United States
         Environmental Protection
         Agency
            Office of Research and
            Development
            Washington DC 20460
EPA/625/R-99/003
June 2001
vvEPA
US EPft Office c! Sesuarch and
Guide to Industrial
Assessments for Pollution
Prevention and Energy
Efficiency

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                                                        EPA/625/R-99/003
                                                              June 2001
      Guide to Industrial Assessments
                       for
Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
          U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
           Office of Research and Development
       National Risk Management Research Laboratory
       Center for Environmental Research Information
                   Cincinnati, Ohio

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                                           NOTICE
        The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency through its Office of Research and Development funded
and managed the research described here under Contract #68-07-0011, Work Assignment 21, to Science
Applications International Corporation. It has been subjected to the Agency's peer and administrative review
and has been approved for publication as an EPA document. Mention of trade names or commercial products
does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
                            Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                         FOREWORD
        The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is charged by Congress with protecting the Nation's land,
air, and water resources. Under a mandate of national environmental laws, the Agency strives to formulate and
implement actions leading to a compatible balance between human activities and the ability of natural systems
to support and nurture life.  To meet this mandate, EPA's research program is providing data and technical
support for solving environmental problems today and building a science knowledge base necessary to manage
our ecological  resources wisely,  understand how  pollutants  affect  our health,  and prevent or reduce
environmental risks in the future.

        The  National Risk  Management  Research  Laboratory  (NRMRL)  is  the  Agency's  center  for
investigation of technological and management approaches for preventing and  reducing risks from pollution
that threaten human health and the environment. The focus of the Laboratory's research program is on methods
and their cost-effectiveness for prevention and control of pollution to air, land, water, and subsurface resources;
protection of water quality in public water systems; remediation of contaminated sites, sediments and ground
water; prevention and control of indoor air pollution; and restoration of ecosystems. NRMRL collaborates with
both public and private sector partners  to foster technologies that reduce the cost of compliance and to
anticipate  emerging  problems.  NRMRL's  research  provides  solutions to  environmental  problems by:
developing and promoting technologies that protect and improve  the environment; advancing scientific and
engineering information to  support regulatory  and policy  decisions; and providing the technical support and
information transfer to ensure implementation of environmental regulations and strategies at the national, state,
and community levels.

        This publication has been produced as part of the Laboratory's strategic long-term research plan. It is
published and made available by EPA's Office of Research and Development to  assist the user community and
to link researchers with their clients.
                                                E. Timothy Oppelt, Director
                                                National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
        This  Guide  to  Industrial  Assessments for Pollution Prevention  and  Energy  Efficiency was
prepared under the direction and coordination of Emma Lou George of the U.S.  EPA's Office of Research and
Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory in Cincinnati, Ohio.

        Science Applications International Corporation, (SAIC), of Hampton and Reston, Virginia, revised the
original document, Modern Industrial Assessments: A  Training Manual, Version I.Ob, December,  1995,
prepared by The Office of Industrial Productivity  and Energy Assessment, at Rutgers, The State University  of
New Jersey.   The training manual preparation was sponsored  by  an interagency  agreement between the
Department of Energy's  Office of Industrial  Technology and  he  United States Environmental Protection
Agency's Office of Research and Development, Pollution Prevention Research Branch.  Kelly L. Binkley was
the primary SAIC contributor to its revision  and reproduction.  Brian Westfall of the U.S. EPA National Risk
Management  Research Laboratory's  Sustainable  Technology  Division and  Cam Metcalf of the Kentucky
Pollution Prevention Center provided assistance in the development of this guide.
IV
                            Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                          ABSTRACT
        This  document  presents  an overview of industrial  assessments  and the general framework for
conducting an assessment. It describes combined assessments for pollution prevention and energy, "industrial
assessments", providing guidance to those performing assessments at industrial or other commercial facilities.
In addition, basic information about waste generating industrial operations and energy consuming equipment is
provided.  This guide can be used by both facility personnel to conduct in-house assessments of operations and
by third parties who are interested in providing industrial assessments.

        Traditionally,  assessments have been performed  on singular problem areas, focusing on  either
pollution prevention or energy.  An interagency agreement between the USEPA and the Department of Energy
combined pollution prevention and energy assessments into industrial assessments,  looking at both areas for
small and medium size facilities in SIC codes 20-39. A first draft of a training manual describing this industrial
assessment methodology was prepared by Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, in December of 1995.

        This  Guide to Industrial Assessments  for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency is organized
into four basic sections:

        Basic Concepts, Chapters 1 - 4.     Assessment methodology, fundamentals of an  assessment, and
                                        evaluation of  pollution  prevention  and  energy  conservation
                                        opportunities.

        Specific Waste Generation       Industrial operations, waste generated from each operation, and
        Information, Chapter 5.            pollution prevention opportunities.

        Specific Energy Consumption,    Types of energy consuming equipment including electrical
        Information, Chapters 6-10.       equipment, heat generating equipment like boilers,  and furnaces,
                                        prime movers of energy, thermal applications, andHVAC.

        References and Case Studies,     Materials to  be used repeatedly such as references,  sources  of
                                        information,  and pollution prevention and  energy  conservation
                                        case studies.
        This guide is an effort by EPA to contribute to an understanding of both pollution prevention and
energy assessments at commercial facilities.  Companies from large to small,  and government at all levels, as
well as assistance providers, could find the information contained in this directory useful.

        This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract #68-C7-0011, Work Assignment 21, by Science
Applications International  Corporation, under the sponsorship of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
This work covers a period from May to September, 1998.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                         Table of Contents

Executive Summary	1
Chapter 1 Introduction	11
         1.1 Document Organization	11
         1.2 What is an Industrial Assessment	11
         1.3 Benefits of an Industrial Assessment	11
         1.4 Who Should Participate in an Industrial Assessment	12
         1.5 Establishing a Pollution Prevention Program	12
                1.5.1  Management Support	13
                1.5.2 Characterize Energy Usage and Waste Generation	13
                1.5.3 Conduct Industrial Assessments	14
                1.5.4 Review Program Effectiveness	14

Chapter 2 Energy and Pollution prevention Assessments	15
         2.1 Pollution Prevention and Energy Conservation	15
                2.1.1  Hierarchy	15
         2.2 Assessment Methodology	16
                2.2.1  Planning and Organization	17
                2.2.2 Assessment Phase	18
                         2.2.2.1 Pre-Assessment Activities	18
                         2.2.2.2  Assessment	22
                2.2.3 Feasibility Analysis Phase	24
                         2.2.3.1 Prioritization of Opportunities	24
                         2.2.3.2  Evaluation of Technical and Economic Feasibility	25
                         2.2.3.3. Generate an Assessment Report	25
                2.2.4 Implementation	26
         2.3 Example Facility Information Collection	26

Chapter 3 Evaluation Of Energy Conservation And Pollution Prevention Opportunities	39
         3.1 Describe the Current Practices	39
                3.1.1  Overview of Current Operations	39
                3.1.2 Assumptions	40
                3.1.3  Impacts	40
                3.1.4 Raw Material  Costs	40
                3.1.5 Energy Costs	40
                         3.1.5.1 Electric Bills and Rates	40
                         3.1.5.2 Example of Gas Bills and Gas Rates	42
                         3.1.5.3 Fuel Oil Rates	43
                3.1.6 Waste Management Costs	43
                         3.1.6.1  Hazardous and Regulated Non-hazardous Waste Disposal	44
                         3.1.6.2  Solid Waste Disposal	44
                         3.1.6.3  Air Emission Management Costs and Emission Fees	44
                         3.1.6.4  Sanitary and Storm Discharge Fees	44
         3.2 Describe the Recommended Opportunity	45
         3.3 Evaluate the Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Benefits	45
                3.3.1  Energy Conservation Calculations	45
                3.3.2 Pollution Prevention Calculations	46
         3.4 Technical Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Proj ects	47
         3.5 Economic Evaluation of Energy and Pollution Prevention Project Costs	39
                3.5.1  Common Methods of Comparing Financial Performance	49
                         3.5.1.1  Payback Penod	49
                         3.5.1.2  Net Present Value	49
                         3.5.1.3  Internal Rate of Return	50
                3.5.2 Additional Economic Analysis Tools	51
                         3.5.2.1 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis	51
VI
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                         3.5.2.2 Total Cost Accounting	52
        3.6 Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Project Examples	53
                 3.6.1 Adjust Air Fuel Ration to Improve Boiler Efficiency	53
                         3.6.1.1 Current Practice and Observations	53
                         3.6.1.2 Recommended Action	53
                         3.6.1.3 Anticipated Savings	53
                         3.6.1.4 Implementation	54
                 3.6.2 Use Less Hazardous Inks in the Screen Printing Process	54
                         3.6.2.1  Current Practice and Observations	54
                         3.6.2.2 Recommended Action	54
                         3.6.2.3 Anticipated Savings	54
                         3.6.2.4 Payback Periods	55
                         3.6.2.5 Implementation	57
                         3.6.2.6 Net Present Value	57
                         3.6.2.7 Internal Rate of Return	58

Chapter 4 Sources Of Energy And Pollution	61
        4.1 Electric Energy	61
                 4.1.1 Reduce Electrical Use	62
                         4.1.1.1 Distribution System	62
                         4.1.1.2 Use of Electricity in the Industry	63
                 4.1.2 Power Factor	63
                         4.1.2.1 Power Factor Improvement	64
                         4.1.2.2 General Considerations for Power Factor Improvements	66
                 4.1.3 Electrical Demand/Load Factor Improvement	66
                         4.1.3.1 Potential Savings	66
                         4.1.3.2 System Analysis	67
                         4.1.3.3 Ways to Reduce Demand	67
                 4.1.4 Reading the Bill	68
                         4.1.4.1  Example of a Typical Electric Bill	69
                 4.1.5 The Energy Charge	70
                 4.1.6 The Demand Charge	71
                 4.1.7 Power Demand Controls	71
                 4.1.8 Demand Shifting	71
        4.2 Fossil Fuels	72
                 4.2.1 Energy Conservation Measures for Fossil Fuels	72
        4.3 Alternative Energy Sources	73
        4.4 Pollution Prevention And Waste Generation	73
                 4.4.1 Regulatory Requirements	74
                         4.4.1.1  Air Emission	74
                         4.4.1.2 Water Discharges	74
                         4.4.1.3 Solid Waste	74
                         4.4.1.4 Hazardous Waste	75
                         4.4.1.5 Record Keeping	75
                 4.4.2 Sources of Manufacturing Wastes	75
                         4.4.2.1 Processes Generating Wastes and Types of Wastes Generated	76
                         4.4.2.2 Industry Compendium of Processes Producing Wastes	76

Chapter 5 Industrial Operations	87
        5.1 Office Operations	87
                 5.1.1 Waste Description	87
                 5.1.2 Pollution Prevention Opportunities	87
                         5.1.2.1 Source Reduction	87
                         5.1.2.2 Recycling	90
        5.2 Materials Management/Housekeeping	91
                 5.2.1 Process Description	91
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                                                     VII

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                 5.2.2 Waste Description	92
                 5.2.3 Pollution Prevention Opportunities	92
                          5.2.3.1 Source Reduction	92
                          5.2.3.2 Recycling	98
         5.3  Facility Maintenance	101
                 5.3.1 Process Description	101
                 5.3.2 Waste Description	101
                 5.3.3 Pollution Prevention Opportunities	101
                          5.3.3.1 Source Reduction	101
                          5.3.3.2 Recycling	103
         5.4  Metal Working	106
                 5.4.1 Process Description	107
                 5.4.2 Waste Description	107
                 5.4.3 Pollution Prevention Opportunities	108
                          5.4.3.1 Source Reduction	110
                          5.4.3.2 Recycling	Ill
         5.5  Degreasing	112
                 5.5.1 Process Description	112
                 5.5.2 Waste Description	112
                 5.5.3 Pollution Prevention Opportunities	112
                          5.5.3.1 Source Reduction	112
                          5.5.3.2 Recycling	133
         5.6  Chemical Etching	137
                 5.6.1 Process Description	137
                          5.6.1.1 Phosphatmg	137
                          5.6.1.2 Chromate Conversion Coating	137
                 5.6.2 Waste Description	138
                 5.6.3 Pollution Prevention Opportunities	138
                          5.6.3.1 Source Reduction	139
                          5.6.3.2 Recycling	143
         5.7  Plating Operations	143
                 5.7.1 Process Description	144
                          5.7.1.1 Surface Cleaning and Preparation	144
                          5.7.1.2 Surface Modification	144
                          5.7.1.3 Rinse	144
                 5.7.2 Waste Description	144
                 5.7.3 Pollution Prevention Opportunities	145
                          5.7.3.1 Source Reduction	146
                          5.7.3.2 Recycling	154
         5.8  Paint Application	156
                 5.8.1 Process Description	156
                 5.8.2 Waste Description	156
                 5.8.3 Pollution Prevention Opportunities	156
                          5.8.3.1 Source Reduction	156
                          5.8.3.2 Recycling	166
         5.9  Paint Removal	166
                 5.9.1 Process Description	166
                 5.9.2 Waste Description	167
                 5.9.3 Pollution Prevention Opportunities	167
                          5.9.3.1 Source Reduction	167
                          5.9.3.2 Recycling	177
         5.10 Pnntmg	178
                 5.10.1 Process Description	178
                          5.10.1.1 Image Processing	179
                          5.10.1.2 Proof	179
                          5.10.1.3 Plate Processing	179
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                         5.10.1.4 Makeready	181
                         5.10.1.5 Printing	181
                         5.10.1.6 Finishing	181
                 5.10.2 Waste Description	181
                 5.10.3 Pollution Prevention Opportunities	183
                         5.10.3.1  Source Reduction	183
                         5.10.3.2 Recycling	186
        5.11  Waste Water Treatment	188
                 5.11.1 Process Description	189
                         5.11.1.1 Trickling Filters	189
                         5.11.1.2 Oxidation	189
                         5.11.1.3  Activated Sludge	190
                         5.11.1.4  Chlorination and Other Disinfection Techniques	190
                 5.11.2 Waste Description	191
                 5.11.3 Pollution Prevention Opportunities	191
                         5.11.3.1  Source Reduction	191
                         5.11.3.2 Recycling	191

Chapter 6 Electric Equipment	193
        6.1 Motors	193
                 6.1.1  Idle Running	193
                 6.1.2  Efficiency at Low Load	193
                 6.1.3  High-Efficiency Motors	195
                 6.1.4  Reduce Speed/Variable Drives	197
                         6.1.4.1 Variable Frequency AC Motors	197
                         6.1.4.2 Solid State DC Dnves	199
                         6.1.4.3 Mechanical Drives	199
                         6.1.4.4 Single-Speed Reduction	200
                         6.1.4.5 Two-Speed Motors	200
                 6.1.5  Load Reduction	200
                 6.1.6  High-Starting Torque	200
                 6.1.7  Rewound Motors	201
                 6.1.8  Motor Generator Sets	201
                 6.1.9 Belts	201
        6.2 Lighting	202
                 6.2.1  Lighting Standards	202
                 6.2.2  Light Meter Audit	205
                 6.2.3  Methods to Reduce Costs	205
                         6.2.3.1 Turn off Lights	205
                         6.2.3.2 Automatic Controllers	206
                         6.2.3.3 Remove Lamps	206
                         6.2.3.4 Maintain Lamps	206
                         6.2.3.5 Lower-Wattage Fluorescent Lamps and Ballasts	207
                         6.2.3.6 Fluorescent Retrofit Reflectors	208
                         6.2.3.7 Lamp Relocation	209
                         6.2.3.8 Lighting System Replacement	210
                 6.2.4  Summary of Different Lighting Technologies	210
                         6.2.4.1 Incandescent	211
                         6.2.4.2 Fluorescent	211
                         6.2.4.3 High Energy Discharge	211

Chapter 7  Heat	213
        7.1 Boilers	213
                 7.1.1  Boiler Operation and Efficiency	213
                         7.1.1.1 Boiler Efficiency Tips	214
                         7.1.1.2 Combustion in Boilers	217
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                            jx

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                7.1.2 Typical Performance Improvements	220
                         7.1.2.1  Adjustment of Fuel and Air Ratio	220
                         7.1.2.2  Elimination of Steam Leaks	221
                         7.1.2.3  Variable Frequency Drives for Combustion Air Blowers	221
                         7.1.2.4  Maintenance of Steam Traps	222
                         7.1.2.5  High Pressure Condensate Return Systems	222
        7.2 Heat Recovery Systems	223
                7.2.1 General Considerations	223
                7.2.2 Types of Heat Recovery Equipment	224
                         7.2.2.1  Economizers	224
                         7.2.2.2  Heat Pipes	225
                         7.2.2.3  Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers	225
                         7.2.2.4  Regenerative Unit (Heat Wheel)	225
                         7.2.2.5  Recuperators	225
        7.3 Heating Systems	226
            7.3.1  Destratification Fans	226
                7.3.1.1  Ceiling Fans	226
                7.3.1.2  Ducting	227
            7.3.2  Electric Heating	227
                7.3.2.1  Radiant Heaters	228
                7.3.2.3  Types of Radiant Systems	228
                7.3.2.4  Applications	228
        7.4 Furnaces And Burners	229
                7.4.1 Burner Combustion Efficiency	229
                7.4.2 Premix Burner Systems	230
                7.4.3 Nozzle Mix Burners	230
                7.4.4 Furnace Pressure Controls	231
                7.4.5 Furnace Efficiency	231
                7.4.6 Furnace Covers	232
        7.5 Cogeneration	232
                7.5.1 The Economics of Cogeneration	232
                7.5.2 Cogeneration Cycles	233
                         7.5.2.1  Cogeneration High-Spot Evaluation	234
                         7.5.2.2  Estimate of Savings	236
        7.8 Thermoenergy Storage Systems	237
                7.8.1 High Spot Evaluation	237
                7.8.2 Electric Load Analysis	238

Chapters  Prime Movers of Energy	241
        8.1 Pumps	241
                8.1.1 Operation	241
                         8.1.1.1  Pump Survey	241
                         8.1.1.2  Energy Conservation Measures	241
                8.1.2 Considerations for Installation Design	248
        8.2 Fans	248
                8.2.1 Inlet Vane Control	250
                8.2.2 Reduced Speed	250
                8.2.3 Variable Speed	250
        8.3 Air Compressors	250
                8.3.1 Waste Heat Recovery	251
                8.3.2 Operating Pressure Reduction	251
                8.3.3 Elimination of Air Leaks	252
                8.3.4 Cooling Water Heat Recovery	255
                8.3.5 Compressor Controls	255
                8.3.6 Outside Air Usage	256
                8.3.7 Compressor Replacement	256
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                 8.3.8 Low Pressure Blowers	257
                 8.3.9 General notes on Air Compressors	257

Chapter 9 Thermal Applications	259
        9.1 Cooling Systems	259
                 9.1.1 Cooling Towers	259
                 9.1.2 Typical Performance Improvements	263
                         9.1.3.1 Condenser Water Temperature Adjustments	263
                         9.1.3.2 Chilled Water Supply Temperature Adjustment	263
                         9.1.3.3 Variable Speed (or Two-Speed) Motors for Cooling Tower Fans	264
                         9.1.3.4 Hot Gas Defrost	264
        9.2 Absorption Refrigeration	265
                 9.2.1 Operation	266
                         9.2.1.1 Capacity	267
                         9.2.1.2 Operating Problems	267
                         9.2.1.3 Direct-Fired two-Stage Absorption Refrigeration	268
        9.3 Mechanical Refrigeration	268
                 9.3.1 Mechanical Compression	268
                 9.3.2 Methods to Reduce Costs	269
                         9.3.2.1 Use Refrigeration Efficiently	270
                         9.3.2.2 Reduce the Condensing Temperature (Pressure)	270
                         9.3.2.3 Raise the Evaporator Temperature (Pressure)	272
                         9.3.2.4 Operate Multiple Compressors Economically	272
                         9.3.2.5 RecoverHeat	273
                         9.3.2.6 Reduce Operation of Hot-Gas Bypass	273
                         9.3.2.7 Optimize Refrigeration Performance	273
        9.4 Insulation	274
                 9.4.1 Insulation of Pipes	274
                         9.4.1.1 Steam and Hot Water.	275
                         9.4.1.2 Cold Water	275
                 9.4.2 Insulation of Tanks	275
                         9.4.2.1 Hot Media	276
                         9.4.2.2 ColdMedia	276
                 9.4.3 Building Insulation	276
                         9.4.4.1 Dock Doors	277
                 9.4.4 Recommended Insulation Standards	277
                         9.4.5.1 Lowest Cost System	277
                         9.4.5.2 Economic Factors to be Considered in Basic Insulation Selection	277
                         9.4.5.3 Finish Factors Influencing Insulation Selection	278
                 9.4.5 Process Equipment	278
                         9.4.6.1 Injection Mold Barrels	278

Chapter 10 HVAC	281
        10.1 Air Conditioning	281
                 10.1.1 Equipment	281
                         10.1.1.1 Fans	281
                         10.1.1.2 Coils	281
                         10.1.1.3 Air Washers	282
                         10.1.1.4 Air Cleaners	282
                         10.1.1.5 Humidifiers	283
                         10.1.1.6 Controls	283
                         10.1.1.7 Distribution System	283
                 10.1.2 Psychrometry	283
                 10.1.3 Computation	284
                 10.1.4 Energy Conservation	284
                         10.1.4.1 Operate Systems Only When Needed	285
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                            xi

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                         10.1.4.2 Eliminate Overcooling and Overheating	286
                         10.1.4.3 Eliminate Reheat	288
                         10.1.4.4 Economizer Cycle	288
                         10.1.4.5 Minimize Amounts of Makeup and Exhaust Air	291
                         10.1.4.6 Minimize the Amount of Air Delivered to a Conditioned Space	291
                         10.1.4.7 Recover Energy	293
                         10.1.4.8 Maintain Equipment	293
        10.2 HVAC Systems	293
                10.2.1  Equipment Sizing Practices	294
                         10.2.1.1 Reducing  Capacity by Fan/Pump Slowdown	294
                         10.2.1.2 Maximize  HVAC Savings	295
                10.2.2  Design for Human Comfort	295
                         10.2.2.1 Factors Affecting Comfort	297
                10.2.3  General Types of Building Heating and Cooling	302
        10.3 Ventilation	305
                10.3.1  Losses	306
                         10.3.1.1 Room Air	306
                         10.3.1.2 High-Temperature Exhaust	306
                         10.3.1.3 Air-Water  Mixture	307
                10.3.2  Balance Air Flows	307
                         10.3.2.1 Shut off Fans	307
                         10.3.2.2 Reduce Volume	307
                         10.3.2.3 Reduce Temperature	308
                         10.3.2.4 Recover Heat	308
                10.3.3  Types of Heat Exchangers	309
                         10.3.3.1 Rotary Heat Exchanger	309
                         10.3.3.2 Sealed Heat Pipe Exchanger.	309
                         10.4.5.1 Plate Heat Exchanger	309
                         10.4.5.2 Coil-Run-Around System	309
                         10.4.5.3 Hot Oil Recovery System	310

Appendix A Information Resources	A-l
        EPA Regional Offices	A-l
        Energy Conservation Resources	A-2
        Pollution Prevention Publications	A-3
        Technology Transfer Information Sources	A-9
        Pollution Prevention Websites	A-57

Appendix B Thermodynamic Analysis	B-l
        Psychrometrics	B-l
        Properties of Air	B-2
        Air Conditioning Processes	B-6
        Heat Loss Calculations	B-10
        Heat Gain Calculations	B-12

Appendix C Energy and  Waste  Instrumentation for Audits	C-l

Appendix D Definitions	D-l

Appendix E Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies	E-l
        Case Study #1:  Implement Periodic Inspection and Adjustment of
                Combustion in a Gas Fired Boiler.	E-3
        Case Study #2:  Implement Periodic Inspection and Adjustment of
                Combustion in a Oil Fired Boiler	E-5
        Case Study #3:  Energy Saving From Installation of Ceiling Fans	E-7
        Case Study #4:  Install Infrared Radiant Heaters	E-9
xii                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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        Case Study #5: Repair Compressed Air Leaks	E-13
        Case Study #6: Install a Low Pressure Blower to Reduce Compressed Air Use	E-17

Appendix F  Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies	F-l
        Case Study #1: Construction and Demo lition Waste Recycling	F-3
        Case Study #2: Packaging Reuse	F-5
        Case Study #3: Oil Analysis Program	F-7
        Case Study #4: Maintenance Fluid Recycling	F-9
        Case Study #5: Metal Working Fluid Substitution	F-ll
        Case Study #6: Install an Automated Aqueous Cleaner	F-13
        Case Study #7: Recycling of Cleaner Through Filtration	F-15
        Case Study #8: Efficient Rinsing Set-up For Chemical Etching	F-17
        Case Study #9: Waste Reduction in the Chromate Conversion Process	F-19
        Case Study #10:  Plating Process Bath Maintenance	F-21
        Case Study #11:  Closed-Loop Plating Bath Recycling Process	F-23
        Case Study #12:  Water-Borne Paint As a Substitute for Solvent-Based Coatings	F-25
        Case Study #13:  High Velocity Low Pressure (HVLP) Paint System	F-27
        Case Study #14:  Replacing Chemical Stripping with Plastic Media Blasting	F-29
        Case Study #15:  White Water and Fiber Reuse in Pulp and Paper Manufacturing	F-31
        Case Study #16:  Chemical Substitution in Pulp and Paper  Manufacturing	F-33
        Case Study #17:  On-site Recycling	F-35
        Case Study #18:  Solvent Reduction in Commercial Printing Industry	F-37
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          xiii

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                                          List of Exhibits

Exhibit 2.1     Environmental Management Hierarchy	16
Exhibit 2.2     Assessment Procedures	17
Exhibit 2.3     Block Diagram Model	19
Exhibit 2.4     Example Facility Description	27
Exhibit 2.5     Mars Screen Printing Facility Layout	28
Exhibit 2.6     Example Process Description	29
Exhibit 2.7     Example Flow Diagram for the Mars Screen Printing, Screen Making Operation	30
Exhibit 2.8     Example Flow Diagram for the Mars Screen Printing, Printing Operation	30
Exhibit 2.9     Example Flow Diagram for the Mars Screen Printing, Cleaning Operation	31
Exhibit 2.10    Electrical Summary	31
Exhibit 2.11    Natural Gas Summary	32
Exhibit 2.12    Fuel Oil Summary	32
Exhibit 2.13    Summary of Energy Usage	33
Exhibit 2.14    Summary Energy Costs	33
Exhibit 2.15    Electrical Costs	34
Exhibit 2.16    Electricity Usage	34
Exhibit 2.17    Example Raw Material List for Mars Screen Printing	35
Exhibit 2.18    Example Waste Generation Data for Mars Screen Printing	35
Exhibit 2.19    Example Equipment List and Pertinent Information	36
Exhibit 2.20    Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities for Mars Screen Printing	36
Exhibit 2.21    Example Decision Matrix	37

Exhibit 3.1     Relation of Demand (kW) to Energy (kWh)	41
Exhibit 3.2     Sample Natural Gas Bill	42
Exhibit 3.3     Common Units of Measure and Conversions to BTUs (U.S. Dept of Commerce, 1974)	46
Exhibit 3.4     Units of Measure for Various Applications (U.S. Dept of Commerce, 1974)	46
Exhibit 3.5     Typical Technical Evaluation Criteria	48
Exhibit 3.6     TCA Cost Categories	53
Exhibit 3.7     Estimated Annual Cost of Environmentally Preferred Ink at Mars Screen Printing	55
Exhibit 3.8     Annual Cost of Current Ink Formulation at Mars Screen Printing	56
Exhibit 3.9     Estimated Annual Cost of Environmentally Preferred Ink at Mars Screen Printing	56
Exhibit 3.10    NPV Calculation for Mars  Screen Printing	58
Exhibit 3.11    IRR Calculations for Mars Screen Printing	59

Exhibit 4.1     Components of Electrical Power	64
Exhibit 4.2     Power Factor Correction	65
Exhibit 4.3     Highest Demands for Hypothetical Billing Period of May	68
Exhibit 4.4     Example Electric Bill	69
Exhibit 4.5     Compendium of Processes Producing Waste	77

Exhibit 5.1     Available Technologies for Alternatives to Chlorinated Solvents
              for Cleaning and Degreasing	114
Exhibit 5.2     Available Technologies for Cleaning and Degreasing	124
Exhibit 5.3     CEVC Cleaning Cycle	128
Exhibit 5.4     Five-stage Iron or Zinc Phosphating Process	137
Exhibit 5.5     Typical Conversion Coating Process for Aluminum	138
Exhibit 5.6     Simplified Material Balance of a Chemical Etching Process Step	138
Exhibit 5.7     Immersion Rinse System Schematic	140
Exhibit 5.8     Schematic of a Conveyorized  Paints and  Coatings Operation	141
Exhibit 5.9     Major Metal Plating Wastes and  Constituents	146
Exhibit 5.10    Waste Minimization Opportunities Available to the Metal Plating Industry	157
Exhibit 5.11    Waste Minimization/Pollution Prevention Methods and Technologies	148
Exhibit 5.12    Process Flow Diagram for a Typical Commercial Printing Operation	180
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Exhibit 5.13    Wastes from Commercial Printing	182
Exhibit 5.14    One and Two Stage Trickling Filter Systems	190

Exhibit 6.1     Motor Efficiency	194
Exhibit 6.2     Typical Efficiency Comparison for 1800 rpm Motors:  General Electric	196
Exhibit6.3     Typical Efficiency Comp arisen for 1800 rpm Motors: Westinghouse	197
Exhibit6.4     FanDrive:  Variable Speed vs. Valve Control	198
Exhibit 6.5     Results for a Fan Controlled by Damper.	199
Exhibit 6.6     Fan Horsepower with Variable Speed Motor	199
Exhibit 6.7     Dupont Recommended Light Levels for Service Building Interiors	202
Exhibit 6.8     Dupont Recommended Illumination Levels for General Manufacturing	204
Exhibit 6.9     Dupont Recommended Illumination Levels for Outdoor Areas	205
Exhibit 6.10    Alternative Lighting Systems Approximate Initial Lumens per Watt Including Ballast	210

Exhibit 7.1     Optimal Flue Gas Composition	214
Exhibit 7.2     Boiler Efficiency (Natural Gas)	215
Exhibit 7.3     Effect of Scale Thickness in Boilers on Heat Transfer	216
Exhibit 7.4     Effects of Feedwater Preheat on Boiler System Efficiency	216
Exhibit 7.5     Efficiency Loss Due to Blowdown	217
Exhibit 7.6     Ultimate CO2 Values	218
Exhibit 7.7     Boiler Combustion Mixtures	218
Exhibit 7.8     Combustion Efficiencies	219
Exhibit 7.9     Air/Fuel Ratio Reset:  Costs and Benefits	220
Exhibit 7.10    Steam Leak Repair: Costs and Benefits	221
Exhibit 7.11    (ASD)- Variable Frequency Drives:  Costs and Benefits	221
Exhibit 7.12    Steam Trap Repair: Costs and Benefits	222
Exhibit 7.13    Condensate Return Systems: Costs and Benefits	223
Exhibit 7.14    Fuel Savings Realized by Preheating Combustion Air	224
Exhibit 7.15    Stratification and Destratification of Air	227
Exhibit 7.16    Infrared Radiant Heater	229
Exhibit 7.17    Percent Excess Air From CO2 Reading	230
Exhibit 7.18    Cogeneration Cycles	234
Exhibit 7.19    Gas-Turbine Cycle	235
Exhibit 7.20    Steam-Turbine Cycles	236
Exhibit 7.21    Thermal Storage High Spot Evaluation	238

Exhibits. 1     Typical Centrifugal Pump Characteristics	244
Exhibit 8.2     Centrifugal Pump Curve	245
Exhibit 8.3     Typical Pump and System Curves, Driven by Adjustable Speed Drive	246
Exhibit 8.4     Typical Pump and System Curves for Pump with Throttling Valve	247
Exhibit 8.5     Pump Power Requirements for Throttling and Adjustable Speed Motors	247
Exhibit 8.6     Comparative Energy Usage with Various Methods of Control	248
Exhibit 8.7     Nominal Efficiency of Fans at Normal Operating Conditions	249
Exhibit 8.8     Effect of Volume Control on Fan Horsepower	249
Exhibit 8.9     Compressor Waste Heat Recovery: Costs and Benefits	251
Exhibit 8.10    Pressure Reduction:  Costs and Benefits	252
Exhibit 8.11    Fuel and Air Losses Due to Compressed Air Leaks	252
Exhibit 8.12    Leakage Reduction: Costs and Benefits	252
Exhibit 8.13    Waste Water Heat Recovery:  Costs  and Benefits	255
Exhibit 8.14    Screw Compressor Controls: Costs and Benefits	255
Exhibit 8.15    Outside Air Usage: Costs and Benefits	256
Exhibit 8.16    Optimum Sized Equipment: Costs and Benefits	257
Exhibit 8.17    Reduce Compressed Air Usage: Costs and Benefits	257

Exhibit 9.1     Comparison of F. D. Blower Tower vs. Propeller Tower for 400 Tons	260
Exhibit 9.2     Mechanical Forced-Draft Cooling Tower	260
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Exhibit 9.3     Induced Draft Cooling Tower.	261
Exhibit 9.4     Free Cooling/Air Preheat	261
Exhibit 9.5     Indirect Free Cooling Loop	262
Exhibit 9.6     Free Cooling (Water Side Economizer) Define Operating Conditions	262
Exhibit 9.7     Condenser Water Supply Temperature Reset: Costs and Benefit	263
Exhibit 9.8     Chilled Water Supply  Temperature Reset: Costs and Benefits	263
Exhibit 9.9     Two-Speed Motors on Cooling Tower Fans:  Costs and Benefits	264
Exhibit 9.10    Temperature vs. Time  of Blower Operation	265
Exhibit 9.11    Evaporator Coils Defrost:  Costs and Benefits	265
Exhibit 9.12    Two-Stage Absorption Chiller	266
Exhibit 9.13    Capacity as Function of Temperature of Heat Source and Cooling Water	267
Exhibit 9.14    Cost Comparison of Mechanical and Absorption Refrigeration	268
Exhibit 9.15    Mechanical Compression Refrigeration System	269
Exhibit 9.16    Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram	270
Exhibit 9.17    Partial Load Requirement for Centrifugal Refrigeration Compressors	271
Exhibit 9.18    Recommended Thickness for Pipe and Equipment Insulation	274
Exhibit 9.19    Steam Lines and Hot Water Pipes: Costs and Benefits	275
Exhibit 9.20    Chilled Water Pipes:  Costs and Benefits	275
Exhibit 9.21    Hot Tanks:  Costs and Benefits	276
Exhibit 9.22    Cold Tanks: Costs and Benefits	276
Exhibit 9.23    Dock Doors: Costs and Benefits	277
Exhibit 9.24    Insulate Equipment: Costs and Benefits	278

Exhibit 10.1    Air Conditioning Equipment	282
Exhibit 10.2    Modified Air Conditioning System Controls	287
Exhibit 10.3    Economizer Cycle (Outdoor Temp. Switchover, Mixing Temp. Control)	289
Exhibit 10.4    Economizer Cycle (Outdoor Temp. Switchover, Chilled H20 Control)	289
Exhibit 10.5    Economizer Cycle (Enthalpy Switchover, Chilled H20 Control)	289
Exhibit 10.6    Total Savings	292
Exhibit 10.7    Effect of Volume Control on Horsepower.	293
Exhibit 10.8    Energy Use in Buildings	293
Exhibit 10.9    Load vs. Efficiency	294
Exhibit 10.10   Control Valve Characteristics	295
Exhibit 10.11   Heating and Cooling Loads	296
Exhibit 10.12   Comfort Zone Detail	297
Exhibit 10.13   Biological Factors Affecting Comfort	298
Exhibit 10.14   Heat Flux Generated by Various Activities	298
Exhibit 10.15   Clothing Resistance	299
Exhibit 10.16   Garment Insulation Values	300
Exhibit 10.17   Convection Heat Transfer  Coefficients	301
Exhibit 10.18   Sprayed Coil Dehurmdifier	302
Exhibit 10.19   Evaporative Cooling & Air Washer	302
Exhibit 10.20   Humidity Control Through Cooling Override	303
Exhibit 10.21   Single Zone - All Direct Control from Space Thermostat	303
Exhibit 10.22   Dual Duct Air Handling System	304
Exhibit 10.23   Multizone Air Handling Unit	304
Exhibit 10.24   Hybrid VAV Control System	305

Exhibit E.I     Natural Gas Fuel Savings	E-4
Exhibit E.2     Liquid Petroleum Fuel Savings	E-6
ExhibitE.3     Condition of Pneumatic System at Time of Site Visit	E-13
Exhibit E.4     Cost of Compressed Air Leaks at This Plant	E-14
Exhibit E.5     Summary of Savings	E-14
Exhibit E.6     Implementation Costs	E-15
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Exhibit F.I     Cost Analysis for a Demolition Waste Recycling Program	F-3
Exhibit F.2     Monthly Operating Cost Comparison for Polystyrene Packaging Peanuts and
              Shredded Paper Packaging	F-5
Exhibit F. 3     Economic Comparison of Maintenance Schedule versus Oil Analysis Programs	F-7
Exhibit F.4     Annual Operating Cost Comparison for Waste Solvent Disposal and Waste
              Solvent Recycling	F-9
Exhibit F. 5     Waste Volume Reduction by Using the Automated Aqueous Washer	F-13
Exhibit F.6     Annual Operating Cost Comparison for Single Use Rinse and Recycling Rinse	F-15
ExhibitF.7     Drag-out Recovery as aFunction of Recycle Rinse Ratio	F-18
ExhibitF.8     Economic Comparison of Wet Sludge Disposal versus Dried Sludge Disposal	F-19
Exhibit F.9     Operating Cost Analysis for Recommended Bath Maintenance Practices	F-21
Exhibit F. 10    Economic Evaluation of Evaporator Installation	F-24
Exhibit F. 11    Annual Operating Cost Comparison for Water-Borne Paint Application and
              Solvent Based Paint Application	F-26
Exhibit F. 12    Economic Comparison of Air-Assisted Paint Guns versus High Velocity
              Low Pressure Paint Application	F-27
Exhibit F. 13    Operating Cost Comparison for Sodium Hydroxide Paint Removal and
              Plastic Media Blasting	F-29
Exhibit F. 14    Summary of Financial Data for White Water and Fiber Reuse	F-31
Exhibit F. 15    Summary of Financial Data for Aqueous/Heavy Metal Conversion	F-33
Exhibit F. 16    Economic Comparison of On -Site versus Off-Site Ink Recycling	F-36
Exhibit F. 17    Cost Analysis for a 5-Gallon In-Process Solvent Recycling	F-37
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                                                                                     Executive Summary
                                   EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

        This document is intended to provide guidance to those who are interested in performing industrial
assessments at  industrial or other commercial facilities.  This document is not intended to be an  all-
encompassing guide to industrial assessments for pollution prevention and energy conservation but a general
reference.  The U.S. EPA would like to thank Dr. Michael Muller and staff of The Office  of Industrial
Productivity & Energy Assessment, Rutgers University, and the Department of Energy, Office of Industrial
Technology, for their efforts in producing the first version of this document.  In addition, the U.S. EPA
would like to acknowledge and thank those who have performed the case study assessments.

        This guide  presents  an overview of industrial  assessments and  the general  framework  for
conducting an assessment. In addition, basic information about waste generating industrial operations and
energy consuming equipment is provided.  This guide can be used by both facility personnel to conduct in-
house assessments of operations and those who are interested in  providing  industrial assessments to
industrial and commercial facilities since the framework for an assessment will be the same for both.


E.I    What Is An Industrial Assessment

        An industrial assessment is an in-depth review of existing operations to increase efficiency of the
operation through pollution prevention and energy conservation. The industrial assessment is an essential
and valuable tool used to:

    •   define the specific characteristics of a whole facility that consumes energy and generates wastes,

    •   identify a range of energy conservation and pollution prevention options,

    •   evaluate the options based on a set of criteria, and

    •   select the most promising options for implementation.

        One should find the industrial  assessment instrumental to systematically identifying opportunities
to increase energy efficiency and decrease waste generation. Assessments can be divided into three types:
energy, waste (hazardous and  non-hazardous) or a combination of the two.  Energy  conservation and
pollution prevention  are complementary activities. That  is, generally actions that conserve energy reduce
the quantity of wastes produced by energy-generating processes, and actions that reduce production wastes
lower the expenditure of energy for waste handling and treatment. It is a well used and proven approach to
identifying cost saving energy conservation and pollution prevention technologies that enhance a facility's
performance.
  Benefits of Industrial Assessments
  •   Economics
  •   Reduced energy consumption
  •   Reduced waste generation
  •   Increased operation efficiency
  •   Reduced liability
  •   Reduced compliance issues
  •   Increased  worker  health  and
      safety
  •   Improved public relations  and
      public image
  •   Better monitoring  of operation
      performance
        Energy    conservation    and   pollution   prevention
opportunities provide many benefits.  An industrial assessment is
intended to increase the efficient use of energy and materials.  The
process of performing an assessment  provides useful information
for facility personnel to evaluate  a  particular  operation or the
entire facility.   Benefits resulting from industrial  assessments
include economics, reduced liability, reduced energy consumption,
increased worker health and safety,  improved public relations, and
compliance with regulations.

        Any facility that wishes to find opportunities to increase
the efficiency of their operations  should conduct an industrial
assessment.   Businesses have  strong  incentives to  increase
operation   efficiency   as  this  increases  competitive  edge.
Operations that are more efficient can operate with lower expenses
and  decrease their cost per unit production.   An  industrial
assessment is not something that  is  performed only once  and
options are implemented.  Industrial  assessments should be used
                                                                 Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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               Executive Summary
JT ,              as a tool to periodically examine operation efficiency  and re-evaluate current  opportunities.  As new
                 technologies become available,  an opportunity that was  not economically or perhaps technically feasible
                 when the last industrial assessment was performed can become a viable opportunity for a facility.
                         Pollution Prevention means "source reduction" as defined under the Pollution Prevention Act, and
                 other practices that reduce or eliminate the creation of pollutants through:
                     •   increased efficiency in the use of raw materials, energy, water, or other resources, or
                     •   protection of natural resources by conservation.
                         A pollution prevention program provides the mechanism to a facility for continuous self-evaluation
                 and improvement. Assessments are key components of a facility's pollution prevention program. A pollution
                 prevention program  provides the  framework for a facility to develop goals, establish a working group,
                 provide reports on energy usage and waste generation,  and mechanisms to track results of implemented
                 projects.
                         The most important  element  of a pollution prevention  program is management  support.  Top
                 management must demonstrate support for the program because employees who believe that the program is
                 not supported by management get the attitude of "They don't care, why shoul
                 and should be demonstrated through several mechanisms:
                     •   Circulating a written policy
                     •   Establishing goals for reducing waste generation  and energy consumption,
                     •   Establishing a working group,
                     •   Providing training on conservation techniques, and
                     •   Publicizing and rewarding successes.
                         After a facility has established its goals and objectives for its pollution prevention program, it is
                 ready to conduct industrial assessments.

                 E.2    Conducting an Industrial Assessment
                         The assessment process begins with the recognition of the need for pollution prevention and energy
                 conservation. An industrial assessment consists of four general phases:
                     1.   Planning and Organization
                     2.   Assessment Phase
                     3.   Feasibility Analysis Phase, and
                     4.   Implementation
                 This document will focus on phases 1 -3 and will briefly discuss phase 4.
                         The first step in an assessment is to establish the assessment team. The team should be composed of
                 personnel from many areas of the facility. Core team members will include those that are involved with the
                 operation or process, both supervisors and staff, as well as energy management and environmental staff.
                 Other areas  that may be included  are  health  and  safely,  facility or civil  engineering,  quality  control,
                 accounting and finance, purchasing and contracting, and legal.
                         Once the assessment team is established, the team will need to determine:
                     •   What processes will be assessed.
                     •   Who will be involved with the assessment.
                     •   When will the assessment take place.
                     •   How will the team approach the assessment.

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                                                                                     Executive Summary
E.2.1   Planning and Organization

        The planning and organization of an industrial assessment is important to obtain the desired results.
The assessment team should decide on  a data collection format for the assessment.   The team may use
standard worksheets provided in BPA's Facility Pollution Prevention Guide or may develop their own
assessment worksheets, questionnaires, or checklists.  The team should prepare an assessment agenda and
schedule the assessment in advance to coincide with a particular operation of interest

E.2.2   Assessment Phase

        The second phase is the assessment phase.  This phase can be broken down into two parts: the pre-
assessment and the actual assessment.

E.2.2.1      Pre-Assessment

        Prior to the assessment it is a good idea to collect information, allowing the assessment team to
review  and  prepare additional questions.  Information  that should  be  collected includes:   a facility
description,  a process description, a process flow diagram, major energy  consuming  equipment,  raw
material information, and energy and waste data collection. The team should  collect information for a 12-
month period and all information should be for the  same 12-month period.  The energy information should
be converted to a standard unit of measure such as the British Thermal Unit  (BTU)  and  graphed to view
energy usage trends. Waste data can be summarized in a table format for review and reference.  Collection
of this data prior to the assessment will also give the assessment team an idea of where its  attention should
be focused during the actual assessment.

£.2.2.2      Assessment

        During the actual assessment, the team should begin with a review of operations and data collected
prior to the assessment with persons who work in the area  on a day-to-day basis.   After the team has
discussed the operations, the team should take  a walk-through the facility to observe actual operations.
During the walk-through team members  should talk with personnel to confirm operational procedures and
information  collected prior to  the assessment.    After the walk-through, the  team members should brain
storm ideas for energy conservation and pollution prevention.  This is the point where the team will generate
a list of ideas without regard to cost or feasibility.  Once the list of ideas has been generated, the team can
collect information that it needs to complete a feasibility analysis.

E.2.3   Feasibility Analysis Phase

        The third phase of the assessment is the feasibility analysis.  This portion of the  assessment is
usually  completed  over several days after the assessment and will include  both a technical feasibility
analysis and an economic feasibility analysis.

        The feasibility analysis should begin with a prioritization of the identified opportunities.  Because
of time and resource  constraints  many facilities  will have  to  choose  among  opportunities  for
implementation.  The team can develop a relative ranking of opportunities using a tool know as the decision
matrix.  The decision matrix tool can be used to rank the identified opportunities  using  a list of critical
factors that are important to the facility allowing an "apples-to-apples" comparison of the options.

        The feasibility analysis should be documented for presentation to other facility  personnel or to
management. This documentation should include a clear description of current operations and practices, a
description of the opportunity, the benefits of that would result from implementation of the opportunity, as
well as  a technical and economic evaluation of the  opportunity.  The detail of the technical and economic
evaluations will vary depending on facility requirements and the complexity of the opportunity.

E.2.3.1      Technical Feasibility

        The technical feasibility analysis can include:

    •   Calculation of energy consumption and waste generation reductions,

    •   Determination of how much labor will be involved with the changes in operations or equipment,
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Executive Summary
      •   Evaluation of space constraints,

      •   Evaluation of safety and health aspects for employees,

      •   Compatibility with current operations and materials, and

      •   Changes in annual operating and maintenance costs.

          There are many other factors that can be included in a technical evaluation. All of the factors listed
  above may not apply to every  opportunity.  The team should determine what criteria are applicable to a
  specific opportunity based on the complexity and applicability of implementation and impact on operations.

  E.2.3.2      Economic Feasibility

          An economic feasibility analysis is a process in which financial costs, revenues, and savings are
  evaluated for  a particular project.   This analysis  is necessary to evaluate  the  economic advantages of
  competing projects and is used to determine how to allocate limited resources.  Three methods of comparison
  are currently is widespread use:  Payback Period, Net Present Value, and Internal Rate  of Return.  The
  method of economic evaluation is often determined by internal company requirements.  In  addition, Life
  Cycle Costing (LCC) and Total Cost Accounting (TCA) tools are used to establish  economic criteria to
  justify energy conservation and pollution prevention.  TCA is used to describe internal costs and savings,
  including  environmental criteria. LCC includes all internal costs plus external costs incurred throughout the
  entire life cycle of a product, process, or activity.

  E.2.4  Implementation

          Management  support  is  the  most  important  element in  successfully implementing  energy
  conservation and pollution opportunities. Actions  taken to  implement energy conservation and pollution
  prevention projects vary greatly  from project to project and company to company.  One facility may decide to
  use in-house expertise to implement projects while another may find it beneficial to contract the work to an
  outside organization. After successful implementation of the project, it is beneficial to track and advertise the
  resulting cost savings and impacts to give feedback to facility personnel. This allows personnel  to see the
  results of changes in procedures or installation of new equipment and to participate in the energy conservation
  and pollution prevention program.


  E.3    Sources of Energy and Pollution

          Sources of energy and pollution come  in a great variety.   Energy is generated from many sources
  including:

      •   Nuclear,                                      •   Wind,

      •   Coal-fired electric generation plants,            •   Solid waste incinerators,

      •   Fossil Fuels,                                 •   Geothermal, and

      •   Solar,                                        •   Biomass fuels  including wood, peat, and
                                                           wood charcoal.
      •   Hydroelectric,

  These sources are used to generate energy mainly in the form  of  electricity, because  it is more easily
  transmitted over long distances and can be used for more tasks.  These sources are also used to generate
  steam and compressed air for use in industrial operations.

          Energy generation, as  well as many industrial  operations, produce pollution.  Energy generation
  operations impact the environment either through air emissions from the burning of fossil fuels, wastes from
  the maintenance of equipment and other operations,  flooding of areas by hydroelectric  dams, and  mining or
  drilling of fossil fuels. Industrial operations also impact the environment in a similar manner.

          Over the past three decades, the generation of wastes that are released to the environment through
  any media has become more stringently regulated.   The regulations that have been enacted require much
  record keeping,  documenting a facility's status for permitting discharges to the  air, and water, and for
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                                                                                     Executive Summary
disposal. Regulations such as the Clean Air Act (CAA) and the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System  (NPDES) require facilities  to  apply  for  and obtain  permits to discharge pollutants from their
operations.   The limits placed on a facility as a result of their discharge permits may impact a facility's
production capabilities and the types of equipment that will be required to treat and monitor discharges.


E.4    Industrial Operations

        There are many  common applications that are applied in a variety of ways through out industry.
Pollution prevention opportunities exist for a wide variety of industrial operations.  Even though these
operations are applied in  a variety of ways there are many common opportunities for pollution prevention.
The following twelve areas have widespread application in today's industrial operations.

    •   Office Operations                            •   Plating Operations

    •   Materials Management/ Housekeeping         •   Paint Application

    •   Facility Maintenance                         •   Paint Removal

    •   Metal Working                               •   Paper and Pulp Manufacturing

    •   Cleaning & Degreasing                       •   Commercial Printing

    •   Chemical Etching                            •   Waste Water Treatment

        These operations generate similar types of wastes without regard to the specific industry. As such,
there  are many common opportunities for pollution prevention that can  be  applied to many industrial
operations.   There are many sector guides that focus on these areas available from  the U.S.  EPA (see
Appendix A of this document).

        For example, every facility has some type of office operations to manage the purchase of materials,
personnel, and other administrative tasks.  Opportunities that can be implemented in any office include:

    •   Reducing lighting levels in certain areas,

    •   Using energy efficient bulbs and fixtures,

    •   Retrofitting plumbing with water saving devices

    •   Using electronic documents and mail, and

    •   Making double-sided copies.

While these opportunities will be  common to many industries there will always  be opportunities that  are
specific to a particular facility and it's operations.  The assessment team should explore other opportunities
that fit a facility's unique needs.  This chapter of the document gives a description of each operation area,
the types of wastes generated from each operation, and potential pollution prevention opportunities.


E.5    Energy  Consuming Equipment

        Industrial operations are very energy intensive.  Equipment can be combined into a multitude of
applications.  There  are common types of equipment used across industries such as boilers, air compressors,
and lighting.  There are many energy conservation opportunities that can be implemented for these types of
equipment independent of application. Following are brief descriptions of common types of equipment used
in industry  and applicable energy conservation opportunities.  Several energy conservation case studies are
given in the appendices of this document.

E.5.1  Electric Equipment

        Motors represent the largest single use of electricity in most facilities.  The function of an electric
motor is to  convert electrical energy  into mechanical energy.  Motors are designed to perform this function
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               Executive Summary
JT ,              efficiently; the opportunity for energy savings with motors rests primarily in selection and use.  The most
                 direct power savings can be obtained by shutting off idling motors, eliminating no-load losses.

                          Often motors have a greater rating than required, operating at partial load.  Reasons for oversized
                 motors include:

                      •    Personnel may not know  the actual load; and  to be  conservative, select a motor  larger than
                          necessary.

                      •    The designer or supplier wants to ensure that the unit will have ample power.

                      •    The correct motor rating is not available when a replacement is needed.

                          Newer technologies have made motors more efficient and allow flexibility in motor loads such as
                 reduce speed/variable drives and variable frequency AC motors.

                          Many lighting systems that represented good practice in the past are inefficient in view of today's
                 higher electrical  costs.  A lighting conservation program not  only saves energy but is a highly visible
                 indication  of  management's interest  in conserving  energy  in  general.   The importance  of  lighting
                 conservation,  therefore, should be considered not only for its dollar savings but also for its  psychological
                 effect on the facility's entire conservation program.  Opportunities for conservation include:

                      •    Using task specific lighting levels,

                      •    Turning off unneeded lighting,

                      •    Using lighting specifically designed for high ceiling area, and

                      •    Using energy efficient lamps.

                 E.5.2   Heat

                          Boilers are common throughout industry to provide steam for applications as well as heat.  A boiler
                 system is comprised of four main  parts:  a boiler, a steam distribution system, steam traps and a condensate
                 return  system.  There are several factors that can impact a boiler's efficiency.  These include adjustment of
                 air/fuel ratio for fuel combustion, make-up water pre-heat, frequency and amount of blowdown  to clean the
                 system of excess  solids, percentage of condensate return, and maintenance of the system for leaks and proper
                 operation.  Many opportunities for increasing efficiency can be realized through simple maintenance of the
                 system through cleaning, repair of leaks, and periodic adjustment of the air/fuel ratio for combustion.

                          Heating  systems are an integral part of industry today. They are used for process heating, drying and
                 comfort/space heating.   The main purpose of industrial space heating is to provide a  comfortable work
                 environment for its employees.  Destratification fans are used to push warm air that has risen to the ceiling
                 back down to personnel level. This allows the air to mix and reduces the heating requirements for the facility.
                 Stratification is a result of an increasing air temperature gradient between the floor and the ceiling in an
                 enclosed area. Destratification fans can  also be used to increase air circulation and cooling during  the
                 summer months.

                          Electric  heating equipment  is  often in expensive  and convenient to install.  While electrical heating
                 is efficient, the cost of electricity is significantly higher than other sources of energy such as steam or natural
                 gas.  Opportunities for increased energy efficiency can be realized by applying the correct type of heating for
                 the  application.   For  example,  radiant heating  systems  are ideal for comfort heating  since the infrared
                 radiation elevates body temperature without heating the air through which it travels.

                          Furnaces are  used to generate heat for application directly to  a  product  for tempering, curing
                 coatings, or drying.   Furnaces  can use  electricity or a fossil fuel to  generate  heat.   Opportunities  for
                 conservation  in  furnace operations include adjustment  of combustion  efficiency,  installation of better
                 insulation, improved product cycling, preheating of combustion air, and installation of furnace covers.

                          Cogeneration is the simultaneous production of electric power and use of thermal energy from a
                 common fuel  source.  Interest in cogeneration derives from its  inherent thermodynamic  efficiency. Fossil
                 fuel-fired central  stations convert only about one-third of their energy input to electricity and reject two-thirds
                                                      Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                     Executive Summary
in the form of thermal discharges to the atmosphere.  Industrial plants with cogeneration facilities can use
the rejected steam in their plant process and thereby achieve a thermal efficiency as high as 80 percent.
        Thermoenergy storage systems  are used  to take advantage  of lower cost electrical rates with
nighttime operation to provide daytime thermal needs. There must be a  significant difference between night
and daytime electrical costs, and the daytime refrigeration load must result in high daytime costs in order for
this system to be economically feasible.
E.5.3  Prime Movers of Energy
        Pumps are widely used for the transfer of liquids from one place to another.  Pumps are usually
driven by electrical motors but  can also be driven by compressed air or hydraulics. There are many types of
pumps in use in industry and will vary depending on the application.  A few types include:
    •   Centrifugal pumps used for transfer of large volumes;
    •   Metering  pumps used for precise delivery of liquids to a point of application and ensuring the
        constant discharge regardless of back-pressure in the lines; and
    •   Progressive cavity pumps or peristaltic pumps used for delivery of very viscous materials.
Opportunities for energy savings in pump  operation  are overlooked because pump inefficiency is not readily
apparent. These measures can improve pump efficiency:
    •   Shut down of unnecessary pumps,
    •   Restore internal clearances if performance has changed significantly,
    •   Trim or change impellers if head is larger than necessary,
    •   Control by throttle instead of running wide open or bypassing the flow,
    •   Replace oversized pumps,
    •   Use multiple pumps instead of one large pump, and
    •   Use a small booster pump.
        Fans provide the necessary energy input to pump air  from one location to another while they
overcome the resistance created by equipment and the duct distribution system.  Factors that can reduce fan
efficiency are:  excessive static-pressure losses through poor duct configuration or plugging, duct leakage,
improperly  installed inlet cone causing excessive air recirculation, oversized fan, and buildup of negative
pressure.  Reductions in exhaust airflows are usually obtained by adjustment of dampers in the duct.  More
efficient methods of volume control that can be used are to install inlet damper control, reduce the speed of
the fan,  and provide variable speed control for the fan.
        Air compressors are often large consumers of electricity. There are two types of air compressors:
reciprocating and screw compressors.  Reciprocating compressors operate in a manner similar to that of an
automobile engine, using a piston to compress the air.   Screw compressors work by entraining the air
between two rotating augers.  The space between the augers becomes smaller as the  air moves toward the
outlet, thereby compressing the air.  Screw type compressors, especially older models, use more energy than
reciprocating  compressors.   This is especially true if the compressor is over  sized because the screw
compressor continues to rotate, whereas a reciprocating compressor requires no power during the unloaded
state.  There are many opportunities to reduce the amount of energy used by air compressors including:
    •   Repairing air leaks;
    •   Reducing the operating pressure;
    •   Recovering heat from compressor exhaust or cooling water;
    •   Using outside air; and
    •   Installing low-pressure blowers where applicable.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
Notes

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               Executive Summary
Notes            E.5.4  Thermal Applications

                         The most common types of cooling towers dissipate heat by evaporation of water that is trickling
                 from  different levels of the tower.  Cooling towers conserve water, prevent discharge of heated water into
                 natural streams and avoid treating large amounts of make-up water.   Opportunities for energy reduction in
                 cooling tower operations include adjustment of condenser water temperature, adjustment of chilled water
                 supply temperature, installation of variable speed motors for cooling tower fans, and use of hot gas defrost for
                 air cooler coils.

                         Absorption and mechanical chillers are used to produce chilled  liquid for  air conditioning and
                 industrial  refrigeration processes.  These chillers are usually powered by low-pressure steam or hot water,
                 which can be supplied by the plant boiler or by waste heat from a process.  When prime energy is needed,
                 mechanical refrigeration is usually preferable. Air leakage can be a serious operating problem for absorption
                 chillers. Every effort must be made to keep the  system airtight, as even very small leaks can cause problems
                 and are difficult to detect.  Air entering the machine causes the lithium bromide solution to become highly
                 corrosive to metals, to crystallize, and causes the  chilled water temperature to increase.

                         For mechanical chillers, greater energy  efficiency can be achieved through the following steps:

                     1.  Use refrigeration efficiently.

                     2.  Operate at the lowest possible condenser temperature/pressure.

                     3.  Operate at the highest possible evaporator temperature/pressure.

                     4.  Operate multiple compressors economically.

                     5.  Recover heat rejected in the condenser.

                     6.  Use a hot gas bypass only when necessary.

                         Insulation is  an  important component  in thermal applications to increase  the efficient use of
                 conditioned fluids  and gases. Proper insulation allows the conditioned fluid or gas to retain its temperature or
                 pressure longer and reduce losses in transportation to the point of use.  For example, insulation of steam and
                 hot water  pipes reduces the heat loss prior to its intended use.  Insulation is also an important consideration
                 for other items such as heated tanks, refrigeration units, and general building insulation.

                 E.5.5  HVAC

                         Employee comfort as  well as a healthful working environment E an important consideration for
                 facility managers.   A controlled working environment is also important for equipment or processes that are
                 sensitive  to  temperature and  humidity.   Air  conditioning is the process of treating air to  control  its
                 temperature,  humidity, cleanliness,  and distribution to meet the given  requirements. The basic components
                 include a fan to move air; coils to heat an/or cool the air; filters to clean the air; humidifiers to add moisture;
                 controls to maintain the specified  conditions automatically; and  a distribution system.   Potential energy
                 conservation can be realized from air conditioning operations by operating the  system only when needed;
                 eliminating over cooling and over heating;, eliminating reheat; minimizing amounts  of makeup and exhaust
                 air; minimizing  the amount of air delivered to  conditioned  spaces;  recovering energy,  and maintaining
                 equipment.

                         HVAC systems are typically used for conditioning of space for human comfort. Employee comfort
                 has a great influence on productivity. However, all the comfort should be provided at the minimum expense.
                 Factors that  should be considered when controlling the HVAC settings include activities to be performed
                 within the space and  the types of clothing typically  worn.  There  are several types of HVAC systems
                 available today.  The assessment team should base  any recommended opportunities on the type of system
                 installed at the facility.

                         Many operations require ventilation to  control the level of dust, gases,  fumes, or vapors.  Excess
                 ventilation for this purpose can significantly add to the heating and/or cooling load. Areas that require
                 significant amounts of ventilation  are not always cooled but will in most cases be heated.  A  common
                 problem during the heating season is negative building pressure resulting from attempting to exhaust more air
                                                     Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                      Executive Summary
than can be supplied.  A facility can minimize the impact of ventilation during winter months by balancing
airflow and recovering heat for reuse.


E.6   References  and Resources

        This guide is intended to be a starting  point for those interested in increasing a facility's efficient
use of materials and energy.  References used in compilation of this document are listed for more in-depth
information. Industry specific guides available from the U.S. EPA and other sources are also listed.

        There are many agencies and organizations that are available to provide assistance to industrial and
commercial facilities  in the  areas of energy conservation and pollution prevention.   The agencies and
organizations are presented by type (i.e., Federal, state, university, or non-profit).  Information for web sites
and email addresses are given when available.
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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            Executive Summary
Notes
                           THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
            10                             Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                         CHAPTER 1.  INTRODUCTION
                                                                                                     Notes
        This document is intended to provide guidance to those who are interested in performing industrial
assessments at industrial or commercial facilities.  This document is not intended to be an all-encompassing
guide to industrial  assessments but a general reference for performing industrial  assessments.  This
document was not intended to re-invent the wheel and therefore is a compilation of information gathered
from various sources.  The U.S. EPA would like to acknowledge and thank those who have performed the
case study assessments. In addition, the U.S. EPA would like to thank Dr. Michael Muller and staff of The
Office of Industrial Productivity & Energy Assessment, Rutgers University, for their efforts in producing the
first version of this document.
1.1    Document Organization

        This guide is organized in four basic  sections:  Basic
Concepts, Specific  Waste  Generation Information, and  Specific
Energy  Consumption  Information,  and  References  and  Case
Studies.  Basic Concepts, Chapters 1-4, is comprised of assessment
methodology, fundamentals of an assessment,  and evaluation of
pollution  prevention  and  energy  conservation  opportunities.
Specific  Waste  Generation Information,  Chapter 5,  will  cover
industrial operations,  waste generated from each operation, and
pollution prevention opportunities.  Specific Energy Consumption
Information,  Chapters  6-10,  covers different  types  of  energy
consuming  equipment   including:  electrical  equipment,  heat
generating equipment like boilers  and  furnaces, prime movers of
energy,  thermal  applications,  and HVAC.  References and Case
Studies,  Appendices  A-F, include materials that would be used
again and again even after the basic  concepts have been mastered
such as references, sources of information, and pollution prevention
and energy conservation case studies.


1.2    What Is An Industrial Assessment
        An industrial assessment is  an in-depth review of existing
operations to increase efficiency of the operation through pollution
prevention and energy conservation. The industrial assessment is
an essential and valuable tool used to:  (1) define the specific
characteristics  of a whole  facility  or  operation that consumes
energy  and  generates  wastes,  (2)  identify  a  range  of  energy
conservation  and pollution prevention options, (3) evaluate the
options based on a set of criteria, and (4) select the most promising
options for implementation.  An industrial assessment is also  an
integral  component of a facility's Pollution Prevention Program as
described below.

        Facilities  should find the industrial assessment  instrumental  to  systematically  identifying
opportunities to increase  energy efficiency and decrease waste generation.  It is a well used  and proven
approach to identifying cost saving energy conservation and pollution prevention technologies that enhance
a facility's performance.


1.3    Benefits of An  Industrial Assessment
        Energy conservation and pollution prevention opportunities provide many benefits. An industrial
assessment is intended to increase the efficient use of energy and materials.  The process of performing an
      Document Organization


Basic Concepts - Chapters 1-4
•   Introduction
•   Assessment Fundamentals
•   Evaluation of Pollution
    Prevention and Energy
    Conservation Opportunities
•   Sources of Energy and Pollution
    Waste Generation - Chapter 5
•   Industrial Operations
•   Waste Generation
•   Pollution Prevention
    Opportunities
Energy Consumption - Chapters 6-10
•   Electric Equipment
•   Heat
•   Prime Movers of Energy
•   Thermal Applications
•   HVAC
Appendices & References
•   Sources of Information
•   Energy Calculations
•   Equipment
•   Definitions
•   Energy Conservation Case
    Studies
•   Pollution Prevention Case
    Studies
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                  11

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               Introduction
Notes
                    Benefits of Industrial Assessments


                    •    Economics
                    •    Reduced energy consumption

                    •    Reduced waste generation
                    •    Increase operation efficiency
                    •    Reduced liability

                    •    Reduced compliance issues
                    •    Increased  worker health  and
                        safety
                    •    Improved public relations  and
                        public image
                    •    Better monitoring  of operation
                        performance
                                      assessment provides useful information for facility personnel to
                                      evaluate  a particular operation  or  the  entire  facility.   Benefits
                                      resulting  from  industrial  assessments include  economics  and
                                      compliance with regulations.

                                              One of the biggest motivators for implementing either
                                      energy   conservation   or   pollution  prevention  measures  is
                                      economics.   While economics  should not be the only factor
                                      considered when evaluating an opportunity for pollution prevention
                                      or energy conservation, it is by far one  of the most influential
                                      factors  for  getting an  opportunity  implemented.    Economic
                                      evaluations  of opportunities should incorporate  costs for labor,
                                      energy (electricity, natural gas, fuel  oil,  etc.),  waste  disposal,
                                      shipping and transportation.  There will be other intangible factors
                                      that a cost cannot be applied to such as improved worker health and
                                      safety, improved public relations, and  reduced liability for waste
                                      disposal.  Additional economic benefits include  increased operation
                                      efficiency and  better monitoring of operation performance. While
                                      estimates of benefits resulting from these  factors  can be  made, a
                                      facility should  always measure the actual savings or cost versus the
estimate.  Economic  evaluation of pollution  prevention and energy  conservation opportunities  will be
discussed in greater detail in Chapter 3.

