bodies: the Walloon Waste Office is the responsible authority for landfills
and other sites polluted by waste, and the Town and Country Planning Administration is responsible
for derelict land and brownfield sites.
• In Brussels, the authority is the Brussels Institute for Environmental Management.
e. Summary of Anticipated Policy Developments
A Soil Decree is in preparation in Wallonia, which should be presented this year to legislative adoption.
Guidelines for investigations and assessment, and soil criteria, are also prepared. Soil criteria, a mapping
strategy and a possible ordinance are considered in the Brussels Region. Our next report will present the
situation at the end of 1998 in the two Regions.
2. Registration of contaminated sites
a. Flanders
According to the new legislation, a soil register has been created in Flanders. The Flemish authorities
proceed with a systematic examination of potentially polluted areas mainly on three occasions:
• at the time of property transfer;
• at the closure of licensed installations; and
• whenever the license (authorization) has to be renewed.
Considering the varying delays for industrial license renewals, a special soil control obligation has been
introduced in the general authorization procedure; so the ultimate deadline seems to be the year 2003 (with
intermediate deadlines in 1999 and 2001): by that time, all industrial sites in use should have been checked,
and re-authorized or compelled to consider clean-up measures (to be implemented before 2006).
The information on soil pollution is compiled in the soil register under the administration of OVAM (Public
Waste Agency of Flanders). This register serves as a data base for policy decisions and also as an instrument
to protect and inform all potential land purchasers.
A "soil certificate" is requested for all sorts of property transfers. This system has increased the number of
voluntary investigations, and sometimes induces voluntary remediations, in order to avoid to be listed as
contaminated in the register.
The Flemish legislation lays a special responsibility on registered soil decontamination experts. These are
the responsible body for soil examination, under the supervision of OVAM which selects them according
to expertise criteria, and control their work.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
According to OVAM'S Remediation Service*, at the end of February 1998. there were 5.528 potentially
contaminated sites in different parcels of land listed in the soil register. As of the same date, there were
about 8,000 parcels of land mentioned as contaminated in the register.
Remediation programs are launched for about 70 sites. Registered soil decontamination experts have to
develop and earn,' out those programs, according to the procedure and soil standards. They will also have
to control the final result of the clean-up, under the supervision of OVAM.
b. Wallonia
A registration system has existed since 1978 for industrial derelict land and brownfield sites, based on a
specific town and country planning legislation aiming at the redevelopment of those sites. In 1989, a special
program, entrusted to the GEHAT at Brussels University, was launched by the Town and Country Planning
Administration to assess the risk of contamination on all registered sites. It is based on preliminary
assessments and includes a four level risk ladder. The resulting data base serves for policy decisions, to
select priorities for detailed site investigations, and for remediations plans if proven necessary.
A more elaborate hazard ranking system has been developed recently for dumping sites by the SPAQUE
(Walloon Public Society for the Quality of Environment) under the supervision of the Walloon Waste
Office. The ranking is performed on the basis of a check-list considering source, vectors and risk groups.
An estimation of about 5,000 potentially contaminated sites is currently mentioned; of these, 2,200 industrial
derelict sites are already registered and classified in the Town & Country Planning data base. Among the
sites presenting a high risk factor, about 90 have been submitted to detailed investigations (as of February
1998); a dozen are now benefitting from remediation programs. For sites presenting a lower risk factor,
detailed investigations are ordered only when a redevelopment strategy is planned, whether by a public or
a private operator. In addition, the SPAQUE assessed 17 heavily polluted "priority sites," among former
dumping and deposit sites. Four of them are in the remediation process.
c. Brussels Region
No registration system is known at this moment. A first investigations/mapping strategy is in preparation.
3. Remedial methods
Until recently, there have been no comprehensive statistics on remedial methods and technologies used for
clean-up in Belgium. The following soil and groundwater remediation techniques are available and used*:
1. Excavation and transport of contaminated material to a deposit site and/or processing of the
contaminated soil.
2. Hydrodynamic methods, by means of drains, water remediation, processing of slurry, etc.
3. Use of degassing systems.
4. Use of isolation techniques (horizontal and vertical isolation by means of cement, clay, bentonite,
bitumen, etc.
5. Immobilization techniques by means of cement, lime, absorption methods for oil, etc.
'Data collected with the help of Ecorem n.v.
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6. Remediation technologies: microbiological remediation, in situ and ex situ (landfarming, biopiles, etc.),
water and chemical extraction, flotation, thermal treatment, steam-stripping, a combination of physico-
chemical and biological remediation techniques, electro-reclamation, infiltration and wash out.
4. Research, Development, and Demonstration
For soils contaminated with heavy metals and metalloids, the following remedial techniques are in research
and/or anticipated for use in the coming years:
• In situ immobilization by means of soil additives.
• Bio-extraction of heavy metals by means of micro-organisms in a slurry -reactor.
• Phyto-extraction by means of plants with increased capacities of metal-accumulation.
More generally, there is a great need and expectation for low-energy, cost-effective remedial technologies.
Research is progressing in the Universities and Public research Institutes, mainly in microbiology and
phytoremediation areas, although no comprehensive evaluation is yet available.
In Flanders, a risk-evaluation model was evaluated and approved by OVAM. Research has been implemen-
ted on the prioritization of historical soil pollution, and a decision-supporting system has been developed
to estimate which technologies are most appropriate at this moment, taking the costs into account. OVAM
is also chairing a Committee on "Normalization of soil remediation."
5. Conclusions
Since the adoption of the Flemish Decree on soil remediation, there has been a growing recognition of soil
and groundwater contamination issues in Belgium. The implementation and the first results of the Flemish
Decree are generally considered satisfactory by Public authorities, and this stimulates the two other Regions,
Brussels and Wallonia, to define their own policy. But these policies might be based on rather different legal
schemes, clean-up guidelines and soil criteria. For instance, should these criteria be compulsory or subject
to site-specific interpretation is a matter of debate in the two Regions.
At the same time, in the private sector, the big companies are preparing the ground, or even anticipating the
future legal impositions. Their main question is now: to what extent will it be possible to adopt different
strategies and levels of soil protection in the three belgian Regions? More generally, the two main problems
to be tackled in the near future will probably be:
• the lack of resources of many liable parties, for the cleanup of historical pollution; and
• the cost-efficiency and environmental merit of the remediation programs, whether funded by public or
private money.
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CANADA
The past year has been one of very great change within the Canadian Government in the area of site
remediation. The Departments of National Defence (DND) and Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) have been
active in assessment and remediation of their contaminated sites. Environment Canada has carried out a
number of site assessments at its properties. These will be followed by further assessments in the coming
year and, potentially, some initial site remediation. Treasury Board, a central government agency, has given
all departments until 31 March, 1999, to come up with an approximation of the financial liability which they
may be facing as a result of contaminated sites.
While this has been occurring, there has been a decrease in the level of focus which Environment Canada
has been putting into site remediation. Hazardous Waste Management Branch has been disbanded with its
remaining functions being spread throughout other branches. The Waste Water Technology Institute has
been purchased by Connor Pacific, a private company. The other Environment Canada group active in the
field, the Emergencies Engineering Division, is being taken over by Science Applications International
Corporation (Canada) [SAIC (Canada)]. This means that the bulk of expertise formerly resident within
Environment Canada will now reside within groups who act as contractors to the department.
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CZECH REPUBLIC
1. Legal and Administrative Issues
The Czech Constitution was established on 16 December 1992. The Act on the Environment No. 17/1992
was adopted from Federal law, as many other legal provisions. A new Environmental Policy was adopted
in August 1995. A lot of existing laws dated prior to the division of Czechoslovakia has been gradually
updated or replaced.
Legal protection of water was anchored in Water Act (No. 138) in 1973. Systematic approach for polluted
soil remediation started in connection with the ecological damages assessment of former Soviet military
bases in former Czechoslovakia in 1990. The second, more significant wave of soil pollution assessment
is in progress now, in the connection with property transfers in privatization processes. The Federal Waste
Act 238/1991 was replaced by the Act 125/1997.
There are three sources of financing for environmental projects in the Czech Republic: 1) the State Budget,
2) the State Environmental Fund (created mostly by pollution levies, e.g., for emissions, for waste disposal),
3) the National Property Fund (created by money from privatization).
Legislation which is important for soil and groundwater pollution has been enacted in association with the
privatization of former state property. Act No. 92/1991 on Conditions for the Transfer of State Property to
Other Persons and connecting Methods of Assessing Environmental Liabilities of Companies for the
Preparation of Privatization Projects (Methodological Instructions of the Ministry for Administration of
National Property and Its Privatization of the Czech Republic and of the Ministry of Environment of the
Czech Republic of May 18, 1992) introduced guideline limit levels for soil, soil gas, and groundwater. These
limits have been implemented according to the future use of contaminated sites based on the environmental
assessment of property to be privatized. Resolutions of the Government of the Czech Republic No. 455/1992
and No. 123/93 describe and limit the degree to which the State retains liabilities for past environmental
damage (items of damage were contamination of groundwater, contamination of soil, and landfills of
harmful wastes). Resolution of the Government of the Czech Republic No. 810/1997 changed the above
mentioned Resolution when extending the environmental damages to be remediated in the sense of this
document by contamination of constructions and their parts. Other legislation on soil quality presents Act
No. 13/1994 concerning agricultural soil quality. Limits for discharging pumped out and treated water in
the process of remediation are controlled by the Order No. 171/1992 on standards of admissible levels of
water pollution. The Czech Army follows, of course, the above-mentioned laws and guidelines; there are
additional special regulations issued by MoD such as the Commander's Guide to Environmental
Management (1996).
There are three types of contaminated sites in the Czech republic:
• Former SA bases (Soviet occupation lasted from 1968 to 1991). Contaminated sites were evaluated by-
investigation carried out by environmental companies in 1990 and 1991. Contaminated sites were
considered as those where concentration of pollutants more-or-less exceeded Dutch C limits or
Czechoslovak Drinking Water Standards when contaminated groundwater was used for drinking water
supply or due to historical use. If necessary, a new risk assessment may be carried out to distinguish
which localities are (still) contaminated and/or are to be remediated.
• Czech army bases have no special or legal definition in the Czech Republic, nevertheless the initial
assessment procedures differed in the past from the below mentioned
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• Other sites are considered contaminated when concentration of pollutants in soils, rocks, ground-water,
wastes, soil gas, and buildings are dangerous to the environment when deemed so by the Czech
Environmental Inspectorate, mostly based on a risk assessment
The highest environmental authority is the Ministry of Environment. Each District Office has an environ-
mental authority with responsibility for administrative tasks related to the environment. The Czech
Environmental Inspectorate enforces the environmental laws through its 42 branches. There are separate
divisions for water, air, wastes, forestry, and natural protection.
2. Registration of Contaminated Sites
Major problems include:
• The most widespread pollutants are oil products (petrol, diesel, kerosene, lubricating and heating oils),
chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons (DCE, TCE, PCE) and heavy metals (As, Cr, Cu, Pb, Hg, Cd etc.),
phenols, cyanides
• The most harmful and/or "unbeatable" are organic refractants (PCBs, PAHs, wood-preserving agents,
tars), radioactive materials, poisons and combat chemicals
• There are hundreds of illegal waste disposal sites, a lot of them without any legal or known owner or
user.
• Registration of former waste disposal sites was slowed down by the lack of money at first. Only about
40 (50 percent) districts have gotten them registered.
• No common and complete registration of all former and recent contaminated sites exists.
Background information on site registration:
• Former SA bases have been completely registered, and their records of remedial progress are at the
Ministry of Environment.
• Contaminated sites of the Czech Army are registered by Ministry of Defence and its regional branches
(so called VUSS). Anew concept of area! registration of contaminated and potentially contaminated
sites with the help of GIS has been started.
• Registration of waste dumps and landfills with the help of questionnaires was started by one District
Office in 1995.
• Registration of contaminated sites including waste dumps and landfills has been organized by MoE as
a research project (10 districts are involved in the first phase). It is based on GIS.
The National Property Fund (NPF) has its own registration of those contaminated sites, for which
remediation is financed of NPF, and which were privatized according Act No. 92/1991, or contaminated
sites (with environmental assessment) where companies asked NPF for remediation financing during the
the second phase of privatization (from 1992).
There were 60 contaminated former Soviet Army bases in the Czech Republic. Remediation will be
accomplished at the most of them until 2000. The cleanup of the biggest ones—Mlada-Milovice and Ralsko-
Hradeany—will last until 2006 and 2008, respectively. Registration of former SA bases is administered by
MoE.
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The eight biggest contaminated Czech military sites being returned to civilian use will be remediated until
2000-2005. The five other largest contaminated Czech military sites that will be used by the Czech Army
also will be remediated until 2000-2005. Environmental assessment at both groups of sites was carried out
according to the 1992 Methodical Instructions. Some 300 small contaminated military sites also exist that
will be environmentally assessed, and some of them will be remediated step-by-step. The administration of
contaminated sites is done by regional offices of MoD (VUSS); the central administration is carried out by
MoD.
The National Property- Fund of the Czech Republic administered and registered (and guaranteed
remediation) 300 contaminated sites (particularly the second privatization phase) between 1991 and 1997.
About 100 contaminated sites from the former privatization phase are neither registered nor guaranteed for
remediation.
About 3,000 former illegal municipal or industrial waste dumps, without known ownership, exist throughout
our country. A number of them contain harmful wastes and may pose a threat to the environment. Their
registration will be carried out by District Offices, but only half of them have been done.
The estimated number of sites for future remediation are:
• Czech military sites: 300
• Contaminated sites guaranteed by the National Property Fund: 300-500
• Illegal waste dumps without known owner or user: 200
3. Remedial Methods
Summary data on remedial methods:
• Soils: ex situ: bioreclamation (petroleum hydrocarbons [HC], BTEX, PAHs), washing, leaching (heavy
metals, PCBs); stabilization-solidification (HC, PAHs, PCBs); incineration (tars, HC, organic refractants
(more or less experimental stage only); poisons; venting (chlorinated hydrocarbons [CHC]; HC, BTEX);
and landfillin (heavy metals, organic refractants. HC).
• Soils: in situ: soil vapor extraction (HC, BTEX, CHC), bioreclamation plus washing (HC, PAHs,
partially CHC), encapsulation (all pollutants).
• Groundwater: pump and treat (all pollutants).
• Groundwater: in situ: vacuum extraction (HC, BTEX, CHC); bioreclamation (HC, BTEX, PAHs); air
sparging (HC, BTEX, CHC); cobalt radiation destruction (cyanides).
• Auxiliary in situ methods: air and hydraulic fracturing, well blasting, soil heating, surfactant flushing.
Factors influencing use of remedial methods include hydrogeological and physical properties of soil and
rocks, chemi co-physical properties of pollutants, target concentration of pollutants, amount of contaminated
soils, infrastructure of contaminated site (buildings and roads which cannot be destroyed or removed), time
and money.
Hydraulic methods when clean-up of oil pollution will be more supplemented with in situ bioreclamation
in late phases of decontamination of aquifers. When both groundwater and soil are contaminated with
chlorinated hydrocarbons, pump-and-treat will be combined from the very beginning with SVE, vacuum
extraction, and/or air sparging. For very viscous hydrocarbons and organic refractants, or where time is vital,
thermal or steam stripping should be introduced.
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The cheapest, most effective, and reliable remediation of soil polluted with hydrocarbons is ex situ
bioreclamation. When soils are contaminated simultaneously with volatile HC and CHC, the most effective
method is soil vapor extraction (SVE). Pump-and-treat methods are reliable and versatile, but their cost-
effectiveness decreases with time due to the decrease of pollutant concentrations. Incineration is too
expensive, and until now was used only for very harmful substances such as poisons and some munitions
chemicals, and some other nondegradable organics.
4. Research, Development, and Demonstration
The Ministry of Environment (MoE) provides research grants for topics of its choosing, such as
environmental assessment, registration of former contaminated sites, and remediation methods. The grants
are awarded following competitive bidding. MoD has funded aerial registration and inventories of military
sites—including contaminated ones—with the help of Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
More detailed information on RD&D can be seen from the following (incomplete) list of research projects
and demonstrations:
• Methodology of investigation and remediation of former waste dumps and waste disposal sites. The
research report addressed description and evaluation of proper methods of investigation and
remediation, and a proposal for classification and registration of waste dumps. The research was carried
out in 1995 and cost 4.4 million Czech Crowns.
• Methodology of environmental assessment (1995-1996).
• Methodology of risk analysis, including new criteria of rock medium contamination (1995—cost 2
million Czech Crowns).
• Methods of quality assurance of investigation and remediation of former contaminated sites. There were
evaluated by three separate methods: quality assurance of sampling methods, quality assurance of
remedial methods, and quality assurance of geophysical investigation of soil and groundwater pollution
(1997—cost 600,000 Czech Crowns).
• Areal registration of former contaminated sites "SESEZ," including former waste disposal dumps.
Registration has started in 10 districts with the help of GIS in 1996 and will last until at least 2000.
• National Property Fund helped to organism demonstrations of new remedial technologies, e.g., the
Environmental Technology Initiative Conference in Prague and at Kralupy and Vltavou, June 23-25,
1997.
• MoD organized ""demonstration projects" financed by the Netherlands MoD dealing with a site
assessment program for Czechoslovak military sites in 1992 and "Tackling Soil Pollution on Military
Sites in Czechoslovakia" in 1992 and 1993.
MoE prepared among others the following grants for the next two years:
• Revitalization of the open cast brown coal mines in '"Podkrusnohorska uhelna panev'" (in the Coal Basin
below the Krusne hory Mountains).
• Restriction for the minimizing of large-scale surface and ground water pollution.
• Remedial technologies for pollution with chlorinated hydrocarbons.
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• Risk assessment of former waste disposal sites which were used according Act No. 238/1991, or
abandoned ones before the mentioned act's validity.
• Indicators of rock environment capacity for natural bioreclamation of significant pollutants.
5. Conclusions
Legislation is under development, because until now there were objections to the Waste Act. The main
problems, more technical than financial, of contaminated sites are related to the environmental issues of
privatization projects in the second phase of privatization. In particularly, there are some discrepancies
between planned remedial goals on one hand and time and economical limits on the other. Both technical
and legislative/financial difficulties are related to environmental assessments and the eventual remediation
of orphan former waste dumps and the contaminated industrial sites from the first phase of privatization.
Remediation of fissured aquifers contaminated with chlorinated organics and refractants will pose a
significant task for the future. One way to tackle it will be the research grants; another way may be the
demonstration of up-to-date or developing technologies. Steam stripping and electroreclamation seem to be
very promising; however, we have until now nearly no experience with them in our country.
References
Anon. (1997): Statistical Environmental Yearbook of the Czech Republic 1997. The Ministry of the
Environment of the Czech Republic. Czech Statistical Office. The Czech Environmental Institute, Praha.
Schaefer K.W. et al. (1997): International Experience and Expertise in Registration, Investigation,
Assessment and Clean-Up of Contaminated Military Sites. 155-184. Texts 5/97. Research Project No.
103 40 102/01 UBA-FB 97-012/e. Federal Environmental Agency, Berlin.
Svoma J. (1996): Remediation of Soil and Groundwater in the Czech Republic. In: E. A. McBean et al.
(eds.) Remediation of Soil and Groundwater, 45-57. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the
Netherlands.
Oral information (1998) by Ing Tylova (MoE), Ing Adler (MoD), Ing Pejzl (National Property Fund).
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DENMARK
1. Legal and Administrative Issues.
Until today the main issues relating to contaminated land in Denmark are addressed in two laws, the
Contaminated Sites Act (1983, revised in 1990 and 1996, called the Contaminated Sites Act) and the Envi-
ronmental Protection Act of 1974, last amended in 1996. These two acts effectively supplement each other
(with the exception of orphaned sites established after 1974).
Danish Environmental legislation is based on the Polluter Pays Principle (PPP). However, during recent
years, several lawsuits have shown that strict liability for contaminated sites cannot be applied within Danish
civil law. The Supreme Court has ruled against the Ministry of Environment and Energy in a number of
cases, where it could not be proved that the polluter was acting mala fide at the time when the polluting
activity was taking place.
A ruling from the Supreme Court in 1992 states that the normal time limit for liability in cases of soil con-
tamination is 20 years. This means that in 1996 all claims concerning sites under the Contaminated Sites
Act by definition are to old.
The Contaminated Sites Act
The Contaminated Sites Act allows the authorities to take and finance action at sites where contamination
took place before legislation, like the Environmental Protection Act was implemented. Therefore, a contami-
nated site in Denmark is defined as:
• a site polluted with oil and oily waste before 1972, or
• a site polluted with chemicals and chemical waste before 1976, or
• a former landfill site put in operation before 1974 and closed down not later than 1990.
A site is contaminated if there is a threat to human health and/or the environment (groundwater. surface
water, flora, fauna). Most of the sites covered by the Contaminated Sites Act are orphaned sites, and all
measures are financed by the public authorities.
As a result of the last amendment of the Act on Contaminated Sites (July 1996), the 16 regional counties
are responsible for the practical work. The Danish EPA's role is primarily concentrated on providing
guidance for the regional counties' work and initiating and supporting technology development of methods
for remediation of soil and groundwater.
The Deposits Council has been set up to advise the Minister on general matters concerning development of
technology. The council will every year prepare a report to the Minister of Environment and Energy and the
council will assess the overall need for technology development and will every year make recommendations
for principles and program areas, including distribution of the appropriation on these areas.
The Loss-of-Value Act
As a supplement to the Act on Contaminated Sites, a special clean up system for land owners was introduced
in late 1993 with the Act on Economic Blight to Family Housing on Contaminated Land. By paying a minor
contribution, the home owner can initiate a publicly financed cleanup. The scheme was introduced to ease
the problems for home owners and aid transactions on the real estate market. The budget in 1998 is 51 Mill
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Dkr. (US$7.5 million). After a very slow start, the picture changed in 1996, where it was not possible for
the authorities to comply with all the applications for remediation.
The Environmental Protection Act
This Act lays down the framework for control of polluting activities of active companies and empowers the
authorities to carry out inspections and to enforce orders etc. Investigation and clean-up of contaminated soil
and ground water can therefore take place by an administrative order. It is worth noting that the orders
pursuant to the Environmental Protection Act can be addressed to an operating company only. If the
company is not the polluter, the authorities must start proceedings against the polluter under civil law.
According to the Environmental Protection Act. the polluter is held responsible for remediation costs.
Orphaned sites after 1974 represent an unregulated area in so far as they are not owned by the person or
company who has caused the pollution. This means that the local authorities must finance remediation of
these sites.
New Act on Soil Contamination
In 1994 the Minister for Environment and Energy set up a "Contaminated Land Committee". In March 1996
the committee submitted a report on contaminated land, with a proposal for a revised act on contaminated
sites. A revised proposal was set out in a public hearing on February 6, 1998. A revised proposal is expected
to be presented to Parliament in 1998 and includes a proposal for inclusion of all contaminated land in an
act on soil contamination. The intention of the proposal is to expand the regulation from a single source view
into an expanded source view and provide legislation covering all aspects of soil contamination, also
including management of soil excavated and transported from one place to another. The five main topics
are:
• The conclusions to be drawn from the fact that extended contaminated areas, as well as contaminated
sites, are in existence
• New concept for mapping
• How to secure groundwater and population within a short time span
• How to secure an environmentally safe handling of contaminated soil
• How to accomplish the polluter pays principle (PPP)
According to the proposal the polluter pays principle will be the basic principle. No distinction will be made
between contamination taking place before and after the mid-1970s. All contamination taken place before
the new act comes into force will be subject to the same regulation. But according to the proposal there will
be a difference for contamination taken place before and after the date of enforcement of the new legislation.
Whereas contamination taking place after the enforcement of the new act will be subject to strict liability.
the applicability of "the polluter pays principle" will regard contamination that has taken place before the
enforcement only if it can be proved that the polluter was acting in bad faith at the time the polluting activity
was taking place.
2. Registration of Contaminated Sites
Identification of contaminated sites in Denmark consist of the following steps:
Step 1. Mapping of potentially contaminated sites (desk studies of present and former land use, etc.)
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Step 2. Preliminary investigations on sites (in order to demonstrate that the site is actually
contaminated)—preliminary assessment of potential risks from the site
Step 3. Registration with and notification to the Land Registry
Before 1990, Registration could be made on a "valid suspicion." for example, on the basis of a specific land
use. However, the mortgage institutions introduced credit restrictions, so it was necessary to make a
statutory order (1993) concerning the need for preliminary investigations to demonstrate that the site is
contaminated before Registration. Furthermore, the Act on Economic Blight to Family Housing, etc., on
Contaminated Land was passed by Parliament.
In March 1997 3650 contaminated sites were registered, and the total number is expected to be 11,000. The
total number of new and older contaminated sites is estimated to be about 14,000-15,000 sites. About 4,500
sites are assigned to areas with vulnerable water use (threat to drinking water) and about 2,500 sites are
assigned to vulnerable land use (i.e., residential areas, playing grounds etc.) In 1998, the total budget for
registered contaminated sites is 300 Mill Dkr. (US$45 million) plus 51 Mill Dkr for the Loss-of-Value Act.
From 1993 until the spring of 1997, 4,400 preliminary investigations have been carried out. The total
number of preliminary investigations for registered sites referring to the Contaminated Sites Act is estimated
to 9,000-10,000. The investigation usually involves 2-3 soil samples and possibly 1-2 groundwater samples.
Of the 3650 sites registered up to 1997, there have been remedial activities on 800 sites.