        Reduced energy consumption presents direct economic benefit to a facility  through reduced energy
costs for electricity, natural gas, fuel oil, etc.  This economic benefit can be realized as a result of installing
new energy efficient equipment, scheduling of facility operations to reduce charges from utility companies,
and best management practices.  Energy conservation does not always provide a direct benefit to the facility
in terms of reduction of pollution but does provide indirect reductions to pollution generation at the energy
generation facility.  Pollution prevention opportunities  also provide direct economic benefit to  a facility
through reduced waste generation, reduced  labor to manage wastes, raw material purchases,  and other
unquantifiable benefits such as reduced liability for waste disposal and improved worker health and safety. In
addition, a facility can  improve compliance  with OSHA  and environmental regulations through  best
management practices as well as improve public relations. With increased public awareness of environmental
issues, improved public relations and public image are increasingly appealing benefits.


1.4    Who  Should Participate In An Industrial Assessment
        Any  facility that wishes to find opportunities to increase the efficiency of their operation should
participate in  an  industrial assessment. Businesses have strong incentives to increase operation efficiency as
this increases their competitive edge.  Operations that are more efficient can operate with lower expenses and
decrease their cost per unit production.  An industrial assessment is not something that is performed only
once and projects are implemented.  Industrial assessments should be used as a tool to periodically  examine
operation efficiency  and re-evaluate current  opportunities.  As new technologies become available,  an
opportunity that was not economically or perhaps technically feasible when the last industrial assessment was
performed can become a viable opportunity for a facility.

        The  industrial assessment can  be performed either by  facility personnel  or can be done by an
industrial assessment expert.   There are many  universities and private firms  that provide these services to
industrial facilities. For a list of additional resources available see Appendix A.
                  1.5     Establishing a Pollution Prevention Program
                          An effective pollution prevention program is the key to reducing environmental impacts from an
                  industrial facility.  An industrial assessment alone cannot provide continued improvements to a facility with
                  out planning and organization. A lack of planning and organization can lead to a low performance and higher
                  cost to implement pollution prevention and energy conservation opportunities.  Facilities can avoid this by
                12
                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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establishing a pollution  prevention program.  A program is simply an  organized, comprehensive, and     ^ .
continual effort to systematically reduce or eliminate pollution and wastes.

        There are four basic elements of a pollution prevention program.

    1.   Management Support

    2.   Characterization of Energy Usage and Waste Generation

    3.   Conducting Industrial Assessments

    4.   Review of Effectiveness

These elements provide the framework to obtaining effective results from industrial assessment efforts.

1.5.1   Management  Support
        A successful pollution prevention program begins with management support.  Visible management
support is  important to ensure that employees understand  that pollution prevention  is a priority.  This
commitment can be demonstrated using several techniques including:

    1.   Written comp any policy,

    2.   Setting goals for reducing energy consumption and waste reductions,

    3.   Designating program coordinators or a working group,

    4.   Publicizing and rewarding successes, and

    5.   Providing employee training.

        Goals should be developed to identify specific reductions and accomplishments for a pollution
prevention program.  By  setting  goals, the nature  of the pollution prevention program will be defined and
efforts will be directed toward a quantifiable objective. Once the goals are publicized, employees will know
what the program is trying to accomplish and why they should participate.  All published goals should set
time limits, numeric goals, measurement units, and a mechanism to  track progress.   Setting pollution
prevention goals, and tracking progress towards  that goal, helps build  a sense of accomplishment and
reaffirms the reasons for implementing pollution prevention programs to facility personnel.   In addition,
setting goals will also help determine which pollution prevention projects should get priority and funding.

        Program  coordinators or a working group should be established to implement the  pollution
prevention program.  Members should include representatives from each major affected group and include
supervisors and shop level employees.  The staff is not necessarily static; different personnel may be needed
as the pollution  prevention program  progresses  from the planning stages to implementation.  Staff
responsible for implementing pollution prevention options should be involved in the planning process.

        The  coordinators will be responsible for developing the pollution prevention plan, encouraging
staff participation in the planning  and  implementation of the  program, monitoring the program as  it
develops, acting as advocates for the pollution prevention program, and publicizing the program.

        Group members can promote the pollution prevention program throughout the facility and generate
moral support.  They can educate personnel about  what is being done and why. They can solicit ideas from
the shop floor and suggest them at the next meeting. A pollution prevention newsletter giving periodic
updates on the progress of certain projects can be started with group members contributing articles.  The
group can create incentives for employee participation or give awards for pollution prevention suggestions
from employees.

1.5.2   Characterize Energy Usage and Waste Generation
        In order  to determine how well the facility's program and projects are being implemented, the
facility should develop mechanisms to track measures of performance.   These measures of performance
should include the  quantity and cost of utilities and waste generated as well as hazardous constituents.
Measures  of performance can be used to determine the true  costs associated with energy and waste
management including regulatory oversight compliance, paperwork, materials in waste stream, and loss of
production potential.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                           13

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               Introduction


JT ,                      The data elements identified and discussed below are some examples of information that could be
                 regularly compiled (if applicable) and reviewed by the environmental office or an appointed environmental
                 head. For each of these components, large uses should be identified and improved upon.

                     •   Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) Releases - track the usage of TRI chemicals to  provide data for
                         identifying reduction opportunities.  Material substitution and process  changes can reduce TRI
                         chemical usage.

                     •   Hazardous Waste Generation - track and record hazardous waste generation for each group/process
                         within the facility. The group's progress toward hazardous waste reduction should be reported.

                     •   Non-Hazardous  Solid Waste - track and record waste generation for each group within the facility.
                         The group's progress towards reducing the amount of municipal solid waste generated should be
                         reported.

                     •   Alternative-Fueled Vehicles - document and promote use of alternatively fueled vehicles.

                     •   Pesticide Management - track pesticide management practices. The information can be utilized to
                         produce a baseline for a goal of pesticide reduction.

                     •   Ozone Depleting Chemicals - track the purchase and usage of ozone depleting chemicals. A formal
                         reduction plan can be formulated to eliminate the use of all ozone depleting substances.

                     •   EPA 17 Industrial Toxics - tracking can identifying high volume uses of EPA 17 industrial toxics,
                         and pollution prevention opportunity assessments can be conducted specifically targeting those
                         products/chemicals.

                     •   Affirmative Procurement - track  procurement of materials, including  the amounts of recycled
                         content products purchased by the facility.   To do this, office  personnel  can  utilize  the EPA
                         Affirmative Procurement Guideline Items to identify particular products.

                     •   Energy Conservation - track energy consumption sources (e.g.,  #2 and #6 fuel oil, natural gas,
                         propane, electricity).   This information should be utilized to  track progress  toward pollution
                         prevention goals.

                     •   Water Conservation - track water usage on a monthly basis to gauge progress toward pollution
                         prevention goals. Water use data should be distributed to all involved groups.

                 1.5.3  Conduct Industrial Assessments
                         An  industrial assessment  is  the  tool used to systemically  identify  opportunities for  energy
                 conservation and  pollution prevention.  Facilities  should periodically conduct assessments to identify
                 opportunities for implementation not just one time.  New technologies  are being  developed every day and
                 becoming more  economical to implement.  Opportunities that  were once not technically  or economically
                 feasible for implementation may become feasible two or three years later.  Industrial assessments should be
                 used as a tool to accomplish the pollution prevention goals.

                 1.5.4  Review Program Effectiveness
                         Periodic reviews of pollution prevention program goals  and  objectives as well as results from
                 implemented projects are vital to obtaining continuous process efficiency. Managers as  well as program
                 coordinators should review goals to determine if goals and objectives are being reached.  Results from
                 implemented projects will help determine if the program is progressing toward the  desired goals and identify
                 areas for improvement.

                         Many guidance  documents on establishing  a pollution prevention program are available from the
                 U.S. EPA,  and many  state environmental offices, as well as other organizations.  This document provides
                 only a brief overview of pollution prevention programs.

                 REFERENCES

                     1.  Federal Facility Pollution Prevention:  Tools for Compliance; 1994, U.S. Environmental Protection
                         Agency.  Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH 45268. EPA/600/R-94/154.
                14                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                          Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments



       CHAPTER 2.  ENERGY AND POLLUTION PREVENTION
                                     ASSESSMENTS

        The  assessment process begins with the recognition for the need for pollution prevention and
energy conservation. Facility personnel have many pieces of information available to them to evaluate
operations.  The assessment is a tool to systematically evaluate  an operation using available information.
This chapter will discuss general  pollution prevention  and energy conservation concepts, assessment
methodology, as well as basic concepts and organization in conducting an industrial assessment.


2.1    Pollution Prevention and  Energy Conservation

        Pollution Prevention means "source reduction" as defined under the Pollution Prevention Act, and
other practices that reduce or eliminate the creation of pollutants.  It involves the judicious use of resources
through source reduction, energy efficiency, reuse of input materials during production, and reduced water
consumption.   Pollution prevention does  not  include  off-site  recycling or waste  treatment such as
detoxification,  incineration, decomposition, stabilization, and solidification or encapsulation, concentrating
hazardous or toxic constituents to  reduce volume,  diluting  constituents to reduce hazard or toxicity, or
transferring hazardous or toxic constituents from one environmental medium to another.

        Energy conservation and pollution prevention are complementary activities.  That is, actions that
conserve energy reduce the quantity of wastes produced by  energy-generating processes, and actions that
reduce production wastes lower the expenditure of energy for waste handling and treatment.

2.1.1   Hierarchy

        Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 reinforces the U.S. EPA's Environmental Management Hierarchy
as illustrated in Exhibit  2.1.  The highest priorities are assigned to preventing pollution through source
reduction and reuse, or closed-loop recycling. Source reduction is  any practice which

    •   Reduces  the amount of any hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant entering any waste
        stream or otherwise released into the environment (including fugitive emissions) prior to recycling,
        treatment, or disposal; and

    •    Reduces the hazards to public health and the environment associated with the release of such
        substances, pollutants, or contaminants.  The term includes equipment or technology modifications,
        process or procedure modifications, reformulation or redesign  or products, substitutions  of raw
        materials, and improvements in housekeeping, maintenance, training, or inventory control.

        Preventing  or recycling at the source eliminates the need for off-site  recycling or treatment and
disposal.  Elimination of pollutants at the source is typically less expensive than  collecting, treating, and
disposing of wastes. It also presents less risk to workers, the community, and the environment.

        Also included in source reduction is energy conservation. Implementation of energy conservation
reduces pollutants generated as a result of energy use. For example, a facility has a boiler to produce steam
for operations.  The steam pipes running throughout the facility are not insulated, therefore, more natural gas
is needed to keep the steam at the needed temperature.  Insulation of the steam pipes would help to keep the
steam at the desired temperature for longer periods of time. This reduces the quantity of natural gas used to
generate steam (energy conservation) and reduces  the air pollutants generated from the burning of the
natural gas in the boiler.

        Recycling is also pollution prevention because this employs the reuse or reclamation of materials at
the facility for reuse in the process.  An example of this would  be reuse of excess plastic from  trimming
operations in molding and extruding process.  The excess plastic  can be ground into chips and added back
into the raw materials for the molding and extruding process.  Another example would be the reclamation of
solvents using a solvent distillation operation and reusing the solvents in the manufacturing operation.
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          15

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              Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
Notes
                                          Exhibit 2.1: Environmental Management Hierarchy
                               Method
           Example Activities
                               Example Applications
                            Source Reduction
•Environmentally Friendly
 Design of New Products
•Product Changes
•Source Elimination
•Energy Conservation
                              Recycling
                                                        •Reuse
                                                        •Reclamation
                              Disposal
             •Disposal at a
              Permitted Facility
                                         •Modify Product to
                                          Avoid  Solvent Use
                                         •Modify Product to
                                          Extend Coating Life
                                         •Install Sensors to Turn
                                          Off Lights When
                                          Rooms Unoccupied
                                           •Solvent Recycling
                                           •Metal Recovery From
                                           a Spent Plating Bath
                                           •Volatile Organic
                                           Recovery

Treatment
^
w
•Stabilization
•Neutralization
•Precipitation
•Evaporation
•Incineration
•Scrubbing

W
•Thermal Destruction of
Organic Solvent
•Precipitation of Heavy
Metal From a Spent
Plating Bath
                                  •Land Disposal
                                  •Deep Well Injection
                 2.2    Assessment Methodology

                        An industrial assessment consists of four general phases:
                     1.  Planning and Organization

                     2.  Assessment Phase

                     3.  Feasibility Analysis Phase

                     4.  Implementation

                 This document will focus on phases  1-3 and will briefly discuss phase 4.

                        The procedures  discussed  in  Phases  1-3  tend  to  be  common to many  types  of  facilities.
                 Implementation procedures for projects will vary from facility to facility and as such will not be covered in
                 depth here. Before an assessment can begin one must determine the type of assessment to be performed.
               16
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                             Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
                                                           Exhibit 2.2: Assessment Procedures

                                                     The recognized need to conserve energy and
                                                              prevent pollution.
                                                           Planning and Organization
                                                         Organize assessment team
                                                         Management commitment
                                                         Define objectives and targets
                                                              Assessment Phase
                                                         Collect process and facility data
                                                         Review data and inspect site
                                                         Generate options
                                                         Screen and select options for
                                                         further study
                                                           Feasibility Analysis Phase
                                                         Technical evaluation
                                                         Economic evaluation
                                                         Select options for implementation
                                Select new
                                assessment
                                targets and
                                reevaluate
                                previous
                                 options
        Industrial  assessments  are  an  in-depth
review of existing operations to increase efficiency
of the operation through pollution prevention and
energy conservation.  Assessments can be divided
into three types: energy, waste (hazardous  and non-
hazardous) or a combination of the two.  It is very
important to remember that the goal of an industrial
assessment is  increased operation  efficiency and
that  the  assessments   are  not   focused  on
environmental or safety compliance issues although
improved  compliance  can  be  a benefit of  the
assessment.  If a facility has particular issues it
would like to resolve, the Assessment Team can
choose  to focus on  that particular area.   For
example,  a  facility   has had  increasing  waste
generation from its operations. The Team can focus
on the operations that are generating wastes with
the end  goal to reduce the pollution generated.
Another example would be  if a facility is having
problems  with  electricity demand charges  and the
Assessment  Team chooses  to  focus on  energy
consuming operations with the end goal to reduce
the electrical charges.

        Industrial assessments vary from facility to
facility  depending  on  the  types  of  operations
conducted.   The assessment process will be the
same  for each facility  but will vary in the details.
This section  will describe the basic concepts and
organization  of an  industrial  assessment.    An
example illustrating the  concepts presented in this
chapter is given in Section 2.3.

2.2.1   Planning and Organization

        The industrial assessment requires planning and organization. This phase includes assemble of the
Assessment  Team,  obtaining management commitment,  and  defining  objectives  and targets for  the
assessment.

        The first step in conducting  an industrial assessment is to assemble the Assessment Team.  An
industrial assessment is  the examination of the entire operation and as such should include personnel from
many areas of the facility.  The size of the Team will vary on the size and complexity of the operation or
process selected to assess.  In addition, the composition of the Team may vary if the assessment is being
performed in-house or is being conducted by  a consultant.  Core team members will include those that are
involved with the operation or process, both supervisors and staff (e.g., line workers) as well as energy
management  and environmental staff.  Other areas  of  expertise you may consider to  augment the core
Assessment Team include the following.
                                                               Implementation
                                                         Justify project and obtain funding
                                                         Install equipment
                                                         Implement procedure
                                                         Evaluate performance
                                                                   f
                                Repeat the
                                 process
                                                        Successfully implemented pollution
                                                          prevention and energy projects.
    •   Health and Safety

    •   Facilities or Civil Engineering
•   Accounting and Finance

•   Purchasing and Contracting
        Quality Control
    Legal
        Each member  of the Assessment Team provides key pieces of information necessary to get the
entire picture of the operation.  It is important to keep in mind that you want to look at the operation from all
aspects and that the assessment is meant to provide constructive criticism to improve the entire operation.
                                                    Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
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               Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments


JT ,                      Once the Assessment Team is established, you will need to meet to discuss the assessment strategy
                 prior to the assessment. The Team should determine:

                     •   What processes will be assessed.

                     •   Who will be involved with the assessment (i.e., Team members and shop staff).

                     •   When will the assessment occur.

                     •   How will the Team approach the assessment.

                         An important part of planning is piecing together knowledge about the selected process to begin
                 building an  understanding of what may be  involved in  the assessment phase.  Team members should
                 contribute what they know about the process, especially those who work directly with the process. The Team
                 should also obtain pollution prevention case studies, model shop descriptions,  and other resources that can
                 provide pollution prevention ideas for processes that are similar to the one being assessed.

                         The  Team  should decide  on  a  data  collection format for the assessment.  The format can be a
                 standard format,  such  as the worksheets provided in EPA's Facility Pollution Prevention Guide (EPA/600/R-
                 92/088). Alternatively, the Team may  want to develop their own assessment worksheets, questionnaires, or
                 checklists  that may be used to collect data and observations during the site visit.  Examples of types of
                 information to collect in worksheets, questionnaires, or checklists include the following items.

                     •   Process descriptions/flow diagrams      •   General questions/observations

                     •   Energy consumption                       -   Material handling techniques

                     •   Input materials                            -   Storage procedures

                     •   Waste streams                            -   Housekeeping

                         -   Air                              •   Process specific questions/observations

                         -   Water                               -   Developed for the individual process

                         -   Hazardous waste                  •   List of major energy consuming and waste
                                                                  generating equipment
                             Solid waste

                         The Team should prepare an assessment agenda and schedule the assessment in advance to coincide
                 with a particular operation of interest.  Depending on the operation, multiple  walk-throughs may need to be
                 scheduled, particularly if there are several shifts.  The Team may also want to  conduct a pre-assessment
                 whereby Team  members  begin collecting preliminary  information about the process,  such as process
                 descriptions and flow diagrams.

                 2.2.2   Assessment Phase

                         The second phase is the assessment phase. This phase is broken in to two parts: pre-assessment and
                 assessment.

                 2.2.2.1  Pre-Assessment Activities

                         It is a good idea to obtain information prior to the assessment.  This will allow the Team to study the
                 information and prepare additional questions. This part of the assessment is called pre-assessment activities.

                         Pre-assessment data  collection  should  include  general  information about the  facility.    This
                 information should include a facility description, a process description, a process flow diagram, and energy
                 and waste data collection. The Assessment Team should collect data for a twelve-month period. Utility costs,
                 raw material  and waste  generation data should be  for the same  12-month period.  The Team should be
                 cautious about collecting  data that is  not necessary to complete the assessment.  At this point, the Team
                 should collect basic information that will give them the big picture and collect other information as necessary
                 to complete opportunity analysis.
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                                                             Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
        Facility Description

        A facility  description should include the following basic items:  point of contact (if applicable),
annual business volume, annual business sales, the number of employees, previous energy conservation and
pollution  prevention efforts,  operational schedule, and  general  characteristics of plant  facilities.   This
information will provide scale of operation  and comparison for energy consumption and waste generation
versus production.  In addition, a general layout of the facility is helpful to provide orientation and scale of
facility  operations.   A  simplified drawing of  the  facility is helpful in  determining measurements and
logistical  aspects of potential opportunities.   An example  facility description and facility layout is provided
in Section 2.3.

        Process Description

        The process description is a very  important part of the information collection process  as it will
provide the basic information needed to generate process flow diagrams and for opportunity analysis. A
process description should include the following elements:

    •   Description of the products produced (i.e., tooth brushes,  decals, blue jeans),

    •   Description or brief list of raw materials,

    •   Step-by-step  description  of  unit  operations from  the beginning  of the product  manufacture
        following through to the finished product, and

    •   Notations  of any energy consuming equipment  ratings (i.e., ovens at SOOT, steam at 75 psi) and
        wastes generated (these can be made in the description or can be noted on the flow diagram).

        Process Flow Diagram

        Developing a flow diagram from scratch may require team members to discuss the process with the
supervisor along with multiple members of the  staff.  The  Team  will need to visually observe the process
and obtain an adequately detailed description of each step in the process in order to sketch a flow diagram.
Block  flow diagrams are useful  tools for the assessment.  A model block diagram is  provided below in
Exhibit 2.3.

                                  Exhibit 2.3:  Block Diagram Model
                                           Energy Input    Other Process Inputs
                                                       (Water, Air, Etc.)
                        Raw Material Inputs

                        Raw Material Inputs
                        Raw Material Inputs
                                              I	1
                                                 Process
                                                      n
                                                                      • Product
                                                                      • Co-Product
                                                                      " Co-Product
                                            Air   Solid Hazardous  Water
                                          Emissions  Waste  Waste  Emissions
        A flow diagram is simply a series of block diagrams that visually describe the process or flow of
materials.  For each block in the flow diagram, the Team should obtain data including raw material input,
waste stream output, utilities, products, and co-products. All data should be based on the same time unit,
e.g. annual, quarterly, or monthly. At a minimum, the Team should collect the data elements above.

        In addition to the basic raw material and waste stream information described above, you should
note other information pertinent to the assessment.  For example, you should identify the following.

    •   Co-products that are recycled back into the process.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                            19
Notes

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Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments


       •   Pollution control devices.

       •   Routine and non-routine input materials and waste streams.

       •   Environmental fate of waste stream (e.g., landfill, recycle, hazardous waste, etc.).

       •   Temperature settings of any operation that requires heat or cooling.

       •   Pressure settings for compressed air and requirements at the point of use.

       •   Pressure requirements for steam and actual steam generation pressure.

          Example flow  diagrams are given in Section 2.3.   These diagrams should follow the process
  description and will visually illustrate the flow of materials and energy usage for specific operations.  These
  diagrams can be used to determine where energy is being consumed and wastes are being generated.

          Energy and Waste Data Collection

          Information obtained prior  to the assessment can become a springboard in the determination of
  possible energy conservation and pollution prevention opportunities.  Collecting this information prior to the
  actual  assessment allows the  Team to  analyze, graph, and review the  information and generate more
  questions.

          Information to  collect prior to  the visit includes raw materials, waste streams  and environmental
  releases, and utility information. The Team should limit this information collection phase to only information
  that  will be necessary for the assessment.  If the Team has chosen to focus on a specific operation or on
  energy conservation, only information for those areas should be collected.

  Raw Materials

       •   Weight and/or volume of procured raw materials, along with purchase costs.

       •   Inventory practices.

  Waste Streams and Environmental Releases

       •   Volume and characteristics of hazardous wastes generated, waste management and disposal costs.

       •   Volume and characteristics of air emi ssions and waste management costs.

       •   Volume and characteristics of wastewater discharges and management costs.

       •   Other releases and environmental impacts.

  Utilities

       •   Utility consumption and costs.

       •   Maintenance of on-site utilities (e.g., emergency generators).

  Equipment and Operations

       •   List of major energy consuming equipment such as heaters, air conditioners, water heaters, and
          specific process-related equipment

       •   General  Operation equipment information such as  cleaning tanks,  solvent  recovery systems, and
          other equipment that have a secondary role in the main operation.

          Sources of process information that the Assessment Team may refer to are:

       •   Permit and/or permit applications,            •    Operator data logs,

       •   Internal environmental audit reports,         •    Waste handling, treatment and  disposal costs,

       •   Biennial hazardous waste reports,           •    Water bills,
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                                                            Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
    •   Material safety data sheets (MSDSs),        •   Electric, natural gas, and/or fuel oil bills, and

    •   Product composition and batch sheets,      •   Standard operating procedures (SOPs).

Analysis of Energy Information

        The Team should collect utility usage and cost data for the previous 12-month period prior to the
assessment to allow the data to be summarized and graphed. There are three reasons for collecting energy
information prior to the assessment: (1) to determine how much energy is consumed, (2) how much it costs,
and  (3) what  are the  trends in energy  usage.    Energy bills  yield  information  that  may  provide
recommendations before the assessment such as energy demand rescheduling, avoidance of late payment
penalties, and energy ratcheting errors.

        Once information for each energy source is collected the Team must convert the different energy
types to BTUs to allow comparison and overall trending of energy usage. Presentation and reference to this
information is usually done in  a table and graphical  format.  Examples of energy  usage information are
presented in Section 2.3.

        For electric utilities; the Team should collect the following key pieces of information.

    •   Electricity Usage                        •   Other Costs

    •   Energy Charge                         •   Reactive Costs

    •   Peak Demand                          •   Total Electric Cost

    •   Demand Cost                          •   Unit Electric Cost (calculated average)

        Review of electricity and other utility use will enable the Assessment Team to determine trends for
the heating season, the cooling season and possible seasonal trends in manufacturing.

        The Assessment Team should collect natural gas  usage information for the same 12-month period
as for other energy sources.  Examination of natural gas usage  can reveal the following types of potential
problems.

    •   Leaking Fuel Lines

    •   Faulty Temperature Measuring Devices

    •   Faulty Relief Valves

    •   Excessive Burner Cycling

    •   Warped Furnace Doors

    •   Deteriorating Furnace Insulation

        Natural gas supplied to industrial operations is usually done  on an interruptible basis. This allows
the facility to obtain lower rates for  their  natural gas use.  Interruption of gas service is done  to meet
demands for heating  private homes during winter months.  Facilities that have an interruptible gas supply
must maintain a back-up fuel supply such as fuel oil.

        The Assessment Team should collect fuel oil usage information for the same 12-month period as
for other energy sources.  In the United States three types of fuel are available.  The most expensive oil is
No. 2,  138,000 Btu/gallon.  A little cheaper option is No. 4, 142,000 to 145,000 Btu/gallon and the cheapest
is No 6, 149,690 Btu/gallon.  It is important to keep in mind that the  fuels are not interchangeable because
the combustion equipment is designed for only one type of fuel.  If a facility uses more than one type of fuel
oil, the Team should make separate tables and graphs for each type of fuel.

        Graphical representation of the data subsequently provides the  Team the next logical step in the
energy  usage analysis  progression.   Experience indicates that  graphical  summaries are easily read and
understood indicators of relative proportions.  Usage  patterns normalized for comparison to regional  and
like industries may indicate abnormalities worthy of investigation.  A graph for each energy source and a
summary graph with  all energy sources should be prepared with the unit of measure for energy in BTUs
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                           21
Notes

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               Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments


JT ,              versus each month.  It is important when comparing different energy types to use the same unit of measure.
                 The type of graphs listed below will aid in trend analysis.

                     •   Monthly Electric Usage                    •   Monthly Itemized Electric Costs

                     •   Monthly Natural Gas Usage                •   Monthly Natural Gas Costs

                     •   Monthly Fuel  Oil Costs  (make separate    •   Monthly Total Electric Costs
                         graphs for multiple types of fuel oil)
                                                                  •   Summary   Cost  Graph  (with  all  energy
                     •   Monthly Fuel  Oil Usage (make separate       types)
                         graphs for multiple types of fuel oil)
                                                                  •   Summary Graph (with all energy types

                 Raw Material and Waste Generation Data

                         Prior to the actual assessment, the Team should also collect raw material and waste generation data.
                 Collection of this information will permit the assessment Team to become familiar with the types of materials
                 used in the facility and the resulting waste streams that are generated. The Team should review this data prior
                 to the actual assessment to begin generating additional questions.  In addition to the basic raw material and
                 waste stream information described above, other types of information pertinent to the assessment should be
                 identified.

                     •   Co-products that are recycled back into the process.

                     •   Pollution control devices.

                     •   Routine and non-routine input materials and waste streams.

                     •   Environmental fate of waste stream (e.g., landfill, recycle, hazardous waste, etc.).

                         Raw materials can be provided in advance of the assessment in a table or can be provided in the flow
                 diagrams.  All material information collected should be for the same 12-month period. Facility personnel will
                 find that collecting raw  material information will  be  simpler  using  the table format and then use  this
                 information to break raw material information down into operations for the flow diagrams.

                 Equipment List

                         Equipment used in a facility are  key to  determining benefits and costs  from potential pollution
                 prevention and energy conservation  opportunities.  Prior to the assessment the Team should try to obtain
                 information about major pieces of equipment.  Information to collect about equipment will vary with the type
                 of equipment.  Chapter 5  describes industrial operations common in many types of facilities.  Chapters  6-10
                 describe  types of energy consuming equipment.   Review of  these  chapters  will  provide a  general
                 understanding of common operations and  equipment.  This will provide some  insight into what types of
                 information are needed to evaluate a particular opportunity. Information to collect for various pieces of
                 equipment includes the following.

                     •   Equipment Rating                •    What are the operation requirements?

                     •   Average Load                   •    At what pressure does the system generate steam or
                                                             compressed air?
                     •   Energy Source
                                                         •    How much liquid does the tank typically contain?
                     •   Hours of Operation
                                                         •    What is the equipment used for?
                     •   How big is the tank?

                 At a minimum the Team should make a list of major pieces of equipment and collect specifics as needed for
                 opportunity evaluation.

                 2.2.2.2  Assessment

                         This is the most important phase of the  assessment as this is the opportunity for the Team to observe
                 actual operations, talk with all levels of facility personnel, generate a list of possible  opportunities, and collect
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                                                           Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
information to evaluate those opportunities.  The assessment can be organized into the following six main
steps.

    1.   Kick-off Meeting

    2.   Discussion of Operations

    3.   Walk-Through of F acility Operatic n s

    4.   Brain Storming

    5.   Identify and Fill Data Gaps

    6.   Wrap-up Meeting to Discuss Opportunities

        Kick-off Meeting

        A kick-off meeting is a key element in presenting the assessment to facility personnel who will be
involved in the actual assessment but are not on the Assessment Team.  This is the Team's opportunity to
present the goals of the assessment, discuss organization of the assessment, and anticipated results of the
assessment.

        Discussion of Operations

        Directly following the kick-off meeting, the Assessment  Team should review operations with
facility personnel.  This should include review of all data collected prior to the assessment,  a step-by-step
verbal  walk-through of  the  process  and review  of the process  flow diagrams.  This will  allow  the
Assessment Team to ask questions without straining to hear answers  as they are walking  through the
facility.  If preferred, the Team  may  wish to include a brief walk-through  of the facility  prior to  these
discussions.

        Walk-Through of Facility Operations

        During the walk-through, the Assessment Team should record observations about  the operations
and general appearance of the facility  (e.g., evidence of leaks and spills).  The Team should talk to several
staff members, particularly if there are multiple shifts operating the process. The Team should take the time
to explain the purpose and importance of the assessment to each staff member before asking questions.
Team members should observe the workers performing their jobs and return to the process during different
shifts, if possible.

        After making real-time observations,  the  Team should  compare  written procedures  with  the
observations.  Written procedures will often contradict actual  operations, and may indicate an energy
conservation or pollution prevention opportunity such as a need for training and education.

        During the walk-through, it is important to solicit assistance and input  from  all levels of staff on
potential opportunities. The process operators are usually the best source of potential solutions, but may be
reluctant to speak up  about  their ideas. If a staff member identifies an opportunity that is implemented,
Team members should make sure that the employee is acknowledged and rewarded.

        One should realize  that  the assessment and data gathering portion of the assessment might take
considerable time and several iterations, depending on the size and complexity of the process.  The Team
should return to the process  as often as necessary to gather adequate data to develop a list of opportunities.

        Brain Storming

        Once the  data collection and process assessment is complete, the Team will need to evaluate the
data and observations  collected,  and  begin developing a list  of energy  and pollution prevention
opportunities.  It is important to perform this step as a team, with everyone contributing their ideas equally.

        It  is a  good practice to allow the free flow of ideas  at  this  point.   The  Team should begin
developing a list of ideas, without regard to cost or feasibility. This process is called Brain Storming.  This
is the point where observations made during the walk-through are transformed into energy conservation and
pollution prevention opportunities.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                           23
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               Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments


JT ,                       If the Team is experiencing difficulty identifying pollution prevention options, the Team should try
                 tapping  into other information sources and technical  assistance.  Appendix A- Sources of Information
                 provides a number of technical assistance resources, such as pollution prevention clearinghouses, Internet
                 resources, and technical support.

                          To begin developing a list of options, the Team should identify the most problematic areas such as
                 compressed air leaks, increased monitoring of boiler efficiency, large volume or highly toxic waste streams,
                 inconsistencies with written procedures, lack of environmental ethic, or poor housekeeping efforts.

                          Another method to identify energy conservation or pollution prevention opportunities is to evaluate
                 each energy source or waste stream individually.  First, the Team should determine the cause and effect of the
                 waste stream by  tracking the waste stream  back through the process to input  materials;  and then identify
                 potential ways to reduce the waste streams.  For example, if the waste  stream is dry absorbent contaminated
                 with hydraulic oil, one may be  able to  back track to the cause for the usage of dry absorbent to a leaking
                 valve.  By fixing the leaking valve, there is an opportunity to (1) reduce hazardous waste generated, and
                 (2) reduce the amount of hydraulic oil purchased.

                          One should  also consider a wide range of projects.  The following  provides a list of potential
                 pollution prevention approaches that should be considered during the option generating process.

                     •    Policy Changes                            •   Waste Stream Segregation

                     •    Procedural Changes                        •   Housekeeping Practices

                     •    Equipment Modifications                   •   Inventory Control

                     •    Material Substitution                      •   Reuse of Materials

                     •    Training                                  •   Equipment Maintenance (i.e., rep air
                              .                                         compressed air, steam, and fluid leaks
                     •    Efficiency Improvements

                          Identify and Fill Data Gaps

                          Once the list of energy conservation and pollution prevention opportunities has been generated, the
                 Team should review the data that has been collected. The purpose of this review is to ensure that the Team
                 has all the data that it needs to complete a feasibility analysis for the all the options.  This would include light
                 or temperature measurements, counting light fixtures, etc.  If any information has not been collected the Team
                 should, make every attempt to collect it before leaving.

                          Wrap-up Meeting

                          Finally, the Team should sit down with the process supervisor and other management personnel to
                 review the data collected.  The  Team should also  discuss overall observations and general  energy
                 conservation and pollution prevention opportunities that will be addressed in  the following phases of the
                 assessment. Obtaining input from facility personnel at this point is key to gaining support for implementation
                 of opportunities.

                 2.2.3    Feasibility Analysis Phase

                          The third phase of the assessment methodology is the feasibility analysis.  The feasibility analysis
                 phase  consists  of three  post-assessment  activities:  (1) prioritization of opportunities,  (2)  evaluation  of
                 technical and economic feasibility, and (3) generation of an assessment report.

                 2.2.3.1   Prioritization of Opportunities

                          Because of time and resource constraints, most facilities have to set priorities among their  energy
                 conservation and pollution prevention options based on the original goals and criteria specific to the processes
                 evaluated.

                          A relative ranking of opportunities can be developed by using a tool known as the decision  matrix.
                 The  decision matrix tool can be used to rank the identified energy conservation and  pollution prevention
                 opportunities using a list of critical factors that are important to the facility. The decision matrix facilitates an
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                                                            Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
"apples-to-apples" comparison of options based on the selected list of critical factors, simplifying the group
decision-making process.

        Many companies have criteria for determining what projects will be implemented.   For example,
many companies have requirements that payback periods for all projects must be less than 1 year.  The
Team should consider common factors like payback period,  cost savings, operational impact, compliance
issues (both safety and environmental), and technical feasibility.  Some opportunities will be easy  to apply
the criteria to, but more complex opportunities may require further analysis before a decision can be made.

        To use the decision matrix, one should first assign either a numerical ranking to each of the critical
factors, such as  1-10, or general terms such as "high," "medium," or "low." This approach can also be used
if there  is insufficient information for performing a  quantitative ranking.  In these cases, the Team should
rely on best professional judgement to assign a ranking.

        The  Team can also decide on  appropriate weighting  factors.  For example, the Team may decide
that worker exposure issues are four times more important than future regulations. In this case, the Team
would multiply the results of the criteria ranking by a factor of four to give this issue increased relative
importance.

        After the decision matrix ranking  process is  complete, you will have a ranked  list of energy
conservation and  pollution prevention opportunities.   The  top ranked opportunities deserve the most
immediate attention.

2.2.3.2  Evaluation of Technical and Economic Feasibility

        Following the assessment it is necessary to evaluate the technical and economic feasibility of each
energy  conservation  and pollution prevention project identified.  A technical evaluation should include
calculations of energy conservation or waste reduction and the associated costs, impacts on operations, and
its advantages and disadvantages. Additionally, the technical evaluation should include an evaluation of the
implementation aspects of the  project  including such things as:   is there room in the facility for new
equipment and will the new process affect the quality of the product.

        The next step is to evaluate the economic feasibility of implementing each project identified. Three
common  financial  performance  indicators  are used  to  determine  the  economic viability  of energy
conservation and pollution prevention  projects:  Payback Period, Net Present Value (NPV), and Internal
Rate of Return (TRR) calculations.  The Payback Period is  the simplest of the three financial indicators and
requires the least amount of data. The Payback Period calculations are normally used as a "rough" financial
indicator in a decision matrix and for low risk projects.  NPV and IRR calculations are detailed financial
indicators that require additional data to be collected about the proposed projects. Both the NPV and IRR
financial indicators are based  on the time value of money over a specified period of time.   Due to the
complexity and  importance of performing  an  economic  feasibility, a detailed overview and  example
problem is provided  in  Chapter 3  "Evaluation  of  Energy  Conservation and  Pollution Prevention
Opportunities."

2.2.3.3  Generate an Assessment Report

        After the prioritization and evaluation of the identified opportunities is complete, the Team should
generate a report from the data collected  during the assessment and analysis  of energy conservation and
pollution prevention opportunities.   This report should contain the following items:

    •   Executive Summary  with a listing  of energy  conservation  and pollution prevention measures
        recommended their estimated reduction of energy or waste, and an estimate of the payback period.

    •   General Facility Information as described in the pre-assessment activities above.

            Process Description and Flow Diagrams

            Utility information and Graphs

            Raw Material and Waste Generation Listing

            Equipment Listing
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
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Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
      •   Energy conservation and pollution prevention opportunity recommendations and analysis

  The report should contain all the information needed to present the recommended opportunities to facility
  managers for possible implementation.

  2.2.4   Implementation

          Management  support  is  the  single  most  important element  in successfully  implementing
  opportunities from  an industrial assessment.  Regardless of the size or nature  of the organization, top
  management must exhibit active and continuing leadership and interest in the results of the assessment.
  Facility employees will apply their best efforts to the opportunity only if their supervisors display a constant
  awareness of energy conservation and pollution prevention.  With management support, the assessment be
  successfully implemented.

          Actions taken to implement energy conservation and pollution prevention projects vary greatly from
  project  to project and company to company.  Some facilities may decide to use in-house expertise to
  implement projects while others may find it beneficial to contract the work to  an outside organization.  Either
  way, it is important that the Assessment Team tracks the progress of the project and the benefits realized from
  implementing  them.   Tracking implementation  progress will prevent  expensive equipment from being
  purchased but never installed, and help identify opportunities where equipment or programs may be modified
  to realize or improve the estimated cost and environmental savings.

          After successfully  implementing an energy conservation or  pollution  prevention project it is
  beneficial to advertise the cost savings and reductions  in environmental impacts. Promoting the  Team's
  successes will help build facility support (line operators to management) for the next project.


  2.3    Example Facility Information Collection

          This section illustrates the concepts presented  in this Chapter using a fictitious manufacturing
  facility.

          Assessment Scenario

          The Assessment Team will be performing an industrial assessment at a medium size screen printing
  plant.  Some of the products produced at the plant are truck decals and beverage dispensing machine colored
  panels.  This facility is approximately fifteen years old. The facility  is interested in an industrial assessment
  to find ways  to  increase operation  efficiency.   The aging equipment in  the facility  is increasing unit
  production costs and making it harder for the company to compete with newer facilities.  The name of the
  facility will be Mars Screen Printing.

          Exhibit  2.4 illustrates  facility description information collected  for Mars  Screen Printing during a
  energy and waste assessment.  This information can be used to gage the  size  of facility operations and make
  estimates for identified opportunities.
26                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                          Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
                              Exhibit 2.4: Example Facility Description
     Company Name: Mars Printing Facility Description Information
     Address:    1678 Mars St.
                 Anywhere, US 45609
     Annual Business Volume:
         20 Million feet of printed material
         Production is not seasonal.
     Number of Employees: 250
     Employees per shift:  1st -150   7am-3pm
                         ->nd
                         2-100   3pm-llpm
     Energy Conservation Measures Implemented:
         Installed ceiling fans in offices and break
         areas
         Installed occupancy sensors for lighting
Contact Person: John Smith
Contact Phone: 619-123-4567
Annual Business Sales:
    Approximately $10 Million
Operational Schedule:
     5 days per week, 50 weeks per year
     Facility closed one week in December and
     one week in July for facility maintenance.
Pollution Prevention Measures
Implemented:
None
      General Facility Information:
      Age of Facility:  15 yr.
      Basic Construction: Concrete Block
No. of Buildings: 1
Plant Size (ft2 per building): 100,000 ft2
        Exhibit 2.5 is a layout of the Mars Screen Printing plant. The layout is not in great detail but does
include general proportions of the facility and manufacturing areas. This will assist the Assessment Team
when evaluating identified opportunities.
                                                                                                      Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                              27

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              Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
Notes
                                         Exhibit 2.5: Mars Screen Printing Facility Layout
                        Outside
                        Waste
                        Pallet
                        Storage
                     Solvent
                     Vapor
                     Incinerator
                                    Crate
                                    Room
   Hazardous
   Waste Storage
   Air Compressors
                                                                        Shipping Dept.
                                      Finishing and PVC Plastic Printing
                                    Ink Storage
            Screen
           Washing
 Screen
Making
                                          Office Area
Art
Dept.
                                    Poly-
                                    Carbonate
                                    Printing
                    Vinyl
                    Printing
                                           Receiving
                                           Cafeteria
                                                                                     Raw
                                                                                   Material
                                                                                    Storage
                                                          t
                                                                                                         o
                                                                                                         o
                                                           200 ft.

                        Exhibit 2.6 provides a brief process description of Mars Screen Printing operations. A process
                description should  include enough  detail to  communicate  current  operations  and support identified
                opportunities.
              28
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                            Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
                              Exhibit 2.6:  Example Process Description
                                                                                                        Notes
Mars Screen Printing Process Description

        This  plant  uses  screen  printing  to  produce, in several varieties and  color schemes,  fleet
(transportation truck) decals, beverage dispensing machine colored panels and tooth brush backings.  Raw
materials include plastic sheets, rolls and spools of plastic stock, inks, adhesives, urethane and various other
chemicals and solvents related to image production and printing operations.

        The printing process begins with the plant receiving a mylar sheet with a positive image, paper
copy or computer file from clients.  Some artwork is done in-house. Images received on a computer disk,
and other images developed on-site, are processed in a computerized system to yield a mylar positive.  The
image sheets are then transported to the screen-making department.

        Screen images are produced in several steps.  First, large screens are coated with a photo sensitive
emulsion in an automated system.  Emulsion is  applied to smaller screens manually.  Coated screens are
then covered with mylar sheets containing positive images and are placed on a "burn table" which exposes
the screen to ultraviolet light for a specified period of time which hardens the emulsion through transparent
areas exposed to light.  After exposure, screens are removed from the "burn table"  and the uncured emulsion
is washed away with a warm water high-pressure spray.

        A prepared  screen is mounted horizontally on  a press, and ink is troweled into an above-screen
reservoir.  Ink is received in 3 to 5 gallon containers from which it is used directly or blended to customer
specified colors  in an ink-mixing area. During printing, a mechanical "wipe"  moves across the screen and
forces ink through porous areas onto the substrate sheets.  Subsequent use of other screen images in a set
produces a multi-colored image  on the sheets.  After printing,  the  substrate is placed on a  conveyor for
transport  through an ink-curing oven.  After curing, some of  the  printed substrates are coated with an
adhesive or a thin urethane film-followed by heat curing.  Finished materials are inspected, packaged and
shipped to customers.

        At  the end of a printing run, screens are cleaned for reuse.  Initially, excess ink is removed from
screens  with  a  putty  knife.  Next, they are hand-wiped with sol vent-wetted  paper towels while  still
positioned on the press.  Then the screens are removed from the presses and are transported to a screen
washing room. In this room, screens are positioned upright over a trough and dipped in ink-remover, and
occasionally a "ghost"  image remover is brushed into  screen material, followed by a high pressure heated
water rinse.  In cases where it is not required to save a screen image, an emulsion remover is used  to remove
hardened emulsion. Clean screens are allowed to air dry and are returned to storage for future use.
        Exhibits  2.7-2.9 are  example flow  diagrams for  Mars  Screen  Printing operations.   These flow
diagrams use the block flow diagram method described in Section 2.2.2 of this chapter.  These diagrams
should include pertinent information to illustrate current operations and support identified opportunities.
The Assessment Team should be cautioned to collect only information pertinent to identified opportunities
and should not try to  incorporate all available  information into the flow diagrams  or in the process
description.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
29

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Notes
                 Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
                            Exhibit 2.7: Example Flow Diagram for the Mars Screen Printing, Screen Making Operation
                                               Compressed Photo Sensitive
                                 Mylar
                                 20,000
                                 Sheets/yr.
 Air
20 ESI
                                                         Emulsion
                                                         30,00,0 gal/yr.
 Ultraviolet
Light Tubes
100 tub
Water
20,00p gal/yr.



Apply Photo
Sensitive Coating
to Screen


Cover Coated
Screen with
Mylar Positive


Expose Screen
to Ultraviolet
Light
(5mm, 100W)


Warm
High-Pressure
Water Rinse
(80°F, 20 PSI)
                                                                            . Prepared
                                                                              Screen
                                                                                To
                                                                              Printing
                                                                             Operation
                                                  Waste Emulsion
                                                    1,500 Ral./yr.
                               Mylar Scrap
                               300 Ibs./yr.
                                Exhibit 2.8: Example Flow Diagram for the Mars Screen Printing, Printing Operation
                                                                                                    45% of Products
Adh
5,00

esive
Osal/yr.
Urethane
8,000sal/yr.
Application of
Adhesive or
Urethane
-*
Curing Oven
(120°F)
—
                                                                                                                                 Finished
                                                                                                                                 Product
                                                                                                                                Packaged
                                                                                                                                  and
                                                                                                                                 Shipped
                                                                                                                                   to
                                                                                                                                Customer
                                                                                                    1
                                                                                                   Waste
                                                                                                 Adhesive and
                                                                                                  Urethane
                                                                                                  200 gal/yr.
                                                                Adhesive
                                                                  and
                                                                Urethane
                                                               Emissions to
                                                                 Solvent
                                                                 Vapor
                                                                Incinerator
                                                               5,000 gal/yr.
                  30
   Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                           Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
         Exhibit 2.9: Example Flow Diagram for the Mars Screen Printing, Cleaning Operations



Prepared
Screen 	 ^
From
Screen
Making



Remove Excess
Ink
with Putty Knife

1 1
Excess Solvent
Ink 220 Vapor
gal/yr.








Paper
Towels Solvent
500 500
rolls/yr. gal/yr.
Wipe Screen
^ with Solvent —
and Paper


Ink Remover
20,000
gal/yr.
^ Dipped in —
Ink Remover

Paper * *
Towels
with Ink
and
Solvent
1,000


Solvent
Vapor







Ghost Image Wstpr
Remover
3,000 gal/yr
Brush on
™ Ghost Image ""
Remover

Solvent
Vapor





30,000 gal/yr
High-Pressure
> 150°F
Water Rinse
1
Waste Water
30, 000
gal/yr.





-

75% of Screens
Emulsion
Remover
5,000 gal/yr.
— . Emulsion
Remover


^Screens
~"^ Air Drying to
Storage
1

J
Waste

Remover
4,500 gal/yr.
        Exhibit 2.10 through Exhibit 2.12 are tables of energy consumption and cost information collected
from Mars Screen Printing.  Information collected  for energy usage should be collected for each energy
source for the same time period.  The tabular format presented here provides a concise and uniform way to
present information for review.

                             Exhibit 2.10: Example Electrical Summary
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jim
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Energy
Usage
(kWh)
250,000
254,400
246,800
247,600
275,600
313,600
324,800
316,000
273,200
260,000
266,800
237,600
Energy
Charge
($)
19,185.42
19,495.87
18,979.84
16,077.64
17,937.39
20,365.63
21,582.86
21,050.37
17,943.95
17,058.38
17,440.93
18,308.30
Peak
Demand
(kW)
584.0
556.4
552.8
551.6
590.8
633.6
620.0
620.8
594.0
574.0
580.8
581.6
Demand
Cost
($)
7,965.82
7,595.74
7,530.38
4,245.78
4,617.85
4,905.38
4,919.60
4,946.63
4,632.62
4,468.58
4,466.06
7,860.44
Other
Costs
($)
215.13
214.97
213.21
194.66
201.35
209.51
216.13
214.93
201.60
198.46
199.60
212.19
Reactive
Cost
($)
110.15
116.98
111.22
113.77
114.30
116.58
112.84
116.75
108.94
110.82
112.29
108.54
Total
Elect.
Cost
($)
27,476.52
27,423.56
26,834.65
20631.85
22,870.89
25,597.10
26,831.43
26,328.68
22,887.11
21,836.24
22,218.88
26,489.47
Unit
Elect. Cost
(S/kWh)
0.078
0.077
0.077
0.065
0.065
0.065
0.066
0.067
0.066
0.066
0.065
0.077
                                                                                                       Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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               Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
Notes
                                              Exhibit 2.11: Example Natural Gas Summary
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jim
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Energy Usage
(CCF)
10,543
8,116
1,444
756
791
558
816
2,615
7,540
12,877
18,244
19,807
Energy Usage
(MMBtu)
906.7
698.0
124.2
65.0
68.0
48.0
70.2
224.9
648.4
1,107.4
1,569.0
1,703.4
Total Cost (S)
4,979
3,838
700
376
393
283
404
1,251
3,567
6,076
8,588
9,466
Unit Cost (S/MCF)
4.72
4.73
4.85
4.97
4.97
5.07
4.95
4.78
4.73
4.72
4.71
4.78
                         Gas Quality - 860 Btu/cf
                                               Exhibit 2.12:  Example Fuel Oil Summary
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jim
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Usage
(gallons)
5,878
3,024
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3,515
-
Usage
(MMBtu)
829
426
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
496
-
Cost
(S)
3,804.35
1,910.83
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
2,227.86
-
Unit Cost
(S/gal)
0.65
0.63
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.63
-
Tax (S)
11.38
5.72
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
6.66
-
                         Some examples of graphical representations of data collected for Mars Screen Printing Company are
                 presented on the following pages.  Exhibits 2.13 and 2.14 are overall energy consumption and energy cost
                 summaries.  Exhibits 2.15 and 2.16 provide a graphical illustration of electricity usage and cost. Graphical
                 illustration  of  natural  gas  and fuel oil usage have not bee included here but should be provided during
                 assessment documentation to provide a complete picture of energy usage.
               32
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                         Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
                              Exhibit 2.13: Summary of Energy Usage
Total Energy Usage
1 °nn
I OUU
ifinn -
I OUU
-MOO _
1 onn -
I ZUU
? 1 nnn -
p- I uuu
m ann -
^ OUU
finn
DUU
Ar\r\
4UU
onn
zuu





n

.— i
r-TLn n n n
lr T-


1 -,




•
Jan Feb Mar Apr May
D Electricity • Natural Gas D Fuel Oil











PI






_




•












t







-

h
4


Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
Month









Dec
                               Exhibit 2.14: Summary Energy Costs
Total Energy Costs
q>o(J,(J(J(J
$25,000
(ton nnn -
w $20,000
re
— $15,000
Q
$10,000
$5,000






i-i







IT
i-i




~l n •




In


















$0 iii
Jan Feb Mar Apr
D Electricity n Natural Gas D Fuel Oil
-





























i-i




•-i



1





-
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oc
Month


-








~l







-

t Nov Dec
                                                                                                     Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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               Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
Notes
                                                     Exhibit 2.15: Electrical Costs
Electricity Costs
q>zo,000
$20,000
.M O,000



1



1



1






































-

^ Energy
Charge ($)
n Demand
Cost ($)
D Other Costs
($)
• Reactive
Cost ($)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
                                          Exhibit 2.16: Mars Screen Printing Electricity Usage
Energy Usage (kWh)
ocn nnn -,
oou,uuu
onn nnn -
ouu,uuu
ocn nnn -
zou,uuu
onn nnn
_ zOO,000
Z •< en nnn
1 00,000
•\ nn nnn
1 UU,UUU
en nnn -
ou,uuu
0_



























































































Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
               34
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                            Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
        Raw material and waste generation information collected during an assessment should be compiled
in an easy to reference format.  Exhibit 2.17 presents one format for presenting raw material information.
Raw  material  usage information should be collected for those  materials that pertain to opportunities
identified during the assessment to avoid unnecessary information collection.  This will save time and labor
for the more important task of evaluating opportunities.

                   Exhibit 2.17: Example Raw Material List for Mars Screen Printing
Material
Adhesive
Emulsion Remover
Ghost Image Remover
Ink - various colors
Ink Remover
Mylar
Paper Towels
Photo Sensitive Emulsion
Plastic Print Material - rolls
Plastic Print Material - sheets
Plastic Print Material - spools
Solvent
Ultraviolet Light Tubes
Urethane
Water
Volume or Weight per Year
5,000 gal
5,000 gal
3,000 gal
60,000 gal
20,000 gal
20,000 sheets
500 rolls
30,000 gal
750,000 feet
1 million feet
650,000 feet
20,500 gal
100 tubes
8,000 gal
80,000 gal
Cost per Unit or Total Cost
$6,750
$9,750
$4,800
$156,000
$28,000
$27,000
$550
$70,000 /yr.
$172,500 /yr.
$200,000 /yr.
$162,500 /yr.
$1 9,500 /yr.
$5,000 /yr.
$12,000 /yr.
$l,600/yr.
        Waste generation  information can  be collected  from several sources  at the facility.   Waste
generation information can be collected in the same format as raw material information. Facility personnel
will find it much easier to collect data in a table format and then to apply that information to the process
flow diagram.

                Exhibit 2.18:  Example Waste Generation Data for Mars Screen Printing
Material
Mylar Scrap
Waste Emulsion
Waste Water and Emulsion
Plastic Scrap
Paper Towels with Ink and Solvent
Waste Ink and Solvent
Solvent Emission
Excess Ink
Waste Emulsion Remover
Quantity
300 Ibs./yr.
l,500gal/yr.
21,100gal/yr.
400,000 feet
100 Ibs./yr.
5,000 gal/yr.
17,000 gal/yr.
220 gal/yr.
4,500 gal/yr.
Disposal Type
Landfill
Landfill
Sanitary Sewer
Landfill
Off-site Incineration
Off-site Incineration
On -site Incineration
Off-site Incineration
Landfill
Cost
$7
$2,700
$420
$100
$100
$13,600
$51,000
$600
$12,200
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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               Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments

JT ,                      The assessment team should also collect information about equipment that will be necessary  to
                 evaluate identified opportunities.  Exhibit 2.19 provides some example information collected for Mars Screen
                 Printing.  This information will be used to calculate energy  usage and waste reductions as well as cost
                 savings.
                                     Exhibit 2.19: Example Equipment List and Pertinent Information
                            Boilers                                             Air Compressors
                        •   Fuel Source - Natural Gas and Fuel Oil #2      •   One Screw Type Compressor-100HP
                        •   150BHP                                    •   One Reciprocating Compressor - 50 HP
                        •   Steam generated at 150 PSI                    •   Air Pressure 70 PSI
                        •   Average Load - 75%                         •   Used for equipment actuation
                        •   No Condensate Return                       •   Intake temperature - 85°F
                        •   18 hrs/day in summer, 24 hrs/day in winter      •   Average Load-80%
                        •   Used for process heat and space heating       •   Operation 18 hrs per day
                            Emulsion Removal Tank                              Ink Curing Oven
                        •   3ftx5ftx5ft                               •   Steam heat from boilers
                        •   No cover                                   •   Insulated
                        •   Not heated                                  •   No covered opening
                           Curing Oven
                        •   Natural Gas
                        •   Operation Temperature 120°F
                        •   Operation Hours 16 hrs/day
                         The assessment team should brain storm possible opportunities  to be implemented in the facility.
                 After the team has developed its initial list of opportunities the team  should  list  these out and collect
                 information necessary to evaluate each opportunity. A list of potential opportunities for our fictitious facility,
                 Mars Screen Printing is given in Exhibit 2.20.
                    Exhibit 2.20:  Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities for Mars Screen Printing
                 Energy Conservation Opportunities
                     1.   Increase Monitoring of Boiler Efficiency to Maximize Fuel Use
                     2.   Repair Compressed Air Leaks
                     3.   Repair Steam Leaks
                     4.   Return Condensate for Supply Water Pre -heating
                     5.   Schedule Use of Electrical Equipment to Minimize Peak Demand
                     6.   Recover Oven Exhaust Heat for Space Heating
                     7.   Replace Compressor Belts with V-Cogged Belts
                     8.   Insulate Bare Steam Lines
                     9.   Lower Pressure of Compressed Air to Minimum Necessary Level
               36                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                           Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
Pollution Prevention Opportunities
    1.   Cover Cleaning Tanks to Minimize Evaporative Losses
    2.   Recover Solvent from Exhaust for Equipment Cleaning
    3.   Minimize Ink Mixing to Reduce Excess
    4.   Improve Housekeeping
    5.   Substitute Non-Hazardous Inks for Current Inks
        Using the  opportunity list generated for our  fictitious facility, an example decision matrix is
provided in Exhibit 2.21.   Chapter 3  discusses methods to evaluate the pollution prevention and energy
conservation opportunities identified during an opportunity assessment.
                               Exhibit 2.21: Example Decision Matrix
Opportunity
Payback
Period
Cost
Savings
Technical
Feasibility
Operational
Impact
Compliance
Issues
Energy Conservation Opportunities
1 . Increase Monitoring
of Boiler Efficiency to
Maximize Fuel Use
2. Repair Compressed
Air Leaks
3. Repair Steam Leaks
4. Return Condensate for
Supply Water Pre -
heating
5. Schedule Use of
Electrical Equipment
to Minimize Peak
Demand
6. Recover Oven
Exhaust Heat for
Space Heating
7. Replace Compressor
Belts with V-Cogged
Belts
8. Insulate Bare Steam
Lines
9. Lower Pressure of
Compressed Air to
Minimum Necessary
Level
2yr.
>1 yr.
>2yr.
<1 month
<2 months
<2 months
High
High
High
Medium
Medium
Minimal
Minimal
High
Medium
Easy
Easy
Easy
Hard
Hard
May cause
condensation
of solvent in
exhaust stack
Easy
Easy
Easy
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Unclear
Negative
Positive
Positive
Unclear
Improve Air
Emissions
Reduce
electricity use
Reduce fuel
use
Reduce fuel
use
None
Reduce energy
use for space
heating
Increase
efficiency
Reduce steam
use
Reduce
compressed air
use
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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              Energy and Pollution Prevention Assessments
Notes
Exhibit 2.21: Example Decision Matrix (cont.)
Opportunity
Payback
Period
Cost
Savings
Technical
Feasibility
Operational
Impact
Compliance
Issues
Pollution Prevention Opportunities
1 . Cover Cleaning Tanks
to Minimize
Evaporative Losses
2. Recover Solvent from
Exhaust for
Equipment Cleaning
3. Minimize Ink Mixing
to Reduce Excess
4. Improve
Housekeeping
5. Substitute Non-
Hazardous Inks for
Current Inks
5yr.
<1 yr.

-------
                              Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities



 CHAPTER 3.  EVALUATION OF ENERGY CONSERVATION AND
              POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES

        Evaluation of identified opportunities is the essence of an industrial assessment.  Evaluation of
opportunities provides a facility with information needed to make decisions on opportunity selection and
implementation.  There  are  five basic steps in  the  evaluation of energy conservation and  pollution
prevention opportunities and determining their feasibility.

    1.   Clearly describe current practices.

    2.   Describe the recommended energy conservation or pollution prevention opportunity.

    3.   Evaluate benefits.

    4.   Technical feasibility analysis.

    5.   Evaluate economic benefits.

        These steps provide  the framework for the feasibility  analysis of each opportunity.  As the team
follows these steps,  it will be compiling information for the analysis of each opportunity as well as the
information that will be needed to justify implementation of the  opportunity to management. The remainder
of this chapter describes the evaluation process using these five steps. Two examples of opportunity write-
ups are given at the end of this chapter to illustrate these concepts.


3.1    Describe  the Current Practices

        The first step in the analysis of an energy conservation or pollution prevention opportunity is to
clearly describe the current practice in simple language. This description should include:

    •    Overview of current operations and procedures

    •    Assumptions

    •    Impacts

    •    Raw material costs

    •    Energy costs

    •    Waste management  costs

        A  simple description will provide readers unfamiliar with the  operation information needed to
understand what is happening without knowing all the technical details.

3.1.1   Overview of Current Operations

        An overview should include a description of the  operation, procedures, equipment used, materials
used,  and wastes generated  by  the operation as necessary to provide background  information for an
identified opportunity. The operation can be defined in many ways but in the evaluation the Team should
describe  only  the  functions associated with the  specific opportunity.   For example,  if the  identified
opportunity is to adjust the air fuel  ratio of the boiler, the Team should describe operations or procedures
associated with boiler operation  and maintenance.   If the identified opportunity were to adjust the boiler
steam pressure, the  Team should include information about boiler operation and maintenance as well as
information about facility steam requirements.

        The amount of information included in a description of current practices will vary in content and in
detail.  The overview should include enough detail to give anyone who reads the analysis the background
needed to understand the process and the identified opportunity.
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          39

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Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities
  3.1.2   Assumptions

          Inevitably the Assessment Team will need to make assumptions or estimates when information is not
  available or simply doesn't exist.  In these cases, the assessment team will be required to make reasonable
  estimates based on available information,  observation and  best professional judgement.   Any time the
  assessment team is required to make estimates or assumptions it is important to document this in the analysis
  write-up for future reference. These estimates or assumptions may include any assumptions with regard to
  labor costs, utility or waste disposal costs, hours of operation, or loads, etc. Assumptions do not necessarily
  need to all be stated in the background information but should be clearly stated when made.

  3.1.3   Impacts

          The impact that the current operation has should be described as part of the current practice.  This
  would  be the impact that the current  practice has on the facility  or operation energy consumption, waste
  generation,  air  emissions, and etc.  For example, ink is mixed manually and personnel responsible for ink
  mixing consistently mix too much ink.  The impact of this practice would be excess raw material purchases,
  increased waste disposal, and air emissions.  For energy conservation opportunities the impacts that would be
  described might include increased energy consumption and air emissions, or increased demand charges.

  3.1.4   Raw Material Costs

          Raw materials account for a  large percentage of an industrial facility's expenses.  Raw materials
  include any material purchased for the purpose of producing a product or items or to be used in clean-up and
  ancillary operations.  The Assessment Team can obtain raw material cost information from purchase records
  at the facility.  In addition, when accounting for raw material costs, the Team should account for material
  management costs when  applicable.   For  instance, if  an  opportunity will greatly reduce raw  material
  purchases and there is an associated labor cost for managing the material (i.e., moving it around the facility,
  managing the  containers, etc.)  the team should  include the reduced labor  costs  when  evaluating the
  opportunity.

  3.1.5   Energy Costs

          Energy costs  or  utility  costs are also major operating expenses for industrial operations.  Some
  operations  are very energy intensive requiring large amounts  of energy for heating of materials to produce a
  product.  The Assessment Team should review and account for energy costs during the assessment. Chapter
  2 discussed the collection of electric,  natural gas, or other energy  source information to allow graphs and
  summary tables to be prepared.  The following sections will discuss how to read the utility bills  and define
  some of the terminology used.

  3.1.5.1  Electric Bills and Rates

          The structure  of  electric bills differs from region to  region.  The rates and structure of utility bills
  cannot be set arbitrarily since all utility  companies are regulated by a Public Utility Commission or Public
  Utility  Board of the state in which it operates. Approval  is needed for any change in rates or structure and
  any change is subject to reviews confirming the necessity of such change. The rates reflect the requirement to
  maintain a sound financial condition  of a  utility company and also to pay a "reasonable  return" to the
  shareholders.

  The Electric Bill: Its Components and Where the Money Goes
      1.   Components Of Your Electric Bill

          •    Customer Charge                             •   Reactive Demand Charge

          •   Demand Charge                              •   Sales Tax

          •   Energy Charge
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                               Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities
    2.   What Is Included In The Customer Charge?
        •   Fixed monthly amount designed to recover:
                Service drop - wires from transformer to connection on building.
                Meter.
                Billing, credit and collection and related costs.
                Customer service - costs to encourage safe, efficient and economical use of electricity.
    3.   What Is Included In The Demand Charge?
        •   Generally based on highest 15-minute integrated kW demand during month or 80% of highest
            demand during winter months.
        •   Designed to recover:
            Investments in generating plants.
            Investments in transmission system - 345,000, 115,000 & 34,500 volt lines and sub-stations.
            Investments in distribution  system - all voltages below 34,500 volts, including distribution
            transformer.
]
Exhibit 3.1: Relation of Demand (kW) to Energy
(kWh)
5kW
k.

w\
Energy = 5 kW x 730 hours = 3650 kWh
0 Hours per Month 730
50 kW fc.

w
Energy = 50 kW x 73 hours = 3650 kWh
0 73 Hours per Month 730
    4.   What Is Demand (Load)?
        A.  Assume:  Fifty (50) - 100 watt light
            bulbs.
            All 50 bulbs are on at the same time.
            50 bulbs x 100 watts each = 5000
            watts
        B.  Total Demand (Load) on System:
            5000 watts/1000 = 5 kilowatts (5 kW)
            This is illustrated in Exhibit 3.1.
    5.   What Is Included In the Energy Bill?
        •   Price per kWh designed to recover:
        Variable costs to generate electricity
        Oil costs
        Nuclear fuel costs
        Varies with voltage levels due to losses
    6.   What Is the Reactive Demand Charge?
        •   An amount per  kVAR  of reactive
            demand in  excess of 50% of monthly
            demand  (LGS  is  50% of first 1,000
            kW of monthly on-peak kW demand
            and 25% of all additional monthly on-
            peak demand).
        •   No kVAR  billing unless power factor below  90%  (higher for customers  with demands in
            excess of 1,000 kW).
        •   Designed to recover cost of capacitors used to offset effects of customers with poor power
            factor.
    Notes
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               Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities
Notes
    1.   Sales Tax
        •   If  electricity is used in a manufacturing process, the customer can get an exemption for the
            majority of sales ta?es.  It is advantageous for the community to have the tax incentives in order
            to preserve or promote manufacturing in the area.
3.1.5.2  Example of Gas Bills and Gas Rates
        Unlike  electric charges, gas utility bills are very simple to read.  In the following section a typical
example of a monthly gas utility bill is introduced.
Terminology and the Bill
    1.   The service period on a monthly basis.
    2.   The rate schedule and terms used.
    Gas company rates are based on the following priority schedule:
            GN-1  is for  residential  and small industrial users consuming less than 100,00 cubic feet of gas
            per day.
            GN-2 is for  industrial users consuming over 100,000 cubic feet per day  and who have standby
            fuel capability.
    3. The actual month's consumption in cubic feet of gas.
            The billing factor is the actual heat content of the gas (can vary depending on location).
            The final column is the amount of therms used for the month.
            Meter units are 100 cu. ft. (i.e., example equals 3,806,000 cu. ft.).
                                Exhibit 3.2: Sample Natural Gas Bill
Service Period
06-18-79
07-18-79
                                                                     Service Address;.
Rates
Therms
GN-1
GN-2
GN-3
Total
17,667
22,486
40,153
$9,760.09
Meter Number
2345678
Meter Readings
Previous Present
917920 955980
Difference
38060
Billing Factor
1,055
Therms
40,153
                  Our hypothetical bill is interpreted as follows:
                      1.   Gas consumption @ GN-2 rate
                     2.   Gas consumption @ GN-3 rate
                     3.   Total gas consumption
                                                         = 17,667 therms
                                                         = 22.486 therms
                                                         = 40,153 therms
               42
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                               Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities


    4.   Difference in meter readings                        = 3,806,000 cu. ft.

    5.   Btu content of gas                                = 1,055 Btu/cu. ft.

    6.   Amount of therms used per month

        = (3,806,000 x 1,055) / 1000,000                      = 40,153 therms

1 therm = 100,000 Btu

Actual BTUs consumed = 40,153 x 105 Btu

Li-Plant Metering
        The monthly gas bills show how many Btu's have been expended to produce a product. However,
the bill does not indicate where the Btu's where used in a particular gas consuming process.

        As the nation's energy requirements grow, industry can expect to pay even more for gas in future
years.  Plants that remain dependent upon gas for their production processes will be placing even greater
emphasis on in-house conservation  efforts in order to achieve maximum production  efficiency from this
increasingly expensive fuel.  Cost allocations within departments  and fuel surcharges to customers will
become commonplace.    Close  monitoring of  allocated supplies will become  a necessity  in energy
management.  Gas consumption  monitoring can  also be advantageously used to control oven or furnace
temperatures and prevent over-temperature damage.

        A relatively low cost monitoring device is the "Annubar."  This device is a primary flow sensor
designed to produce a differential  pressure that  is proportional to  the flow.  The  flo-tap annubar can be
inserted and removed from operation without system shut  down.   It can be interfaced with secondary
devices, a standard flow meter is available for rate of flow indication. It can also be used as a portable meter
or permanently  mounted  one.  Annubar  connected to a  differential  pressure  transmitter (electric or
pneumatic) is used with a variety of standard secondary equipment for totalizing, recording, or controlling
complex systems.

3.1.5.3  Fuel Oil Rates

        A private contractor usually supplies fuel oil. The price is negotiated before the season or period of
interest to both parties.  The supplier is obligated to provide the oil to the customer  for an agreed upon
period (typically a year).  The price is fixed for  an estimated amount of consumption  and provides for an
adjustment if supplier's costs change during the period. The supplying company might require a minimum
purchase, called  "allotment," in order to  maintain the required service as well as the price. It is noteworthy
to point out that some customers may decide to burn more fuel than necessary for the operations just to
preserve their pricing. The normal way of calculating the average cost of oil is simply the total money spent
divided by volume purchased.

        In the United States three types of fuel are available. The most expensive oil is No. 2 at 138,000
Btu/gallon. A little cheaper option  is No. 4 with 142,000 to 145,000 Btu/gallon and the cheapest is No 6
with 149,690 Btu/gallon. It is important to keep  in mind that the fuels are not interchangeable because  the
combustion equipment is  designed for  only one type of fuel.  Different  fuels also have to be  handled
differently,  for  example No. 6  fuel  requires heating to flow.  Detailed information about equipment,
characteristics of fuel oils and exact Btu content is available from individual suppliers.

3.1.6   Waste Management Costs

        Waste management costs include not only the actual disposal costs for waste materials but the on-
site management costs like labor for  drumming and moving  the  material,  labor for waste treatment
processes,  and labor to file required paperwork. On-site costs may not be directly from a bill but can usually
be closely estimated using information from various sources.  This is often true for labor requirements for
particular operations.   The assessment team should use information from on-site interviews of facility
personnel to  make an estimate  in these  cases.    The actual disposal cost information is available from
hazardous waste manifests, bills for transportation, bills for solid  waste disposal.  The remainder of this
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          43
Notes

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               Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities

*r  .              section briefly discusses the pertinent information that the assessment team will need to evaluate various
                 opportunities.
                 3.1.6.1  Hazardous and Regulated Non-hazardous Waste Disposal
                         Hazardous and regulated non-hazardous waste disposal is a significant line item cost for facilities.
                 When calculating hazardous waste disposal costs, the assessment team must include these items.
                     1.   Disposal fees
                     2.   Transportation costs
                     3.   In-house labor for management (labor for drumming the waste, moving to hazardous waste storage,
                         and filing paperwork)
                     4.   Reduction in containers purchase for disposal
                 Not all of these costs will apply to every waste.  For example if the facility is purchasing over pack drums for
                 some of their wastes and not others.  The team should use best professional judgement when applying these
                 factors.
                 3.1.6.2  Solid Waste Disposal
                         Solid waste is what most people think of as trash. It would include waste paper, cardboard, personal
                 items, food wastes, etc.  While solid waste is not as expensive as hazardous waste to dispose of, it is still a
                 significant expense. When calculating solid waste costs  and cost savings, the team must include these items.
                     1.   Tipping fees (fee for disposal in landfill or other similar fee)
                     2.   Transportation costs, if any
                     3.   Rental and pick-up fees for trash containers
                     4.   In-house labor costs, if any
                 Again, the team should use best professional judgement to include or not include these and other costs.
                 3.1.6.3  Air Emission Management Costs and Emission Fees
                         Air emissions have become an increasingly important  issue for industrial plants.  Evaluation of
                 opportunities that significantly reduce air emissions should include these items.
                     1.   Air emissbn fees
                     2.   Changes in air emission control costs
                     3.   Changes in monitoring requirements for both environment and health and safety.
                     4.   Changes in labor for management of air emissions.
                 3.1.6.4  Sanitary and Storm Sewer Discharge Fees
                         Sanitary and storm sewer discharge fees do not tend to  be large line item costs for many facilities.
                 Changes in fees as a  result of implementing  an  opportunity should be  accounted for or noted even if
                 significant. Items that should be included in a cost evaluation are:
                     1.   Discharge fee
                     2.   Labor for on-site management of waste water or other solutions discharged to the sewer
                     3.   Changes in treatment costs, if any.
                 There may be other items that may be added for various operations.  The assessment team should include all
                 significant items.
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                              Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities


3.2    Describe the Recommended Opportunity

                A description of the recommended action needed to accomplish the energy conservation
or pollution prevention should be given in simple language with a minimum of technical details.  The
recommended action should include a description of the proposed change including equipment changes,
process modifications,  and changes in procedures.   In addition, this description should point  out the
advantages and disadvantages in implementation of the opportunity. This description of the recommended
action does not need to include calculations of energy and waste reduction, as these will be included in the
next sections.

        The advantages should include items like reduced waste generation, reduced energy consumption,
improved  efficiency of operations, etc.  The disadvantages should include items  like increased labor,
noxious odors, extensive facility modifications, etc.  The advantages for implementing an opportunity are
sometimes obvious  but often an assessment team will not account for the intangible benefits and likewise
disadvantages.  The benefits may include improved worker health from reduced exposure, improved public
image,  and reduced  liability.   Likewise, the disadvantages may include strong citrus odor from aqueous
cleaner.


3.3    Evaluate   the  Energy  Conservation  and   Pollution  Prevention

        Benefits

        The evaluation begins with the calculation of the current energy usage or waste generation for a
particular piece of equipment or process associated with the identified opportunity.  Information such as
operation times, required pressures for steam and air, light levels, or waste generation information collected
during  the on-site  assessment phase  will be needed to complete the calculations.   Next, the Team will
estimate the energy  conservation or pollution prevention potential from implementation of the opportunity.
This may  entail some initial research for information on equipment needed for implementation  of the
opportunity through literature searches or collection of vendor information to verify estimated reduction of
energy  consumption or wastes. It is important to note any assumptions made to complete calculations and
where necessary conservative estimates should be made. The remainder of this section will discuss how to
calculate energy consumption and conservation as  well as waste generation and  pollution prevention
benefits.

3.3.1   Energy Conservation Calculations

        When  performing  any type of comparisons between  energy  requirements  for  equipment of
conservation alternatives; care should be taken to use the same unit of measurement for all types of energy in the
analysis. Exhibit 3.3 lists several sources of energy and its common unit of measure. Usually as scrap material
from a manufacturing process, wood is occasionally used  as a fuel source in industrial boilers and is more
commonly  used in  homes  for space heating.  Since  the BTU value of wood varies significantly  with its
preparation and species, it has not been included in Exhibit 3.3.

        Energy requirements for different applications also use diverse units of measure. For instance, cooling
capacities of air conditioning units are usually measured in Tons,  heating unit capacities are defined in BTUs,
and motor capacities are measured in horse-powers or watts. Exhibit 3.4 lists the common units employed for
various applications. It should be stressed that while these are the common units applied to these applications
they are not the only units of measure used for these applications. For example, heating units and motors are
sometimes measured in KW instead of BTUs and  hp.  This is especially true of equipment that is purchased
from countries where the metric system is used.
Notes
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               Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities
Notes
                       Exhibit 3.3:  Common Units of Measure and Conversions to BTTJs (U.S. Dept of Commerce, 1974)
Type of Energy
Butane, Liquefied
Coal, Anthracite
Coal, bituminous
Coal, lignite
Coal, Sub-bituminous
Electricity
Fuel Oil #2
Fuel Oil #6
Kerosene
Natural Gas
Propane, Liquefied
Common unit of Measure
Gallons (Gal)
Pound(s) (Ib or Ibs)
Pound(s) (Ib or Ibs)
Pound(s) (Ib or Ibs)
Pound(s) (Ib or Ibs)
Kilowatts -hours (KW)
Gallons (Gal)
Gallons (Gal)
Gallons (Gal)
Cubic Feet (CF) or Hundreds of Cubic Feet (CCF)
Themis
Gallons (Gal)
BTU Equivalent
91,600 BTU/Gal
13,900 BTU/lb
14,000 BTU/lb
11, 000 BTU/lb
12,600 BTU/lb
3,412 BTU/KWh
140,000 BTU/Gal
152,000 BTU/Gal
134,000 BTU/Gal
1,OOOBTU/CF
1 00,000 BTU/therm
103,300 BTU/Gal
                           Exhibit 3.4: Units of Measure for Various Applications (U.S. Dept of Commerce, 1974)
Application
Air Conditioning /
Refrigeration
Heating
Motors
Boilers
Lighting
Units of Measure
Tons
BTUs
Horsepower (hp)
Pounds of steam generated
per hour or BTUs
Watts
BTU Equivalent
12,000 BTU/hr
—
2545 BTU/hr
Varies with specific
characteristics of boiler
3.412 BTU/hr
                         When calculating energy conservation opportunities you must be sure to account for these factors.

                     •   Current energy usage
                     •   Projected energy consumption reduction

                     •   Energy consumption of new equipment
                     •   Changes in energy requirements for associated equipment

                 Each of these factors should be clearly stated with any assumptions that have been made to complete the
                 calculations.   Chapters  6-10 discuss various  types  of equipment used in industrial and  commercial
                 applications.   These chapters describe the equipment,  energy  usage  and  some energy conservation
                 opportunities.

                 3.3.2   Pollution Prevention Calculations

                         There are many factors that the assessment team must account for in evaluating a pollution prevention
                 opportunity. These factors are:
               46
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                               Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities
    •   Changes in raw material consumption
    •   Changes in hazardous waste generation
    •   Changes in solid waste generation
    •   Changes in air emission generation
    •   Changes in energy usage
        Implementation of a pollution prevention opportunity may need to include all these factors or may
include only a few. When performing any type of comparisons for pollution prevention opportunities; care
should be taken to use the same unit of measure for all types of materials used in the analysis. This means that
to ensure consistency in your calculations all raw materials should be converted to the same unit of measure if
possible.  For example, if a facility lists it raw materials for a printing operation as 60,000 gal of ink and 20,000
Ibs. of ink remover, the unit should be converted to either both be pounds or both be gallons.
        After performing these energy conservation and pollution prevention  calculations, this information
will then be used to calculate the cost savings for the given opportunity.

3.4    Technical   Evaluation of   Energy  Conservation   and   Pollution
        Prevention Projects
        A  technical evaluation will determine whether a  proposed energy conservation or pollution
prevention  option  is technically feasible.  Some technical evaluations will  be  straightforward, such as
procedural or housekeeping changes, which may require little more than review, approval, and training of
selected staff. Other technical evaluations will require the expertise of a variety of people. You may require
significant coordination with the operators, vendors, and consultants before deciding whether a proposed
pollution prevention solution is feasible. In some cases, you may need to test your proposed solution in a
laboratory or perform a field demonstration.  Also keep in mind that some equipment vendors are willing to
validate their applicability to your process prior  to purchase of the equipment.  Exhibit 3.5 presents typical
evaluation criteria that will apply to implementation of an opportunity at a specific  facility. Depending on
facility requirements there may be other criteria that should be included.
        These  criteria will  be used to  build  the  information  for the implementation  costs.  Correct
estimation of implementation costs is  very important as implementation costs can have a significant impact
on a facility.  When evaluating implementation costs, the assessment the team should consider these items.
    •   C o st of e quipment
    •   C o st for facility modifications
        -   Expanded plant area
        -   Improvements to utilities
        -   Ventilation requirement
    •   Installation costs
    •   Employee Training
    •   Periodic Maintenance
Annual Operating Costs
-   Utilities
-   Labor
-   Training
-   Maintenance
Replacement parts and filters
Cost of containers and other supplies
associated with disposal
                                              Notes
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               Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities
Notes
                                           Exhibit 3.5: Typical Technical Evaluation Criteria
                        Will it conserve energy or reduce waste?

                        Is the system safe for our employees?

                        Will the product quality be improved or maintained?

                        Is there space available in the facility

                        Are the  new equipment,  materials,  or  procedures  compatible  with our production operation
                        procedures, workflow and production rates?

                        Will more labor be required to implement the option?

                        Will we need to train or hire personnel with special expertise to operate or maintain the new system?

                        Do we have the utilities needed to run  the equipment? Or, must they be installed at increased capital
                        cost?

                        How long will production be stopped during system installation?

                        Will the vendor provide acceptable service?

                        Will the annual operating and maintenance costs increase?

                        Will the system create other energy consumption or environmental problems?
                         Also, if the  opportunity will  require installation of large  pieces of equipment, the team should
                 consider factors  that will influence installation like will the equipment fit through existing doors.  While this
                 seems like an obvious question, several  facilities have had equipment arrive for installation that wouldn't fit
                 through the doors.


                 3.5    Economic  Evaluation  of  Energy and Pollution Prevention Project

                         Costs

                         An economic analysis  is a process in which financial costs, revenues, and savings are evaluated for a
                 particular project. This analysis is necessary to evaluate the economic advantages of competing projects and
                 is used to determine how to allocate scarce resources.  An accurate estimate  of energy conservation and
                 pollution prevention project costs is essential to decision making.

                         The easiest and most common economic evaluation  is the one that compares the up-front purchase
                 price of competing project alternatives.  However, the up-front purchase price is typically a poor measure of a
                 project's total cost.   Other costs,  such as labor,  maintenance (including materials and wastes), reliability,
                 disposal/salvage value, and training must also be accounted for in the financial decision making process. As
                 a result, the type of economic evaluation tools and techniques used may vary from one facility to the next in
                 order to perform a meaningful economic evaluation.

                         This section  presents three methods commonly used to  allow  a comparison to be made between
                 competing projects. These methods include:

                     •   Payback Period,

                     •   Net Present Value, and

                     •   Internal Rate of Return.

                         Finally,  two additional economic  analysis  tools are introduced at the end of this section: the Life
                 Cycle Costing (LCC)  tool  and the  Total  Cost Assessment  (TCA) tool.  Both tools are used to establish
                 economic criteria to justify energy conservation and pollution prevention projects.  TCA is used to describe
               48
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                                Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities


internal costs and savings, including environmental criteria.  LCC includes all internal costs plus external
costs incurred throughout the entire life cycle of a product, process, or activity.

3.5.1   Common Methods of Comparing Financial Performance

        Financial performance indicators are needed to allow comparisons to be made between competing
project  alternatives.  Three methods of comparison are currently in widespread use:  Payback Period, Net
Present  Value, and Internal Rate of Return.

3.5.1.1  Payback Period

        The payback period is used most often.  The purpose of the payback analysis  is to determine the
length of time it will take before the costs of a new project is recouped.  The formula used to calculate the
Payback Period is:

Equation:        Payback period (in years) = I/(N-C)

where           I = initial investment, start up costs (in dollars)

                C = annual cost of current practice (in dollars/year)

                N = annual cost of new practice (in dollars/year)

        Although the payback period indicator is the simplest, there are certain limitations to the accuracy
of the indicator.  One limitation is  that the payback period indicator does not account for  all of the cash
flows of a project.  It considers the cash flows  that take place before the start-up costs are paid back, but
ignores  all cash flows after this  threshold.   Ignoring these cash flows can skew the true profitability of
implementing a proposed project.

        As  an example, when comparing two projects, A and B, and each requires an initial start-up cost or
investment of $50,000 and  project A generates  $25,000 in revenues (or annual savings) for the next three
years and  project B generates $20,000 in revenues for the next 20 years. Using the principles of payback
period,  project A is more  profitable than project B because you recover your start-up costs  (or initial
investment costs) earlier with project A.  However, project A generates revenues for only three years,
whereas project B continues to earn revenues for 20 years. This example illustrates that a projects payback
period does  not necessarily reflect its overall profitability because it  only measures the time it takes to reach
the break-even point for implementing a project.  For pollution prevention projects, this can be an especially
significant limitation because many  annual operating costs may occur several years after the initial start-up
costs have been incurred.

        A second limitation is that complex scenarios can have multiple paybacks when annual  operating
costs vary significantly from year to year or when there are start-up costs in multiple years.

3.5.1.2  Net Present Value

        The Net Present Value (NPV) method is based upon the concept that a dollar today is worth more
than a dollar in the future, a concept known as the time value of money.  This concept captures the cost of a
given project, taking into consideration future value. The discount rate, similar to an  interest rate, is the
mechanism that equates today's dollar with its value in the future.

        A simple illustration considers what the value of a dollar invested today will be worth in a year. At
a simple interest rate of 5 percent, a dollar today is worth $1.05 one year from now.  This is referred to as
the "present value" of one dollar one year from now at an interest rate of 5 percent.

        The selection of an appropriate discount rate is one of the  most difficult aspects of a cost-benefit
analysis, but it is also one of the most important. The discount rate is a function of what a business must pay
to borrow money and what rate of return it must  earn to satisfy a company's financial  requirements.  For
evaluating multi-year and long-term projects, the  identification of an accurate discount rate  is crucial.  For
example, a project that looks favorable using a  3 percent discount rate may look very unattractive  at a 10
percent  rate.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                           49
Notes

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               Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities

*r  .                      For an investment to be cost beneficial, it must return more dollars in the future (i.e., benefit) than
                 the amount of dollars spent in the present (i.e., the cost of the investment) to account for this difference in
                 value.  In other words, the dollar benefits gained in the future must be greater than the initial investment.
                 This method progressively reduces (discounts) the value of costs and revenues occurring in future years. The
                 formula for NPV is:
                 Equation:        I + [(AS - CE)i( PW)i +(AS - CE)2(PVIF)2 +...+ (AS - CEXfPVTF),,] = NPV
                 where           I = initial investment, start-up cost (expressed as a negative number)
                                  AS = annual savings (cash inflows)
                                  CE = capital expenses (cash outflows)
                                  (AS - CE)! = net cash flow year 1
                                  (AS - CE)2 = net cash flow year 2
                                  (AS - CE)n = net cash flow year n
                                  PVIF = 1/(1 +r)' = present value interest factor
                                          r = discount rate of money (i.e., current rate of return)
                                          t = incremental time period, 0 thru n, normally expressed in years
                          The first step to determining the net present value of a proposed project is to determine the net
                 difference (net cash flow) for each year over the specified time period (AS-CE)n.
                          The second step is to calculate  the present  value  interest factor (PVIF) based on the companies
                 discount rate. The following equation is used to calculate the PVIF for each year of the specified time period.
                 Equation:        PVTF = l/(l+r)1
                 where           r = discount rate of money (i.e., current value of money to the company)
                                  t = incremental time period (i.e., 1, 2, 3, etc.), normally expressed in years
                          The PVIF  is calculated for each incremental time period.  The PVIF always equals one, when n=0;
                 the start-up costs . As the time period (n) increase the PVIF decreases.
                          The third  step is to  multiply the net  difference in cash flows for each incremental  time period
                 determined in Step  1 one by the corresponding PVIF determined in Step 2 to calculate the present value (PV)
                 of the money in today's dollars. The following equation is used to calculate the PV for each time period.
                 Equation:        PV = (AS - CE) X (PVIF); at a given time penod (n)
                          The last step is to sum the PV's for each incremental time period (0 through n) and then subtract the
                 star-up cost (I) to obtain the net present value (NPV) of implementing the project.
                          A project is deemed profitable if its net present value is greater than zero.  When the NPV is greater
                 than zero a project is sufficient to (1) pay off the initial star-up costs, (2) pay off interest payments to creditors
                 who lent the company money to pay for the start-up costs, (3) provide the required return to shareholders or a
                 company's financial requirements, and (4) increase economic value in the company.
                          Net present value is  a very useful indicator because it is a direct measure of a projects profitability in
                 dollars and therefore most directly relates  to a  company's value of money.   It does however, depend
                 significantly on the value of the discount rate. In general, net  present value is one of the strongest financial
                 performance indicators because it has few limitations and can be used in all types  of analyses.
                 3.5. 1.3  Internal Rate of Return
                          The Internal Rate of Return (TRR) is  another technique used in decision making.  The purpose  of the
                 IRR is to determine the interest rate (r)  at which NPV is equal to zero.   If that rate exceeds the hurdle rate
               50                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                               Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities


(defined  as  the  minimum acceptable rate of return on a project), the investment  is deemed worthy of
funding.  The formula for IRR is:

Equation:       I + [(AS - CE)l (PVW\ +(AS - CE)2(PVIF)2 +...+ (AS - CE)n(PVIF)n] = 0

where           I = initial investment, start-up cost (expressed as a negative number)

                AS = annual savings (cash inflows)

                CE = capital expenses (cash outflows)

                (AS - CE)! = net cash flow year 1

                (AS - CE)2 = net cash flow year 2

                (AS - CE)n = net cash flow year n

                PVIF = 1/(1 +r)' = present value interest factor

                        r = discount rate of money (i.e., current rate of return)

                        t = incremental time period, 0 thru n, normally expressed in years

        In practice, IRR is usually  calculated through trial and  error, where different interest rates are tried
until the IRR is found.  Using the IRR financial performance indicator, projects are ranked according to their
IRRs, and projects with IRRs in excess of the appropriate discount factor are  accepted.  Although, IRR and
NPV methods will lead to the same accept - reject decisions for an individual project, they can  give
contradictory signals concerning choices between  mutually  exclusive  projects.  That is, a given project
might have a higher IRR but a lower NPV than an alternative project. This problem arises because the IRR
is the implied reinvestment rate (discount rate) for cash flows under the IRR method while the discount rate
used in the  NPV method is a company's cost of capital.  If the IRR for a project is very different from the
cost of capital,  these differing reinvestment rates can  lead to differences in project ranking.  In most
situations, reinvestment of cash flows at a rate close to the cost of capital is more realistic; therefore, the
NPV method is generally superior.

3.5.2   Additional Economic Analysis Tools

        Life Cycle Costing (LCC) tool and the  Total Cost Assessment (TCA) tool are introduced below as
concept overviews. Both tools can be used to establish economic criteria to justify  energy conservation and
pollution prevention projects. TCA is used to describe internal costs and savings, including environmental
criteria. LCC includes  all internal  costs plus external costs incurred throughout the entire life cycle of a
product, process, or activity.

3.5.2.1  Life-Cycle Cost Analysis

        Life-cycle costing (LCC) has been used for many years by both the public  and private sector.  It
associates economic criteria and societal  (external)  costs with  individual energy and pollution prevention
opportunities.  The purpose of LCC is to quantify a series of time-varying costs for a given opportunity over
an extended time horizon, and to represent these costs as a single value.  These time varying cost usually
include the following.

    •   Capital Expenditures - Costs for large, infrequent investments with long economic lives (e.g., new
        structures, major renovations and equipment replacements).

    •   Non-recurring Operations and Maintenance (O&M)  - Costs reflecting items that occur on a less
        frequent than annual basis that are not capital expenditures (e.g., repair or replacement of parts in a
        solvent  distillation unit).

    •   Recurring O&M - Costs for items  that occur on an annual or more frequent basis (e.g., oil and
        hydraulic fluid changes).
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                           51
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Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities


      •   Energy - All energy or power generation related costs.  Although energy costs can be included as a
          recurring O&M cost, they are usually itemized because of their economic magnitude and sensitivity
          to both market prices and building utilization.

      •   Residual Value  - Costs reflecting the value of equipment at the end of the LCC analysis period.
          Considers the effects of depreciation and service improvements.

          By considering  all  costs,  a  LCC analysis  can quantify relationships that exist between cost
  categories.   For example, certain types of capital  improvements will reduce operations, maintenance, and
  energy costs while increasing the equipment's residual value at the  end of the analysis period.  When energy
  costs  are broken out from recurring Q&M costs, there is the potential for the application of environmental
  criteria, but this is generally not the focus of traditional LCC analysis.

          Societal (external) costs include those resulting from health and ecological damages, such as those
  related to unregulated air emissions, wetland loss,  or deforestation, can also be reflected in a LCC analysis
  either in a quantitative or qualitative manner. LCC includes the following cost components.

      •   Extraction of Natural Resources  - The cost of extracting the material for use  and any direct  or
          indirect environmental  cost for the process.

      •   Production of Raw Materials - All of the costs of processing the raw materials.

      •   Making the Basic Components and Product - The total cost of material fabrication  and product
          manufacturing.

      •   Internal Storage - The cost of storage of the product before it is shipped to distributors and/or retail
          stores.

      •   Distribution and Retail Storage  - The  cost of distributing the products to retail stores including
          transportation costs, and the cost of retail storage before purchase by the consumer.

      •   Product Use  -  The cost of consumer use of the  product.  This could  include any fuels, oils,
          maintenance, and repairs which must be made to the equipment.

      •   Product Disposal or Recycling - The cost of disposal or recycling of the product.

  3.5.2.2  Total Cost Accounting

          The total cost accounting (TCA) tool is especially interesting because it employs both economic and
  environmental criteria.  As with the LCC analysis, the TCA study is usually focused on a particular process as
  it  affects the bottom-line costs to the user.  Environmental criteria are not  explicit, i.e.; success is not
  measured by waste reduction or resource conservation, but by cost savings. However, since the purpose of
  TCA  is to change accounting  practices by including environmental costs, environmental  goals  are met
  through cost reductions.

          Because of its  focus  on cost and cost effectiveness, TCA shares many  of  the features of LCC
  analysis by tracking direct costs, such as capital expenditures and O&M expenses/revenues.  However, TCA
  also includes  indirect costs,  liability costs and  less tangible benefits—subjects that are not  customarily
  included in LCC analysis. A summary of costs included in TCA is  presented in Exhibit 3.6.  By factoring in
  these  indirect environmental  costs,  TCA achieves  both economic  and environmental goals.  Because of its
  private sector orientation, TCA  uses Net Present Value  (NPV) and Internal Rate  of Return (TRR) as well as
  other economic comparison methods.
52                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                              Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities
                                 Exhibit 3.6: TCA Cost Categories
             Direct Costs
     Capital Expenditures
         •   Buildings
         •   Equipment
         •   Utility connections
         •   Equipment Installation
         •   Engineering

     Operations and Maintenance
     Expenses/Revenues
         •   Raw materials
         •   Labor
         •   Waste disposal
         •   Utilities
         •   Value of recovered
             materials
   Indirect or Hidden Costs
Compliance Costs
    •   Permitting
    •   Reporting
    •   Monitoring
    •   Manifesting

Insurance

On-Site Waste Management

Operations of On-Site
Pollution Control Equipment
        Liability Costs
Penalties and Fines
Personal Injury and Property
Damage
3.6    Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Project Examples
        This section presents two energy conservation and pollution prevention projects from the fictitious
manufacturing facility discussed in Chapter 2 to illustrate the technical and economic concepts presented in
this chapter.  They are presented in a simple format that could be used for a report.  The assessment team
can set up a format that suits their need or particular report style requirements.   The important point in
opportunity write-ups is to be consistent in format and content.
3.6.1   Adjust Air Fuel Ratio to Improve Boiler Efficiency
        This example uses the total cost accounting and simple payback tools discussed above.
3.6.1.1  Current Practice and Observations
        During the audit, the exhaust from the boilers was analyzed.  This analysis revealed excess oxygen
levels that result in unnecessary energy consumption.
3.6.1.2  Recommended Action
        Many factors including environmental considerations, cleanliness, quality of fuel, etc. contribute to
the efficient combustion of fuels in boilers. It is therefore necessary to carefully monitor the performance of
boilers and tune the air/fuel ratio quite often.   Best  performance is  obtained by the installation  of an
automatic oxygen trim system that will automatically adjust the combustion to changing conditions.  With
the relatively modest amounts spent last year on fuel for these boilers, the expense of a trim system on each
boiler could not be justified.  However, it is recommended that the portable flue gas  analyzer be used in a
rigorous program of weekly boiler inspection and adjustment for the boiler used in this plant.
3.6.1.3  Anticipated Savings
        The optimum amount of C>2 in the flue gas of a gas-fired boiler is 2.0%, which corresponds to 10%
excess air.  Measurements taken from the stack on the 300 HP boiler gave a temperature of 400°F  and a
                                                                                                    Notes
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               Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities


*r  .              percentage of oxygen at 6.2%.  By controlling combustion the lean mixture could be brought to 10% excess
                 air or an excess O2 level of 2%. This could provide a possible fuel savings of 3%.

                         The 300 HP natural gas boiler is used both for production and heating.  It is estimated that 100% of
                 the natural gas is consumed in the boiler.

                         Therefore the total savings would be:

                         Savings in Fuel (therms/yr): = (% burned in boilers ) x (annual therms per year) x (percent possible
                         fuel savings)

                                 = (1.0 x (56,787 therms/yr) x (0.02)

                                 = 1,136 therms/yr

                         Savings in Dollars ($/yr):  = (therms Saved/yr) x (cost/therm)

                                 = 1,136 therms/yr x $0.644/therm

                                 = $732/yr

                 3.6.1.4  Implementation

                         It is recommended that you purchase a portable flue gas analyzer and institute a program of monthly
                 boiler inspection and adjustment of the boiler used in the plant. The cost of such an analyzer is about $500
                 and the inspection and burner adjustment could be done by the current maintenance personnel. The simple
                 payback is:

                                                     $500 cost/ $732 = 8.2 months

                 3.6.2   Use Less  Hazardous Inks  in the Screen Printing Process

                         This example uses the total cost accounting and will also illustrate the simple payback, net present
                 value and internal rate of return tools discussed above.  All three economic evaluation methods are presented
                 here to demonstrate the difference results for obtained by the three methods for the same project.

                 3.6.2.1  Current Practice and Observations

                         The inks currently used in the screen printing operation contain large quantities of methyl  ethyl
                 ketone (MEK).  These inks are a major source of hazardous air pollutants and hazardous waste at the facility.
                 Approximately 60,000 gal/year of ink are purchased and used in screen printing.  Clean up of ink presses and
                 screens requires the use of an ink remover (20,000 gal/year) and paper towels (500 rolls/year).

                 3.6.2.2  Recommended Action

                         The facility should substitute less hazardous screen printing ink for the currently used inks.

                 3.6.2.3  Anticipated Savings

                 Assumptions
                     •   The new "environmentally preferred" ink is a two-component ink,  as opposed to the current ink
                         which  is a  one-component formulation.   Two-component ink mixing equipment is required to use
                         the new ink.  Start-up costs to purchase, install, and train staff is estimated at $75,000. Start-up  costs
                         were determined from vendor literature and price estimates from a local distributor.

                     •   Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) is  the main solvent carrier used in the current and "environmentally
                         preferred"  ink.  MEK is  a listed hazardous air pollutant  and is one of several reasons that  Mars
                         Screen Printing is required to have a Title V Permit, under the Clean Air Act
               54                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                               Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities
    •   A 75%  reduction in solvent emissions (MEK from the ink)  will  be achieved by  using the
        "environmentally preferred" ink over the current ink formulation.

    •   A 25% reduction in the usage  of ink remover will be achieved by using the "environmentally
        preferred" ink over the current ink formulation.

    •   A 20% reduction in paper towel usage will be  achieved by using the "environmentally preferred"
        ink over the current ink formulation.

    •   Current material usage and waste generation annual volumes and costs are identified in Chapter 2.

    •   The "environmentally preferred"  ink costs an additional $0.25 per gallon to purchase in comparison
        to the current ink. Annual usage  in gallons is anticipated to remain unchanged.

    •   Raw material purchase and disposal costs for ink remover and paper towels will remain unchanged
        from the current practice, as well as, the disposal cost for solvent emissions.

        Material purchase and waste generation volume and disposal costs for the current operation were
obtained from the data collection effort conducted during the assessment phase at the Mars Screen Printing
company.   Exhibit 3.7 summarizes the material purchase and waste generation costs directly related to the
use and disposal of the current ink formulation.

              Exhibit 3.7: Estimated Annual Cost of Environmentally Preferred Ink at Mars Screen
                                             Printing
Cost Element
Raw Materials Purchased
Ink
Ink Remover
Paper Towels
Waste Disposal
Ink Remover
Solvent Emissions
Paper Towels
Units Purchased

60,000 gal.
15,000 gal.
400 rolls

3,750 gal.
4,250 gal.
75 Ibs.
Unit Cost

$2.85/gal.
$1.40/gal.
$1.10/roll

$2.72/gal.
$3.00/gal.
$1.00/lb.
Annual Cost

$171,000
$21,000
$440

$10,200
$12,750
$75
Estimated Annual Cost of New Practice = $215,465
3.6.2.4  Payback Period

        To calculate the payback period for substituting an "environmentally preferred" ink for the current
ink for the current ink formulation  three values must be  determined: (1) the start-up cost (i.e., capital
equipment purchases and installation and training costs), (2) the annual cost to operate the current practice
(i.e., using  the hazardous ink formulation), and (3) the estimated annual cost of the new practice (i.e., using
the "environmental preferred" ink formulation).

Start-up Cost

        The start-up cost to change ink formulations is identified as $75,000 in the key assumptions.

Annual Cost of Current Practice

        Material purchase and waste generation volume and disposal costs for the current operation were
obtained from the data collection effort conducted during the assessment phase at the Mars Screen Printing
company;  see Chapter 2 for additional information  on data collection efforts.  Exhibit 3.8  summarizes the
    Notes
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               Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities
Notes
material purchase and waste generation costs directly related to  the use and disposal of the current ink
formulation.

              Exhibit 3.8: Annual Cost of Current Ink Formulation at Mars Screen Printing
Cost Element
Raw Materials Purchased
Ink
Ink Remover
Paper Towels
Waste Disposal
Ink Remover
Solvent Emissions
Paper Towels
Units Purchased

60,000 gal.
20,000 gal.
500 rolls

5,000 gal.
17,000 gal.
100 Ibs.
Unit Cost

$2.60/gal.
$1.40/gal.
$1.10/roll

$2.72/gal.
$3.00/gal.
$1.00/lb.
Annual Cost

$156,000
$28,000
$550

$13,600
$51,000
$100
Annual Cost of Current Practice = $249,250
                 Estimated Annual Cost of New Practice

                          The key assumptions, identified above, were developed from vendor literature and price estimates
                 from distributors.  According to the post-site visit research conducted, the proposed two-component ink
                 formulation will reduce total solvent emissions from the printing operation by 75%, as well as, reduce the
                 amount of ink remover used  by  25% per  year.  Paper towel usage, a secondary material in the printing
                 process, was also estimated to be reduced by 20% from the reduction in ink remover.  Although, the volume
                 of ink required to print one square foot of surface area is the same for either type of ink, the "environmentally
                 preferred"  ink formulation  costs  an additional $0.25 per gallon.  Exhibit 3.9 summarizes the estimated
                 material purchase and waste generation costs directly related to the use and disposal of the "environmentally
                 preferred" ink formulation.

                       Exhibit 3.9: Estimated Annual Cost of Environmentally Preferred Ink at Mars Screen Printing
Cost Element
Raw Materials Purchased
Ink
Ink Remover
Paper Towels
Waste Disposal
Ink Remover
Solvent Emissions
Paper Towels
Units Purchased

60,000 gal.
15,000 gal.
400 rolls

3,750 gal.
4,250 gal.
75 Ibs.
Unit Cost

$2.85/gal.
$1.40/gal.
$1.10/roll

$2.72/gal.
$3.00/gal.
$1.0(Mb.
Annual Cost

$171,000
$21,000
$440

$10,200
$12,750
$75
Estimated Annual Cost of New Practice = $215,465
                 Payback Period Calculation

                 The formula for Payback Period is:

                 Equation:        Payback period (in years) = I/(C-N)

                 where           I = initial investment, start up costs (in dollars) = $75,000
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                                Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities


                C = annual cost of current practice (in dollars/year) = $249,000/year

                N = annual cost of new practice (in dollars/year) = $215,465/year

Therefore       Payback period (in years) = $75,000/($249,000/yr. - $215,465/yr.) = 2.2 years

3.6.2.5  Implementation

        Implementation of this opportunity will require the purchase and installation of two-component ink
mixing equipment and switch over to the new inks. The vendor for the new equipment has estimated that
the equipment, installation,  and training of employees will  be $75,000.  No modifications to the facility
structure are required  and labor requirements are  expected to remain the same.  The facility will have to
make electrical and compressed air connections for the equipment and this is included in the installation
costs.

        The formula for Payback Period is:

        Equation:       Payback period (in years) = I/(C-N)

        where           I = initial investment, start up costs (in dollars) = $75,000

                        C = annual cost of current practice (in dollars/year) = $249,000/year

                        N = annual cost of new practice (in dollars/year) = $215,465/year

        Therefore       Payback period (in years) = $75,000/($249,000/yr. - $215,465/yr.) = 2.2 years

        The economic evaluation for this opportunity is also presented using the Net Present Value and the
Internal Rate of Return methods.

3.6.2.6  Net Present Value (NPV)

        The net present value financial  performance indicator looks at the profitability of a project over a
specified time period, usually expressed in years, in contrast to the payback period method which only looks
at the time period to recover the start-up  costs.  Simply, the NPV calculation takes into consideration the net
difference between the annual benefit received from implementing the project in comparison to the annual
cost to operate the process (including O&M cost, replacement parts, and equipment replacement based on its
anticipated life-span) each year of operation over the specified time period and calculates the net present
value by discounting the value of future expenses and income to today's dollars.

        In order to calculate the NPV for the  substitution of "environmentally preferred" ink at the Mars
Printing Company additional information about the  life-span and replacement cost of the current ink
application  equipment  and  the  two-component  ink mixing system is  required.   The  following key
assumptions will be used to illustrate the use of net present value with the Mars Screen Printing company.

    •   The material substitution project will  be  analyzed  over the life-span of the  two-component ink
        mixing system; 5 years.

    •   The life-span of secondary equipment (holding tanks, pumps, and propellers) used with the two-
        component ink mixing system is 2 years; and therefore must be replaced at a cost of  $25,000.

    •   The current ink application system requires a complete overhaul every two years at a cost of $1,000
        to replace pumps, seals, and valves.

    •   Over a five year period the annual savings from the project are anticipated to remain constant at
        $33,785 by off-setting increases and decreases in material purchase and waste disposal costs.

    •   Mars Screen Printing's financial  advisors have determined that the value of money to the company
        is approximately 3%, i.e. the discount rate, therefore the project must have a return on investment
        of greater than 3%, which is equivalent  to a net present value of zero.
Notes
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               Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities
Notes
                          The formula for NPV is:
                  Equation:        NPV = I + [(AS - CE)l (PVE^ +(AS - CE)2(PVIF)2 +...+ (AS - C
                  where           I = initial investment, start-up cost (expressed as a negative number)
                                  AS = annual savings (cash inflows)
                                  CE = capital expenses (cash outflows)
                                  (AS - CE)i  = net cash flow year 1
                                  (AS - CE)2  = net cash flow year 2
                                  (AS - CE)n  = net cash flow year n
                                  PVIF = 1/(1  +r)' = present value interest factor
                                  r = discount rate of money (i.e., current rate of return)
                                  t = incremental time period, 0 through n, normally expressed in years
                  A detailed explanation of how  to use  the equation is provided in  Section  3.5.1,  Common Methods of
                  Comparing Financial Performance. Using the additional  information supplied about the proposed project for
                  Mars Screen Printing,  a small cash flow spreadsheet was developed to calculate the NPV; see Exhibit 3.10.
                                         Exhibit 3.10: NPV Calculation for Mars Screen Printing
Year
0 = 1
1
2
o
J
4
5
Annual Savings
(cash inflows)
NA
$33,785
$33,785
$33,785
$33,785
$33,785
Capital Expenses
(cash outflows)
- $75,000
$0
- $26,000
$0
- $26,000
$0
Net Difference
(net cash flow)
- $75,000
$33,785
$7,785
$33,785
$7,785
$33,785
PVIF
(DR=5%)
1.00
0.95
0.91
0.86
0.82
0.78
Net Present Value (NPV) = Sum of "PV Cash Flows" from Year 0 to Year 5 =
PV
Cash Flow
- $75,000
$32,176
$7,061
$29,185
$6,405
$26,471
$26,298
                          The net present value of the "environmentally friendly" ink project is estimated to be a positive
                  $26,298 over the life  of the  project for Mars Screen Printing, therefore, implementing this project  is
                  anticipated to be a financially profitable endeavor.
                  3.6.2.7  Internal Rate of Return
                          The internal rate of return calculation is mathematically similar to the NPV calculation. Except, the
                  purpose of the IRR calculation is to determine  the rate of return (r), the equivalent to the discount factor
                  which is known for the NPV calculation, and the NPV is set at zero.
                          In  order to calculate the IRR for the  substitution of "environmentally friendly" ink at the Mars
                  Screen Printing  company the same information  is used as for the NPV calculation, except for the discount
                  factor , which is unknown.  The IRR equation is solved using an iterative process of trial and error to
                  determine the internal rate of return (r). The equation used to calculate the IRR is:
                  Equation:        I + Cj  (1/1+r) + C2 (1/1+r)2 +... + Cn (l/l+r)n = 0
                  where           r = Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
                                  I = initial cost
                                  GI = net cash flow year 1
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                               Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities
                C2 = net cash flow year 2

                Cn = net cash flow year n

        The first step is to develop a cash flow spread sheet, as in the NPV calculation, to determine the net
cash flow. The second step is to pick an initial IRR percentage (an educated guess) and calculate the present
value  (PV) cash  flow.  The third step is to sum the PV cash flows for each time period to determine if it
equals zero.  The process of choosing an IRR value is repeated until the sum of the PV cash flows equals
zero.  Exhibit  3.11 demonstrates the iterative process to calculate the IRR for the Mars Screen  Printing
project.

                       Exhibit 3.11: IRR Calculation for Mars Screen Printing
Year
0
1
2
3
4
5
Net Difference
(net cash flow)
- $75,000
$33,785
$7,785
$33,785
$7,785
$33,785
PVIF
(r = 5%)
1.00
0.95
0.91
0.86
0.82
0.78
Sum of "PV Cash Flows" =
PV
(r = 5%)
- $75,000
$32,176
$7,061
$29,185
$6,405
$26,471
$26,298
PVIF
(r = 20%)
1.00
0.83
0.69
0.58
0.48
0.40
PV
(r = 20%)
-$75,000
$28,154
$5,406
$19,552
$3,754
$13,577
-$4,556
PVIF
(r = 17%)
1.00
0.85
0.73
0.62
0.53
0.46
PV
(r=17%)
-$75,000
$28,876
$5,687
$21,094
$4,154
$15,410
$222
        For the  iterative process of calculating the IRR, a value of plus or minus  $500 is  normally
considered acceptable.  Therefore, the internal rate of return for implementing "environmentally friendly"
ink at the Mars Screen Printing is calculated to be  17%.  Mars Screen Printing should implement the
"environmentally friendly" ink project because the actual IRR,  17%, is greater than the company's required
5% IRR on all projects.
    Notes
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Notes
Evaluation of Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Opportunities

  REFERENCES
      1.   Federal Facility Pollution Prevention:  Tools for Compliance; 1994, U.S. Environmental Protection
          Agency.  Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH 45268. EPA/600/R-94/154.
      2.   Pollution Prevention Act of 1990
      3.   Facility Pollution  Prevention Guide;  1992, U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency. Office of
          Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH 45268. EPA600R92088.
      4.   Energy Conservation Program Guide for Industry and Commerce:  NBS Handbook 115; 1974, U.S.
          Department of Commerce. National Bureau of Standards, Washington DC 20402.
      5.   Energy Conservation Program Guide for Industry and Commerce: NBS Handbook 115 Supplement
          1; 1974, U.S. Department of Commerce. National Bureau of Standards, Washington DC 20402.
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                                                                        Sources of Energy and Pollution
         CHAPTER 4.  SOURCES OF  ENERGY AND POLLUTION

         Renewable energy  sources  account for  approximately ten percent  of the U.S. annual energy
 production. About half of this goes to generate electricity while the remaining half is used for transportation,
 space heating, and water heating.  Much research has been done in the area of renewable energy. In 1991, the
 Solar Energy Research Institute located in Golden, Colorado  was designated as the National Renewable
 Energy Laboratory demonstrating a commitment to renewable energy technology.

         Non-renewable energy sources supply the majority of energy in the U. S. Nuclear power plants generate
 about twenty percent of electricity and Petroleum products, natural gas, and coal each supply twenty-five percent
 of the total energy generated in the United States.

         The generation of energy more often than not results in the generation of pollution in the form of air
 emissions, ash, spent nuclear fuel or other wastes.  Pollution is also generated from industrial, commercial, and
 residential facilities throughout the nation.  This chapter will discuss common sources of energy and sources of
 pollution from industrial and commercial operations.


 4.1    Electric Energy

         During the 70's energy crisis, there was a drive, mainly from energy consumers, to conserve energy
 and reduce costs because of the skyrocketing price of oil from the Middle East.  These efforts began what is
 today called demand-side management.  DSM activities include customer load control, strategic conservation,
 thermal storage,  heat pumps, electrification, and innovative rate programs.  These activities help the utilities
 keep a balance between electricity supply and demand from customers.

         Industry now spends more money on electricity than any other fuel source. The Assessment Team
 continually monitors electrical usage in manufacturing processes to ensure the  greatest amount of source
 conservation, although electricity as compared to other production expenses appears relatively low. A large
 amount of dollar savings can  be realized through small  changes in electrical consumption practices thus
 producing a greater ratio between pounds of product to dollars of energy cost.  Indeed, the industrial
 assessment may reveal instances where substitution of energy sources indicates a greater amo unt of energy
 used but lower energy costs incurred as in the case of natural gas conversions.

         Cogeneration of electricity moves generative power out of the hands of regional utilities feeding
 massive electrical  grids into the hands of the company utilizing large amounts of heat and generating an
 excessive amount of steam. This steam has been found to turn  turbines as well as nuclear energy so instead
 of venting waste heat into the atmosphere, electrical power is generated and either fed into the power grid or
 sold directly to other consumers.  Indeed,  cogeneration has led to a new  cottage industry- threatening to
 cogenerate.  A cash revenue stream provided by the utility and  its rate payers can provide a major incentive
 against cogeneration.

         Providing electrical power will soon be no longer in the purview of the local or regional power.
 Recent  Congressional legislation intends  to link producers and consumers from across the  country.  A
 manufacturer in New York City will be able to buy Pacific  Gas and Electric Power at a fraction of the current
 Consolidated Edison price. Another  cottage industry will spring up in the electrical brokerage business as
 industrial consumers battle for the lowest price. No longer limited to large facilities, industrial manufacturers
 will pay third parties to scout the markets for the lowest price or purchase computer software to electronically
 perform the same function without the human overhead.  Greater  attention will have to be paid to the
 formerly simple utility bills as rate structures and delivery mechanisms diverge leaving the manufacturer prey
 to inconsistency  potential heretofore  unheard of.    The utility assessment market  will  grow as  will
 opportunities for the industrial  assessors prepared for the chaos.

         There are five basic ways to reduce electric costs.

     1.  Reduce Electrical Use.

     2.  Power Factor Improvements.

     3.  Load Factor Improvements.
      Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
61

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               Source of Energy and Pollution


JT ,                  4.   Electricity Billing Verification.

                     5.   Rate Structure Corrections.

                 Of these, only the first involves a reduction in energy consumption while the remainder detail some special
                 situations not directly related to the quantity of electricity consumed but rather the cost of consumption.

                 4.1.1   Reduce Electrical Use

                         The detailed use of electricity will be discussed under the separate sections in this manual, but the
                 conservation message can never be delivered too many times. Basically, electricity  should be conserved, like
                 any other source, and not wasted as in the simple but common example whereby lights or equipment consume
                 energy during periods when rooms remain unoccupied or production lines experience downtime.  Corrective
                 action requires cognizant, conscientious employees cooperating with energy-minded management to identify
                 areas of waste and suggest conservation practices.

                 4.1.1.1  Distribution System

                         The electrical power distribution system, from the source to utilization points, consists of electric
                 lines of varying sizes, switches and circuit breakers designed for carrying capacity maxima, transformers and
                 protective equipment. As related to the total consumption at any industrial plant, this system usually involves
                 losses of 3 percent or less.  Consequently, rarely does any practical savings potential in transmission systems
                 appear to warrant investment in conservation.

                         The voltage in an electric circuit will drop in proportion to the circuit resistance. Resistance varies
                 with wire size, temperature and metallic material. Thus, as conductor losses increase, the current necessary to
                 deliver a given amount of power increases at any point in the circuit, as power derives from the product of the
                 voltage and current. This principle applies likewise to switches, circuit breakers, and protective equipment.

                         The question of energy conservation possibilities  should  be examined in relation to the individual
                 components in the system.  In the  case of the transmission lines it can be shown that doubling the conductor
                 sizes reduces  resistance losses by 75 percent.  However, savings do not usually justify the expense as
                 conductor cost in relation to the total electric investment only comes to about 10 percent. Because doubling
                 the conductor sizes essentially doubles cost, the savings potential deserves little attention.

                         As  previously mentioned, energy  losses from switches, circuit breakers, and protective equipment
                 also  deserve  minimal  attention as replacement with more energy-efficient devices equalizes  costs with
                 benefits.  However, in the case  of defective contacts or other parts, malfunction may cause overheating and
                 imminent failure of the part(s) causing an outage.  Monitoring and inspection to diagnose abnormally high
                 temperature operation of these items will help prevent costly power outages and subsequent downtime.
                 Replacement with more energy  efficient  devices when  failure occurs  incrementally improves energy
                 conservation with little or no expense over normal, less efficient practices.  To  sum  up, the distribution
                 system will  offer few opportunities unless monitoring and replacement of parts  before failure practices  are
                 observed saving on future electricity costs and preventing expensive downtime.

                         Transformers  do  represent  an  area of potential  savings during the condition of lightly loaded
                 equipment.  Shrinking loads or incorrectly  forecasted plant expansions often manifest themselves during
                 transformer examination by the Assessment Team.  Unloaded motors incur no-load losses continually, as do
                 transformers, although  newer model  transformers adjust based upon loading conditions. Older transforms
                 incur continual power losses on the  basis of full-load rating, not  that of the load  served. The Assessment
                 Team can investigate the possibilities of redistributing existing loads to permit scrapping of under-loaded
                 transformers.  Implementation decisions must compare of the cost of installing  new connecting cables and
                 disposal  of  existing equipment  with power savings from the elimination of no-load transformer losses.  For
                 the case involving older transformers disposal cost should be compared with not removing the equipment,
                 later removal and future growth of waste disposal costs, and the cost of emergency disposal if an explosion
                 damages the transformer.   Close  examination of the materials within the transformers for hazardous and
                 poisonous substances for inclusion in the energy conservation and pollution prevention write-up will help
                 present the entire picture and consequence scenario.
               62                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                        Sources of Energy and Pollution
 4.1.1.2  Use of Electricity in the Industry

         Electrical energy use, commonly found in the following systems and operations, presents significant
 opportunities for exploration during the industrial assessment.

     •   Mixing operations

     •   Melting and refining metallic and non-metallic materials

     •   Holding molten material

     •   Material Transportation

     •   Cleaning and finishing (air compressors)

     •   Miscellaneous assembly equipment

     •   Computers and other controls

     •   Material handling

     •   Packaging operations

     •   Environmental controls
     •   Lighting

     •   Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
 4.1.2   Power Factor

         Power factor quantifies the reaction of alternating current  (AC) electricity to various types  of
 electrical loads.  Inductive loads, as found in motors, drives and fluorescent lamp ballasts, cause the voltage
 and current to shift out of phase.  Electrical utilities must then supply additional power, measured in kilovolt-
 amps (kVA), to compensate for phase shifting.  To see why, power must be examined as a combination of
 two individual elements.

         The total power requirement constituents can be broken down into the resistive, also known as the
 real component,  and reactive component.  Useful work performance  comes from the resistive component,
 measured in kilowatts (kW) by a wattmeter.  The reactive component,  measured in reactive kilo volt-amps
 (kVAR), represents current needed to produce the magnetic field for the operation of a motor, drive or other
 inductive device but performs no useful work, and does not register on measurement equipment such as the
 watt meter.   The  reactive components  significantly contributes to the undesirable  heating of electrical
 generation and transmission equipment formulating real power losses to the utility.

         Power factor derives from the ratio of real, usable power (kW), to apparent power (kVAR).  During
 the industrial assessment recommendations toward reduction of the power factor in fact indicate reduction of
 reactive losses.  To accomplish this goal,  the industrial electricity  user must increase the power factor to a
 value as close  to unity as practical for the  entire facility.  The supplying utility should be consulted for the
 determination of the requisite amount of capacitance necessary for correction to the desired power factor. For
 example, The number in Exhibit 4.1 is multiplied by the current demand (kW) to get the amount of capacitors
 (kVAR) needed to correct from the existing to the desired power factor.  Mathematically, power factor is
 expressed as
                                             PF =
kW
kVA
         Power factor can  also be  defined as the mathematical factor by which the  apparent power is
 multiplied in order to obtain active power.
                                                      Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                63

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               Source of Energy and Pollution
Notes
                                                  Exhibit 4.1: Components of Electrical Power
                                                             kW
                                                                                     o
                                                                                    • i-H
                                                                                    +-»
                                                                                     O
                                                                                     o
                                                                                    O
                                                                                     o
                                                                                     KS
                                                                                    o
                                                                                    •—
                                                                                    PLn
                                                 00

                                                 +-»
                                                 CO
                                                • i-H
                                                 Xi
                         Example: Consider a 480 volt 3-phase system with an assumed load and instrument readings as
                 follows: the ammeter indicates 200 amps and wattmeter reads 120 kW.  The power factor of the load can be
                 expressed as follows:
                         The apparent power for a 3-phase circuit is given by the expression

                                                 E x / x V? _ 480 volts x 200 amps x 1.73
                                                   1000
                           1000

                      Therefore:
                                                                                     = 166.08 kVA
                                                        PF =
                                                              kW
                          120
                         166.0!
. = 72.25%
                         From the above example it is apparent that by the decreasing power drawn from the line (kVA) the
                 power factor can be increased.

                 4.1.2.1  Power Factor Improvement

                         Preventive  measures  involve  selecting  high-power-factor  equipment.    For  example, when
                 considering lighting, only high-power factor ballasts  should be used for fluorescent and high intensity
                 discharge (HID) lighting. Power factor of so-called normal-power factor ballasts is notoriously low, on the
                 order of 40 to 55 percent.

                         When induction motors are being selected, the manufacturer's motor data should be investigated to
                 determine  the motor power factor at full  load.   In  the past few years,  some motor manufacturers have
                 introduced premium lines of high-efficiency, high-power-factor motors. In some cases, the savings on power
                 factor alone can justify the premium prices charged for such motors.  Motors should also be sized to operate
                 as closely  as possible to full load, because the power factor of an induction motor suffers severely at light
                 loads.  Power factor decreases because the inductive component of current that provides the magnetizing
                 force, necessary for motor operation, remains virtually constant from no load to full load, but the in-phase
                 current component that actually delivers work varies almost directly with motor loading.
               64
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                       Sources of Energy and Pollution
         Corrective measures for poor power factor involve canceling the lagging current component with
 current that leads the  applied  voltage.   This cancellation can  be done with power-factor-improvement
 capacitors, or by using synchronous motors.  Capacitors have the effect of absorbing reactive current on a
 one-to-one basis, because almost all of the current flowing through a capacitor leads the applied voltage by 90
 degrees.   A capacitor  rated at 100  kilovolt-amperes capacitive (kVAC) will cancel 100 kilovolt-amperes
 reactive (kVAR).

         Synchronous motors provide an effective method of improving power factor because they can be
 operated at the leading  power factor.  Moreover, power factor of a synchronous motor to serve a load with
 actual power requirements of 1,000 kW, improves power factor on the load center from 80 percent to  89
 percent.  This improvement at the load center contributes to an improvement in  overall plant power factor,
 thereby reducing the power factor penalty on the plant electric bill.  The burden on the load center, plant
 distribution system, and entire electric-utility system is 400 kVA less than if an induction motor with a power
 factor of 85 percent were used.  Power factor can be improved still more by operating the synchronous motor
 at the leading power factor.

         Exhibit 4.2 can also be used to determine the amount of capacitors needed to  correct a power factor.
 The amount of capacitors needed in (kVAR) can be determined from:
                                             WAR = DxCF
         where
         D = maximum annual demand, kW

         CF = correction factor

                                 Exhibit 42: Power Factor Correction
EXISTING
POWER FACTOR

0.66
0.68
0.70
0.72
0.74
0.76
0.78
0.80
0.82
0.84
0.86
0.88
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
0.99
NEW POWER FACTOR
1.00
1.138
1.078
1.020
0.964
0.909
0.855
0.802
0.750
0.698
0.646
0.593
0.540
0.484
0.426
0.363
0.292
0.203
0.142
0.95
0.810
0.750
0.692
0.635
0.580
0.526
0.474
0.421
0.369
0.317
0.265
0.211
0.156
0.097
0.034



0.90
0.654
0.594
0.536
0.480
0.425
0.371
0.318
0.266
0.214
0.162
0.109
0.055






0.85
0.519
0.459
0.400
0.344
0.289
0.235
0.183
0.130
0.078
0.026








0.80
0.388
0.328
0.270
0.214
0.159
0.105
0.052











0.75
0.256
0.196
0.138
0.082
0.027













      Notes
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65

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               Source of Energy and Pollution



Notes
                 4.1.2.2  General Considerations for Power Factor Improvements

                         Poor power factor penalizes the user in three ways.

                     1.   It robs the distribution system of capacity that could be used to handle the work-performing load.

                     2.   It results in currents  higher than necessary to perform a given job, thereby contributing to higher
                         voltage drop and electrical system losses.

                     3.   It can result in electric power billing penalties depending on the schedule terms.  A plant's power
                         factor penalty can be  determined from the monthly utility bills.  The method of billing for low power
                         factor varies widely among utilities. Often no penalty is imposed unless the power factor falls below
                         a certain minimum, typically 85 percent to 90 percent.  In other situations, a penalty is involved for
                         any reduction below  100 percent.  For this reason, each rate schedule must be studied separately to
                         determine the potential savings involved for improving power factor.

                         Some equipment, such as high power factor lighting ballasts or synchronous motors, has inherent
                 power factor improvement. With other equipment, notably induction motors, power factor is a function of the
                 mode of operation.  Operation  of an induction motor below full load will significantly reduce the power factor
                 of the motor.  Therefore, motors should be operated close to full load for the best power factor.  Power factor
                 also becomes progressively lower for slower speed motors.  For example, the decline in  power factor below
                 90 percent for a 1,200-rpm motor is 1.5 times greater than for an 1,800-rpm motor; for a 900-rpm motor, the
                 decrease is more than double that for an 1,800-rpm motor.

                         The use of power factor improvement capacitors is the simplest and most direct  method of power
                 factor improvement.  Capacitors  can be bought in blocks aid combined to provide the  required amount of
                 capacitive reactance or individual capacitors can be installed at each motor.  Capacitors already in use should
                 be  checked  annually to ensure all units are operating.  Inoperative  capacitors  negate  the power factor
                 improvement for which  their  installation was intended.  Diminishing returns are  realized as power factor
                 approaches 100 percent.  Generally, 95 percent (based on normal full load)  is the economic break-even point
                 in  a  power factor improvement program;  up to  this point, improvements usually show a good return on
                 investment.

                 4.1.3   Electrical Demand / Load Factor Improvement

                         The plant's load factor should  be  analyzed to determine the opportunity for improvement.  Load
                 factor improvement is synonymous with demand control.

                         Load factor is defined as the ratio of the average kilowatt load over a billing period to the peak
                 demand.  For example, if a facility consumed 800,000 kWh during a 30-day billing period and had a peak
                 demand of 2,000 kW, the load factor is:

                         Load Factor = (800,000 kWh/720 hrs) / 2,000 kW = 0.55  or 55%

                         A high-load factor usually indicates that less opportunity exists for improvement because the load is
                 already relatively constant.

                 4.1.3.1  Potential Savings

                         The potential savings  for demand limiting depends  on  such factors  as:

                     •   The plant's profile (Variations in kW demand.),

                     •   The availability of sheddable loads, and

                     •   The rate schedule.

                         Together these factors determine the relative importance of the demand charge to the plant's total
                 electric bill.   Controlling demand becomes more important if the schedule  includes a  ratchet clause that
                 involves payment based on the highest peak occurring in the previous 12 months.
               66                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                        Sources of Energy and Pollution
 4.1.3.2  System Analysis

         The user will obtain the lowest electric cost by operating as close to a constant load as possible (load
 factor 100 percent).  The closer a plant can approach this ideal situation, the lower the monthly demand
 charge will be. The key to a high-load factor and corresponding lower demand charge is to even out the
 peaks and valleys of energy consumption.

         To  analyze  the opportunity for demand reduction, it is necessary to obtain data on the plant's
 demand profile. The demand profile is best obtained from the utility's record of the kW demand for each 15-
 or 30-minute interval. If no  demand recording is made as a routine part of the billing procedure, the utility
 will usually  install an instrument temporarily to provide the customer with this information.  A plot of this
 data will show the  extent of the peaks and  valleys and indicate the potential for the limiting demand. If sharp
 peaks or an  unusually high demand for one shift or  short period occur, the opportunity for demand control
 should be investigated further.  If the demand curve is relatively level, little opportunity exists for reducing
 demand charges by peak shaving.

         In order to level  out peaks in the demand  profile, it is  necessary to reduce loads  at peak times.
 Consequently  it is necessary to  identify the various loads that could  be reduced during periods of high
 demand.    The major users  of  electricity will  provide the  most  likely  sources for limiting  demand.
 Accordingly, a list of the largest users, their loads, and their operating  schedules should be prepared. The
 smaller loads can be ignored, as they will not be able to affect the demand significantly. An examination of
 this list will often suggest which loads do contribute  or are likely to peak demands. When the load pattern is
 not easily determined, a recording wattmeter can be installed at individual loads to provide a more detailed
 record of load variations.

 4.1.3.3  Ways to Reduce Demand

         Consideration of demand control often begins with automatic demand controllers. However, several
 other approaches should be considered first.

     •   Stagger Start-Up Loads - If a high-peak load is determined to result from the simultaneous start-up
         of several loads,  such as might occur at the beginning of a shift, consideration can be given to
         staggering start-up of equipment to span two or more demand intervals.

     •   Reschedule Loads - Peak demands are usually established at particular times during the day shift.  A
         review of the operating  schedule may show individual loads can be rescheduled to other times or
         shifts to even out demand.  This  technique can  provide significant gains at little or no cost. For
         example, operation of an electric oven might be rescheduled to the evening shift if the oven is not
         needed full-time.  Another example is conducting routine testing of  the fire pump during periods
         when peak demands are not likely to occur.

     •   Increase Local Plant Generation  - When some electricity is generated by the plant, plant generation
         can be temporarily increased to limit demand.  In some  cases, any venting of excess low-pressure
         steam from the turbo-generator for short periods may represent a lesser penalty than the increased
         demand charge.

     •   Install Automatic Demand Control - After an investigating the above approaches, if an application
         for automatic demand control still appears to exist, a more detailed analysis of conditions should be
         made. The  minimum peak demand that can be established will depend on the downtime that  is
         acceptable without undue interference with normal operations  and the available sheddable load.

         To  determine the  extent of downtime necessary to achieve a given kW reduction, it  is necessary  to
 tabulate the  size and frequency of peak demands. A  sufficient number of months should be similarly studied
 to  develop a representative profile. Seasonal or production variations may also exist although it is likely the
 variations in peak demands will remain relatively the same.

         A suggested method of analysis is to tabulate the 10 to 20 highest peak demands occurring during a
 typical month  in descending  order, as shown in the  example given in Exhibit  4.3. In this case, limiting the
 demand to the lowest value shown (5,990 kW) would reduce the electrical demand by 330 kW.  The monthly
 saving based on $9.40/kW would be $3,100, or on an annual basis, $37,200.
      Notes
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               Source of Energy and Pollution
Notes
                                   Exhibit 43: Highest Demands for Hypothetical Billing Period of May
Date
May 10
May 24
May 14
May 5
May 20
May 15
May 15
May 8
May 9
May 13
May 5
Time
10:00a.m.
10:30a.m.
ll:00a.m.
l:30p.m.
2:30p.m.
10:30a.m.
10:00a.m.
2:00p.m.
2:00p.m.
l:30p.m.
2:00p.m.
kW
6320
6220
6145
6095
6055
6025
6010
6000
5995
5995
5990
kW Above
5990 kW
330
230
155
105
65
35
20
10
5
5
--
                         To effect this reduction requires a total sheddable load of at least 330 kW.  If additional sheddable
                 loads are available, a greater reduction in peak demand can be considered.  It should be noted that the task of
                 eliminating a peak becomes progressively harder as the demand limit is set lower because the frequency of
                 the peaks increases.  For example, limiting the demand to 6,220 kW for a reduction of 100 kW from the peak
                 demand requires shedding a total of 960 kW for 30 minutes over 10 separate occasions.  In other words, in the
                 second case it was necessary to shed a load almost three times longer for an equivalent reduction in demand.
                 As further limiting of demand is attempted, progressively longer periods of equipment outage are required. A
                 point is eventually reached where the interference with normal operation outweighs the benefits or no more
                 sheddable loads are available.

                         To determine the sheddable loads, review the  list of the larger electrical loads which have  already
                 been identified. These loads should be divided into two major categories.

                     1.   Essential - Loads that are essential  to maintain production or safety. Unscheduled shutdowns on
                         these loads cannot be tolerated.

                     2.   Nonessential or sheddable  - Loads in this  category  can be  shut down  temporarily without
                         significantly affecting operations or  worker comfort.  Examples of such loads are air conditioning,
                         exhaust and intake fans, chillers and compressors, water heaters, and battery charges.  Electric water
                         heaters represent a load that can usually be shed.