3. Remedial Methods
The order of priority for remedial action in Denmark is based on equal weighting to current land use and
groundwater protection. Highest priority is given for highly mobile substances situated where the geological
determined protection of the groundwater is limited. For current land use, priority is given to sites where
there is possibility of direct contact with the contamination, either because the contamination is situated in
the upper part of the soil or due affects to the potential indoor climate. Surface waters can be given a high
priority, if the effects of contamination can be measured. Only very few cases of remediation with regard
to surface waters have taken place in Denmark.
The present situation of cleanup and remedial technologies in Denmark can generally be described as
follows:
• Methods applied as a matter of standard procedure are predominantly off-site methods.
• Methods for remediation of organic contamination are manifold, whereas the possibilities of remediating
inorganic contamination are limited.
• Several methods are suitable for sandy types of soil, whereas few methods are suitable for clayey and
inhomogeneous types of soil.
• Application of in situ techniques is difficult due to inhomogeneous types of soil in Denmark.
• Some of the most frequently applied methods change the original structure of the soil.
• Many in situ techniques have a long operating time.
• Documentation of the efficiency of in situ techniques is generally scanty.
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February 1998
For all in situ and on-site techniques pilot-scale tests for development of concepts and optimization of
methods are deemed necessary. For biological methods, however, the primary requirement is deemed to be
optimization of the methods.
On the basis of a review of the country priority
procedures from 1992, 1993 and 1994, the
remedial technologies proposed in the recom-
mended cleanups of soil contamination are
illustrated in Figure 1*. The figure illustrates the
relative number of recommendations for each
technology. The result in the figure represents
107 proposals for cleanups. Vapor extraction of
landfill gas makes up to a relatively large part of
the technologies recommended in the country
priority procedures of 1992, 1993 and 1994.
Beside this technology, publicly financed clean-
ups pursuant to the Contaminated Sites Act are
primarily carried out by means of excavation of
contaminated soil followed by off-site treatment
and/or disposal.
Soil vapour extraction
of landfil gas
Soil vapour extraction
Sealing
reed soilfloushing
'n-site/in-situ
Figure 1. Technologies recommended for cleanup of soil
contamination in the country priority procedures of the
Danish EPA in 1992,1993, and 1994.
Since 1994, the picture of technologies
recommended for publicly financed cleanup of
soil contamination has changed, especially the
number of in situ remedial activities has increased. The same report shows that composite contamination
has been identified in approximately 50 percent of the sites represented (excluding cases involving landfill
gas). Thus, the proposals for cleanup focus to a great extent on handling of composite contamination and
not just on handling of single-type contamination.
The choice of remedial technology is consequently often based on the fact that several types of
contamination, often typically with very different physico-chemical properties, have to be handled in the
specific cleanup operation. The Oil Petroleum Cleanup Fund has lead to optimization of clean up of oil
pollution at former petroleum site.
4. Research, Development and Demonstration (RD&D)
The Act on Amendment of the Contaminated Sites Act introduces a scheme for development of technologies
for cleanup and remediation of soil and groundwater contamination. The Program for Development of
Technology, Soil and Ground Water Contamination has been established as part of this scheme. The
program has an annual budget of 15 million DKK (US$2.3 million). The program lists several areas towards
which the development of technology should be aimed during the coming two to five years.
The objective of the Program for Development of Technology is to target the development of technology
towards the areas with the greatest environmental and health problems on the one hand, and areas in which
great financial means are applied for remediation on the other. A great many criteria are assessed in
connection with the identification of areas towards which the development of technology- should be aimed,
such as contamination components, soil and groundwater types, different types of contaminated industrial
sites, frequent types of contamination, and composite contamination.
* Barriers to Development and Application of New Remedial Technology, Project No. 21, 1996. Danish EPA.
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On the basis of these assessments the following list of subjects towards which the technology program
should be aimed has been elaborated:
• Soil and groundwater contaminated with chlorinated solvents.
• Soil contaminated with heavy metals.
• Soil and groundwater contaminated with oil/petrol.
• Soil contaminated with tar/PAH.
• Soil contaminated with composite contamination.
• Landfills with leakage of landfill gas.
Other activities towards which the technology program should be aimed and listed:
• Intrinsic bioremediation.
• Testing of computer modelling tools.
• Assessment of indoor climate problems caused by soil and groundwater contamination.
• Physical enclosure of horizontal dispersion of contamination.
• Testing of pavements and liners for construction on contaminated soil.
In accordance with the project proposal for 1996 and 1997 the technology program includes several field
projects and several studies.
The purpose of the field projects is to earn,' out field tests to test and document a number of methods under
Danish conditions. The results of the field tests are to form the basis of recommendations from the Danish
Environmental Protection Agency concerning the application of the methods in question under Danish
conditions. Field tests of the following methods for cleanup and remediation of soil and groundwater
contamination have been given priority:
• Air sparging for cleanup and remediation of contamination in saturated zone with chlorinated solvents
and light petroleum products such as petrol, kerosene and turpentine.
• Soil vapor extraction for cleanup and remediation of contamination in unsaturated zone with chlorinated
solvents and light petroleum products such as petrol, kerosene and turpentine.
• Reactive permeable walls for removal of contamination with chlorinated solvents from ground water
passing through the walls.
• Other field tests.
In addition, the following studies have been given priority:
• Review of methods for handling of soil contaminated with heavy metals.
• Bioventing with intermittent supply of air.
• Compilation of results from pilot projects carried out under the previous gas works scheme of the
Danish Environmental Protection Agency.
• EU project on environmentally appropriate remediation of contaminated sites.
• Bioremediation.
• Joule heating (ERACE). Removal and degradation of volatile and slightly volatile substances by
applying voltage.
• Other studies
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5. Conclusions
Looking back over the past 15 years, Danish policy seems to be changing from a very idealistic approach
(clean up of all contaminated sites, making them, wherever possible, clean/uncontaminated) to a more
pragmatic approach. One of the reasons is the realization of the extent of the problem, as well as better
understanding of the phenomenon. This does not mean that contamination/pollution should be accepted,
especially not recent pollution, but it means there might be some sites where Denmark achieves the "most
environmental benefit for least money" by making sure that there will be no exposure from the site. Current
projects with relevance to risk assessment are primarily two projects carried out for the Danish EPA.
Many countries have technology programs that aim to reduce barriers by providing, for example, reliable
data on performance and cost, translation of laboratory-scale technologies to technologies implemented at
full scale, improve investor confidence in new technologies, and deal with technical barriers,
Reducing other barriers, and thereby providing for a wider use of the various treatment technologies,
however, will also provide the technology programs with such initiatives as guidelines for target criteria for
remedial actions (including acceptable residual concentrations left after treatment is ended), documentation
of remediation, and affect policies such as landfill disposal of contaminated soil*.
The trend of "back to nature" and simplicity might also influence the choice of remedial technology;
phytoremediation and natural attenuation illustrate this tendency.
In relation to technology choices, it seems that long-term remedial activities is given high priority, meaning
that short-term solutions (like solidification, etc.) will become less attractive.
In situ activities will continue and be expanded even more than at present. Implementation and prevalence
of new technologies will increase. An example is reactive permeable walls. In a few years since its
introduction, many countries have either implemented this technology, scaled up from laboratory to field
test to full scale, or are already running full scale projects (helped, of course, because it is a "simple
technology," which is very suitable for field tests).
Methods for treatment of soil contaminated with heavy metal seem to cause problem and so does handling
remediation of composite contamination. Aspects like costs of operation, monitoring, life cycle analysis,
sustainability, etc., will also have considerably weight.
From being a engineering phenomenon, remedial activities will become multidisciplinary, involving
different scientific specialties; already biology and chemistry are involved, but in the future even more
interdisciplinary themes will be necessary.
However, no matter what the future bring, excavation will always be necessary.
Summary of Barriers Studies and Examples of Technology Programs for Development of Innovative Remedial
Technologies. Ad Hoc International Working Group on Contaminated Land, Informal Working Group on
Technology Choices, May 1997.
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FINLAND
1. Legal and Administrative Issues
In the Report to Parliament on Environmental Protection given by the Council of State of May 31, 1988,
is the following statement to the policy on contaminated sites in Finland:
Studies will be made of contaminated land areas, and steps will be taken as necessary to clean them
up systematically. The most urgent reclamation work will be investigated as soon as the need for
it is established. The following measures will be necessary to achieve this objective: appropriate
administrative arrangements must made in the environmental authorities: techniques must be
investigated and organized: and, where necessary, work must begin on revisions in legislation. As
far as possible, the Polluter Pays Principle will be held to in meeting costs.
Finnish legislation of primary importance in connection with soil contamination are, firstly, waste
management legislation and secondly public health legislation and water legislation. There is no separate
Act concerning soil protection or remediation of contaminated soil.
The Waste Management Act is the main legislative remedial tool for soil cleaning in older sites (created
prior to January 1, 1994). According this Act, contaminated soil has been defined as waste, and the
responsible parties are defined as the polluter, owner, or occupier of the property. In such cases w-here it is
impossible to find a property owner or occupier, the municipality has the responsibility of risk assessment
and remediation.
Soil conservation has been included in the new waste legislation (The Waste Act, in force since January 1,
1994) as a separate chapter. In the Waste Act, new soil polluting activities will be prohibited, or the soil
must returned to its original state so that it can be used to any purpose to which it could have been used
without the contamination. The Waste Act will also give the owner of property a responsibility to find out
the state and contamination of the property and to transfer this information to the buyer. The Act will also
enable the State Council to give detailed regulations concerning soil contamination.
There is also other legislation as those for public health, air pollution, construction and neighbor relations
including certain licensing procedures. Water legislation prohibits pollution of ground and surface waters.
The Construction Act requires that land areas prejudicial to health may not be used for build on. The
existence of soil contamination must be known whenever land use is planned.
The Environmental Damage Act came into effect in June 1996. It is applied to new environmental damages
and based on the polluter pays principle. There is also a need for the complementary scheme for secondary
compensation of the damages. The secondary compensation is based on the compulsory- insurance (new law
in 1998).
The Waste Act Section 22 sets an obligation on "Prohibition on soil contamination and notification of
contamination" According this section "No waste or other substance shall be abandoned, discharged or
deposited in soil in a manner resulting in such degradation of soil quality as may cause hazard or harm to
health or the environment, significant decline in amenities, or other infringement of public or private interest
(prohibition on soil contamination).
Whosoever operates or acts in a manner which may cause soil contamination shall adequately and
effectively prevent the waste or other substances from entering the soil with the consequences referred to
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above. If the soil becomes contaminated, the party whose action has given rise to the contamination shall
without delay notify the municipal environmental protection committee thereof."
Section 23 sets the duty to clean contaminated soil. "Whosoever operates or acts in a manner or likely to
cause soil contamination shall investigate the need for cleaning or state of the site as required. If this
investigation shows that the soil is contaminated, the contaminator shall as necessary clean the area
sufficiently to ensure that it no longer result in the hazard, harm or other consequence referred to in section
22, paragraph 1.
If the contaminator cannot be ascertained or reached, or if he fails to comply with his cleaning duty, and the
action resulting in contamination has taken place with the consent or knowledge of the holder of the site,
or if this person was or should have been aware of the condition of the site when it came into his possession,
the holder of the contaminated site shall carry out the action referred to in paragraph 1. If, in the case
referred to in paragraph 2, the holder of the contaminated site cannot reasonably be ordered to clean it, the
municipality shall similarity investigate the need to clean the site, and clean the site."
Section 24 addresses the ordering cleaning of a contaminated site: "In accordance with section 23, the
regional environment center can require the contaminator or the holder of the contaminated site, or the
municipality, to investigate the need to clean the site and to clean it, and issue the regulations and directives
needed to this end."
Section 25 sets the duty to give account of contaminated sites: "Whosoever sells or otherwise assigns the
title to or leases a land area shall provide the new holder of the area with any information available on the
activities formerly practiced in the area, the wastes or substances that exist in the area, and whether the soil
has been shown to be contaminated or whether there are wastes and substances in the soil which may lead
to soil contamination"
Finnish environmental laws, especially waste legislation, are powerful instruments and it is used
successfully by authorities in remedial actions of contaminated soil in recent years.
The Ministry of the Environment is the national environmental authority. It formulates environmental
policies and does strategic planning. It is also responsible for preparing legislation, setting binding standards
and allocation of public funding.
The regional environmental administration is proved by 13 Regional Environmental centers. They are
responsible for data collection and allocation of public funding. They create and run clean-up programs, give
permits for all clean-up works and make plans for remediation (called state waste management works).
The Municipal Boards for Environmental Protection supervise local environmental affairs.
The Finnish Environment Institute conducts environmental R&D. It provides independent expertise for the
identification, assessment, clean-up and control of chemically contaminated environments including
contaminated soil.
At the moment urgent remedial works will be carried out without waiting for the priority plans of
contaminated soil remediation.
Contaminated soil areas will be cleaned until year 2015.
The private sector is carrying on the clean up actions on its own contaminated sites.
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Restoration of old, abandoned sites is funded by budgeted financing and carried on by authorities. There is
a state waste management system that makes it possible for the state to participate or finance (on average
by 50 percent) remedial action in co-operation with the municipalities.
The oil sector, municipalities, and state made an agreement in 1996 for 10 years dealing with cleanup of
contaminated gasoline stations, which will be or have already been closed. The program is based on an
agreement among the Finnish Petroleum Federation, the Ministry of the Environment, and The Association
of Finnish Localities. It is being funded by main oil industry marketing companies, as well as the Oil
Pollution Compensation Fund, operating in connection with the Ministry of the Environment, to which oil
companies pay a fee levied according to their oil imports to Finland. Oil sector will pay the clean up costs
of their own stations and Oil Damage Fund will pay the actions needed on the abandoned gasoline stations.
Soil contamination will to be taken into account in land use plans and land use changes in larger extent. At
the moment there are not so called Brownfields in Finland.
2. Conclusions
Problems are at the moment: in practice resourceless liable parties, question of optimizing the cleanup
projects, quality assurance of plans and actions and last but not least fast growing rate of cleanup sector.
Until now, common remediation methods used in Finland are composting, stabilization, purification of the
pore air of soils, containment, incineration in high or low temperature, disposal of slightly contaminated
soils at landfills and also ground water treatment. Washing techniques and biological in situ methods have
not been applied at full scale.
Research and development work is being carried out with composting of soil contaminated by oil and
chlorinated phenols, purification of soil contaminated by dioxins and furans (containment, incineration,
biological decomposition), use of fungi for aerobic decomposition, use of plants (vegetation) in the clean-up
of polluted soil and biological filters for the gases from pore air purification, consolidation and stabilization
techniques, as well as biological in situ treatment of soil and ground water.
Soil protection, including soil contamination as well as other conservation and degradation processes, is now
viewed in general terms. The condition, loading, and protection of soil in Finland has been investigated.
Major and irreversible degradation of soil has been avoided so far. The next step will be a target program
for soil protection. Also, local and regional soil protection projects have been discussed.
The Finnish legislation is at the moment the powerful instrument for remedial actions of contaminated soil,
and the Council of State will issue more detailed regulations concerning the implementation of provisions
on soil contamination. Under consideration is a draft to target and limit values of concentrations of harmful
substances in soil.
The cooperation between central and regional authorities and the private sector is ongoing in the oil sector,
as mentioned above, but also in such others as the forest sector, which is cleaning up old sawmill sites
contaminated with organochlorinated compounds. The private sector is carrying on the clean up actions on
its own contaminated sites. Restoration of old abandoned sites is funded by budgeted financing and carried
on by authorities. Financial responsibility can also be apportioned between state and private parties if
necessary, for example in cases, where the requirement to restore the site would be unreasonable severe.
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FRANCE
1. Legal and Administrative Issues
It may be considered that the French policy in matter of polluted land has been defined in its general features
and objectives by the December 3, 1996, circular letter of the Minister of the Environment. This policy can
be characterized by a will of efficiency and realism. The circular letter includes a paragraph entitled, "The
principles of a realistic policy for the treatment of polluted sites and soils'' in which it is written that "...it
is a long term action, to the scale of the century and half of industrial history of our country. Tlie
development of this policy can only be progressive and according to the public and private means that will
be possible to mobilize...''
Another aspect of this policy is the principle of dialogue, also mentioned in the circular letter of December
1996. This principle is put in practice between the Ministry of the Environment and the different actors that
take part in the management of polluted sites: governmental agencies (ADEME, Water Agencies), industrial
operators of potentially polluting installations, associations for the protection of the environment, experts,
consultants and enterprises specialized in evaluation and treatment of polluted land and, in the case of
pollution related to domestic waste, Municipalities and Territorial Institutions. There are different circum-
stances where this dialogue may occur. At the national level it is existing in the two committees that have
been created for the management of the funds supplied by the waste taxes, and in the national working
groups that discuss the projects of methodological guides prepared by the Ministry of the Environment.
before these guides are issued as references for technical regulations.
In the case of polluted sites, the basic legal reference is the law of July 19, 1976. on the Installations
Registered for the Purpose of Environmental Protection (Installations Classees pour la Protection de
I 'Environnement: 1C Law) which covers all environmental aspects of industrial activities (including waste
management and treatment or disposal). According to this law industrial installations have to be either
authorized (if they have potentially a strong environmental impact) or declared (if they have potentially a
little environmental impact). Another basic reference which may be applied in the case of pollution of land
is the law of July 15. 1975, on elimination of waste and recovery materials (Elimination des Dechets et
Recuperation des Materiels: Waste Law). Additional laws improving the management of the environment
complete the I.C. and waste laws:
• The Law of July 13. 1992, created anew policy for the management of domestic wastes including:
- the progressive banishment of direct landfilling of waste within a time limit of ten years,
- the institution of a tax on the direct landfilling of domestic waste,
- a specific section on the selling of industrial land, where installations regulated by the 1C Law have
been operated, that oblige the vendor to inform the purchaser of the possibility of the pollution of
the considered land. In this situation the purchaser has the possibility to cancel or to renegotiate the
sale.
• The Law of February 2, 1995, regulated the procedures in the case of "'orphan" polluted sites and
finance this action by the extension of the waste tax (law of July 1992) to special (polluting) industrial
waste treated or disposed in collective installations.
In connection to these laws additional legislative decrees and circular letters (directives) have been issued,
mainly:
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• The decree of September 21, 1977. that defines the obligations of the operator of an industrial
installation in the case of cessation of activity
• The circular letter of December 3. 1993, defining the policy for polluted sites
• The circular letters of April 3 and 18, 1996, requiring the realization of preliminary diagnostic and
simplified risk assessment for active industrial sites
• The circular letter of June 7, 1996, describing the procedure to be carried out to apply the polluter pays
principle.
At the origin, in 1978 and during the eighties problems of polluted sites and soils were systematically related
with problems of wastes.
A wider concept of pollution of land designated by "polluted sites and soils" was introduced at the beginning
of the nineties. Accordingly, on December 3, 1993. the circular letter dealing with the "policy of
rehabilitation and treatment of polluted sites and soils" was issued by the Minister of the Environment and
gathered the main elements of a new policy for the subject encompassing:
• a systematic registration of potentially polluted sites
• a concerted definition of priorities
• the treatment of even' polluted site according to its impact and the use of the land.
At the present time, a polluted site is defined as a site generating a risk—either actual or potential—for
human health or the environment related to the pollution of one of the media, resulting of past or present
activities. In practice, polluted sites are industrial sites, active or inactive, waste sites, accidental pollution
sites.
Although there is a recent tendency towards some regionalization, France remains a centralized country. For
the environment, like for other subjects, laws are discussed and voted by the parliament and regulations are
enacted by the Government and have a national validity. At the central level, the Ministry of the
Environment is responsible for the management of the environmental policy. More precisely, inside the
Ministry of the Environment, the Department in charge of industrial pollution and waste management,
including the problem of polluted sites is the Direction of Prevention of Pollution and Risks (Direction de
la Prevention des Pollutions et des Risques: DPPR). At the local level the basic geographical administrative
unit is the department (there are 99 departments in the country), and in every department, the Prefect, who
is the representative of the government, is responsible for the implementation of the regulations. In the
particular case of polluted sites, for which, the basic framework law in the Law on Registered Installations
(1C Law, mentioned above in b). The Prefect is assisted by the Inspectors of the Registered Installations who
control industrial activities (including waste management and disposal) and who are in almost all cases
members of the Regional Direction of Industry1, Research and Environment (Directions Regionales de
I 'Industrie, de la Recherche et de I 'Environnement: DRIRE).
Basically the legal and administrative action is based on the polluter pays principle, the polluter being,
according to the 1C Law, the operator of the installation at the origin of the pollution.
The circular letter of the Minister of the Environment of June 7, 1996, gives a detailed definition of the
procedure to be carried out by the authorities to manage the suspected or proven contaminated sites
according to the polluter pays principle and, in case of failure, to deal with the orphan sites. This procedure
may be explained as follows: in the case a registered installation is suspected to be responsible of land
pollution, the Prefect may require the operator, according to the 1C Law (section 23), to carry out the actions
(investigations or clean up) requested by type Inspectorate of Registered Installations (Inspection des
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Installations Classees). If the operator does not comply with the order, the Inspector of the Registered
Installations writes to the Prefect a certified report assessing this non execution. In this situation, the Prefect
may require the operator to deposit to a public accountant a sum representing the estimated cost of the
requested work. If this procedure does not succeed, most of the time because of insolvency of the operator,
the public accountant states the insolvency- of the responsible party to the Prefect who will then send the file
of the considered case to the Ministry of the Environment, requiring the site to be considered as "orphan."
If the Ministry agrees, the case is presented to the specific National Committee to be financed by public
funding (waste tax). Then, if the case is accepted by the Committee, the Prefect is allowed to issue an order
asking ADEME to carry out the requested investigations or clean up. After the requested actions have been
carried out ADEME has to initiate lawsuits against potential responsible parties in order to try to get the
reimbursement of the public money spent for the case.
The position of the authorities concerning the owner of a polluted site is a subject of active discussion. Some
years ago, the position of the Ministry of the environment was rather to consider the owner as a responsible
of second row and generally no action was initiated against him. Now this position has changed and the
Ministry requires the Prefect, in the case of failure of the action against the operator of the installation, to
engage lawsuits against the owner. However the existing jurisprudence is rather controversial and the legal
validity of the Ministry's new position is not proven.
As it has been explained above the French approach to deal with polluted sites is basically connected with
the legislation on the environmental management of industrial installations (1C Law) and to a more limited
degree to the management of waste (waste law).
This means that these is no specific legislation relative to soil protection or polluted sites. Although the
development of such legislation has been already considered, it seems that it will probably not happen in
the short or middle term and that the existing approach will continue.
In this view the existing laws (1C Law) will be applied and completed by technical directives (circular
letters) issued by the Ministry of the Environment to organize the management of polluted sites. These
technical directives are related to technical guides developed at the present time.
A first technical guide has been issued in 1996 (draft 0) and 1997 (draft 1) to organize the preliminary
evaluation and priority ranking of suspected polluted sites. The proposed preliminary evaluation includes
two steps:
• Step A: A documentary study (a historical review and a vulnerability study) based on available and
accessible data, and is completed with a site visit. The historical review includes a description of the
sequences of activities that have taken place in the course of time, their precise locations and any-
associated environmental practices that may have been carried out. The vulnerability study includes an
investigation of the parameters (geology, etc.) that could have relevance for the fate and transport of the
contaminants and the potential targets (housing, drinking water supply, etc.) likely to be affected.
During the site visit the data deriving from the documentation study should be verified and additional
data acquired. An evaluation and identification of existing and potential impacts takes place and a
further investigation program is prepared.
• Step B and the simplified risk assessment (SRA) includes the collection of data that have not been
available within the previous study but are conditional for the simplified risk assessment. The SRA
demands an understanding of the contamination's spatial distribution and transport mechanisms, the
identification of possible hazards and the description of possible rehabilitation methods. At this stage
it is necessary to develop some field investigation in order to acquire the data that make this
understanding possible.
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Based on the results of the preliminary evaluation, a simplified risk assessment is conducted according
to a scoring system the site in question is classified in one of three groups:
• sites needing further investigation and detailed risk assessment
• sites for which monitoring systems should be applied
• sites that can be used for specific purposes without further investigations or implementation of
measures
The decision making process within the SRA is supported by defines guideline values.
At the present time, another methodological guide is in preparation, under the responsibility of the Ministry
of the Environment, in cooperation with a national working group. This guide will define the objectives and
contents of the impact study (detailed investigations) and detailed risk assessment.
For the sites where the preliminary diagnostic concludes that the pollution and risks are serious, the
realization of the impact study and risk assessment will give the basis to determine the rehabilitation
objectives and to select the remedial options.
2. Registration of Contaminated Sites
Although France was probably one of the first countries to carry out some kind of inventory of polluted sites,
limited attention has been given to the problems of land pollution until the beginning of the nineties. A part
from the initial national surveys on contaminated sites conducted in 1978, new activities have been taken
recently.
National register
At the national level, since 1993, a national register is managed by the Ministry of the Environment (DPPR).
In this register are gathered the sites that are known by the local authorities and can be considered as
polluted.
These sites are listed in a computerized database and reports are periodically issued by the Ministry to
inform the public of the situation. A publication of this register was issued in December 1994, gathering 669
sites. Another one based on the situation of December 1996 was issued in Decemeber 1997, with 896
polluted sites, plus 125 sites already restored without any limitation of use.