                         The  practical extent of peak shaving can now be determined based  on the schedule of sheddable
                 loads and the pattern of peak demands.  The number and type of loads to be controlled will determine the type
                 of demand controller needed.  Automatic  demand  controllers are offered in a wide range of prices from
                 several thousand dollars to tens of thousands of dollars. For different applications, the more sophisticated
                 controllers may be necessary. For normal demand  control, the less expensive controllers will be more than
                 adequate.

                         Annual savings can be calculated and compared to the costs of installing a demand control system.
                 As part of the installation, demand controllers will  require a pulse signal from the utility to synchronize the
                 utility's demand interval with the demand controller's.

                 4.1.4   Reading the Bill

                         The  cost of purchasing electrical power from utility companies is derived from four major factors;
                 energy charge, fuel-adjustment charge, demand charge, and low power factor penalty.

                         Other incidental  items which will affect the power charges are character of service, service voltage,
                 and equipment charges. These are fixed charges.
                                            Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                         Sources of Energy and Pollution
 4.1.4.1  Example of a Typical Electric Bill
     1.   The utility rate schedule A-7 is the key to analyzing the electric bill. It is normally included as part
         of the contract.

     2.   The energy used expressed in kilowatt-hours (kWh) is determined by the difference of two monthly
         meter readings times the billing constant  (2A).   The  billing constants (2A) and  (3A) are also
         described as "Meter Multipliers". They are determined by the product of the current and potential
         transformer ratios installed at the particular location.

     3.   The reactive power used, sometimes called "wattless power", expressed reactive kilowatt ampere
         hours (kVARh) is determined from a separate reactive meter similar to the kWh meter (2) above.

     4.   The maximum demand in kilowatts for the current month is read from a separate register on the kWh
         meter.  The value is the largest quantity of kilowatts consumed during a time interval prescribed in
         the contract.
                                       Exhibit 4.4:  Example Electric Bill
Billing
Demand: 3840 ^-^
(2_A1 \2_ty
Billing kWh kVARh
Constants: 12000 12000
Maximum ^.^
Demand: 3840 ©
Kilowatt-Hour Meter
Service
From
05


g


To
06


25
Readings twh
From To
1352 1415 756,000
Total kWh 756,000




Reactive- Hour Meter
Service
From
05
©
Year



To
06
25
1979


Readings
From
0941

To
0981
Total kVARh



kVARh

480,000
480,000






Rate Schedule
Reactive (?)
Demand: 2438
Demand Customer or


f-
•\







A-7
(D

W Inclu. Sstate Tax @ 1 Cent/100 kWh




Service Charge: $3,615.70 (j\
Energy Charge: $29.010.3
3



Gross Bill: © $32,626.03
Voltage Discount: $706.77 Cr
Power Factor
Adjustments^ $266.3
Net Bill: (jj) $31,652.8

(T
8_Cr (l
8
)







Service Address





"9) Previous Balance
Deposit Refund
Amount Due:
$31,652.





(14)






88 v

















The reactive demand in kVAR is calculated from the formula kVAR -
>. The billing demand is the avei

















kW (kVARh/kWh).
age of the maximum demand for the past
11
months and the current
         month's demand.  The minimum is half of the past 11 -month value.
     7.   Date and time span of the current billing.
     8.   The service charge, as  specified in the  rate schedule, is based on the billing demand item 6 and the
         service charge, is also used as the minimum billing if the energy usage falls to a low value.
     9.   The electrical energy charge is based  on  the kilowatt hours used  as shown in item (2).   Certain
         adjustments are made to the energy charge determined from the meter readings as follows:
         a) Energy cost adjustment known as "ECAC" varies with the change in fuel cost to the utility.
      Notes
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69

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               Source of Energy and Pollution


JT ,                      b) Fuel balance factor is usually a credit.

                         c) Load management factor.

                         d) State tax as indicated on the mo nthly bill.

                     10.  The gross bill is the summation of items (8) and (9).

                     11.  The voltage discount is available for services that are metered on the high voltage or primary side of
                         the power company transformer.  This discount is made to  compensate for the utility transformer
                         losses which are now included in item (2).

                     12.  The power factor adjustment may be a penalty or a discount depending on the amount of reactive
                         power,  item (3), required by a plant.  Power  factor  is defined as the ratio of the kW to  kVA,
                         sometimes stated as the ratio of "real power to the apparent power". This value is not read directly
                         from the utility meters but must be calculated. A simpler method, using a hand calculator, is to solve
                         as a right angle triangle where power factor (PF)  is:


                                                 pp=kW    kWh
                                                       kVA   RkVAh
                                                 RkVAh = (kWhJ + (RkVAh)2
                                                 PF
                                                      (756,000)2+(480,000)2

                                                 %PF = 100 x 0.849 = 85.9% Power Factor
                         On this rate schedule a power factor over 70.7% provides a credit; below a penalty, however, other
                         utilities may use a different break even point - 85% is used by many.

                     13.  City taxes where applicable.
                     14.  Net bill is the summation of all of the above charges, adjustments and credits.

                 4.1.5   The Energy Charge

                         Energy charge is based on the number of kilowatt hours (kWh) used during the billing cycle.  The
                 total kilowatt hours are multiplied by the energy charge for total energy billing. The energy charges can vary
                 with the type of service, voltage, and energy consumption. Example energy rate schedules are as follows:
                         Example 1: General service schedule is applied to electrical load demand of  up to 8,000 (kWh)
                 kilowatt hours per month.  Thus a  non-demand charge  schedule, the cost of energy and demand are one
                 charge.
                         Example 2: Rate  schedule A-12 is  applied to  electrical load demand of 30 to 1,000  kilowatt  of
                 demand per month.  This schedule  has an energy charge, fuel-adjustment charge, demand charge, and low
                 power factor penalty.
                         Example 3: Rate schedule  A-22 is applied to electrical load demands of 1,000 to 4,000 kilowatt of
                 demand per month.  This schedule  has an energy charge, fuel-adjustment charge, demand charge, and low
                 power factor penalty. The rate schedule has  a "time of day" billing rate for energy  and demand for both
                 summer and winter.  The summertime hour periods are from May 1 to September 30; the energy and demand
                 charges change between the following hours:
                         Partial peak hours - 8:30 am to 12:30 pm = 4 hours
                         Peak hours -12:30 pm to 6:30 pm = 6 hours

                         Partial peak hours - 6:30 pm to 10:30 pm = 4 hours
                         Off peak hours -10:30 pm to 8:30 am = 10 hours
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                                                                       Sources of Energy and Pollution
         The wintertime hour periods are from October 1 to April 30; the energy demand charges change
 between the following hours:

         Partial peak hours - 8:30 am to 4:30 pm = 8 hours

         Peak hours - 4:30 pm to 8:30 pm = 4 hours

         Partial peak hours - 8:30 pm to 10:30 pm = 2 hours

         Off peak hours -10:30 pm to 8:30 am = 10 hours

         Example 4: Rate schedule A-23 is applied to electrical load demands of 4,000 and above 5 kilowatts
 (kW) of demand per month. All other charges and "time of day" billing hours and periods are the same as
 rate schedule A-22.  Additional rates are available for the purchase of supply voltage of 4,500 or 12,000 volts,
 this schedule provides for a high voltage discount of the total energy and demand charges.

 4.1.6   The Demand Charge

         This charge compensates the utility company for the capital investment required to serve peak loads,
 even if that peak load is only used for a few hours per week  or month. The demand is measured in kilowatts
 (kW) or kilovolt amperes (kVA).  These units are directly related to the amount of energy consumed in a
 given time interval of the billing period.  The demand periods vary with the type of energy demand; the high
 fluctuating demand has a short demand period, which can be as short as five minutes, but generally demand
 periods are of 15 or 30 minutes. The period with the highest demand is the one used for billing demand
 charges.

         Example: If the demand for a plant is 70 kilowatts for the first 15-minute period and for the next  15-
 minute period the demand increases  to 140 kilowatts and then drops back to 70 kilowatts for the remainder of
 the billing period (one month), the billing demand for that month is then 140 kilowatts. This represents  the
 interval of maximum energy demand from the utility company for the month.

         Demand charges can be a significant portion of the total electric bill; in some cases, demand charges
 can amount to as much as 80 percent of the bill.  The demand charge can be reduced by smoothing out  the
 peaks in energy demand by rescheduling of work or through  a demand control program to shed loads when a
 demand limit is  approached.  This  concept is particularly important for plants using electricity for major
 processes such as melting.

 4.1.7   Power Demand Controls

         The power demand controller automatically regulates or limits operation in order to prevent  set
 maximum demands from being exceeded.  The  role of such a power  demand controller has been widely
 recognized, the "time  of  day" billing  rates will make it far more necessary in the future.   The type  of
 controller best suited for a plant operation is that which will predetermine the demand limit and the demand
 interval.

         The overall usage of power is constantly monitored from the power company meter, the power usage
 of all the controlled loads is also monitored. By having this  information the controller can calculate when an
 overrun of the desired demand limit will occur.  The controller will delay any shed action to allow time  for
 loads to shed normally.  When it is determined that it will be necessary to  shed one or more loads to keep
 from exceeding the demand, the controller, at the last possible moment,  will shed the necessary loads. This
 means that  shedding will occur only  once during a demand interval and maximum use of available power will
 be realized.

 4.1.8   Demand Shifting

         Due to the lack of availability and the increased cost of natural gas and petroleum products, industry
 has come to rely on electrical power as a major source of energy.  The use of electrical energy has increased
 at a greater rate than was anticipated and therefore a critical shortage has also been created in some areas.
                                                                                                        Notes
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               Source of Energy and Pollution


JT ,              This is particularly true during the normal working day hours.  Over the past few years this condition has
                 caused situations known as "brown-outs", which is controlled curtailment of power.

                         Even with power companies doing their best to cope with the problem by building new generating
                 stations, installing  additional  equipment in existing facilities,  and operating  all  equipment at maximum
                 capacity, they still  have not been able, in some cases, to keep up with the rapid growth in the demand for
                 electrical energy.

                         The demand for electrical energy is not constant, but occurs in peaks and valleys. Power companies
                 are  obligated to have  enough equipment  available to meet a customer's peak demand, even though this
                 equipment is only used during the peak periods and is not in use during most of the working day.  In order to
                 finance the equipment  necessary to provide this peak demand service for  industrial users, the power demand
                 charge was created. In some localities this high demand rate is the rate, which is paid for the next year, even
                 if it is never reached again, and the price paid for power demand can be very high.

                         With peaks and valleys in electrical  demand caused by electrical melting during the normal work
                 day, maximum  demand peaks should be controlled by sequencing the furnace's operation and  maximum
                 power input to each furnace.  By applying this procedure,  the revised operation would level out the peak
                 demands and produce a flat demand profile during normal daytime melting.  With this melting operation the
                 "load factor" would be improved,  thus  preventing high maximum demand peaks, which  are  developed
                 through operating all machines at full load at the same time.


                 4.2    Fossil Fuels

                         Fossil fuels including petroleum products and coal supply about sixty percent of the U.S. energy
                 requirements.  Petroleum products and coal are used in industrial boilers and power generation stations to produce
                 steam for manufacturing and electric generators. Domestic petroleum production is on a steady decline while the
                 U.S. has the largest coal reserves in the world. About ninety percent of domestic coal is used for electricity
                 generation.

                         Natural gas supplies a fourth of the U. S. energy needs.  Natural gas use is expected to grow in the next
                 twenty years with  most of this  consumption met by domestic supplies.  Natural gas is used in a variety of
                 operations such as steam generation, space heating, and cooking.

                         Fossil fuel generation and use creates a variety of wastes. The gaseous and particulate byproducts of
                 fossil fuel combustion include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen and sulfur oxides.  The processes
                 used to treat the gases create other wastes. Water used in generating energy from fossil fuels is contaminated with
                 the chemicals used  to control scale and corrosion. Before discharge, the water must be treated to remove these
                 contaminates. Burning fossil fuels creates solid waste in the form of ash and slag. In addition, the treatment of
                 waste gases and water causes the formation of solid waste.

                 4.2.1   Energy Conservation Measures for Fossil Fuels

                         In many ways energy conservation for fossil fuel usage is much less complicated and has a more
                 directly visible  impact on  the environment.  Conservation opportunities can range  from the very simple
                 opportunities  like repairing steam leaks  to more complex  equipment replace  projects.  Common energy
                 conservation opportunities for fossil fuel using operations are included below.

                     •   Monitor Air/Fuel Ratio - Monitoring the air/fuel ratio for boilers  and other similar equipment to
                         ensure the optimum mixture will allow more efficient use of fossil fuels and reduce usage.

                     •   Insulate Steam Pipes - Insulation of steam pipes will keep steam at the needed temperature allowing
                         the steam pressure to be lowered thus minimizing the energy needed to generate the steam.

                     •   Repair Steam Leaks  - Repair of steam leaks to minimize unnecessary steam loss will reduce the
                         quantity of fuel used to generate steam

                     •   Preheat Combustion Air with  Waste Process  Heat  - Use of waste process heat  to  preheat
                         combustion air for furnaces requires less fuel to heat the air to the  needed temperature.
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                                                                         Sources of Energy and Pollution
 4.3    Alternative Energy Sources

         Renewable energy  sources  account for  approximately  eight percent of the U.S. annual energy
 production.  About half of this goes to generate electricity while the remaining half is used for transportation,
 space heating, and water heating.

         Hydroelectric power generation comprises the largest percentage of the renewable energy category at
 more  than fifty percent.  Hydropower generation is used primarily for  generation of electricity.  Electricity
 generated from hydroelectric plants has increased as a result of increased water availability and improved
 efficiency.

         Solar energy comprises about one percent of the renewable energy.  Solar energy is used in three
 processes; heliothermal, heliochemical, and helioelectrical.  Heliothermal is the absorption of the sun's radiation to
 produce heat for processes such as water heating. Applications of heliothermal processes are called active solar
 systems.  Heliochemical solar energy is when the sun's radiation causes chemical reactions like photosynthesis.
 Helioelectrical is  the conversion of the sun's radiation into electrical  energy.  Application  of helioelectrical
 processes is usually termed photovoltaic  systems.  Solar energy can be accumulated in a number of solar
 collectors, which vary according to application. Solar energy has cost constrains, but recently there has been a
 resurgence in interest in solar energy, especially with environmental concerns.

         Wind has been used for centuries as a power source to turn windmills for grinding grains and pumping
 water. Due to the variability  of wind, generation of electricity using wind turbines is fairly expensive, the more
 wind  the cheaper electricity  generation.  Energy generated from wind comprises less that  half a percent of
 renewable energy. The use of wind turbines is limited to those areas with a more constant supply of wind.

         Geothermal energy generation, approximately five percent of renewable energy generation, is limited to
 certain areas of the world where there are geysers, hot springs, or access to the earth's internal thermal energy.
 Geothermal  sources which are rich in hot water and steam from these sources  is used to power low pressure
 turbines to generate electricity either directly or through a binary process.  The "direct process" is to use the
 heated water and steam directly to power turbines while the "binary process" is to use a secondary fluid such as
 freon to power the turbine.

         Biomass fuels include a wide variety of materials such as wood, peat, wood charcoal, bagasse, biogas,
 and liquid fuels produced by biological processes. Biomass fuels are the second largest source of renewable
 energy generation at about forty-one percent. Wood materials are usually burned in fireplaces and boilers to
 produce heat with little preprocessing. Wood charcoal is wood, which has been heated to remove most of the
 moisture resulting in a higher BTU value. Peat is a material in the early stages of transformation to coal and is
 generally low in sulfur, nitrogen, and ash. Peat, before harvesting, is greater than 90 percent  water so drying is
 necessary before use. Bagasse is a fibrous residue material from sugarcane processing and is burned in boilers
 like wood. Biogas is generated from anaerobic digestion of waste materials. This gas is a useful source of energy
 and the remaining sludge materials are used for fertilizer. Much research has been done on waste to ethanol
 processes. These are biological processes that are used to generate liquid fuels.  The waste to ethanol process is
 not yet economically competitive with current energy sources and is not commercially practiced.

         Municipal solid waste incinerators have increased in popularity over the past few years. Heightened
 interest is a result of the closing of many  landfills and the increasing capacity requirements for waste disposal.
 There are hundreds of municipal solid waste incinerators in the U.S.


 4.4    Pollution Prevention  and Waste  Generation

         All of the above energy sources impact the environment either through emissions of pollution
 causing materials, flooding of areas by hydroelectric dams, mining, or drilling.  The U.S. has reduced energy
 related air pollution through  regulations requiring better emission control and cleaner fuels.  In addition, other
 wastes and pollution generated as the result of energy generation such as ash from the burning of solid waste
 and other materials is also regulated.  As these regulations become more stringent, pollution prevention and
 waste generation from energy generating operations will be critical.
                                                                                                           Notes
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Source of Energy and Pollution
  4.4.1   Regulatory Requirements

          Over the past three decades, the generation of wastes that are released to the environment through
  any media have become more stringently regulated. Environmental compliance and waste management costs
  increase in proportion to the number, volume, and complexity of a facility's waste streams.  Simply stated,
  the less waste a facility generates the lower the treatment and disposal costs; not generating wastes is the
  wisest approach to waste management.  This section gives an overview of major environmental requirements
  the Assessment Team should refer to the Code of Federal Regulations or the U.S. EPA web site for specific
  information on these regulations.

  4.4.1.1  Air Emissions

          The  1990 amendments to the CAA significantly affect facilities  in several ways.  Facilities located in
  nonattainment areas may be subject to more stringent emission levels on existing permitted sources such as
  painting/degreasing operations, power plants, or incinerators, and new regulations on many small sources that
  were not regulated previously such as print shops, dry cleaning operations, and gasoline stations.  The air
  toxics provisions are likely to mandate new or additional control equipment  for new and existing sources.
  The list of air  toxics to be regulated has  grown beyond the original  list  of seven, to a new list of 189
  substances.   The  expanded list of air toxics,  coupled with the new  provisions to reduce  emissions in
  nonattainment areas nation wide, means that many small sources typically found at facilities must now have
  permits.

          Sources of air emissions in industrial facilities include but are not limited to cleaning and degreasing
  operations, painting or paint removal processes, heaters, furnaces, boilers, and printing. These operations are
  common in many types of facilities.  Control technologies are available to help reduce the release of regulated
  emissions from many of these sources. For example, technologies available to reduce emissions from boilers
  include low NOx burners and flue gas recirculation. In addition, many facilities have changed the types of
  fuels that are used for boilers and furnaces to low sulfur fuels. For instance, conversion of boiler burners
  from Fuel Oil No. 4 to Fuel Oil No. 2 would significantly reduce emissions.

  4.4.1.2  Water Discharges

          The primary regulation for  wastewater management is the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
  System (NPDES),  developed in accordance with the Clean Water Act.  The CWA requires NPDES permits
  for the discharge of pollutants from any point source into waters of the United States.  Permits are required
  for industrial  facilities  as well as facilities treating domestic wastewater.  NPDES permits typically contain
  limits on the  quantities of specific pollutants that can  be discharged from the facility.  The NPDES permit
  system encourages facilities to restrict their usage of regulated  substances  in order to  comply with  the
  discharge limits.

          EPA has  established  34 NPDES  Primary  Industry Categories.  Any permit issued to a facility
  included in one of these categories contains specific  effluent limitations and a compliance and sampling
  schedule to meet the limitations.   Technology-based treatment  limits  form the basis  of  most  effluent
  limitations.

          The  pretreatment program sets standards for the  control of industrial wastewater  discharged to
  publicly -owned treatment works (POTWs).  The goal of the pretreatment program is to protect human health
  and the environment by reducing the potential harmful substances from entering POTWs.

          Point source  discharges are those that  originate from a specific location  such as an outlet pipe or
  open channel that carries wastewater from sewage treatment or industrial process plants. Typically,  all point
  source discharges are required to have NPDES permits  that specify the maximum quantity of  toxins allowed
  to be  released.  Point sources  at facilities include photo labs, medical clinics, cafeterias, and electroplating
  operations. Non-point source discharges are from operations such as  agriculture, golf courses, and forest
  operations.

  4.4.1.3  Solid Waste

          Municipal solid wastes, in  general terms, include all items that are discarded and are, or could be,
  taken to a sanitary landfill.  According to an EPA report, the average office worker  individually contributes
  more than 100 pounds of high  quality paper to landfills every year.  Paper and  paperboard  products were the
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                                                                         Sources of Energy and Pollution
 largest components of municipal solid wastes by weight (37 percent) and volume (about 32 percent), totaling
 nearly  66.5 million metric tons in  1990.  Construction and demolition debris wastes  accounts for more 25
 percent of all municipal solid waste in the United States.  The majority of these wastes are landfilled

         Many  State and local regulations prohibit the disposal  of specific wastes at sanitary landfills.
 Wisconsin, for instance, bans tires and used  oil.   The Assessment Team should refer to State or local
 regulations for the most up-to-date landfill regulations.

         Apart  from regulatory incentives, the greatest  incentive for applying pollution prevention to
 municipal solid wastes is the cost savings from reduced disposal fees.  In addition, recycling programs may
 generate a small profit depending on local market conditions and the volume generated.

 4.4.1.4  Hazardous Waste

         The hazardous  waste regulations promulgated  to  implement  RCRA  and the  Comprehensive
 Environmental  Response Compensation  and  Liability  Act  (CERCLA)  specify requirements  for  the
 identification, storage, treatment, and disposal of hazardous waste.  RCRA offers facilities four incentives for
 pollution prevention.

     1.   Under the cradle to grave liability  provisions, generators remain legally and financially responsible
         for any environmental damage from their wastes  from generation to disposal.   In fact, generators
         remain responsible for their wastes  even after they have been disposed of (e.g., at a landfill).

     2.   As a result, hazardous waste management, treatment, and disposal  costs have risen dramatically,
         giving waste generators a financial  incentive to produce the least amount of waste possible.

     3.   RCRA requires hazardous waste generators to certify that they have waste minimization programs in
         place whenever they sign off on a manifest.

     4.   Generators  are asked to  voluntarily report their  waste minimization achievements on the waste
         minimization form of the Biennial Report, which they are required to file under 40 CFR § 262.41.

         Sources  of  hazardous waste in industrial  operations are abundant.  An extensive list  of these
 operations is given in Exhibit 4.5.  Pollution prevention opportunities for reduction of hazardous waste can be
 as simple as better housekeeping or  complex process or product modifications.   Suggestions for common
 pollution prevention opportunities are listed  in the following sections.

 4.4.1.5  Record Keeping

         Industrial facilities are required  to  keep records to document hazardous  waste generation, air
 emissions, and water discharges. In some cases facilities are required to do regular monitoring of emissions
 or discharges.  Records  for hazardous waste disposal  are required by  law to allow tracking of individual
 substances according to the needs, should they arise.  The record of movement of all hazardous substances
 through the plant, from one manufacturing cell to another, or simply as a material flow, is a very useful tool.
 It  is always in the company's interest to deal  with the  issue of hazardous waste according to all the
 regulations. The penalties for noncompliance are high, and in serious cases could even cause shutdown of the
 operation. In the beginning of this manual it is emphasized that the industrial assessments are not compliance
 audit and this holds  true. But it is to the  benefit of the company to be  informed of the consequences of
 noncompliance and the Assessment Team's job to help in solving problems related to waste and hazardous
 waste in particular.

 4.4.2   Sources of Manufacturing Wastes

         Almost any operation will generate some type of waste or release pollutants to the environment.
 Even a non-industrial type of a business will have a waste in terms of paper, cardboard, etc.  If the waste is
 landfilled, it is rather obvious that the  space available is limited.   If the waste is incinerated, a secondary
 waste whether in the form of unwanted, though more acceptable, substances or at least heat is created. Waste
 generators need to concentrate on source reduction, if that is not possible, recycling is the second choice, and
 as the last resort, treatment of waste that will reduce the toxicity of the waste.
      Notes
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               Source of Energy and Pollution
Notes
4.4.2.1  Processes Generating Wastes and Types of Wastes Generated
        In order to be able to deal successfully with any waste issues, the Assessment Team has to know
what usually constitutes waste and where and how it is generated. Nothing can be as valuable  as personal
experience but even  an inexperienced person  performing the assessment can get a good  idea from the
following list of waste materials for various operations.
                          Raw Materials
                          Processes
                           Cleaning
                          Painting
                          Machining
                          Printing
                                  Containers, packing
                                  Off-spec and expired lots
                                  Cleaning
                                  Reactions
                                  Machining
                                  Testing
                                  Printing
                                  Alkaline baths
                                  Solvents
                                  Sludges
                                  Gnt
                                  Thinner
                                  Overspray
                                  Containers
                                  Paint stripper
                                  Metal chips
                                  Cutting coolants
                                  Hydraulic oil
                                  Filters
                                  Lithographic plates
                                  Silver
                                  Press washes
                                  Paper
Spoiled batches

Coating/Painting
Planting/Anodizing/Chromating
C asting/Molding
Extracting/Refining
Packaging
Acidic baths
Rags
Oil and Grease
Rinse water
Paint sludge
Filters
Unused paint
Masking
Trimming waste
Tapping oil
Tramp oil
Rags
Plate process solutions
Photo process solution
Rags
Inks
                 4.4.2.2  Industry Compendium of Processes Producing Waste
                         Processes that generate wastes can be categorized by the standard industrial classification (SIC) code
                 for easy of reference  as shown in Exhibit 4.5.  These processes are not limited to the industrial operations
                 classified  into the  given classification  code  but can be part of processes in other industrial facilities.  The
                 assessment team should be aware that the opportunities listed may be applied to industrial operations in other
                 SIC codes.
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                                                                                                                     Sources of Energy and Pollution
                                               Exhibit 45: Compendium of Processes Producing Waste
  General
 Industrial
  Category
  Unit Operation
Common Waste Streams
                   Pollution Prevention Measures
Chemical
processing
(SIC: 28,29)
•   Blending/mixing
•   Reaction to form
    product
•   Vessel cleaning
 Tank clean-out solutions
 Tank clean-out solids
 Reagent (liquid and powder)
 spills to floor
 Reaction by products
 Air emissions- Dust from
 powdered raw material
Use Teflon lined tanks
Clean lines with "Pigs" instead of solvents or aqueous solutions
Use squeegees to recover clinging product prior to rinsing
Use Clean In Place (CIP) systems
Clean equipment immediately after use
Treat and reuse equipment cleaning solutions
Use cylindrical tanks with height to diameter ratios close to one to reduce wetted
surface
Use tanks with a conical bottom outlet section to reduce waste associated with the
interface of two liquids
Increase use of automation
Convert from batch operation to continuous processing
Use dry cleaning methods whenever possible
Use squeegees, mops and vacuums for floor cleaning
Use pumps and piping to decrease the frequency of spillage during material transfer
Install dedicated mixing equipment to optimize re -use of used rinse and to preclude
the need for inter-run cleaning
Use in process recycling whenever possible
Install floating covers on tanks of volatile materials to reduce evaporation
Order paint pigments in paste form instead of dry powder to eliminate hazardous dust
waste
Food
processing
(SIC: 20)
    Mixing/blending
    Cooking/baking
 Equipment cleaning waste
 waters
 Floor washing waste waters
 Solid materials from mixer
 cleaning (e.g. dough)
 Spent cooking oils	
Use dry cleaning methods whenever possible
Use high pressure washing equipment
Use squeegees and mops and for floor cleaning
Use continuous processing to eliminate the need for inter-run cleaning
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Source of Energy and Pollution
                                           Exhibit 4.5: Compendium of Processes Producing Waste (cont.)
General
Industrial
Category
Metal
working
(SIC: 33-39)
Unit Operation
• Melting
• Casting
• Extrusion
• Cold working
(bending, pulling)
• Machining (cut-
ting, lathing,
drilling, tapping)
• Grinding
• Heat treatment
Common Waste Streams
• Air emissions
• Hazardous slag
• Non-hazardous slag
• Metal dust
• Scrubber sludge
• Spent sand
• Flashing
• Reject castings
• Scrap end pieces
• Scrap metal
• Metal scrap
• Spent hydraulic oils
• Spent lubricating oils
• Leaked oils
• Dirty rags or towels
• Metal and abrasive dust
• Air emissions
Pollution Prevention Measures
• Recycle non ferrous dust
• Alter raw materials to reduce air emissions
• Use induction furnaces instead of electric arc r cupola furnaces to reduce dust and
fumes
• Reuse high ferrous metal dust as raw material
• Use high quality scrap (low sulfur) to reduce hazardous sludge generation
• Use an alternative desulfurizing agent to eliminate hazardous slag formation
• Alter Product Requirements to eliminate unnecessary use of desulfurizing agent
(calcium carbide)
• Separate iron from slag and remelt
• Treat disulfurization slag in a deep quench tank in -stead of spraying water onto an
open pile to reduce air emissions
• Recycle casting sand
• Use sand for other purposes (e.g. construction fill, cover for municipal landfills)
• Avoid contamination of flashing and reject castings and reuse as feed stock
• Recover metals from casting sand
• Avoid contamination of end pieces and reuse as feed stock
• Recycle scrap metal to foundry
• Segregate metals for sale to a recycler
• Reprocess spent oils on site for reuse
• Install shrouding on machines to prevent splashing of metal working fluids
• Utilize a central coolant system for cleaning and re -use of metal working fluid
• Maintain machines with a regular maintenance pro -gram to prevent oil leaks
• Implement a machine and coolant sump cleaning program to minimize coolant
contamination
• Separate (flotation, magnetic) and recycle scrap to foundry
• Improve furnace control
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                                                                                                                     Sources of Energy and Pollution
                                            Exhibit 4.5: Compendium of Processes Producing Waste (cont.)
  General
 Industrial
  Category
Unit Operation
Common Waste Streams
                                                  Pollution Prevention Measures
Printing
(lithography.
gravure,
flexography,
letterpress,
screen)
(SIC: 27)
  Image production
Scrap film
Spent film processing
solutions
                                 Use glass marbles to raise fluid levels of chemicals to the brim to reduce contact with
                                 atmospheric oxygen
                                 Recycle film for silver recovery
                                 Use electronic imaging and laser plate making
                                 Use water-based image processing chemicals
                                 Closely monitor chemical additions to increase bath life
                                 Use squeegees to prevent chemical carry-over in manual processing operations
                                 Use counter current washing in photo processors
                                 Recycle processing baths for nickel recovery
                                 Use silver free films
                                 Use "washless"  processing equipment	
                   Plate, cylinder
                   and screen
                   making
                       Spent plate processing
                       solutions
                                 Use water-based developers and finishers
                                 Use an automatic plate processor
                                 Use counter-current rinsing to reduce rinse water volume (gravure)
                                 Use drag-out reduction methods (gravure)-see surface coating
                                 Sell used plates to an aluminum recycler	
               •    Make-ready
                       Scrap paper
                       VOC emissions
                                 Automate ink key setting system
                                 Reuse scrap printed paper for make-ready
                                 Use ink water ratio sensor
                                 Computerized registration
                                 Use automated plate benders	
                   Printing
                       Scrap paper
                       VOC emissions
                       Damaged rubber blankets
                       Waste ink
                       Waste printing press oils
                                 Install web break detectors to prevent excessive waste paper
                                 Eliminate chemical etching and plating by using alternative printing technologies
                                 (Presensitized lithographic, plastic or photopolymer, hot metal, or
                                 flexographic)
                                 Use a waterless plating system
                                 Use automatic ink levelers
                                 Schedule jobs to minimize the need for cleanup (light colors before dark)
                                 Use dedicated presses for each color
                                 Use less toxic solvents
                                 Use soy or water-based inks
                                 Automate ink mixing
                                 Cover ink containers when not in use
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
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Source of Energy and Pollution
                                            Exhibit 4.5: Compendium of Processes Producing Waste (cont.)
  General
 Industrial
  Category
  Unit Operation
   Common Waste Streams
                   Pollution Prevention Measures
Printing
(lithography.
gravure,
flexography,
letterpress,
screen)
(SIC: 27)
continued
    Clean-up
•   VOC emissions
•   Left over ink from fountains
•   Waste roller cleaning solution
•   Dirty rags
•   Paint skin from open ink
    containers
•   Used plates
Use press cleanup rags as long as possible before
disregarding
Recycle waste ink and cleanup solvent
Use automatic cleaning equipment
Remove rollers from the machines and clean in a closed solvent cleaner
Prevent excessive solvent usage during cleaning (operator training)
Segregate spent solvents (by color) and reuse in sub-sequent washings
Improve cleaning efficiency by maintaining cleaning system (rollers, cleanup blade)
Surface
coating
(SIC: 24, 25,
34-39)
•   Painting
    Off-specification or out-dated
    paint
    Empty paint and solvent
    containers
    Paint sludge
    Spent paint filters
    Booth clean-out waste
    (overspray)
    Spent cleaning sol-vent
    VOC emissions
Use tight fitting lids on material containers to reduce
VOC emission
Convert to higher efficiency technologies
Convert to electrostatic powder coating
Convert from water curtain spray booths to a dry system
Convert to robotic painting
Use low VOC or water based paint
Purchase high volume materials in returnable bulk containers
Train operators for maximum operating efficiency
Automate paint mixing	
               •    Painting
                   continued
                                                          Use compressed air blowout for line cleaning prior to solvent cleaning
                                                          Shorten paint lines as much as possible to reduce line cleaning waste
                                                          Schedule production runs to minimize color changes
                                                          Recycle cleaning solvent and reuse
                                                          Use paint without metal pigments	
                   Plating (electro
                   electroless-)
                   Anodizing
                      •    Spent alkaline cleaning
                          solutions
                      •    Spent acid baths
                      •    Spent cyanide cleaning
                          solutions
                      •    Spent plating solutions
                      •    Filter sludge
                      •    Waste rinse water
                      •    Waste water treatment sludge
                      •    Vent scrubber waste
                                    Use high purity anodes to increase solution life
                                    Lower the concentration of plating baths
                                    Reduce drag-in with better rinsing to increase solution life
                                    Use deionized water for make-up and rinse water to increased solution life
                                    Extend solution life with filtering or carbonate freezing
                                    Use cyanide free solutions whenever possible
                                    Replace cadmium-based solutions with zinc solutions
                                    Replace hexavalent chromium solutions with trivalent solutions
                                    Return spent solutions to the manufacturer
                                    Use lower concentration plating baths
                                    Reduce drag-out by racking parts for maximum drainage
                                    Reduce drag-out by slowing withdrawal speed and increasing drain time
                                    Rack parts for maximum drainage
                                    Use drain boards between tanks for solution recovery
80
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                                                                                                                       Sources of Energy and Pollution
                                             Exhibit 4.5: Compendium of Processes Producing Waste (cont.)
  General
 Industrial
  Category
Unit Operation
   Common Waste Streams
                   Pollution Prevention Measures
Surface
coating
(SIC: 24, 25,
34-39) (cont.)
                                                       Reduce water use with counter current rinsing
                                                       Use fog nozzles over plating tanks and spray rinsing instead of immersion rinsing
                                                       Use reactive rinsing
                                                       Mechanically  and air agitate rinse tanks for complete mixing
                                                       Use a still rise as the initial rinsing stage
                                                       Use automatic flow control
                                                       Recovery metals from rinse water (Evap., Ion ex-change, R.O., Electrolysis,
                                                       Electrodialysis) and reuse rinse water
                                                       Use precipitating agents in waste water treatment to reduce waste generation
                                                       Use separate treatments for each type of solution and sell sludge to a recycler
Surface
Stripping
(SIC: 24, 25,
34-39)
  Stripping of
  paint, varnish,
  lacquer
•   Spent solvents
•   VOC emissions
•   Spent caustic solutions
•   Spent sand and other blasting
    media
•   Paint dust
Use mechanical stripping methods
Use cryogenic stripping
Use non-phenolic strippers to reduce toxicity associated with phenol and acid
additives
Maintain clean conditions before painting to avoid surface contamination resulting in
paint defects
                   Metal plating
                   removal
                       Spent acid solution
                       Tank sludge	
                                    Recover metals from spent solutions and recycle
Surface
preparation/
cleaning
(SIC: 24, 25,
34-39)
  Chemical etching
  Solvent cleaning
  (vapor
  degreasing,
  solvent dip)
    Spent acidic solution
    Tank sludge
    Waste rinse water
    Spent solvents
    Solvent recycle still bottoms
    VOC emission
    Solvent tank sludge
Reduce solution drag-out from process tanks
Prevent solution drag-out from upstream tanks
Use deionized water in upstream rinse tanks
Treat and reuse rinse waters
Recover and reuse spent acid baths
Use tight-fitting lids on material containers and sol-vent cleaning tanks to reduce
VOC emissions
Convert to aqueous cleaning system
Convert to less  toxic hydrocarbon cleaners
Use peel coatings on raw materials to eliminate need for cleaning
Use water-based cutting fluids during machining to eliminate need for solvent
cleaning
Increase freeboard space and install chillers on vapor degreasers
Distill contaminated solvents for reuse
Remove sludge from tanks on a regular basis
Slow insertion and withdrawal of parts from vapor degreasing tankto prevent vapor
drag-out
Maintain water separator and completely dry parts to avoid water contamination of
solvent
Convert to aqueous cleaning	
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                                                                                  81

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Source of Energy and Pollution
                                             Exhibit 4.5:  Compendium of Processes Producing Waste (cont.)
  General
 Industrial
  Category
Unit Operation
Common Waste Streams
Pollution Prevention Measures
Surface
preparation/
cleaning
(SIC: 24, 25,
34-39)
continued
                                                   •   Use silhouette entry covers to reduce evaporation area
                                                   •   Avoid inserting oversized object to reduce piston effect
                                                   •   Allow drainage before withdrawing object
                                                   •   Eliminate the need for cleaning with improved handling practices
               •   Aqueous cleaning
                       Spent cleaning solutions
                       Waste rinse waters
                       Oil sludge
                       Tank sludge
                                 Remove sludge from tanks on a regular basis
                                 Minimize part contamination before washing
                                 Eliminate the need for cleaning with improved handling practices
                                 Extend solution life by minimizing drag-in
                                 Use alternatives for acid and alkaline (e.g. water, steam, abrasive)
                                 Pre-inspect parts to prevent drag-in of solvents and other cleaners
                                 Install mixers on each cleaning tanks
                                 Closely monitor solutions and make small additions to maintains solution strength
                                 instead of lathe infrequent additions
                                 Implement a regular maintenance program to keep racks and tanks free of rust,
                                 cracks, or corrosion
                                 Apply a protective coating to racks and tanks
                                 Reduce solution drag-out to prevent solution loss
                                 Use counter current rinsing to reduce waste water
                                 Use reactive rinsing  to extend bath life
               •   Abrasive cleaning
                       Used buffing wheels
                       Spent compound
                                 Use water based or greaseless binders to increase wheel life
                                 Use liquid spray (water based) adhesive instead of bar abrasives to prevent over use
                                 of material and easier part cleaning
                                 Carefully control water level in Mass Finishing
                                 Equipment
                   Dry and wet rag
                   cleaning
                       Spent solvent wetted rugs
                       Oil soaked rags
                                 Wash and reuse rags on-site
                                 Use an off-site rag recycling service
                                 Minimize use of rags through worker training
82
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                                                                                                                  Sources of Energy and Pollution
                                           Exhibit 4.5:  Compendium of Processes Producing Waste (cont.)
General
Industrial
Category
Paper and
pulp
manufacturing
(SIC: 26)















Textile
processing
(SIC: 22)


Waste water
treatment
(SIC: 20, 22,
26,28,29,31,
33-39)

Plastic
formation
(SIC: 30)




Unit Operation


• Wood
Preparation
• Pulping
• Screening
• Washing
• Thickening
• Bleaching
• Stock preparation
• Paper machine
• Finishing and
• Converting








• Fabric weaving
• Milling
• Sewing
• Pressing
• Dying
• pH adjustment
• Filtration
• Mixing
• Flocculating
• Clarification
• Polishing
• Injection Molding





• Extrusion
Common Waste Streams


• Wood waste (saw dust, bark)
• Acid and Alkaline waste
waters
• Toxic waste waters
and sludges
• Wood fiber waste
• Non-hazardous waste water
treatment sludge











• Waste thread, yarn and
material
• Dye contaminated waste
water

• Treated effluent
• Hazardous treatment sludge
• Non-hazardous treatment
sludge


• Machine clean-out waste
(pancakes)
• Scrap plastic parts
• Plastic pellet spill to floor
• Spent hydraulic oil
• Oil-soaked absorbent
• Scrap end pieces
Pollution Prevention Measures


• Use diffusion pulp wash systems to maximize efficiency
• Maintain spray water temperature of 60- 70F to maximize rinse efficiency
• Employ a closed cycle mill process to minimize waste water production
• Reuse rich white water in other applications
• Use felt showers to minimize the amount of fresh water use
• Recycle white water
• Develop segregated sewer systems for low suspended solids, high suspended solids,
strong wastes, and sanitary sewer
• Improve process control to prevent spills of material
• Minimize overflows or spills by installing level controls in process tanks and storage
tanks
• Install redundant key pumps and other equipment to avoid losses caused by
equipment failure and routine maintenance
• Provide a storage lagoon before the biological treatment system to accept long-term
shock loads
• Replace the chlorination stage with an oxygen or ozone stage
• Recycle chlorination stage process water
• Use water from the counter current washing system in the chlorination stage
• Perform high consistency gas phase chlorination
• Market waste material as clean-up rags
• Recover dye from waste waters



• Use alternative flocculants to minimize sludge volume.
• Use filter a filter press and drying oven to reduce sludge volume
• Automatically meter treatment chemicals
• Minimize contamination of water before treatment


• Maintain machines with a regular maintenance program to prevent oil leaks
• Regrind and reuse scrap plastic parts
• Filter and reuse hydraulic oil
• Use and industrial vacuum for spill cleanup instead of absorbent


• Avoid contamination of end pieces and reuse as feed stock
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
83

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Source of Energy and Pollution
                                             Exhibit 4.5:  Compendium of Processes Producing Waste (cont.)
   General
  Industrial
  Category
  Unit Operation
   Common Waste Streams
                   Pollution Prevention Measures
Plastic
formation
(SIC: 30)
continued
•   Foaming
    Fugitive air emissions
    Stack releases
    Scrap foam	
Improved material handling (mixing and transfer) to avoid spills
Implement a regular maintenance program to reduce fugitive emissions from leaky
valves and pipe fit-tings
               •   Composite
                   materials
                          Empty resin and
                          solvent containers
                          Spent cleaning sol-vents
                          Waste wash-down water
                          Cleanup rags
                          Waste fabric
                          Gelcoat and resin overspray
                          VOC emissions
                          Waste resins
                          Resin and solvent
                          contaminated floor sweeping
                                    Maximize production runs to reduce cleanings
                                    Regenerate cleaning solvent on-site and reuse
                                    Use less toxic and volatile solvent substitutes
                                    Reduce transfer pipe size
                                    Use more efficient spray method for gelcoat application
                                    Modify material application methods to prevent material spillage
                                    Cover solvent and resin container to minimize evaporative losses
Glass
processing
(SIC: 32)
•   Melting
•   Blowing
•   Molding
•   Scrap glass
•   Contaminated
•   granular raw materials
Avoid contamination of scrap glass and reuse as feed stock
Leather
processing
(SIC: 31)
•   Tanning
•   Finishing
    Scrap leather material
    Waste processing solution
Recycle spent tanning solution
Fastening/
joining/
assembly
(SIC: 24, 25,
27, 34-39)
    Gluing (adhesive)
    Mechanical
    fastening
    Welding
    Part testing
    Fluid filing
    Used adhesive container
    Adhesive solvent
    air emissions
    Dried adhesive
    Shielding gas emissions
    Metal slag
    Gasoline (motor test)
    Oil and grease spilled to floor
    Spent clean-up rags or towels
Purchase adhesive in bulk containers
Use water-based adhesives
Use more efficient adhesive applicators
Use a rag recycle service
Reuse rags until completely soiled
Use rags sized for each job
84
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                                                                     Sources of Energy and Pollution
REFERENCES
1.   Federal Facility Pollution Prevention:  Tools for Compliance;  1994, U.S. Environmental Protection
    Agency. Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH 45268. EPA/600/R-94/154.
2.   Pollution Prevention Act of 1990
3.   Facility Pollution Prevention Guide; 1992, U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency.  Office of Research
    and Development, Cincinnati, OH 45268. EPA600R92088.
4.   Energy Conservation Program  Guide for Industry and Commerce:  NBS Handbook 115; 1974, U.S.
    Department of Commerce. National Bureau of Standards, Washington DC 20402.
5.   Energy Conservation Program Guide for Industry and Commerce: NBS Handbook  115 Supplement 1;
    1974, U.S. Department of Commerce. National Bureau of Standards, Washington DC 20402.
6.   Annual  Energy Review  1997,  July  1998,  U.S.  Department  of  Energy.    Energy  Information
    Administration, Washington, D. C. 20585. DOE/EIA-0384(97)
7.   Electric Power Annual 1995, Volume I, July  1996, U.S.  Department of Energy. Energy Information
    Administration, Washington, D. C. 20585. DOE/EIA-0348(95)
8.   Renewable  Energy Annual  1997,  Volume  I, February  1998, U.S. Department of Energy.  Energy
    Information Administration, Washington, D. C.  20585. DOE/EIA-0630(97)
      Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
85

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             Source of Energy and Pollution
Notes
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             86                      Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                               Industrial Operations:  Office Operations
                  CHAPTER 5. INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS

        Pollution prevention opportunities exist for a wide variety of industrial operations. The intent of this
chapter is to provide a resource for common pollution prevention techniques for a broad range of industrial
applications.   The following twelve areas  have been selected based  on their widespread use in today's
industrial operations.

    •   Office Operations                            •   Plating Operations

    •   Materials Management/Housekeeping          •   Paint Application

    •   Facility Maintenance                         •   Paint Removal

    •   Metal Working                               •   Paper and Pulp Manufacturing

    •   Cleaning & Degreasing                       •   Commercial Printing

    •   Chemical Etching                            •   Waste Water Treatment

        A process description, waste description, and pollution prevention opportunities are provided for
each industrial operation highlighted. The information provided is not to be considered completely inclusive
of all processing  steps or wastes generate, nor is its  intent to be  completely  exhaustive of all pollution
prevention opportunities available to the reader.


5.1    Office Operations

        Offices  are  the  backbone of many industrial  operations.    Office  personnel  often handle
procurements, administrative issues, contracting issues, legal issues, and the design and implementation  of
new procedures at industrial operations.

5.1.1   Waste Description

        Office operations impact the amount of waste generated by industrial operations.  Decisions made by
office operations effect pollution prevention plans, the type of materials purchased, the types of materials
disposed of,  water usage, energy usage, paper usage,  construction materials, demolition techniques, and
recycling plans.

        Besides affecting the wastes produced by industrial operations, offices also  often utilize high
amounts  of energy  and produce large quantities  of waste through daily operations.   Most  of the office
operations energy is spent on electrical equipment such as computers, fans, printers, lights, and calculators
and HVAC equipment.  Paper, cardboard boxes, and packaging materials usually compose the majority  of
solid waste produced by an office.

5.1.2   Pollution Prevention Opportunities

        Pollution prevention  opportunities for  office  operations  are  classified  according  to the waste
management hierarchy in order of relevance; first, source  reduction techniques, then secondly, (in-process)
recycling options.

5.1.2.1  Source Reduction

        Source reduction offers a number of pollution prevention opportunities including:

    •   Water Conservation,

    •   Energy Conservation,

    •   Paper Reduction, and

    •   Construction and Demolition Waste Reduction.

        These four source reduction techniques are explained in greater detail below.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                           87
Notes

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               Industrial Operations: Office Operations

JT ,                       Water Conservation
                          Water conservation reduces pollution by reducing the demands on water and wastewater treatment
                  plants.  This, in turn, reduces the energy requirements, chemical usage, and the potential for environmental
                  impacts from improperly treated wastewater effluent discharge.
                          Staff  should request water usage statistics on a quarterly or monthly basis to track and identify
                  increases in consumption.  As the facility implements specific water conservation  activities, water usage
                  reductions can be documented.
                          The following list of water conservation strategies can be implemented to help reduce total water
                  usage.
                      •   Retrofitting plumbing with water saving devices (including faucet aerators and low-flow toilets).
                      •   Performing regular water system leak detection and repair activities.
                      •   Altering landscaping activities to reduce water use, including planting species that require less water
                          (also known as xeriscaping) and reusing wastewater.
                  Benefits of Water Conservation
                      •   Reductions in water use will reduce energy consumption and generation.
                      •   Water conservation practices  will create corresponding reductions in wastewater treatment, energy
                          requirements, chemical use, and effluent discharge.
                      •   Reducing water usage can help reduce operating costs associated with both the purchases of water
                          and energy for water heating and treatment.
                  Limitations of Water Conservation
                      •   Water saving devices can have higher capital costs than regular equipment.
                      •   Re-landscaping a large facility can be a costly change.
                          Energy Conservation
                          A  comprehensive facility audit or  energy use tracking data  can determine  energy  conservation
                  opportunities.  Lighting, heating, ventilating, air conditioning, office equipment and other systems should be
                  examined. At many facilities, energy  conservation strategies can be economically implemented with  very
                  little capital costs.
                          Lighting costs can be drastically reduced by:
                      •   Reducing lighting levels and the number of fixtures,
                      •   Using energy efficient bulbs or fixtures,
                      •   Turning off light switches when not in use,
                      •   Installing motion sensors or timers to automatically switch lights off when an  area is unoccupied,
                      •   Replacing incandescent bulbs with fluorescent bulbs,
                      •   Taking advantage of natural sunlight by using top-silvered blinds and light colored finishes to reflect
                          light, and
                      •   Installing skylights in office areas.
                          Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) energy consumption can be reduced by:
                      •   Keeping HVAC systems serviced;
                      •   Setting core air temperature at the maximum allowable temperature for proper equipment cooling;
                      •   Setting office thermostats to 68°F in winter;
                                             Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                               Industrial Operations:  Office Operations
    •   Properly insulating walls, floors, and ceilings with weather stripping,  caulking, storm doors, and
        windows;

    •   Installing solar energy systems to reduce electric demand from HVAC systems; and

    •   Planting shrubs on the windward side of the building to block wind and decrease building heat loss.

        Energy consumption by office equipment can be drastically reduced by:

    •   Considering energy efficiency when purchasing new equipment,

    •   Turning off electrical  machines such as fans, typewriters, calculators, and copiers when not in use,
        and

    •   Using Energy Star computer and copier equipment designed to go into a "sleep mode" when idle.

        Other practices that facilitate energy  savings include:

    •   Insulate hot water pipes, heating ducts and steam pipes.  The cost for heating systems is directly
        related to the heat they produce; this economic investment is wasted if the heat is allowed to radiate
        from uninsulated pipes or duct work.

    •   Perform routine leak checks on pneumatic lines.  High-pressure leaks often result from cracked lines
        or loose fittings and can easily be detected with inexpensive leak detection equipment.

Benefits of Energy Conservation

    •   Energy conservation can help to reduce operating costs.

    •   Energy conservation reduces the demand for electricity and therefore smaller amounts of greenhouse
        gases, heavy metals, boiler ash, scrubber residue, and spent nuclear fuel are produced.

Limitations of Energy Conservation

    •   Energy efficient systems often come with a higher capital cost.

        Paper Reduction

        A facility-wide program  can encourage staff to reduce paper consumption. Posters should be placed
throughout the facility to remind and encourage staff to reduce their paper use.  Some  suggested methods to
reduce paper consumption include:

    •   Implementing a Facility-Wide Double-Sided copying Policy - In those offices that have copiers with
        double-sided printing capabilities, personnel should  be encouraged to make double-sided copies
        whenever possible. Instructions on making double-sided copies should be placed near the copier for
        ease and increased participation in the program. This practice reduces the generation of office paper
        waste and can greatly reduce the amount of paper purchased.

    •   Expanding and Encouraging  the Use of Electronic Mail - Staff members should be encouraged to
        use electronic mail in place of paper memos and distribution copies.

    •   Identifying Opportunities to Reuse Paper and Paper Products - Corrugated cardboard boxes, jiffy
        bags,  manila envelopes  and other packaging materials  are reusable for their original function.  In
        addition, used paper can be reused as scrap paper.

    •   Using the Blank Side of Used Paper - Staff members should use the blank side of used paper for
        items such as internal memos, notes, phone messages,  and scrap paper.

Benefits of Reducing Paper Consumption

    •   Significant reduction in the amount of paper products purchased, thereby generating  substantive cost
        savings.

    •   Reduced solid waste disposal costs of bulky paper products such as coated  cardboard boxes and
        packaging materials.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                           89
Notes

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               Industrial Operations: Office Operations


JT ,              Limitations of Reducing Paper Consumption

                          There are no significant limitations to reducing paper consumption.

                          Construction and Demolition Waste Reduction

                          Although it may not be possible to modify existing construction contracts, the facility staff should
                 consider inserting language requiring recovery or recycling of construction and demolition debris to  the
                 greatest extent possible, and include the language when negotiating future contracts.

                          Examples of typical construction and demolition debris that may be segregated for reuse or recycling
                 are: wood products, cardboard, glass, carpeting, carpet pads, plumbing, hardware, and insulated wire.

                          Construction and demolition debris can be reduced or recycled at the construction site and earlier
                 during the design and purchasing stages. For example:

                      •    During the design  stage, the contractor can select designs  that utilize  standard sizes  (i.e., 8-foot
                          lengths) to reduce off-cuts of lumber and wallboard,

                      •    Evaluate design plans to ensure the efficient use of materials, and

                      •    Wood, wallboard and other biodegradable materials can be composted.

                          Waste can be reduced during the purchasing stage by:

                      •    Improving the accuracy of estimating procedures to ensure that the correct amount of each material
                          is brought to the site, and

                      •    Negotiating with suppliers  to buy back unused  materials.   Ask for their assistance  to identify
                          materials that contain the least amount of hazardous products.  In addition, ask suppliers to  deliver
                          supplies on returnable pallets and containers.

                          Waste can be reduced on-site by:

                      •    Improving storage and handling procedures to reduce  and prevent materials loss from weather  and
                          other damage,

                      •    Salvaging reusable items, such as windows and doors for remodeling projects, and

                      •    Segregating wood,  wallboard and other biodegradable materials and send them to a composting
                          facility.

                 Benefits  of Construction and Demolition Waste Reduction

                      •    Reduction in quantity of solid waste produced.

                      •    Reduction in disposal costs.

                 Limitations of Construction and Demolition Waste Reduction

                      •    Recycled materials may be more expensive than non-recycled.

                      •    Separating waste from usable materials can be labor intensive and time consuming.

                 5.1.2.2   Recycling

                          Implement a Solid Waste Recycling Program

                          Many large facilities face the problem of low participation  in the recycling program.  Often large
                 amounts  of recyclables  are thrown away and  non-recyclable materials  are found in the recycling bins.
                 Improvements in the recycling program can often be made through the following activities.

                      •    Establishing Written Recycling Program  Guidance  and Distributing to Section Heads/Process
                          Supervisors - Recycling awareness can be improved within the facility through  a written program.
                          A written recycling program that clearly outlines  materials that are recyclable, in what form (triple
                          rinsed,  crushed, baled, etc.),  and where to  recycle will educate personnel  to the opportunities
               90                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                               Industrial Operations:  Office Operations
        available.  Participation in recycling programs can be enhanced by through rewards and recognition
        of personnel.

    •   Make Recycling  Convenient - This can be  accomplished by  providing  bins in all areas where
        materials are generated.   These bins can be  purchased or can be fabricated using empty drums,
        crates, boxes, wood, or metal depending on the material to be collected.

    •   Schedule Regular  Collections - to insure that personnel will have  sufficient  space  for their
        recyclables.  To do this, the facility engineer should work with the building managers to ensure they
        routinely collect recyclables and place materials in the correct dumpsters marked for recyclables.

    •   Expand the Number of Waste  Streams Recycled - by forming a regional alliance with other facilities
        and private businesses in the  local area or  work with  local recycling firms to expand services to
        include new waste streams.

    •   Make Trash Disposal Less Convenient than Recycling - in order to reduce the amount of recyclable
        material that is placed in trash containers.  This can be accomplished by  reducing the number of
        trash receptacles in buildings, limiting  access to trash dumpsters,  or  decreasing the frequency of
        trash pickups. However, trashcans should not be too hard to find; otherwise the recycling bins will
        fill up with  trash. Placing trashcans  and recycling  bins right next to  each other sometimes helps
        reduce incorrect disposal practices.

    •   Institute a  "Clear Bag" Program for  Trash  Pickup - A clear bag program requires facilities to
        dispose of all trash in clear plastic bags.  The waste disposal contractor visually inspects bags before
        picking them up and does not  pick up bags that contain recyclable materials.  This places the burden
        of recycling on the generator.

Benefits of Implementing a Solid Waste Recycling Program

    •   Reduces the mass of materials entering the waste stream and the associated disposal costs.

    •   The sale of recyclable materials can be financially rewarding.

Limitations of Implementing a Solid Waste Recycling Program

        There are no significant limitations to implementing a solid waste recycling program.


5.2    Materials Management/Housekeeping

        The  following  section provides a process description, waste description and a broad range of
pollution  prevention  opportunities that  can be implemented to  improve  materials management   and
housekeeping operations.

5.2.1   Process Description

        Materials mangers have a chance to generate economic, safety, and environmental benefits within an
individual department as well as entire corporations. Efficient and effective materials management includes:

    •   Materials Purchasing                      •   Materials Handling

    •   Materials Tracking                        •   Materials Distribution

    •   Material Mixing                           •   Packaging and Shipping Concerns

    •   Managing Materials Requirements          •   Minimizing On-Site Storage

    •   Spill Prevention and Clean-Up               •   Employee Training on Materials Concerns

    •   Improving Use and Reuse of Materials

        The  duties of materials management represent the heart of  any effective waste  reduction and
pollution prevention plan.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          91
Notes

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               Industrial Operations: Materials Management/Housekeeping

Notes             5.2.2   Waste Description
                          The goal of any materials management program is to reduce the waste generated through materials
                  purchasing, handling, distribution, and clean up. Decisions about the purchasing of materials affect wastes
                  due to under- or over-purchasing and packaging wastes. Decisions affecting materials handling affect spills
                  and other losses. Distribution decisions affect the amount of waste generated due to spills and man-power.
                  Clean-up decisions affect the mount of waste released to the environment versus the amount properly
                  contained.
                  5.2.3   Pollution Prevention Opportunities
                          Pollution prevention opportunities for materials management/housekeeping operations are classified
                  according to the waste management hierarchy in order of relevance; first, source reduction techniques, then
                  secondly, (in-process) recycling options.
                  5.2.3.1   Source Reduction
                          Source reduction offers a number of pollution prevention opportunities including:
                     •    Affirmative Procurement Program,
                     •    Hazardous Material Control Centers,
                     •    Bulk Fluids Distribution Systems,
                     •    Automated Mixing Systems
                     •    Packaging Design,
                     •    Hazardous Materials Management,
                     •    Spill Clean-Up Procedures, and
                     •    Employee Education.
                          These eight source reduction techniques are explained in greater detail below.
                          Affirmative Procurement
                          Affirmative procurement refers  to  the  purchase and use of materials  containing recycled  or
                  recovered content in the greatest amounts practical, given resource and performance constraints.  The EPA
                  has established the Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines that identify categories  of items to be purchased
                  with recycled content and the recycled content level these items should contain.  EPA guideline items include
                  paper and paper products, retread tires, re-refined lubricating oil, building insulation, cement and concrete
                  containing fly ash, engine coolants, structural fiberboard, laminated paperboard, carpet and floor tile, patio
                  blocks, cement and concrete containing granulated blast furnace slag, traffic cones and barricades, playground
                  surfaces  and running tracks, hydraulic mulch, yard trimmings compost, office recycling containers  and office
                  waste receptacles, plastic desktop accessories, toner cartridges, binders, and plastic trash bags.
                          The  facility  should implement  an  affirmative procurement program.  Typically,  the steps  to
                  implement an affirmative procurement program include:
                     •    Obtain EPA's Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines,
                     •    Distribute a list of affirmative procurement items to purchasing staff,
                     •    Train purchasing staff on affirmative procurement,
                     •    Identify items to be procured with various levels of recycled content,
                     •    Develop and implement  a tracking program to monitor compliance and progress.
                              When establishing  the  affirmative procurement program,  purchasing  staff must require that
                     vendors:
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    •   Certify that the percentage of recovered materials to be used in the performance of the contract will
        be at least the amount required by applicable specifications, and

    •   Estimate the percentage of total  material utilized for the performance of the contract which is
        recovered materials.

    •   Affirmative procurement requirements should be included in future construction agreements, so
        contractors will have to use recycled materials in the beginning phase of building.

Benefits of Developing an Affirmative Procurement Program

    •   Purchasing products with recycled content "closes the recycling loop."

    •   Affirmative procurement programs help to ensure that there will be a viable market for recyclables.

Limitations of Developing an Affirmative Procurement Program

    •   Implementing an affirmative procurement program can be man-hour intensive to set-up, especially if
        it is a new concept to the facility.

    •   Efforts have to be made to ensure that product quality and/or work efficiency are not comprised by
        the use of materials comprised of recycled content.

        Implement a Hazardous Material Control Center

        Proper materials management can suppress chemical losses and spills thereby reducing costs and
waste stream outputs. Records of chemical purchases, inventory, bath analyses, dumps and additions, water
usage, wastewater treatment chemical usage, and spent process bath and sludge analyses must be kept in
order to gather an overview of an operations material balance and waste costs. From these records, data can
be gathered and used  to determine the success of an overall minimization policy. Process-specific material
balance block diagrams can be drawn and shared with operators.  These diagrams illustrate origins of waste
production clearly and can be used to re-engineer operations to reduce chemical loss.

        Standardization of  materials used throughout a facility  can  greatly reduce chemical  inventory,
thereby reducing costs. Decisions to purchase one chemical rather than another must consider technical
requirements, environmental impacts, and cost.

        The  initiation  of a facility-wide  hazardous material  control  center (HMCC)  will help  reduce
hazardous material purchases and reduce the generation of hazardous wastes due to improper storage and
expiration of shelf life.  One  of the primary purposes of implementing an HMCC is to centralize the purchase,
storage, distribution, and management of hazardous materials (HM) throughout  the facility, as  well as to
allow for enhanced tracking of the movement of hazardous materials and wastes.  The following concepts are
good building blocks for a successful HMCC program.

    •   Proper Coordination - can centralize the purchase, storage, and distribution of materials through a
        single location within the facility.   To do this, it is critical that the staff establishing the HMCC talk
        with facility staff that use chemicals to document  exact usage patterns of all materials.  The end
        result of the entire HMCC is to purchase only the amount of materials needed by each activity.

    •   Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) - are a set of written guidelines or standards for operating the
        HMCC.

    •   Review and Approval - of the purchase of all materials that contain hazardous components should be
        handled by the HMCC.  A list  of approved hazardous chemicals and applications  should be
        developed for  each shop  at the facility.  Materials that  are hazardous to human health or the
        environment should require  approval for each purchase.  The HMCC should continually strive to
        identify and purchase substitutes  for these hazardous materials.  This process would include the
        evaluation of specific hazardous materials on an annual basis to determine if approved substitutes are
        available.

    •   Inventory Tracking - can be improved by using a bar-coding system for all hazardous materials used
        at the facility.  The bar-coding system can be used to track the purchase and receipt of chemicals and
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JT ,                       materials at the facility, as well as the requisition of chemicals from the HMCC area to individuals or
                          shops.  Inventory tracking can also be improved with the aid of a tracking system.

                      •   Inventory Controls - should be establish through central storage and inventory points for chemicals
                          and materials used in various locations at the facility.  These storage points (or satellites) could
                          coincide with flammable lockers already bcated throughout  the facility  and could be used to store
                          the hazardous materials issued to each shop.  Further, each satellite  should maintain a written
                          inventory of materials that would be updated as materials are used and stocked.  These  inventories
                          would  be cross checked against the computer tracking system to verify the location and  usage of
                          materials purchased.  Materials used could be stored (daily or  weekly) after use.

                      •   Purchase - of hazardous materials routinely  used in large quantities should be  available for quick
                          delivery.

                      •   Review and Inspection  - of procedures ensures proper usage of lockers and compliance with the
                          HMCC guidelines outlined by the facility.

                          Successful implementation of a HMCC will require that select facility personnel, particularly supply
                  personnel, receive  specialized  training in the administration of a HMCC. Furthermore,  all personnel whose
                  jobs  require the use of hazardous materials or result in the generation  of hazardous wastes will require
                  training on how the HMCC will operate, why  it was implemented, and what their roles and  responsibilities
                  will be.

                  Benefits of Implementing a Hazardous Material Control Center

                      •   A HMCC can identifying and quantifying the types and amounts of hazardous materials purchased
                          and used in order to create a baseline.

                      •   Improves accountability, tracking, and control of hazardous materials.

                      •   Reduces overuse of hazardous materials.

                      •   Reduces occurrences of shelf-life expiration.

                      •   Provides shops with the opportunity to return unneeded or unused requisitioned materials for use by
                          others.

                      •   Ensures timely substitutions of accepted environmentally preferable products.

                      •   Allows the purchase  of some materials in refillable  and/or bulk containers to  reduce  packaging
                          waste.

                  Limitations of Implementing a Hazardous Material Control Center

                      •   Planning and  organization requires extensive man-hours.

                      •   Capital costs for computerized tracking systems can be expensive.

                      •   Program requires all levels of staff acceptance to function properly.

                          Install a Bulk Fluids Distribution System

                          Bulk fluid distribution systems should be purchased and installed to significantly decrease material
                  costs.  Typically, petroleum, oil, and lubricant (POL) products  cost up to  30 percent less when purchased in
                  bulk rather than in quarts  or  gallons,  and the labor  required to triple rinse Sgal pails prior to  disposal is
                  eliminated.  Purchasing fluids in bulk also eliminates  the costs associated with landfill disposal of non-
                  recyclable containers.   Following installation of a bulk dispensing  system, products should be purchased in
                  larger units of issue (i.e., 55-gal drums) and dispensed.

                          There are four basic types of bulk distribution systems including portable tank units, 55-gallon drum
                  pumps, bulk distribution racks, and overhead bulk distribution systems.  The determination of which system is
                  appropriate is dependent on the  volume of fluids dispensed per year and the space available to install the
                  equipment.  The  following is a brief  explanation of each type of bulk oil  distribution system  and the
                  advantages of each.


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    •   Portable Tank Unit - consists of a 24.5-gal tank (oil dispenser), hose assembly (with 50 feet of hose),
        and electronic control handle. Nitrogen gas (or an acceptable substitute) can be used to discharge
        the oil from the tank. Pressurizing the tank eliminates the need for an external power source to operate
        the pump (air, electricity).  The unit can be mounted on a movable cart for use in various areas. The
        portable tank is sealed and pressurized to eliminate the possibility of contamination of the oil t ank during
        servicing of vehicles or machinery.

    •   55-Gallon Drum Pump - connects directly to a 55-gallon drum and includes a trolley, air pump, bung
        screw, connecting hose, hose reel,  and control handle. The hose  is 33 feet in length, but can be
        rigged as long as 50 feet.  The unit can also be equipped with stainless steel recoil hose reels, which
        may be needed in colder climates. Manufacturers recommend ordering the system with an electronic
        oil meter because they are much better than the older style mechanical meters and cost the same.
        They also recommend using an air regulator inside the drum.  This system works well in shops with
        limited  overhead space.    Since fluid  is  dispensed from the same  container as it is received, it
        eliminates  the  possibility  of spill  during transfer of fluid from  a 55-gal  drum to  a secondary
        container.

    •   Bulk Distribution Rack - dispenses fluids  from pre-set containers organized in a rack system.  Each
        container holds 65 gallons, and is equipped with a site glass to monitor stock levels. Fluid is  gravity-
        fed to a fixed dispensing point.  A second container is required to transfer the fluids from the rack to
        a portable container. The transfer pump removes the fluids from the original 55-gal container and
        fills  the container on the rack so there is no heavy lifting required.  The number of containers and
        size of the rack can be ordered to meet the  specific needs of the shop area. The system works well in
        shop areas with limited floor space.  The downside of bulk distribution is that a small amount of
        cross contamination of products may occur when switching transfer pumps from one fluid type to a
        second.

    •   Overhead Bulk Distribution  System - is custom designed to the user's specifications to dispense
        fluids from transfer lines suspended  above the shop floor.  This system reduces  labor costs by
        placing commonly used fluids within the  operator's reach.  The volume of fluid dispensed can be
        metered to achieve accurate  volumes.   Fluids are dispensed  from a central  location, either in the
        maintenance area or in an adjacent room from 55-gal drums or storage tanks with air driven  pumps.
        Electronic tracking devices can be installed to monitor and record fluid usage.  Typically air, grease,
        hydraulic fluid, gear oil, motor oil, and antifreeze are dispensed  with this  system.  The  system
        eliminates the labor required to retrieve the  fluid product from a drum or dispensing rack.

Benefits of Installing a Bulk Fluids Distribution System

    •   Reduces disposal of empty containers.

    •   Cost savings associated with purchasing in bulk.

    •   Reduces loss of product.

    •   View windows on the fluid containers provide a constant reading of fluid amounts, so a shortage or
        overstock of fluids is minimized or eliminated.

    •   Increased operating efficiency.

    •   Conservation of valuable shop floor space.

Limitations of Installing a Bulk Fluids Distribution System

    •   Cross contamination may occur when switching transfer pumps from one fluid to a second.

    •   Spills may occur when transferring fluids from a 55-gallon drum to a portable unit.

        Minimize Packaging Waste Through Design

        Without compromising  health,  safety, or product-integrity  standards  or violating  regulatory
requirements,  preferred  packaging design  practices  should  be  implemented.   Looking at total  cost,
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  environmental impacts and site-specific considerations is critical to making a competent decision. Preferred
  packaging practices are discussed below.

      •   Reduce Packaging Size  - to eliminate unnecessary solid waste.  The ultimate goal of packaging
          elimination is often not technologically feasible, but should be attempted, provided product integrity
          will not be jeopardized. Computer aided design programs can be used to devise efficient systems to
          protect and package  almost any product. Besides reducing the amount of packaging entering the
          waste  stream, decreasing the packaging size can also reduce shipping, disposal, and raw material
          costs.

      •   Environmentally  Benign  Materials  -  should be  utilized  whenever  possible.    Toxic,  non-
          biodegradable, and hazardous materials in the packaging often can be eliminated or reduced through
          the use of environmentally friendly products.  For example, items such as starch-based water-soluble
          packing peanuts may  replace environmentally detrimental non-biodegrade polystyrene packaging.

      •   Bulk and Concentrated Materials - should be utilized whenever possible. Products shipped in the
          concentrated form are reduced in size, which reduces the amount of packaging required, while bulk
          containers give more  product with less packaging, therefore reducing the overall waste.

      •   Multi-Use Items - can reduce the mass of packaging material used by decreasing the total number of
          items shipped.  Reducing the number of items shipped also reduces shipping, disposal, and raw
          material costs.

      •   Readily Recyclable Packaging - reduces the amount of manual labor required to prepare materials
          for recycling, and insures that  recycling is economically feasible. In  order to create  readily
          recyclable packaging dissimilar materials such as foam and corrugated cardboard cannot be  bonded,
          and packaging is composed of as few materials as possible.

      •   Durable or Repairable Packaging - can reduce the mass of waste entering the waste stream. Items
          such as broken wooden pallets or reels should be fixed whenever possible, or replaced with more
          durable materials. Durable  aid  fixable items also save the cost of disposal and replacement of
          packaging materials.

      •   Recycled Products - should be used in packaging whenever possible in order to complete the cycle.
          Recycled packaging materials can work as well, if not better than, non-recycled products. The use of
          recycled products is necessary for the recycling process to work.

  Benefits of Minimizing Packaging Waste Through Design

      •   All packaging waste entering the waste stream is ended with packaging elimination.

      •   Packaging size reduction reduces shipping, disposal, and  raw material costs.

      •   Environmentally  benign materials can eliminate or reduce the amount of toxic, non-biodegradable,
          and hazardous materials being produced and disposed of.

      •   Bulk containers  give more product  with less packaging, therefore reducing the overall mass of
          wastes.

      •   Multi-use items can reduce the amount of packaging entering the waste stream by decreasing the
          total number of items shipped.

      •   Durable or repairable packaging can reduce the mass  of unnecessary packaging waste entering the
          waste stream, disposal costs, and replacement costs.

      •   The use of recycled products is necessary for the recycling process to be profitable.

  Limitations of Minimizing Packaging Waste Through Design

      •   Packaging waste elimination is not technologically feasible in most applications.

      •   Packaging redesign to reduce the size may be economically impracticable.
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    •   There may be many conflicts between competing goals, such as recyclability and cost reduction.

    •   Recycled packaging can be more expensive than new materials.

        Improve Hazardous Materials and Waste Management, Secondary Containment, and
Labeling Procedures

        Not only should substitutes be found and used in place of the hazardous materials, but also on-hand
supplies  should  be reduced.  Ensure proper  hazardous waste storage  and labeling procedures are being
followed and train personnel to insure compliance with local, State, and Federal regulations.  Containers used
to store hazardous waste (e.g., paint waste, batteries, waste flammable  liquids) must be properly identified
with a hazardous waste label.   The specific information required to be on the label includes the generator's
USEPA identification number, the words "hazardous waste",  USEPA hazardous waste number, substance
name, and generation date or start/ending accumulation dates.

        It is generally good practice to store other wastes (i.e., waste oil, waste antifreeze, used oil absorbent
pads) in  well-labeled containers with secondary containment.  It is also a good practice to make sure all
containers are labeled, especially if they contain hazardous materials. In addition, metal drums stored outside
should be covered so the integrity of the drums will not be compromised.

Benefits of Improved Hazardous Materials and Waste Management, Secondary Containment, and Labeling
Procedures

    •   Helps to avoid future liabilities from regulatory agencies.

    •   Reduces the potential  generation of waste through mislabeling,  improper storage and handling, and
        exposure to weather.

    •   Reduces the quantity of hazardous waste generated.

    •   Reduces the reporting burden and cost of hazardous waste disposal.

Limitations of Improved Hazardous Materials  and Waste Management. Secondary Containment,  and
Labeling Procedures

        There are no direct limitations to improving hazardous materials and waste management, secondary
containment, and labeling procedures.

        Improve Spill Clean-up Procedures

        All industrial operations should improve their spill prevention and cleanup practices to reduce waste
generation. This involves a hierarchy of options that are listed below.

    •   Use drip pans - to collect the fluids during the draining process  and to collect minor drips and leaks
        during servicing.  This will prevent the leaks from dripping to the floor that will reduce the need to
        use absorbent material or rags to clean the spills. This will also reduce labor time to clean the floors.

    •   Shop Vacuum for Oil Spills - provide  the most environmentally sound way of managing uncontained
        oil.  This process  ensures recoverability of the spilled oil  for future recycling prospects. Several
        vacuums are commercially available for use in wet or dry situations.

    •   Reusable pads  and wringers - can be used to clean the spills and leaks. These pads are  highly
        absorbent and can be  used  several times 4 -10 before having to be disposed.  Once the absorbent
        pads are saturated with oil, the pads can be passed through a wringer that sits on top of a 55-gallon
        drum  which removes  a large amount of the oil,  allowing the pad to be reused.   Facilities  should
        discuss what materials the reusable pads and wringer can be used with to avoid any safety issues.

    •   Collect  and reuse  dry sweep - if it is not possible to use absorbent pads. It is recommended that the
        shops purchase or  construct a dry sweep "sifter".  This device is simply a mesh screen which filters
        usable dry sweep from saturated dry sweep.  The saturated dry sweep forms clumps that cannot pass
        through the  screen, whereas the unclumped, clean dry sweep  can be reused. A small trap door
        located  at the bottom  of the drum is then used to distribute the reusable dry sweep. Once the dry
        sweep is spent, the dry sweep can be compacted.  Compaction of spent sorbents can be accomplished


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JT ,                       using mechanical compactors.  Mechanical compactors compress liquids from the sorbent and also
                          serve to reduce the volume of the absorbent material such that a much smaller number of containers
                          are required for disposal.  Mechanical compactors are typically designed to compact the contents of
                          drums,  and may be fitted with pumps to transfer the liquid to a separate collection container.
                          Sorbents are typically not reusable after compaction.

                      •    Hydrophobia Mops - have a high viscosity oil mop head composed of 100 percent polypropylene,
                          which makes it very effective at absorbing and containing oil spills. The advantage of using this type
                          of mop head is that it is water resistant and will absorb only oil if other materials (i.e. water, engine
                          coolant) are part of the spill. The mop can be reused up to 7 times or more before disposal.

                      •    Reuse Rags and Absorbent Materials  - to wipe, absorb, or clean-up spills.  The rags should be
                          saturated with the substance before being laundered or disposed. Applicable materials include rags,
                          floor sweeps, absorbent pads,  or  any disposable towel.  Designate  two separate containers for
                          partially-used rags and saturated rags to be laundered or disposed.  When finished cleaning a spill,
                          decide whether the rag is partially or entirely saturated and place it in the proper bin. Ensure that all
                          shops follow these procedures.

                 Benefits  of Improved Spill Clean-up Procedures

                      •    Reduces raw material costs and waste generation.

                      •    Reduces labor time required to clean up unnecessary spills and leaks.

                 Limitations of Improved Spill Clean-up Procedures

                      •    It is hard to predict leaks, so drip pan placement is difficult.

                      •    Clean-up equipment can be expensive.

                          Employee Education

                          A high level of employee awareness and education is an essential part of any  company's overall
                 pollution prevention program.  The success or failure of specific procedures depends largely on employee
                 attitudes toward that policy. The employees must discern a  company-wide effort supported at all levels of
                 management that affords the tools and data to ensure success.

                          Employee  training should cover minimization or prevention of waste generation at  the  source,
                 routine process  chemistry additions and sampling, handling of spills and leaks, and operating  of pollution
                 prevention and control technologies.  Background information should be available to employees, such as a
                 background of the  applicable regulations, overall benefits to health and safety in and out of the workplace,
                 and overall cost of waste disposal before and after the successful implementation of waste minimization
                 procedures. This training should be integrated with normal operator training,  and pollution prevention and
                 control procedures should be included in the written operating procedures of each process.

                 Benefits  of Employee Education

                      •    Can create enthusiasm about programs.

                      •    Can reduce chemical usage and losses.

                 Limitations of Employee Education

                      •    Requires extra man-hours for training.

                 5.2.3.2  Recycling

                          Recycling  and reuse opportunities exist both on and off-site for facilities.  Recycling and reuse have
                 innumerable benefits both financially and environmentally.
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        On-Site Recycling

Internal Supply Reuse

        Material reuse can be  an  environmentally friendly  effective solution to excess materials.  Reuse
curtails the flow of material into the waste stream, and does not require the energy necessary for recycling.
Disposal costs and packaging materials costs can als o be reduced through reuse. Packaging materials such as
barrels, crates, polystyrene peanuts, bubble-wrap, and cardboard boxes can be reused internally in many
operations.  Packaging materials are often reused for storage, internal mail,  internal freights, or shipping
product externally.
        Benefits of Reusing Supplies

    •   Packaging reuse decreases the mass of materials entering the waste stream.

    •   Reduces the amount of toxic and non-biodegradable materials entering the waste stream.

    •   Decreasing mass of material entering the waste stream can decrease disposal costs.

    •   Raw material costs may decrease.
        Limitations of Reusing Supplies

    •   Sources for unwanted materials may be difficult to find.

    •   Separating packaging materials for reuse can be time consuming and labor intensive.

        Off-Site Recycling

Returnable Containers

        Returnable containers (returnables) are containers that are shipped back to the original supplier when
empty.  Examples include metal racks, rigid plastic racks, metal skids, returnable bins, and totes.  Returnables
often contain expendable materials to protect the parts.

        Returnables usually have a greater tare weight, which may increase transportation costs and have
negative ergonomic impacts if the containers are manually handled.  If a part is changed significantly, the
returnable containers may have to be altered or completely changed at a relatively high cost.  With a large
number of suppliers, plants may find returnables create a logistical problem requiring detailed tracking and at-
plant storage.  Costs to return these containers may be large, especially if the containers do not break down or
nest and if the distance traveled is great. Returnables need periodic cleaning, repair, and maintenance, which
is an on-going expense. Returnables often have features such as "feet," ribs, or other protrusions that may
inhibit plant materials handling systems. Obviously, these containers do not require disposal, therefore use of
returnables avoids the ever-increasing expense. Despite some of the drawbacks mentioned, returnables are an
attractive option for many situations, especially if the suppliers are relatively close.  Also, when damaged or
obsolete, the racks can be sold back to the manufacturer and recycled into new racks.
        Benefits of Returnable Containers

    •   The initial costs for returnables can be recovered.

    •   Greatly reduces the mass of packaging materials entering the waste stream.

    •   Reduces land disposal costs.

    •   Racks can typically be recycled when damaged or obsolete.

    •   Racks are often composed of recycled material.
        Limitations of Returnable  Containers

    •   Returnable containers require a high initial investment.

    •   Logistical problem may require detailed tracking and at-plant storage.

    •   Costs to return these containers may be prohibitive.
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      •   Periodic cleaning, repair, and maintenance and an on-going expense to utilizing returnables.

      •   Design of returnable containers may inhibit handling systems.

      •   The added tare weight of returnables may increase transportation costs and have negative ergonomic
          impacts if the containers are manually handled.

      •   Part changes can require that the returnable  containers be altered or completely changed at a
          prohibitively high cost.

  Recycling Expendable Packaging

          Expendable packaging is used once and then discarded or the material content is recycled.  These
  include corrugated  boxes,  shrink-wrap,  styrofoam peanuts,  wood  skids, plastic, and  metal banding.
  Expendable packaging is lightweight and may reduce shipping costs.  It  can be easily modified if parts  are
  changed, which provides  greater flexibility.  Recycling  of expendable  packaging  is a good  option, but
  involves internal labor to sort and handle.  If the packaging is well thought out and the proper systems are in
  place in a plant, sorting  and  handling costs can be greatly reduced. The markets for  recycled materials must
  be located and prices vary from location to location and from year to year.   Expendable packaging may not be
  suited near operations sensitive to fiber contamination or near ignition sources.

          Benefits of Recycling Expendable Packaging

      •   Avoids some logistical problems since expendable packaging is not returned to the supplier.

      •   Avoids increasing disposal costs.

      •   Reduces mass of packaging material entering the waste stream.

      •   Expendable packaging has virtually no initial investment.

      •   The lightweight characteristics of expendable materials can reduce shipping prices.
          Limitations of Recycling Expendable Packaging

      •   Markets for the recycled materials must be located.

      •   Recycling involves internal labor to sort and handle the expendable materials.

      •   Expendable materials are not suited for areas sensitive to fiber contamination or areas near ignition.

      •   The recycling market is highly variable.

          Materials Management

          Proper materials management can suppress chemical losses and spills thereby reducing costs and
  waste stream outputs. The main methods of materials management are below.

  Employee Education

          A high level of employee awareness and education is an essential part of any company's overall
  environmental program.  The success or failure of specific procedures depends largely on employee attitudes
  toward  that policy.   The  employees must  discern a  company-wide  effort supported at all  levels  of
  management that affords the tools and data to  ensure success.

          Employee training  should cover minimization or  prevention of waste generation at  the  source,
  routine process chemistry additions and sampling, handling of spills and leaks, and operating of pollution
  prevention and control technologies.  Background information should be available to employees, such as a
  background of the applicable regulations, overall benefits to health and safety in and out of the workplace,
  and overall cost of waste  treatment before and  after the  successful implementation  of waste minimization
  procedures. This training should be integrated  with normal operator training, and pollution prevention and
  control procedures should be included in the written operating procedures of each process.
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Chemical Tracking, Inventory, and Purchasing

        Records of chemical purchases, inventory,  bath analyses,  dumps  and additions, water usage,
wastewater treatment chemical usage, and spent process bath and sludge analyses must be kept in order to
gather an overview of the shop's material balance and waste costs. From these records, data can be gathered
and used to determine the success of an overall minimization policy. Process-specific material balance block
diagrams can be drawn and shared  with  operators.  These diagrams illustrate origins  of waste  production
clearly and can be used to re-engineer plating lines to reduce chemical loss.

        Standardization of materials used throughout a shop can greatly reduce chemical inventory, thereby
reducing costs.  Decisions to purchase one chemical rather than another must consider technical requirements,
environmental impacts, and cost.

Optimize Mixing Operations

        Optimize  mixing operations so that only  the needed amount of materials is mixed.  Limiting the
volume  of chemicals mixed to the exact amount required to perform the job reduces the volume of excess
chemicals disposed per shift.

5.3    Facility Maintenance

        The  following section provides a process description, waste description and  a  broad range of
pollution prevention opportunities that can be implemented to improve facility maintenance activities.

5.3.1   Process Description

        Facility maintenance assures that the facility is able to achieve a performance  level consistent with
design and engineering. Maintenance personnel typically:

    •   Perform routine maintenance on machines,

    •   Maintain the facility grounds,

    •   Fix or replace broken parts, and

    •   Keep the facility and machinery clean.

5.3.2   Waste Description

        Through daily tasks, maintenance personnel encounter many  different waste  streams.   Potentially
hazardous lubricants, fluids, and filters are produced as a result of routine maintenance.  Maintaining facility
grounds often produces large quantities  of yard waste, and brings personnel in contact with  potentially
hazardous chemicals.  Fixing and  replacing parts can produce wastes such as light bulbs, while keeping the
facility clean can produce large quantities of water.

5.3.3   Pollution Prevention  Opportunities

        Pollution prevention opportunities for facility maintenance operations are classified according to the
waste management hierarchy in order of relevance; first,  source reduction  techniques, then secondly, (in-
process) recycling options.

5.3.3.1  Source Reduction

        Source  reduction opportunities  for facility maintenance  exist for routine oil changes, ground
maintenance, and material substitution.

        Establish an Oil Analysis Program

        The  quality of the oil from a facility's machinery should be tested before scheduled changes and
only changed when tests indicate  that it is needed. There are two options to implement this opportunity:
(1) purchase oil analysis equipment, or (2) pay an outside company to test the oil. The  cost for implementing
the oil-testing program will depend on the detail of analysis needed and the availability of facility personnel
to perform the tests. Acquiring the services of an outside vendor is generally  more economically beneficial if
a detailed analysis of oil is needed.  Often the more detailed the analysis needed the more economical it is to
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               Industrial Operations: Facility Maintenance


JT ,              have outside vendors perform the analysis.  However, there is a time delay in obtaining results (1 day to 7-14
                 days) when an outside vendor is used.

                          Oil analysis equipment tests the physical and/or chemical constituents of the oil to determine its
                 quality level.  There are two types of oil analysis -equipment that can be purchased to test the oil. The first is
                 a hand-held oil analyzer that provides limited information on the level of water and fuel contamination. The
                 second type of equipment is a PC-based program that uses a particle separator and viscometer to determine
                 oil quality.  The parameters that are typically evaluated in determining oil quality  include viscosity, total base
                 number (a measure of the oil's ability to neutralize acids), and the concentration of some metal  ions (e.g.,
                 calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sodium, and zinc), which are components of many additives.  Regardless
                 of which system is purchased, operator training is minimal.

                 Benefits of an  Oil Analysis Program

                      •    Oil changes potentially reduced by 50% or more.

                      •    Decreases the volume of oil and number of filters used.

                      •    Reduces quantity of oil wastes and oil filter wastes.

                      •    The manpower spent changing oil can be drastically reduced.

                 Limitations of an Oil Analysis Program

                      •    Off-site testing can take as long as 14 days.

                      •    Not following maintenance schedules can void equipment warranties.

                          Implement Environmentally Preferred Grounds Maintenance Practices

                          Many facilities have grounds maintenance activities on a daily basis that include landscaping, leaf
                 and brush removal, pesticide  and  fertilizer application,  turf maintenance,  lawn  trimming and mowing.
                 Implementing  the following pollution prevention activities can reduce the impacts associated with  grounds
                 maintenance activities.

                      •   Reduce/Eliminate Chemical Use - pesticides and herbicides wherever possible.  The negative long-
                          term  effects of the applications of these chemicals on the environment have been well documented.
                          In addition, improper use and mismanagement of chemical pesticides  can  result in human health
                          concerns.   Over-mixing and over-application of landscaping chemicals leads to the generation of
                          unnecessary waste and environmental degradation. Application near environmentally sensitive areas
                          such  as wetlands and tidal basins should be avoided.

                      •   Practice Environmentally  Sound Pesticide Management - use pesticides with low mobility, high
                          adsorption, and low persistence.  Training employees in proper pesticide preparation, application,
                          and safe handling procedures to maximize product effectiveness and reduce the risk of accidental
                          spills. Use proper lawn care product application equipment and techniques to minimize excessive
                          spraying.   Practice Integrated Pest Management  (IPM) to  minimize use of pesticides by utilizing
                          organic equivalents, beneficial insects and pest  tolerant plant species. Practice strict inventory
                          control to prevent material expiration.

                      •   Avoid Unnecessary Pesticide Use - through spot application practices. This practice ensures that the
                          smallest amount of chemical is applied to the ground and that the chemical  is applied only in areas
                          where it is needed. Spot application reduces contamination of surrounding soil and local groundwater
                          supplies.  Timely application ensures that applied chemicals do the most good when application is
                          needed.  This includes applying chemicals at times when they are most likely to be absorbed by the
                          target species and not spraying in windy conditions or immediately before predicted precipitation
                          events, which could blow or wash the applied chemical into the surrounding environment.

                      •   Employ Environmentally Sound Fertilizer Management - to avoid applying excess fertilizer. Use the
                          rates  that  are recommended for the product by the manufacturer. Understand the needs and growth
                          requirements of the plants, and use the minimum amount of fertilizer necessary to meet the plant
                          needs.
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                                                            Industrial Operations:  Facility Maintenance
    •   Replace Turfgrass with Native Plants - which are hearty and require low maintenance.

    •   Improve Mowing Practices - to reduce waste. Mowers should be set so that no more than 1/3 of the
        lawn height (no more than 1  inch total) is removed with each mowing.  Also,  keep mower blades
        sharp and leave grass clippings in place after mowing.

    •   Compost Yard Waste - and  substitute it for organic  matter such as mulch and topsoil, normally
        purchased for grounds maintenance.

    •   Develop  Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)  - and other  outreach materials for contractors
        and/or staff that are involved in grounds maintenance activities.  SOPs and other materials should
        describe  and promote environmentally sound approaches to landscaping.

Benefits of Implementing an Environmentally Preferred Grounds Maintenance Practices

    •   Reduces the total solid waste  disposal costs by decreasing the waste stream.

    •   Minimizes the hazardous  waste  stream by  reducing potentially  toxic  fertilizer, pesticide, and
        herbicide use.

    •   Potential hazardous waste disposal costs can be decreased.

    •   Reduces water usage, energy  usage, and labor costs.

Limitations of Implementing an Environmentally Preferred Grounds Maintenance Practices

    •   Re-landscaping can be economically prohibitive.

    •   Outside contractors often handle facility maintenance.

        Substitute Low Mercury Fluorescent Tubes for Standard Tubes

        Low mercury fluorescent tubes can be directly substituted for many standard fluorescent tubes. The
mercury content of these tubes is much lower than standard tubes and the many of the tubes will meet TCLP
testing for non-hazardous waste.

5.3.3.2  Recycling

        There  are  many recycling opportunities available to facility maintenance personnel.  Recycling
programs can be utilized to recycle or reuse:

    •   Steel containers and Oil filters,

    •   Scrap Metal and Wood (pallets),

    •   Fluorescent light bulbs and Lamp ballasts,

    •   Shop towels,

    •   Antifreeze, and

    •   Wash water.

        These recycling opportunities and their associated benefits and limitations are discussed in further
detail below.

        Implement a Used Oil Filter/Steel Container Recycling Program

        Used oil filters and steel containers, such as empty aerosol cans and paint cans are often disposed of
in the municipal  solid waste stream,  when they can be recycled.  A comprehensive used steel  container
recycling  program  for  industrial  and  shop  operations  can  reduce  non-hazardous solid waste and
environmental liability from landfilling of containers that once contained petroleum based products.  Used oil
is removed from oil filters either via crushing, shredding or dismantling for use in fuel blending operations,
waste to energy recovery, or oil reclaiming operations. The steel recovered from used oil  filters, aerosol cans,
and paint cans, are crushed into dense cubes, and used by steel mills as a raw material.
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      •   Steel Container/Used Filter Recycler - should be able to handle several or all miscellaneous steel
          waste streams in order to simplify the management oversight required to handle the contract, and
          may allow the waste streams to be commingled at the point of generation for enhanced recyclability.
          Certification that 100 percent of the waste stream received is recycled and cradle -to -grave tracking
          to eliminate  future liability  from the waste stream  are two important qualities to look for in any
          recycler.

      •   Place Recycling Containers in  Convenient Locations — such as near the point of generation is
          important for increased recycling participation of any waste stream. The service contract established
          with a steel recycler should provide timely removal of full containers.

      •   Awareness Training  - is  the key to any successful recycling program.  Personnel must properly
          understand what is and what is not recyclable, and where to recycle it.  When personnel are unsure
          of whether or not an item is  recyclable, 9 out of 10 times it will end up in the waste steam. Monthly
          updates in the newsletter and recycling posters promoting the recycling of new waste streams will
          help educate personnel on proper procedures and an environmentally friendly alternative disposal
          method to landfilling.

  Benefits of Implementing a Used Oil Filter/Steel Container Recycling Program

      •   Recycling will reduce the quantity of solid waste generated by the facility.

      •   Disposal costs will be reduced.

      •   Sale of recyclable materials can be economically beneficial.

  Limitations of Implementing a Used Oil Filter/Steel Container Recycling Program

      •   A recycling program is limited staff participation.

      •   A local recycler has to be able to handle  the types and amounts of materials generated.

          Establish a Recycling Program for Fluorescent Lights and Ballasts

          Fluorescent and high-intensity discharge lamps contain mercury to conduct the flow of the electric
  current. Historically, fluorescent lights have been discarded in  landfills, where they can break  and release
  mercury into the environment. This potential hazard has caused many states to classify fluorescent light tubes
  as hazardous waste and require that they be managed in accordance with applicable hazardous waste laws and
  regulations.  There are recyclers across the nation who accept fluorescent light tubes for recycling.

          Lamp ballasts can also be recycled. Fluorescent lighting ballasts manufactured before 1980 contain
  polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which also have disposal problems associated with them. In fluorescent
  fixtures, PCBs were  usually found in ballasts within small capacitors or in the  form of a  black, tar-like
  compound.  The useful  life of ballasts is  approximately  1 5  years,  so disposal of ballasts containing PCBs
  should not be a problem much longer since ballasts produced after 1980 do not have PCBs. If a ballast is not
  labeled "NO PCBs," it should be assumed that it contains PCBs.

          Diethylhexylphthalate (DEHP) was  used to replace  PCBs in certain ballast capacitors beginning  in
  1979.  DEHP is considered a human carcinogen.   Ballasts designed for the following  fixtures contained
  DEHP: four foot fluorescent fixtures manufactured between 1979 and 1985; eight foot fluorescent fixtures
  manufactured between 1979 and 1991; and high  intensity discharge fixtures manufactured between 1979 and
  1991 .  To determine if a ballast contains DEHP, the manufacturer should be contacted or the capacitor should
  be sent to a laboratory for tests.

          Facilities are encouraged to manage all ballasts as hazardous because of the possible PCB or DEHP
  content. Recyclers remove the PCB- or DEHP -containing materials for incineration or land disposal.  Metals
  can be reclaimed from the ballasts for use in manufacturing other products.

          Fluorescent  bulb  recycling costs  range  from  $0.06/ft  to  $0. 15/ft,  not including  packaging,
  transportation,  or profile fees. Disposal  costs at a hazardous waste landfill range  from $0.25-$0.50 per four
  foot fluorescent tube and $0.33-$0.83  per ballast, not including packaging, transportation or profile fees.
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                                                            Industrial Operations: Facility Maintenance
        Recycling the light bulbs intact instead of crushing them at the facility is preferable in order to
reduce possible employee exposure to mercury vapors.  After accumulating a number of tubes, the facility
should ship them to a vendor for recycling or arrange for a recycler to pick them up. Some vendors prefer the
lights be boxed in their original packaging; others provide special shipping boxes which comply with DOT
specifications. Lamp ballasts should also be recycled.

        Fluorescent lights with lower concentrations of mercury should be purchased.  A new low-mercury
fluorescent light tube became available in late 1995.  The four-foot tube contains  10 milligrams of mercury
compared with 22.8 milligrams  in  currently produced  lamps,  down from an  industry average  of 38.4
milligrams per tube in 1990.

Benefits of Establishing a Recycling Program for Fluorescent Lights and Ballasts

        Recycling spent fluorescent lighting tubes offers an environmentally sound alternative to solid or
hazardous waste disposal.

    •   Shipping the tubes intact reduces the risk of employee exposure to mercury.

    •   Permitting should not be required if tubes are sent for recycling.

Limitations of Establishing a Recycling Program for Fluorescent Lights and Ballasts

    •   Tubes must be collected until enough are collected to be economically efficient to send.

    •   All employees must participate in the recycling program.

        Implement a Shop Towel Laundry Service

        A facility-wide  shop  towel laundry program with a  commercial laundry should be  developed.
Industrial laundry services generally pick up the dirty shop towels and drop off clean ones each week.  Most
laundries will accept all shop towels except those contaminated with hazardous waste.  Depending on the
vendor, shop towels may be provided with the service.

        Personnel should ensure that all shop towels are used  to their maximum potential before  sending
them to the laundry service to be washed.  Extending the service life of the shop towels through improved
operating procedures can reduce program  operating costs and  reduce water consumption at  the laundry.
Therefore, each shop should designate one container each for clean, used, and partially used shop towels.

Benefits of Implementing a Shop Towel Laundry Service

    •   Up to a 90% reduction in waste generation can be noticed with laundered towels versus disposable.

    •   Environmental liabilities associated with improper disposal practices are reduced.

Limitations of Implementing a Shop Towel Laundry Service

    •   Laundry services can be more expensive than disposable shop towels.

        Establish an Antifreeze Recycling Program

        Facilities should establish an antifreeze recycling program to recover used antifreeze.  Facilities can
purchase either a bulk recycler for processing large  amounts of  antifreeze or smaller  units that can
simultaneously filter fluid  and flush cooling systems of machines,  automobiles, and  small  trucks.  Bulk
recyclers have a higher initial cost but lower operating costs than the smaller ones.

        Currently, there  are two popular reclamation systems.  One system uses ion exchange  and the other
uses vacuum  distillation as the primary separation/purification process. These systems filter solids from the
spent antifreeze and remove the metal ion contaminants from the solution. The recovered coolant solution
often requires blending with an inhibitor package to restore it to its initial state. The two recycling  systems
work with either ethylene glycol or propylene glycol, but each must be processed separately. These  systems
are relatively simple to operate, compact (~4' x 4'), portable (on wheels or can be mounted on a trailer or
truck), and are easy to maintain.

        The  distillation  system produces  the larger quantity  of waste residue.  Residue production is
approximately 3 gallons of residue per 75 gallons of spent antifreeze.  This residue is probably a hazardous
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               Industrial Operations: Facility Maintenance


JT ,              waste since the lead contamination is often greater than 5 ppm, but only a Toxicity Characteristics Leaching
                 Procedure  [TCLP]  analysis can  determine  whether  the waste  has this  hazardous characteristic.   The
                 manufacturer of this unit claims that a batch of accumulated residue can itself be processed to further reduce
                 the total volume of waste produced.

                         The ion exchange unit does not produce any liquid hazardous waste residue; however, it does require
                 filter replacement.  Spent filters accumulate metals and may be considered hazardous waste if disposed.  Once
                 the ion exchange filters are spent they must be shipped back to the manufacturer for regeneration.  The spent
                 filters are not generally treated as a hazardous waste  since they are re-used after regeneration and are not
                 disposed.  This system is recommended.

                 Benefits of Establishing an Antifreeze Recycling Program

                      •   Reduces purchasing, materials handling, and waste disposal costs.

                      •   Reduces the mass of materials entering the waste stream.

                      •   The recycling systems can be portable.

                 Limitations of Establishing an Antifreeze Recycling Program

                      •   The residue from the distillation recycler may be considered hazardous waste.

                         Install a Wastewater Recycling System & High Pressure Low Volume Washers for Vehicles
                 and Equipment Cleaning

                         Facilities that regularly wash machinery or fleet vehicles should consider the installation of a wash
                 water recycling system. A wastewater recycling  system, or recycling wash rack, removes oils, grease,  soils,
                 and most other contaminants from the wash water through a closed loop system, greatly reducing the burden
                 placed on the oil water separators and the wastewater treatment plant. Additionally, water consumption from
                 washing operations can be reduced by  an  estimated 90 percent.  Some systems require  construction  of an
                 inclined wash pad and installation of a submersible processing pump.  If applicable, wash water from current
                 washing operations  may need to be tested for metal concentrations to determine if a pre-metal isolation filter
                 for the system is necessary. Depending on the design of the model, an open pool of dirty water is visible.

                         High Pressure Low Volume (HPLV) washer  options should be chosen when selecting  the water
                 delivery system for each type of wastewater recycling  unit. When combined with the wastewater recycling
                 unit, the total consumption of water can further be reduced. If HPLV washers are  not available, they can be
                 purchased separately.

                 Benefits of Installing a Wastewater Recycling System & High Pressure Low Volume Washers for Vehicles
                 and Equipment Cleaning

                      •   Water consumption and cost can be greatly reduced.

                      •   The strain on the municipal wastewater treatment plant and oil water separators is  reduced.

                 Limitations of Installing a  Wastewater Recycling System & High Pressure Low Volume Washers for Vehicles
                 and Equipment Cleaning

                      •   Water recycling equipment is expensive.

                      •   Washing operations must be very high volume in order to be cost efficient.

                      •   An open pool of dirty water may be visible with the recycler


                 5.4    Metal Working

                         The following  section provides a process description, waste  description  and  a broad range of
                 pollution prevention opportunities that can be implemented to improve metal working operations.
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                                                                  Industrial Operations: Metal Working
5.4.1   Process Description

        Metal working includes processes that machine, treat, coat, plate, paint and clean metal parts.  There
are two major  segments of the industry:  pb shops that process materials owned by other parties on a
contractual basis, and captive  shops that  are part of larger manufacturing facilities.   Metal fabrication
processes are integral parts of aerospace, electronic, defense, automotive, furniture, domestic appliance, and
many other industries. Metal working operations involve various metal cutting processes that include the
following.

      •    Turning                  •   Threading                    •   Polishing

      •    Drilling                  •   Broaching                    •   Planing

      •    Milling                  •   Grinding                     •   Cutting and shaping

      •    Reaming

        Metal working processes use cutting tools of some sort that travel along the  surface of the work
piece, shearing  away the metal ahead of it.  Most of the power consumed in cutting is transformed into heat,
the major portion of which is carried away by the metal chips, while the remainder is divided between the tool
and work piece.

        Turning processes and  some drilling are done on lathes, which hold and rapidly spin the work piece
against the edge of the cutting tool.   Drilling machines are intended not only for making holes, but for
reaming (enlarging or finishing) existing holes.  Reaming machines  using  multiple cutting edge tools  also
carry out this process. Milling machines also use multiple edge cutters, in contrast with the single point tools
of a lathe.  While drilling cuts a circular hole, milling can cut unusual or irregular shapes into the work piece.

        Broaching  is a process whereby internal surfaces  such as  holes  or circular, square or irregular
shapes, or external surface like keyways are finished. A many-toothed cutting tool called  a broach is used in
this process.  The broach's teeth are graded in size in  such a way that each one cuts a small chip from the
work piece as the tool is pushed or pulled past the work piece surface, or through a leader hole.  Broaching of
round holes often gives greater accuracy and better finishing than reaming.

        Metal working processes often apply a liquid (or sometimes gases) to the work piece and cutting tool
in order to aid in the cutting operation.  A metalworking fluid is used:

    •   To keep tool temperature down, preventing premature wear and damage;

    •   To keep work piece temperature down, preventing it from being warped;

    •   To provide a good finish on the work piece;

    •   To wash away chips; and

    •   To inhibit corrosion or surface oxidation of the work piece.

        Also, metalworking fluids are frequently used to lubricate the tool-work piece interface, in additional
to simply cooling it.

        Metalworking fluids can be air-blasted, sprayed or drawn through  suction onto the tool-work piece
interface.  Types of fluids include water (either plain or containing an alkali); an emulsion of soluble oil; and
"straight" oils (those that are not water-based) such as mineral, sulphurized, or chlorinated oil.

        Air drafts are often used with grinding, polishing and boring operations to remove dust and chips,
and to cool to a certain extent.  Aqueous solutions containing approximately one percent by weight of an
alkali such as borax, sodium carbonate or trisodium  phosphate exhibit high cooling properties and also
provide corrosion prevention for some materials.  These solutions are inexpensive and sometimes are used for
grinding, drilling, sawing, and light milling and turning operations.

5.4.2   Waste Description

        The  major wastes from metal working operations are spoiled or contaminated metalworking fluids
and metal chips. The spent metalworking fluids are often treated as hazardous wastes because of their metal


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               Industrial Operations: Metal Working


JT ,               and oil content, as well as other chemical  additives such as chlorine, sulfur and phosphorus compounds,
                  phenols, creosols and alkalies. While fresh metalworking fluids contain varying degrees of oil depending on
                  their function, "tramp" hydraulic and lubricating oils also find their way into the fluids during the course of
                  operations.  Spent metalworking fluids can be either disposed of or recycled on- or off-site. Metal chips can
                  be collected for recycling.

                          While metalworking fluid purchases typically  account for  less than 0.5 percent of  the  cost  of
                  operating a machine tool, the problems that contaminated and degraded fluids can cause can be expensive and
                  troublesome.  Proper  coolant and cutting oil maintenance is necessary to prevent excessive machine tool
                  downtime, corrosion, and rancidity problems.

                          Rancid metalworking, perhaps  the most common problem, can affect productivity and  operator
                  morale.  Rancid odors are produced in contaminated fluids due to bacterial action.  The odors are especially
                  strong when machines are started up after periods of downtime.  The odors are frequently unpleasant enough
                  that the fluid must be changed.

                          Insufficient maintenance of cutting fluids, especially water-based fluids, can result in work piece and
                  machine tool corrosion.  Cutting fluids are needed to protect in-process parts from corrosion, but they will not
                  offer this protection  if they  have  deteriorated due to rancidity,  or if they are  not  maintained at the
                  recommended concentrations.  Cutting fluids also must not be allowed to penetrate into gear boxes or into
                  lubricating oil reservoirs, or internal damage to machines can result.

                          Contamination  of water miscible  metalworking  fluids by "tramp"  lubricating and hydraulic oils
                  constitutes one of the major causes of fluid  deterioration.  The tramp oils interfere with the cooling effect of
                  the fluids, promote bacterial growth, and contribute to oil mist and smoke in the shop environment. Tramp
                  oils impair the filterability of metalworking fluids through both disposable and permanent media filters, and
                  thus inhibit recycling.  Tramp oils also contribute to unwanted residues on cutting tools and machine parts.

                          A serious problem caused by tramp oils is the promotion of bacterial growth, primarily pseudomonas
                  oleovorans, in the metalworking fluid. Such bacteria degrade lubricants, emulsifiers and corrosion inhibitors
                  in the metalworking fluids, and liberate gases, acids and salts as byproducts of their growth.  Bacterial growth
                  also interferes with the cooling effect of metalworking fluids.

                          The tramp oils  that most contribute to bacteria  growth are hydraulic oils (used in hydraulic assist
                  systems), due to their high water miscibility compared to lubricating oils, and to the phosphorus  antiwear
                  compounds they contain, which catalyze microbe growth.  Lubricating and machine ramp oils create fewer
                  problems, because their lower miscibility causes them to float to the surface of the coolant.

                          Solvent wastes resulting from cleaning of parts and equipment also comprise a sizable waste stream.
                  This waste stream is examined in Section 5.5, Cleaning and Degreasing.

                  5.4.3   Pollution Prevention Opportunities

                          Pollution prevention opportunities for metal working operations are classified according to the waste
                  management hierarchy in order of relevance; first, source reduction techniques, then  secondly,  (in-process)
                  recycling options.

                  5.4.3.1   Source Reduction

                          As  identified  in  the  Waste  Description  section, the primary  problem  in  metalworking  fluid
                  management is contamination with tramp oil and the problems  that result from this. While the best solution
                  for tramp oil problems is to prevent the  oils from entering the metalworking fluid, some contamination will
                  occur  as  the machines  and their oil seals and wipes wear. This can be reduced through the following
                  activities:
                      •   Preventive Maintenance Program,

                      •   Improved Housekeeping Procedures, and
                          Fluid Selection.
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                                                                   Industrial Operations: Metal Working
        The following provides a brief description of each type of source reduction activity identified to
reduce waste metalworking fluid.

        Preventive Maintenance Program

        Preventive maintenance activities  such as periodic seal and wiper replacement can extend the
working life of the fluid by preventing contamination with tramp oils.  Metalworking fluid performance starts
with a preventive maintenance program that includes:

    •   Use of high quality, stable cutting and grinding fluids;

    •   Use of demineralized water for mixing purposes;

    •   Fluid concentration control;

    •   Control of fluid chemistry (pH, dissolved oxygen, etc.);

    •   Fluid contamination prevention;

    •   Periodic sump and machine cleaning;

    •   Period gasket, wiper and seal inspections and replacements to minimize tramp oil contamination;

    •   Regular cleaning  of  metalworking fluid through filtering or centrifugation,  in  order to minimize
        microbe growth by controlling tramp oil buildup; and

    •   Assignment of responsibility for fluid control to one person.

        A periodic schedule  of metalworking  fluid testing can also alert plant staff to deteriorating fluid
qualities  in time to prevent failure of the fluid.  Tests might include analyses for pH, specific component
concentration  including  additives,  particulate  matter, tramp oil, rust  inhibitor, biocide concentrate,  and
dissolved oxygen.  Low pH values indicate low product  concentrations, and thus related problems such as
increase in metal fines or other suspended solids, and heightened vulnerability to microbe growth and tramp
oil contamination.

        Improved Housekeeping Procedures

        An irritating problem in many shops is the  contamination of fluids with trash such as cigarette butts,
food or food wrappers that find their way into  sumps.  Better housekeeping procedures, including  operator
training and coverage of sumps with screens or solid covers,  can help reduce this ongoing problem.

        Fluid Selection

        It is important to carefully select the metalworking  fluid most suitable for the particular application,
in order to maximize performance and  long  fluid life.  Fluid selection should be done from an overall, plant-
wide perspective, in order to find the best products as well  as to minimize the number of different  fluids in
use.  With the broad applications of some high quality fluids, it is sometimes possible to employ only one
type in an entire plant, although different applications in the plant may require different proportions of water
and concentrate.

        In order to make informed choices of fluids, it is important to know not only about the fluids' cutting
and grinding abilities, but also  about factors such as their resistance to bacterial attack, the residues they leave
on machine tools and work-pieces, the corrosion protection  they offer, the health dangers they present, such
as skin or respiratory  irritation, and the environmentally hazardous chemicals they contain.  For instance,
chemically active lubricants contain chlorine, sulfur or phosphorus may  be used.  Fluids can also contain
phenols, creosols, and harsh alkalies. Tramp oils often carry  other hazardous contaminants into metalworking
fluid, and can lead to breakdown of the fluid and formation of hydrogen sulfide.

        Use of synthetic metalworking fluids can  sometimes result in dramatically  increased fluid  life.
Synthetic fluids are made up of chemicals such as nitrites, nitrates, phosphates, and borates.  Synthetic fluids
contain only zero to one percent soluble oils in the fluid concentrate, compared to 30 to 90 percent soluble oil
in non-synthetic metalworking fluid concentrates.  While  the lubricity of synthetic fluids is lower than many
non-synthetic fluids, an advantage of synthetic fluids is that tramp oils are not able to contaminate them as
easily  as  non-synthetic fluids, because they are not able to  readily enter the fluid emulsion,  which leads to


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                Industrial Operations:  Metal Working


JT ,               breakdown of the fluid's qualities.  Many synthetic fluids offer greater thermal stability at high temperatures,
                  resisting oxidation better than non-synthetic fluids.

                          Gases can sometimes be used in place of coolants, because they can cool work pieces and tools with
                  no work piece contamination. Air is the most frequently used gas, and is employed both in dry cutting and
                  with other fluids.  Nitrogen and carbon dioxide are occasionally used as  well, but their cost is high  and
                  therefore their applications are limited.

                  Benefits of Source Reduction Opportunities for Metal Working

                      •   Decreased waste generation from the cross-contamination of metal working fluids.

                      •   Increased facility production from decreased down time to replace metal working fluids.

                      •   Lower maintenance and labor costs associated with change-out and cleaning of metal working fluids.

                      •   Reduced operating costs for new metal working fluids.

                  Limitations of Source Reduction Opportunities for Metal Working

                      •   No limitations were identified.

                  5.4.3.2  Recycling

                          Recycling of deteriorated or contaminated fluids can reduce costly hauling and disposal charges.
                  Also, recycling will minimize the  need for purchase of high priced fluid concentrates.  While many shops
                  engage off-site recycling companies to handle their spent fluids, it is very feasible for larger shops to recycle
                  in-house.  Off-site recyclers employ processes to separate oily wastes from water. The  water is released to
                  the sewer while the oil is refined or used as fuel. In-house recycling typically focuses on extending the usable
                  life of metalworking  fluids, rather than to  separate and refine the  oils  it  contains.   Continuous in-house
                  filtration of fluids in machine sumps reduces the requirement for new fluids, avoids recycling charges,  and
                  saves money by reducing machine downtime for cleaning and coolant recharge.

                          Methodologies for recycling metalworking fluids include:

                      •   Gravity & Vacuum Filtration,

                      •   Separation By Dissolved Air Flotation,

                      •   Coalescing,

                      •   Hydrocycloning,

                      •   Centrifuging, and

                      •   Pasteurization and Downgrading.

                          The following provides a brief description of each recycling method identified to reduce the disposal
                  of waste metalworking fluids.  Each option can be employed either on-site or by an off-site contractor.

                          Gravity and Vacuum Filtration

                          In gravity pressure and  vacuum filtration technologies, the waste coolant is passed through a
                  disposable filter to remove solid  particles.   Diatomaceous earth filters are also used  at times, but their
                  adsorptive  properties are so high that they can actually remove additives  from a metalworking fluid.   In
                  skimming separations, the metalworking  fluid  is allowed  to sit motionless until immiscible tramp oil floats to
                  the surface, where it is manually removed or  skimmed automatically using oil-attracting belts, floating ropes
                  or wheels.  If the oil contaminants are fairly  miscible, as is the case with hydraulic oils, or if the coolants in
                  the fluid have emulsified the oils, they will not rise to the surface on their own, and other separation
                  techniques must be used.

                          Separation by Dissolved Air Flotation

                          Separation of oil  contaminants can sometimes be enhanced through dissolved air flotation.  In this
                  method, the metalworking fluid waste  stream is put under high pressure  and air is injected.  When  the
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                                                                  Industrial Operations: Metal Working
pressure is released, the air comes out of the solution, attaches to the oil and grit in the fluid, and floats it to
the surface, where it can be skimmed off.

        Coalescing

        In coalescing techniques, the fluid is brought into contact with an aleophilic ("oil loving") medium
formed into a high surface area shape such as corrugated plates or vertical tubes. Oil droplets impinge on the
media and cling to it, eventually coalescing to form large droplets that float to the surface of the fluid and are
skimmed off by adjustable weirs.   Coalescers are not effective for removing water-miscible hydraulic oils or
emulsified lubricating oils, because they do not readily separate from the metalworking fluid.

        Hydrocycloning

        A hydrocyclone uses centrifugal force to separate solid contaminants from the fluid. Waste fluid is
pumped under  pressure into the  top of a cone-shaped compartment in which a vortex is set up.  As the
spinning fluid accelerates down the cone, solids are forced to the outer wall. The solids move downward and
are discharged, while the clean fluid is  forced by  back pressure to move upward through the center of the
cone.  Hydrocyclones  can remove particles down to about 5 microns; they cannot,  however, efficiently
remove small quantities of tramp  oil. The advantage of this type of system is  that it  is mechanically very
simple and relatively easy to operate.

        Centrifuging

        Centrifuging involves mechanical rotation of the metalworking fluid, providing several thousand G's
of separating force.  Centrifugation is able to remove hydraulic oils and other emulsified tramp oils as well as
"free" oils.  Low RPM centrifuges are also used as  "chip wringers" to separate reusable oil clinging to metal
chips.

        Pasteurization & Downgrading

        Another recycling method is the combination of pasteurization and low speed Centrifuging.  While
this method is promising for certain applications, pasteurization is a tremendously energy  intensive process,
and  is  only  marginally  successful  in  controlling  microbe  growth.   Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
Pseudomonas oleovorans are two coolant-attacking bacteria that are notoriously hard to kill. Pasteurization
can also cause  de-emulsification of oils,  and if the metalworking fluid has degraded to the point where it has a
gray color and emits a hydrogen sulfide odor, pasteurization and centrifugation can only remove the odor and
color, but often cannot restore the fluid's lubricity and corrosion inhibition.

        Used high  performance hydraulic fluid  that no longer fulfills exacting specifications can often be
downgraded and employed as cutting oils. For instance, certain mil spec hydraulic oils cannot be employed
in their original application once their viscosity has  dropped due to polymer shearing, but if the oils have been
kept clean, additives can be mixed into them to make  excellent metalworking fluids.

Benefits of Recycling Metal Working Fluids

    •   Decreased waste generation from the reuse of metal working fluids.

    •   Increased facility production  from decreased downtime to replace metal working fluids.

    •   Lower maintenance and labor costs associated with change-out and cleaning of metal working fluids.

    •   Reduced operating costs for new metal working fluids.

Limitations of Recycling Metal Working Fluids

    •   Potentially high capital cost depending on the required quality level for the fluid.

    •   Additional maintenance and labor expense to maintain and operate the recycling equipment.


5.5    Cleaning  & Degreasing

        The following section provides  a process description, waste description and a broad range of
pollution prevention opportunities  that can be implemented to improve  cleaning and degreasing operations.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          111
Notes

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Industrial Operations: Cleaning & Degreasing
  5.5.1   Process Description

          Cleaning and degreasing processes are applied in a variety of industries to remove dirt, soil, and
  grease (often referred to together as soil).  Cleaning and degreasing are done as a final step in manufacturing
  a product,  as a preliminary step in preparing a surface for further work (e.g., electroplating), or as a cleaning
  step for forms or equipment between uses.

          In preparing metals for finishing, the cleaning process is the most important. Finishing processes
  depend on a clean surface as a foundation.  In selecting a cleaning operation, the process to be performed, as
  well as the type of metal and contaminant, are important considerations.

          Many parts manufacturers clean their own products, whereas others send them  out to companies
  with the sole business of parts cleaning. Currently, the common cleaning processes for metals include liquid
  solvent cleaning (cold cleaning) and vapor degreasing.  Liquid solvent cleaning usually is done in large tanks
  containing solvent solutions in which the parts  are immersed.  This usually is an automated process. Vapor
  degreasing  generally  involves  chlorinated  solvents  such as methylene chloride,  1 , 1 , 1 -trichloroethane,
  trichloroethylene, or perchloroethylene.  Parts are immersed in the vapors of these solvents for degreasing. In
  the dry cleaning industry, perchloroethylene is commonly used for washing clothes.

          In the electronics industry, parts generally are  cleaned after soldering to remove  contaminants.
  These  contaminants originate from the fluxes used to promote the wetting necessary for good solder joints to
  be formed.  The flux residue can interfere with future processes and reduce the aesthetics and reliability of a
  part.  Traditionally, chlorinated, fluorinated, and other halogenated solvents have been used to remove these
  residues.

  5.5.2   Waste Description

          Cleaning and degreasing technologies generally involve applying some  form  of a solvent to a part.
  Solvents are used in virtually every industry to some extent.  During the cleaning process, there is often an
  environmental problem with  air emissions from the solvents. After the cleaning  process, a waste stream
  composed of the solvent combined with oil, debris, and other contaminants is left for disposal.

          Halogeneated solvents, which are known for their  stability,  ease of drying, and effectiveness in
  removing oils, have detrimental environmental effects.  Solvent evaporation has been investigated for its role
  in stratospheric ozone depletion, global warming potential, and ground smog formation.

          Using halogeneated solvents to clean and degrease not only  generates hazardous solvent wastes but
  also create  work  conditions that may be detrimental to  the health  and safety  of  workers.   Questions
  concerning safety and health issues include chronic and acute effects, carcinogenicity, and teratogenicity.

          Because environmental laws restrict the use  of such solvents, many industries are attempting to
  reduce or eliminate their use of halogenated solvents. Additional restrictions can be expected in the future.

  5.5.3   Pollution Prevention Opportunities

          Pollution prevention opportunities for cleaning and degreasing operations are classified according to
  the waste management hierarchy in order of relevance;  first, source reduction techniques, then secondly, (in-
  process) recycling options.

  5.5.3. 1 Source Reduction

          Cleaner technologies now exist or are being developed that would reduce or eliminate the use of
  solvents for many cleaning and degreasing operations. There are two main focuses  in describing  cleaner
  technologies for cleaning and degreasing:

  •   Alternative Cleaning Solutions - (e.g., aqueous-based) can directly replace existing solvents with little or
      no process modifications.

  •   Process Changes - use different technologies for cleaning or eliminate the need for cleaning. The capital
      costs may be greater for process changes, but the reduced cost of buying and disposing of solvents often
      makes up for this.
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                                                          Industrial Operations: Cleaning & Degreasing
        Both alternative cleaning  solutions and process changes may have limitations that should be
carefully evaluated by potential users for their specific applications.

        Alternative Cleaning Solutions

        Alternative cleaning  and degreasing solutions are non-ozone depleting or lower ozone depleting
substances that are non-hazardous; have low toxicity, low odor, and high flash points; produce low emissions
of volatile organic compounds; and are effective for removing contaminants.  Alternative cleaning solutions
present a sound option to reduce or eliminate the use of hazardous cleaning and degreasing chemicals from
the workplace through source reduction.

        The following seven common alternative cleaning solutions are presented below: (1) aqueous
cleaners, (2) semi-aqueous cleaners, (3) petroleum hydrocarbons, (4) hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), (5)
miscellaneous organic solvents, (6) supercritical fluids, and (7) carbon dioxide snow.

        Exhibit 5.1  describes each available cleaner technology.  It lists the  pollution prevention benefits,
reported application,  operational benefits,  and limitations  of  each  technology to  allow preliminary
identification of those technologies that may be applicable to specific situations.

Aqueous Cleaners

        Aqueous cleaning and degreasing can be performed for  a wide variety of applications, including
those that once were considered the domain of vapor degreasing or cold solvent cleaning. However, some
ferrous metals may exhibit flash rusting in aqueous environments; therefore, such parts should be tested prior
to full-scale use.

        Many kinds of aqueous cleaning products are available. Thus, some investigation is required to find
cleaners that are most effective against the contaminants typically encountered and to find cleaners that give
the best performance with the process equipment that will be  used.  Whereas solvents depend largely on their
ability to dissolve organic contaminants on a molecular level, aqueous  cleaners utilize a combination  of
physical and chemical properties to remove macroscopic amounts of organic contaminants from a substrate.
Aqueous cleaning is more effective at higher temperatures, and  normally is  performed  above 120°F using
suitable immersion, spray, or ultrasonic washing  equipment.  For this reason, good engineering practices and
process controls tend to be more important in aqueous cleaning than in traditional solvent  cleaning to achieve
optimum and consistent results.

        When switching from solvent cleaning to aqueous cleaning, one should be aware that parts usually
need to be rinsed and will remain wet for some time unless action is taken to speed up the drying process.

        The ability of aqueous cleaners to remove most contaminants has been demonstrated in numerous
tests.  Aqueous cleaners are capable of removing inorganic contaminants, particulates,  and films.  They also
exhibit considerable flexibility in  application because their  performance is strongly affected by formulation,
dilution, and temperature.   The formulation  that  gives the best  results can  be found  through some
investigation, and the user can select the dilution factor and temperature that give the best results.
        Benefits of Aqueous Cleaners

    •   The primary pollution prevention benefit of aqueous cleaners is that they are non-ozone depleting
        and may not contain VOCs.

    •   Aqueous cleaners that are non-hazardous initially remain so unless they become contaminated with
        hazardous materials during cleaning operations.

    •   In some cases, spent  cleaner can be treated to remove contaminants, which may allow them to  be
        discharged to sewers,  provided that the effluents meet local discharge requirements.

    •   Aqueous cleaners are nonflammable, therefore, there  is no risk of fire.

    •   Aqueous  cleaners  are  available  in  a wide  variety of formulations,  strengths,  and materials
        compatibility properties.
Notes
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Industrial Operations: Cleaning & Degreasing
                           Exhibit 5.1: Available Technologies for Alternatives to Chlorinated Solvents for Cleaning and Degreasing
Technology Type
                    Pollution Prevention
                         Benefits
Reported Application
      Operational Benefits
        Limitations
Aqueous Cleaners
                  •    No ozone depletion
                      potential
                  •    May not contain
                      VOCs
                  •    Many cleaners
                      reported to be
                      biodegradable
Excellent for removing
inorganic and polar organic
contaminants
Used to remove light oils
and residues left by other
cleaning processes
Used to remove heavy oils,
greases, and waxes at
elevated temperatures
(>160°F)
•   Remove particulates and films
•   Cleaner performance changes
    with concentration and
    temperature, so process can be
    tailored to individual needs
•   Cavitate using ultrasonics
Nonflammable and nonexplosive,
relatively low health risks compared
to solvents; consult Material Safety
Data Sheet (MSDS) for each cleaner
Contaminant and/or spent cleaner
may be difficult to remove from
blind holes and crevices
May require more floor space,
especially  if multi-stage cleaning is
performed in line
Often used at high temperatures
(120 to 200°F)
Metal may corrode if part not dried
quickly; rust inhibitor may be used
with cleaner and rinsewater
Stress corrosion cracking can occur
in some polymers
                  •    Some have low vapor
                      pressure and so have
                      low VOC emissions
                  •    Terpenes work well at
                      low temperatures, so
                      less heat energy is
                      required
                  •    Some types of cleaners
                      allow used solvent to
                      be separated from the
                      aqueous rinse for
                      separate recycling or
                      disposal
Semi-Aqueous
Cleaners
High solvency gives cleaners
good ability for removing
heavy grease, waxes, and tar
Most semi-aqueous cleaners
can be used favorably with
metals and most polymers
NMP used as a solvent in
paint removers and in
cleaners and degreasers
    Rust inhibitors can be included in
    semi-aqueous formulations
    Nonalkaline pH; prevents etching
    of metals
    Low surface tension allows semi-
    aqueous cleaners to penetrate
    small spaces
    Glycol others are very polar
    solvents that can remove polar
    and nonpolar contaminants
    NMP used when a water-miscible
    solvent is desired
    Esters  have good solvent
    properties for many contaminants
    an are soluble in most organic
    compounds
NMP is a reproductive toxin that is
transmitted dermally; handling
requires protective gloves
Glycol ethers have been found to
increase the rate of miscarriage
Mists of concentrated cleaners
(especially terpenes) are highly
flammable; hazard is overcome by
process design or by using as water
emulsion
Limonene-based terpenes emit a
strong citrus odor that may be
objectionable
Some semi-aqueous cleaners can
cause swelling and cracking of
polymers and elastomers
Some esters evaporate too slowly to
be used without including  a rinse
and/or dry process
May be aquatic toxins
114
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                                                                                                   Industrial Operations: Cleaning & Degreasing
                        Exhibit 5.1: Available Technologies for Alternatives to Chlorinated Solvents for Cleaning and Degreasing (cont.)
Technology Type
  Pollution Preve ntion
        Benefits
Reported Application
   Operational Benefits
        Limitations
Petroleum
Hydrocarbons
•   Produce no wastewater
•   Recyclable by
    distillation
•   High grades have low
    odor and aromatic
    hydrocarbon content
    (lowtoxicity)
•   High grades have
    reduced evaporative
    loss
Used in applications where
water contact with parts is
undesirable
Used on hard-to-clean
organic contaminants,
including heavy oil and
grease, tar, and waxes
Low grades  used in
automobile repair and related
service shops
No water used, so there is less
potential for corrosion of metal
parts
Compatible with plastics, most
metals, and some elastomers
Low liquid surface tension
permits cleaning in small spaces
Flammable or combustible, some
have very low flash points, so
process equipment must be designed
to mitigate explosion dangers
Slower drying times than
chlorinated solvents
The cost of vapor recovery, if
implemented, is relatively high
Hydrochloro-
fluorocarbons
(HCFCs)
•   Lower emissions of
    ozone-depleting
    substances than CFCs
•   Produce no wastewater
Used as near drop-in
replacements for CFC-113
vapor degreasing
Compatible with most metals
and ceramics, and with many
polymers
Azeotropes with alcohol
used in electronics cleaning
Short-term solution to choosing
an alternative solution that
permits use of exis ting equipment
No flash point
Have some ozone depletion
potential and global warming
potential
Incompatible with acrylic, styrene,
and ABS plastic
Users must petition EPA for
purchase, per Section 612 of CAAA
Miscellaneous
Organic Solvents
•   Do not contain
    halogens, so they do
    not contribute to ozone
    depletion
•   Most are considered
    biodegradable
•   Generate no waste-
    water when used
    undiluted
Most are used in small batch
operations for spot-cleaning
Alcohols are polar solvents and
are good for removing a wide
range of inorganic and organic
contaminants; soluble in water
and may be used to accelerate
drying
Ketones have good solvent
properties for many polymers and
adhesives; they are soluble in
water and may be useful for
certain rapid drying operations
Vegetable o ils are used to remove
printing inks and are compatible
with most elastomers
Lighter alcohols and ketones have
high evaporation rates and
therefore dry quickly
Most evaporate readily and therefore
contribute to smog
Alcohols and ketones have low flash
points and present a fire hazard
Inhalation of these solvents can
present a health hazard
Some have vapor pressures that are
too high to be used in standard
process equipment
MEK and MIBK are on EPA list of
17 substances targeted for use
reduction
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
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Industrial Operations: Cleaning & Degreasing
                        Exhibit 5.1: Available Technologies for Alternatives to Chlorinated Solvents for Cleaning and Degreasing (cont.)
Technology Type
  Pollution Prevention
        Benefits
Reported Application
   Operational Benefits
        Limitations
Supercritical
Fluids (SCFs)
•   Nonpolluting when
    CO2 is used as the
    supercritical fluid
•   Generate no
    wastewater
•   Use natural or
    industrial sources of
    CO2, so no  net
    production of carbon
Remove organic
contaminants of moderate
molecular weight and low
polarity
Precision clean instrument
bearings, electromechanical
assemblies, direct access
storage devices, optical
components, polymeric
containers, porous metals,
ceramics
Low viscosity and high
diffusivity permit cleaning in
very small cracks and pore
spaces
Compatible with metals,
ceramics, and polymers such as
Teflon™, high-density
polyethylene, epoxies, and
polyimides
No solvent residue left on part
May be very useful for cleaning
oxygen equipment
Solvent properties can be altered
by adding a cosolvent
Cosolvents used to improve the
solvent power of CO2 may have a
pollution potential
Danger of a pressure vessel
explosion or line rupture
Causes swelling in aery late, styrene
polymers, neoprene, polycarbonate,
and urethanes
Components sensitive to high
pressures and moderate temperatures
should not be cleaned by SCF
methods
Ineffective in removing inorganic
and polar organic contaminants; for
example, does not remove
fingerprints
Carbon  Dioxide
Snow
•   No polluting emissions
    released
•   Replaces CFCs and
    solvents
•   Does not generate
    wastewater
•   Uses natural or
    industrial sources of
    CO2, so no net
    production of CO2
    occurs
•   Carries contaminants
    away in a stream of
    inert CO,
Cleans critical surfaces on
delicate fiber optic
equipment
Cleans radioactive-
contaminated components
Used in hybrid circuits to
remove submicron particles
Used on the largest, most
expensive telescopes
Removes submicron
particles and light oils from
precision assemblies
Removes light fingerprints
from silicon wafers and
mirrors
Prepares surface for surface
analysis
Generates no media waste, thus
no media disposal cost
Does not create thermal shock
Is nonflammable and nontoxic
Noncorrosive
Leaves no detectable residue
Can penetrate narrow spaces and
nontrubulent areas to dislodge
contaminants
Adjustable flake size and intensity
More effective than nitrogen or
air blasting
Can clean hybrid circuits without
disturbing the bonding wire
CO2 must be purified
Requires avoidance of long dwell
times
Particulates such as sand may be
carried by the gas stream and scratch
the surface
Heavier oils may require the
addition of chemicals and heat to be
completely removed
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                                                          Industrial Operations: Cleaning & Degreasing


        Limitations of Aqueous Cleaners

    •   Some aqueous cleaners contain organic substances that may be hazardous.

    •   Aqueous cleaners are generally not as fast or effective as traditional halogenated solvents.

    •   Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) for individual products should be consulted before use.

    •   Metal corrosion may occur if parts cannot be dried quickly enough.

    •   Stress corrosion cracking can occur in some polymers as  a result of contact with alkaline solutions.

    •   Compatibility of the product/process with water must be  carefully investigated.

Semi-Aqueous Cleaners

        Semi-aqueous  cleaners comprise a  group of cleaning  solutions that are composed of natural or
synthetic organic solvents, surfactants, corrosion inhibitors,  and other additives.  The term semi-aqueous
refers to the use of water in some part of the cleaning process, such as washing, rinsing, or both.  Semi-
aqueous cleaners are designed to be used in process equipment  much like that used with aqueous cleaners.
The commonly  used semi-aqueous cleaners include  water-immiscible types (terpenes, high-molecular-weight
esters, petroleum hydrocarbons, and glycol ethers) and water-miscible types (low-molecular-weight alcohols,
ketones, esters, and organic amines).

        Semi-aqueous cleaners are designed to be water-rinsable or non-water-rinsable. After washing in a
water-rinsable type, cleaned parts may be rinsed in water to remove residue.  If a non-water-rinsable type is
used,  cleaned parts may be rinsed in  alcohol, such as isopropyl alcohol,  or other organic solvent, or the
residue may be  allowed to remain on the parts.  If rinsing is the desired option, it is common practice to rinse
in secondary tank to capture dragout cleaner.