Inventories
In connection to this registration system are the actions of inventory carried out through two specific ways:
The historical inventories, initiated at the regional level, based of the consideration of local industrial
history in order to discover, in connection with the existence of past polluting industrial activities, the places
where pollution can be suspected. These inventories are mainly based on the consideration of the archives
and indicate suspected sites (or potentially polluted sites). At the present time (end of 1997) about half of
the departments located in 17 regions have initiated such inventories. It is expected that about 200,000 to
300 000 suspected locations will be collected at the end of these studies for the whole national territory
among which some thousand will require corrective action.
The evaluation of the pollution of active industrial sites (including industrial waste treatment and disposal
sites)
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In April 1996, the Ministry of the Environment instructed the Prefects of the departments to draw up a list
of priority sites as a first step to further investigation of these sites. A preliminary classification of priorities
is given in the annex of the circular letter. Within 5 years it is previewed that some 1,500 to 2,000 sites
assigned with priority I will be listed for further investigations.
Estimation of the number of polluted sites
The two previously mentioned actions, historical inventories and evaluation of active industrial sites, are
not enough developed to allow a significant evaluation. The only very approximate estimation possible at
the present time is 200,000 to 300,000 suspected sites and some thousands of cases requiring corrective
actions.
3. Remedial Methods
According to the data collected in the national register published in Dec. 1997, the techniques used for the
polluted soils in the sites were a rehabilitation project has been carried out can be listed as follows:
• Landfilling 44
• On site isolation 60
• Stabilization 12
• Natural attenuation 15
• Biotreatment 29
• Soil washing 10
• Thermal/incineration 29
• Other 33
In more than one-third of these cases, combinations of techniques have been used.
For the first cases of rehabilitation during the eighties and in the beginning of the nineties, most of the
techniques used were isolation and treatment or disposal in the installations of the waste system.
It appeared soon that waste treatment plants (incineration) were often technically inappropriate and very
expensive and, because of recent regulations, inducing restrictions of use and technical constraints,
landfilling has become more and more difficult and costly.
These circumstances create a positive evolution for the use of specific soil treatment techniques.
Isolation remains one of the most frequently used techniques, mainly in cases where no treatment technique
can be technically or economically applied.
The techniques that have been and are still the most frequently used to clean soils are microbiological
degradation and soil venting.
Biodegradation is most of the time carried out on site by the mean of composting or bio-piles. Contaminants
degraded are petroleum compounds, light and heavy oils, and even polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Soil venting
addresses volatile hydrocarbons and chlorinated solvents in the unsaturated zone. It is sometimes associated
with in situ biodegradation (bio-venting). To remediate the saturated levels, (groundwater) venting is
combined with air sparging.
More recently, new treatment capabilities have been made available either by specific own development or
by technology transfer. The techniques concerned are soil washing (solvent washing) and thermal
desorption.
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At the present time, four thermal treatment installations, with various level of performance (quantity and
complexity of pollution that can be treated), have been made available in France and a fifth is under
consideration.
4. Research, Development, and Demonstration
The support of R&D by the Government is mainly provided by the Ministry of the Environment and the
Ministry of Research and Education through three different ways:
• Ministry' of the Environment, Section in charge of Research and Economic Affair (SRAE) that develops
research programs focusing on behavior of contaminants in regard of risks and possibilities of treatment.
• Ministry1 of the Environment, Section in charge of Industrial Environment (SEI) that develops the
methodological guidance documents to be used in connection with regulations.
• Agency of the Environment and Energy Management (ADEME) in charge of evaluation and
rehabilitation of orphans polluted sites that develops specific research programs to improve the basis
of decision making procedures and to optimize the choice of remedial techniques and the control of their
efficiency.
The total amount of funds made available through these three actions is about 12 Millions FF/year.
Concerning the development of rehabilitation techniques some public money is supplied by the Ministries
of Research an of Industry through funds to help technical innovation and international cooperation
(EUREKA projects).
In addition to governmental funding, some support to R & D projects are also provided by Regions most of
the time in connection with the economical redevelopment of brownfields (North or Lorraine Regions).
In addition to research programs financed by publics funds, some enterprises develop specific R&D
activities. These enterprises can be gathered into two categories:
• Enterprises responsible of polluted sites that are looking for optimization (technical and economical)
of the management of these sites: a typical example of such enterprises in Gaz de France that is in
charge of about 450 gaswork sites.
• Enterprises that are active in evaluation and/or clean up of polluted sites and that try to improve their
know how.
According to the present situation, it can be estimated that the R&D programs are mainly oriented in two
directions:
• Increase the efficiency of the management of the suspected and proven polluted sites by the preparation
of technical guidance documents associated with the development of specific tools to improve the
decision making procedures
• Develop more economical and efficient equipment and processes to characterize and to treat the
pollution.
Considering the treatment techniques, two possibilities are simultaneously developed:
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• Improvement of existing techniques: a typical example is bioremediation with many projects trying to
extend its application to recalcitrant pollutants (PAH, PCB, etc.).
• Development of new treatment techniques: reactive walls, supercritical extraction, electromigration.
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GERMANY
1. Legal and Administrative Issues
According to the German Constitution, the 16 Federal States are responsible for the contaminated site
remediation. For the enforcement of the contaminated site remediation, which includes the steps registration,
assessment and remediation in general, the Federal States have enacted specific legislation. In the framework
of the Federal State's laws regulating the contaminated site remediation, different criteria and values are
currently used. Together with these regulations more than 35 different lists containing values such as soil
screening, action, and clean-up values exist all over the country. As these values differ more of less from
each other depending on different derivation criteria, harmonization and standardization is still urgently
needed.
Therefore, the Federal Government submitted the Federal Act on Soil Protection and Remediation of
Contaminated Sites (Bundes-Bodenschutzgesetz) to the Parliament in 1996. In February 1998 the Federal
Soil Protection Act was passed by the Parliament and the Federal Council. The Act is expected to come into
force in March 1999, after the sublegal regulations have been finalized.
The Federal Soil Protection Act (SPA) includes precaution issues as well as remediation of contaminated
soils and sites. The main purpose of the SPA is to protect against harmful changes in the soil. Harmful
changes in the soil exist when the soil functions are impaired, and when this becomes dangerous, leads to
adverse effects for individuals or the general public. The definition of the SPA includes natural soil
functions and functions of the soil utilization.
Following basic duties guarantee that the soil as living basis for human beings, animals, plants and soil
organisms will be maintained and secured for future utilization:
• Preventive duties exist that the soil is not demanded too much in its ecological efficiency by material
and physical influences,
• existing harmful changes in the soil which cause dangers to human beings and the environment have
to be remedied. The duty for remediation also includes groundwater pollution which is caused by the
contaminated soil,
• site owners are obliged to take care that no hazards are caused by the site conditions,
• everyone has to behave in such a manner that harmful changes in the soil do not occur.
The two terms harmful changes in the soil and contaminated sites in the SPA cover all burdens of the soil
that cause hazards for human beings and the environment. Contaminated sites (CS) are defined as—
• closed-down waste disposal facilities or other estates on which wastes have been treated, stored or
disposed (abandoned waste disposal sites - AWDS); and
• estates of closed-down facilities and other estates on which environmentally hazardous substances have
been handled (abandoned industrial sites - AIS).
—that cause harmful changes in the soil or other hazards for the individual or for the general public. Sites
which are suspected to be contaminated (SCS) are by definition of this law AWDS and AIS which are
suspicious for harmful changes in the soil or other hazards for the individual or the general public.
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The following regulations for the remediation of contaminated sites are a substantial part of the SPA:
• Federal States" (Lander) authorities are responsible for registration, investigation and assessment of
SCS.
• Authorities ma}' require under certain conditions, remedial investigations and a remedial plan by those
who are obliged for remediation.
• The remedial plan should be a straightforward, even in cases of serious and complex contaminated sites,
in order to gain the acceptance of the necessary remedial measures by the affected persons.
• The remedial plan should cover a summary of the risk assessment and the remedial investigations as
well as the remedial goals and the remedial measures.
• By regulation, the remedial plan is prepared by an expert.
• In the cases of CS and SCS, responsible persons are obliged to announce these sites and to carry out
self-control measures; the authorities are responsible for the supervision.
• Together with the remedial plan, the regulated person can submit a public contract for the remedial
measures.
• To enhance the approval procedure the official obligation of the remedial plan as well as the official
order for remediation concentrates all necessary permissions from other laws.
2. Registration of Contaminated Sites
The registration of suspected contaminated sites (SCS) which is carried out by the Lander, is focused on the
registration of abandoned waste disposal sites (AWDS) and abandoned industrial sites (AIS). As a result
of a nationwide survey in 1997, more than 190,000 SCS were registered, nearly 90,000 are AWDS and more
than 100,000 are AIS. The registration is not finished yet. The estimated number is that more than 240,000
SCS will be registered in the future.
Table 1 represents the status of inventory of SCS excluding military sites and armament production sites.
Due to the different definitions of SCS in the Lander according to their legal regulations the numbers can
hardly be directly compared. For example in Hesse, suspected contaminates sites are sites with proven
contamination. In Lower Saxony and Rhineland Palatinate no numbers (k.A.) are available yet. In Lower
Saxony between 35,000 and 50,000 AIS are expected.
In addition to contaminated sites which were caused by civil site use, Germany is dealing with former
military sites which are contaminated by military operations and installations after the Second World War.
Until 1995. on the 1,026 WGT-Bases with a total area of 256,000 hectare 33,738 suspected contaminated
sites have been registered. As result of a preliminary assessment 12 percent require immediate action, 32
percent require further medium-term investigation and 56 percent are not environmentally relevant. Most
of the sites were handed over to the Lander in East Germany.
The end of the cold war, the dissolution of the former Soviet Union, the withdrawal of the West Group of
the former Soviet Troops (WGT) from East Germany and the significant decrease in the number of active
military personnel and installations of the Allied and German forces results in around 500,000 hectares of
former military land which is returned to civil control and reuse.
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Table 1. Inventory of Suspected Contaminated Sites in Germany (December 1997)
Federal States
Baden- Wiirttemberg
Bavaria
Berlin
Brandenburg
Bremen
Hamburg
Hesse
Mecklenburg- Western Pomerania
Lower Saxony
North Rhine- Westphalia
Rhineland-Palatinate
Saarland
Saxony
Saxony-Anhalt
Schleswig-Holstein
Thuringia
Germany total
Registered Suspected Contaminated Sites
Abandoned Waste
Disposal Sites
5,008
9,549
615
6,410
100
446
145
2,810
8,656
16,689
10,578
1,801
9,211
6,742
3,069
6.226
88,055
Abandoned
Industrial Sites
1,886
3,029
5,068
8,932
3,000
1,080
347
5,890
k.A.
11.640
k.A.
2,442
21,120
12,716
14,177
12,003
103,330
Sites in All
6,894
12,578
5,683
15,342
3,100
1,526
492
8,700
8,656
28,329
10,578
4,243
30,331
19,458
17,246
18,229
191,385
The remaining 380,000 hectares still belong to the Federal Government. On behalf of the Federal Ministry
of Defence, the Federal Ministry for Construction and the Federal Ministry of Finance, the Finance Office
in Hannover is coordinating further activities on these sites.
Former armament production sites are sites which have been contaminated during World War I and II by
ammunition production facilities, depots, delaboration works and storage of chemical warfare agents. As
a result of a nationwide inventory. 3,240 suspected former armament production sites were registered. The
assessment of these sites which is conducted by the Lander is not finished yet.
3. Remedial Methods
According to the definitions of the Federal Soil Protection Act remediation are measures—
1. For the removal or reduction of contaminants (decontamination measures);
2. That prevent or reduce the spreading out of contaminants on a long-term basis without removing
contaminants (safeguarding measures); or
3. For the removal or reduction of harmful changes of the physical, chemical and biological nature of
the soil.
As the Federal States (Lander) and the local communities are responsible for the remediation, there is no
nationwide overview on used technologies available. In 1996 an evaluation for the Federal State of
Northrhine-Westphalia on the applied technologies indicates that there is a significant trend towards
containment techniques. From 660 applied remedial measures at 498 industrial sites 50 percent were
excavation measures with subsequent disposal of the soil, 32 percent decontamination measures including
pump and treat of groundwater and soil vapor extraction techniques, and 18 percent containment measures.
Actual soil clean-up technologies (thermal treatment, soil washing, biological treatment) were 5 percent.
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Due to the economical situation of the communities there is a common trend to use low cost technologies
(containment, disposal) rather than more expensive decontamination technologies.
Contaminated soils are mostly treated off site in stationary treatment facilities. As of October 1997. 107 soil
treatment facilities with a treatment capacity of 3.8 million t/y are available in Germany:
• 4 thermal treatment facilities (total capacity 168,000 t/y)
• 24 soil washing facilities (total capacity 1.5 million t/y)
• 81 biological treatment facilities (total capacity 2.0 million t/y).
In 1996 the total soil treatment capacity was about 3.5 million t/y; the average used capacity was about 64
percent. Fifty-six percent of the soil was treated by biological techniques. 39 percent by soil washing, and
only 5 percent by thermal treatment.
References
Bieber, A.: Current aspects to face the issues of contaminated land and groundwater in Germany. Paper
presented at the First International Workshop of Geo-Environmental Restoration (IWGER '98), Tokyo
20-21.1.1998
Freier. K. et al.: Contaminated Site Management in Germany. Internal UBA-report, December 1997
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GREECE
1. Legal and Administrative Issues
Greece has taken positive legislative action for the protection of public health and the environment, and has
included in its national legislation since 1986 the basic environmental law 1650/86, which covers all
environmental fields and aspects. In this law, specific provisions are included, referring to soil protection
from the disposal of municipal and industrial wastes, as well as from the excessive use of fertilisers and
pesticides.
More specific legislation, concerning some aspects of contaminated land (soil and underground water) is
included mainly in the following Joint Ministerial Decisions (JMD):
• J M D 26857/553/1988: "Measures and limitations for the protection of underground water and
discharge of certain hazardous substances"
• JMD 69728/824/1996: "Measures and provisions for solid waste management"
• JMD 19396/1546/1997: "Measures and provisions for hazardous waste management"
•JMD 16190/1335/1997: "Measures and provisions for the protection of water from nitrate
contamination of agricultural origin"
According to J M D 69728/824/1996 and 19396/1546/1997, waste management should be performed in
such a way that the pollution of water, air. soil and generally of the ecosystem be prevented. The first J M
D defines the obligations of the local authorities, regarding contaminated land from municipal waste
disposal, as those authorities are responsible for municipal waste management, according to the national
legislation. The second JMD prescribes, among others, the obligations of the producer/holder of hazardous
waste, regarding contaminated land from hazardous waste disposal.
Following the provisions of J M D 69728/824/1996, the competent ministries have drawn up the national
planning and issued the guidelines of the regional planning regarding municipal waste management. In the
latter, one important issue is the registration of the uncontrolled waste dumps, and the gradual elimination
through rehabilitation and reclamation. Other basic factors, which should be taken into account in the
rehabilitation procedure, are:
• The final land use
• Geographical data
• The distances from houses, industrial installations, etc.
• The general character of the area (agricultural, grazing - lands etc.)
• The operation possibility of proper, local waste - transfer systems
• The ecological cohesion of the greater area.
Also, according to the legislation mentioned above, the person or carrier (e.g., the local authority)
responsible for waste disposal is charged with the cost of disposal site rehabilitation or reclamation, but in
cases of orphan sites that cost is to be covered by public resources.
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2. Registration of Contaminated Sites
No official survey or registry, or official guidelines exist in Greece regarding contaminated land. The land
contaminated by industrial activities is rather limited, because of the lack of important heavy industry.
Suspected sites are the Industial Areas of Athens (Thriassion Pedion, west of Athens, Oinofyta, north of
Athens), Thessaloniki, Volos, and Kavala. Moreover, redundant or operating polymetallic sulphide mines
are suspected sites (this includes the redundant mines in Lavrion, where heavy metal pollution has been
documented, and other sites, as Thassos, Ermioni, where no studies have been done. In the operating
Kassandra mines in N. Greece an extensive rehabilitation plan is under way).
Concerning landfills, the first inventory carried out in 1988 revealed that 1500 sites were operating with
some rules, while 3500 sites were operating without any environment protection measures.
Since 1990, all new sanitary landfill sites should follow the procedure defined in the J M D 69269/5387/90
mentioned above. Local authorities are responsible for the municipal and household waste management. The
waste disposal must be performed under control according to the environmental terms defined by the
competent authorities and under continuous monitoring. Secondary landfill site should be rehabilitated at
the end of the operation and the local authorities are responsible for the restoration costs. The redundant
landfill sites, in which operations have stopped before 1990, cause serious pollution problems.
The hazardous waste produced in Greece is estimated to be around 450 000 tpa. The disposal of hazardous
solid waste and sludge is done either in common landfill sites or in specific sites under control. Co-disposal
is applied for those of the industrial wastes and sludges which have composition similar to the household
wastes. Dangerous industrial waste are disposed of according to their origin and grade of risk posed. PCB's,
cyanide wastes, pesticides, etc., either are stored in a safe place or they are exported for thermal
decomposition according to the existing legislation.
The main contaminated areas in Greece include:
• The greater Lavrion area, 60 km SE of Athens. Intensive polymetallic sulphide mining and smelting
activities practised for over 3000 years resulted in extensive contamination of land and groundwaters
by heavy metals. Mining and smelting activities stopped in 1988. Urban expansion has lead to changes
in land use from industrial to residential, recreational and, to a lesser degree, agricultural. An extended
program is under way to define the pollution and develop remedial action.
• Thriassion Pedion, 20 km W of Athens. This is the main Industrial Area in Athens, with major
industries (Refineries, Steel Plants, Shipbuilding, Cement Plants), as well as minor ones. Contamination
of land and groundwater has been determined at various sites. The sea bottom sediments in the Eleusis
Gulf are also suspected to be contaminated.
• Ano Liossia Landfill. Studies have been completed concerning biogas composition, groundwater
contamination by leachates.
In the other industrial areas (Volos, Thessaloniki, Kavala) a limited number of data exist.
3. Remedial Action
Three rehabilitation projects on existing landfill sites are currently being undertaken:
• Ano Liossia Landfill site, Athens. This is the main municipal landfill of the major Athens Area and lies
close to the Thriassion Pedion Industrial area of Athens. Leachates from this landfill seriously pollute
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the ground-water which eventually ends up in the Gulf of Eleusis. The rehabilitation studies have been
completed and the works are under way.
• The environmental impact assessment studies have been completed for the now redundant Schistos
landfill, which was serving the Piraeus area and stopped operating since 1992.
• Taragades landfill site of Thessaloniki. In this site the rehabilitation works have already started with the
installation of pipe system for the collection of produced leachate and biogas. The cost of the above
mentioned sanitation is about 100 million GRD and will be covered by co-financing between Greece
and the European Union.
Relevant action is also planned or under way for other minor landfills or uncontrolled dumping sites in
Greece.
A major project is under way for site selection and installation of two modem sanitary landfills for
municipal waste to serve the greater Athens area. The main problem encountered is the public perception
and acceptance of the proposed sites.
Two projects are under way for site selection and construction of plants for the controlled disposal of
hazardous wastes from the northern and southern Greece, respectively. In addition, the installation of a
treatment plant for liquid dangerous wastes and sludges produced from industries of Attica and Viotia
Prefecture is under study. The major problem being faced here is, again, the public perception and
acceptance of the proposed sites.
An extensive rehabilitation project of a sulphidic tailings dump has been completed in Lavrion, involving
the addition of ground limestone to neutralise the acid generation potential, followed by an earth cover to
isolate the toxic tailings from the environment and establish an aesthetic vegetative cover. More
rehabilitation action is being undertaken on laboratory and demonstration scale, involving soil rehabilitation
using chemical fixation as well as soil washing-leaching technologies.
Extensive rehabilitation projects are being carried out in the Kassandra mines, N. Greece, by the mine owner
(TVX HELLAS), involving reactive sulphide tailings and acid mine drainage. The works involve physical
and chemical stabilization of the material, as well as collection and treatment of the contaminated mine
waters as well as leachates.
4. Research, Development, and Demonstration
A number of RD&D projects are being carried out in Greece regarding contaminated land. They aim either
to identify7 the problematic areas, define the extent of pollution and its environmental implications, or to
develop technologies for treatment and clean-up. The cost is covered by State, Municipal and EU funds.
Research carried out by the Laboratory of Metallurgy, National Technical University of Athens is focusing
on: Development of methodology for the environmental characterisation of contaminated sites; soil
rehabilitation by chemical fixation and leaching techniques; treatment of contaminated groundwater by
active and passive systems; abatement of the acid mine drainage phenomenon. The activities are
encompassing active and redundant mining and processing areas in Greece (Lavrion, Kassandra, Thassos),
Italy (Sardinia), UK (Camon Valley, Cornwall), Portugal (Estarreja), Bulgaria (Burgas Copper Mines), and
Romania (Rossia Poieni Mines, Somova, Baia, Navodari).
Other research projects in Greece involve: determination of trace elements in crops within the Greater
Thessaloniki Industrial Area; environmental impact assessment of the Assopos river valley; water resources
and quality of groundwater in the West Attica Prefecture; oil and oil-dispersant toxicity in marine coastal
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areas; environmental toxicology; development of tools for the assrssment of groundwater contamination
from biochemically reactive substances; risk assessment and soil rehabilitation methodology for the mining
area of North Euboea; study of the quantity and transportation of asbestos fibres in Aliakmon River, N.
Greece.
5. Conclusions
Land contamination in Greece is related to industrial activities as well as municipal landfills. No specific
legislation or guidelines regarding soil quality standards exist. Registration of land affected from landfills
has been done, but no registry exists for the industrially contaminated sites. Research carried out by-
Universities and Research Organisations have identified a number of industrially contaminated sites and
studied technological solutions for rehabilitation. The research is funded through EC, State and Municipal
grants. Municipal landfill rehabilitation has attracted considerable interest and many remediation projects
are currently under way. However, very little attention has been given to industrially contaminated land.
Although research has been carried out, application of the remediation solutions to full-scale is extremely
expensive and has not been practised to any considerable extent.
6. References
F. Boura, Ministry of Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works, Greece: Contaminated land and
local authorities, Dec. 1997.
A. Isaakidis (Ministry of Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works, Greece) and A. Liakopoulos
(Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration, Greece): Country Report, Contaminated Sites.
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HUNGARY
Economic growth, especially vigorous industrial development, took place in Hungary- without the constraints
of strong environmental protection regulations up to the end of the seventies and the beginning of the
eighties. Although the legal regulations concerning environmental protection later caught up with
contemporary requirements, compliance with the regulations fell far short of the theoretical strictness of the
limits and other regulations for a decade or so. In the midst of the economic difficulties of the time, only
insubstantial amounts could be spent on environmental protection. This situation has led to a gradual
accumulation of non-degradable and slowly degrading pollutants in groundwater and the soil.
There are approximately ten thousand polluted areas in Hungary where cleanup would have been an
imperative for years, even decades. The environmental protection authorities, local governments, and
possibly other organizations have information (which is far from complete) concerning only a fraction of
these. The pollution of the soil and groundwater is obviously less perceptible than smoke-emitting factory
chimneys, petrochemical city smog, or dead fish in oil-stained rivers; but their harmful effects can be felt.
At best, we "merely" have to pay for the cost of replacing polluted water utility wells (it must be noted that
more than 90 percent of public water consumption in Hungary comes from groundwater); at worst human
health can be threatened by the consumption of polluted water or garden-grown vegetables or even by
recreation in polluted areas. Nevertheless, pollutants do get washed into surface waters, and decomposing
hazardous wastes do threaten the environment through the air. This long-term environmental damage
constitutes one of the factors of environmental pollution that has an unfavorable effect on public health and,
ultimately, life expectancy.
With most long-term damage, the person (legal entity) that is responsible for the pollution cannot be
compelled to clean up. In these cases, the coordinated use of government funds is necessary in order to clean
up.
International Experience
It was only 10-15 years ago that the developed Western countries realized that polluted areas had to be
gradually cleaned up. Germany (FRG), the Netherlands, Denmark, and the United States were among the
first to react to the problem, while a high-level program is currently being implemented or, at least, planned
in almost all of the EU member countries.
The task is enormous, even for the most affluent countries. This was not immediately evident. It was not
unusual that the initial estimates for the cost of implementation later had to be increased tenfold. All of the
countries are planning programs to be in effect for more than a decade. Even at the stage of planning, the
development of soil and water protection strategies as well as the legal, technical, and economic regulations
is necessary. The program organizers have faced numerous issues that have given rise to serious social
debate. These issues include determining responsibility and, in connection with it, financing the work
(which tasks are to be paid for by the persons that caused the damage and which are to be financed
publicly?); the criteria for establishing intervention priorities; the rational objectives of interventions (the
question is well-known: how clean is clean?); and the impact on property values.
It was usually recognized early in the course of planning the programs that the first step has to be a thorough
study that will enable comparisons and uniform priority calculations. In the absence of such a study, the
amounts to be spent on eliminating damage will not be efficiently used, and money might be wasted in some
places, while other places might experience insufficient funding.
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Initially, various theoretical criteria were applied in the stipulation of cleanup objectives and intervention
limits. In the United States, an individual risk analysis is prepared for each examined area, and the specific
tasks depend on the results of these. The Dutch practice faithfully followed the principle laid down in the
European Soil Charter with regard to the soil's multifunctionality requirement. A state of cleanliness that
is suitable for ecological and human activities must be achieved in all cases. In Germany and elsewhere, the
list of limits was categorized according to area use requirements, adding that these limits are only starting
points for individual evaluations.