        If the semi-aqueous cleaner is  diluted with water to form an emulsion, the cleaner can be coalesced
into its  aqueous and nonaqueous components by gravity  separation or by advanced membrane separation
techniques.  These techniques permit used cleaner to be recycled back into the wash tank or discharged for
treatment and disposal.  Vacuum distillation can be used to purify single-component solvents.  Reclaimed
rinsewater also  can be reused or discharged.

        Proper use of these cleaners  is required to reap their full pollution prevention benefits.  Good
engineering design is essential so that air emissions can be kept low. For example:

    •   The  cleaning bath should be  operated  at  the minimum temperature where  acceptable cleaning
        performance is obtained.

    •   Low-vapor-pressure cleaning agents should  be used.

    •   Dragout should be minimized by the use of air knives.

    •   The air exhaust rate should be maintained at a minimum level.

        Terpene semi-aqueous cleaners are normally used at ambient temperature or heated to no higher than
90°F.  However, many  high-molecular-weight esters  have  flash points in excess of 200°F.  Also, the glycol
ethers generally have flash points above 200°F and can be heated  for improved solvency.

        N-methyl-2-prrylidone (NMP) has been used for removing cured paint and hence is a substitute for
methylene chloride.  NMP is  better suited for immersion tanks than other application methods, because
elevated temperatures are required  to enhance its chemical activity.  Usually, NMP immersion cleaning or
paint removing is done at 155°F in an open tank, or up to 180°F if a mineral oil seal is present.

        In  general, the  semi-aqueous  cleaners have  excellent solvency  for a  number of difficult
contaminants, such as heavy grease, tar, and waxes.  The cleaners have low surface tension, which decreases
their contact angles and allows them to  penetrate small  spaces such as crevices, blind holes, and below-
surface-mounted electronic components. Rinsing is necessary to  avoid leaving a residue on the cleaned parts.
If water rinsing  is performed, the parts must be dried.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                           117
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Industrial Operations: Cleaning and De greasing
          Benefits of Semi-Aqueous Cleaners

          The primary pollution prevention benefit of semi -aqueous cleaners  is that they  are  non -ozone
  depleting. However, they may be partly or completely composed of VOCs.  In addition, their use commands
  substantially more concern about aquatic toxicity and human exposure than does the use of aqueous cleaners.
  Most semi -aqueous cleaners are reported to be biodegradable.  One benefit of semi -aqueous cleaners is that
  distillation and membrane filtration technologies are being developed that will permit recycling and reuse of
  the products.

          The following benefits have been identified with semi -aqueous cleaners.

      •   May be more aggressive in removing heavy organic contaminants.

      •   May have lower corrosion potential with water-sensitive metals.

      •   Penetrate small spaces more easily because they have lower surface tensions.

      •   Semi-aqueous cleaners are noncorrosive to most metals and generally are safe to  use  with  most
          plastics.
          Limitations of Semi-Aqueous Cleaners

      •   Mists of concentrated semi -aqueous cleaners can be ignited at room temperature.

      •   Terpenes have  flash points as low  as 115°F, therefore, the low flash point restricts safe operating
          temperatures to no more than 90°F in some cases.

      •   Strong odors may  become objectionable  to workers, thus requiring additional ventilation in  areas
          where they are used.

      •   Reproductive health problems associated with glycol ethers are a cause for serious concern.

      •   Although  semi -aqueous cleaners are biodegradable, the capacity of treatment facilities to  treat the
          wastewater properly should be explored.

      •   Terpenes generally are not recommended for cleaning polystyrene, PVC, polycarbonate, low-density
          polyethylene, and polymethylpentene; nor are they compatible with the elastomers natural rubber,
          silicone, and neoprene. Likewise, NMP  dissolves or degrades ABS, Kynar™, Lexan™, and  PVC
          and it causes swelling in Buna-N, Neoprene, and Viton™.

  Petroleum Hydrocarbons

          Hydrocarbon solvents dissolve organic soils. Some solvents that have flash points as low as 105°F
  must be used at ambient temperature to avoid a fire hazard.   Many high-grade hydrocarbon solvents have
  flash points above 140°F.   Higher flash points  are achieved using higher-molecular-weight compounds.
  Some  formulations  contain  non-petroleum additives  such   as high-molecular-weight esters to  improve
  solvency and raise the flash point.

          When the cleaning lifetime of a hydrocarbon solvent expires, the entire bath must be replaced.  Used
  hydrocarbon solvents commonly are blended with other fuels and burned for energy recovery.

          Petroleum hydrocarbons are available in two grades, the basic petroleum distillates and the specialty
  grade of synthetic paraffinic hydrocarbons. Products of the petroleum distillate grade include  mineral spirits,
  kerosene, white  spirits,  naphtha, Stoddard Solvent, and PD-680 (military designation; types I, II, and III).
  These are technologically less advanced, as they contain components that have a broad range of boiling points
  and may include trace amounts of benzene derivatives and other aromatics.

          Petroleum hydrocarbons typically  are used when water contact with the  parts  is undesirable.
  Cleaning with petroleum distillates lends itself to simple, inexpensive one-step cleaning in situations where a
  high level of cleanliness is not essential.
          Benefits of Petroleum Hydrocarbons

          The primary pollution prevention benefits of petroleum hydrocarbon solvents are that they produce
  no wastewater and they are recyclable by distillation. Paraffinic grades have very low odor and aromatic


118                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                        Industrial Operations: Cleaning & Degreasing
content and low evaporative loss rates. However, planned recovery of VOCs is an important part of pollution
prevention if these solvents are to be used.

        The following benefits of petroleum hydrocarbon solvents have been identified.

    •   No water is used with petroleum hydrocarbon cleaners, so there is no potential for water corrosion or
        for water to become trapped in cavities.

    •   Hydrocarbon solvents can easily be recycled on- or off-site.
        Limitations of Petroleum Hydrocarbons

    •   Petroleum hydrocarbons are flammable or combustible, and some have very low flash points, as low
        as 105°F.

    •   Process equipment, including drying ovens, must be designed to mitigate explosion dangers.

    •   The toxicity level of hydrocarbon solvents is considered low:  8-hour PELs for Stoddard Solvent and
        VM & P naphthas are  100 ppm and 400 ppm, respectively.

    •   Residues may remain on the parts long after they are cleaned.

    •   Hydrocarbons are VOCs, and hence they are photochemical smog producers.

    •   Businesses choosing this  alternative  must consider the  expenses of possible requirements for
        recovering VOCs from exhaust equipment.

Hvdrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)

        HCFCs are designed to be  near term replacements to CFC-113 for vapor degreasing. However, the
properties of the HCFCs differ somewhat from those of CFC-113, so that vapor degreasing equipment that
was designed for CFC-113 would have to be retrofitted to accommodate HCFCs.

        It is important  to realize that HCFCs are being developed for  interim use only.   The London
Amendments to the Montreal Protocol call for a ban of HCFCs between 2020 and 2040.  The main reason for
choosing this technology is to enable an existing CFC-113 vapor degreasing system to continue in use until a
long-term alternative is found.  The long-term alternative could be a completely enclosed vapor degreaser or a
non-HCFC technology discussed in this section.

        Hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs, were  developed  to  lower emissions of ozone-depleting
substances that  are used in cleaning, foam-blowing agents, and refrigerants.  Although HCFCs accomplish the
goal of reducing emissions, they have some ozone depleting potential;  about 0.15 for HCFC-141b and 0.033
for HCFC-225cb-relative to CFC-113, which is 1.0.  Therefore, HCFC-141b depletes ozone at a rate  about 6
to 7  times less  than that of CFC-113, but about equal to that of TCA.  The ozone depletion rate for HCFC-
225cb is about 30 times lower than that of CFC-113.

        Benefits ofHCFC's

    •   HCFCs provide a short-term solution to choosing an alternative solvent and allow use  of existing
        equipment.

        Limitations ofHCFC's

    •   Because HCFCs have lower boiling points than CFC-113, HCFC solvent vapors may  be  lost too
        quickly in older degreasers, and these vapors may be a health risk.

    •   Some emission control features may have to be added, such as extending freeboard height, adding
        secondary condensers, or completely enclosing the system.

    •   HCFC cleaners are incompatible with acrylic, styrene, and ABS plastic.
Notes
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                Industrial Operations:  Cleaning and Degreasing


Notes            Miscellaneous Organic Solvents

                          This group covers a wide range of solvents that may be beneficial  as a replacement technology,
                 particularly on a small scale, such as bench-top or spot cleaning. Types of miscellaneous organic solvents
                 that are commonly used include alcohols, liner methyl siloxanes, vegetable oils, ketones, esters, and ethers.

                          Alcohols are polar solvents and have good solubility for a wide range of inorganic and organic soils.
                 The lighter alcohols are soluble in water and may be useful in drying operations.

                          Ketones have good solvent properties for many polymers and adhesives. Lighter ketones, such as
                 acetone, are soluble in water and may be useful for certain rapid drying operations. Heavier ketones, such as
                 acetophenone, are  nearly insoluble  in water.  Ketones generally evaporate completely without leaving  a
                 residue.  Some ketones such as methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) and methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) once were
                 widely used, however, they now are considered Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) and thus are not favorable
                 solvent substitutes.

                          Esters and ethers also have good solvent properties.  Low-molecular-weight compounds dry readily
                 without leaving a residue.

                          A new class of organic solvents is the volatile methyl siloxanes.  Their molecular structure is either
                 linear or cyclic. The  linear methyl siloxanes are nonpolar and are most effective in removing nonpolar  and
                 nonionic contaminants. The most volatile methyl siloxane  can function as a drying agent.

                          Vegetable oils are finding use in removing printing inks.   They are also compatible with elastomers.
                 Vegetable oils contain triglycerides of fatty acids, typically  oleic, linoleic, palmitic, and stearic fatty acids.
                          Benefits of Miscellaneous Organic Solvents

                          The miscellaneous organic solvents do not contain halogens; therefore, they do not contribute to
                 ozone depletion.  However, all of these compounds are VOCs and evaporate readily, thereby contributing to
                 smog formation.  The solvents discussed in this section normally  are  used  in small quantities for  niche
                 applications.

                          Most of these solvents are well developed and some have been used as cleaners for a century or
                 more.  Many of them have reached their full potential for development. The lighter alcohols and ketones
                 have high evaporation rates and, therefore, fast drying times.  The more  volatile solvents are best suited for
                 spot cleaning, where rapid evaporation is desired.  Users should consult MSDS literature for safe handling
                 practices.

                          The benefits of each type of miscellaneous solvent are discussed below.

                      •   Ethyl and isopropyl alcohols are  commonly used  in  spot cleaning  and touch-up applications.
                          Because  they are slightly  polar,  they  tend to  be good,  general-purpose solvents for nonpolar
                          hydrocarbons, polar organic compounds, and even ionic compounds. Ethyl and isopropyl alcohols
                          are fully miscible in water.

                      •   Benzyl alcohol is a solvent for gelatin, casein (where heated), cellulose acetate, and shellac,  and is
                          used as a general paint softener (when heated).  The good solvent properties of benzyl alcohol can be
                          enhanced by heating; its flash point is 101°C,  or 213°F  (closed cup). Mixtures composed of 90%
                          benzyl alcohol and 10% benzoic acid  are also  used for solvent  cleaning applications.  Pure benzyl
                          alcohol is 4% soluble in water, but is miscible in lighter alcohols and with ether.

                      •   Furfuryl alcohol forms a miscible, but unstable solution in water.  It is used as a general cleaning
                          solvent and paint softener.  Furfuryl alcohol is soluble in water and  is miscible in lighter alcohols
                          and in ether. The solvent properties of furfuryl  alcohol can be enhanced by  moderate heating; its
                          flash point is 75°C, or 167°F (closed cup).

                      •   N-butyl alcohol is a solvent for fats, waxes, resins, shellac, varnish, and gums.  It is 9% soluble in
                          water at 25°C, but forms an azeotrope  with water (63% n-butyl alcohol/37% water) that boils at
                          92°C. N-butyl alcohol is miscible in lighter alcohols, ether, and many other organic substances.

                      •   N-butyl acetate is a solvent used in lacquer  production.  It is less than 1% soluble in water at 25°C.
                          The  solvent activity of n-butyl acetate is enhanced by mixing  with  n-butyl alcohol.  A mixture of


                120                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                          Industrial Operations: Cleaning & Degreasing
        80% n-butyl acetate and 20% n-butyl alcohol is used to dissolve oil, fats, waxes, metallic resinates,
        and many synthetic resins such as vinyl, polystyrene, and acrylates. Also, the mixture dissolves less
        highly polymerized alkyd resins and shellac.

    •   Ethyl lactate is another ester that has useful solvent properties. The use of ethyl lactate is relatively
        new to cleaning and degreasing. Recently, it has been shown to have good solubility for skin oils,
        cutting fluids, coolants, mold release compounds, and marking inks.  Ethyl lactate has a flash point
        of 47°C, or 117°F (closed cup).

    •   Acetone  is a solvent for fats, oils, waxes, resins, rubber, some plastics,  lacquers, varnishes,  and
        rubber cements.  It is completely miscible in water and in most organic solvents.

    •   Volatile  methyl siloxanes have  been found to remove  contaminants in precision metalworking,
        optics, and electronics processing.  They remove cutting fluids,  greases, and silicone fluids. They
        have low odor and evaporate in the range of butyl acetate, without leaving a residue.  They can be
        used in cleaning equipment designed for use with isopropyl alcohol.
        Limitations of Miscellaneous Organic Solvents

        Limitations of some of these cleaners is that some have vapor pressures that  are too high to be used
in standard process equipment, whereas others evaporate too slowly  to be used without including a rinse
and/or dry process.  The following specific limitations have been noted with these solvents.

    •   Low flash points that present a fire hazard.

    •   Inhalation of these solvents can present a health hazard.

    •   The  more volatile  solvents will not be able to meet VOC emission restrictions in highly regulated
        areas of the country.

Supercritical Fluids

        Supercritical fluids (SCF)  cleaning exploits the marked improvements of the  solvent power of CO2
or other substances after they undergo a phase transition from a gas or liquid phase to become supercritical
fluids.   Supercritical CC>2 has been used very successfully to remove organic  soils of moderate molecular
weight and low polarity.   Supercritical CC>2 does not give good results for soils that are ionic or polar in
nature, such as fingerprints.

        SCF cleaning is probably best reserved for removing small amounts of soil from parts that require a
high degree of cleanliness. For example, precision  cleaning operations have been performed successfully on
the  following devices:     gyroscope  parts,  accelerometers,  thermal   switches,  nuclear valve  seals,
electromechanical assemblies, polymeric containers, optical components, porous metals, and ceramics.

        The  main advantage of using carbon dioxide (CC>2) as a supercritical fluid (SCF) is  that CC>2 is
derived from  the atmosphere and is not created for use as a solvent.  Furthermore, the small quantity of CO2
released would have an insignificant effect on global warming. On the other hand, cosolvents, which may be
used to improve the solvent power of CO2, may have pollution potential and should be investigated before
use.   Energy is required  to  operate the pumps  and temperature control equipment that are needed in
supercritical cleaning equipment.
        Benefits of Supercritical Fluids

    •   No solvent waste stream.

    •   Low viscosity and high diffusivity permit SCFs to clean within very small cracks and pore spaces.

    •   The  solvent power of  SCFs is pressure-dependent, making it possible to extract different soils
        selectively and precipitate them into collection vessels for analysis.

    •   SCFs  are  compatible  with metals, ceramics,  and polymers  such  as Teflon™,  high-density
        polyethylene, epoxies, and polyimides.
Notes
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Industrial Operations: Cleaning and De greasing
          Limitations of Supercritical Fluids

      •   The only major safety concern is the danger of a pressure vessel or line rupture.

      •   SCFs cause swelling in acrylates, styrene polymers, neoprene, polycarbonate, and urethanes.

      •   Components that are  sensitive to high pressures and temperatures should not be cleaned by SCF
          methods.

      •   SCFs are not effective in removing inorganic and polar organic soils, nor do they remove loose scale
          or other particulates.

  Carbon Dioxide Snow

          CC>2 snow gently removes particles smaller than 10 microns in diameter down to 0.1 micron that are
  difficult to remove using high-velocity liquid nitrogen.  It is used to remove light oils and fingerprints from
  mirrors, lenses, and other delicate surfaces, and from precision assemblies, without scratching the surface.

          Cleaning action is  performed when the  snow particles impact a contaminated surface, dislodge
  adherent contaminant particles, and carry them away in the gas stream. The process is effective in removing
  very small  (submicron) particles, where  fluid drag normally restricts the performance  of liquid phase
  cleaning.   The CC>2 snow cleaning process is also believed  to attack hydrocarbon film  by dissolving
  hydrocarbon molecules in  a  temporal liquid CC>2 phase at the film-substrate interface. The dissolved film is
  then carried away by subsequent flow of snow and gas.

          CO2 snow can clean hybrid circuitry and integrated circuits without  disturbing the bonding wires.
  This unique ability cannot be duplicated by any other cleaning mechanism.  In the disc drive industry,  CO2
  snow is used to remove particles from discs without damage to the operation.

          The process is used to remove paste fluxes in soldering. If the grease cannot be removed with CC>2
  snow alone, combination of CC>2 snow and ethyl alcohol is effective, followed by CC>2 snow alone to remove
  the impurities from the alcohol.

          CC>2 is used to remove hydrocarbons and silicone  grease stains from silicon wafers.  Wafers
  artificially contaminated with a finger print, a nose print, and a thin silicone grease film were found to have
  surface hydrocarbon levels 25 to 30% lower after CC>2 snow cleaning than the original wafer surfaces.

          CC>2 snow is also  used to clean surfaces exposed to contaminants in air prior to surface analysis.  The
  process was found to work better than solvents to clean vacuum components.  Because the aerosol could
  penetrate narrow spaces,  no disassembly  was required, greatly shortening the time required for cleaning.
  Furthermore, CO2 cleaning is effective on some plastic parts that cannot be cleaned by solvents.

          Chilled CO2 is  a nontoxic, inert  gas that replaces  solvent  use to  eliminate  ozone-depleting
  substances.  Because the CO2  is recycled, there is no need for disposal, nor is any wastewater produced. It
  generates no hazardous emissions.

          Benefits of Carbon Dioxide Snow

      •   CC>2 snow performs ultrapure cleaning of light oils down to submicron size on the  most delicate,
          sensitive materials ranging from bonding wires to precision mirrors in telescopes.

      •   The CC>2 snow crystals generated by the snow gun are extremely gentle.

      •   The CC>2 snowflakes are adjustable to a wide range of size and intensity.

      •   The process does not create thermal shock, is nonflammable and nontoxic, and causes  no apparent
          chemical reactions.

      •   Cleaning by CC>2 snow is noncorrosive and leaves no residue.

      •   CC>2 snow does not crack glass or other ceramics.

      •   No media separation system is needed, nor is there a media disposal cost.

      •   CO2 snow  can penetrate the nonturbulent areas to dislodge  contaminants and can be used on
122                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                          Industrial Operations: Cleaning & Degreasing


        components without disassembly that otherwise must be disassembled because the aerosol penetrates
        narrow spaces.

        Limitations of Carbon Dioxide Snow

    •   Heavier oils, alone or mixed with light oils, may require chemical precleaning  and/or heating to be
        completely removed.

    •   The CO2 must be purified because of its tendency to dissolve contaminants from the walls of tanks
        in which it is stored. Purification equipment adds expense to the CC>2 snow cleaning process.

    •   When surfaces are excessively chilled by long dwell times, airborne impurities may condense and
        settle on the clean surface.

    •   CC>2 snow has low Mohs hardness and will not scratch most metals  and glasses.  However, hard
        particulates such as sand that may be present on a surface potentially could cause scratching when
        carried by the gas stream.

        Process  Changes

        Process changes can either eliminate the need  for cleaning or apply techniques  that eliminate or
reduce the use of solvents.

        Another possibility is to combine an alternative cleaning solution with a process change. Sometimes
the cleaning effectiveness of a solvent substitute is not adequate, and a process  change can improve the
effectiveness of the substitute. In such a case, a process change is combined with solvent substitution to create
a cleaner  technology. In other cases, the  process change may involve reducing the amount of solvent or
making it amenable to recycling.

        The following five common process changes for cleaning and degreasing are presented below:

    •   Add-on controls to existing vapor degreasers,

    •   Completely enclosed vapor cleaner,

    •   Automated aqueous cleaning,

    •   Aqueous power washing, and

    •   Ultrasonic cleaning.

        Exhibit  5.2 summarizes  the Pollution  Prevention Benefits,  Reported Application,  Operational
Benefits, and Limitations of each to  provide a range of technologies to allow preliminary identification of
those that may be applicable to specific situations.

Add-on Controls to Existing Vapor Degreasers

        Add-on  controls are  features that can be incorporated into  an existing degreaser to reduce air
emissions. These process changes include the following:

    •   Operating controls,

    •   Covers,

    •   Increased freeboard height,

    •   Refrigerated freeboard coils, and

    •   Reduced room draft/lip exhaust velocities.

        Operating Controls

        The add-on controls limit air emissions through changes in operating practices or through equipment
modifications.  Operating controls are practices that reduce work load-related losses.  These can be easily
incorporated into  the  operating  procedure, but their impact  on emission reduction  is  significant.  Air
emissions can be reduced by slowing down the rate of entry of the work load into the (open-top vapor
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
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Industrial Operations:  Cleaning & Degreasing
                                               Exhibit 5.2: Available Technologies for Cleaning and Degreasing
Cleaning/Degreasing
Technology
Add-on Controls to Existing
Vapor Degreasers
Completely Enclosed Vapor
Cleaner
Automated Aqueous
Cleaning
Aqueous Power Washing
Pollution Prevention
Benefits
• Reduce solvent air
emissions
• Virtually eliminates
solvent air emissions
• Eliminates solvent use by
using water-based
cleaners
• Eliminates solvent use by
using water-based
cleaners
Reported Application
• Retrofitted on existing
vapor degreasers
• Same as conventional
open-top vapor
degreasers
• Cleaning of small parts
• Cleaning of large and
small parts
Operational Benefits
• Allow gradual phase-in of emission
controls
• Major process modifications not
required
• Cleaning principle remains the
same
• Relatively inexpensive
• Virtually eliminates air emissions
and workplace hazards
• Cleaning principle remains the
same; user does not have to switch
to aqueous cleaning
• Significant recovery of solvent
• Reduced operating costs
• Eliminates solvent hazards
• Reduces water consumption
• Cleaning chemicals are reused
• Easy to install and operate
• Eliminates solvent hazards
• Reduces cleaning time
Limitations
• Reduce but cannot eliminate air
emissions
• Performance depends on other
features of existing degreaser
• Dragout on parts cannot be
eliminated
• High initial capital cost
• Slower processing time
• Relatively high energy
requirement
• May not be able to replace vapor
degreasing for some delicate
parts, and requires more space
than vapor degreasing
• Wastewater treatment required
• Relatively higher energy
requirement
• Pressure and temperature may be
too great for some parts
• Wastewater treatment required
    124
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                                      Industrial Operations:  Cleaning & Degreasing
                                            Exhibit 5.2: Available Technologies for Cleaning and Degreasing (cont.)
Cleaning/Degreasing
Technology
Ultrasonic Cleaning
Low-Solids Fluxes
Inert Atmosphere Soldering
Pollution Prevention
Benefits
• Eliminates solvent use by
making aqueous cleaners
more effective
• Eliminates need for
cleaning and therefore
eliminates solvent use
• Eliminates need for flux
and therefore eliminates
solvent cleaning
Reported Application
• Cleaning of ceramic,
aluminum, plastic and
metal parts, electronics,
glassware, wire, cable,
rods
• Soldering in the
electronics industry
• Soldering in the
electronics industry
Operational Benefits
• Eliminates solvent hazards
• Can clean in small crevices
• Cost effective
• Faster than conventional methods
• Inorganics are removed
• Neutral or biodegradable
detergents can often be employed
• Eliminates solvent hazards
• Little or no residue remains after
soldering
• Closed system prevents alcohol
evaporation and water absorption
• Eliminates solvent hazards
• Economic and pollution preventio n
benefits from elimination of flux
Limitations
• Part must be immersible
• Testing must be done to obtain
optimum solution and cavitation
levels for each operation
• Thick oils and grease may
absorb ultrasonic energy
• Energy required usually limits
parts sizes
• Wastewater treatment required if
aqueous cleaners are used
• Conventional fluxes are more
tolerant of minor variations in
process parameters
• Possible startup or conversion
difficulties
• Even minimal residues are
unacceptable in many military
specifications
• Requires greater control of
operating parameters
• Temperature profile for reflow
expected to play more important
role in final results
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
125

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               Industrial Operations: Cleaning & Degreasing


JT ,               cleaner) OTVC tank.   The faster the work load is lowered into the tank, the greater the disturbance or
                  turbulence created at  the  vapor-air interface  and the greater are the air emissions as the interface tries to
                  reestablish itself.  When the workload is lowered manually into the tank it is difficult to achieve a slow,
                  steady rate of entry. Installing an electric hoist above the OTVC allows greater control on the rate of entry or
                  removal of the workload.  Reducing the area of the  horizontal face of the basket in proportion to the area of
                  the OTVC tank opening is another way of reducing turbulence at the interface; this will however, adversely
                  affect the production rate.

                          Facilitating parts drainage also is an important operating control.  Parts that have recesses in which
                  solvent condensate could accumulate must be placed in the basket in such a way that the condensate drains
                  out of and not into the recesses.  Thus, the amount of condensate dragged out as the basket is removed from
                  the OTVC tank is limited, reducing subsequent air emissions.  Another way of reducing dragout is to install
                  electric-powered rotating baskets. The rotation allows condensate to drain out of the recesses in the parts.
                          Covers

                          A simple flat  or rolling cover can be installed on the top of the OTVC tank to reduce air emissions.
                  A cover reduces drafts in the freeboard that may cause disturbances. A cover also reduces diffusion losses
                  during  startup/shutdown, downtime, or idling.  Covers should slide gently  over the top of the opening to
                  reduce disturbances. Automatic bi-parting covers that enclose the tank while the workload is in the process of
                  being cleaned are also  available.  Covers can reduce working air emissions from an OTVC by as much as 35
                  to 50%.  The variations in the percent reduction reflect different initial design and operating conditions of the
                  OTVCs tested.

                          Increased Freeboard Height

                          Increasing the freeboard height from 0.75 to  1.0  or  1.25 can reduce air emissions  significantly.
                  Increasing the freeboard height that is, the height of the tank above the vapor-air interface reduces the
                  susceptibility of the interface to room drafts and also increases the distance over which diffusion has to occur.
                  Raising the freeboard on an existing OTVC may, however,  reduce a worker's accessibility to the tank, but a
                  raised platform next to the OTVC or an electric hoist can  alleviate the problem.   Raising the freeboard height
                  from 0.75 tol.O reduces working air emissions by  up to 20%  and under  idling conditions by up to 40%.
                  Increasing the freeboard height from 1.0 to 1.25 reduces emissions by another 5 to 10
                          Refrigerated Freeboard Coils

                          Air emissions can be reduced through diffusion by installing refrigerated coils on  the  freeboard
                  above the primary condenser coils.  The refrigerated coils may be designed to operate either above or below
                  freezing temperatures.  Although theoretically the  below freezing coils should work best, in practice, the
                  below-  freezing coils have to be operated on a timed defrost cycle to prevent ice  from building up on the
                  coils.  This periodic defrosting cycle reduces the efficiency of the coils to some extent.  Working emissions
                  are reduced by approximately 20 to 50% for above-freezing coils and by approximately 30 to 80% for below-
                  freezing coils.  Under idling conditions, emissions with below-freezing coils were reduced by  approximately
                  10 to 60%.  Some systems operate with the primary condenser  coils refrigerated, instead of having separate
                  refrigerated coils.

                          Reduced Room Draft/Lip Exhaust Velocities

                          Room drafts caused by plant ventilation can cause an increase in air  emissions by sweeping away
                  solvent vapors that  diffuse into the freeboard region, leaving behind a turbulence that promotes  greater
                  emissions. Reducing  room drafts can reduce these emissions.  One interesting case is when lip exhausts
                  themselves  cause emissions.   Lip  exhausts  are kteral  exhausts installed on the perimeter of the OTVC
                  opening to reduce solvent concentrations  in the region  where workers are exposed.  However, this very
                  feature increases diffusion  and  solvent  diffusion losses from the  OTVC sometimes  are almost doubled.
                  Although most of the diffusing solvent is captured by the lip exhaust and  may be recovered later by carbon
                  absorption, some vapor escapes to the ambient.
                126                        Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                         Industrial Operations:  Cleaning & Degreasing
        Benefits of Add-On Controls to Existing Vapor Degreasers
        Additional controls can be incorporated into an existing OTVC to reduce these air emissions. These
add-on controls are an important way of reducing solvent emissions without changing the cleaning operation
dramatically. Add-on controls have the following benefits.

    •   They can be retrofitted onto existing vapor degreasers.

    •   Simple add-ons such as a cover can reduce air emissions significantly.

    •   Reduced air emissions mean reduced solvent consumption and hence reduced operating costs.

    •   Add-on controls are relatively inexpensive.

    •   They are easy to install and operate.

    •   Using add-on controls requires no additional labor or skills.


        Limitations of Add-On Controls to Existing Vapor Degreasers
    •   The performance of any one add-on control is dependent on the design features already available on
        the OTVC.   For  example,  the control efficiency of refrigerated  coils varies depending on the
        temperature and efficiency of the existing primary condenser.

    •   Air emissions can be reduced considerably but not eliminated by suing multiple controls.  For
        example, if adding a cover along reduces air emissions by 50% and adding refrigerated coils alone
        reduces air emissions by  50%, adding both the  cover and the refrigerated coils will not give 100%
        reduction.

    •   Work load-related losses can be reduced but not eliminated.

    •   Dragout of solvent with  the workload cannot be eliminated using add-on controls.  Some residual
        solvent will escape from the parts to the ambient air.

Completely Enclosed Vapor Cleaner

        In a completely enclosed vapor cleaner (CEVC), the workload is placed in an airtight chamber, into
which solvent vapors are introduced.  After cleaning is complete, the solvent vapors  in the chamber are
evacuated and captured by chilling and carbon absorption.  Once the solvent in the chamber is evacuated, the
door of the chamber is opened and the workload is withdrawn. The cleaned workload is also free  from any
residual solvent and there are no subsequent emissions.

        The CEVC remains enclosed during the entire cleaning cycle. Approximately 1 hour before the shift
starts, a timer on the CEVC unit switches on the heat to the sump.  When the solvent in the sump reaches
vapor temperature, the vapor is still confined to an enclosed j acket around the working chamber.  The parts to
be cleaned (work load) are placed in a galvanized basket and lowered by hoist form an opening in the top into
the working chamber. The lid  is shut, the unit is switched on, and compressed air (75 psi) from an external
source hermetically seals the lid shut throughout the entire cleaning cycle.

        Exhibit  5.3  shows the cleaning cycle stages.   First,  solvent vapors enter the enclosed  cleaning
chamber and condense on the parts. The condensate and the removed oil and grease are collected through an
opening in the chamber floor.  When the parts reach the temperature of the vapor, no more condensation is
possible. At this point, fresh vapor entry is stopped and the air in the chamber is circulated over a cooling coil
to condense out the  solvent.   Next, the carbon is heated up to a temperature where most of the solvent
captured in the previous cleaning cycle can be desorbed.  The desorbed solvent is condensed out with a
chiller.  The carbon absorbs the residual solvent vapors from the air in the cleaning chamber.  The absorption
stage continues until the concentration in the chamber is detected by a sensor that falls below a preset level
(usually around 1 g/m ). When the concentration goes below this level, the seal on the lid is released and the
lid can be retracted to remove the workload.  Upon retraction, a tiny amount of residual solvent vapor escapes
to the atmosphere, the only emission in the entire cycle. Tests have shown that the CEVC reduces solvent
emission by more than 99% compared with an OTVC.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          127
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               Industrial Operations: Cleaning & Degreasing
Notes
                                                   Exhibit 5.3: CEVC Cleaning Cycle
Stage
Solvent Heat -up (once a day)
Solvent Spray (optional)
Vapor Fill
Degreasing
Condensation
Air Recirculation
Carbon Heat-up
Desorption
Adsorption
Vendor Recommended Time Setting
Variable to Raise Temperature to 70 °C
10 -180 sec.
8 - 40min. (Varies according to mass of work load and
type of metal.)
20 -180 sec.
120 sec.
120 sec.
Variable
60 sec.
60 -240 sec.
                         Unlike a conventional degreaser, there are no significant idling losses between loads, downtime, or
                 during shutdown. The CEVC can be operated as a distillation unit to clean the liquid solvent in the sump.  To
                 distill, the unit is switched on without any workload in the chamber. After most of the solvent is converted to
                 vapor, the residue in the sump is drained out and the vapors in the chamber are condensed in the chiller to
                 recover the solvent.  CEVC thus provides a good alternative for meeting pollution prevention objectives.

                         Energy requirements of the CEVC are higher compared with a conventional degreaser.  The CEVC
                 operates on a 480-V AC electric supply and consumes approximately 22 kW of power. The higher energy is
                 required to generate, condense, and move the  vapor during each load.

                         One significant difference  between a  conventional  degreaser  and the CEVC  is  that,  in  the
                 conventional degreaser, there is  always a solvent vapor layer present in the degreasing tank. This layer is
                 continuously replenished with solvent vaporizing from the sump.   The workload therefore reaches vapor
                 temperature very  soon and the cleaning is completed.  The CEVC, on the other hand, goes through several
                 stages to evacuate and introduce vapors. Although most of the stages have a relatively fixed time requirement,
                 the vapor-fill stage  time varies.  The  vapor is introduced near the bottom of the working chamber with each
                 workload.  The vapor slowly works itself up through the workload bringing each successive layer of parts in
                 the basket to vapor temperature.  The time taken for the entire load  to reach vapor temperature varies from 8
                 to 40 minutes.  This vapor-fill time, however, is highly dependent of the total mass and type of metal in the
                 workload.  The factor that governs the variation based on type of metal is the thermal  diffusivity of each
                 metal. The thermal  diffusivity itself is a function of the thermal conductivity, specific heat, and density of the
                 metal.

                         For a CEVC unit, as the  mass of the workload increases, the total cycle time increases (mainly due to
                 an increase in the vapor-fill stage time).  Parts made out of copper or aluminum require a lower cycle time
                 compared to steel.  Aluminum, though, has  a much lower density, and there is a limit as to the  mass  (or
                 weight) of parts that can fit  into  the basket for one cycle. Additional parts have to be run through the next
                 batch or cleaning cycle.
                         Benefits of Completely Enclosed Vapor Cleaning

                     •  Reduces solvent emissions by over 99% compared to a conventional OTVC.

                     •  Users who do not  want  to switch  to aqueous cleaning can still  achieve  significant  pollution
                         prevention  by using  the CEVC.

                     •  Labor and skill level requirements are  similar to those for a conventional OTVC.

                     •  The CEVC lowers operating costs by reducing solvent losses.
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                                                         Industrial Operations: Cleaning & Degreasing
    •   No additional facility modifications are  needed to meet OSHA requirements for plant ambient
        solvent levels.

    •   The CEVC has fully automated cycles and runs unattended except for loading and unloading. The
        unit adjusts automatically to any type of workload and unseals the working chamber when the cycle
        is complete.

        Limitations of Completely Enclosed Vapor Cleaning

    •   The CEVC has relatively high capital cost compared to a conventional OTVC.

    •   The CEVC has longer cleaning cycles for the same capacity.

    •   It has a relatively higher energy requirement because of the alternating heating and cooling stages.

Automated Aqueous Cleaning

        Small machine parts  are often cleaned in batches of thousands by immersion into a solvent solution
or a solvent vapor.  An alternative to this process  is the  automated aqueous  parts washer.  Instead of
immersion, the automated aqueous  washer sprays an aqueous solution across the parts to remove oil and
debris.  Parts travel through a series of chambers,  each with different concentrations of cleaning and rinsing
solutions.   Excessively sprayed solution is recovered  and reused.   Similar automated  cleaners are also
available for semi-aqueous cleaning solutions.

        The configuration of the system promotes good contact between cleaning solutions and the parts.
One example of an automated aqueous cleaner consists of a series of five compartments though which the
soiled metal parts are transported.  The parts are transported form one compartment to the next by a helical
screw conveyor.  The parts are sprayed successively with solutions from five holding tanks (one for each
compartment). The first compartment sprays hot  water on the parts.  The second and third compartments
spray detergent solutions at two different concentrations on the parts.  The fourth compartment is for a clean
water rinse.   The fifth and  final  compartment sprays  a rust  inhibitor solution, if required.   The  fifth
compartment is followed by  a dryer that vaporizes any water  droplets remaining on the parts.  The cleaned
parts drop out of the dryer onto a vibrating conveyor from which they are collected.

        The automated  aqueous washer also makes use of a "closed loop"  system, whereby  the used
solutions are not disposed of daily but can be recirculated for a relatively continuous operation. The cleaning
solutions are recaptured  after use and sent to  a separator tank.  One separator tank is provided for each
compartment.  In these tanks, the oil floats to the surface and is skimmed off by a pump. Dirt and suspended
particles settle down at the bottom  of the tank.  The bulk of the solution is recirculated back to  the holding
tanks for reuse. Some makeup solution is needed periodically to replace losses from evaporation and dragout.
Detergent chemicals are also replenished periodically.

        Because the  closed-loop system eliminates daily disposal of spent solutions, the same cleaning
solution can be recirculated and used for several days without changing.  At the end of the week (or whenever
the contaminants reach a certain level), the holding tanks  are emptied and fresh solutions are made up.
Because recovery and reuse  of the cleaning solution is automatic, the unit requires very little operator
attention.   In contrast to  vapor degreasing or traditional batch aqueous cleaning processes, the continuous
operation  of this  conveyorized unit enables production efficiency.  The only operator involvement is for
unloading a barrel of soiled parts into the hopper that feeds the parts to the compartments.

        Several variations of the automated aqueous cleaners are available.  Different types of filters, oil-
water separators, and sludge thickeners are some of the features  offered.  Some new units  claim  zero
wastewater discharge, with fresh water added only to make up for evaporation in the drier.

        Benefits of Automated Aqueous Cleaning

        Automated aqueous  cleaners use aqueous cleaning solution instead of solvents to  achieve high-
quality  cleaning.  This available technology replaces the hazardous solvent waste stream with a much less
hazardous wastewater  stream.  These automated  machines also have features to significantly  reduce the
amount of wastewater generated.  These machines remove some of the  contamination from the parts being
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JT ,              cleaned into the cleaning solution. The cleaning solution can then be recirculated for use several times.  The
                 automated washer described above has the following benefits.

                     •   Improved contact between cleaning solution and parts being cleaned enables most types of parts to
                         be aqueous cleaned instead of solvent cleaned.

                     •   Solvent usage at a metal finishing plant can be drastically reduced or eliminated.

                     •   Cleaning  effectiveness is comparable to vapor  degreasing  or  conventional aqueous cleaning
                         processes (alkaline tumbling or hand-aqueous washing).

                     •   The amount of wastewater generated is very low compared to the amount generated by traditional
                         aqueous processes.  In some types of units, the manufacturer claims that wastewater is completely
                         eliminated with fresh water added only to make up for evaporation.

                     •   The automated aqueous washer is easy to install and operate. The labor and skill requirements are
                         low.

                     •   This technology  has  lower  cleaning chemicals consumption compared to  traditional aqueous
                         processes.

                     •   Continuous operation of the automated aqueous washer enhances plant efficiency.

                     •   The technology realizes operating cost savings compared to traditional aqueous processes.
                         Limitations of Automated Aqueous Cleaning

                     •   Wastewater generated must be treated and discharged.

                     •   Some types of parts cannot be cleaned as effectively in the automated aqueous washer as in a vapor
                         degreaser or with a conventional aqueous process.

                     •   The technology has a high energy requirement compared to vapor degreasing, mainly due to drying
                         requirements.

                     •   The automated aqueous washer technology has a relatively high initial capital requirement.

                     •   Drying can leave spots on aqueous-cleaned parts if rinsing is inadequate.

                 Aqueous Power Washing

                         Unlike the automated  washer that has  a continuous operation, most  power washers are batch units.
                 Some continuous (conveyorized) units are also available. Whereas the automated washer is more suitable for
                 smaller parts, the power washer is suitable for larger parts.  The aqueous power washer is useful for parts that
                 normally run through a vapor degreaser, alkaline tumbler, or hand-aqueous processes. Power washing,  with
                 the correct selection of detergents, is safe for metals, plastics, varnish coatings, and etc.  A power washer can
                 also be used for deburring and chip removal of metal parts.

                         Parts to be cleaned are placed inside the power washer unit on a turntable.  As the turntable rotates,
                 the parts are blasted from all angles with water at high pressure (180 psi) and elevated temperature (140 °F to
                 240 °F).  The force of the spray jets, the heat, and the detergent, combine to strip oil, grease, carbon, and etc.
                 The cycle time varies from 1 to 30 minutes depending on the type of part.

                         Power or jet washers  are available from a variety of vendors with varying options and in various
                 sizes.  One available option is a closed-loop system.  The water is collected  and sent through a filtration or
                 sedimentation unit or another method of contaminant removal and then sent back to the unit for reuse.  This
                 can reduce wastewater treatment and disposal requirements as  well  as water consumption.  While most
                 systems are simple single-compartment batch units, they are available also as multiple-stage cleaning units or
                 as conveyorized automated systems.

                         Most units run on 220 V electrical power.  Aqueous power washers are  stand-alone units and are
                 available in  a range of sizes to fit even in crowded plants.  An aqueous cleaner can be selected for use in a
                 power washer depending on the type of parts to be washed.
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        Benefits of Aqueous Power Washing

        The aqueous  power washer is  similar to the automated aqueous  washer in that it combines
innovative process technology with the use of an  aqueous (or semi-aqueous) cleaning solution.  Both
technologies eliminate  the use of solvents for cleaning. When combined with a "closed-loop" technology, in
which the cleaning solution is recirculated, aqueous power washing also reduces water and cleaning solution
disposal requirements.  The benefits of the aqueous power washer are the following.

    •   Aqueous cleaners can be used in applications where solvent cleaning was used previously.

    •   Aqueous cleaners provide more efficient cleaning compared to manual  aqueous tank cleaning.

    •   Cleaning times are reduced.

    •   The most common unit is a compact machine with one chamber as opposed to  several tanks or
        compartments.

    •   The small units are also available as portable units.

        Limitations of Aqueous Power Washing

    •   Wastewater generated has to be treated and discharged.

    •   Some parts, such as electronic sensors or diaphragms, may not be able to withstand the high pressure
        or temperature of the sprays.

    •   It is also possible that jet washers will not be able to remove baked-on dirt that cannot be removed
        by scrubbing.

    •   Drying can leave spots on aqueous-cleaned parts if rinsing is inadequate or if the rinsewater contains
        a high level of dissolved solids.

Ultrasonic Cleaning

        In ultrasonic cleaning, high frequency sound waves are applied  to the liquid cleaning solution.
These sound waves generate zones of high and low pressures throughout the liquid.  In the zones of negative
pressure, the boiling point decreases and  microscopic vacuum bubbles are formed.  As the sound waves
move, this same zone  becomes one of positive pressure, thereby causing  the bubbles to implode.  This is
called cavitation and is  the basis for ultrasonic cleaning.

        Cavitation exerts enormous pressures (on  the  order of 10,000 pounds per  square  inch)  and
temperatures (approximately  20,000°F on a microscopic scale).  These pressures  and temperatures loosen
contaminants and perform the actual scrubbing action of the ultrasonic cleaning process.

        Ultrasonic energy usually is applied to a solution by means of a transducer, which converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy.  The positioning of the transducers in the cleaning tank is a critical variable.
The transducers can be bonded to the tank or mounted in stainless steel housings for immersion in the tank.
The number and position of immersable transducers are determined by the size and configuration of the parts,
the size of the batch, and the size of the tank.  It is preferable to locate the transducers so that the radiating
face is parallel to the plane of the rack and the ultrasonic energy is directed at the work pieces.

        The part being cleaned must be immersible  in a liquid solution. For best cleaning results, testing
must be  done with each  set of parts to obtain the  optimum combination of solution concentration and
cavitation levels.  Temperature is the operating feature that has the most  effect on the cleaning process.
Increased temperature results in higher cavitation intensity and better cleaning.  This is true provided that the
boiling point of the chemical is not too closely approached. Near the boiling point, the liquid will boil in the
positive pressure areas  of the sound waves, resulting in no effective cavitations.

        How parts are loaded into an ultrasonic cleaner also is an important consideration.  For instance, a
part with a blind hole or crevice can be cleaned effectively if it is placed so that liquid fills this hole and is
therefore subjected to  cavitation action.  If the hole  is inverted into  a liquid  with the opening of the hole
facing downward, it will not fill with liquid and will  not be cleaned.  Overloading baskets  with small parts
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JT ,               can sometimes result in ultrasonic energy being adsorbed by the first several layers of parts.  Large volumes
                  of small parts can be more effectively cleaned a few at a time with relatively short cycles.

                          The actual basket design is another important consideration.  It should ensure that transmission of
                  ultrasonic energy would be attenuated  as little as possible.   An  open racking method is best whenever
                  possible.

                          There are three basic stages in ultrasonic cleaning.  The first is the presoak stage, which is vital to
                  the  efficiency  of the system. In this stage, parts are placed in a heated cleaning solution that removes all
                  chemically soluble soil and contaminants. The second stage is the primary stage of ultrasonic cleaning, in
                  which scrubbing and cleaning are performed through cavitation in the solution.  The third stage is rinsing of
                  the cleaned part.  Ultrasonics also can be applied in the third stage for increased efficiency.

                          The primary ultrasonic cleaning system has three components:  a liquid solution tank; an ultrasonic
                  generator, which is the power source of electrical energy; and a transducer that converts electrical energy to
                  mechanical energy. Most generators accept standard AC input at  60 Hz and then convert it to DC.  Sizes
                  range  from 200-W tabletop units to large  1000-W units.   The optimum transducer frequency for most
                  applications has been found to be approximately 20 kHz.

                          The use of ultrasonic equipment does  not require any special knowledge.  The equipment can be
                  selected with the aid of the manufacturer and is simple to operate. There are two basic types of ultrasonic
                  equipment available.  Electrostrictive ultrasonics employ a ceramic crystal to produce sound vibrations, while
                  magnetostrictive ultrasonics use metallic elements.

                          Ultrasonic cleaning can be applied to almost any part. Materials such as ceramic, aluminum, plastic
                  and glass, as well as electronic parts, wire, cables, and rods and detailed items that may be difficult to clean
                  by other processes, are ideal candidates for ultrasonic cleaning.

                          Printed circuit boards and other electronic components can also be cleaned using ultrasonics. While
                  there have been complaints that  the 20 kHz  equipment  can  damage fragile products such as electronic
                  equipment, there are 40 kHz equipment which is more applicable to the electronics industry and also reduces
                  the noise  level  associated with ultrasonic cleaning.

                          Although most  available  ultrasonic cleaning equipment is designed for batch tanks, equipment does
                  exist in cylindrical form.  A horizontal  cylindrical tube or pipe is fitted with peripheral transducers.  The
                  transducers focus energy along the in-line centerline to allow non-contact cleaning except for the cleaning
                  solution.  It has a concentrated high power which results in reduced cleaning times. It generally is used for
                  cleaning wire,  strip, tube, cable, and rod configurations.  The cylindrical form allows items to feed through
                  without bending  and is easily adaptable to varying customer line speeds.

                          Because of the simplicity of the equipment and the decreased cleaning time, there is a saving in labor
                  costs when using ultrasonics.  This savings, along with that from decreased solvent purchase and disposal
                  costs, offsets the capital cost of the equipment in a short time.

                         Benefits of Ultrasonic Cleaning

                          Ultrasonic cleaning makes use of cavitation in an aqueous solution for greater cleaning effectiveness.
                  The efficiency of  the technology greatly reduces or eliminates the  need for strong solvents.   Although
                  solvents can be used with ultrasonic technology, and aqueous or semi-aqueous solution can be substituted for
                  solvents,  thereby eliminating solvents from the waste stream.  The wastewater generated can then be treated
                  on-site and discharged. Ultrasonic technology offers the following basic advantages.

                      •   Ultrasonic cleaning can leach into crevices and small holes where conventional methods may not
                          reach.
                      •   Ultrasonic cleaning removes inorganic particles as well as oils.

                      •   Processing speed can be increased.
                          Health hazards are greatly reduced.
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                                                          Industrial Operations:  Cleaning & Degreasing
    •   A lower concentration of cleaning solution can be used and possible lower toxic agents such as
        neutral or biodegradable detergents can be employed.

    •   Although capital costs may be higher with ultrasonic cleaning, reduced solvent expense can often
        pay for a system in a short period of time.
        Limitations of Ultrasonic Cleaning

    •   Wastewater generated has to be treated and discharged.

    •   Ultrasonic cleaning requires that the part can be immersed in the cleaning solution.

    •   Dryers may need to be employed to obtain a dry part.

    •   Testing must be performed to obtain  the optimum combination of cleaning solution concentration
        and cavitation level.

    •   The  electric power required  for  large tanks  generally  limits part sizes  that  can be cleaned
        economically.

    •   The tendency for thick oils and greases to absorb ultrasonic energy may limit their removal.

    •   Operating parameters have to be more closely monitored.

5.5.3.2  Recycling

        The goal of recycling is to recover the cleaning medium in  a form suitable for reuse.  Technology is
available to recycle halogenated solvents, nonhalogenated solvents, and aqueous cleaners.  This may involve
filtration,  decantation,  distillation, concentration, or a combination of methods.  For  many applications,
continuous recycling can be used to maintain an acceptable level of contamination in the cleaner.  The level
of cleanliness required and obtained can range from low or zero in the case of maintaining a near-virgin grade
of solvent to just maintaining an acceptable level so that parts are not over or under cleaned.

        The recovery of spent solvents may be performed either on- or off-site.  The recovery of emulsion
cleaners (i.e., semi-aqueous or water-soluble solvents) and aqueous cleaners is exclusively performed on-site.
The decision to recycle on- or off-site generally depends on the volume of waste to be processed, the capital
and operating costs of the system, as well as the availability of in-house expertise. If the volume of waste to
be recycled is  small or if the level of in-house expertise is low, off-site recycling may be a more attractive
option.  A third option is to list the spent cleaning solution on a waste exchange service which acts as a broker
to sell the spent solution to company that could use it as a raw material.

        The following sections further describe the three recycling options;

    •   On-site recycling,

    •   Off-site recycling, and

    •   Waste exchange services;

as well as provide an overview of the basic recycling technologies available.

        On-Site Recycling

        On-site recycling is defined as the process  of reclaiming a spent cleaning solution in or near the
original process line for reuse.  The decision to recycle wastes on-site is typically based on the economics of
cleaner reuse and quality control.

        Design of an on-site recycling system must  be address a number of crucial elements including
chemical volatility, solubility, thermal stability,  potential corrosion or reaction with materials of construction,
purity requirements for the recovered cleaner,  system capacity, steam and cooling water availability, worker
exposure, regulatory permitting,  and overall economics.  The above factors will guide the selection process
for purchasing  a specific  type of recycling equipment and potentially the type of cleaner employed based on
its recyclability.    Three common  types  of  recycling technologies;  gravity  separation,  filtration,  and
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JT ,               distillation; are available in a wide range of sizes, material construction, and performance requirements.  The
                  following further describes each basic type of recycling technology.

                  Gravity Separation

                          Gravity separation involves the removal of particles suspended in a liquid and is often referred to as
                  sedimentation. The contaminated liquid is introduced into a settling tank, and after a sufficient settling time,
                  the clarified liquid is drawn off from the solids resting of the bottom of the vessel.  The solids are removed
                  and disposed.  This process is widely employed as a preliminary purification or prefiltration step. Capital,
                  operating, and maintenance costs for a sedimentation system are low.  Disadvantages of the method include
                  poor removal of fine colloidal particles and potential  for excessive air emissions if conducted in a large  open
                  holding tank or basin.  Sedimentation  is typically employed in the recycling of dirty cleanup solvents and
                  thinners from painting operations.

                          Decantation is a gravity  separation  technique  used to separate immiscible  liquids of  different
                  densities.  The mixture is slowly introduced into a decant tank  where continuous-phase separation occurs.
                  Dust and dirt particles can interfere with the separation  so they are often removed by filtration beforehand.
                  Decantation is often used to remove insoluble oils from spent solvents in the dry cleaning industry and to
                  recover semi-aqueous solvents that enter the emulsion rinse stage.  The main factors in designing a decant
                  tank are the droplet size of the discontinuous phase and its volume fraction.

                          To  achieve a  greater degree  of solid or immiscible  liquid separation, the acting forces may be
                  increased by pumping the contaminated liquid  through a hydrocyclone or centrifuge. These devices spin the
                  liquid and create a very large centrifugal force that acts on the suspended matter in a way similar to gravity,
                  except much greater.  Solids are removed in the under flow of the device while clean liquid is discharged in
                  the  overflow.   As expected, capital  and  operating costs for these devices are greater,  but  so is the
                  effectiveness of separation.  Use  of a hydrocyclone to remove suspended dirt  and oil from an aqueous
                  cleaning bath can sometime double solution life.  Centrifuges  are sometimes used  to remove water from oils,
                  but they are not commonly encountered in parts cleaning operations.

                  Filtration

                          The process of filtration removes insoluble particulate  matter from a fluid be means of entrapment in
                  a porous medium.  It is often used  to extend the life of a cold-cleaning bath or to continuously remove metal
                  fines and sludge from a vapor degreaser sump.  Some of the process related factors important in the selection
                  of a filter  system include particle size  distributions, solution  viscosity, production throughput, process
                  conditions, performance requirements, and permissible materials of construction. Common styles include bag
                  and disposable cartridge, although a wide array  of equipment is available.

                          While standard  filtration does not remove  soluble contaminants such  as dissolved oils from a
                  solvent, it can be used to remove solid dirt and  grease particles. Passing the dirty solvent  through a fine metal
                  screen may  remove these contaminants before they have a chance to dissolve and load the solvent bath.
                  Routing, screening and removal of undissolved contaminants can be an effective way to extend the life of a
                  cold-cleaning bath.

                          Microfiltration systems are filtration technologies that can remove soils to a much finer degree than
                  standard filtration.  In the field of  precision  cleaning, their use is essential. Typically, vapor degreasers are
                  equipped with a 5 or  10-|_im filter for removal of particulates.  The smaller particles that  are not removed
                  accumulate  in the sump and  eventually contaminate the solvent  vapor and hence the assemblies being
                  cleaned.  The use of a microfiltration system can remove particulates down to less than 0.1  |_im in size.  This
                  minimizes the potential for particulate contamination of the  solvent vapor.   Because of the fine filtration
                  capability of the filter, removal of water, organic acids, and other soils from the solvent is feasible.

                          Moving beyond  microfiltration,  membrane  filtration (which  includes ultrafiltration) is capable of
                  removing emulsified oil and grease from aqueous cleaning solutions.  Membrane filtration is sometimes  so
                  effective that it will also remove surfactants  and other special additives from the cleaner.  Particles as fine as
                  0.01  to 0.003 |jm  and organic molecules  with molecular weights  exceeding  500  can  be removed by
                  ultrafiltration.  Therefore, selection of a suitable aqueous cleaner and the ability to recycle that cleaner often
                  involves optimizing ingredients used in the formulation to removal efficiency of the  system.
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Distillation
        Distillation is the process of separating two miscible liquids based on the difference in their vapor
pressures. The process of distillation is commonly used to recover a clean volatile solvent (halogenated) from
a less volatile contaminant.  Operation may be conducted in batch or continuous modes.

        Distillation for halogenated solvents falls into one of three categories; process stills, batch stills, and
semi-portable mini-stills. Process stills are used in conjunction with vapor degreasers to provide continuous
cleaning of the solvent.  Dirty solvent from the sump of the degreaser is pumped to the still for processing and
then returned  to the degreaser's clean solvent storage tank.   Solvent recovery with a process still typically
ranges from 60 to 80 percent. An advantage to process stills over batch stills is that the degreaser does not
have  to be  shut down while the  solvent is  being processed.  Another advantage is that  the level of
contamination in the  degreaser stays at a steady low level.  Process stills may also be used for recycling
solvent from cold -cleaning operations.

        Batch distillation is performed whenever the degreaser requires cleaning; anywhere from once per
week to once  per month or longer.  Batch distillation is also commonly used to  recycle solvent from cold-
cleaning operations.  To be recycled, dirty solvent is pumped into the still, heated and condensed, and then
put back into drums or storage tanks for return to its point of use. Batch stills are typically capable of much
higher solvent recovery rates than are process stills, usually around 70 to 95 percent. The reason for this is
that waste from a process still must often be pumped out into drums while batch stills are often equipped with
lining bags that are then used to lift the waste out of the unit.  Since the waste does not have to be pumped
out, the viscosity of the waste is less of an issue and higher solvent recovery can be practiced.  The uses of
batch mini-stills is not common with vapor degreasing, but are widely used in maintenance parts cleaning.

        If the boiling point of the solvent is high (greater than  200 °F as with perchloroethylene), distillation
can be performed under vacuum to minimize thermal decomposition of the solvent or impurities.  Vacuum
distillation can also be used to recover d-limonene at low  temperatures so as to avoid auto-oxidation and
polymerization.  Another technique is to inject live steam into the solvent, which allows the solvent to boil at
a lower temperature.  The condensate of water and solvent is then phase-separated by gravity in a decanter.
Steam injection should not be used when the solvent contains water-soluble inhibitors.  The use of steam
sparging can also result in increased air emissions if the sparging and condensing equipment are not designed
and operated properly.

        Benefits of On-Site Recycling

    •   Less waste leaves the facility.

    •   Tighter control of recovered cleaner purity .

    •   Reduced cost of liability associated with waste transport.

        Limitations of On-Site Recycling

    •   Capital expenditure required for purchasing and installing recycling equipment.

    •   Additional operating costs for periodic maintenance, operation, and worker training.

    •   Increased liability associated with worker health, fires, leaks, and spills.

        Off-Site Recycling

        The second option off -site recycling of the  spent cleaning solution through an outside vendor or
contractor.  Most commercial recyclers readily accept halogenated or nonhalogenated solvents and recycle
them  be means of distillation.  The off-site recycler, under a contractual agreement, picks up the generator's
contaminated  solvent, recycles it,  and delivers the purified  solvent back to the generator.  If the generator
does not want the recycled  solvent back, then he receives a lesser credit for the solvent and the recycler sells
the solvent to  another  user.   The  sludges  that result from  the  off-site reclamation operation contain
halogentated solvent and are usually blended with nonhalogenated solvent waste and sent as fuel supplement
to cement kilns. The  production of cement requires a source of chlorine, and the use of halogentated solvent
suits this need well.
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JT ,                       Generators should be careful to maintain spent solvents in as pure a form as possible (i.e., keep all
                  solvents segregated) so as to maximize their recyclability.  Failure to keep solvents segregated may lead to
                  rejection of the solvent by the recycler.  Depending on the waste volumes handled, off-site recycling may be
                  economically favorable over  on-site  recycling.   Off-site commercial recycling services are well suited to
                  small-quantity generators.  The recycler may charge the generator by volume of waste accepted and later
                  credit the generator for the value of recoverable solvent received. Other recyclers charge a straight fee or
                  accept waste at no charge depending on its market value.

                          In selecting an off-site recycler, one should remember that the waste generator can be held liable for
                  the mishandling of waste by the hauler or recycler.  In choosing a commercial recycling service, one should
                  investigate and verify the following:

                      •   Types of wastes typically managed;

                      •   Permits held by the facility;

                      •   State compliance records and site inspection reports;

                      •   Type and extent of insurance held;

                      •   Type of record keeping and reporting practices followed:

                      •   Availability of registered trucks and licensed haulers to transport the waste solvents;

                      •   Distance to the recycling facility and associated transportation costs;

                      •   Expertise of in-plant waste management personnel and process controls;

                      •   Disposal procedures for still bottoms and solvents that cannot be recycled;

                      •   Laboratory facilities and analytical procedures employed to ensure solvent purity;

                      •   Availability of custom recycling services (e.g., vendor-owned recycling units that are operated at the
                          generators property); and

                      •   Customer comments.

                  Benefits of Off-Site Recycling

                      •   No capital cost for equipment.

                      •   Potential for  increased profit from the cost of off-site recycling in comparison  to purchasing virgin
                          cleaning solvent.

                      •   Reduction in raw material purchases.

                  Limitations of Off-Site Recycling

                      •   Off-site recycling is not considered pollution prevention.

                      •   Increased liability associated with off-site transfer of waste.

                      •   Commercial recyclers generally except only petroleum based products.

                          Exchange Services

                          A third recycling option is to list the spent cleaning solution either on an information exchange or
                  material exchange.  An information exchange acts as a clearinghouse for information on waste availability
                  and demand.  The following information is required to list a spent cleaning solution with  an exchange service:
                  type of waste, composition, quantity, method of delivery (i.e., drums or bulk), frequency of generation (i.e.,
                  one time  or continuous), and regional location.   Once this information is listed,  the clearing-house will
                  provide  a  list of facility names that inquire about the generator's waste. All arrangements for transferring and
                  delivering the waste are between the generator and purchaser.

                          A material exchange differs from an information exchange in that it  takes  temporary physical
                  possession of the  waste and may initiate or actively participate in the transfer of the waste to  the user.


                136                         Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                          Industrial Operations: Cleaning & Degreasing
Advantages of this arrangement include less involvement of the generator and receiving facility in deciding on
equitable terms  and conditions (these may  already be dictated by the material exchange) and the ability to
participate in an exchange without the facilities having to identify themselves with one another. A disadvantage
of a material exchange is that the generator will pay more for this service; many information exchanges are free.
Information regarding available exchanges can be obtained from state and local regulatory agencies involved in
pollution prevention or recycling activities.

Benefits of Exchange Services
    •   No capital cost for equipment.

    •   Potential for increased profit from the sale of spent cleaning solutions.
    •   Reduces facility hazardous waste generation (assuming the spent solution is used by the purchaser as a
        raw material).

Limitations of Exchange Services
    •   Increased liability associated with off-site transfer of waste.

    •   Market demand fluctuates based on supply and demand.
    •   Sale price may fluctuate greatly over time.


5.6    Chemical Etching

        The following section provides a process description, waste description and a broad range of pollution
prevention opportunities that can be implemented to improve chemical etching operations.

5.6.1   Process Description

        Chemical etching is the process of depositing a conversion coat onto a metal substrate to enhance the
corrosion and adhesion properties of the metal prior to applying a paint coating.  The two most common types of
chemical etching are Phosphating on steel or zinc, and Chromate Conversion Coating (CCC) on aluminum.

5.6.1.1  Phosphating
        Phosphating (i.e., iron and zinc phosphating) is the process of depositing a conversion coating onto steel or
galvanized steel to enhance the paint coating's adhesion to the metal surface.  This strengthened bond enhances the
coatings' ability to resist corrosion. Typically, iron phosphating is conducted using a three-step process that includes
two rinse steps. To achieve a primer - topcoat system with enhanced corrosion resistance, a five-step process that
comprises three  rinse steps is  used. (See Exhibit  5.4.) Depending on their size and the  volume throughput
requirements, workpieces undergo phosphating either in batches by immersion or as individual pieces that are sprayed
as they are moved through the process by conveyor. For most pretreatment processes, the phosphating stage is
followed immediately by a dry -off oven, at a temperature that will evaporate water as quickly as possible to prevent
flash rusting. For ovens used to dry particularly bulky pieces, the temperature may be as high as 400 °F.

                        Exhibit 5.4:  Five-stage Iron or Zinc Phosphating Process

5.6.1.2  Chromate Conversion Coating
Degrease
(Hot)

Water Rinse
(Ambient)

Iron or Zinc
Phosphate
(Hot)

Water Rinse
(Ambient)

Seal Rinse
(Ambient)
                   Stepl
Step:
Step:
Step 4
Step 5
        Chromate Conversion Coating, a chromate oxide formulation, is the process of depositing a conversion
coating onto  aluminum.  For  low-value end products,  aluminum  work pieces are often pretreated using an
aqueous (i.e., nonchromate) formulation.   Common trade names  for chromate conversion coating solutions
                                                                      Notes
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Notes
               Industrial Operations: Chemical Etching
include Alodine® 1200 and Accelagold®. The active ingredient in these solutions is hexavalent chromium in
chromate (CrO4~2) and dichromate (Cr2O7"2) chemical forms.

        Conversion  coatings are widely used in the manufacture  and maintenance of aluminum prior to
painting or as a final finish.  In most cases, the conversion coating imparts corrosion protection and provides
an excellent base for paint adhesion.  In a smaller number of cases the conductive  properties of the coating
allow it  to be used for electrical bonding  applications.  Recent developments in  conversion coating
formulations have lead to the development of nonchromate conversion coatings for limited applications.

        A typical  process for applying a conversion coating to aluminum with either  a  chromate or
nonchromate formulation, consists of a seven-step process that includes two rinse steps. (See Exhibit 5.5.)

                    Exhibit 5.5: Typical Conversion Coating Process for Aluminum

Degrease
(Hot)






Water Rinse
(Ambient)






Deoxidize
(120 F)






Water Rinse
(Ambient)





Chromate or
Nonchromate
Conversion
Coating





Water Rinse
(Ambient)






Seal Rinse
(Ambient)

                      Step 1         Step 2

                  5.6.2   Waste Description
                                 StepS
Step 4
StepS
Step 6
Step 7
                          Chemical etching,  either phosphating or chromate conversion coating regardless of complexity
                 requires four basic steps; Degrease, Pre- Rinse, Chemical Etch, and Post- Rinse.  Each phase of the chemical
                 etching process generates air emissions and solid waste.  This section of the document deals with the waste
                 streams generated from the pre-rinse, chemical etching, and post-rinse process steps. Detailed information on
                 Degreasing is contained in Section 5.5, Cleaning & Degreasing.

                          Pre-rinsing,  after degreasing and before chemical etching, is essential to prevent contamination and
                 to maintain the pH of the phosphate bath,  but rinsing can generate high volumes of wastewater.  A more
                 efficient process,  cost savings and wastewater minimization can be attained through process modifications.

                          Exhibit 5.6 describes the basic waste streams generated from a typical chemical etching operation.

                                Exhibit 5.6: Simplified Material Balance of a Chemical Etching Process Step
Metal 	 ^
Substrate

Degrease
(Not covered under
this section)



Pre -Rinse
Wastewater
Ei
D
VOC Heavy Metal
nissons Emissions
f t
Chemical
Etching


Post-Rinse
^ Chemically Etched
Metal Substrate
4 + + +
rag-out Spent Heavy Metal Wastewater
Loss Solution Sludge
                          For certain types of operations, a post-rinse stage is included to remove drag-out of unreacted acids,
                  sludge deposits, corrosive salts, and other contaminants that remain on the work piece following chemical
                  etching.  Because more rinse cycles are required with post-rinsing than pre-rinsing, the post-rinse can also
                  generate high volumes of wastewater. However, efficient process modifications can reduce overall costs and
                  wastewater.

                  5.6.3   Pollution Prevention Opportunities

                          Pollution prevention  opportunities for the chemical etching industry  exist in both the source
                  reduction and recycling categories. These opportunities are discussed in further detail below.
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                                                                Industrial Operations: Chemical Etching
5.6.3.1  Source Reduction

        The chemical etching industry  has  many  opportunities for pollution prevention through source
reduction.   The source reduction possibilities are typically separated into (1) process efficiency and (2)
alternative sealing processes.