In practice, most countries today tend toward using limits in the first phase of uncovering pollution and
individual risk analyses in detailed investigations.
Although there are many methods of financing, government budgets dominate most of the time. The
differences lie in the kinds of income schemes that provide coverage. These include product charges, waste
taxes, and environmental protection contributions and fines, though on occasion there are no special sources
and the public bears the full burden through the budget. The principle of "polluters pay." which is widely
accepted in environmental protection, is least applicable here, since it is often impossible to prove the
responsibility of the polluters.
Domestic Antecedents
The government's 1991 short- and medium-term action plan, which identified the tasks of surveying,
uncovering, and terminating accumulated environmental pollution, can be considered as the starting point
for the Remediation Program. The same plan deals with solutions to the environmental problems presented
by abandoned Soviet barracks and training grounds.
Owing to the lack of funds, only the latter task could be started before 1995 under the technical direction
of the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy and the Environmental Management Institute. The
remediation of the most polluted of the former Soviet properties will be completed in 1 to 2 years.
The experiences obtained in the course of privatization (many foreign investors were concerned about the
risk of "inherited" environmental damage connected to properties), the revival of the real estate market, the
experiences acquired as a result of the upsurge in bankruptcies and liquidation, and, hopefully, the
developing public participation in environmental protection all helped provide justification for the Ministry
for Environment and Regional Policy's original initiative. Therefore, the government launched the National
Environmental Remediation Program in 1996 in order to assess polluted areas, uncover damage that falls
within the scope of the government's responsibility, and eliminate the damage.
In September, Parliament approved the National Environmental Program, which contains the Remediation
Program.
Government Responsibility
The new environmental protection law stipulates that if no other person can be made responsible, it is the
task of the government to eliminate the consequences of significant environmental damage. Under certain
conditions, the law stipulates the joint and several responsibility of the polluter and the owner of the area
in which the activity causing the pollution is, or was, pursued. This provision will, in the long run, increase
the chance of having the responsible persons, not the government, pay for eliminating environmental
damage.
If, therefore, the polluter—
• is unknown (or if the presumed polluter cannot be proved to be responsible);
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• has been terminated without a legal successor; or
• is currently under liquidation and the liquidated assets have been proved to be insufficient for cleaning
up the damage—
the pollution must be considered a government responsibility and the damage on the given area must be
eliminated within the framework of the Remediation Program. Naturally, it is also the responsibility of the
government to clean up long-term environmental damage caused by government budget agencies.
The Purpose of the Program
The purpose of the Remediation Program is terminating the harmful and hazardous effect of long-term
environmental pollution that falls within the scope of the government's responsibility. In order to achieve
this, the first step that needs to be taken is the comprehensive survey of long-term environmental damage
(sources of pollution and polluted areas).
The Course of the Program
The remediation concept extends over the entire process. As the first step of the Remediation Program, the
environmental protection authorities started to survey the entire country in 1995 for pollution whose cleanup
is particularly important. As a result, approximately 200 areas were registered. It is characteristic of the
registered pollution that it endangers 86 percent of the soil and groundwater and a lesser degree of the air
and surface waters.
The assessment of pollution sources and polluted areas requires extensive and very detailed work, which
would make it possible to enter the results in computerized data bases. Version I of the Remediation Priority-
List can be compiled on the basis of the registered data with the help of a preliminary- evaluation.
If it becomes apparent from the available data (without any further investigation) that rapid intervention is
needed, there must be a emergency measure, which usually entails the localization of pollution or the
elimination of the source of pollution. Fact-finding incorporates searching for the source of pollution,
determining the damage to the polluted environmental component (soil, surface and subsurface waters,
sediment, etc.), modeling the extent of the pollution, and preparing a feasibility study for the cleanup. The
observation facilities that provide for continued monitoring are usually implemented by the time the fact-
finding has ended. Fact-finding can be divided into two phases: a diagnostic phase, and a detailed probe
phase. The risk evaluation for the given area is prepared on the basis of the results of the investigation, and
the area is put on Version II of the Remediation Priority List in order to determine its priority.
In the course of remediating the polluted environmental elements, the pollution is terminated or, if complete
cleanup is not possible or if the target condition determined by the risk calculations does not warrant it,
reduced. The soil or water must be cleaned of pollutants, and the specified limit values must be met. If the
intervention does not result in the complete elimination of pollution, the area will be put on Version III of
the Remediation Priority List following another risk analysis and evaluation. The follow up ensures the
continuous monitoring of the results of interventions. Follow up, which relies on the data provided by the
observation facilities, can last for several years.
In the course of the program, if remediation would take several years, the environmental protection
authorities will take measures to register the long-term environmental damage in the property register and,
once the post-inspection is completed, have the entry removed.
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Program Priorities
In the course of the remediation, the optimal solution must be realized in order to protect human health, as
well as the flora and fauna. The requirements of environmental hygiene, therefore, are of primary impor-
tance in risk calculations, while, at the same time, cost efficiency requirements are also built into the
evaluations.
Current and planned area use characteristics influence the degree to which soil is cleaned. Groundwater
water resources that are located in the catchment area of mineral, medicinal, and drinking water bases enjoy
priority, regardless of the type of water (shallow groundwater, karstic water, bank-filtered water, or deep
groundwater). Intervention has a higher priority for water resources that are located in vulnerable geological
environments. The basic requirement of the remediation process is to prevent the spread of the pollution
from one environmental element to another.
Program Tasks
The program incorporates three distinct groups of activities. The general tasks include operating, managing,
and coordinating the program. The recurrent tasks include compiling the annual priority lists and
announcing tenders for companies that undertake to search out and clean up pollution (usually by means of
the public procurement procedure in accordance with the size of the project). Strategic tasks include research
and technical development that meets the program's needs and the creation of a basis for developing legal,
technical, and economic regulations. For public acceptance of the program, the development of a
communication strategy and public relations, the organization of educational programs, and the editing and
publishing of technical publications are indispensable. The development of a two-tier (central and regional)
information technology system is considered a general task.
Sixteen percent of the program funds was used in 1996 for the performance of general tasks. The assessment
of sources of pollution and polluted areas is the most important of the national tasks. This includes the
registration of long-term pollution in the property register (in accordance with uniform nationwide
procedures), the central operation of the monitoring system, and the development of groundwater monitoring
and the Soil Protection Monitoring (TIM) system.
Another national task entails the development of so-called subprograms for remediation projects for which
government organizations bear statutory (or contractual) obligations. Six percent of the program funds were
used in 1996 for carrying out national tasks.
Individual tasks include the investigation of damage and remediation projects for which the government is
responsible, as well as local monitoring, both according to schedules that comply with priorities.
Connection to Other Programs
In 1996. 78 percent of the program funds were used for performing individual tasks. The Wellfield
Protection Program, adopted by the Government in 1995, is aimed at securing both operating and
prospective wellfields that are located in vulnerable environments. In the course of this program's diagnostic
investigations, water catchment areas are identified with the use of models (the size of the area from which
any possible pollution can reach the wells in a specific period of time is determined). In the protected zones
of wellfields that have been specified in the above manner, potential pollution sources are assessed, and
appropriate observation and monitoring zones are developed. The cost of developing and maintaining
protected zones is paid for by the government in the case of prospective wellfield and, in other cases, by the
license holder that uses the water. The alternatives to securing an area are worked out on the basis of an
evaluation of the conditions, which follows the segregation of actual and potential pollution sources.
Decisions concerning the measures that must be taken in order to secure an area (in addition to developing
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a monitoring system) are made in consideration of the cost/benefit analysis of each of the alternatives. This
can also include eliminating the existing pollution in the ground or groundwater as well as eradicating the
cause of the pollution.
The need for coordination between the Remediation Program and the Wellfield Protection Program can be
clearly recognized with regard to assessment and registration as well as the actual cleanup. The people who
are in charge of implementing the two programs act as liaisons in the area of exchanging information and
making the actual decisions to clean up pollution.
There are also close ties with the National Environmental Health Action Plan (NEKAP), whose purpose is
to survey and rank the most important environmental hygiene problems and study possible solutions at the
national, regional, and local levels. The National Environmental Health Action Plan has also established a
common database for the polluted areas, and it rates planned interventions.
The National Environmental Health Action Plan rates pollution by evaluating the environmental hygiene
risks and considering local characteristics and possibilities. In some sample areas, highly detailed analyses
(e.g., environmental epidemiological investigations) are made in order to calculate risks. The findings of
the National Environmental Health Action Plan provide a reasonably good basis for making comprehensive
priority calculations, especially from the perspective of the Remediation Program.
Program Phases
The first two years of operation (1996 and 1997) can be considered the program's short-term phase. The
development of the research, information technology, regulator}', and monitoring systems started in the
period during which the program was established and its methodology created.
The government's responsibility and participation were clarified. The program's medium-term phase was
compiled. The process of nationwide assessment began; and emergency measures, investigations, and
cleanup projects were carried out with regard to individual tasks. The preparation of the related subprograms
was in progress in 1997.
The program's medium-term phase (1998-2002) has five principal aspects:
1) The information technology background and research and technical development will continue to be
emphasized in the course of carrying out the general tasks. These include, for example, compiling and
publishing a list of the most suitable modern technologies for cleanup projects as well as developing
methodologies for risk evaluation and cost/benefit calculations.
Since the calculations that determine remediation priorities must be made in the various phases of
preparation (on the basis of information of varying profundity), the calculation methods must be
applicable in several versions.
The compilation of the list of priorities for the current year, based on topical information, is a general
task. The investigations and cleanup projects that are to be carried out (or begun) in the given year can
be determined on the basis of this list.
One of the important tasks of the medium-term phase is the development of the Remediation Program's
funding system. This must take into consideration the fact that the fund requirement for the tasks
planned for the medium-term phase exceeds HUF 20 billion as well as the fact that the cleanup of the
environmental damage that has been generated over several decades will also last several decades
following 2002 with a cost that will probably run into the hundred billions.
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2) Important national tasks include a comprehensive assessment of the actual and potential sources of
pollution that cause long-term environmental damage, as well as registration of the findings by
developing an information system for inventoring polluted sites ("KARINFO"), which is integrated in
the Environmental Information System. The most comprehensive version of the Remediation Priorities
List was prepared on the basis of this for 2002. Of course, this cannot be considered the final list, since
the continuous maintenance of data will have to be ensured even in the future, and long-term environ-
mental damage can arise even in the meantime, although hopefully to a lower number.
The national investigation entails a search for the sources of pollution that fall within the range of the
government's responsibility, as well as those that do not. As part of this process, the existing data that
can be used in the program are collected from various organizations (ministries, central or regional
authorities, institutions, etc.) and processed. Useful data are available from previous inspections of
pollution that endangers protected natural areas, studies of pollution sources that affect the Balaton
catchment area and the region between the Danube and the Tisza, and the Groundwater Management
Atlas. The processing of aerial and satellite photos can also be very helpful. Pollution in the soil or
ground water is sometimes more noticeable on satellite photos of vegetation than in official files.
Additional steps are the assessment procedure, including on-site data collection, supplementing and
updating information, and searching for unknown pollution. The data obtained in the course of
assessment are entered into the regional and national data bases in the KARINFO computer database
management system, which will be available to the public in accordance with the legal regulations on
public information.
3) The individual remediation tasks entail the investigation and cleanup of pollution for which the
government is responsible in accordance with the schedule determined by the priorities. In the
program's medium-term phase, which period is five years, diagnostic or partial investigations can be
carried out in approximately 200 areas, if the program's finances are realized according to the plans.
The need for rapid response will increase at first. Later, these interventions will be less characteristic.
Accordingly, we can anticipate that emergency measure will be needed in approximately 50 cases.
As opposed to this, the annual number of cleanups after fact-finding will gradually increase. It is
possible to estimate approximately 50-80 remediation projects for the period leading up to 2002. In
terms of the need for follow up, this means that approximately 1000 observation wells (or other similar
facilities) will be established before 2002 as part of the monitoring system.
4) Most of the pollution that falls within the scope of the government's responsibility must be cleaned up
within the framework of the subprograms. The individual subprograms are aimed at cleaning up
government properties that are under the management of state holding companies. Hungarian State
Railways Company's (MAv Rt.) environmental pollution, for example, will be cleaned up and the
damage left by state mining projects will be eliminated within the framework of such subprograms.
Subprograms will be created to eliminate the environmental damage on military properties and other
pollution in areas and properties held by other ministries or properties in the possession of budget
institutions.
According to the plans, State Privatization Agency (APV Rt.) will be in charge of two specialized
subprograms. APV Rt.'s cleanup tasks are aimed not only at the existing government properties, but at
the properties that APV Rt. has already sold and on which it has assumed environmental protection
guarantees on the basis of contracts of sale or the law. The government cleanup of former Soviet
properties is carried out within the framework of one of the subprograms. The other subprogram is the
so-called corporate privatization subprogram, which also incorporates environmental protection
guarantees that were made mostly on the basis of individual decisions in the course of sales negotiations.
The implementation of the corporate privatization subprogram contributes to the privatization of some
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companies for which investor interest has so far been dampened by the companies' previous
environmental problems and, consequently, the high risk resulting from the accumulated pollution.
The persons in charge of directing the subprograms use the same investigation, registration, and risk
evaluation methodologies that determine the order of priorities in individual interventions. The damage
investigated in the various subprograms, therefore, can be compared to the individual cleanup require-
ments. The schedule, which is based on a comprehensive calculation of priorities, can be influenced to
a certain extent by the characteristics of the given subprogram (e.g., the manner in which military
properties are used), its separate financial or budgetary position, or the deadlines for other tasks (in the
case of APVRl).
5) In the future, the government should not be held responsible for new long-term environmental damage,
and the means of prevention must be created and developed in the program's medium-term phase.
Prevention can be best served by the introduction of regulators, which have already been specified in
the environmental protection law; these include environmental liability insurance and collateral
requirements in proportion to anticipated environmental expenses. Although persons that pursue
activities that pose a risk to the environment (e.g., persons that handle hazardous wastes) or those that
have undertaken long-term official obligations are further burdened by this regulation, corporate tax
regulations provide incentives for putting the planned expenses into provisions. It is hoped that this
regulation will create a situation in which, even if a company becomes financially unstable, allocated
funds will be (at least partially) available for cleanup or for satisfying compensation claims and the
cleanup will not have to be carried out from government funds allocated for the program.
Another possible way of prevention is to carry out the cleanup for insolvent companies with advance
official funds.
Based on this, a special finance regulation scheme can be developed. In simplified terms, the environmental
protection obligation is replaced by the financial claim of the authority and therefore, as a result of flexible
management and the possible participation of the Central Environmental Protection Fund, the company's
liquidation due to the environmental debts of the previous years—or rather the previous decades—can be
avoided, and the cleanup tasks that cannot be paid for with the liquidated assets will not burden the program.
One possible example for the use of the scheme is the enforcement of Budapesti Vegyimuvek Rt.'s
responsibility for the hazardous wastes it has stored in Gare, South Hungary. (Obviously, forcing the
company into liquidation would not be an appropriate solution in either economic or environmental
protection terms.)
Program Funding
In each of the program's first two years, the annual budget law allocated HUF 1 billion to the Central
Environmental Protection Fund for implementation. APV Rt. had to provide these monies from privatization
revenue. Regular financing is necessary in the medium-term because of the termination of privatization
revenues. The environmental protection law stipulates that the central budget and the government funds
allocated for environmental protection must provide joint coverage for such expenditures.
According to preliminary concepts, the Central Environmental Protection Fund has the opportunity to collect
its own funds if environmental load charges are introduced.
Management and Inspection
The Remediation Program is coordinated by the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy with the
participation of the ministries and professional and scientific organizations concerned. The program is
operated by the Remediation Program Office, which was developed within the Environmental Management
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Institution, with the participation of the environmental protection authorities. The office's activities are
supervised by the assistant undersecretary of state for the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy.
A team of professionals assigned by the various departments of the ministry assist the assistant
undersecretary of state in his duties.
The Ministry of Environment and Regional Policy makes regular reports to the Government concerning the
program and the manner in which it is being implemented.
Specific Achievements in Individual Remediation Projects
In 1996, the Remediation Program Office announced open tenders for the diagnostic investigation of 15
areas and separate tenders for emergency measure in the case of eight of these areas. Nearly one hundred
offers were received for the public procurement announcements.
The emergency measure were, with two exceptions, completed by the end of 1996. while the Remediation
Program Office concluded contracts with the winners that bid for the diagnostic investigations at the
beginning of 1997. Most of the investigations were completed by June 1997.
Most of the program's first (rapid) responses were aimed at neutralizing the pollution that were mainly left
by companies which had been terminated or liquidated.
In summary, the Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy's remediation project was launched in 17
areas in the second half of 1997. investigations will begin in nine of these areas, and emergency measure
is necessary in four areas. With four exceptions, the remediation projects begun in the previous year are
continuing with detailed investigation of the work, supplementary emergency measure, and/or cleanup.
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THE NETHERLANDS
1. Legal and Administrative Issues*
According to the present estimates, the application of the multifunctionality approach to the estimated
110,000 seriously contaminated sites would have incurred costs of around US$50 billion. The Netherlands
is now spending about US$0.5 billion per annum, which equals the sum that was initially thought to be
sufficient to resolve the entire problem. But at this speed it would take about 100 years to end the operation.
In the meantime, soil contamination would hamper construction and redevelopment essential to economic
and social development, and dispersal of contaminants in the groundwater keeps on making the problem
even bigger. For this reason another policy is needed.
Recently, a document has passed parliament containing a new policy on soil remediation. The new approach
abandons the strict requirement for contamination to be removed to the maximum extent, and instead
permits cleanup on the basis of suitability for use. At the same time, the government proposed other changes
to soil protection legislation, including greater devolution of responsibility for cleanup to local authorities
and the creation of more stimulating instruments.
Basically the policy has switched from a sectoral to an integrated approach. This means that the market has
to play a more prominent role and take more of the financial burden. Soil contamination should not only be
treated as an environmental problem. The soil contamination policy should also be geared to other social
activities such as spatial planning and social and economic development and vice versa.
The strategy is—
• to protect clean soil
• to optimize use of contaminated soil
• to improve the quality of contaminated soil where necessary
• to monitor soil quality
This new approach will be paired to stimulation of the development and application of new technology and
to a more cost-effective organization of the actual clean-up. These measures taken together are expected to
cut costs by 30-50 percent.
In this approach, remediation is part of a comprehensive policy regarding soil contamination. Prevention,
landuse, treatment of excavated soil, reuse of excavated soil (for example, as building material), monitoring
of soil quality and remediation have to be geared to each other in a more sophisticated manner. This
"internal" integration is being promoted under the concept of "active" soil management.
To stimulate market investment, a different approach to government funding is announced. The taxpayers
money will be used in such a way that it evokes private investment. This will be done by improving the
existing financial instruments and by the creation of a private sector contaminated land fund. The legal
instruments will be made more effective. The discretion of provinces and municipalities will be further
enlarged to create the flexibility which is needed to initiate and stimulate the measures that are best suited
to the local situation (tailor made solutions). In September 1997, Parliament accepted the new policy.
Drills text is based on The Dutch experience; lesson learned. Ton Holtkainp and Onno van Sandick. Ministry of Housing,
Spatial Planning and Environment in die Netherlands. January 1998.
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With these measures, the Dutch government wants to achieve ambitious goals:
• Within 25 years all sites should be made suitable for use and further dispersal stopped. That means that
each year almost four times as much sites will have to be remediated as is the case now.
• Presuming that the costs will be reduced with 30-50 percent, this requires a duplication of the total
annual expenditure on soil remediation.
• In order to monitor the results of these efforts and to make information on soil quality accessible to the
general public (for example, potential buyers) and to authorities (for example, planning authorities), we
want to have a system of soil quality maps covering the whole country in 2005.
2. Registration of Contaminated Sites
Based on the Soil Protection Act there are two driving forces to investigate soil quality:
• Anyone intending to excavate and to move soil for building activities has to report the quality of the soil
to provincial authorities;
• Companies that do not investigate the soil quality voluntarily might be required to do so.
Based on these activities a lot of seriously contaminated sites have been identified. These numbers have
increased enormously since the first case at Lekkerkerk.
Table 1. Inventory of sites
Year
1980
1986
1998
Seriously
Contaminated
Sites
350
1.600
110.000
Estimated Costs
(Billions US$)
0.5 billion
3 billion
15-25 billion*
based on new policy
3. Remedial Methods
In the policy on contaminated land, three phases are recognized. In the first phase, restoration was the aim
of the technology. In the second phase, control of the spreading was added, and in the third phase control
of risks has become the aim of technology.
Table 2 illustrates the development of technology in these phases. In the first phase the treatment technology
for contaminated excavated soil has been developed. This was mainly the physio-chemical technology which
was originally applied in mining and road building, such as particle classification (soil washing) and thermal
treatment. In the next phase containment was added to these technologies. The main containment
technologies are the isolation of a site by a non-permeable wall and pump-and-treat. In the latest phase the
in situ technologies are developed, especially the in situ bioremediation.
Table 2; Development of Technology in the Netherlands
Period
1983
1998
Aim
Restoration
No spreading
Control of risks
Approach
Excavation plus soil treatment
Containment
In situ
Main technology
Physico-chemical
Civil engineering
Biotechnology
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February 1998
Table 3 shows some results of the treatment of excavated soil in 1996. Approximately 1.7 million tonnes
of soil have been treated, 60 percent by thermal treatment, 25 percent by soil washing and 15 percent by land
farming. Thermal treatment is very effective; all the organic contaminants are destroyed.
Table 3. Proven technology in the Netherlands
Soil Processing in 1996: 1.7 x 106tons
Technique
Thermal
Soil washing
Landfarming
Mass
60%
25%
15%
Contaminant
Organics
Organics/metals
Organics
Effectiveness
100%
80-95%
60-90%
Table 4 shows the costs of the treatment of excavated soil exclusive of excavation and transport. The costs
of treatment have rather decreased over the last five years. The average costs for treatment were about
US$90 in 1991 and about US$50 in 1997. Cost reduction is a result of technological innovations and the
market.
Table 4: Costs of soil treatment in 1997
(Source: Handbook Soil Treatment Technology, SCO The Netherlands)
Technique
Thermal
Soil washing *
Landfarming
Low
US$ per ton
30
20
20
High
US$ per ton
85
40
50
* Exclusive sludge disposal;
inclusive sludge disposal high: 65
Low: sandy / low moisture / non-halogenated contaminants
High: loamy / high moisture / halogenated contaminants
4. Research, Development, and Demonstration
In the Netherlands, the research and development of new strategies and technologies is organized in national
research programs. The programs are fully or partially financed by ministries and partially by the private
sector. The main ongoing research programs are:
PGBO—The Netherlands Integrated Soil research program is aimed at continuing and strengthening the
Dutch knowledge infrastructure on contaminated land issues. The main activities are small projects on the
starting and continuation of platforms for discussions, such as on risk management. Other projects are aimed
at identifying needs for further research based on the experience in the field. The program has an average
yearly budget of US$0.5 million. It will continue until the end of 1999.
NOBIS—One way to reduce the costs of soil remediation is the biological in situ approach. To strengthen
the knowledge and experience in the Netherlands the NOBIS program started. The objective of NOBIS is
to develop, evaluate and demonstrate innovative strategies, methods and techniques which will effectively
help to control in situ remediation by means of biotechnology (biorestoration).
With a large scale application of the attained results a significant reduction in the costs of the soil clean-up
operation will have to be achieved. A threatening stagnation in the solution of the soil clean-up problem can
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thus be counteracted. NOBIS will also help to improve the export position of the Netherlands in the field
of knowledge-based soil clean-up products and services.
The program is supported by the Ministry of Economic Affairs with US$12.5 million and US$6 million has
been supported by the private sector (mainly large industries). The program is running from 1994-1998.
There are about 40 ongoing projects. Some new approaches identified during the progress of the program
are:
• Selection of remediation options based on risk reduction, environmental merit and costs (REC)
• Natural attenuation and biological active containment to control risks.
5. Conclusions
The Netherlands policy has been changed drastically in 1997. This has resulted in an increasing demand for
knowledge on new approaches and new technologies. Therefore, the research effort will be continued and
increased in the coming years.
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NORWAY
1. Legal and Administrative Issues
The main law regulating clean up of contaminated land in Norway is the Pollution Control Act from 1981.
The polluter pays principle forms an important basis of the Pollution Control Act. If the original polluter can
no longer be identified or held responsible, the current land owner may be held liable for investigations and
remedial actions.
Regulation of contaminated land in Norway under the Pollution Control Act is the responsibility of the
Norwegian Pollution Control Authority (NPCA). While almost all sites are directly regulated by the national
agency, only a few cases are left over to regional authorities (counties). The Planning and Building Act,
however, requires that local authorities consider possible soil contamination before a new construction
project or land development is licensed. During recent years national authorities have encouraged
municipalities to use this law in their regulatory work and hence contribute to reduction of the number of
construction projects which temporarily have to be stopped due to the discovery of soil contamination.
Contaminated land is generally accepted as a local environmental problem. Therefore the national and
regional authorities are considering whether regulation of contaminated land should be the responsibility
of the counties, alternatively how and to what extent counties should be involved.