        Process Efficiency

        A key method to waste minimization in the chemical  etching stage of metal finishing is source
reduction via process  efficiency.  Applying  conversion coatings to work pieces with chemicals that are
appropriate for the particular metal substrate can minimize the generation of heavy metal sludge in immersion
baths or from conversion coating spray operations.  If the color  of a deposited coating varies from the
coloration associated with the particular formulations, the process operator should check for problems such as
exhaustion of the  solution.  Both the  monitoring of operations and the replenishing of chemicals can be
automated to ensure maximum process efficiency.

        In general, some amount of heavy metal sludge is generated in all chemical-etching processes.  In
the worst case, the use of chemicals that are not well suited to a work piece's metal substrate will iail to
deposit a coating and will generate an excess  of heavy metal sludge.  For example, iron phosphate cannot be
used to apply a conversion coating to galvanized steel because the acid will react with the zinc in the substrate
but not the iron, resulting in an excess of zinc  sludge. Instead, a zinc phosphate formulation should be used to
apply  a conversion coating  on galvanized  steel.  Similarly,  an aluminum  substrate will  not  receive  a
conversion  coating from iron phosphate  and will generate an excess  of aluminum sludge.   Aluminum
phosphate should be used to apply conversion coatings to aluminum work pieces.

Decreasing Before Chemical Etching

        The removal of grease is an important step before chemical etching.  Detailed information on the
degreasing process is contained in Section 5.5, Cleaning & Degreasing.

        If the degreasing formulation is properly selected for an immersion process, contaminants from work
pieces will either sink to the bottom of the tank or float to the top (i.e., the oils will float rather than emulsify).
The line operator can then easily filter out the insoluble sludges or separate off the oils. Sludge material can
be dried and then disposed of as hazardous waste, whereas the oils can be sent off site for fuels blending.

        Benefits of Degreasing before Chemical Etching

    •   Remove trace contaminants from the work piece.

    •   Minimize the likelihood of alkaline salts and grime contaminating the phosphate bath.

    •   Prevent the alkaline salts from raising the pH of the phosphate bath

    •   Increase bath life.
        Limitations of Degreasing before Chemical Etching

    •   Degreasing operation may generate a hazardous waste stream or require the use of toxic chemicals to
        remove the trace contaminants.

Rinsing after Degreasing

        Before chemical etching, a metal  work piece  should be thoroughly  rinsed to remove any surface
residue. While the surfactants in degreasing  formulations are essential  for removing contaminants from a
work piece, their typically low surface  tension makes them extremely difficult to remove without a thorough
rinse.  Surfactants  and  other contaminants that remain on the surface of the work piece following degreasing
can undermine the integrity of the metal deposition and ultimately the quality of the finished piece. An
additional reason for including a rinsing step  at this point of the processes is to minimize the amount of drag-
in from high alkaline degreasing baths to the near-neutral chemical etching bath.  Drag-in from a degreasing
bath or from an exhausted post-degreasing rinse will gradually neutralize the chemical etching bath until little
or no metal will deposit on the work piece.  Thus, eliminating this rinsing  step can dramatically shorten the
useful life of the chemical etchant bath, which in turn creates higher raw chemical costs and increased waste
stream volumes.   The  following describes three  rinsing systems that can be effectively used in chemical


Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                           139
Notes

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Notes
               Industrial Operations: Chemical Etching
etching operations to extend bath life and improve finished product quality; rinsing by immersion, spray rinse
system, and counter-flow rinsing.

        Rinsing by immersion is ideal  for situations in which the production flow through the process is
relatively  slow (i.e., less than 2 ft/min on a continuous basis)  and production  is intermittent.  A facility
operator considering the installation of an immersion system should consult with a specialized contractor about
design and layout.

        Exhibit 5.7 illustrates two typical immersion  system  layouts.   Exhibit  5.7(a)  shows the more
common layout for a typical batch operation; Exhibit 5.7(b) shows a less-common layout that would rely on a
conveyor to carry work pieces in and out of the tanks in a continuous process.

        A spray rinse system is often recommended for a paint and coatings operation that has a conveyor
line with a speed  greater than 2 ft/min. Facility operators considering the installation of a spray washer line
would be well advised to consult with a specialized contracting company. In general, when planning for a
spray washer, the facility operator needs to consider how the layout will affect process flow. The spray
washer system must be designed so that work pieces easily pass through the pretreatment process, allowing
adequate time for the solutions to drain between each tank.

        A spray washer system cannot be properly designed unless the conveyor line speed and the part sizes
are known.  The dimensions of the spray tunnel must be based on the silhouette of the maximum part size.
The spray nozzles inside the tunnel must be located on risers so that they are only a few inches away from the
largest part.

                            Exhibit 5.7: Immersion Rinse System Schematic
                                            H
                                                                          H
                                                                                         H
                                                (a) Immersion tanks laid out for batch operation
Tank#l


Tank #2


Tank #3


Tank #4
                                         (b) Immersion tanks laid out for continuous conveyorized operation
                          When possible, a system should be designed so that  spray rinses precede every process tank.
                  Although the rinses are at low pressures, they enhance pretreatment by preventing the contamination of tanks
                  with chemicals from a preceding tank.  Operation of such spray washers is relatively inexpensive because low
                  volumes of water are used.

                          Given the vast number of work pieces and parts of varying size that can pass through a spray system
                  each day for certain operations, nozzles can often be misdirected.  Thus, a maintenance engineer should
                  routinely check to see that spray nozzles are pointing in the correct direction.

                          A design feature often overlooked regards conveyors that pass work pieces through the tunnel, dry-
                  off oven, and spray booths, as shown in Exhibit 5.8.  The advantage of such design is that line workers are
                  only needed for hanging and offloading work pieces.
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                                                               Industrial Operations: Chemical Etching
                 Exhibit 5.8: Schematic of a Conveyorized Paints and Coatings Operation
                                                                                      Priming Spray
                                                                                      Booth
                                                                                      Curing Oven
           Curing or
           Baking Oven
Top Coat
Spray Booth
Prepping Area
        Counter-flow rinsing is an effective method for thoroughly washing contaminants from the work
pieces after degreasing or phosphating, in addition, it is an effective method for minimizing water usage.
Fundamentally, a counter-flow rinsing system is a sequence of baths in which replenished rinse water moves
in opposite direction of the process flow.  Thus, the work piece progresses from dirtier to cleaner rinse water.
The system maximizes water use by replenishing the rinse water in the processing bath.  Rinse water effluent
is ultimately released to the wastewater treatment system as  overflow  from the first (dirtiest) bath in the
sequence.
        Benefits of Rinsing after Degreasing

    •   Removes surfactants and other contaminants that can undermine the integrity of the metal deposition
        and the quality of the finished piece.

    •   Minimizes the amount of  drag-in from high alkaline  degreasing baths to the near-neutral chemical
        etching bath.

    •   Reduces the need for raw chemicals therefore decreasing the cost.

    •   Increases the useful life of the chemical etchant.

    •   Longer bath life reduces wastewater.

    •   Thorough cleaning promotes proper adhesion.
        Limitations of Rinsing after Degreasing

    •   Often requires large amounts of floor space.

    •   Capital and maintenance costs may be high.

Check for Cleanliness Prior to Etching

        The cleanliness of the substrate as the work piece enters the phosphating step or as it leaves the final
rinse tank should pass the water break-free or the  towel-wipe test.  In the water break-free test, a squirt bottle
is used to pour deionized water over a cleaned substrate. The water should run off in a sheet rather than bead
up.  While the test may demonstrate that oils and greases have been removed from the work piece, it will not
confirm that the surfactants from the degreaser have also been removed. To do this, one needs to rinse the
                                                                                                       Notes
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               Industrial Operations: Chemical Etching


JT ,              part with a small quantity of deionized water and then determine the pH of the water. This can easily be done
                 using pH papers.

                         To determine that metal fines, smut, and other contaminants have been removed, a clean paper towel
                 should be wiped  across the wet surface of the work piece.  Whereas the  test may not always result in a
                 perfectly clean towel, relative changes in cleanliness can be assessed.

                         Benefits of Checking for Cleanliness

                     •   Demonstrates that oils and greases have been removed.

                     •   Minimizes contamination of the chemical etching bath.

                     •   Minimizes the amount of drag-in from high alkaline degreasing baths to  the near-neutral chemical
                         etching bath.

                     •   Insures longer bath life that reduces wastewater and raw chemical usage.

                     •   Indicates the effectiveness of the utilized rinses

                         Limitations of Checking for Cleanliness

                     •   Does not confirm that surfactants from the degreaser have been removed.

                     •   A combination  of both the water break-free and  the towel-wipe test must be used to ensure
                         cleanliness.

                 Choosing a Phosphate Formulation and Qualifying the Phosphate Coating

                         Paints and coatings facility operators typically confer with chemical  vendors  in the selection of a
                 phosphate formulation.  Indeed, one vendor may be able to offer a better formulation  than another vendor,
                 especially if the performance requirements are unique.

                         The choice of formulation can be significant in terms of achieving optimum coating properties.  It is
                 especially prudent for the operator to discuss special requirements with a chemical  vendor, particularly if the
                 finished work piece will be subjected to aggressive environments.   In some situations,  laboratory tests may
                 need to be conducted to verify that the selected coating will be able to provide the required finish.  In general,
                 choosing a formulation on the basis of price is inadvisable.
                         Benefits of Choosing the Proper Phosphate Formulation

                     •   The proper etchant formulation will achieve optimum coating properties.

                     •   Proper formulas will reduce waste stream of ruined pieces.

                         Limitations of Choosing the Proper Phosphate Formulation

                     •   Lab tests may be required to determine the optimum formula.

                     •   The cost of the optimum formula may be prohibitive.

                     •   The optimum formulation may be more environmentally hazardous than a substitute.

                         Alternative Sealing Processes

                         Some operations subject work  pieces to a final rinse bath after  chemical etching to harden the
                 deposited coating, providing an enhanced long-term corrosion resistance.  This process step is included in
                 operations for a wide  range  of industries, most of which pertain to high value work pieces.  Sealing is
                 accomplished with both a chromate and a nonchromate process. Typically, work pieces are sealed using a
                 rinse of deionized water mixed with a small concentration of chromate or nonchromate additive.

                     •   Chromate Sealers - seek out areas of the  coating where the phosphate failed to convert the base
                         metal. The chemicals in the chromate sealer then react with the exposed substrate, in much the same
                         way  as the phosphating process itself, to form a corrosive resistant film.  Operators have used
                         chromate-based rinses for many years as an effective means of sealing the  phosphate coating on the
                         work piece. Chromate rinse additives are based on either a hexavalent or trivalent chromium. While


               142                         Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                               Industrial Operations:  Chemical Etching
        both form  pollutants  of concern, hexavalent chromium is particularly toxic and is a suspected
        carcinogen; thus, residuals must be disposed of as hazardous waste, which can add significant costs
        to the process.
    •   Nonchromate Sealers - also form a protective film over exposed areas of the substrate, although not
        through a chemical reaction with the base metal.  Several  nonchromate sealant formulations have
        been developed, but their effectiveness for enhancing the durability of a  work piece as compared
        with chromate-based sealers has yet to be fully established. Nonetheless, when the finished work
        piece will  be used in applications requiring less-demanding  corrosion resistance,  nonchromate
        sealers can present an attractive alternative.  The great advantage that nonchromate sealers hold over
        chromate based formulations is that they  are non-toxic.  Thus, an operator can realize significant
        benefits by reducing or eliminating the need to dispose of hazardous residuals.
Benefits of Alternative Sealing Processes
    •   Sealers harden the deposited coating, providing an enhanced long-term corrosion resistance.
    •   Nonchromate based sealers are non-toxic, therefore they reduce the cost of disposal.
    •   Nonchromate sealers can work in applications requiring less-demanding corrosion resistance.
Limitations of Alternative Sealing Processes
    •   Chromate sealers are toxic, therefore increasing the disposal cost.
    •   Chromate based sealers are suspected carcinogens.
    •   Non-toxic nonchromate based sealers cannot enhance the durability of a work piece as well as toxic
        chromate based sealers.
    •   Chromate sealers contain environmentally detrimental hexavalent  or trivalent chromium.
5.6.3.2  Recycling
        In process  recycling phosphate baths and rinses can be used to extend bath life and reduce waste
volumes.  The recycling  process is  accomplished by raising the pH of an exhausted phosphate bath or
collected spray drainage, which will precipitate out any heavy metal sludge. The wastewater can then be run
through a centrifuge to collect the sludge into a cake, which must be disposed of as hazardous waste. For
more information on recycling technologies to remove heavy metals and suspended solids, see Section 5.5,
Cleaning and Degreasing.
        A growing trend in phosphate waste recycling is to  use ultrafiltration to separate and reuse rinse
water and concentrates.   This additional step maximizes water use and reduces the amount of wastewater
discharged to local treatment works.
Benefits of In-Process Recycling
    •   Reduces the mass of materials being disposed.
    •   Reduces amount of chemicals used, thereby reducing raw chemical costs.
    •   Maximizes  water use.
    •   The process takes place on-site, therefore reducing transportation costs.
Limitations of In-Process Recycling
    •   The hazardous sludge cake has to be disposed of.

5.7    Plating Operations
        The following  section provides  a  process description, waste  description and a broad range of
pollution prevention opportunities that can be implemented to improve plating operations.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          143
Notes

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                Industrial Operations: Plating Operations


Notes             5.7.1   Process Description

                          Metal finishing comprises a broad range of processes that are practiced by most industries engaged
                  in manufacturing operations using metal parts.  Typically, metal finishing is performed on manufactured parts
                  after they have been shaped, formed, forged, drilled, turned, wrought, cast, etc.  A "finish" can be defined as
                  any final operation applied to the surface of a metal article in order to  alter its surface properties to achieve
                  various goals.  Metal finishing operations are  intended to increase corrosion or abrasion resistance,  alter
                  appearances, serve as ai improved base for the  adhesion of other materials  (e.g., other metals, paints,
                  lacquers, oils), enhance frictional characteristics, add hardness, improve solderability, add specific electrical
                  properties, and/or improve the utility of the product in some other way.

                          Plating processes  are typically batch  operations, in which metal objects are dipped into and then
                  removed from baths containing various reagents to achieve the desired surface condition. The processes
                  involve moving the object being coated through a series of baths designed to produce the desired end product.
                  These processes can be manual or highly automated operations, depending on the level of sophistication and
                  modernization of the facility and the application.  Most metal plating operations have three basic steps: (1)
                  surface cleaning and preparation, (2) surface  modification, and (3) rinsing or  other work piece finishing
                  operations to produce the final product.

                  5.7.1.1  Surface Cleaning and Preparation

                          Preparation cycles vary depending on the particular substrate being electroplated.  Often only slight
                  variations in substrate composition significantly influence the preparation process.  Heat treating variations
                  also contribute to the complications of preparation.  Determining an optimum preparation process for a given
                  material often becomes a matter of trial  and error. Poor preparation of a substrate can  result in loss of
                  adhesion, pitting, roughened coating, lower corrosion resistance, smears, and stains.  Because plating takes
                  place at the  exact molecular surface of a work, it is important that the substrate be clean  and receptive to the
                  plating.  The soils encountered in electroplating processes  can be organic,  (e.g.,  oil  greases, and other
                  cleaning compounds) or inorganic, such as oxides and heat-treat scales.  Some plating baths can clean
                  surfaces and thus tolerate minimally cleaned  surfaces,  but  the majority needs surfaces  cleaned to  near
                  perfection.   No simple, universal cleaning cycle  exists for electroplating.  Several methods  and cleaning
                  solutions may be used in a single-plating process.

                  5.7.1.2  Surface Modification

                          Surface modification is typically  achieved through electroplating, which passes  an electrical current
                  through a solution containing  dissolved metal ions and the metal object to be plated.  The metal substrate
                  serves  as the cathode in an electrochemical cell,  attracting metal ions  from the  solution.  Ferrous and non-
                  ferrous metal objects are plated  with  a variety of metals, including  aluminum, brass,  bronze, cadmium,
                  copper, chromium, iron, lead, nickel, tin,  and zinc,  as well as precious metals, such as  gold, platinum, and
                  silver.  Controlling a variety of parameters, including the voltage, amperage, temperature, residence times,
                  and the purity of bath  solutions regulates the process.  Plating baths are almost always aqueous solutions;
                  therefore, only those metals that can be reduced from aqueous solutions of their salts can be electrodeposited.
                  The only major exception is aluminum, which can be plated from organic electrolytes. If the production
                  allows, electroless plating is also used.  Electroless plating follows similar steps to electroplating but involves
                  the deposition of metal  on a substrate without the use of external electrical energy.

                  5.7.1.3  Rinse

                          A final rinse typically follows the bath process, and is important in the removal  of a thin film of
                  plating solution from the surface of the  substrate.  Good rinsing requires good water, not too cold, vigorous
                  agitation, and time.  Water at S7°C  is  a poor rinse; water 30-35°C gives  a  good rinse.   Time and agitation
                  allows the rinse water to penetrate, to dilute, and to remove the substantive films. A two-minute dip in each
                  agitated rinse has often produced good work having good adhesion, when one-minute dips have failed.

                  5.7.2   Waste Description

                          The plating industry is somewhat unusual among manufacturing industries at present because the
                  vast majority of the chemicals used end up as  waste.  The  current inefficiency of material  use is due to the
                  inherent characteristics of the processes employed where parts are immersed into concentrated tanks of


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                                                               Industrial Operations:  Plating Operations
chemicals and subsequently rinsed with fresh water. The resultant wastewater makes up the greatest volume
of waste material from plating operations.

        Wastewater is generated during rinsing operations.  Rinsing is necessary to remove the thin film of
concentrated chemicals  (i.e.,  drag-out) that  adheres to parts after their removal from process baths (e.g.,
plating solution). Wastewaters are usually treated on-site. This treatment generates a hazardous sludge that
must be disposed of in an approved landfill or sent to a recovery site for metals reclamation.

        Residual metals in  wastewaters discharged by  plating  shops to municipal sewer systems,  as
permitted, where it  will be treated further.  Process baths are discharged periodically when they lose their
effectiveness due to chemical depletion or contamination.  Accidental discharges of these chemicals also
occur sometimes (e.g., when a tank is overfilled).  These concentrated wastes are typically treated on-site or
hauled to an off-site treatment or recovery facility.

        With respect to  air emissions, the greatest concerns with plating shops are solvents and chromium.
Solvents are partly evaporated during degreasing operations.   Contaminated  liquid solvents are either
recovered by distillation (on-site or off-site) or sent for disposal (incineration). Chromium is released to  the
air by plating and anodizing processes. Most shops do not have controls for organics;  however, some larger
plants use carbon adsorption units to remove hydrocarbons.  Chromium emissions and other heavy metals are
frequently controlled by  the use of wet scrubbers.  The discharge of these systems is sent to the wastewater
treatment system and combined with other wastewaters for processing.

        Plating also generates other miscellaneous sources  of wastes, including floor wash waters, storm
water, and chemical packaging wastes.

        Exhibit 5.9 identifies the major waste streams from typical metal plating operations, as well as  the
major waste constituents of concern from both regulatory and environmental risk perspectives.

5.7.3   Pollution Prevention Opportunities

        During the past 10 to 15 years, innovative members of the  plating industry have made significant
strides in  developing and implementing preventative methods of pollution control.   In some cases, waste
minimization methods and technologies  have been responsible  for  reducing  waste volumes  by up to  90
percent. Associated with the decrease in waste generation are reductions in end-of-pipe equipment purchases,
improvements in effluent compliance, improvements in product quality, and significant cost savings in raw
materials.

        Exhibit 5.10 presents waste minimization  opportunities applicable to the metal plating industry.  It
should be noted that many lower technology waste minimization options, including  process recovery and
reuse, improved operating procedures, and use of waste exchanges and off-site recovery options, represent
significant opportunities for waste reduction often with relatively low investment requirements.

        Exhibit 5.11 presents a more detailed identification of the specific waste reduction techniques that
have documented  applicability to  metal plating  processes and  briefly describes the  applications and
limitations of each.  All of these methods are described in detail in the body of the paper with discussions of
the  current use and  applicability, limitations, and costs associated with purchasing, installing, and operating
the  various technologies.
Notes
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               Industrial Operations: Plating Operations
Notes
                                         Exhibit 5.9 Major Metal Plating Wastes and Constituents
Air Emissions
Solvent releases from degreasing operations
Chromium


Waste Waters
Rinse Water
Spent Baths
Scrubber Slowdown
Cooling Water


Solid and Hazardous Wastes
Solvent Wastes
-spent contaminated solvents
-still bottoms from solvent recovery
Spent Process Solutions
-alkaline cleaners
-acid etching solutions
-plating solutions
Waste Treatment Sludges

Key Constituents
Solvents
-1,1,1 -Trichlorethane
-Triclorethylene
-Perchloroethylene
-Chloroflurocarbons
-Methylene chloride
-Acetone
-Toluene
-Methyl Ethyl Ketone
-Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
Metals
-Cyanide
-Chromium
-Cadmium
-Nickel
-Aluminium
-Copper
-Iron
-Lead
-Tin
-Zinc
                  5.7.3.1   S ource Reduction

                          Pollution from conventional plating methods is  typically  high  because the vast majority of the
                  chemicals used end up as waste.  The current inefficiency of material use is due to the inherent characteristics
                  of the processes employed. The main focuses in cleaner technologies for plating are:

                      •   Product Replacements -could be used in place of the metal plating therefore eliminating the need for
                          the conventional plating process in particular situations.

                      •   Alternative Processes - replace the conventional plating process.   They may perform  as well as
                          plating done by conventional methods, and reduce waste.

                      •   Process Efficiency - reduces the amount of waste created during the traditional plating process.

                      •   Materials Management - reduces the material usage through improved management practices.
                146
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                                                               Industrial Operations: Plating Operations
        Product Replacements

        Product replacements may be  utilized for decorative coatings, but for technical purposes metal
coatings are essential. Hard coated metals are expected to resist acidic attack, combat high temperatures, and
reduce friction. While paint and plastics have limited replacement values as decorative coatings, they cannot
withstand the abuse that hard coated metals  stand up to.  Paint  and plastics have been used  as product
replacements for hard coated metals successfully in very selective decorative coating applications.  The act of
eliminating the plating operation from a product design is best achieved during product design.

             Exhibit 5.10 Waste  Minimization/Pollution Prevention Methods and Technologies
                                      = LEAST PREFERRED OPTION
Product Changes
and Process ' ^
Substitution
»
»>
»>
»
»>
>

Alternative
Products/
Processes

Reduce/Eliminate
use of Chlorinated
Solvents

Reduce/Eliminate
use of Cyanide

Reduce/Eliminate
use of Cadmium

Reduce/Eliminate
use of Chromium

Reduce/Eliminate
use of other
Hazardous
Materials
                           Operatioon
                             Process
 Process
 Solution
Maintance
Chemical
Recovery
  Treatment/
Off-site Recycle
        Alternative Processes

        Recently, alternative processes to the conventional plating process have been developed.  Viable
replacements may be able to reduce or eliminate the wastes associated with the bath process. The alternative
processes are separated into the following categories.

    •   Chemical Vapor Deposition

    •   Physical Vapor Deposition

    •   Thermal Spray Technologies
                                                       Notes
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Industrial Operations: Plating Operations
                                  Exhibit 5.11 Waste Minimization Opportunities Available to the Metal Plating Industry
     Category
         Examples
               Applications
                  Limitations
General Waste
Reduction Practices
Improved operating procedures
Drag-out reduction
Rinse-water use reduction
Air emissions reductions
    Applicable to all conventional plating
    operations
    Should be considered standard operating
    procedures and/or good design
    Cost benefits typically outweigh any
    necessary expenditures
•   Existing facilities may be able to
    accommodate changes due to process
    configuration, space constraints, etc.
Alternative
Processes
Thermal Spray Coatings
Vapor Deposition
Chemical Vapor Deposition
    Primarily repair operations although they
    are now being incorporated into original
    manufacturing
    Primarily high-technology applications
    than can bear additional costs
    Expected to improve product quality and
    life
    Technologies in varying states of
    development; commercial availability may be
    limited in certain areas
    Expense often limits application to expensive
    parts (e.g., aerospace, electronics, military)
    May require improved process controls,
    employee training, and automation
Process Solution
Maintenance
Convention Maintenance
Methods
Advanced Maintenance Methods
Process Monitoring and Control
    Conventional methods applicable to all
    plating operations
    Advanced methods may require significant
    changes in process design, operation, and
    chemistry
    Application limited for some plating
    process/technology combinations (e.g.,
    microfiltration not applicable to copper or
    aluminum)
Chemical Recovery
Technologies
Evaporation
Ion exchange
Electrowinning
Electrodialysis
Reverse osmosis
•   Requires significant engineering,
    planning, and characterization of process
    chemistry
    Costs are highly variable for advanced
    methods
    Applications must be carefully tailored to
    process chemistry
Off-Site Metals
Recovery
Filtration
Ion exchange
Electrowinning
Electrolytic Recovery
•   Metal-bearing wastewater treatment
    sludge
•   Waste materials must be acceptable to
    recyclers
148
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Industrial Operations: Plating Operations
Chemical Vapor Deposition

        In Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) processes,  a reactant gas mixture impinges on the substrate
upon which a deposit is made. The different variations of CVD are distinguished by the manner in which the
precursor gases are converted into the reactive gas mixture. Typically in CVD, gas precursors are heated to
form a reactive gas mixture. A precursor material, otherwise known as a reactive vapor delivers the coating
species.  It is usually in the form of a metal halide, metal carbonyl, a hybrid, or an organmetallic compound.
The  precursor may be in either gas, liquid or solid form.  Gases are delivered to the chamber under normal
temperatures and pressures, while  solids and liquids  require high  temperatures and/or low pressure  in
conjunction with a carrier gas.  Once in the chamber, energy is applied  to the substrate to facilitate the
reaction of the precursor material upon impact. The ligand species is liberated from the metal species to  be
deposited upon the substrate to form the coating.  Since most CVD reactions are endothermic, regulating the
amount of energy input may  control the reaction.   The most useful CVD coatings are nickel, tungsten,
chromium, and titanium carbide.

        The steps in a generic CVD process are:

     1.   Formation of the reactive gas mixture;

     2.   Mass transport of the reactive gases through a boundary layer to the substrate;

     3.   Absorption of the reacts on the substrate;

     4.   Reaction of the absorbents to form the deposit;  and

     5.   Description of the gaseous decomposition products of the decomposition process.
        Benefits of Chemical Vapor Deposition

     •   Controls the microstructure and/or chemistry of deposited material.

     •   Evenly coats corners, holes, and irregularities.

     •   The  CVD  coating process  does  not  involve  a bath  operation,  therefore  eliminating  the
        environmentally hazardous waste released due to drag-out.

        Limitations of Chemical Vapor Deposition

     •   The substrate must be thoroughly cleaned prior to deposition.

     •   Reacted and unreacted chemical vapors  may be released to  the environment  if a proper exhaust
        system is not in place.

     •   The deposition chamber must be clean, leak-tight, and free  from dust and moisture.

     •   Toxic, corrosive, and flammable materials are produced and must be recovered and disposed of.

     •   Very expensive start-up cost.

     •   Hazardous or toxic chemicals may be produced due to improper precursor chemical selection.

Physical Vapor Deposition

        Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) methods  are clean, dry vacuum deposition methods in which the
coating is deposited over the entire object simultaneously, rather than in localized areas. PVD technologies
are generally classified into the following categories.

     •   Sputtering - is an etching process for altering the physical properties of the surface in which the
        substrate is eroded by the bombardment of energetic particles. The sputtering process has an in-situ
        cleaning effect, therefore does not require the substrate to be spotlessly clean.  Sputtering deposits
        are typically thin, ranging from 0.00005 mm to 0.01 mm.  Compared to other deposition processes,
        sputtering is relatively inexpensive.

     •   Ion Plating - is separated into either plasma based or ion beam enhanced deposition.  In plasma-
        based ion plating the  substrate is in the proximity to the plasma and ions are accelerated from the
        plasma by a negative bias on the substrate,  while  ion  beam enhanced deposition the ions are


Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                              149
                                         ^ .

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               Industrial Operations: Plating Operations


JT ,                       accelerated from an ion gun or other source.  Titanium, aluminum, copper, gold, and palladium are
                          typically coated with the ion plating method.  A benefit of both ion plating methods is that the
                          substrate does not have to be extremely clean before plating.  Capitol costs for this technology are
                          typically high; therefore it is used in applications where high value-added equipment is being coated.

                      •    Ion Implantation - does not produce a discrete coating; the process alters the elemental chemical
                          composition  of the surface  substrate  by  forming  an  alloy  with energetic  ions.   All  surface
                          contaminants must be removed prior to plating using ion implantation.

                          All three PVD methods allow coatings to be  deposited as thin as  0.00005mm and  as thick as
                 0.025mm. Most commonly chromium, titanium, gold, silver, and tantalum are coated.

                          All reactive PVD hard coating processes combine:

                      1.    A method for depositing the metal;

                      2.    Combining with an active gas, such as nitrogen, oxygen, or methane; and

                      3.    Plasma bombardment of the substrate to ensure a dense, hard coating.
                          Benefits of Physical Vapor Deposition

                      •    Even deposition rates.

                      •    The  PVD  coating  process  does  not involve a bath  operation,  therefore eliminating the
                          environmentally hazardous waste released due to drag-out.

                      •    High resistance to friction.

                      •    PVD typically  requires less substrate cleaning than conventional plating therefore reducing the
                          amount of cleaning solvents entering the waste stream.

                      •    PVD does not add any new toxic waste streams.

                      •    Good adhesion to the substrate.
                          Limitations of Physical Vapor Deposition

                      •    High start up costs.

                      •    The coating may be contaminated with other molecules if the work area is not properly prepared.

                      •    PVD produces waste streams from blasting media and solvents, bounce and over spray particles, and
                          grinding particles.

                 Thermal Spray Technologies

                          Thermal Spray coatings can be sprayed from rod or wire stock or from powdered  materials. The
                 material  (e.g. wire) is fed into a flame where it is melted.  The molten stock is then stripped from the end of
                 the wire  and atomized by a high velocity stream of compressed air or other gas, which propels the materials
                 onto a prepared  substrate or work piece.   Depending on  the  substrate, bonding  occurs either  due to
                 mechanical interlock with a roughened surface, due to localized diffusion and alloying,  and/or by means of
                 Van de Waals force (i.e., mutual attraction and cohesion between the surfaces).  Thermal spray technologies
                 can be categorized into the following five methods.

                      •    Combustion Torch/High Velocity Oxy-Fuel - has a very high velocity impact, and coatings exhibit
                          little  or no porosity. Deposition rates are relatively high, and the coatings have acceptable bond
                          strength.   Coating thickness ranges from 0.000013  to 3.0 mm.   Some oxidation  of metallics  or
                          reduction of some oxides may occur, altering the coating's properties.

                      •    Combustion Torch/Detonation  Gun - produces some of the densest of the thermal coatings.  Almost
                          any metallic, ceramic, or cement materials that melt without decomposing can be used to produce a
                          coating.  Typical coating thickness ranges from 0.05 to 0.5 mm, but both thinner and  thicker coatings
                          can be used.
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                                                               Industrial Operations:  Plating Operations
    •   Combustion Torch/Flame Spraying - is noted for its relatively high deposited porosity, significant
        oxidation of the metallic  components, low resistance to impact  or point loading, and limited
        thickness (typically 0.5 to 3.5 mm).  Advantages include the low capital cost of the equipment, its
        simplicity,  and the relative ease of training the operators.  In addition, the technique uses materials
        efficiently and has a low associated maintenance cost.

    •   Electric Arc Spraying- produces coatings with high porosity and low bond strengths.  Coatings can
        range from a few hundredths of a mm to almost unlimited thickness, depending on the end use.  It
        can be used for simple metallic coatings, such as copper and zinc, and for some ferrous  alloys.
        Industrial applications include coating paper, plastics, and  other heat sensitive materials for the
        production of electromagnetic shielding devices and mold making.

    •   Plasma Spraying - is a variable technique, which  can produce coatings a wide range of selected
        physical properties, such as coating with porosities ranging  from essentially zero to high porosity.
        The spraying can achieve thickness from 0.3 to 0.6 mm, depending on the coating and the substrate
        material.  Sprayed materials include  aluminum, zinc, copper alloys, tin, molybdenum, some steels,
        and numerous ceramic materials.

        Of the  thermal spraying techniques,  flame spraying and  high velocity oxy -fuel are relatively
inexpensive in comparison to the detonating gun, electric arc furnace,  and plasma spray.  The five techniques
all follow the same basic steps summarized below.

    1.   Substrate preparation -  usually involves  scale,  oil, and grease removal  as well  as  surface
        roughening.  Roughening is necessary for most of the thermal spray process to ensure adequate
        bonding of the coating material.

    2.   Masking and fixturing - limits the amount of coating applied to the work piece in order to remove
        over spray through time consuming grinding and stripping after deposition.

    3.   Coating -  is affected by particle temperature, velocity, angle of impact, and extent of reaction with
        gases during the deposition process.  The geometry of the substrate also effects the coating since the
        special properties vary from point to point on each piece.

    4.   Finishing - is necessary in many applications. Typically  after the deposition process, grinding and
        lapping techniques are utilized.

    5.   Inspecting - involves the verification of dimensions and a visual examination for pits, cracks, etc.

    6.   Stripping - when necessary, is done chemically in acids or  bases, electrolytically, or in fused salts.  If
        none of these techniques are possible, mechanical removal by grinding or grit blasting is necessary.
        Benefits of Thermal Spray Technologies

    •   Thermal spray technologies  do  not involve  a bath  operation,  therefore  eliminating the
        environmentally hazardous waste released due to drag-out.

    •   Efficiently  uses materials  consequently  reducing the amount of waste generated,  and the cost
        associated with raw materials.

    •   Variability  in the process allows for a wide range of thickness  and porosities.

    •   Can normally be stripped chemically, electro lytically, or in fused salts.
        Limitations of Thermal Spray Technologies

    •   High noise  generation (between 80 db to more than 140 db).

    •   Environmental concerns including the generation of dust, fumes, over spray, and intense light.

    •   Nondestructive testing of the coating has largely proven unsuccessful.

    •   Water curtains  designed to capture over spray and fumes discharge contaminated wastewater.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                               151
Notes

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               Industrial Operations: Plating Operations


JT ,                      Process Efficiency

                         Through process efficiency the waste streams involved with conventional plating systems can be
                 reduced.  Small changes in processes can often net large results in preventing pollution and cost reduction.
                 The following procedures can be used to maximize process efficiency.

                     •   Drag-out reduction.

                     •   Rinse water reduction.

                     •   Conventional maintenance methods.

                     •   Advanced Maintenance technologies.

                 Drag-Out Reduction

                         Drag-out of process fluid into rinse water is a major source of pollution in any plating shop.  The
                 volume of drag-out discharged  from a process is determined by some factors that cannot be altered easily,
                 such  as part shapes and process  fluid concentrations.  The effects of many other contributing  factors,
                 however,  are readily reduced by common techniques.  Reduction of drag-out not only reduces the  mass of
                 pollutants reaching the wastewater stream but also reduces the amount  of chemical loss suffered by the
                 process. Because most drag-out reduction methods require only operator training or small process changes,
                 the cost savings and other benefits realized quickly offset any implementation expenses incurred. Drag-out
                 reduction techniques include the following.

                      •  Plating Solution  Control  - minimizes drag-out by  reducing  bath viscosity with the   lowest
                          concentration  or  highest temperature possible,  reducing  surface tension with wetting  agents,
                          preventing the build-up of contaminants in process tanks by monitoring carbonate accumulation,
                          and using high purity electrodes to reduce  impurities  from falling out and  contaminating  the
                          solution.

                      •  Withdrawal Rates and Drainage  - are critical to minimizing drag-out.  Maximizing the drip time,
                          using drip shields or boards to capture and return drag-out as a rack or barrel is transported away
                          from the process, using tanks to collect drag-out, and utilizing air knives to enhance drainage will
                          return the maximum drag-out volume.

                      •  Positioning of Parts on  the Rack - is important both for quality as well as drag-out reduction
                          considerations.  The best position is typically determined by experimentation.  Parts should not be
                          racked over one another, but they should be positioned to consolidate runoff streams, and  oriented
                          so that the lowest profile emerges from the fluid as the rack is removed.

                      •  Rinsing Over Process Tanks  - with fog or sprayers can be utilized in heated processes, which
                          provide  enough  evaporation  headroom to  accept  additional  fluid.   The  process  can cause
                          complications with ventilation systems by possibly increasing the airborne pollutant load.

                      •  Drag-Out Tank -  is a rinse tank that is filled with water but is stagnant and drag-out accumulates in
                          the tank.  The contents of the tank are used to replenish drag-out and evaporation losses occurring in
                          the process tank.  Water is added to the drag-out tank to maintain the operating level.

                      •  Drag-In Drag-Out Rinse- is positioned before and after the plating tank to ensure that the drag-out is
                          returned at the same rate at which it is removed. The procedure is most effective in low-temperature
                          processes, but requires an extra processing step and builds up contaminants faster than typical
                          processes.

                         Benefits of Drag-Out Reduction

                     •   Up to 50% reduction in drag-out loss of chemicals.

                     •   Start-up costs are quickly recovered.

                     •   Lower viscosity reduces the mass of the constituents in the drag-out.

                     •   Higher quality coating can be achieved.
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                                                              Industrial Operations: Plating Operations
        Limitations of Drag-Out Reduction

    •   May cause ventilation problems.

    •   Time loss due to process.

    •   Increased drying time can accelerate oxidation and passivation.

    •   Staining can occur if parts dry completely.

Rinse Water Reduction

        Water usage cannot be reduced indiscriminately without risking process problems.  Rinse tanks must
not exceed maximum  concentration of contamination,  or part  quality  will  suffer.  However,  several
inexpensive methods can  significantly reduce  water  consumption without affecting  rinse contaminant
concentrations. They are as follows.

    •   Tank Design - should allow for rinsing of the largest parts, and all tanks (rinse and process) should
        be the same size.  Inlet and outlet points should be at opposite sides of the tank and the flow into the
        tank should be distributed. Agitation may be achieved through air spraying or other methods.

    •   Flow Controls - will reduce waste by closely monitoring the flow.  Timer release controls regulate
        flow by opening and closing valves at set times, while conductivity controllers regulate flow based
        on rinse water conductivity. When the conductivity  reaches  a set point,  the valve is opened and
        water flows through the tank. When the conductivity falls below a set point, the valve is shut-off.

    •   Rinse Configuration - effects the amount of drag-out that is recovered.  A simple overflow rinse is
        very inefficient. A drag-out rinse or counterflowing rinse series inserted between the overflow rinse
        and the process is much more efficient.  A  counterflowing rinse series consists of a series of tanks
        where fresh water enters the tank  farthest from the process tank and overflows into the next tank
        closer to the process tank, in the  opposite direction  of the work  flow.  As work runs through a
        counterflowing series,  the first  tank becomes more concentrated than the next.   The flow rate  is
        calibrated to achieve the desired concentration in the last, or cleanest tank.

        Benefits of Rinse Water Reduction

    •   Reduced water consumption and corresponding water costs.

    •   Increased waste treatment efficiency from decreased throughput.

    •   Size reduction of future waste treatment and pollution control technologies.

    •   Reduction in use of treatment chemicals.

    •   Allows for shorter dwell times.
        Limitations of Rinse Water Reduction

    •   Flow controls have to be automated; manual valves are difficult to control.

    •   Set-up often requires large floor space.

Conventional Maintenance Methods

        Maintaining the bath plating solutions can prolong their use.  By removing the contaminants  in a
bath solution, fewer chemicals enter the waste stream and fewer chemicals are also required.  The  most
common conventional bath maintenance method is  filtration.  Nearly all plating baths require filtration to
remove suspended solids that would otherwise adhere to the surface of the parts and cause rough plating.
Small tanks can  be filtered efficiently by in-tank designs, while larger tanks require external pump and filter
assemblies. The disposable cartridge filters are typically fabricated wound or woven plastics, or sand and
diatomaceous earth.
Notes
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               Industrial Operations: Plating Operations


JT ,                      Plating bath contaminants can also be removed through the following techniques to extend the bath
                  life.

                      •    "Dummy Platting" - or electrolysis is a method of reducing the mass of contaminant metals in a
                         plating bath by plating them onto a dummy panel.  During dummy plating, a current density much
                         lower that that used for normal plating is applied.

                      •   Carbonate Freezing - is  applicable to  sodium-based cyanide plating baths.  When cooled to a
                         temperature of approximately 3°C, sodium carbonate crystals form and can be removed easily.

                      •   Carbon Treatment - is a common method of reducing organic contamination in plating baths.
                         Carbon treatment may only consist of occasionally substituting carbon for normal cartridges in the
                         existing filtration equipment.

                  Advanced Maintenance Technologies

                         Advanced maintenance technologies are relatively new, but they are employed to  treat specifically
                  difficult to maintain bath solutions. The following four treatments typically utilized are:

                      •   Microfiltration - is a membrane-based technology applied primarily to aqueous and semi-aqueous
                         cleaning solutions.  This technology separates emulsified oils and other colloids from the cleaner
                         chemistry, thereby extending the life of the process bath.

                     •   Ion Exchange - is applied to chromic acid solutions to remove cations, such as copper, zinc, or iron
                         that are introduced into  plating baths from racks  and parts.  For chromic  acid  purification,  ion
                         exchange competes with ion transfer and membrane electrolysis.

                     •   Acid Sorption - is applied to acid solutions,  such as pickling or sulfuric acid  anodizing baths, to
                         remove dissolved metals.

                     •   Ion Transfer - is a common technology with applications generally restricted to chromic acid plating
                         baths, etched, and anodizing baths.  The goal of this technology is to selectively remove cations from
                         chromic acid process fluids.

                         Benefits of Process Bath Maintenance

                      •   Extends bath solution life.

                      •   Reduces chemical use.

                      •   Reduces waste disposal.

                         Limitations of Process Bath Maintenance

                      •   Start-up costs can be expensive.

                      •   Expensive start-up and maintenance costs for certain processes.

                      •   Can cause time delays in the plating process.
                  5.7.3.2  Recycling

                         Chemical recovery technologies either recover drag-out and return it to the process or recover a
                  constituent  of  the drag-out  chemistry, usually  a dissolved metal,  and recycle  it in  another  process.
                  Recovering  drag-out reduces raw material costs by returning otherwise lost components to the process and
                  reduces the mass of regulated ions reaching the  waste treatment system, which lowers costs and aids in
                  complying with discharge limits.  Recycling takes places both on-site and off-site.

                         On-Site Recycling

                         On-site recycling  technologies typically  recover plating solution lost from drag-out in the rinse
                  tanks; usually a dissolved metal. The following briefly summarizes the types of technology commonly used.

                      •   Evaporation - with atmospheric and vacuum  systems are the most common chemical technology
                         used in the plating industry. Atmospheric evaporators are most common, and relatively inexpensive
                         to  purchase, and  easy to  operate.  Vacuum evaporators are mechanically more sophisticated and


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                                                              Industrial Operations:  Plating Operations
        more energy efficient.  Additionally, with vacuum evaporators, water lost as vapor can be recovered
        as a condensate and re-used in the plant.

    •   Ion exchange  - is a versatile technology that can be a major component of a low- or zero-discharge
        configuration  or it can be employed to selectively remove certain cations from a rinse stream.  In
        either case, ion exchange can only be applied to relatively dilute streams, and is often used to recycle
        rinse water.

    •   Electrowinning - is a well-known and  common recovery technology.  It is limited, however, because
        only the metal portion of the process chemistry is recovered, making direct return of metal-depleted
        drag-out usually impossible.  The technology is generally inexpensive both to purchase and operate.
        Electrowinning is applied to drag-out fluids, process baths, or ion exchange regenerate, all of which
        are relatively concentrated with metal ions.

    •   Electrodialysis - is  employed  with  much less frequency for  metal recovery than some other
        technologies, such as ion exchange or  evaporation. The most common application of electrodialysis
        is the recovery of nickel from rinse water.  One advantage unique to this technology  is that the
        organic molecules are prevented from  entering the concentrate flow and therefore are not returned to
        the process tank, making electrodialysis particularly suitable for recovery of process fluids in which
        an undesirable build-up of organics occurs.

    •   Reverse osmosis - is a membrane filtration technology that has been  applied to a single rinse stream
        from  a process or to a mixed stream  from  several processes.  The  portion of the flow that passes
        through the membrane is usually recycled as rinse water.  The portion of the flow rejected by the
        membrane and containing  most of the dissolved solids is often suitable  for direct return to the
        process tank.  Reverse osmosis is a good component of low- or zero-discharge configuration.

Benefits ofOn-site Recycling

    •   Reduces raw material costs.

    •   Can remove both organic and non-organic materials.

    •   Reduces mass of regulated ions reaching the waste treatment system.

    •   Removes liability associated with land  disposal from generator.

Limitations ofOn-site Recycling

    •   Can require expensive engineering and planning stages.

    •   Equipment must be customized to each system.

    •   Capitol and operational costs can be high.

        Off-Site Recycling

        Approximately one-third of U.S. plating  shops send their metal  bearing  wastewater treatment
sludges to off-site metals recycling companies,  rather than to land disposal.  The  recycling companies
separate the metals from the sludges and  convert them to usable materials.  Off-site metals recycling services
in the United States were previously  limited to spent solvents, precious metal wastes, and high purity
common metal wastes.  Since 1985, there has been a steady increase in the use of off-site recycling, primarily
because of the availability of recycling services for wastewater treatment sludges, rising costs for land
disposal, and increased generator concern over liability associated with land disposal.

Benefits of Off-site Recycling

    •   Reduces liability associated with land disposal from generator.

    •   The amount of waste going to land disposal is reduced.

    •   Organic and non-organic materials can be removed from baths.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                              155
Notes

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               Industrial Operations: Plating Operations


JT ,              Limitations of Off-site Recycling

                      •   Slightly more expensive than land disposal.

                      •   Limited to spent solvents, precious metal wastes, and high purity common metal wastes.


                 5.8     Paint Application

                           The following section  provides  a process description, waste description and a broad range of
                 pollution prevention opportunities that can be implemented to improve paint application operations.

                 5.8.1   Process Description

                          Paint application  is the process of applying  an  organic coating to a substrate.  The purpose of
                 applying a paint coating is to provide a protective barrier against corrosion and damage to the part surface, as
                 well as, enhance the aesthetic appeal of the part being manufactured.

                          The complete process of applying paint to a part generally consists of (1) cleaning and degreasing,
                 (2) chemical etching (optional), and then (3) applying the paint.  This section deals only with the third step,
                 application of the paint.  Pollution  prevention information for reducing the wastes  generated from the first
                 two steps  is contained in the following  parts  of this document: Section 5.5, Cleaning & Degreasing; and
                 Section 5.6, Chemical Etching.

                 5.8.2   Waste Description

                          Wastes generated  from paint application may include  air emissions of volatile organic compounds
                 (VOCs), hazardous air pollutants (HAPs),  and heavy metal particulates; excess paints and coatings, empty
                 containers, disposable brushes and rollers, dirty solvents and thinners used for equipment cleanup, dirty filters
                 from dry filter paint booths, and paint sludge from water wash paint booths. The toxicity and hazard of the
                 wastes generated is dependent on the concentration of solvent remaining in the waste and the presence of
                 heavy metals such as lead and chromium compounds used in paint formulations.

                          The largest source of air emissions is  from the  actual step  of applying the paint in the form of
                 overspray. The  greater the overspray, or lower transfer efficiency, the more waste is generated over-all in the
                 form of air-emissions, clean-up materials, and paint booth filters or sludge.

                 5.8.3   Pollution Prevention Opportunities

                          Pollution prevention opportunities for paint application processes  are classified according to the
                 waste management hierarchy in order of relevance; first, source reduction  techniques, then secondly, (in-
                 process) recycling options.

                 5.8.3.1  Source Reduction

                          The preferred method of pollution prevention is source reduction.   In the case of paint application
                 processes the keys to  source reduction are:

                      •   Eliminating the need to paint the part through product re -engineering;

                      •   Using environmentally friendly coating material; and

                      •   Improving transfer efficiency through improved equipment and operator training.

                          Each of the three source  reduction  methods is described  below with associated benefits  and
                 limitations.  The  information  contained  below  is not  to  be considered completely inclusive  of all
                 environmentally preferred paint application methods or formulations, nor is its intent to be exhaustive of all
                 considerations.   Prior to implementing an environmentally preferred paint application method or formulation
                 a thorough investigation of process requirements (material  compatibility) and an appropriate financial review
                 (i.e., payback period, etc.) should be conducted.
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                                                               Industrial Operations: Paint Application
        Eliminate the Need to Paint

        Eliminating the need to paint a part due to better process engineering and design would be the
highest form of source reduction. Although one should be cautious that the environmental impacts associated
with the alternative design are not worse over-all.

        The need for painting can sometimes be avoided by selecting materials that combine both function
and aesthetics.  Use of injection-molded plastic shells in place of painted metal cabinets is widely practiced in
the electronics industry. Building construction employing the  use of vinyl siding, PVC and FRP plastics,
precolored concrete, and metal trim materials such as stainless steel, copper, bronze, and  aluminum are
known.

        The area of surface-coating-free materials is not as widely explored nor marketed as  non-, low-VOC
coatings as a means to reduce the environmental impacts from painting operations.  In addition, to  implement
this form of pollution prevention requires forethought during the design of the product, and typically is cost
prohibited to implement after the product design stage.

Benefits of Eliminating the Need to Paint

    •   Eliminates  the need to apply paint, in turn, eliminating all environmental impacts associated with
        paint application and paint removal over the life span of the product.

Limitations of Eliminating the Need to Paint

    •   Generally, can only  be implemented during product design.

        Use Environmentally Friendly Coating Material

        Traditional solvent-based  coatings contain high levels  of volatile  organic compounds  (VOCs) that
are emitted into the air during paint operations.  VOCs contribute to ground level smog formation and other
forms of air pollution. Under the Clean Air Act, limitations have been set as to the amount of VOCs that are
allowed in paints and coatings.  While limits are based on specific industry group and  application, the VOC
limit of 3.5  Ibs/gal is considered reasonably  available control technology (RACT) in most states.  Coatings
with VOC contents of less than 3.5 Ibs/gal are generally marketed as low-VOC coatings.

        Low-VOC or environmentally friendly  paint coatings are currently available  in a wide  variety  of
formulations. The following  list identifies the most common types of formulations available.

    •   Powder Coatings

    •   Water-Borne Coatings

    •   Solvent-Borne Coatings

    •   Specialized Coatings

        Each formulation has its own unique performance qualities and application requirements.  Prior to
performing a material substitution it is necessary to match the  appropriate environmentally substitute to your
operational needs. A basic overview of each type of formulation and its associated benefits and limitations
are provided below to facilitate in the  material substitution selection process.

Powder Coatings

        Powder coatings are particularly popular for their low VOC content. For many applications, powder
coatings offer cost advantages over  either solvent- or water-borne liquid technologies.  The act of applying
powder coatings does not contribute to air, water, or hazardous waste pollution.

        A powder  coating  facility does, however, generate some pollution, primarily from  two  associated
processes.   The first and most  important involves surface  preparation.   Powders are  applied over well-
degreased surfaces, which have been phosphated.  The  second important pollution-generating process is the
stripping of powder coating from hooks and rejected parts.

        The two basic steps in the powder coating process are described on the next page.
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      •   Applying the Coating - can be done through three primary methods including electrostatic attraction
          by corona charge, elecrostatic attraction using turbo-charging guns, and fluidized beds. None of the
          coating methods involve solvents or generate hazardous wastes. Also clean-up efforts are minimal,
          benefiting both pollution prevention and time and materials resources.

      •   Curing the Coated Part - entails heating the powder-coated part in a convection or infrared oven at
          temperatures between 325  °F and 400 °F for approximately  8  to 20 minutes.  When the powder
          coating is cured, some vapors,  approximately  0.5 to 5 percent by weight of powder coating, are
          emitted into the atmosphere.  These are comprised mainly  of water and some organics. The organics
          are not solvents, but rather plasticizers or  resins emitted  at the high baking temperature.   It is
          questionable whether  the air emissions are truly VOCs.  In fact, most air pollution regulatory
          agencies assume that the emissions from powder coating  operations are essentially zero; therefore,
          operators are usually not required to measure or record their emissions. Facility personnel should
          consult the regulations for their area for applicable regulations
          Benefits of Powder Coatings

      •   The act of applying powder coatings does not contribute to air, water, or hazardous waste pollution.

      •   VOC emissions are essential zero.

      •   Clean-up efforts are minimal, benefiting both pollution prevention and time and materials resources.
          Limitations of Powder Coatings

      •   The substrate has to be completely clean before powder  coating, therefore  introducing the  wastes
          associated with degreasing, cleaning, and etching.

      •   The stripping of powder coating from hooks and rejected parts produces pollution.

      •   The curing process emits vapors, at 0.5 to 5.0 percent by weight, of the powder coating.

  Water-Borne Coatings

          The term "water-borne" describes coatings in which the predominant solvent is water.  Organic
  solvents (VOCs) are also used but, for the most part, their concentration is small. In many formulations the
  ratio between the amount of water and organic solvent is 80:20.

          The organic solvents, often referred to as co-solvents, enhance the formulation of the coating film,
  especially during the drying  process when the water is evaporating from the deposited coating.  As resin
  manufacturers develop new resin technologies, they are reducing the amount of co-solvent required to form
  the film.   Currently, new formulations exist that contain no co-solvents, and consequently have zero VOCs.
  Manufacturers do not yet have  a long-term performance history; therefore, most end-users generally consider
  the more conventional water-borne coatings.

          When dealing with water-borne coatings, the end-users must thoroughly understand the terminology
  most regulations use. For instance, 1.0 gallon of a water-borne coating contains many ingredients: the resin
  (or binder), pigments, extender  pigments, coalescing agents, a small quantity of co-solvents, and usually a
  fairly substantial amount of water.  The volatile portion  of the coating comprises the co-solvents and water.
  In a gallon can, the co-solvents, which are considered to be the VOCs, may  account for less than 1.0 pound.
  In other words,  the VOC content of the coating may only be 1.0 pound/gallon.   The VOC  regulations,
  however,  require that the VOC content of the coating  be  calculated  as if no water were in the coating.
  Depending on the coating formulation, the VOC content, less water, may  be considerably higher, such as 2.0
  pounds/gallon or more.

          The classification of water-borne coatings is further sub-divided into the following categories.

      •   Water-Borne Air/Force Dry Alkyds, Acrylics, Acrylic-Epoxy Hybrids - are the most common type of
          water-borne coatings for  metals, which air- or force-dry  at temperatures  below  194°F.   Water-
          reducible, or water thinnable,  alkyds and modified alkyds are modified polyesters that have high acid
          values and employ  special  chemical blocking  agents  such as carboxylic  acid  functionalities.
          Although alkyds and modified alkyds may take longer to dry, the resulting coatings have gloss, flow,
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                                                                Industrial Operations: Paint Application
        and leveling properties similar to their solvent-borne counterparts. The acrylic latexes include other
        polymers such as vinyl acrylic and styrene acrylic.  The resins are high molecular weight polymers
        dispersed as discrete particles in water.  Acrylic latexes are known for their good exterior durability
        and excellent resistance to ultraviolet (UV) degradation.  In outdoor exposure, they  retain their
        original gloss and color over long periods.  Acrylic epoxy  hybrids, another type of  water-borne
        air/force dry  alkyd, comprise two-or three-package  systems in which emulsified epoxies cross-link
        with aqueous acrylics.  Most acrylic epoxy hybrid formulations are corrosion resistant  and can
        produce finishes  that have very good gloss, hardness, flexibility, alkali, and abrasion resistance.
        Unlike conventional solvent-based epoxies, some mixed water-borne coatings have pot-lives of up to
        36 hours at reasonable ambient temperatures.

        Water-Borne Epoxy Water Reducible Air/Force Dried Coatings - can be cured at room temperature,
        or below 194 °F.  Manufacturers supply these coatings as two- or three- package systems. The most
        commonly  available water-reducible epoxies are formulated as primers complying with military
        specifications MIL-P-53030 (lead-  and chromate-free)  and  MIL-P-85582  (containing  chromates).
        As  primers, they are commonly specified for steel weldments,  such as automotive chassis,  cabs,
        truck bodies, military hardware, steel and aluminum frames,  cold rolled steel panels and cabinets,
        aerospace components, and electronic components.

        Polyurethane Dispersions - are water-borne systems that can air/force dry at temperatures below
        194°F.   Essentially, they are  polyurethane lacquers  dispersed  in water;  therefore, as the  water
        evaporates,  the  coating film  forms.   No  other curing  mechanisms take  place.  Polyurethane
        dispersions can be useful on metal parts, much like the conventional two-component polyurethanes,
        the primary focus at the present time is in the wood finishing industry.

        Water-Borne Baking Finishes: Alkyd,  Alkyd-Modified, Acrylic Polyester — cure  at  elevated
        temperatures, usually well above 250 °F.  Cross-linking occurs by formulating the basic resin with
        aminoplast resins such  as melamine formaldehyde.   Because of the high  temperature-curing
        requirement, these coatings are generally not appropriate for heat-sensitive substrates, such as
        plastics.  Formulations are available  that satisfy 3.0 Ib./gal (360  g/L), less water, with some below
        the 2.3 Ib./gal (275 g/L) levels.  The VOCs including water are in the 1.5 to 2.0 Ib./gal  (180 to 240
        g/L) range.  Compared with their air-forced dried counterparts, they  have higher VOCs on both a
        "less water" and "including water" basis.  These products exhibit properties such as hardness, mar
        and  abrasion resistance, and excellent color and gloss retention, even when exposed  to sunlight,
        chemicals, detergents, and solvents.
        Benefits of Water-Borne Coatings

        Low VOC, RACT compliant, coating.

        Can be spray applied with standard equipment.

        Low fire hazard due to high water content.

        Generally, have a low toxicity due to reduced concentrations of organic solvents.

        Can clean spray equipment and ancillary equipment with tap water.

        Suitable for coating steel, aluminum, galvanizing, plastic, wood, and architectural  substrates.

        Available in a wide range of colors and gloss levels.
        Limitations of Water-Borne Coatings

        Compared with 2-part polyurethanes  or baking water-reducibles, they  have poorer exterior durability
        and poorer resistance to salt spray, humidity, chemicals, and solvents.

        Although the lower concentrations of solvents in their formulations benefit pollution prevention, this
        also causes water-borne coatings to be more sensitive to substrate cleanliness than most solvent-
        borne coatings.
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      •   Some water-borne epoxy water-reducible air/force  dried coatings contain chromates, and therefore
          require disposal as hazardous waste.

  Solvent-Borne Coatings

          Although air pollution agencies actively promote  water-borne coatings,  all solvent-borne coating
  cannot yet  be  replaced.   Some companies will require  solvent-borne  coatings  into  the  21st century.
  Fortunately, VOC contents are gradually decreasing,  viscosities are becoming manageable, and  paint
  chemists continue work on developing new solvents that are not VOCs, hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), or
  ozone depleting compounds (ODCs). These new solvents may offer a wide range of new opportunities.

          The classification of solvent-borne coatings is further sub-divided into the following categories.

      •   Solvent-Borne Alkyds  and Modified Alkyds  That  Air or Force Dry -  are basically oil-modified
          polyesters that form from a reaction between  an alcohol and an organic acid.  Each combination has
          its  own  distinctive chemical and physical properties.  In addition,  properties  of alkyds such as
          hardness, gloss retention, color retention, sunlight resistance, etc.; can be improved by modifying
          alkyds with other resins.   Typical modifications add  styrene, vinyl toluene, acrylics, silicone, or
          other polymers. Any of these modified products are  more commonly known as modified alkyds.

      •   Alkyd Derivative Combinations That Cure By Baking- include high sold alkyds, acrylics, polyesters
          oil-free, melamine-  and urea-formaldehyde, and phenolics.   Unlike the air/force dry alkyds, this
          group  of coatings  provides excellent physical and  chemical properties. The primary difference is
          that cross-linking of the resins takes place when the coating reaches a certain minimum temperature.
          For most such coatings, curing takes place at  temperatures above 250 °F, but the curing time may be
          too long (over  30  minutes) for most production painting  facilities. These coatings have properties
          similar to water-borne alkyd-type baked coatings. As with the water-borne coatings, these solvent-
          borne  counterparts are commonly applied  to  steel  shelving,  steel racks used in stored and
          warehouses,  metal office  furniture  and  equipment, and  large  appliances  (e.g., dishwashers,
          refrigerators, etc.).

      •   Catalyzed Epoxy Coatings - constitute the counterparts  to the water-borne epoxy coating that can
          achieve heavier film builds for many applications.  Most commonly, these  coatings are air- or force-
          dried,  two -component  materials compromising two separate  packages.   Component A being the
          epoxy  resin and component B being a polyamine, or some  other resin.   Catalyzed epoxies are
          beneficial when requiring resistance to many chemicals,  solvents,  and alkalies, such as soaps and
          detergents. In addition, these  coatings have excellent resistance to fresh water, salt  water, and hot
          water.  For these reasons they are a popular choice  for  protecting structures such as offshore drilling
          platforms, ships, and bridges, where resistance to marine environments is critical.  Facilities also use
          them to coat industrial and potable water tanks and pipelines.  Compliant  epoxies are available that
          meet  military  specifications such  as MIL-P-23377  (primer),  ML-P-53022  (primer), MTL-C-22750
          (topcoat), and MIL-P-2444 1 (primer and topcoat systems).

      •   Catalyzed Two-Component Polyurethanes -  are formed by the reactions of a polyisocyanate with a
          polymer that contains hydroxyl functionality.  Two -component polyurethanes are supplied in two
          separate containers, of which the first is component A and the second is component B. Component
          A can  either be clear or pigmented and offers a wide range  of colors  and  gloss levels. The second
          container, component B, is  the curing agent. When end-users mix components A and B according to
          the manufactures'  prescribed ratios, the polymers react to form a highly cross-linked polyurethane.
          Facilities select polyurethanes for applications  requiring a  superior finish including  aircraft  skins,
          missiles, machine tools, tractors, etc.

      •   Moisture Curing Polyurethanes - have an interesting mechanism.  When a polyhydroxy resin pre-
          reacts  with a polyisocyante, but not completely, some unreacted isocyanate groups  remain.  The
          coating then cures in the presence of moisture from the air.  Although many would prefer these
          single -component polyurethanes to two -component products, few companies currently sell moisture -
          curing polyurethanes  because they are  difficult to manufacture.  The complicating issue is that
          moisture must be eliminated from all ingredients.
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                                                                Industrial Operations: Paint Application
        Benefits of Solvent-Borne Coatings

    •   Through research, VOC contents are gradually decreasing.

    •   New products have more manageable viscosities.

    •   High solid coatings can perform well below RACT levels.

    •   Solvent-borne coatings are the least expensive of the RACT compliant systems.

    •   Coatings are available in a wide range of colors and gloss levels.

    •   Coatings  often  exhibit  excellent  performance  properties such  as good  chemical  and solvent
        resistance, hardness, mar resistance, gloss, and ultraviolet resistance.

    •   Good adhesion is offered on a number of different substrates including most metals, plastics, wood,
        ceramics,  masonry, glass, etc.
        Limitations of Solvent Borne Coatings

    •   Solvent-borne coating often barely meet the RACT limits.
    •   Solvents contain VOCs, hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), and ozone depleting compounds (ODCs).

    •   Typically  have higher VOCs than alternative methods.

    •   Solvents pose a fire risk.

    •   There are  potential health risks inherent to working with solvents.

    •   The high viscosity of the coating can affect product quality.

    •   Most solvent-borne coatings can not meet the strict Californian RACT limits.

    •   Epoxy coatings have relatively poor resistance to  ultraviolet light, and improper application can
        cause severe health problems in operators.

    •   Few  companies  currently  sell  moisture-curing polyurethanes  because  they  are  difficult to
        manufacture.

Specialized Coatings

        Specialized coatings have  a narrow window of application.   For some end-users,  one of these
technologies will be the ideal choice.  However, they are unlikely to make a significant penetration into the
total coatings market.

        The range of specialized coatings is explained below.

    •   Autodeposition - is cost-effective  for large coating users, whose annual throughput  of metal is at
        least 1,000,000 square feet,  but is generally not a viable option for  small or medium-sized coating
        user.  During the autodeposition process, a resin in the form of latex is electrochemically deposited
        on steel surfaces.  The process is currently limited to steel, but the steel does not require pretreatment
        with a phosphate coating.  While the process can eliminate phosphating, it  still requires superior
        cleaning that  may comprise  several stages  including (1) a 1 minute  alkaline spray clean, (2) a 2
        minute alkaline immersion, (3) a  spray or dip plant  water rinse, and (4) a 5 to 10 second deionized
        water  spray rinse.   The  end products  consist of a pigmented water-dispersible  (latex)  resin,
        hydrofluoric acid, hydrogen peroxide, and  deionized water.  No solvents are used in the coating
        process.

    •   Electrodeposition - is predominantly utilized by large coating users whose annual throughput of
        metal is at least 2,000,000 square feet. This process deposits the coating electrochemically onto the
        metal surface with the aid of a DC current.   Prior to coating, the  metal  parts pass through a
        multistage cleaning and treating process.  Thorough cleaning precedes a phosphate process, which
        might  include chromate  or chromic  acid  seal rinse  and  at  least  one  deionized  water  rinse.
        Electrodeposited coating have approximately the same VOC content as conventional baking water-
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JT ,                       borne coatings. Hazardous waste disposal and the discharge of contaminated water, however, are
                          considerably less.

                      •   Radiation Cured Coatings - cure when they are exposed to specific wavelengths of ultraviolet (UV)
                          or electron beam  (EB) radiation.  VOC emissions are very  low, even approaching zero for some
                          formulations because curing takes place without the need  for solvents to evaporate.  While EB
                          coatings receive energy from an electric heated filament or cathode, low-pressure mercury arc lamps
                          generate the energy to cure the UV curable coatings. In order to ensure a consistent film cure, the
                          mercury arc lamps must be positioned within a few inched of the coated  substrate. This is why the
                          substrate must have a very  simple geometry, such as a flat or uniformly  round shape.   Adding
                          colored pigments to the formulation retards curing and extends curing times; therefore, most of the
                          coatings being used are clear.

                      •   Unicarb System - is designed to use liquid carbon dioxide (CC>2) as a solvent for coatings. Because
                          of the excellent solubility characteristics of CC>2 (non VOC), additional solvents can be added to the
                          conventional or high solids coating resins. The Unicarb System is a two component delivery system,
                          where the coating resin and CC>2 are feed to and mixed at the  spray gun.  The coating viscosity drops
                          to a manageable level and excellent atomization takes place.
                          Benefits of Specialized Coatings

                      •   Radiation cured coatings  and autodeposited coatings can have VOC contents that approach zero.

                      •   Autodeposition and electrodeposition generate minimal water  pollution.

                      •   Autodeposition and electrodeposition pose little or no fire hazard.

                      •   Autodeposition coatings  are non-toxic.

                      •   Autodeposition and electrodeposition have high transfer efficiencies, therefore minimizing waste.