Clean up of contaminated sites are at present regulated through permits/licenses under the Pollution Control
Act. As the Norwegian procedures for licensing clean up and remedial actions are complicated and time
consuming, the NPCA are preparing a "General Regulation for Contaminated Sites." This allows private
and public companies to conduct the clean up program for their sites without detailed permits or licenses
from the authorities and saving time and cost consuming processes.
Norway has developed a decision model consisting of a two-tiered system for regulation of contaminated
sites. Generic target values are developed for most sensitive land use. For other sites or when target values
are exceeded, a system of site-specific risk assessment is applied. The target values are based on data from
other countries.
Improving the target values and development of a systematic approach for risk assessment are issues of high
priority in NPCA for 1997-98. This is a part of the decision model for contaminated sites in Norway which
will be revised by the end of 1998.
Norway has decided not to apply the principle of''multifunctionality" as the basis for remediation. Because
cleanup goals are adjusted to actual or potential land use, site-specific information regarding level of
contamination, remedial measures, and land-use restrictions should be kept for future generations.
Therefore, it is important that results from regulation of contaminated land are included in the land use
planning system.
2. Registration of Contaminated Sites
Contaminated land in Norway is considered as an important source for contamination of rivers, lakes and
fjords. More than 85 percent of Norwegian water supply is based on surface water, and consequently
groundwater contamination has been of less concern in Norway compared to many other countries. Potential
impact from industry, contaminated sediments and landfills on the marine environment is of greater concern.
In some fjords recommendations of reduced intake of seafood is recommended, due to pollutants such as
heavy metals, PCBs, PAHs or dioxins.
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During the years from 1989 to 1991, a national survey of landfills and contaminated sites was carried out
in Norway. Approximately 2,100 possibly contaminated sites were registered. The total number includes
municipal and industrial landfills, industrial sites, gas works, military sites and sites from World War II. In
1992 the NPCA presented an action-plan for contaminated sites. A status and revised plan was presented
with the national budget from the government in 1996. New contaminated sites have continuously been
discovered through land development or construction activities.
In 1997 NPCA decided to produce an annual status report to the public with overview of contaminated sites
and status of remediation. One annual report will satisfy the need for information in the public (media,
NGOs, politicians, etc). The status for 1997 shows that more than 3,350 contaminated sites are now
registered in Norway. About 150 of these are given high priority and additionally about 600 sites need to
be investigated. Of these 750 sites, investigation has started on about 350 and in 250 sites remediation is
going on or finished. The remaining 2,600 sites are given low priority with the recent land use. When
redevelopment or construction work is planed for these sites necessary investigations and measures must
be considered.
A GIS-database is developed by the NPCA to keep track of all registered sites and any investigation or
remedial action carried out at the different sites. Information from the database will be used for reporting
and by NPCA in general, by the counties and by municipalities for their planning purposes.
3. Remedial Methods
A recent market research on treatment technologies for contaminated land in Norway (November 1997)
shows that following technologies are commercially available through Norwegian companies:
• Bioventing
• Vacuum Extraction
• Air Sparging
• Pump-and-Treat
• Biopiles
• Landfarming
• Soil Washing
• Solidification/Stabilization
• Incineration
In situ and ex situ bioremediation technologies are mainly conducted by contractors. In total, 5 to 10
consulting companies have experience with these technologies. In addition to the contractors about 3 to 5
companies have specialized in treatment of contaminated soil in Norway as their major activity. They have
so far concentrated on solidification/stabilization, soil washing, land farming and partly incineration. Few
sites are in the "remediation phase" so far, and easy access to and low prices on landfills are major reasons
for the limited development and accessibility of treatment technologies on the market.
The NPCA has started projects on national and local scale to develop guidelines for management of
excavated contaminated soil. The guidelines will be administrative tools for local, regional and national
authorities and support the existing legislation on contaminated land. A more predictable assessment by the
authorities is of great importance for society.
4. Research and Development
The Norwegian Research Council (NFR) decided in 1994 to establish a separate research program (GRUF)
focusing on management of contaminated sites and landfills. The program goals are:
• to provide a better understanding of risks connected to contaminated sites;
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• to develop and demonstrate cost-effective remedial actions for contaminated sites and landfills; and
• to develop effective methods of monitoring micropollutants from landfills and contaminated sites,
including ecotoxicological methods.
Research and development projects initiated and/or funded by NPCA have concentrated on sampling and
monitoring technology, heavy metals and treatment technology on PAH contaminated soil.
5. Conclusions
The Norwegian Pollution Control Authority give priority to following issues:
• Transfer of responsibility, competence and resources to county or regional authorities on the regulation
of contaminated sites.
• Preparation of a "General Regulation for Contaminated Sites." which allows private and public
companies to conduct the clean up program for their sites without detailed permits or licenses from the
authorities and saving time and cost consuming processes
• Development of an improved decision model for regulation of contaminated land including target values
for sensitive land use and a systematic approach for site specific risk assessment.
• Annual status report to the public with overview of number of sites and status of remediation.
• Development of guidelines for management of excavated contaminated soil.
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SLOVENIA
In recent months, a few changes have occurred in the field of environmental protection in Slovenia. The
ministry responsible for the environment has decided to expand its activities from the strictly legislative to
more practical areas, which means that it has begun to carry out certain activities in order finally to break
the deadlock in environmental protection, although they are currently limited to certain areas only. In many
other areas with acute problems, the state has still not decided whether to become practically involved, in
spite of pressure from the public, the media and local communities.
Legislation which has come into effect in recent years includes the Law on Environmental Protection,
adopted in June 1993, and the following implementational regulations based on the Law:
• Decree on the Tax for the Pollution of the Air with Carbon Dioxide Emissions (14 December 1996)
• Decree on the Border, Warning and Critical Imission Levels of Toxic Substances in Soil (14 December
1996)
• Decree on the Conditions and Procedures for Obtaining an Authorisation to Prepare Environmental
Impact Assessments (7 December 1996)
• Decree on the Input of Toxic Substances and Plant Nutrients into the Soil (14 December 1996)
• Instructions on the Methodology of Preparing an Environmental Impact Assessment (7 December 1996)
• Regulation on the Types of Activity for which an Environmental Impact Assessment is Mandatory (1
January 1997)
• Decree on Noise in Natural and Living Environments (19 August 1995)
• Regulations on the Initial Measurement of Noise and Operational Noise Monitoring for Sources of
Noise, and on the Conditions for their Execution (21 December 1996)
• Regulations on the Operational Monitoring of the Input of Toxic Substances and Plant Nutrients into
the Soil (26 September 1997)
• Decree on the Water Pollution Tax (29 July 1997)
• Decree on the Form of the Tax Return Form for the Drainage of Technological Waste Water (15 March
1997)
• Decision Determining the Amount of Tax Per Unit of Water Pollution for 1997 (18 January 1997)
• Decree on the Emission of Substances and Heat in the Drainage of Waste Water from Pollution Sources
(20 July 1996)
• Decree on the Emission of Substances in the Drainage of Waste Water from Facilities and Plants for
the Production of Metal Products (20 July 1996)
• Decree on the Emission of Substances in the Drainage of Waste Water from Municipal Waste Water
Treatment Plants (20 July 1996)
• Decree on the Emission of Substances in the Drainage of Waste Water from Plants and Facilities for
the Production, Processing and Treatment of Textile Fibre (20 July 1996)
• Decree on the Emission of Substances in the Drainage of Waste Water from Facilities and Plants for
the Production of Leather and Fur (20 July 1996)
• Regulations on Initial Measurements and the Operational Monitoring of Waste Water, and on the
Conditions for their Execution (20 July 1996)
• Decree on the Emission of Substances into the Atmosphere from Lacquering Plants (10 December 1994)
• Decree on the Emission of Substances into the Atmosphere from Cement Production Plants (10
December 1994)
• Decree on the Border, Warning and Critical Imission Levels of Toxic Substances in the Atmosphere (10
December 1994)
• Decree on the Emission of Substances into the Atmosphere from Stationary Sources of Pollution (10
December 1994)
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• Regulations on Initial Measurements and the Operational Monitoring of the Emission of Substances into
the Atmosphere from Stationary Sources of Pollution and on the Conditions for their Implementation
(21 December 1996)
• Decree on the Emission of Substances into the Atmosphere from Heating Plants (10 December 1994)
• Decree on the Emission of Substances into the Atmosphere from Waste Incinerators and During the
Combined Incineration of Waste (10 December 1996)
• Decree on Concessions for the Commercial Exploitation of Water Sources in the Republic of Slovenia
for the Supply of Drinking Water (25 November 1995)
• Decree on the Export, Import and Transit of Waste (10 August 1996)
• Decree on the Prohibition of Sale and Importation of Vehicles Without a Catalytic Converter (21 May
1994)
• Decree on the Quality of Liquid Fuels with Regard to Their Sulphur, Lead and Benzene Content (25
February 1995)
• Decree on the Management of Infectious Wastes which Appear in the Performance of Health Care
Activities (7 October 1994)
• Decree on the Management of Wastes which Appear in the Performance of Health Care Activities (3
June 1995)
With these documents, the state has taken legal and, in certain cases, practical environmental protection
measures.
In 1997, the environmental inspection body began operating in Slovenia; its duties include the monitoring
and registering of all events and activities connected with environmental pollution.
All hazardous wastes in factories in the process of privatization have now been registered. This was done
because wastes of this type have been lying around factory- estates for years, and also in order to ensure that
the new owners would provide for the proper processing of these wastes, as this activity will now be
monitored by the inspection body. There are large amounts of these wastes: according to the data published
in the media so far, at least 250 factories have considerable amounts of hazardous waste, which are mainly
stored simply in yards or in improvised shelters. According to some sources, the actual amounts of these
wastes far exceed those recorded by the inspectors. They can be found not only on factory estates but also
on illegal dumps, and were often simply buried at different locations. Slovene experts estimate that there
are about 30,000 tonnes or more of hazardous waste produced by industry in recent decades which cannot
be processed or incinerated since Slovenia does not have the proper tools and technologies. In this area the
state has done virtually nothing in recent years, although state institutions and the ministry responsible for
the environment have in their possession data on the amounts of these wastes and also on their locations.
At present, Slovenia has no strategy of waste treatment at a state level. Public scandals and accidents, and
the resulting hazards are becoming increasingly frequent, and the public is justified in its alarm. In recent
months, the media has launched a virtual campaign against the responsible state institutions; the government
only responds to actual incidents and to situations which create an exceptional public and media outcry.
Slovene experts are aware that the problem needs to be tackled before Slovenia's accession to the European
Union, in spite of the government's reluctance to contribute more finances from the state budget.
I outlined the problems related to overloaded dumps at the meeting in Golden, Colorado. Since the state is
passing the initiative to the local communities in this area, by its failure to offer solutions at a state level,
disputes arise between local communities, which wish to build dumps only for relatively small areas and
the state, which prefers dumps for whole regions (several local communities). Larger dumps are cheaper to
build and to manage in comparison with several small ones; the position of the state institutions is therefore
understandable. However, since the state has not prepared a strategy at the state level which would include
a regional division of the country and the compulsory construction of regional dumps for municipal and
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other waste, it is also not difficult to understand the position of the local communities, which wish to begin
building new local dumps, since many present ones are overloaded.
The great collision between the state and its institutions on the one hand and the political leadership and
local communities on the other was last seen in the dispute between the ministry responsible for the
environment and the municipal authorities in Ljubljana. The city officials responsible for environmental
policies and waste treatment decided that Ljubljana should buy its own incinerator for municipal waste,
while senior state officials insisted that the strategy of waste treatment was the responsibility of state
institutions (i.e. the ministry). They argued that local communities were subordinate to state strategy, in spite
of the fact that the strategy of waste treatment at a state level had not even been prepared, let alone adopted
in parliament. In all these disputes various lobbies encouraging or hindering certain solutions for their own
financial interests have locked horns in battle. Without a court decision, the issue will probably not be
resolved soon.
The monitoring of drinking water, which has been conducted for many years and in which many parameters
are measured, has shown that the levels of certain parameters have significantly changed in recent years.
Because of this, drinking water sources will have to be better protected in the coming years and the access
of pollutants to the sources prevented. Slovenia had excellent drinking water for many years; only in a few
cases did it have to be specially prepared or conditioned (disinfected, etc.), since the pollution of ground
sources was minimal. In the last few years we have seen significant changes in this respect; ground water
sources are increasingly polluted, and
drinking water has to be prepared by various
methods before it is introduced into the water
supply system. The measurements of samples
taken from ground sources and from water
supply systems have shown it to be necessary
(in addition to the parameters prescribed in
Slovene legislation) in order to monitor
certain other substances. These are primarily
carcinogenic substances and pesticides. The
latter are a consequence of the intensive use
of these substances in agriculture.
\ V
Figure 1
Analyses of drinking water conducted throughout Slovenia have yielded results within the expected limits.
There have been no significant changes. However, in the last three years (1995, 1996 and 1997) we have
begun to monitor the presence of certain other carcinogenic substances, such as arsenic, lead, trihalo-
methanes, and last year (1997) certain pesticides as well, such as atrazine, alachlor, and their metabolites.
The content levels for As, Pb, and CHCl3for 1995 and 1996 are presented graphically (Figures 1, 2, 3). The
presence of these carcinogenic substances in drinking water have never exceeded the legally permitted
levels. For 1997 the levels of these substances are similar.
In 1997 we also began to measure the
presence of atrazine and alachlor in drinking
water (samples were taken from household
water taps; see Figures 4, 5, and 6). Here the
concentrations did not exceed the permitted
values either. &
Table 1 shows the highest recorded nitrate
presence and the totals for pesticides in
Slovene ground waters in 1996. From the
pesticide totals it can be seen that the
s \
Figure 2
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amounts of these substances in groundwater are highest in those areas with intensive farming, where large
(indeed excessive) amounts of pesticides are still used.
Table 1. Nitrates and Pesticides in Groundwater [1]
Location Nitrates mg/1
Prekmurskopolje
Mursko polje
Apasko polje
Ptujsko polje
Dravsko polje
DolinaHudinje
Spodnja Savinjska dolina
Dolina Bolske
Vodisko polje
Kranjsko polje
Sorsko polje
Dolina Kamniske Bistrice
Ljubljansko polje
Ljubljansko barje
Catezko polje
Brezisko polje
Krsko polje
Vipavsko Soska dolina
131.1
86.8
46.9
85.9
93.0
10.6
98.3
79.3
23.0
24.8
75.3
37.2
28.3
10.6
21.0
25.2
63.1
54.9
Atrazine yUg/1
0.85
0.12
0.27
0.82
1.30
<0.05
0.18
0.10
0.08
0.13
0.21
0.47
0.32
<0.05
0.05
0.23
0.24
<0.05
Metabolites of
atrazine* //g/1
1.90
0.34
0.96
1.55
2.00
<0.05
0.63
0.63
0.20
0.19
0.33
2.39
0.32
<0.05
0.05
0.52
0.81
0.05
All pesticides
WE/1
1.55
0.26
1.24
2.17
3.20
<0.1
0.73
0.74
0.22
0.31
0.30
1.69
0.45
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
0.48
<0.1
* desetilatrazine and desisopropylatrazine
\ \
Figure 3
Examination and analysis of the above data
indicate:
• excessive use of pesticides in agriculture
• the dumping of chemical waste at illegal
dumps in the natural environment. In
time, these chemical substances reach
water sources.
• increased values of some of the
substances may be attributed to various
spillages of chemical substances due to
accidents or negligence.
Accidents and spillages are statistically well recorded. The data is collected by the police and regularly
published. Tables 2 and 3 show an annual statistical overview of spillages of various chemical substances
in Slovenia.
Table 2. The number of incidents and the volume of leaked gases and liquids by year [1]
Year
Number of accidents
Leaked in m3
Chemicals in 103 1
1986
85
203
85
1987
54
66
66
1988
48
120
34
1990
124
532
81
1991
86
179
96
1992
89
418
126
1993
94
360
29
1994
97
104
35
1995
93
976
26
Incidents involving
amounts over 200 1
28
18
19
11
14
15
13
10
Note: There are no figures for 1989.
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Table 3. Statistics on spilt substances in recent years (in litres of liquid) [1]
Liquid in litres - by year
Petroleum derivatives
Miscellaneous chemicals
Liquid gases
Other substances
Liquid manure
Miscellaneous waste waters
1995
22,500
3,413
30,000
726
40,000
256
1994
32,980
2,215
60
30,000
31,000
8,000
1993
23.950
4,990
319,000
-
12,000
-
1990
72.710
9,250
-
-
415,000
-
Figure 4
The results of these measurements and an overview of accidents and spillages indicate that the quality of
Slovene drinking water is falling; laws and regulations are currently being prepared to limit the use of
pesticides in farming and to protect ground water sources presently used as sources of drinking water.
The next practical environmental measure
undertaken by the state last year was a
campaign to list all water polluters, including
all factories, workshops and other places
where activities producing industrial waste
water are conducted. Monitoring is compul-
sory for all industrial waste waters, which
includes the qualitative and quantitative
analyses of contaminants. The legislation
stipulates that the measurements must be
conducted up to six times a year for certain
pollutants, depending on the quantity of
waste water. The measurements are
conducted by authorised institutions which
were awarded concessions for carrying out
this monitoring. On the basis of the results of
chemical analyses, the polluters must pay
appropriate financial compensation to the
state. The institution holding the concession
to monitor industrial waste waters must
communicate the results of the measurements
and analyses of waste waters released by
individual polluters to the authorised state
institution, such as the Ministry of the
Environment and Physical Planning, which
on the basis on the analyses, quantities and
types of burden placed by waste water on
natural waters calculates the amount of tax to
be paid by the polluter. The level of this tax
depends on the quantity of the industrial
waste water and the presence of
contaminants. The regulations strictly
determine the amounts and types of
contaminant in industrial waste water which
are permissible and which do not endanger
Figure 5
Figure 6
natural waters, as well as the amounts and types of contaminant placing a burden on natural waters and
sewerage systems, and related compensation for each individual contaminant and amount. The money thus
collected is earmarked for the construction of purification plants for those industrial systems which are not
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financially able to build their own purification plants, priority being given to those polluters whose waste
waters are most contaminated. The taxes for industrial waste waters have been increasing every year and
many polluters now wish to build their own purification plants at factory sites, raising state loans provided
by the Environmental and Development Fund. This is a special fund ensuring that state money intended for
environmental issues is indeed spent for this purpose. The loans from the fund are intended exclusively for
the construction and purchase of devices and technologies which contribute significantly to solving
environmental problems.
The monitoring of industrial waste waters has been conducted for one year, since the beginning of 1997.
High fines are prescribed for the violators and for those who do not arrange measurements with the
authorised institutions. The measurements have already yielded some results, particularly in changing the
attitude of polluters towards their waste waters. Corrective measures which are being introduced in certain
factories and the construction of water purification plants are the most significant steps in this field.
In addition to the above problems and certain activities which are already underway in order to solve or at
least mitigate them, a number of other burning environmental issues exist in Slovenia today which will have
to be tackled in the coming years. The most pressing problems are probably that of waste treatment strategy,
both municipal and industrial, the protection of soil, rivers, lakes and the sea, and the protection of the
atmosphere in certain areas.
References:
1. Chemical Influences on the Environment and Life—Where Is the Limit?, Environmental Research and
Protection Council, Slovene Academy of Sciences and Arts, the European Year of Nature Protection
1995 Project, Slovenian Environmental Movement, Ljubljana, 1995.
2. B. Druzina, P. Otorepec. A Preliminary Proposal for the Preparation of Scientific Foundations for the
Introduction of the Monitoring of Contaminants Affecting the Health of Humans, Health Protection
Institute of the Republic of Slovenia, Ljubljana, January 1996.
3. B. Druzina, Monitoring Certain Contaminants in Drinking Water Which Affect the Health of Humans,
Ljubljana, June-July 1997.
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SWEDEN
1. Legal and Administrative Issues
Sweden is still suffering from a lack of legislative support. There is no special legislation covering
remediation-related issues yet. We have the Environmental Protection Act from 1996 which was not drafted
to take in account remediation problems. The legislation is both unclear and incomplete concerning
remediation.
Due to the recently announced ruling of the Supreme Administrative Court, the possibilities of placing
demands on companies that have closed down have been limited to the period after 1989. This means that
about 75 percent of the remedial cost must be covered by society.
The need for new legislation has been obvious for some time and in 1996 the Swedish EPA submitted a
proposal for new legislation on remediation to the Government. This legislation has been incorporated in
the new Environmental Code, which is currently under consideration and will come into effect on 1 January
1999.
The purpose of this new legislation is to clarify liability and give the authorities greater opportunity to
promote, control and steer remedial action. With this new Code, it will be possible to place demands on
companies from 1969 onwards. This new legislation also introduces the official registration on confirmed
contaminated sites.
In 1997 the Swedish EPA presented guideline values for 36 contaminants in contaminated soil. Guidelines
for the remediation of gas stations, including guideline values for soil and groundwater, are under
consideration.
The Swedish definition of a contaminated site is a site, deposit, land, groundwater or sediment which has
been contaminated, intentionally or unintentionally caused by industry or some other activity. The definition
of "contaminated" is that the levels of contamination apparently exceed the local/regional background
values.
The new Environmental Code will give the authorities quite a different role in the remedial work. It will
make it possible to take a more active role and enforce private companies to take greater responsibility for
their actions than they do at present.
2. Registration of Contaminated Sites
So far we have identified about 3,000 potential sites in Sweden. We estimate the total number of
contaminated sites to be 10,000 sites. Due to our industrial structure, sites with metallic contaminants
dominated mines with acid mine drainage are our heaviest and most costly remedial problem. Other
problems are caused by metal works, iron and steel works and surface plating facilities.
Secondly, there is a group of industries with complex mixtures of metals and persistent organic substances
such as chloralkali (mercury and dioxins/furans); these include gasworks, pulp and paper industry (mercury
and PCB) and wood preservation plants (CCA. Cu, PAHs, PCP, and dioxins/furans).
Thirdly, we have the petroleum industry with oil refineries, oil depots and gas stations which represent the
largest group by number but also cause problems which are easiest to solve.
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Today we have an informal registration of identified, suspected sites at the Swedish EPA. This register is
not official and only open for the environmental authorities. A more developed and regionally based
computer system at the County Administrative Boards (CABs) will replace this first database in one to two
years. The Swedish EPA is responsible for the development of this regionally based site registration data
system in order to ensure that the regional registers are consistent. The purpose of this database is that it
should provide a basis for the regional planning and the prioritization of inventories, investigations and
remedial work, as well as serve as a support in the ongoing work on licensing and supervision.
With the new Environmental Code, the CABs will be authorized to decide which sites can, with certainty,
be classified as contaminated in an official register. General criteria for this registration will be regulated
by law. This registration can, in certain cases, lead to land use restrictions, obligation to report certain kinds
of activities (like excavation) at the site to the municipality, etc. This information will also be entered into
the national land register. The CABs will also be given the right to decide if and when such a classification
should be annulled.
3. Remedial Methods
The EPA's policy in the context of remediation is to choose long term solutions that, if possible, solve the
problem once and for all. That means in the first instance, to select methods which destroy the contaminant
through biodegradation or combustion. When this is not possible, as in the case of metals for example,
methods should be used where the contaminant is concentrated/collected for further treatment and/or
landfilling. By concentration methods we mean, for example, soil-washing, soil-venting, and thermal
desorption. Only in the last instance should methods such as containment, immobilization and landfilling
of untreated residues be selected. This is an application of the BAT(Best Available Technology) principle
in the remedial field.
The second principle that concerns the choice of technology is the eco-cycle principle. Site remediation has
to do with the rational management of land and water resources. Methods which enable land and soil to be
re-used are given higher priority than methods which involve the excavation and removal of waste as well
as landfilling.
Landfilling, encapsulation and incineration are still the dominant remediation measures in Sweden. During
1997 two rather large sites, both of which were former wood preservation plants, have been successfully
remediated using soil-washing. The trend is that some kind of treatment is becoming more and more
common. In particular, biological methods like composting and in situ methods, such as vapor extraction
and bioventing. are becoming more and more frequent.
The state of the art in Sweden is as follows:
Soil-washing. We have three pilot plants and two full-scale plants in Sweden. In addition, there are three
more full-scale plants planned.
Thermal desorption. Two pilot plants have been tested and one full-scale is under construction.
Composting. We have a great number of companies dealing with uncontrolled composting, in open air
without evaporation or leaching control. In controlled composting, we have two companies working with
some kind of on-site static, encapsulated compost.
In situ methods such as soil vapor extraction, bioventing, and air sparging are used by one company, mostly
for remediating gas stations.
Finally, we have a company developing a pilot bio slurry reactor into a full-scale plant.
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The problem in Sweden is that there are still only a small number of remediations carried out. Despite the
fact that there are quite a lot of companies interested in working in this field, the market is still very small.
One bright spot is the initiative from the Swedish Petrol Institute to get the petroleum companies to form
an environmental commission to clean up petrol stations which have closed down. The work will be
financed by a marginal increase in petrol prices. The aim is that 6.000 petrol stations will be remediated
within a 10-year period. This will surely increase the demands for remedial work and make the market
larger, at least for biological methods and in-situ methods such as vapor extraction and bioventing.
Another positive development is the Government's investment in building a new ecological society.
Together with housing, energy and transportation, remedial action is one of the sectors where money will
be spent. US$700 million will be spent under 3 years. Local authorities will present plans to the government
who will prioritize and allocate the funds. The Swedish EPA is not much involved in these decisions and
our funds for the long term plans have been cut down to a minimum. This is a general trend in Sweden. The
environmental authorities get less and less money and temporary organizations, often run by politicians, are
formed to administrate regular authority work on an ad hoc basis.
Based on rather few remediations, the conclusion is that biological treatment, such as composting, should
be used if you have an easily degradable organic contamination as at petrol stations, oil depots and
refineries. In situ methods such as vapor extraction, bioventing and air sparging are also useful in some of
these cases. These methods are rather cheap.
Composting could be used for lighter PAH but if you have 4-6 ringed PAHs or PCP, a bioslurry reactor is
needed.
As we have a lot of sites with mixed contaminants, metals and organics, soil washing is a very useful
technology in Sweden. The two full-scale remedies last year worked out very well.
Concerning thermal treatment, we do not have any experience of full-scale treatment yet, but the tests shows
that it could be useful for PAHs, mercury, dioxins, etc.
4. Conclusions
Metals and complex mixtures of metals and persistent organics are the dominating problem in Sweden. Acid
mine drainage is our major, and most costly, remedial problem.
The lack of technology has been a great problem but in the last few years we have seen a change for the
better. The interest from treatment companies has increased and today there are around 15 companies active
on the market. Some of these are developing their technology from the beginning, others are seeking
collaboration with companies from other countries, such as the Netherlands or Germany.
The lack of legislative support and of Governmental long-term funding make the market unsure. The
financial sector's increasing awareness makes it more and more difficult to hide these problems, giving
companies the incentive to clean up voluntarily. The new Environmental Code and the remedial programs
for gas stations will hopefully help the market to survive until the remedial program can get more stable
financing.
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SWITZERLAND
Induslrial she*
1. Legal and Administrative Issues
The population of Switzerland is about 7 million, living in an area of 41,000 km^ Outside the sparsely
populated mountainous region, which comprises about 60 percent of the country's surface, most people live
or work in the urban areas of the lowland. The country's political structure is federalist, organised and
divided into 23 states, called Cantons. These Cantons are very different in terms of surface area and
population, as well as economy, industrialisation and scientific background. Industrial waste, waste
management and environmental impacts also vary considerably.
The first steps towards a systematic assessment
and remediation of contaminated sites were
made by local authorities in 1985. Today about
75 percent of the estimated 50,000 suspected
sites are registered by the Cantons and the
Federal Department of Defence. The Cantons
are responsible for entering the sites con-
taminated with waste in a register, differen-
tiating among landfill, industrial and accident
sites. The registration of industrial sites, which
is carried out according to the branch of
industry concerned, is difficult. Sites should
not be put on the register if they are not
polluted with waste.
Accident sites
4%
4S%
Landfill sites
Figure 1. Estimated number of polluted sites
in Switzerland.
In total we can reckon on more than 3,000
contaminated sites that will have to be
remediated in the next 20 to 25 years. Up to
200 contaminated sites have been remediated
to date. According to current experience 5-10
percent of the polluted sites (about 3,000) need
to be remediated (Figure 2).
The overall remediation costs for these
contaminated sites are estimated by the Federal
Agency at over 3 billion ECU (5 billion Swiss
Francs).
It can be assumed that more than 80 percent of
the sites (about 2,500) will generate costs of
less than 1 million Swiss Francs.
< 1
1- 10
10 &fl
Mto. aFr.
Figure 2. Estimated distribution of the cost of
remediating contaminated sites in Switzerland.
2. Legal Framework for the Management of Contaminated Sites in Switzerland
Regulations for management of contaminated sites were established in the 1995 revised Law relating to the
Protection of the Environment. This amendment, to the Law of 1983 relating to the Protection of the
Environment, regulates the management of contaminated sites for the first time in Swiss environmental
legislation, in the following three articles:
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• Registration and remediation: Obligation to register landfills and other sites polluted by waste
(contaminated sites) in a register open to the public; obligation to remediate polluted sites, if they result
in harmful effects or cause a nuisance to the environment or if there is a danger that such effects may
arise (contaminated sites).
• Regulation of financing: "Polluter pays" principle; the owner of a site is excepted if he or she could
not have had any knowledge of the contamination, did not stand to gain from the contamination, or will
not stand to gain from the remediation. The authorities rule on the division of the costs if people with
an obligation to remediate so require.
• Levy to fund remediation: Levy on landfills of up to 20 percent of the average costs in order to finance
remediation projects, where the polluter cannot be identified or cannot pay, or where domestic waste
is to be remediated.
Based on the revised Law relating to the protection of the environment the Ministry of Environment, Traffic,
Energy and Communication plans to put into force the Ordinance relating to the remediation of
contaminated sites by 1 July 1998. This ordinance has the following objectives:
• Stop emissions at source: the remediation criteria are not based on the pollution itself, but on the
emissions from it that lead to unacceptable immissions in waters, air or soil; decontamination,
containment and use-restrictions for the soil are all therefore acceptable as remediation measures;
• Cooperation between polluters and authorities: authorities and polluters may carry on working as
long as possible under agreements, instead of the need for a ruling; agreements among branches of
industry should be encouraged;
• Legal equality through harmonised criteria (e.g., 72 intervention values, remediation targets, leaching
tests) and uniform requirements for the elaboration and management of registers, planning and
execution of investigations, as well as monitoring and remediation projects;
• Prevention against new risks: building activities on polluted sites are permitted only if it can be proved
that the site does not need remediation, if the project does not hinder future remediation, or if it will be
remediated in the course of the project; containment measures have to be effective long-term,
controllable, reparable and financially guaranteed.
Priority setting and stepwise management:
• Registration and prioritisation: The register of polluted sites is open to the public and must be completed
by the Cantons by the year 2003. The registered sites should be prioritised and the register updated
continuously. Sites which are completely decontaminated will be deleted from the register;
• Remediation decision: On the basis of a historical and/or technical investigation it will be decided
whether the site needs no further action, monitoring is necessary, or remedial action is required;
• Remediation objectives and urgency: The general objectives of remediation are to remove the need
for remediation; on the basis of the results of the risk assessment the Cantons may deviate from these
general objectives under certain circumstances (according to use, ecological and economic
commensurability, environmental merit); sites which present an acute danger must be treated
immediately, for others the date by which a remediation project is to be completed must be set by the
Cantons according to the risk assessment;
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• Remediation: The polluter is obliged to devise a remediation project which includes remediation and
monitoring measures (including waste disposal, long-term feasibility, time needed to reach the
objectives), an eco audit of the measures to be taken, preventive measures for the case that the
remediation undertaken fails, cost-effectiveness, distribution of costs, etc.
In the revised Law relating to the Protection of the Environment (LPE) the section on remediation of
contaminated sites and the financing thereof has its own regulations due to its importance. Art. 32e of the
LPE gives the Federal Council the authority to introduce a tax to finance remediations. The tax should be
levied on the deposition of wastes; the rate is limited to a maximum of 20 percent of average deposition
costs in Switzerland. The revenue is expressly related to this purpose and flows to the Cantons (if they fulfil
certain conditions), which must in turn find the finance to remediate contaminated sites. The amount of the
compensation is limited to 40 percent of the countable remediation costs; at least 60 percent of the
remediation costs must be borne by the Cantons.
The issuing of Federal regulations to cover financial cooperation in the remediation of contaminated sites
is justified because for many sites the polluter is no longer identifiable, or is unable to pay. In these cases
the costs of remediation, insofar as they cannot be passed on to the proprietor, will be carried by the Cantons
and thus by public taxes. This planned ordinance will enable the Cantons to receive financial support from
the Confederation.
Furthermore, this fiscal instrument should offer an incentive for the quick and environmentally sound
remediation of contaminated sites. It is the Confederation's aim that contaminated sites, which represent a
severe potential danger, should not only be investigated but also be rapidly remediated. Remediations should
be provoked by the actual danger to the environment, and not just by development, building plans or the
presence of adequate sources of money.
3. Remedial methods
In the approximately 200 remediations carried out to date, "classical" methods of remediation were
predominantly used. These are primarily:
• Excavation of the contaminated material and treatment in a soil-washing facility or disposal in a landfill
• Securing of the site (e.g.. sealing of surfaces, barrier walls).
New and innovative remediation technology, particularly in situ measures, are still not completely accepted.
Efforts are especially necessary in this area, to which the authorities can contribute.
When the Ordinance on contaminated sites comes into force, it will be possible to keep a register of
remediations carried out in Switzerland and keep more comprehensive information on individual cases than
is currently possible.
4. Research, Development and Demonstration (RD&D)
Switzerland, in contrast to other countries, does not have the financial means to promote large projects to
research or develop innovative remediation technologies. Furthermore, there is no program of technology
promotion in existence. The limited means available are primarily used for urgent, practical tasks such as:
• Decision tools for risk assessment
• Applicability of ecotoxicological methods
• Guidelines for taking samples
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SAEFL particularly supports practical projects in the area of biological and "intrinsic" remediations as well
as the containment of contaminated sites (e.g., reactive wall systems, barrier walls).
5. Conclusions
Current Federal policy on the treatment of contaminated sites is oriented primarily according to the
following important principles:
• Uniform goals for the treatment of contaminated sites should be valid throughout Switzerland.
• The authorities work with those directly affected, especially with industry.
• The contaminated sites should be treated according to objective urgency (danger to the environment).
• Remediations should be carried out quickly with realistic solutions (principle of commensurability); the
search for perfect solutions, and thus leaving the problem for future generations, should be avoided.
• The requirements of remediation should be set, as far as possible, according to the environmental
situation at the time.
• The remediation should guarantee that illegal effects are permanently halted and that the measures are
sustainable overall.
• Contaminated sites are to be decontaminated where possible and to be secured as a secondary priority.
• Future contaminated sites should be avoided through consistent implementation of precautionary
environmental regulations.
• Industrial and commercial contaminated sites are to be remediated as far as possible for future use.
"Brownfields," and their subsequent replacement with "greenfields," are to be avoided.
The legislator has the difficult task of issuing regulations with which environmentally legitimate treatment
of contaminated sites is possible and on the other hand ensuring that these regulations are acceptable to the
population and those affected by a remediation.
The registration of sites contaminated with waste is valuable. On the other hand there is still great necessity
to investigate the sites and their possible remediations, which could in some cases be very cost-intensive.
Prerequisites must be created so that investigation and, if necessary, remediation can be carried out, not just
where there are plans for construction, but also where it is necessary for purely environmental reasons. We
hope that the planned ordinance on the financing of the remediation of contaminated sites will offer a
significant support to this.
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TURKEY
1. Legal and Administrative Issues
There is growing recognition of soil and groundwater pollution problems in Turkey since the enforcement
of the regulation of the Control of Hazardous Wastes in August 1995. The main purpose of the regulation
is to provide a legal framework for the management of hazardous wastes throughout the nation. It basically
regulates prevention of direct or indirect release of hazardous wastes that can be harmful to human health
and the environment, control of production, transportation and exports, technical and administrative
standards for construction and operation of disposal sites, waste recycle, treatment, minimization at the
source, and related legal and punitive responsibilities. The regulation is applicable not only to hazardous
wastes to be generated in the future, but also concerns with the existing hazardous wastes and their safe
disposal in compliance with the current regulation within three years.
The Control of Hazardous Wastes regulation does not explicitly define the concept of contaminated sites.
Rather, it defines w7hat a hazardous waste is and provides lists categorizing hazardous wastes based on their
sources, chemical compositions and accepted disposal techniques. Thus, any site contaminated with or
subjected to any of these categorized hazardous wastes can implicitly be defined as a contaminated site.
However, difficulties arises from the lack of information for most of chemicals in these lists regarding
specific maximum concentration levels (MCLs) or remedial action levels.
Currently, identification of any contaminated site is not based on a certain systematic approach. These sites
are mostly identified after some potential environmental problems become obvious and public as a result
of the efforts of local authorities or concerned citizens. However, some current policy developments by the
Ministry of Environment can make the identification of contaminated sites somewhat more systematic. In
this new policy development, the waste management commission, an administrative body proposed by the
Control of Hazardous Wastes regulation, initiates preparation of industrial waste inventory on a regional
basis. Waste inventor)' is planned to be achieved by requiring all the industry to fill out annual waste
declaration forms revealing the type, amount, composition and the current disposal practice of their wastes.
This way, it is expected that waste generation activities and pollution potentials of industries can be
monitored; regionally effective waste reutilization and recycling programs can be implemented; and finally
regional needs for the type and capacity of waste disposal facilities can be identified. In response to such
efforts, an integrated waste management facility, including a landfill and incineration unit for disposal of
industrial wastes, is becoming operational at full scale in heavily industrialized Izmit region.
Another policy development related to identification of contaminated sites is the work progressing towards
the preparation of a "Soil Pollution Control" regulation. It is expected that this regulation will clarify the
existing confusion over the remedial action and cleanup levels and set a guideline for the selection of
appropriate cleanup technologies for various different types of contaminated soil sites.
2. Contaminated Sites
Same examples of the identified contaminated sites and major soil and groundwater problems associated
with these sites in Turkey are as follows:
• Beykan Oil Field Site: At this site, petroleum hydrocarbon pollution of surface soils, surface and
groundwater caused by oil production activities in the Beykan Oil Field is of concern. The Beykan Oil
Field is enclosed by the watershed of a medium size dam constructed during early-sixties for irrigation
purposes. Due to recent increases in domestic water supply demand, the dam was considered as a
potential resource to meet the increasing water demand in the area. A total of 38 oil producing wells are
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placed within the various protection zones surrounding the dam's reservoir; 13 of them being in the
immediate vicinity, within the first 300 m of the reservoir shore called the ^absolute protection zone."
Oil spills at these wells and along pipelines connecting wells and other facilities are considered as
potential pollution sources effecting the reservoir water quality. Existing spill records revealed that,
during the peak oil production years, an annual average spill volume of 95 tons for the entire field,
resulting in an average TPH concentration of 20,300 ppm in contaminated soils. As a consequence,
contaminant mass leaching to the reservoir from soils contaminated by oil spills is viewed as a primary
concern for reservoir water quality. In addition to soil and possible reservoir water pollution problems,
another primary concern at this site is pollution of the Midyat aquifer due to injection of nearly 20
million m3 of formation water between the years of 1971 and 1996. Injected formation water contains
high amounts of brine (with a chloride concentration of 3,000 mg/L and TDS concentration of 6,500
mg/L) and some emulsified oil (with a concentration of 500 mg/L). The Midyat aquifer overlies the
Beykan Oil Field and a primary source of drinking water supply for the nearby community. For this site,
studies concerning the assessment of the extent of contamination and appropriate remedial measures
are currently underway.
• Incirlik PCB Contaminated Soils Site: At this site, soil contamination by PCB oil leaking from storage
drums at a military reutilization yard was occurred during the operation of the reutilization yard between
the years of 1970 and 1988. An excavation of 0.5 meters deep was made in October 1991, leaving the
excavated soil stored in approximately 300 drums and in a pile. Estimated PCB-contaminated soil
volume is 1,600 m3. Site characterization investigations revealed that site soils are high in clay content
(65 percent) and potential for groundwater contamination is low. PCB concentrations measured in
composite contaminated soil samples range up to 750 ppm. For remediation of contaminated soils,
various alternatives are being evaluated including incineration and in situ/ex situ solidification/
stabilization (S/S).
• Chromium Ore Processing Residue Dump Site: At this site, soil and groundwater contamination by
Cr(VI) leaching from chromium ore processing residue (COPR) is of concern. COPR is produced by
a chromate production factor}' providing mostly the needs of leather tanning industry. During the early
production years, COPR is dumped at a temporary dump site near factory. The unprocessed row
chromite ore (FeCr2O4) contains nearly 45 percent of chromium oxide (Cr2O3). After a roasting process
of chromite ore by adding Na2CO3 and CaCO, constituents, COPR contains nearly 25,000 ppm of total
chromium. Due to high chromium content, COPR is partly recycled by mixing with chromium ore at
a ratio of roughly 1:20. The current chromate production technology used yields approximately three
(3) tons of COPR to produce one (1) ton of chromate. Currently, some research work is underway to
evaluate soil and groundwater pollution potential of land-disposed COPR and to develop technical
guidelines for appropriate management of COPR related wastes and remediation of COPR contaminated
soils.
Ystambul Solid Waste Projects
The former uncontrolled dumping site at Yakacyk (on the Asian side of Ystanbul) bearing 600,000 cubic
meters of unclassified refuse over an area of 80,000 square meters has been banned to refuse dumping since
1990, and rehabilitated since 1995 to solve the environmental problems of about 10,000 settlements. The
outlines of the rehabilitation project consisted of:
• gas collection plant capable of incinerating 1,000 cubic meters of stored gas at a power of 500 kW
(burning temperature is 1,200°C)
• 500 m stream amelioration
• sporting and recreational fields with cycling grounds
• 80,000 m2 of recovered green fields
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The project cost was US$1.6 million. In addition to serving basic environmental problems of surrounding
settlements, the project also eliminated the extremely dangerous (explosion risk) methane gas which reached
the basements and ground floors of nearby houses.
The daily refuse collection of Ystanbul amounts to 9,000 cubic tons (6.000 cubic tons from the European
and 3,000 from the Asian side) are compressed to a small volume at six transfer stations, and carried to
ultimate disposal sites by 76 trucks. About 25 percent (2,250 cubic tons) of total collected refuse consists
of recoverable wastes like glass, paper, metal and plastics. The solid waste project of Ystanbul Metropolitan
Municipality envisages efficient classification of refuse bringing about 50 percent energy saving with 15
times reduced water pollution (to surrounding water bodies). The infectious sanitary wastes are separately-
collected and incinerated at 1,100°C.
The current status of the former uncontrolled dumping sites of Ystanbul already rehabilitated or under
amelioration work is as follows:
• Umraniye (Asian side) is rehabilitated to green fields and sporting grounds.
• Halkaly (European side) is banned to dumping; the programmed rehabilitation work will be completed
by 1998, reducing the environmental hazard of the site to nearby settlements.
• Kemerburgaz (European side) has completed the construction of the linking roads, and is scheduled to
be rehabilitated by the end of 1998. A composting plant occupying 35 hectars of land with an organic
refuse intake capacity of 1,000 cubic tons per day has been adjudicated, and is programed to operate by
the end of 1998. The plant will give service on 24-hr basis producing 350-400 cubic tons of compost
fertilizer per day. Electrical energy production from the evolving methane gas is thought to meet the
local power consumption.
• Yakacyk (Asian side) is banned to dumping; it is basically rehabilitated since 1995, and gas collection
and incineration plant is in operation.
• Aydynly is banned to dumping; rehabilitation project adjudicated in 1997.
Solid Waste Disposal Project goals in 1997 include:
• Biogas (CH4) Production: US$11 million (covering energy production from solid waste storage gas and
energy transport)
• Wastewater Treatment Plant of Leakage Water from Solid Waste Processing (for plant construction):
US$3.4 million
• Rehabilitation of Kemerburgaz Solid Waste and Refuse Disposal Site: US$4.2 million
• Rehabilitation of Aydynly Site: US$2.2 million
• Rehabilitation of Halkaly Site: US$9.7 million
• Odayeri Treatment Plant: US$0.8 million
• Komurcuoda Treatment Plant: US$1.7 million
Incineration of Infectious Wastes
The capacity of sanitary wastes collected from all hospitals of Ystanbul is about 25 ton/day (105 hospitals).
Although Ystanbul Metropolitan Municipality supports the segregation of infectious wastes, a number of
hospitals are not ready for such a classification in terms of their internal organisation. Assuming full
capacity, the incineration plant is thought to produce 450 kVA (kilo-voltampere) of electrical energy.
Rehabilitation of Ystanbul's Golden Horn Estuary and Dredging of Heavily Contaminated Benthic
Sludge
By the completion of construction of Northern Golden Horn Collectors, the estuary does not receive any
further wastewater (untreated sewage) from the northern side. By means of primary treatment at Baltalimany
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plant, the sewerage water is deprived of coarse particles and floating materials, and subjected to deep sea
discharge.
Currently, the Golden Horn Estuary is covered to 60 m depth with heavily contaminated sludge and
sediment. The total amount of sludge is estimated to be 50 million cubic meters. On the other hand, the
purification intends skimming up to 5 m depth. This depth is reduced down to 1 m along the shores for
eliminating the sliding risk of surrounding buildings. The slamming operation is estimated to collect sludge
of about 3 million cubic meters. Uptill now, 400,000 cubic meters of sludge has been transported to their
ultimate landfill sites. In addition, desodorization of about 150 thousand cubic meters of sludge temporarily
stored in stone mines around the site has been achieved by chlorination. These landfill sites will later be
converted to recreational green fields.
The sludge will be dredged from the benthic region of the Ystanbul Estuary (Golden Horn) and will be
removed from the site without subjection to open air or turbidimetric mixing with water. Dredging methods
will be selected to minimize turbulence within the water column. Restoration of aquatic life in the Golden
Horn and reoxygenation of its waters are the goals. The project has been planned to finish by 1998, and the
estimated cost is about US$125-130 million.
Bursa
The Metropolitan Municipality of Bursa (one of the five biggest cities of Turkey) has projected an
investment of US$23 million (US$12.5 million of which is U.S. credit) covering the fulfillment of various
tasks regarding industrial and domestic solid waste disposal. The following tasks have been planned under
this project:
• Rehabilitation of the former uncontrolled dumping site (Demirtap refuse site)
• Construction and operation of regular solid waste disposal site (Hamitler storage site)
• Segregation and classification of wastes at source, covering wastes that can be further evaluated and
sanitary wastes that can be incinerated
• Energy production from stored gas
Rehabilitation of Demirtab Uncontrolled Dumping Site
The site has served Bursa's population for over 35 years. The project started in 1994, and the site has been
closed to refuse dumping since 1996.
• The main body of the site (about 15 ha) has been resloped to orientate drainage water to bracing
collectors.
• In order to prevent rainwater to penetrate into the mass, a final cover comprised of 0.30 m drainage
layer, 0.40 m impermeable clay layer, and 0.40 m humic soil layer has been formed.
• 51 gas pipes have been mounted to collect the evolving gas from the storage area, and preparations have
been made for potential energy production in 1998.
• Collecting forks have been laid at the foot of the slope (refuse hill) to receive the infiltrate water which
is transported to the wastewater treatment plant after initial sedimentation.
• In order to prevent land erosion from flowing rainwater over the slopes, these slopes have been
implanted.
• These operations in the former uncontrolled dumping site required US$2 million.
Construction of Hamitler Regular Disposal Site
The site (17 Ion from Bursa) includes 61 hectare of land capable of storing 8 million cubic meters of refuse,
potentially meeting Bursa's demand for 23 years.
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• Construction began in 1994; two valleys (X and T) have been completed to enable regular refuse
disposal.
• A drainage layer 0.30 m thick has been formed in both valleys to control groundwater pollution.
• The impermeable layer formed on top of the drainage layer is composed of 0.60 m clay + 2.5 mm HDPE
in the X-valley, and of 1.20 m clay + HDPE in the T-valley. The water permeability of clay used was
less than 10'8.
• The infiltrate water is collected in impermeable ponds (of floor 0.60 m clay + 2.5 mm HDPE), and
finally transported to the wastewater treatment plant after partial evaporation and volume reduction.
• These initial facilities at Hamitler site costed US$4 million. The approval of the daily intake of about
a thousand ton refuse to these facilities has been initiated since mid 1996. The approvable solid wastes
should have an analysis certificate (confirming their non-hazardous character) and are weighed in their
trucks on the site. On the other hand, hazardous wastes that can be incinerated are taken to Yzmit
Incineration Plant.
• The infectious waste incineration facility at Hamitler has a built-in capacity of 300 kg/hr. The facility
consists of two burning chambers, the first being operated with natural gas for preliminary burning, and
the second capable of being elevated to 1,200°C in 2 seconds for final incineration.
Currently, sanitary wastes in special bags are transported to the regional incineration plant at Yzmit in
refrigerated containers.
Bursa's projected sanitary waste capacity is 5.500 kg/day; the current collection capacity is at 2.400 kg/day.
3. Remedial Methods and RD&D
Currently, there are no reliable and comprehensive case study based statistics or data on remedial methods
and technologies used for cleanup of soil and groundwater in Turkey. Regulatory aspects of acceptable
remedial methods and technologies are provided by the Control of Hazardous Wastes regulation, which
specifies acceptable remedial and/or disposal methods for a given type of contaminant group. In the Control
of Hazardous Wastes regulation, acceptable methods for a large number of contaminant group is given as
physical, chemical and biological treatment without stating the specific name of the method. However, it
clearly states that use of remedial technologies is a must for wastes containing a large group of
contaminants. Currently, there is no official knowledge regarding the widespread past use of particular
technologies for soil and groundwater cleanup in Turkey. Most probably the remedial technologies that will
be used for the Beykan, Incirlik and COPR Dump sites are going to be the first site specific examples and
set precedence, in terms of both cost and performance, for cleanup in other similar sites.
There is a pressing need for research and development of soil and groundwater cleanup technologies in
Turkey. This year, there is significant increase in the number of soil and groundwater remediation research
projects supported financially by the Turkish State Planning Organization. Among this group, a project will
be initiated on the performance assessment of S/S technology for remediation of a large waste group (e.g.,
soils, mining waste and paper and pulp industry sludge) containing organic contaminants (PCB and AOX)
and heavy metals. The main purpose of this project is to investigate the reliability of S/S technology for
remediation of certain waste groups and provide technical and economical guidance for its field scale
applications. Another component of this project is to emphasize consideration of the risk-based corrective
action (RBCA) approach in the application of regulatory process for site specific cases. Considering the high
cost of subsurface remediation problems, RBCA approach will offer significant savings compared to the
current regulatory approach based on a fixed cleanup level.
4. Conclusions
There is a growing recognition of soil and groundwater degradation problems in Turkey. Because the
enforcement of hazardous waste regulations is relatively new, some difficulties in the identification of soil
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and ground-water contamination sites remain unresolved. Recent regulatory efforts are helpful for
identification of these sites contaminated as result of past activities. In the near future a considerable
increase in the number of registered contaminated sites is expected.
Turkey presently relies heavily on surface water resources to satisfy water supply demands mainly because
of relative abundance of surface waters resources. Groundwater constitutes a relatively small component
of total available resources (10 percent) but it represents a significant portion (27 percent) of total water
withdrawal. However, due to growing water demand parallel to rapid population and industrial growth, an
increasing demand for food production, urban expansion and accelerated degradation of surface water
quality, protection of clean groundwater resources as well as remediation of contaminated soil and
groundwater sites are becoming environmental issues of high priority. The sustainable development of
groundwater resources requires proper waste treatment for communities and industrial plants. Groundwater
is the major source of drinking water supply and as such needs to be fully protected and allocated only for
high quality uses. Although legislation on groundwater exists, their protection appears to be neglected at
least in certain areas. With the spread of irrigation practices, the pollution threat to groundwater is also
increasing. To date, unsatisfactory efforts has been made to protect groundwater from the increasing variety
of potential pollution sources, such as agricultural chemicals, septic tanks, and waste dumps. The control
of soil and groundwater contamination is essential to Turkey's on-going reliance on groundwater resources
for potable water.
The management of hazardous wastes in Turkey is inadequate to ensure proper handling and treatment.
Industrial waste, particularly hazardous waste, has grown proportionately with industrial production.
Treatment facilities are minimal and their disposal is usually haphazard. They pose serious dangers for soil
and groundwater and in some cases for public health. The legal gap has to a certain extent has been filled
with the regulation of the Control of Hazardous Wastes. Minimization of the generation and availability of
facilities for proper storage and disposal of hazardous wastes has been embodied in this Turkish regulation.
The policies are being strengthened by the application of such mechanisms of industrial waste management
as the full implementation of environmental impact assessment for new proposals, the requirement that
waste management programs be prepared and implemented by existing industries, and the encouragement
of waste re-use.
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UNITED KINGDOM
Introduction
This note provides a summary of contaminated land policy in the United Kingdom. It deals with:
• the basis of national policy
• who is responsible for controlling contaminated land
• existing controls
• Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990
There is also information on research and the major guidance on contaminated land which the Department
of the Environment, Transport and the Regions expects to publish in 1998.
The Basis of National Policy
The control of contaminated land in the United Kingdom fits in with the Government's overall commitment
to sustainable development and adherence to the precautionary principle. The "precautionary principle" is
described in the 1990 white paper. This Common Inheritance, as meaning:
"Where there are significant risks of damage to the environment, the Government will be prepared to
take precautionary action to limit the use of potentially dangerous material or the spread of potentially
dangerous pollutants, even where scientific knowledge is not conclusive, if the balance of likely costs
and benefits justifies it."
More specifically, the details of the national policy on contaminated land were intimated in the document
entitled Framework for Contaminated Land published in November 1994. The chief features of the policy
are:
• Most importantly, there have to be adequate controls in place to prevent land contamination in the first
place. This is achieved through Integrated Pollution Control and waste management licensing.
• With regard to existing contamination, the rule should be that the land is "suitable for use"—remedial
action is required only where the current or intended use of the site presents unacceptable risks to health
or the environment, and where there are appropriate and cost effective means of undertaking
remediation.
• The normal processes of development and redevelopment of land are the best means of tackling much
past contamination, with those developments being subject to the planning control and building
regulation systems.
• Broadly speaking, the "polluter pays" principle should guide the application of liabilities for the cost
of remediating contaminated land.
Responsibilities for Controlling Contaminated Land
The box below describes the public sector's responsibilities for controlling contaminated land in the United
Kingdom. The polluter, or in some cases the owner or occupier of the land, is responsible for paying for the
cost of remedying the pollution.
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February 1998
Body
Responsibility
Department of the Environment, Transport and
the Regions/Scottish Office
Environment Agency /Scottish Environment
Protection Agency (SEPA)
Local authorities
Responsible for setting national policy. Publishes
guidance. Finances costs of local authorities"
activities in respect of contaminated land.
Through English Partnerships and (in future)
Regional Development Agencies funds
remediation in particular circumstances.
Responsible for Integrated Pollution Control and
waste management licencing. Also responsible for
the condition of controlled waters. Takes an
overview of contaminated land nationally. Gives
site-specific advice about contamination to local
authorities. Will be directly responsible for
"special sites" when Part IIA of the Environ-
mental Protection Act 1990 is brought into
operation. Undertakes technical research.
Responsible for planning and building control.
Also responsible under "statutory nuisance" and
(when it replaces statutory nuisance) Part IIA for
identifying contaminated land and, where
necessary, securing its remediation.
Northern Ireland has the same basic policy for controlling contaminated land but its institutional structure
is somewhat different.
Existing Controls
Integrated Pollution Control and waste management licensing. Very basically, operators of "prescribed
industrial processes" require authorisations to undertake their activities and operators of waste management
sites require licences. Authorisations and licences are issued by the Environment Agency (in England and
Wales) and SEP A (in Scotland), are subject to conditions and may be withheld or cancelled.
Planning control. Contamination or the potential for contamination can be a material planning consideration
and should be taken into consideration by the local (planning) authority at both the macro (development
plan) and micro (determination of individual planning applications) levels of the planning process. The onus
is on the developer to provide the authority with details of any contamination. Planning permission may be
granted on condition that the site is remediated to the satisfaction of the local authority. Responsibility for
the safe development and secure occupancy of the site rests with the developer.
Building control. In addition to its planning function, the local authority also enforces the Building
Regulations. Requirement A of the Building Regulations requires that buildings are structurally sound and
requirement C states that "precautions should be taken to avoid danger to health and safety caused by
substances found on or in the ground to be covered by a building."
"Statutory Nuisance". Lastly, local authorities have a duty to regulate various matters which are defined as
statutory nuisance. These include odour, noise and, relevant to contaminated land, accumulations or deposits
on land which are prejudicial to health or a nuisance. When an authority identifies a statutory nuisance, it
has a duty to serve on the person "responsible for the nuisance" or, in some cases, on the owner or occupier
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of the premises, an abatement notice requiring steps to be carried out to prevent or reduce the nuisance.
Should the notice not be complied with, the authority can carry out the works itself and recover its costs.
Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act of 1990
The Government announced on 22 December 1997 that it had concluded that Part IIA of the Environmental
Protection Act 1990 (inserted by section 57 of the Environment Act 1995 and passed by the previous
Government) sets out, in principle, broadly the right framework for controlling land that in its current use
poses health or environmental dangers. Part IIA is modelled on the existing statutory nuisance provisions
and will replace them in respect of contaminated land. The timetable for the implementation of Part IIA will
be decided by the Government after it has concluded its present Comprehensive Spending Review.
Local authorities will cause their areas to be inspected in order to identify contaminated land and they will
ensure that appropriate remediation takes place when they identify such land.
Contaminated land is identified on the basis of risk assessment. Land is only "contaminated land" where
it appears to the authority, by reason of the substances in, on or under the land, that:
(a) significant harm is being caused or there is a significant possibility of such harm being caused; or
(b) pollution of controlled waters is being, or is likely to be caused.
Where necessary, authorities will ensure that appropriate remediation is undertaken by serving a remediation
notice. Such a notice is served on any person who "caused or knowingly permitted" the substances causing
the land to be contaminated to be present. If no such person can be found, the notice has to be served on the
owner or occupier of the land. The provisions allow for the apportionment of liability where there is more
than one polluter. Failure to comply with a remediation notice is an offence.
However, a person who is the owner or occupier of the land cannot be required, under this legislation, to
carry out remediation which is needed to only deal with water pollution. This is dealt with by separate
legislation to cover the protection of water resources. For example, in England and Wales, the Environment
Agency will be able to serve a works notice using the Water Resources Act 1991 (the amended Section
161A-D) to ensure that pollution prevention, and where necessary remediation measures, are taken by-
responsible parties in respect of water pollution.
In some circumstances the authority can carry out the remediation itself and recover its costs from the
persons or persons liable.
In setting any remediation requirements, an authority has to have regard to the costs which are likely to be
involved and to the seriousness of the relevant harm or water pollution. The authority also has to consider
whether the person liable for carrying out the remediation might suffer financial hardship if he did the work.
If so, the cost to him is waived or reduced, and the cost is met by the local authority.
The Environment Agencies are responsible for dealing with "special sites". In essence, these are sites which
are defined as contaminated land under Part IIA and which the Agencies are already involved with
regulating through pollution control legislation (though not all waste disposal sites are included) or for
which the Agencies have historical expertise and knowledge, or where particular sensitivities apply.
In carrying out their duties local authorities have to have regard to statutory guidance to be issued by the
Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions. Draft statutory guidance was made
available for consultation in September 1996.
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Research on Contaminated Land
The Environment Agency carries out a significant programme of research into contaminated land, which
was inherited from the Department of the Environment. Transport and the Regions. The Programme focuses
on the production of best practice guidance to support the proposed new regulatory regime. Specifically, the
Research Programme:
• develops current scientific knowledge on risk assessment and risk management of contaminated land
(with particular emphasis on issues of sustainability and a consideration of the costs and benefits);
• develops procedures for the effective delivery of regulatory activities in land contamination;
• reviews and identifies information needs for the preparation of a report on the state of contaminated land
in England and Wales.
Collaboration with other organisations is sought, where appropriate, to achieve the Programme objectives.
The Research Programme also takes account of work in other countries and of possibilities for the UK to
influence and contribute to important international developments in this area.
Publications on Contaminated Land in 1998
Details of UK publications on contaminated land are available upon request. Among the reports the
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions plans to publish this year are reports on:
• the collation of toxicological information on substances frequently encountered as contaminants in the
UK;
• the operation of the CLEA (Contaminated Land Exposure Assessment) model developed for the
Department by The Centre for Research into the Built Environment Ltd, Nottingham Trent University.
Guideline values for protection of human health derived from CLEA will be published for a number of
specific contaminants;
• "model procedures" for the management of contaminated land, integrating current good practice
guidance into a series of logical and structured activities that might be adopted by those responsible for
managing contaminated land.
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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
1. Legal and Administrative Issues
Three different federal programs provide the authority to respond to threatened releases of hazardous
substances that endanger public health or the environment: (1) In response to a growing concern about
contaminated sites. Congress passed the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act (CERCLA) in 1980. Commonly known as Superfund, the program under this law is the central
focus of federal efforts to clean up releases of hazardous substances at abandoned or uncontrolled hazardous
waste sites. The program is funded, in part, by a trust fund based on taxes on the petroleum and other basic
organic and inorganic chemicals. (2) The second program is directed at corrective action at currently
operating industrial facilities. This program is authorized by the Resource Conservation and Recover}' Act
of 1980 (RCRA) and its subsequent amendments. This law also regulates the generation, treatment, storage
and disposal of hazardous waste at industrial facilities. RCRA corrective action sites tend to have the same
general types of waste as Superfund sites, and environmental problems are generally less severe than at
Superfund sites; although some RCRA facilities have corrective action problems that could equal or exceed
those of many Superfund sites. (3) The third cleanup program, also authorized by RCRA, addresses
contamination resulting from leaks and spills (primarily petroleum products) from underground storage
tanks (USTs). This law has compelled cleanup activities at many UST sites. By the end of 1996, over
300,000 confirmed releases had been reported, over 250,000 cleanups initiated, and over 150,000 cleanups
completed.
Implementation of Hazardous Waste Cleanup Legislation
Each cleanup program has a formal process for identifying, characterizing, and cleaning up contaminated
sites. These processes generally involve joint implementation with state agencies and the involvement of
various groups, such as local government agencies, local residents, businesses, and environmental public
interest groups. Superfund is administered by EPA and the states under the authority of the CERCLA. The
procedures for implementing the provisions of CERCLA substantially affect those used by other federal and
state cleanup programs. These procedures are spelled out in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances
Pollution Contingency Plan, commonly referred to as the National Contingency Plan (NCP). The NCP
outlines the steps that EPA and other federal agencies must follow in responding to "releases" of hazardous
substances or oil into the environment. Although the terminology may differ from one program to another,
each follows a process more-or-less similar to this one. Thus, in addition to comprising a defined single
program, activities in the Superfund program substantially influence the implementation of the other
remediation programs.
RCRA assigns the responsibility for corrective action to facility owners and operators and authorizes EPA
to oversee corrective action. Unlike Superfund, RCRA responsibility is delegated to sates. As of the end of
1996, EPA has authorized 32 states and territories to implement RCRA corrective action. The processes for
characterizing and remediating RCRA corrective action sites are analogous to those used for Superfund
sites, although the specific terminology and details differ.
The UST regulations require tank owners to monitor the status of their facilities and immediately report
leaks or spills to the regulatory authority, which usually is the state. Cleanup requirements generally are
similar to those under RCRA corrective action and are entirely overseen by state agencies.
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Anticipated Policy Developments.
The nature and scope of remediation policies are driven largely by federal and state requirements and public
and private expenditures. A number of legislative and regulatory initiatives may affect the operation of the
Superfund, RCRA corrective action, and UST programs. For example, some of the proposed changes to
Superfund would require consideration of land use in setting cleanup standards, emphasize the treatment
and disposal of only the highly contaminated and highly mobile media, limit the addition of new sites to the
Superfund remediation program, and change the liability aspect of CERCLA to reduce the cost and time
needed to assign the liability for a cleanup project. Some of these changes have already being implemented.
to some extent, under EPA administrative reforms. Congress and EPA also are considering proposals to
revise RCRA to exempt wastes from remediation activities from certain hazardous waste management
requirements, streamline the permitting process, and modify land disposal restrictions.
There is widespread and growing interest in using risk assessment to determine cleanup priorities, as may
be done under the Risk Based Corrective Action initiative in the UST program. There is also increasing
interest in the issue of bioavailability of contaminants as an alternative to chemical concentrations alone to
set cleanup standards. Much scientific work and consensus-building has yet to be completed on this issue.
Finally, the "Brownfields" policy initiative has become prominent at the federal and state levels. This
concept uses economic redevelopment as the driving force for site cleanup and is gaining widespread
acceptance.
2. Identification of Contaminated Sites
Almost half a million sites with potential contamination have been reported to state or federal authorities
over the past 15 years. Of these, about 217,000 still require remediation for which contracts have not been
issued. Almost 300,000 other sites were either cleaned up or were found to require no further action.
Regulatory authorities have identified most of the contaminated sites. Nevertheless, new ones continue to
be reported each year, but at a declining rate. The data on number of sites come from disparate sources
because these sites are not all registered in one data repository. EPA maintains detailed data on Superfund
sites and summary information for RCRA corrective action and UST sites. The states and other federal
agencies generally maintain separate records of the sites for which they are responsible. It is estimated that
the cost of remediating the 217,000 sites will be about $187 billion in 1996 dollars, and that it will take at
least several decades to completely remediate all the identified sites.
3. Remediation Technologies
Historical Remedial Technology Use in the U.S.
Solidification/stabilization has been the most common technology to treat soil and other wastes. It has been
the favored technology to treat metal-containing waste, although its selection has declined in the last two
years. Relatively few alternative technologies have been selected for metals. Solidification/stabilization has
been the most frequently selected technology- to treat organic contaminants, primarily semivolatile organics
(SVOCs). Incineration has been the second most frequently selected of any technology for treating soil,
sludge, and sediment in Superfund. The major advantage of incineration is its ability to achieve stringent
cleanup standards for highly concentrated mixtures. The selection of on-site incineration has declined to less
than four percent of source control technologies selected from 1993 through 1995, primarily because of its
cost and a lack of public acceptance. Off-site incineration, the use of which also has dropped, is feasible for
only relatively small waste quantities.
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Trends and Anticipated Remedial Technology Use
After a significant increase in the selection of treatment technologies, especially innovative technologies,
in the early 1990s, the selection of several technologies has leveled off or decreased in the past two years,
and the selection of containment has become more common. Most of the applications of innovative
technologies for Superfund cleanups have been to treat organic contamination in soil. Three innovative
technologies account for over 75 percent of innovative technology applications:
• Soil vapor extraction (SVE), which is primarily used to treat VOCs, is the most commonly used
innovative technology. The selection of SVE relative to other technologies grew rapidly from 1986 to
1989, fluctuated for the next few years, and declined in 1995. Enhancements, such as methods to
increase soil permeability or contaminant volatility, may expand its applicability and improve
performance.
• Bioremediation is the second most frequently selected innovative technology, and its selection has
remained fairly constant over the past several years. This trend may reflect a limit in the number of sites
with contaminants that can be treated by bioremediation in its current state of development. The
contaminants most often treated by bioremediation are petroleum hydrocarbons and PAHs. Current
bioremediation research could lead to improved performance and expand the types of contaminants
amenable to biological degradation.
• Thermal desorption is the third most frequently selected innovative technology. The frequency of
selection for this technology has remained relatively constant over the past five years. It is used
primarily to treat VOCs, (particularly when SVE is not feasible), and SVOCs, primarily PAHs and
PCBs. Soils containing both metals and organics present another major treatment opportunity, since
organics will volatize at relatively low temperatures. Residuals containing metals then can be treated
by another technology, such as solidification/stabilization.
Relatively few innovative treatment methods are being selected for metals-contaminated soils. The most
widely used technology for the treatment of metals is solidification/stabilization, which has been selected
for 30 percent of the source control projects at Superfund sites. The selection of this technology has declined
during the past two years. Although solidification/stabilization has several advantages, including low cost,
questions remain concerning its effectiveness over time. Consequently, the sites may require long-term
monitoring. New separation technologies such as electrokinetics could provide alternative methods for
remediating metals in the future. Additional field tests of these and other technologies are needed.
Despite recent advances, about 93 percent of remedies selected for groundwater continue to rely on
conventional pump-and-treat technologies. Bioremediation and air sparging are the most widely used
innovative in situ approaches. Usually, these technologies are applied in conjunction with pump-and-treat.
Research and demonstration efforts to develop innovative methods for the treatment of ground-water include
both biological and abiotic in situ processes.
4. Research, Development, and Demonstration
Future technology use will be influenced by development efforts and the expressed needs of industry and
other entities with responsibility for site cleanups. Federal agencies currently are coordinating several
technology development and commercialization programs. Of these, two cooperative public-private
initiatives are particularly noteworthy because they focus on processes that private "problem holders" view
as most promising for the future. The involvement of technology users helps to assure that the processes
selected for development reflect actual needs and have a high potential for future application. The
technologies identified by these programs and federal agencies provide a useful overview of future trends.
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
The Remediation Technologies Development Forum (RTDF) is a consortium of partners from industry,
government agencies, and academia, who share the common goal of developing more effective, less costly
hazardous waste characterization and treatment technologies. RTDF achieves this goal by identifying high
priority needs for remediation technology development. Through the Clean Sites Public-Private Partnerships
for technology acceptance, EPA and Clean Sites, Inc., a nonprofit firm, develop partnerships between federal
agencies (such as DOD and DOE) and private site owners (responsible parties, owners/operators) for the
joint evaluation of full-scale remediation technologies. The purpose of this program is to create a demand
among potential users of new technologies by allowing, the end-users of the technologies to be involved
throughout the demonstration process.
DOE is spending $274 million in Fiscal Year 1998 to develop new environmental cleanup technologies. A
recent DOE report described 15 new technologies, scheduled to be available by 2000, that may lead to cost
savings in cleaning up DOE sites. These technologies are specific examples of the types of technologies that
DOE expects to need in the near future, such as bioremediation, electrokinetics, and biosorption of uranium.
The technologies selected for development in these three programs demonstrate that prospective users are
interested in using in situ processes and biotechnology to meet their future needs (Table 1). Various
biological methods often are cited, especially for chlorinated solvents. Several technologies rely on SVE as
a component, including dual-phase extraction, air sparging, dynamic underground stripping, and rotary
steam drilling. Also, several processes entail the creation of treatment zones (permeable barriers, microbial
filters, and the Lasagna™ process) and the use of electric fields to mobilize both organics and inorganics.
DOD has several technology research and development programs targeted at helping commercialize
remediation technologies. The Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP) is
designed to promote the demonstration and validation of the most promising innovative technologies that
target DOD's most urgent environmental needs. It is funded at $15 million per year. The Strategic Environ-
mental Research and Development Program (SERDP) is a joint program with DOD, DOE, and EPA—
funded at $61.8 million per year—which devotes 31 percent of its resources to remediation and site
characterization technologies. In 1998, the Advanced Applied Technology Demonstration Facility program
concludes after sponsoring demonstrations of 12 technologies for DOD at a cost of $20 million. DOD's high
priority cleanup technology needs include: detection, monitoring and modeling (primarily related to
unexploded ordnance [UXO] and DNAPLS); treatment for soil, sediment, and sludge (primarily related to
UXO, white phosphorous contaminated sediments, inorganics, explosives in soil, explosives/organic
contaminants in sediments); groundwater treatment (explosives, solvents, organics, alternatives to pump-
and-treat, and DNAPLS); and removal of UXO on land and under water.
5. Conclusions
Legislative, regulatory and programmatic changes may alter the nature and sequence of cleanup work done
at Superfund, DOD, and DOE sites. If some of the current proposals become law, more emphasis may be
placed on cleaning up the most severely contaminated areas on a site, making government properties
available for economic reuse, increased consideration of future land use in remedy selection, and more
explicit consideration of cost and performance in remedy decisions.
After a significant increase in the selection of newer treatment technologies—such as SVE, thermal
desorption, and bioremediation—in the early 1990s, the selection of several technologies has leveled off or
decreased in the past two years, and the selection of containment has become more common. Nevertheless,
treatment remedies still are more common.
New technologies offer the potential to be more cost-effective than conventional approaches. In situ
technologies, in particular, are in large demand because they are usually less expensive and more acceptable
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February 1998
than above-ground options. New technology development programs emphasize in situ technologies, in
particular bioremediation and enhancements to SVE.
Although metals are common at most sites, alternatives to treat metals are limited. Government and
corporate owners of contaminated sites have targeted several technologies to treat metals in soil for further
development, including electrokinetics and phytoremediation.
While groundwater is contaminated at more than 70 percent of the sites, not all of these sites will be actively
remediated. Available technology cannot always meet the desired cleanup goals for a site, because the
methods leave residual aquifer contamination, known as non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs). The most
frequently used method for groundwater remediation at Superfund sites is conventional pump-and-treat
technology. In situ treatment technologies, primarily bioremediation and air sparging, have been selected
at only six percent of Superfund groundwater treatment sites, most of which also are using pump-and-treat.
New management approaches recently receiving more attention include treatment walls, electrokinetics, use
of surfactants and co-solvents, hydraulic and pneumatic fracturing, and selective application of natural
attenuation. If more effective in situ groundwater technologies were available, a larger portion of
contaminated groundwater sites could be fully remediated.
Table 1. Examples of Technology Needs Identified by Users in Selected Federal Programs
Medium
In Situ
Management of
Soils
In Situ
Management of
Groundwater
In Situ
Management of
Soil and
Groundwater
Ex Situ
Management of
Soil
Ex Situ
Management of
Groundwater
Clean Sites
Public-Private
Partnerships
• Lasagna™
(electroosmosis,
hydrofracturing
treatment zones)
• Anaerobic
bioremediation
• Permeable treatment
walls
• Air sparging
• Rotary steam
drilling
• Dual-phase
extraction
• Enhanced bioslurry
reactors
• Membrane
separation
Remediation Technologies
Development Forum
• Lasagna™
• Co-metabolic
bioventing
• Phytoremediation for
metals
• Accelerated anaerobic
bioremediation
• Permeable treatment
walls
• Intrinsic bioremediation
• Not applicable
• Not applicable
• Not applicable
Department of
Energy
• Electrokinetics
• Vitrification
• Recirculating
wells
• Microbial filters
• Bioremediation
• Biosorption of
uranium
• Dynamic
underground
stripping
• Innovative soil
washing
• Not applicable
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NATIONAL CONTACTS
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Directors
Stephen C. James (Co-Director)
National Risk Management Research Laboratory-
US. Environmental Protection Agency
26 Martin Luther King Drive
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
United States
tel: 513-569-7877
fax: 513-569-7680
e-mail: j ames. steve@epamail. epa. gov
Walter W. Kovalick, Jr. (Co-Director)
Technology Innovation Office
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street, SW (5102G)
Washington, DC 20460
United States
tel: 703-603-9910
fax: 703-603-9135
e-mail: kovalick.walter@epamail.epa.gov
Co-Pilot Directors
Volker Franzius
Umweltbundes amt
Bismarckplatz 1
D-14193 Berlin
Germany
tel: 49/30-8903-2496
fax: 49/30-8903-2285 or -2103
H. Johan van Veen
The Netherlands Integrated Soil Research
Programme
P.O. Box 37
NL-6700 AA Wageningen
The Netherlands
tel: 31/317-484-170
fax: 31/317-485-051
e-mail: anneke.v.d.heuvel@spbo.beng.wau.nl
Country Representatives
Gillian King Rodda
Manager. Contaminated Sites
Environment Protection Group
Environment Australia
PO Box E305
Kingston ACT 2604
Australia
tel: 61-2-6274-1114
fax: 61-2-6274-1164
e-mail: gillian.king.rodda@ea.gov.au
Nora Auer
Federal Ministry of Environment, Youth and
Family Affairs
Dept. El/3
Stubenbastei 5
A-1010 Vienna
Austria
tel: 43/1-515-22-3449
fax: 43/1-513-1679-1008
e-mail: Nora.Auer@bmu.gv.at
Jacqueline Miller
Brussels University
Avenue Jeanne 44
1050 Brussels
Belgium
tel: 32/2-650-3183
fax: 32/2-650-3189
e-mail: jmiller@resulb.ulb.ac.be
Harry Whittaker
Emergencies Engineering Division
Environment Canada
3439 River Road
Ottawa, Ontario, K1A OH3
Canada
tel: 613/991-1841
fax: 613/991-1673
e-mail: harry. whittaker@etc. ec. gc. ca
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February 1998
Jan Svoma
Aquatest a.s.
Geologicka 4
152 00 Prague 5
Czech Republic
tel: 420/2-581-83-80
fax: 420/2-581-77-58
e-mail: aquatest@aquatest.cz
Inge-Marie Skovgard
Contaminated Land Division
Danish Environmental Protection Agency
29 Strandgade
DK-1401 Copenhagen K
Denmark
tel: 45/3-266-0100 - direct 45/32660397
fax: 45/3-296-1656
e-mail: ims@mst.dk
Ari Seppanen
Ministry of Environment
P.O. Box 399
00121 Helsinki
Finland
tel: +358/9-199-197-15
fax: +358/9-199-196-30
Rene Goubier
Polluted Sites Team
ADEME
B.P. 406
49004 Angers Cedex 01
France
tel: 33/241-204-120
fax: 33/241-872-350
Antonios Kontopoulos*
National Technical University of Athens
GR-157 80 Zografos
Athens
Greece
*Due to the death of Prof. Kontopoulos.
communications with the Greek delegation to the Pilot
Study may be directed to:
Manolis Papadopoulos, tel: +30-1-772 2219; fax:
+30-1-772 2218, e-mailpapadop@metal.ntua.gr
Pal Varga
National Authority for the Environment
F6 u.44
H-1011 Budapest
Hungary
tel: 36/1-457-3530
fax: 36/1-201-4282
e-mail: vargap@ldk.ktm.hu
Matthew Crowe
Environmental Management and Planning
Division
Environmental Protection Agency
P.O. Box 3000
Johnstown Castle Estate
County Wexford
Ireland
tel: +353 53 60600
fax: +353 53 60699
e-mail: m.crowe@>epa.ie
Takeshi Nishio
Soil and Agricultural Chemicals Division
Environment Agency, Water Quality Bureau
Japan Environment Agency
1-2-2, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-Ku
Tokyo 100
Japan
tel: +81-3-3580-3173
fax: +81/3-3593-1438
e-mail: takeshi_nishio@eanet.go.jp
Raymond Salter
Ministry for the Environment
84 Boullcott Street
P.O. Box 10362
Wellington
New Zealand
tel: 64/4-917-4000
fax: 64/4-917-7523
e-mail: rs@mfe.govt.nz
Bjorn Bjornstad
Norwegian Pollution Control Authority
P.O. Box 8100 Dep
N-0032 Oslo
Norway
tel: 47/22-257-3664
fax: 47/22-267-6706
e-mail: bjorn.bjornstad@sftospost.md.dep.
telemax.no
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February 1998
Ewa Marchwinska
Institute for Ecology of Industrial Areas
6 Kossutha Street
40-833 Katowice
Poland
tel: 48/32-1546-031
fax.: 48/32-1541-717
e-mail: ietu@ietu.katowice.pl
Marco Estrela
Institute de Soldadura e Qualidade
Centre de Tecnologias Ambientais
Estrada Nacional 249-Km 3-Leiao (Tagus Park)
Apartado 119 - 2781 Oeiras Codex
Portugal
tel:+351/1-422-8100
fax: +351/1-422-8129
e-mail: maestrela@isq.pt
Branko Druzina
Institute of Public Health
Trubarjeva 2-Post Box 260
6100 Ljubljana
Slovenia
tel: 386/61-313-276
fax: 386/61-323-955
e-mail: branko.druzina@ivz.sigov.mail.si
Ingrid Hasselsten
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency
Blekholmsterrassen 36
S-106 48 Stockholm
Sweden
tel: 46/8-698-1179
fax: 46/8-698-1222
e-mail: inh@environ.se
Bernhard Hammer
BUWAL
Federal Department of the Interior
3003 Bern
Switzerland
tel: 41/31-322-9307
fax: 41/31-382-1546
Resat Apak
Istanbul University
Avcilar Campus, Avcilar 34850
Istanbul
Turkey
tel: 90/212-5911-998
fax: 90/212-5911-997
e-mail: rapak@istanbul.edu.tr
Kahraman Unlii
Depratment of Environmental Engineering
Middle East Technical University
Inonii Bulvari
06531 Ankara
Turkey
tel: 90-312-210-1000
fax:90-312-210-1260
e-mail: kunlu@rorqual. cc.metu.edu. tr
Ian D. Martin
Environment Agency
Olton Court
10 Warwick Road
Olton. West Midlands
United Kingdom
tel: 44/121-711-2324
fax: 44/121-711-5830
e-mail: ianmartin@environment-agency.gov.uk
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PARTICIPANTS
Phase III Pilot Study Meeting
Vienna, Austria
February 23-27,1998
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Resat Apak
Istanbul University
Avcilar Campus, Avcilar 34850
Istanbul
Turkey
tel: 90/212-5911-998
fax: 90/212-5911-997
e-mail: rapak@istanbul.edu.tr
Nora Auer
Federal Ministry' of Environment, Youth and
Family Affairs
Dept. HI/3
Stubenbastei 5
A-1010 Vienna
Austria
tel: 43/1-515-22-3449
fax: 43/1-513-1679-1008
e-mail: Nora.Auer@bmu.gv.at
Erik Backlund
Eko Tec
Nasuddsvagen 10 - Box 34
93221 Skelleftehamn
Sweden
tel: 46/910-333-66
fax: 46/910-333-75
Paul Bardos
R3 Environmental Technologies Ltd
P.O. Box 58
Ware- Hertfordshire SGI2 9UJ
United Kingdom
tel: 44/1920-484-571
fax: 44/1920-485-607
e-mail: p-bardos@r3-bardos.demon.co.uk
N. Jay Bassin
Environmental Management Support, Inc.
8601 Georgia Avenue, Suite 500
Silver Spring, Maryland 20910
United States
tel: 301-589-5318
fax: 301-589-8487
e-mail: jbassin@emsus.com
Paul M. Beam
U.S. Department of Energy
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20874-1290
United States
tel: 301-903-8133
fax: 301-903-3877
e-mail: paul.beam@em.doe.gov
Eberhard Beitinger
WCI Umwelttechnik GmbH
Sophie Charlotten - Str.33
14059 Berlin
Germany
tel: 49/30-3260-9481
fax: 49/30-321-9472
Bjom Bjornstad
Norwegian Pollution Control Authority
P.O. Box 8100 Dep
N-0032 Oslo
Norway
tel: 47/22-257-3664
fax: 47/22-267-6706
e-mail: bjorn.bjornstad@sftospost.md.dep.
telemax.no
Harald Burmeier
University of applied Studies and Research
Herbert-Meyerstrasse 7
29556 Suderburg
Germany
tel: 49/5103-2000
fax: 49/5103-7863
e-mail: h.burmeier@t-online.de
Diane Dopkin
Environmental Management Support, Inc.
8601 Georgia Avenue, Suite 500
Silver Spring, Maryland 20910
United States
tel: 301-589-5318
fax: 301-589-8487
e-mail: ddopkin@emsus.com
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February 1998
Branko Druzina
Institute of Public Health
Trubarjeva 2-Post Box 260
6100 Ljubljana
Slovenia
tel: 386/61-313-276
fax: 386/61-323-955
e-mail: branko.druzina@ivz.sigov.mail.si
Erol Ercag
Istanbul University
Dept. of Chemistry
Avcilar Campus, Avcilar 34850
Istanbul
Turkey
tel: 90/212-5911-998
fax: 90/212-5911-997
Marco Estrela
Institute de Soldadura e Qualidade
Centre de Tecnologias Ambientais
Estrada Nacional 249-Km 3-Leiao (Tagus Park)
Apartado 119 - 2781 Oeiras Codex
Portugal
tel: +351/1-422-8100
fax:+351/1-422-8129
e-mail: maestrela@isq.pt
Gerard Evers
Soletanche
6 Rue De Wattford
F92000 Nanterre
France
tel: 33/14-7764-262
fax: 33/14-9069-734
e-mail: gerard.evers@soletanche-bachy.com
Volker Franzius
Umweltbundes amt
Bismarckplatz 1
D-14193 Berlin
Germany
tel: 49/30-8903-2496
fax: 49/30-8903-2285 or -2103
Inger Asp Fuglsang
Contaminated Land Division
Danish Environmental Protection Agency
29 Strandgade
DK-1401 Copenhagen K
Denmark
tel: 45/32-66-01-00
fax: 45/32-66-04-79
e-mail: iaf@mst.dk
Robert Gillham
University of Waterloo
Department of Earth Sciences
Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1
Canada
tel: 519-888-4658
fax: 519-746-7484
e-mail: rwgillha@sciborg.uwaterloo.ca
Rene Goubier
Polluted Sites Team
ADEME
B.P. 406
49004 Angers Cedex 01
France
tel: 33/241-204-120
fax: 33/241-872-350
Iliana Halikia
National Technical University of Athens
GR-15780Zografos
Athens
Greece
tel: 30/1-722-2167
fax: 30/1-722-2168
e-mail: labmet@metal.ntua.gr
Bernhard Hammer
BUWAL
Federal Department of the Interior
3003 Bern
Switzerland
tel: 41/31-322-9307
fax: 41/31-382-1546
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February 1998
Catherine Harvey
Environment Agency-
Steel House
11 Tothill Street
London
United Kingdom
tel: 44/171-664-6793
fax: 44-171-664-6795
e-mail: diane. w illiamson@environment-
agency.gov.uk (office e-mail)
Ingrid Hasselsten
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency
Blekholmsterrassen 36
S-106 48 Stockholm
Sweden
tel: 46/8-698-1179
fax: 46/8-698-1222
e-mail: inh@environ.se
Christian Holzer
Department of Waste Treatment and Remediation
of Abandoned Sites
Federal Ministry of Environment, Youth, and
Family Affairs (Dept. HI/3)
Stubenbastei 5
A-1010 Vienna
Austria
tel: 43/1-515 22-3429
fax: 43/1-513 1679- 1127
e-mail: christian.holzer@bmu.gv.at
Stephen C. James
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 Martin Luther King Drive
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
United States
tel: 513-569-7877
fax: 513-569-7680
e-mail: james.steve@epamail.epa.gov
Stephan Jefferis
Golder Associates (UK) Ltd.
54-70 Moorbridge Road
Maidenhead, Berkshire
SL6 8BN England
United Kingdom
tel: 44/1628-771-731
fax: 44/1628-770-699
e-mail: sjefferis@golder.com
Harald Kasamas
CARACAS - European Union
Breitenfurterstr. 97
A-1120 Vienna
Austria
tel: 43/1-804 93 192
fax: 43/1-804 93 194
e-mail: 101355.1520@compuserve.com
Vladimir Kinkor
SEPA s.r.o.
P.O. Box 47
Bezecka 79
169 00 Prague 6
Czech Republic
tel: 420/602-347-679
fax: 420/602-5721-1255
Antonios Kontopoulos
National Technical University of Athens
Athens
Greece
Walter W. Kovalick, Jr.
Technology7 Innovation Office
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street. SW (5102G)
Washington, DC 20460
United States
tel: 703-603-9910
fax: 703-603-9135
e-mail: kovalick.walter@epamail.epa.gov
Tomas Lederer
Aquatest a.s.
Geologika 4
152 00 Prague
Czech Republic
tel: 420/2-581-8995
fax: 420/2-5 81-8175
e-mail: lederer@aquatest.cz
Liyuan Liang
Department of Earth Sciences
University of Wales, Cardiff
P.O. Box 914
Cardiff GF1 34E
United Kingdom
tel: 44/1-222-874-579
fax: 44/1-222-874-326
e-mail: liyuan@cardiff.ac.uk
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February 1998
Ian D. Martin
Environment Agency
Olton Court
10 Warwick Road
Olton, West Midlands
United Kingdom
tel: 44/121-711-2324
fax: 44/121-711-5830
e-mail: ianmartin@environment-agency .gov. uk
Igor Marvan
Grace Dearborn Inc.
3451 Erindale Station Road
P.O. Box 3060, Station A
Mississauga, Ontario L5A 4B6
Canada
tel: 905-272-7435
fax: 905-272-7456
Jacqueline Miller
Brussels University
Avenue Jeanne 44
1050 Brussels
Belgium
tel: 32/2-650-3183
fax: 32/2-650-3189
e-mail: jmiller@resulb.ulb.ac.be
Walter Mondt
Ecoremn.v.
Zwartzustersvest 22
B-2800 Mechelen
Belgium
tel: 32-15-21 17 35
fax: 32-15-21 65 98
e-mail: Ecorem@glo.be
Carlos de Miguel Perales
ICADE
Alberto Aguilera, 23
28015 Madrid
Spain
tel: 34/1-586-0455
fax: 34/1-586-0402
Robert Puls
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
919 Kerr Research Drive
P.O. Box 1198
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
United States
tel: 580-436-8543
fax: 580-436-8703
e-mail: puls.robert@epamail.epa.gov
H.H.M. Rijnaarts
TNO/MEP
P.O. Box 342
7300 AH Apeldoorn
The Netherlands
tel: 31/55-5493-380
fax: 31/55-5493-410
e-mail: h.h.m.rijnaarts@mep.tno.nl
Hermann Schad
IMES GmbH
Kocherhof 4
88239 Wangen
Germany
tel: 49/7528-971-30
fax: 49/7528-97131
e-mail: hermann.schad.imes@t-online.de
Mathias Schluep
BMG Engineering AG
Ifangstrasse 11
8952 Schlieren
Switzerland
tel: 41/1-730-6622
fax: 41/1-730-6622
Christoph Schuth
Eberhard-Karls-Universitat Tubingen
Geologisches Institut
Sigwarstr. 10
72076 Tubingen
Germany
tel: 49/7071-29-75041
fax: 49/7071-5059
e-mail: christoph.schueth@uni-tuebingen.de
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
Ari Seppanen
Ministry of Environment
P.O. Box 399
00121 Helsinki
Finland
tel: +358/9-199-197-15
fax: +358/9-199-196-30
Robert Siegrist
Colorado School of Mines
Environmental Science and Engineering Division
1500 Illinois Avenue
Golden, Colorado 80401-1887
United States
tel: 303-273-3490
fax: 303-273-3413
email: rsiegris@mines.edu
Inge-Marie Skovgard
Contaminated Land Division
Danish Environmental Protection Agency
29 Strandgade
DK-1401 Copenhagen K
Denmark
tel: 45/3-266-0100 - direct 45/32660397
fax: 45/3-296-1656
e-mail: ims@mst.dk
Michael Smith
M.A. Smith Environmental Consultancy
68 Bridgewater Road
Berkhamsted, Herts, HP4 1JB
United Kingdom
tel: 44/1442-871-500
fax: 44/1442-870-152
e-mail: Michael.A.Smith@BTinternet.com
Marek Stanzel
KAP s.r.o.
Skokanska 80
169 00 Prague 6
Czech Republic
tel: 420/2-2431-3630
fax: 420/2-5721-1255
e-mail: kappraha@login.cz
Kai Steffens
PROBIOTEC GmbH
Schillingsstrabe 333
D 52355 Duren-Giirzenich
Germany
tel: 49/2421-69090
fax: 49/2421-690961
e-mail: info@probiotec.ac-euregio.de
Rainer Stegmann
Technische Universitat Hamburg-Harburg
Harburger Schlobstrabe 37
D-21079 Hamburg
Germany
tel: 49/40-7718-3254
fax: 49/40-7718-2375
e-mail: stegmann@tuharburg.d400de
Jan Svoma
Aquatest a.s.
Geologicka 4
152 00 Prague 5
Czech Republic
tel: 420/2-581-83-80
fax: 420/2-581-77-58
e-mail: aquatest@aquatest.cz
Gerhard Teutsch
Eberhard-Karls Universitat - Tubingen
Geologisches Institut
Sigwartstr. 10
72076 Tubingen
Germany
tel: 49/7071-29-76468
fax: 49/7071-5059
Kahraman Unlu
Depratment of Environmental Engineering
Middle East Technical University
Inonii Bulvari
06531 Ankara
Turkey
tel: 90-312-210-1000
fax: 90-312-210-1260
e-mail: kunlu@rorqual. cc. metu. edu.tr
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February 1998
H. Johan van Veen
The Netherlands Integrated Soil Research
Programme
P.O. Box 37
NL-6700 AA Wageningen
The Netherlands
tel: 31/317-484-170
fax: 31/317-485-051
e-mail: anneke. v. d.heuvel@spbo. beng.wau.nl
Pal Varga
National Authority for the Environment
F6 u.44
H-1011 Budapest
Hungary
tel: 36/1-457-3530
fax: 36/1-201-4282
e-mail: vargap@kik.ktm.hu
Timothy Vogel
ATE/Rhodia Eco Services
17 rue Perigord
69330 Meyzieu
France
tel: 33/4-7245-0425
Fax: 33/4-7804-2430
e-mail: timothy.vogel@rhone-poulenc.com
Holger Weiss
UF2 - Umweltforschungszentrum
Leipzig-Halle GmbH
Permoserstr. 15
04318 Leipzig
Germany
tel: 49/341-235-2060
fax: 49/341-235-2126
Harry Whittaker
Emergencies Engineering Division
Environment Canada
3439 River Road
Ottawa, Ontario, K1A OH3
Canada
tel: 613/991-1841
fax: 613/991-1673
e-mail: harry. whittaker@etc.ec.gc.ca
Wolfgang Wiist
Institut fur Wasserbau, Lehrstuhl fur Hydraulik
und Grundwasser
University of Stuttgart
Pfaffenwaldring 61
70550 Stuttgart
Germany
tel: 49/711-685-4714
fax: 49/711 -685-7020
e-mail: ww@iws.uni-stuttgart.de
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
PILOT STUDY MISSION
PHASE III — Continuation of NATO/CCMS Pilot Study:
Evaluation of Demonstrated and Emerging Technologies for the Treatment
of Contaminated Land and Groundwater
1) Background To Proposed Study
The problems of contamination resulting from inappropriate handling of wastes, including accidental
releases, are faced to some extent by all countries. The need for cost-effective technologies to apply to these
problems has resulted in the application of new/innovative technologies and/or new applications of existing
technologies. In many countries, there is increasingly a need to justify specific projects and explain their
broad benefits given the priorities for limited environmental budgets. Thus, the environmental merit and
associated cost-effectiveness of the proposed solution will be important in the technology selection decision.
Building a knowledge base so that innovative and emerging technologies are identified is the impetus for
the NATO/CCMS Pilot Study on "Evaluation of Demonstrated and Emerging Technologies for the
Treatment of Contaminated Land and Groundwater." Under this current study, new technologies being
developed, demonstrated, and evaluated in the field are discussed. This allows each of the participating
countries to have access to an inventory of applications of individual technologies which allows each
country to target scarce internal resources at unmet needs for technology development. The technologies
include biological, chemical, physical, containment, solidification/stabilization, and thermal technologies
for both soil and groundwater. This current pilot study draws from an extremely broad representation and
the follow up would work to expand this.
The current study has examined over fifty environmental projects. There were nine fellowships awarded to
the study. A team of pilot study country representatives and fellows is currently preparing an extensive
report of the pilot study activities. Numerous presentations and publications reported about the pilot study
activities over the five year period. In addition to participation from NATO countries; NACC, other
European, and Asian-Pacific countries participated. This diverse group promoted an excellent atmosphere
for technology exchange. An extension of the pilot study will provide a platform for continued discussions
in this environmentally challenging arena.
2) Purpose and Objectives
The United States proposes a follow-up (Phase III) study to the existing NATO/CCMS study titled
"Evaluation of Demonstrated and Emerging Technologies for the Treatment of Contaminated Land and
Groundwater." The focus of Phase III would be the technical approaches for addressing the treatment of
contaminated land and groundwater. This phase would draw on the information presented under the prior
studies and the expertise of the participants from all countries. The output would be summary documents
addressing cleanup problems and the array of currently available and newly emerging technical solutions.
The Phase III study would be technologically orientated and would continue to address technologies. Issues
of sustainability, environmental merit, and cost-effectiveness would be enthusiastically addressed. Principles
of sustainability address the use of our natural resources. Site remediation addresses the management of our
land and water resources. Sustainable development addresses the re-use of contaminated land instead of the
utilization of new land. This appeals to a wide range of interests because it combines economic development
and environmental protection into a single system. The objectives of the study are to critically evaluate
technologies, promote the appropriate use of technologies, use information technology systems to
disseminate the products, and to foster innovative thinking in the area of contaminated land. International
technology verification is another issue that will enable technology users to be assured of minimal
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III) February 1998
technology performance. This is another important issue concerning use of innovative technologies. This
Phase III study would have the following goals:
a) In-depth discussions about specific types of contaminated land problems (successes and failures)
and the suggested technical solutions from each country's perspective,
b) Examination of selection criteria for treatment and cleanup technologies for individual projects,
c) Expand mechanisms and channels for technology information transfer, such as the NATO/CCMS
Environmental Clearinghouse System,
d) Examination/identification of innovative technologies.
e) Examining the sustainable use of remedial technologies—looking at the broad environmental
significance of the project, thus the environmental merit and appropriateness of the individual
project.
3) Estimated Duration
November 1997 to November 2002 for meetings.
Completion of final report: June 2003.
4) Scope of Work
First, the Phase HI study would enable participating countries to continue to present and exchange technical
information on demonstrated technologies for the cleanup of contaminated land and groundwater. During
the Phase II study, these technical information exchanges benefitted both the countries themselves and
technology developers from various countries. This technology information exchange and assistance to
technology developers would therefore continue. Emphasis would be on making the pilot study information
available. Use of existing environmental data systems such as the NATO/CCMS Environmental
Clearinghouse System will be pursued. The study would also pursue the development of linkages to other
international initiatives on contaminated land remediation.
As in the Phase II study, projects would be presented for consideration and, if accepted by other countries,
they would be discussed at the meetings and later documented. Currently, various countries support
development of hazardous waste treatment/cleanup technologies by governmental assistance and private
funds. This part of the study would report on and exchange information of ongoing work in the development
of new technologies in this area. As with the current study, projects would be presented for consideration
and if accepted, fully discussed at the meetings. Individual countries can bring experts to report on projects
that they are conducting. A final report would be prepared on each project or category of projects (such as
thermal, biological, containment, etc.) and compiled as the final study report.
Third, the Phase III study would identify specific contaminated land problems and examine these problems
in depth. The pilot study members would put forth specific problems, which would be addressed in depth
by the pilot study members at the meetings. Thus, a country could present a specific problem such as
contamination at a electronics manufacturing facility, agricultural production, organic chemical facility,
manufactured gas plant, etc. Solutions and technology selection criteria to address these problems would
be developed based on the collaboration of international experts. These discussions would be extremely
beneficial for the newly industrializing countries facing cleanup issues related to privatization as well as
developing countries. Discussions should also focus on the implementation of incorrect solutions for specific
projects. The documentation of these failures and the technical understanding of why the project failed will
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Project on Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase I
February 1998
be beneficial for those with similar problems. Sustainability, environmental merit, and cost-benefit aspects
would equally be addressed.
Finally, specific area themes for each meeting could be developed. These topics could be addressed in one-
day workshops as part of the CCMS meeting. These topic areas would be selected and developed by the pilot
study participants prior to the meetings. These areas would be excellent venues for expert speakers and
would encourage excellent interchange of ideas.
5) Non-NATO Participation
It is proposed that non-NATO countries be invited to participate or be observers at this NATO/CCMS Pilot
Study. Proposed countries may be Brazil. Japan, and those from Central and Eastern Europe. It is proposed
the non-NATO countries (Austria, Australia, Sweden, Switzerland, New Zealand, Hungary, Slovenia,
Russian Federation, ere.) participating in Phase II be extended for participation in Phase HI of the pilot study.
Continued involvement of Cooperation Partner countries will be pursued.
6) Request for Pilot Study Establishment
It is requested of the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society that they approve the establishment
of the Phase III Continuation of the Pilot Study on the Demonstration of Remedial Action Technologies for
Contaminated Land and Groundwater.
Pilot Country:
Lead Organization:
U.S. Directors:
United States of America
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Stephen C. James
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency-
Office of Research and Development
26 W. M.L. King Drive
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
tel: 513-569-7877
fax: 513-569-7680
E-mail: james.steve@epamail.epa.gov
Walter W. Kovalick, Jr., Ph.D.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (5102G)
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, DC 20460
tel: 703-603-9910
fax: 703-603-9135
E-mail: kovalick.walter@epamail.epa.gov
Co-Partner Countries:
Scheduled Meetings:
Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Poland,
Portugal, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, The Netherlands, Turkey, United
Kingdom, United States
February 23-27, 1998, in Vienna, Austria
1999 to be determined
2000 in France or Germany
2001 in Canada or the United States
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