                      •   Electrodeposition can be applied to steel, galvanized steel, and aluminum, to provide a hard, flexible,
                          corrosion resistant coating.

                      •   Vapors for radiation-cured coatings are easily  exhausted with no measurable air quality damage.

                      •   Extremely short curing times are possible with radiation curing.

                      •   The Unicarb System can reportedly reduce  VOC emissions  by as much as 50 to 80 percent, and
                          increase transfer efficiency by up to 30 percent.

                          Limitations of Specialized Coatings

                      •   Specialized coatings are not applicable in most situations.

                      •   Autodeposition and electrodeposition  are only cost-effective for large production shops with high
                          throughput.

                      •   Autodeposition is only applicable for steel substrates.

                      •   Radiation cured coatings  are limited to substrates with simple geometries, such as flat or uniformly
                          round shapes.

                      •   Health concerns have  been raised in the  radiation  curing industry over operator exposure to
                          hazardous vapors.

                      •   The capital expense associated with switching from a conventional system to Unicarb is relatively
                          high.

                          Improve Transfer Efficiency

                          Transfer efficiency is defined as the ratio of the  mass (or volume) of solid  coating deposited on a
                  substrate to the mass (or volume)  of solid used during the application. Improving the transfer efficiency of
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                                                                Industrial Operations: Paint Application
the equipment used to apply the paint directly reduces the amount of waste and air emission generated from
the application through source reduction.

        The most important equipment to affect transfer efficiency,  and thus pollution prevention, in a paint
and coating facility is the spray gun.  The conventional air atomizing spray gun described in the process
description section is considered to have a low transfer efficiency, therefore, creating excessive air emissions
and clean-up wastes than necessary to apply paint to a typical part.  Currently, there are four basic types of
high transfer paint application (spray  guns) technology available on the market. They are:

    •   High volume low pressure (HVLP) spray guns,

    •   Airless spray guns,

    •   Air-assisted airless spray guns, and

    •   Electrostatic spray guns.

        Each  improved type of  spray  guns  is further  described below  with associated benefits and
limitations.

High Volume Low Pressure (HVLP) Spray Guns

        The high volume, low pressure (HVLP) spray gun was introduced to the United States market in the
mid-1980s. It is very similar to the conventional air atomizing gun. While the conventional gun atomizes the
coating at pressures of 40 to 80 psi,  HVLP guns use  higher volumes of air at pressures less than 10 psi to
perform the same function.

        Several methods are available for generating the high volume, low pressure air.  During the mid-
1980s the most common method was  using a high speed turbine that draws large volumes of air directly from
the surrounding space.  The turbine pushes this high volume of air through a large diameter hose to the spray
gun, but the air pressure can range from as low as 0.5 to 10 psi.  The key to atomizing the coating with this
method is the high volume of air that mixes with the coating inside the gun.  In addition, the turbine tends to
heat the air to a temperature of approximately 110 °F, which appears to benefit the application of the  coating.

        More recently, spray gun vendors have introduced versions that do not require a turbine to generate
the high volume air. Instead, they directly convert high pressure shop air to high volume, low pressure by
means of venturies or regulators.  Typically, the incoming shop air is at 80 to 100 psi, while the air emerging
from the cap of the spray gun is less than 10 psi. The volume of air for this gun is considerably less than that
emerging from the turbine gun.

        Generally, HVLP guns have been successful in atomizing a wide range of coatings, although some
rheologies (viscosity additives) do not atomize well.  Although the turbine-operated HVLP guns are more
expensive than the pressure-conversion HVLP  guns, the  turbine types are generally  more efficient at
atomizing a wider range of coatings; therefore, in some cases, they are the most cost-effective option.

        Transfer efficiency trials have demonstrated that the HVLP guns are generally more efficient than
other gun types, and in some instances even more efficient than electrostatic spray guns. Each operating
scenario determines how efficient one gun type will be relative to the other types. One should not be misled
by advertisements which claim that HVLP guns are always more efficient than other gun types. Only on-line
testing can provide the answer.
        Benefits of HVLP Spray Guns

    •   Higher transfer efficiency than traditional  conventional  air atomizing  spray guns, which  directly
        translates to reduced air emissions and waste generation.

    •   Can immediately replace conventional  air atomizing spray guns without requiring any other major
        capital purchases.

    •   Operators can use the guns to apply coatings to small, medium, and large targets.
Notes
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N                        Limitations of HVLP Spray Guns

                      •   HVLP spray guns require greater operator skill, therefore, additional training will be required.

                      •   An optional heater may be required to properly heat the incoming air to atomize the paint (dependant
                          on climate and specific gun design).

                 Airless Spray Guns

                          The  airless spray system works much like a home water system.  When turning on the faucet at
                 home to take  a shower, high pressure from the city's pumping station forces water through small orifices in
                 the showerhead. Depending on the size of the orifices, the spray is either fine or coarse.

                          With an airless spray system, a hydraulic pump siphons the coating out of a reservoir such as a 55-
                 gallon drum, and then pumps the coating, usually under pressures of 1,000 to 3,000 psi, to the spray gun.  The
                 coating atomizes as it passes through the small orifice (0.011 to 0.074 inches) in the cap of the gun. The size
                 and shape of the orifice determine  the degree of atomization and the shape and width of the fan pattern.
                 Moreover, a large orifice permits a higher fluid flow rate than a small orifice.

                          Unlike the conventional air atomizing spray gun,  the airless spray  gun does not permit the operator
                 the same flexibility in setting spraying parameters.  Further, because of the high fluid pressure, operators can
                 apply large quantities of the coating relatively quickly. For this reason, operators often use the airless spray
                 gun to apply coatings to  large surfaces such as buildings,  the  sides of  vessels in petroleum refineries,
                 structures such as bridges, etc. In addition, operators often use this gun in coating facilities where the coating
                 application must keep up with fast moving conveyors.

                          EPA has traditionally associated this gun with transfer efficiency values of approximately 40 percent
                 but considerably higher values are obtainable. For instance, airless spray guns that coat large surfaces, such
                 as large electrical control panels, railcars,  ships, buildings, etc., are usually  associated with much higher
                 transfer efficiency values.  Alternately, operators usually do not use this gun to coat small targets because the
                 high fluid pressure tends to deflect  small targets suspended on conveyor lines, and the generally high fluid
                 delivery rates make it difficult to achieve acceptable-looking finishes. When using  an airless spray gun to
                 coat  small targets, therefore, the operator  can expect low transfer efficiencies, sometimes even lower than
                 those which a conventional spray gun could achieve.

                          Benefits of Airless Spray Guns

                      •   Reduces air emissions and waste generation from overspray.

                      •   Effective in coating large surface areas quickly.

                      •   Transfer efficiencies of 40 percent  and greater can be obtained.
                          Limitations of Airless Spray Guns

                      •   Provides less operator flexibility in setting spraying parameters.

                      •   Difficult to obtain a high quality finish on small parts due to the high fluid pressure.

                 Air-Assisted Airless Spray Guns

                          The principle  of this spray  gun is  very similar to that of the airless gun in that high fluid pressures
                 force the coating through a small orifice in the spray gun cap.

                          The gun differs from the airless spray gun in that the fluid pressures are only  300 to 1,000 psi. These
                 pressures, however, poorly atomize  the top and bottom of the fan. Moreover, streaks or "tails" appear at the
                                                         -pressure air emerges from separate orifices  in the horns of the cap
                 to force the "tails" back into the main portion of the pattern.  The  low-pressure air, 10 to 20 psi, does not
                 atomize the coating particles, and therefore the gun differs considerably from the conventional air atomizing
                 spray gun. The air-assisted airless gun is  currently among the most popular types used in a wide range of
                 industries.  While  it can handle relatively high fluid  flow rates and therefore keep up with  fast moving
                 conveyor  lines, it can  also be adjusted for slow moving  lines.   Operators commonly use this gun  to coat
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                                                                Industrial Operations: Paint Application
medium- and large-size targets, and in some cases to  coat  small parts, providing surprisingly  appealing
finishes.

        EPA transfer efficiency table values which appear in  various EPA documents, such as Control
Technique  Guidelines,  New  Source Performance  Standards (NSPS), National  Emission  Standards  for
Hazardous Air Pollutants, are approximately 40 percent for the air-assisted airless spray gun.

        Benefits of Air-Assisted Airless Spray Guns

    •   Reduces air emissions and waste generation from overspray.

    •   Effective in coating large surface areas quickly.

    •   Can be adjusted to coat small and medium sized parts with a quality finish.

    •   Transfer efficiencies of 40 percent and greater can be obtained.
        Limitations of Air-Assisted Airless Spray Guns

    •   Poorly atomizes the top and bottom of the fan.

Electrostatic Spray Guns

        This category of spray guns embraces a wide range of technologies;  electrostatic guns can use
conventional air,  airless, air-assisted airless,  and HVLP atomizing technologies.  The paint operator has a
wide range of spray gun designs from which to choose.

        All of the  electrostatic technologies have one thing in  common:   the gun imparts an electrostatic
charge to the coating particles as they  emerge from the spray  gun nozzle.  The  operator must be sure to
ground the  target well so that the charged coating particles will be attracted to the grounded part and deposit
themselves on the substrate.

        Operators and others commonly believe that when applying a coating electrostatically, the coating
wraps  around the target  to  coat not only  the facing  surface,  but also  the reverse  side  of the target.
Advertisements and vendors' literature reinforce this point.  Unfortunately, this  is a misconception.  Some
wrap of course takes place; the extent of the wrap, however, is often overstated.  If coating round or  square
tubing electrostatically, the operator can expect almost total wrap around the entire tube because  of the
relatively small area that the coating must wrap. Alternately, when coating  a medium or large flat  target, the
wrap only extends for approximately 1/8 to 1/4 inches around the reverse side. The wrap rapidly diminishes
toward the  center of the reverse surface.

        Many parameters determine the efficiency  with which the coating can wrap around the surface.
These include:

    •   Polarity of the coating;

    •   Voltage potential of the spray gun;

    •   Air velocity in the spray booth; and

    •   Efficiency of the ground.

        The operator cannot  assume that the target is always well grounded even if it is attached to a ground
strap or suspended from a conveyor hook.  In fact, significant electrical resistance can exist between the target
and the ground.  Poor wrap leads to lower transfer efficiency. The mere fact that the spray pattern tends to
bend toward the target when the paint particles follow the electrostatic field is already advantageous.
        Benefits of Electrostatic Spray  Guns

    •   Reduces air emissions and waste generation from overspray.

    •   Transfer efficiencies of 65 percent and higher are obtainable.

    •   Effective in coating edges.
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               Industrial Operations: Paint Application


N                       Limitations of Electrostatic Spray Guns

                     •   An electric hazard is introduced into the paint application process.

                     •   Poor grounding can result in lower transfer efficiency rates.

                     •   Application specifications and operating procedures are more stringent  than other  spray  gun
                         application technology.

                     •   Extensive operator training is required.

                 Improved Spray Application Techniques

                         In addition to purchasing new spray application equipment, improving your facilities current spray
                 techniques will also reduce waste volumes with little to no capital expense. The following list provides some
                 suggested improved application techniques.

                     •   Move Closer to the Part  - A typical gun to target distance should be 8 to 12 inches. In general, as
                         the distance increases, transfer efficiency diminishes.

                     •   Reduce The Fluid Flow Rate - If the fluid pressure and corresponding fluid flow rate are high, the
                         stream of paint emerging from the spray  gun travels a relatively long distance before bending and
                         falling to the  ground.  Such a flow rate has a very short residence  time within the spray gun and
                         requires a large amount of energy for proper atomization.

                     •   Optimize  The Fan Width - Properly adjust the fan width of the spray gun to match the size of the
                         part; especially, when changing part size and geometry frequently to reduce overspray.

                     •   Optimize  The Painting Pattern (Gun-Stroke) - Reduce the size of the leading and trailing edges of
                         the spray stroke while eliminating  overlap in painting strokes.
                         Benefits of Improved Spray Application Techniques

                     •   Reduced air emissions.

                     •   Reduced wastes from clean-up operations.

                     •   Lower raw material costs.

                     •   Increased air filter life span.

                         Limitations of Improved Spray Application Techniques

                         There are no limitations associated with improving spray application techniques.

                 5.8.3.2  Recycling

                         There are no recycling options available  for the paint application process due  to the nature of the
                 process.


                 5.9    Paint  Removal

                         The following section provides  a  process description, waste description  and a broad range of
                 pollution prevention opportunities that can be implemented to improve paint removal operations.

                 5.9.1   Process Description

                         Paint stripping is a process stage common to paints and coatings operations.  Although efficiently
                 run operations attempt to minimize the need for paint stripping, the need can still arise for work pieces either
                 because the applied coating is defective, the job specifications have changed, or the original coating has aged.
                 Occasionally, process equipment (e.g., racks, vessels, booths, and grates) als o must undergo paint stripping to
                 remove the buildup of overspray.

                         The conventional approach to paint stripping  involves the  application of  a chemical solvent.
                 Traditional formulations are  based on methylene chloride, which penetrates the coating causing it to swell and


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                                                   Industrial Operations:  Paper and Pulp Manufacturing
separate from the substrate.  This approach, however, generates organic vapors, which raise concerns about
threats to worker health and about damage to the ozone layer of the atmosphere, as well as considerable
sludge and wastewater laden with solvent.

        Common methods for applying chemical paint strippers include immersion in dip tanks and spray,
brush, or roller application.  Other conventional paint stripping methods consist of propelling a dry media
(sand, aluminum oxide) at the surface to remove the coating though  impaction or abrasion.  Although dry
media, such  as  sand,  is considered environmentally better than traditional  chemical  solvents,  such as
methylene chloride, a large  solid waste stream is generated because the recyclability rate  of the  media is
generally low, or none at all. In addition, airborne particulates are created from the blasting process that may
or may not contain heavy metals (dependent on the media and type of coating being removed) which also
raises worker health concerns.

5.9.2  Waste Description

        The  types of  wastes generated from  paint stripping  depend on  the method  of  removal being
employed.  Chemical paint strippers typically generate air emissions (VOCs or HAPs), spent  stripping baths,
sludge (containing both solvent and removed paint), and contaminated rinsewaters. While, dry media paint
strippers typically only generate  spent abrasives commingled with the removed coating and air emissions in
the form of dust particulates).  With dry media stripping techniques, the major concern is dust emissions and
potential lead and  chromium compounds in the stripped paint.   The major concern with chemical  stripping
techniques is the methylene chloride and phenolic compounds used  in cold strippers and the difficulty  in
handling and treating contaminated rinsewater.

        In general, most paint  stripping operations are proceeded  by, and followed by a cleaning and
degreasing stage to increase the efficiency of the paint stripper and prep the part for the next manufacturing or
rework stage. Pre- and post-cleaning processes are covered in Section 5.5, Cleaning & Degreasing, and
therefore are not discussed in this section.

5.9.3  Pollution Prevention Opportunities

        Pollution prevention opportunities for paint removal operations are classified according to the waste
management hierarchy  in order of relevance; first, source reduction techniques, then secondly, (in-process)
recycling options.

5.9.3.1  Source Reduction

        The  preferred  method of pollution prevention is source  reduction. In the case of paint removal
operations the key to source reduction is; (1)  eliminating the use of chemical paint  strippers that contain
hazardous substances, and (2) improving process efficiency through increased stripping rates with less media
uses per square foot of surface area.

        Over the  past several years, industry  and  government have developed several alternative paint
removal techniques in an effort to improve worker health and safely, eliminate the use of phenolic methylene
chloride based chemical strippers, and reduce the environmental impacts associated with the  operation.  The
advancements in paint removal techniques are grouped into the following five categories;

    •   "Environmentally friendly" chemical depainting (solvent and aqueous based),

    •   Dry media blasting,

    •   Wet media blasting,

    •   Thermal stripping, and

    •   Cryogenic stripping.

        Each of the  five paint removal technology areas are described below with associated benefits and
limitations.   The  information  contained below is not  to  be  considered completely inclusive  of all
environmentally  preferred paint  removal methods, nor is its  intent to be exhaustive of all considerations.
Prior  to implementing  an environmentally friendly paint removal technology  a thorough investigation of
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               Industrial Operations: Paper and Pulp Manufacturing


JT ,               process requirements (material compatibility) and an  appropriate financial review (i.e., payback period, etc.)
                  should be conducted.

                          "Environmentally Friendly" Chemical Depainting

                          Environmentally friendly chemical paint strippers are classified as solvent based and aqueous based.
                  Both forms  differ in  chemical  composition  and offer different  benefits and limitations for selected
                  applications.

                  Solvent Based

                          Solvent-based paint  stripping  is conducted  by immersing or spraying the  work pieces with an
                  organic  solvent-based formulation.  The solvent penetrates  the coating and undermines its bond with the
                  substrate, as indicated by wrinkling, bubbling, and blistering on the surface of the piece.  The softened
                  coating and solvent sludge are then wiped, scraped, or flushed away from the substrate.  Often a work piece
                  must undergo this process step  several times before the coating  is completely removed.   After coating
                  removal, the piece usually undergoes a water rinse.

                          In general, solvent is only sprayed on work pieces if they are too large for immersion or if they are
                  assemblies with sophisticated components that could be damaged by extensive contact with the solvent.  If
                  only very specific areas of an assembly need to be reworked,  then the solvent may be wiped or brushed onto
                  the appropriate surfaces.  Additionally,  if only a small number of pieces need to be reworked, spraying might
                  present a more cost-effective approach than installing an immersion stripping line.

                          Environmentally  friendly nonchlorinated paint stripping products are based  on such diverse
                  chemicals as N-methyl pyrollidone, various glycol or glycol esters, and dimethyl sulfoxide.  These are used in
                  both immersion and spray-on application paint stripping operations.  Although these solvents reduce concerns
                  about hazardous air pollutants and minimize the  generation of sludge with toxic constituents, nonhalogenated
                  products  tend to be  considerably more  expensive than  traditional  methylene chloride formulations.
                  Additionally, immersion baths of nonhalogenated solvents must be heated (from 140° to 250°F) to speed up
                  their performance capabilities, which adds to operational costs.  Even when heated, however, nonhalogenated
                  solvents have a  somewhat selective chemical  action and thus tend to be used in  a  narrower range of
                  applications than methylene chloride solvents.

                          Additionally, solvent-based paint stripping methods generate sludge and wastewater that contain
                  toxic chemicals.  Disposal procedures required under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
                  and record keeping  requirements under Section 313 of Title III can increase the  cost of managing  such
                  wastes.  Three commercially available solutions can reduce the amount of hazardous waste sludge generated
                  while increasing the amount of methylene chloride reclaimed from the decanting process.  These are  sludge
                  dewatering presses, solvent distillation units, and/or dip tank  filters.  The following is a brief explanation of
                  each type of alternative technology.

                      •    Sludge Dewatering Press. This process involves putting the sludge in a belt or filter press and using
                          the press filters to separate the paint chips, metal filings,  etc. from the paint stripper.  Removing
                          excess paint stripper from the sludge reduces the over all volume of sludge and increases the amount
                          of paint stripper which can be recycled.

                      •    Solvent  Distillation Unit. This process is aimed at  recycling the paint stripper as an alternative to
                          disposal when the immersion bath must be replaced  in its entirety.  Current practices are to dispose
                          of the spent solution as hazardous waste.  Distillation technology has been in use for many years in
                          the solvent recovery  industry.  Industry experts estimate that only 60 to 80 percent of the original
                          solution can generally be reclaimed. Following distillation of the alternative paint stripper additional
                          additives may be needed to return the solution to its original performance specifications.

                      •    Dip Tank Filters.  This process would enable the user to continuously remove the sludge from the
                          tank by feeding the used paint stripper through an in-line filter to separate the paint stripper from the
                          paint stripping wastes.
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                                                   Industrial Operations: Paper and Pulp Manufacturing


        Benefits of Solvent Based Paint Removers

    •   Minimizes hazardous waste disposal.

    •   Reduces HAP emissions from immersion tank paint stripping operations.

    •   Eliminates exposure to solvents.

    •   Meets environmental regulations regarding the use of ozone depleting substances (ODSs).
        Limitations of Solvent Based Paint Removers

    •   Slower paint removal rates than methylene chloride.

    •   Increased cost for nonhalogenated solvents per gallon.

    •   Reduced lifespan of solvent.

Aqueous Based

        Parts can be stripped of paint using aqueous  based chemicals at elevated temperatures.  These
chemicals are biodegradable and can be discharged into the sewer system, virtually eliminating hazardous
waste disposal costs. However,  certain hazardous constituents in the paint may contaminate the solution.
Local discharge  regulations will  need to be evaluated prior to discharging or disposing the contaminated
solutions.

        Unlike the traditional practices of using a cold tank in conjunction with chlorinated solvents, no
chlorinated solvent waste streams are generated with a  heated tank using aqueous/biodegradable cleaners.
Effluent streams associated with the use of heated immersion tank aqueous strippers would be the aqueous
solution and sludge products composed of paint, grease, oil, and dirt.  The parts requiring stripping are
immersed into the solution and then agitated to speed up the stripping process. In conjunction with optional
equipment such as filtration systems and skimmers, the chemical solution may be recycled and used again.

        Most of the aqueous strippers are alkaline in nature. These are different from acid strippers in that
acid strippers may attack the metal parts, causing structural weakening (hydrogen embrittlement). In addition,
acid strippers normally require a neutralization process after stripping.

        Benefits of Aqueous Based Paint Removers

    •   Minimizes hazardous waste disposal.

    •   Eliminates exposure to hazardous solvents.

    •   Meets environmental regulations regarding the use of ozone depleting substances (ODSs).

    •   Spent wash solutions may be discharged into  sewer systems if they meet the local discharge limits.
        Limitations of Aqueous Based Paint Removers

    •   Not compatible with all metals.

    •   May require additional ventilation.

    •   May increase paint stripping time.

        Dry Media Blasting

        Dry  media blasting options that have proven reductions in environmental impacts and economic
feasibility are:
    •   Plastic media blasting,

    •   Wheat starch blasting, and
    •   Sponge j et blasting.

A brief description of each type of technology is provided below with associated benefits and limitations.



Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                              169
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               Industrial Operations: Paper and Pulp Manufacturing

Nofes             Plastic Media Blasting (PMB)
                          Plastic Media Blasting (PMB) is a dry abrasive blasting process designed to replace chemical paint
                  stripping operations and conventional sand blasting. This process uses soft, angular plastic particles as the
                  blasting medium.
                          PMB is performed in a ventilated enclosure such as a small cabinet (glove box), a walk-in booth, a
                  large room, or airplane hanger. The PMB process blasts the plastic media at a much lower pressure (less than
                  40 psi) than conventional sand blasting.  PMB is well suited for stripping paints, since the low pressure and
                  relatively soft plastic medium have minimal effect on the surfaces beneath the paint.
                          Plastic media are manufactured in 6 types and a variety of sizes and hardness. The plastic blasting
                  media types are:
                      •   Type I Polyester (Thermoset),
                      •   Type II Urea formaldehyde (Thermoset),
                      •   Type III Melamine formaldehyde (Thermoset),
                      •   Type IV Phenol formaldehyde (Thermoset),
                      •   Type V Acrylic (Thermoplastic), and
                      •   Type VI Polyallyl diglycol carbonate) (Thermoset).
                          PMB facilities typically use a single type of plastic media for all PMB work.   For example, the
                  majority of Department of Defense (Air Force, Army, Navy) PMB facilities use either Type II or Type V
                  media. Type V media is not as hard as Type II media and is more gentle on substrates. Type V media is more
                  commonly used on aircraft. Type II is better for steel surfaces.
                          After blasting, the media is  passed  through  a  reclamation system that consists  of a  cyclone
                  centrifuge, a dual  adjustable air wash, multiple vibrating  classifier screen decks, and a magnetic separator. In
                  addition, some manufacturers provide dense particle separators as a reclamation system. The denser particles,
                  such as  paint chips, are  separated from the reusable blast media,  and the reusable  media is returned to the
                  blast pot. Typically, media can be recycled ten to twelve times before it becomes too small to remove paint
                  effectively.  Waste material consists of blasting media and paint chips.  The waste material may be classified
                  as a RCRA hazardous waste because of the presence of heavy metals. An alternative solution to handling this
                  hazardous waste is to locate a vendor that will "lease"  blast media to an  installation  and then recycle the
                  media to recapture the metals. This option eliminates media waste from the PMB facility waste stream.
                          Benefits of Plastic Media Blasting
                      •   Media can be recycled for use approximately 10-12 times.
                      •   Wastewater disposal costs (typical  in chemical paint stripping operations) are virtually eliminated
                          with PMB.
                      •   Eliminates the production of waste solvents when compared to chemical paint stripping.
                          Limitations of Plastic Media Blasting
                      •   Substantial capital equipment investment is required.
                      •   Solid wastes may have to be disposed as a hazardous waste.
                      •   Operator time, maintenance requirements, handling and disposal of waste varies with material to be
                          stripped.
                      •   Quality of stripping is dependent on skill and experience level of the operator.
                      •   Military specifications do not allow PMB for depainting certain types of materials.
                      •   May not remove corrosion.
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                                                   Industrial Operations: Paper and Pulp Manufacturing
Wheat Starch Blasting

        Wheat starch blasting is a user-friendly blasting process wherein wheat starch can be used in systems
designed for plastic media blasting (PMB), as well as systems specifically designed for wheat starch blasting.
The  wheat starch  abrasive media is a crystallized form that is non-toxic, biodegradable, and made from
renewable resources. The media is similar in appearance to plastic media, except that it is softer.

        The wheat starch blasting process propels the media at less than  a 35-psi nozzle pressure for most
applications. The low pressure and relatively soft media have minimal effect on the surfaces beneath the
paint. For this reason, wheat starch is well suited for stripping paints without risking damage to the substrate.
Examples include removing paint  from aluminum alloys and composites like graphite, fiberglass, and aramid
(Kevlar™).

        The wheat starch blasting process can remove a variety  of coatings.  Coating types range from
resilient rain-erosion resistant coatings found  on radomes and radar  absorbing  materials to the tough
polyurethane and epoxy paint systems. The wheat starch system has been shown to be effective in removing
bonding adhesive  flash (leaving the metal to metal bond primer intact), vinyl coatings, and sealants. It has
also been found effective in removing paint from cadmium parts, while leaving the cadmium plating intact.

        There are several important components required for wheat starch systems. First, a moisture control
system is needed to control the storage conditions of the medium. This is important when the system is shut
down for extended periods of time.  Second, to remove  contaminants from the wheat starch media, the spent
wheat  starch residue is dissolved in water and then either filtered or separated in a dense particle
separator/centrifuge. The wheat starch media is recycled in the  system and may be used for up to 15 to 20
cycles. Low levels of dense  particle contamination in the media may result in a rough surface  finish  on
delicate substrates. The waste stream produced from this process is sludge generated from the  wheat starch
recycling  system.  This system  produces approximately  85% less waste sludge compared  to chemical
stripping.

        Benefits of Wheat Starch Blasting

    •   Wheat starch is a natural  resource that is biodegradable.

    •   Waste can be treated in a bioreactor.

    •   Waste volume requiring disposal is estimated to be only five percent of the original volume.

    •   Can be used for removing coatings from both metallic and composite materials.

    •   Process is very controllable; it can be used to selectively remove from one to all coating layers.

    •   Does not cause fatigue to the substrate surface.

    •   Moderate stripping rates can be achieved while maintaining a gentle stripping action.

    •   Safe on soft-clad aluminum.

    •   Media is inexpensive and non-toxic.

    •   No size limitations on parts.
        Limitations of Wheat Starch Blasting

    •   High capital investment cost.

    •   Requires complex subsystems for media recovery and recycling and dust collection and control.

    •   Operator training required.

    •   Low levels of dense particle contamination in the media  may result in a rough surface  finish  on
        delicate substrates.

    •   Waste material may be hazardous and require disposal that may be costly.

    •   Typically slow to moderate stripping rate.
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*T  .              Sponge Jet Blasting
                          Sponge jet blasting is  a form of abrasive blasting which uses grit-impregnated foam and foam
                 without grit as the blasting media.  The sponge blasting system incorporates these various grades of the
                 water-based urethane-foam for use as a cleaning media to prepare the surfaces, and the abrasive media grades
                 to remove surface contaminants, paints, protective coatings, and rust. In addition, the abrasive grades can be
                 used to roughen concrete and metallic surfaces,  if desired.  The abrasive media contains a variety of  grit,
                 depending upon application, including aluminum oxide, steel, plastic, and garnet.

                          Sponge jet blasting equipment consists of two transportable modules, which include the feed unit
                 and  the classifier unit.  The feed unit is pneumatically powered for propelling the foam media. The unit is
                 portable and produced in several sizes (depending on capacity required). A hopper, mounted at the top of the
                 unit, holds  the foam media.   The medium  is  fed  into a metering  chamber that mixes the foam  with
                 compressed air.  By varying the feed unit air pressure and types of abrasive foam media used, sponge blasting
                 can remove a range of coatings from soot on wallpaper to high-performance protective coatings on  steel and
                 concrete surfaces.

                          The classifier unit is used to remove large debris and powdery  residues from the foam medium after
                 each use.  The used media is collected and placed into  an electrically powered sifter. The vibrating sifter
                 classifies the used medium with a stack of progressively finer screens.  Coarse contaminants, such as paint
                 flakes, rust particles, etc. are collected on the coarsest screens.  The reusable foam media are collected on the
                 corresponding screen size.  The  dust and finer particles fall through the sifter and are collected for disposal.
                 After classifying, the reclaimed foam media  can be reused immediately in the feed  unit.  The  abrasive
                 medium can  be  recycled  approximately  six times  and  the  non-abrasive medium  can  be  recycled
                 approximately 12 times.
                          Benefits of Sponge Jet Blasting

                      •    Safer for operators compared to other blasting media and chemical stripper systems.

                      •    Easily transportable.

                      •    Waste minimization is achieved by recycling the sponge media an average of six to twelve times.

                      •    Absorbs and removes contaminants.

                      •    Reduces dust generation.
                          Limitations of Sponge Jet Blasting

                      •    Foam media costs are greater than sand blasting media.

                      •    Reasonably large capital investment cost.

                          Wet Media Blasting

                          Proven pollution prevention wet media blasting technologies are divided into two categories:

                      •    High pressure water j et blasting, and

                      •    Sodium bicarbonate blasting.

                 A brief description of each type of technology is provided below with associated benefits and limitations.

                 High Pressure Water Jet Blasting

                          High-pressure water blast systems are used for removing paint with low-volume water streams at
                 pressures ranging  from  15,000  to 55,000 psi. High-pressure  systems typically  use  pure water  streams
                 (deionized) and specialized nozzles to achieve effects ranging from a relatively gentle, layer-by-layer removal
                 of organic paints to removal of metal  flame spray  coating and other tough, tightly adherent coatings.  The
                 process water,  paint, and residue are  collected by the  effluent-recovery system for filtering the paint and
                 residue, removing leached ions (copper, cadmium, lead, etc.), microparticulates, chlorides, sulfates, nitrates,
                 and  other contaminants. The water passes through a coalescing tank for removing oils and film, then through
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                                                   Industrial Operations: Paper and Pulp Manufacturing


a charcoal filter, microfilters and, finally, a deionization system to ensure that the water is Grade A deionized
water. The recovered deionized water is recycled back into the process.

        Benefits of High Pressure Water Jet Blasting

    •   Reduces hazardous waste by 90%.

    •   Selectively removes individual coating-layers.

    •   Pre-washing and masking is not needed in most applications.

    •   No size limitations for parts being stripped.

    •   Wastewater stream is compatible with conventional industrial wastewater plants.

    •   Reduces the process material costs significantly.

    •   Reduces labor hours for the stripping process by 50%.

    •   No dust or airborne contaminants generated.

    •   Requires no cleanup after stripping.

        Limitations of High Pressure Water Jet Blasting

    •   High capital costs.

    •   Removes one layer at a time.

    •   May not remove corrosion.

    •   The  substrates to  be removed will impact personal protection  and waste  collection/disposal
        considerations.

    •   Coating debris sludge is a potential hazardous waste.

Sodium Bicarbonate Blasting

        Sodium bicarbonate stripping processes are used as  alternatives to traditional  chemical paint
stripping.  Bicarbonate of soda (or sodium bicarbonate) is a  soft blast media with a heavier specific gravity
and less hardness than most plastic abrasives. The bicarbonate of soda stripping process can be used with or
without water.   It is most frequently  used  with  water, which acts as  a dust suppressant.   In this form,
compressed air delivers the sodium bicarbonate medium from a pressure pot to a nozzle, where the medium
mixes with  a stream of water.  The soda/water mixture impacts the coated surface and removes old coatings
from the substrate.  The water used dissipates the heat  generated by the abrasive process, reduces the amount
of dust in the air, and assists in the paint removal by  hydraulic action.  Workers do not need to prewash or
mask the surface of the material being stripped. Settling or filtration can separate the solid residue from  the
wastewater generated from this process.

        The  effectiveness of bicarbonate of soda stripping depends  on optimizing a number of operating
parameters, including nozzle pressure, standoff distance, angle of impingement, flow rate, water pressure, and
traverse speed.   In general, bicarbonate of soda stripping systems remove paint slower than mo st methods
(other than chemical paint stripping) currently used.   The type of equipment used in this stripping process
may also have significantly different results.

        Use of sodium bicarbonate in its dry form (or  when not fully mixed with water) can create  a cloud of
dust that will require monitoring  and may require containment to meet air standards and worker exposure
limitations.  The dust generated is not an explosive hazard, nor is sodium bicarbonate toxic in this form.
However, the airborne particulates generated from the stripping operation can contain toxic elements from  the
paint being removed.  This stripping process should be performed in areas where exhaust particulates can be
contained and/or exhaust ventilation system controls are present to  remove hazardous airborne  metals. If
bicarbonate of soda stripping is operated outdoors, air monitoring of dust (e.g. for metals) may be  necessary
to ensure  that  air standards are  met.   However, tests have  shown  that lead will adhere to the  sodium
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                              173
Notes

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               Industrial Operations: Paper and Pulp Manufacturing


JT ,              bicarbonate, thus reducing the risk.  Be sure to have a local Industrial Health Specialist check the air for any
                 resident metals.

                          The waste generated from  bicarbonate of soda stripping systems  in the wet form  is wet slurry
                 consisting of sodium bicarbonate medium, water, paint chips, and miscellaneous residues such as dirt and
                 grease. Some installations are employing centrifuges to separate the water from the contaminated waste
                 stream, thus reducing  the amount  of  hazardous waste  being disposed. Filtered wastewater containing
                 dissolved sodium bicarbonate may be treated at an industrial wastewater treatment plant.  In its dry form,
                 waste generated includes nuisance dust, paint chips, and miscellaneous residues such as dust and grease. The
                 solid waste may be  suitable  for disposal in a sanitary landfill.  Analysis of  wastewater and waste solids is
                 required prior to disposal. Wastewater and bicarbonate residue disposal requirements will depend on the
                 toxicity of the coatings and pigments to be removed.  The sodium bicarbonate medium can not be recycled.
                 The paint chip and miscellaneous residue wastes may be considered a hazardous waste.
                          Benefits of Sodium Bicarbonate Blasting

                      •   Significant reduction in the amount of hazardous waste generated compared to chemical stripping.

                      •   Reduces the number  of hours required for paint stripping in comparison to chemical stripping.

                      •   Selectively removes individual coating layers.

                      •   Prewashing and masking is not required in most applications.

                      •   No size limitations for parts being stripped.

                      •   Wastewater  stream may be centrifuged to reduce its volume or treated  (if required) at industrial
                          wastewater treatment plants available to many installations.

                      •   Blast media is usually less expensive than PMB, wheat starch, and CC>2 pellets.

                          Limitations of Sodium Bicarbonate Blasting

                      •   Requires subsequent washing of the item; thus, electrical components cannot be exposed to this
                          stripping process.

                      •   The sodium bicarbonate solution can not be recycled for  stripping,  although the water can be
                          separated for disposal.

                      •   May require monitoring.

                      •   Containment may be  required.

                          Thermal Stripping

                 Recent advancements in paint removal technologies has led to the following types of thermal stripping:

                      •   Flashlamp, and

                      •   Laser.

                 A brief description of each type of technology is provided below with associated benefits and limitations.

                 Flashlamp

                          Flashlamp systems consist of a tubular quartz flashlamp filled with xenon gas at low pressure.  A
                 light pulse is  absorbed by the surface material, which may sublime, pylori  or  chemically dissociate.   The
                 residue left on the surface is a fine, black dust, which is then wiped off.

                          The xenon flashlamp, or the FLASHJET™ system, uses a carbon dioxide pellet  stream  to sweep
                 away the coatings residue and cool and clean the surface. The system also includes effluent capture, process
                 control and robotic manipulator subsystems. The primary coating removal mechanism for the  process is the
                 irradiation of the coated surface with high intensity light that breaks the molecular bonds within the  paint
                 film, reducing the surface coating to fine particles and gases. The fine particles are then removed by the low
                 pressure carbon dioxide (dry ice) pellet blast.
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                                                  Industrial Operations: Paper and Pulp Manufacturing
        The FLASHJET™ stripping system is currently  utilized on the AH-64A Apache aircraft pre-mod
program and AH-64D Longbow Apache aircraft modifications program. The stripping system is comprised
of a 6-axis gantry robot system capable  of stripping the Apache fuselage  and various components parts
including main/tail rotor blades, access doors, and other aluminum and Kevlar/epoxy parts. The most recent
development for application of the process embraces the design integration of the FLASHJET™ system on a
large mobile robotic manipulator capable of positioning the stripping head over all moldline surfaces of large
transport aircraft.
        Benefits ofFlashlamp

    •   Reduced the labor required to strip an airframe from 200 to 20 man-hours.

    •   Can selectively remove one layer at a time without damaging the substrate.

    •   No hazardous waste generated.

        Limitations ofFlashlamp

    •   High capital cost (over 2 million).

    •   Poor stripping over complex geometry's.

Laser

        Although  laser  paint  strippers are being  used in limited  applications,  laser stripping  is still
considered an emerging technology.   All  key technologies needed to  build  laser stripping  systems are
available and have been demonstrated. The systems in use are designed to control the laser and eliminate the
need for precision robotics.

        In general,  laser paint stripping is  a non-intrusive and low kinetic energy ablating process that
requires a minimum of surface preparation and post process activities. Laser systems use short pulses of high
peak power laser radiation to break the chemical bonds in the paint resin, which causes an instantaneous
increase in the volume of the resin.  The increase causes the inorganic solids to be blown away from the
surface. The waste generated from laser stripping is the coating vaporized from the substrate.

        Over the past 25 years, numerous industry  and Department of Defense research and development
efforts have investigated the use of lasers for removing paint coatings from aerospace components, including
both metal and composite substrates.

        For example, the Air Force has contracted with  BDM  Federal Inc., which has developed  a high-
energy CO2 pulsed laser known as, the Laser Automated Decorating System (LADS), to remove rain erosion
coatings from composite aircraft radomes  and flight control surfaces.  The principal objective of the project
was to improve the quality of production that can be achieved compared to the chemical stripping process in
removing the fluoroelastomer, rain erosion coatings from radomes.  Chemical stripping required  considerable
scrapping and sanding, and then the radomes had to be passed to a subsequent process. Many radomes could
not be cleaned to a usable level and were subsequently scrapped. During the first month of LADS operation
seven radomes that had been scrapped were reclaimed.

        The Army contracted with Silicon ALPS to procure an automated laser paint stripping (ALPS)  cell.
Corpus Christi Army Depot procured model  LS4000, which uses a high-energy CO2 pulsed laser with real-
time vision feedback control to remove coatings from medium to large  components, employing  both robotic
arm  and rotational  parts positioners.  The  system  was procured specifically for stripping helicopter rotor
blades.

        Laser paint stripping is still in its infancy; however, the  technology is proven to be easily adaptable
to different paint systems and substrates. It is the only known efficient method of stripping that generates less
disposable waste than the initial volume of paint applied.
        Benefits of Laser Stripping

        •   Specific organic contaminants may be removed while minimizing damage to the substrate.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                              175
                                                                                                      Notes

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               Industrial Operations:  Paper and Pulp Manufacturing


N                        Limitations of Laser Stripping

                      •   Characteristics of both the contaminant and substrate must be known so that the optimal absorption
                          frequency can be used.

                      •   The system is time and equipment intensive.

                          Cryogenic Stripping

                          Cryogenic paint stripping can be classified into the following two categories:

                      •   Carbon dioxide pellet blasting, and

                      •   Liquid nitrogen blasting.

                  A brief description of each type of technology is provided below with associated benefits and limitations.

                  Carbon Dioxide Pellet Blasting

                          Carbon dioxide (CC>2) blasting  is an alternative process to chemical cleaning and paint stripping.
                  The obvious advantage of CC>2 blasting over chemical stripping is the introduction of the inert CC>2 medium
                  that dissipates.

                          CC>2 pellets are uniform in shape and the effectiveness of the pellets as a blast medium is similar to
                  abrasive blasting media.  However, the  pellets do not affect the substrate; therefore, CC>2 pellet blasting is
                  technically not an abrasive operation. This process can be used for cleaning, degreasing, some de-painting
                  applications, surface preparation, and de-flashing (flashing is the excess material formed on the edges of
                  molded parts).

                          The process starts with liquid CO2 stored under pressure (-850 psig).  The liquid CO2 is fed to a
                  pelletizer,  which converts the liquid into solid CO2 snow (dry ice  flakes), and then compresses the dry ice
                  flakes into pellets at about -110 °F.   The  pellets  are metered into  a compressed air stream and applied to a
                  surface by manual or automated equipment  with  specially  designed blasting nozzles.  The CO2 pellets are
                  projected onto the target surface at high speed.  As the dry ice pellets strike  the surface, they induce an
                  extreme difference  in temperature (thermal  shock)  between the coating and the underlying substrate,
                  weakening the chemical and physical bonds between the surface  materials and the substrate. Immediately
                  after impact, the pellets begin to vaporize,  releasing CC>2 gas at a very high velocity along the surface to be
                  cleaned. The high velocity is caused by the extreme density difference between the gas and solid phases. This
                  kinetic energy dislodges the contaminants (coating systems, contaminants, flash, etc.), resulting in a clean
                  surface.  Variables that allow process optimization include the following: pellet density, mass flow, pellet
                  velocity, and propellant stream temperature.

                          CC>2 pellet blasting  is effective in removing some paints, sealants, carbon and corrosion deposits,
                  grease, oil, and adhesives, as well as solder and  flux from printed circuit board assemblies.   Furthermore,
                  since CO2 pellet blasting  is  not an abrasive  operation, it is excellent for components with tight tolerances.
                  This process also provides excellent surface preparation prior to application of coatings or adhesive and is
                  suitable for most metals and some composite materials.  However, thin materials may be adversely affected.
                  Blasting efficiency is approximately equal to that  of other blasting  operations and can approach 1  ft /minute
                  after optimization.  CC>2 blasting can  be done  at  various velocities:  subsonic,  sonic, and even supersonic.
                  Therefore, equipment noise levels are high (between 95 and 130 dB).  This operation always requires hearing
                  protection.

                          Waste cleanup and disposal are  minimized because only the coating remains after blasting.  There is
                  no liquid waste because CC>2 pellets disintegrate.  They pass from liquid to gaseous state, leaving no spent
                  medium residue.  With regard to toxic air control, small quantities of coating particles are emitted to the air.
                  A standard air filtration system should be provided.
                          Benefits of Carbon Dioxide Pellet Blasting

                      •   Significant reduction in the  amount  of  hazardous waste and  hazardous  air emissions  generated
                          compared to chemical stripping.

                      •   Time required for cleaning/stripping processes is reduced by 80-90%.


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                                                   Industrial Operations: Paper and Pulp Manufacturing
    •   Leaves no residue on the component surface.

    •   Effective in precision cleaning.

    •   Introduces no new contaminants.
        Limitations of Carbon Dioxide Pellet Blasting

    •   CC>2 blasting is not always a one-pass operation; an effective blasting operation usually requires
        multiple passes to achieve the desired effect.

    •   Can have high capital costs.

    •   Fixed position blasting operation can damage the component's surface.

    •   Generates solid waste containing coating chips that are potentially hazardous; medium does not add
        to the volume of solid waste.

    •   Rebounding pellets may carry coating debris and contaminate workers and work area.

    •   Some coating debris may redeposit on substrate.

    •   Nonautomated  system fatigues workers quickly because of cold temperature, weight, and thrust of
        the blast nozzle.

Liquid Nitrogen Blasting

        Liquid nitrogen cryogenic blasting is a variation of the PMB method that involves chilling the work
piece to embrittle the coating before subjecting it to impaction with a plastic media.  The piece is  sprayed
with liquid nitrogen as it rotates on a spindle within a cabinet, and then is blasted with the impaction media,
which are projected into the cabinet by throw wheels.

        After chilling the coating to about -320 °F, the liquid nitrogen warms to ambient temperatures and
evaporates into a gaseous form. This harmless gas can be vented to the atmosphere, leaving the medium to be
collected, separated from coating debris, and recycled.

        The liquid nitrogen cryogenic blasting approach is used primarily to remove coating build-up from
certain types of process equipment used in paints and coatings operations (e.g., paint hangers, coating racks,
floor gratings). Operations in the automotive and appliance industries have used this method with success.

        Benefits of Liquid Nitrogen Blasting

    •   Minimizes pollution generation.  Avoids generation of wastewater and VOCs; because the process is
        dry, no water is used.

    •   Recyclability. If the correct plastic medium is selected, they can be recycled numerous times.

    •   High throughput. Can be effective at a relatively high coating removal rate.

    •   Low operating costs. Compressed air and electricity requirements are low.

        Limitations of Liquid Nitrogen Blasting

    •   Capital and startup  costs can be high.

    •   Not appropriate for thin coatings and less effective on epoxies and urethanes.

    •   The stripping cabinet restricts the size of parts that can be processed.

5.9.3.2  Recycling

        In-process  recycling is another method of reducing the environmental impacts from paint removal
operations.  In relation to paint removal operations, recycling generally consists of removing the paint coating
particles from either the solvent or blast media through filtration, distillation, or gravity separation to extend
the useful life of the  solvent or media.   For chemical or petroleum hydrocarbon based paint removers, in-
process distillation can be  used to  extend  the bath life of  a dip tank indefinitely if conducted properly
(selective  additives may be necessary to add to  the original  solution to  maintain all  performance


Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                               177
Notes

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               Industrial Operations: Paper and Pulp Manufacturing


JT ,               characteristics). A complete process description for the distillation of petroleum hydrocarbon based solvents
                  is provided in Section 5.5, Cleaning & Degreasing.

                          The  required technique  for in-process recycling of blast media is dependent on the media type
                  (sponge, PMB, water,  etc.).  Recycling methods for each type of alternative blast media described under the
                  source reduction options is contained with in the process description and operating requirements of each.


                  5.10  Printing

                          The  following  section provides a process  description,  waste description and a broad range  of
                  pollution prevention opportunities that can be implemented to improve commercial printing operations.

                  5.10.1  Process Description

                          The  printing  industry consists of establishments  engaged  in  printing by lithography,  gravure,
                  flexography,  letterpress, and screen printing.   Presses  are also  categorized by the forms of paper or other
                  substances used. Web presses, which are used for larger printing runs, print the image onto a continuous roll
                  (web) of paper. After printing, the paper is slit (cut) and trimmed to the preferred size.  Sheet-fed presses
                  print on individual sheets of paper or the substrate.  The following provides a brief overview of each type of
                  printing process.

                      •   Letterpress -  is the  oldest and the most versatile of the printing methods.  Printing, accomplished
                          with a relief method, utilizes cast metal types or plates on which the image or printing areas are
                          raised above the nonprinting areas.  Ink rollers touch only the top surface of the raised areas. The
                          nonprinting areas are lower and do not receive ink. Printing is done on sheets of paper on sheet-fed
                          presses or rolls of paper on web-fed presses.  Sheet-fed presses are used for general printing, books,
                          catalogues, and packaging.  Web-presses are used for news papers and magazines.

                      •   Flexography  - is a form of rotary web letterpress  that uses flexible runner plates and fast drying
                          solvent or water-based inks.   The rubber plates are mounted to  the printing  cylinder.  Products
                          printed by the flexographic process range from decorated toilet tissue to polyethylene and other
                          plastic films.

                      •   Gravure - is a type of intaglio printing that uses a depressed (or sunken) surface for the image. The
                          image area consists of cells or wells etched into a copper cylinder or wraparound plate.  The printing
                          area is the cylinder or plate surface. The plate cylinder is rotated in an ink  bath,  and the excess ink is
                          wiped off the surface by a flexible steel "doctor blade."  The remaining ink  in the thousands  of
                          sunken cells form the images as the paper passes between the plate cylinder and the impression
                          cylinder.   Gravure presses are manufactured to print sheets of paper (sheet fed gravure) or rolls of
                          paper (web-fed gravure); however, the web-fed gravure is more popular.

                      •   Lithography - is the most common printing process, and a printing method known as planographic.
                          The image and the nonprinting areas are on the same plane as  a thin metal plate, and the  areas are
                          distinguished by chemicals. Lithography is based on the principal that grease and water do not mix.
                          The ink is offset first from the plate to a rubber blanket  and then from the  blanket to the paper. The
                          printing areas in the plate are made ink receptive and water repellent, and the nonprinting areas are
                          made ink repellent and water receptive. The plate is mounted on the plate cylinder, which rotates
                          and comes in  contact with rollers that are wet by a dampening solution (or  water) and rollers that are
                          wet  by ink  in  succession.   The  ink wets  the image areas,  which  are then transferred to the
                          intermediate blanket cylinder.  The image is printed to the paper as the  paper passes  the blanket
                          cylinder and the impression cylinder.  The  major advantage of transferring the image from the plate
                          to a blanket before transferring to the paper (offsetting) is that the soft rubber surface of the blanket
                          creates a  clearer impression on a wide variety of paper  surfaces and other substrate materials. The
                          process of lithography is applied to individual sheets,  known  as sheet-fed lithography, and onto a
                          continuous roll (web) of paper, known as web-offset lithography.  Sheet-fed lithography is used for
                          printing books,  posters,  greeting cards,  labels,  packaging,   advertising  flyers  and brochures,
                          periodicals, and reproducing artwork.   Web-offset lithography is used for periodicals, newspapers,
                          advertising, books, catalogues, and business forms.


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                                                                         Industrial Operations:  Printing
    •   Screen Printing - employs a porous screen of fine silk, nylon, or stainless steel mounted on a frame.
        Printing is done on the paper by applying ink to the screen, then spreading and forcing ink through
        the fine openings with a rubber squeegee.  Versatility is the major advantage of screen printing since
        any surface (e.g., wood, glass, metal, plastic, fabric, etc.) can be printed.

        The principle raw materials used by the commercial printing industry are inks  and substrates.  A
substrate is any material upon which ink is impressed, such as paper, plastic, wood, or metal.

        Other raw  materials used by the  industry  include  gravure  cylinders,  photographic  films,
photoprocessing chemicals  developers,  fixers,  wash baths, reducers,  intensifiers, printing  plates,  plate
processing  chemicals,  fountain  solutions,  cleaning solvents, and rags. Exhibit 5.12 illustrates a typical
commercial offset lithographic printing operation.   Printing begins with the preparation  of artwork or copy,
which is photographed to produce an image. A proof is made which will be used to compare with the printed
product and make adjustments to the press.   The  photographic image is transferred to a plate.  In the
platemaking step,  the image areas  of the plate  are  made receptive to the ink.  In the printing step, ink is
applied to the plate, then transferred to rubber blanket and then to  the substrate.

        The substrate accepts the ink, reproducing the image. The substrate is then cut, folded, and bound to
produce the final product.  Printing can be divided into six separate steps:  (1) image processing, (2) proofing,
(3) platemaking,  (4)  makeready,  (5) printing,  (6)  finishing.   The operations  involved  in  these  steps are
summarized below.

5.10.1.1 Image Processing

        Most printing operations begin with art and copy (or text) preparation.  Once the  material is properly
arranged,  it  is photographed to  produce transparencies.   If  an image  is to be printed as  a  full color
reproduction, then color separations are made to provide a single-color image or record which can then be
used to produce this single -color printing plate for lithography or the cylinder for gravure. Once the film has
been developed, checked, and re-photographed (if necessary), it is sent on to the plate- or cylinder-making
operation.

        The printing industry employs graphic arts photography in  the reproduction of both artwork and
copy, using materials similar to those in other fields of photography.  The materials  include a paper, plastic
film, or glass base cover with a  light-sensitive coating called a photographic emulsion. This emulsion is
usually composed  of  silver halide salts in gelatin.  Silver halides  include silver chloride,  silver bromide and
silver iodide.

        Some processes such as letterpress or lithography use a  photographic negative to transfer an image
to the plate. Gravure, screen printing, and other lithographic processes require positives.  These are produced
by printing negatives onto paper or film. The resulting images have tone values similar to the object or copy
that was photographed.

5.10.1.2 Proof

        A proof is produced after the image processing step as part of internal job control, and it may also
serve as a communication tool between printer  and client.  It  is used for both single-color and multi-color
printing.

5.10.1.3 Plate Processing

        The type  of printing process  depends on the intermediate image carrier,  a plate or cylinder that
accepts ink  off a roller  and transfers the image to a rubber blanket.  The blanket, in turn, transfers it to the
paper. The type of ink and press used, number of impressions that can be printed, the speed with which they
are printed, and the characteristics of the image are all determined by the type of image carrier.

        The four  different types  of image carriers  generally used are manual, mechanical, electrostatic, and
photomechanical.
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                               179

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                 Industrial Operations: Printing
Notes
                                Exhibit 5.12: Process Flow Diagram for a Typical Commercial Printing Operation
                                                                    (      Start      J
                                                                              ~^
                                                             Film-

                                             Photoprocessing Chemicals_
                                               (concentrate & water)
                      Image Processing
                                                                                         HJsedFilm
                                                                        Image on Film       ^Silver Recovery
                                                                           Proof
                                                 Plates from Storage or
                                                 Plate Manufacturing

                                             Plate Processing Chemicals"
                                                              Ink-

                                                            Paper-

                                                    Fountain Solution"
                        Platemaking
                                                                        Image on Paper
                         Makeready
                                                                                          'Trash
                                     ^Wastewater

                                     ^Trash




                                     ^Paper to Recycling

                                     ^Air Emissions
          Ink
        Paper

Fountain Solutioi

Cleaning Solvent
         Rags
                                                                     Printing and Drying
                                                                   Untrimmed, Unbound Product
                                          Paper Wrap to Trash

                                          'Paper to Recycling
                                          'Air Emissions/Emission Controls

                                          'Waste Ink
                                          Dirty Rags and Used Plates
                                                                         Finishing
                                         > Trash (Paper Trimmings)
                                                                        Final Product
                                                                           E"d
                   •   Manual Image Carriers - consist of hand-set composition, wood cuts, linoleum blocks, copperplate or
                       steel-die engravings.  Manually made images are seldom used now except for commercial use in screen
                       printing.

                   •   Mechanical Image Carriers - are produced mainly for relief printing.  There are two categories: (1)  hot
                       metal machine composition  and (2) duplicate printing plates.  Intaglio printing  also uses mechanically
                       made plates.  These  include pantograph engravings, used for steel-die engraving, and engraving made
                       with geometric lathes,  which produce scrolls  for stock  and bond  certificates  and  paper  currency.
                       Mechanically  made gravure cylinders are also used for printing textiles, wrapping papers, wallpapers,
                       and plastics.
                 180
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                                                                         Industrial Operations: Printing
•   Electrostatic Plates - are  popular  in reprography  (offset duplicating) where electroplating cameras
    convert original images or paste-ups to lithographic plates used on copier/duplicators.  Electrostatically
    produced plates are also used for imaging from paste-ups and for laser platemaking used in newspaper
    printing.

•   Photomechanical Platemaking - is the common method of plate making.  These image carriers use light
    sensitive coatings on  which images are  produces photographically.   Photomechanics  is capable of
    reproducing photographs and other pictorial subjects.  This overcomes the limitations  of manually and
    mechanically produced plates.

5.10.1.4 Makeready

        Makeready is the procedure in which all the adjustments are made on the press, including proper
registration and ink density, to achieve a reproduction equivalent to or comparable to the proof of acceptable
quality to the pressman or customer's representative.  This step may be the major source of waste from the
printer's point of view. Makeready times can last from  a  few  minutes to many hours.  Makeready can be
conducted at low speeds or at press production speeds.  The printer's objective is to minimize both the time
involved in makeready and the number of waste sheets or signatures coming off the press.

5.10.1.5 Printing

        Once the plates are prepared, the actual printing can begin. The printing operations  are generally the
same  for  each of the major processes, with the exception of screen  printing.  The two common types of
presses can print up to 3 impressions per second.  Web  presses typically print at a rate of 1,000 to 1,600 feet
per minute.

        Preparation for printing begins by attaching the plate to the plate cylinder  of the press.  Virtually all
presses print from a plate cylinder, as opposed to a flat plate. Each unit of printing press prints a single color.
To print a full color illustration, four separate units are typically  required, one  unit each for magenta, cyan,
yellow, and black.

        After printing, the substrate may pass through  a drying operation depending on the  type of ink used.
For example, lithography can use heat-set and non-heat-set inks. In heat-set lithography, the substrate is
passed through a tunnel or float dryer which utilizes hot air or direct flame or combination. With non-heat-set
lithography, the ink normally dries by absorption. Where as gravure printing utilizes inks that dry by solvent
evaporation.

5.10.1.6 Finishing

        The term "finishing" refers  to final trimming,  folding, collating,  binding, laminating,  and/or
embossing operations. A variety of binding methods are  used for books,  periodicals, and pamphlets. These
include  stitching  (stapling), gluing, and mechanical  binding.   These finishing operations  are frequently
accomplished by an outside service organization.

5.10.2  Waste Description

        The principal wastes associated with commercial printing operations are off-spec paper (printed and
unprinted), spent printing solutions, cleaning  solvents,  air  emissions (from  printing  operations)  and
miscellaneous secondary wastes.

        By volume, paper  is the largest waste stream associated with the printing industry; almost  98% of
the total waste generated is spoiled paper and paper wrap. Waste paper comes from rejected  print runs, scraps
from the starts and ends of runs,  and overruns (excess number of copies made to ensure that  there are enough
acceptable copies). Most paper is recycled, incinerated, or disposed of as solid waste (trash).

        Spent photoprocessing chemicals are generally biodegradable with high BOD (biochemical oxygen
demand),  therefore, it is generally necessary  to treat the waste before discharging to sanitary sewers.  For
larger printing companies, it may be economical and necessary to recover silver from the spent solution.

        Exhibit 5.13 summarizes the process origin and composition of each waste stream.  In addition, the
wastes generated from each step of the printing process  are also included.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                              181
Notes

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               Industrial Operations: Printing
Notes
        By volume, paper is the largest waste stream associated with the printing industry; almost 98% of
the total waste generated is spoiled paper and paper wrap.  Waste paper comes from rejected print runs, scraps
from the starts and ends of runs, and overruns (excess number of copies made to ensure that there are enough
acceptable copies). Most paper is recycled, incinerated, or disposed of as solid waste (trash).

        Spent photoprocessing chemicals are generally biodegradable with high BOD (biochemical oxygen
demand),  therefore, it is generally necessary  to treat the  waste before discharging to sanitary  sewers.  For
larger printing companies, it may be economical and necessary to recover silver from the spent solution.

                                  Exhibit 5.13:  Wastes from Printing
Waste
Description
Paper
Printing
Solutions
Cleaning
Solvents
Air Emissions
Miscellaneous
Process Origin
Makeready
Printing
Image Processing
Platemaking
Printing & Proof
Makeready & Printing
Image Processing & Proofing
Platemaking
Composition
Inked and clean sheets.
Inked sheets.
Photographic chemicals, silver (if not
recovered).
Acids, alkali, solvents, plate coatings (may
contain dyes, photopolymers , binders, resins,
pigments, organic acids), developers (may
contain isopropanol, gum arabic, lacquers,
caustics), and rinse water.
Lubricating oils, waste ink, cleanup solvents
(halogenated and non-halogenated), and rags.
Solvent from heat-set inks, isopropyl alcohol
(fountain solution), and cleaning solution.
Empty containers, packages, used film, and
outdated materials.
Damaged plates, developed film, and outdated
materials.
                          Platemaking wastes (e.g., acids and bases used to clean or develop the plates) must be either sent to a
                  wastewater treatment facility or drummed for disposal.   Platemaking wastes are minimal for those facilities
                  that use presensitized plates.  Fountain solutions used in lithography contain gum arabic, phosphoric acid,
                  defoamers, and fungicides.  Isopropyl alcohol (IPA) is usually added to reduce the surface tension of the
                  solution, making it adhere better to the nonimage areas of the plate cylinder. Most of the IPA evaporates with
                  water and the  other chemicals remaining on the paper.  Some chemical manufactures offer low  volatility
                  fountain solutions that do not use IPA or other volatile compounds.  Equipment-cleaning wastes include spent
                  lubricants, waste inks, cleanup solvents, and rags. Waste ink is the ink removed form the ink fountain at the
                  end of a run, or contaminated ink.  Although most of the ink used by a printing company ends up on the paper
                  (or other substrate), other ink losses include spills and ink printed on waste paper. Most waste inks  are either
                  incinerated (if considered hazardous) or discarded as solid waste.

                          Cleanup solvents  are used to clean the press. The rubber blankets are cleaned once or twice per 8-
                  hour shift to minimize the imperfections resulting from dirt or dried inks. When lower  quality paper is used,
                  cleaning  is required more  frequently.    The  cleaning  solvents  include methanol,  toluene,  naphtha,
                  trichloroethane, methylene chloride, and specially formulated blanket washes.

                          Inks may contain  solvents (e.g., xylene, ketones, alcoholc, etc.), depending  on the type of printing
                  process  and substrate.   For  example,  gravure printing inks  contain solvents. The  inks used for offset
                  lithography are explained below.

                      •   Sheet-fed inks that dry by oxidative polymerization.
                182
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                                                                        Industrial Operations: Printing
    •   Heat-set inks that dry by evaporation of aliphatic ink oils.

    •   Non-heat-set web inks that dry by absorption of the ink on the substrate.
        No significant amount of VOCs  (volatile organic  compounds) are emitted from  sheet-fed inks or
non-heat-set  web  inks.   For  heat-set inks, the printed web  passes through  a dryer  where ink oils  are
evaporated.   The resulting VOC emissions can be controlled by catalytic  or thermal incineration, or by
condenser systems.  For VOC emissions from gravure  printing, carbon absorption is the most commonly
applied control method.

        Commercial  printing operations  also generate secondary wastes,  such  as,  packaging material,
damaged plates, paper wrapping, etc.  This waste stream  is classified as miscellaneous wastes due to its broad
nature.

5.10.3 Pollution Prevention Opportunities

        Pollution  prevention opportunities for printing operations are classified  according  to  the waste
management hierarchy in order of relevance; first, source reduction techniques, then secondly, (in-process)
recycling options.

5.10.3.1 Source Reduction

        Source reduction efforts are centralized around process modifications for the printing industry.
Identified opportunities are grouped according to  the four main processing  steps;  image processing, plate
processing, makeready,  and printing/finishing.  The  following describes the benefits and limitations of
potential source reduction opportunities for each step.

        Image Processing

        The   major waste  stream  associated  with  image  processing  is  wastewater,  which contains
photographic  chemicals and silver removed from film.  The use of computerized electronic prepress systems
for typesetting and copy preparation is a recent advance in  image-processing steps.  The electronic scanner
scans the image fed by text, photos, and graphics, and the copy is edited on a computer display monitor rather
than paper. This reduces the number of films and the amount of developing chemicals and paper used.

        The wastes from photoprocessing that use silver films may be  considered hazardous,  depending on
the silver concentration.  Photographic materials that do not contain silver are available, but they are slower to
develop than  silver halide films.  Diazo and vesicular  films have been used for many years. Vesicular films
have a honeycomb -like cross section and are coated with a thermoplastic resin and light sensitive diazonium
salt.  Recently, photopolymer  and electrostatic films have been used.  Photopolymer films contain carbon
black as a substitute for silver, and the films are processed in a weak  basic solution that needs to be
neutralized before  disposal.   Electrostatic films are  nonsilver films  that can be  developed at a speed
comparable to that  of silver films.  An electrostatic charge  makes the film light sensitive, and  a liquid toner
brings out the image after the film is exposed to  light. Electrostatic films also have high resolution.

        Extending the life of fixing baths can reduce  waste from photographic processing. Techniques for
extending bath life are explained below.

    •   Addition of ammonium thiosulfate, which increases the maximum allowable concentration of silver
        in the bath.

    •   Use of an  acid stop bath prior to fixing bath.

    •   Addition of acetic acid to keep the pH low.

Close monitoring of the process  bath and optimizing the  bath conditions will minimize the use of bath
chemicals.

        Squeegees can be used to wipe excess liquid from the film and paper in a nonautomated processing
system. This can reduce the chemical carryover from one process bath to the next by as much as 50 percent.
Minimizing chemical contamination of the  process baths  increases recyclability and bath life, and reduces the
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                              183
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               Industrial Operations: Printing


JT ,               amount of replenisher chemical required.  However, squeegees must be used only after the film image has
                  hardened, because they can damage the image if it has not fully hardened.

                         During photographic processing, films are commonly  washed  with  water, using parallel tanks
                  systems to remove  hypo from  the emulsion.  In a parallel system,  fresh water enters each wash tank and
                  effluent leaves each wash tank.   Employing a  countercurrent washing system can  increase the removal
                  efficiency of hypo.

                  Benefits of Image Processing Changes

                      •   Computerized prepress systems for  typesetting and copy preparation reduce the number of films and
                         the amount of developing chemicals and paper used.

                      •   Nonhazardous films may be utilized instead of hazardous silver halide films.

                      •   Electrostatic films are  nonsilver films that can be developed at a speed comparable to that of silver
                         films.

                      •   Squeegees  used to wipe excess liquid from film and paper can reduce chemical carry over by 50%,
                         therefore increasing recyclability  and bath life, and reducing the amount of replenisher chemicals
                         required.

                  Limitations of Image Processing Changes

                      •   High initial  costs may  prohibit  smaller  printing operations  from using computerized prepress
                         systems.

                      •   Nonsilver films are typically slower to develop than the silver halide films.

                      •   Squeegees  can damage film if the image has not fully hardened.

                         Plate Processing

                         Recent advances  in plate-processing techniques  have reduced the quantity and/or toxicity of
                  hazardous  wastes and improved  worker  safety.  In gravure printing, metal etching and metal  plating
                  operations involve chemical compounds that  are generally considered hazardous.  Waste solutions from metal
                  etching or metal plating usually  require treatment before discharge to  a municipal sewer.  The same is true for
                  all wastewater used in plate rinsing operations. The use of multiple countercurrent rinse tanks can reduce the
                  amount of wastewater generated.  Minimizing drag-out from  the plating tanks can reduce the  toxicity of
                  wastewater from plating. Drag-out can be reduced by the following process changes.

                      •   Installing a drainage rack.

                      •   Using draining boards to collect the  drag-out and returning it to the plating tank.

                      •   Raising the plate tank temperature to reduce the viscosity and surface tension of the solution.

                         The printer  should consider replacing metal etching  or  plating processes with  presensitized
                  lithographic plates,  plastic or photopolymer plates, or hot  metal  plates, which do not generate  hazardous
                  wastes.  The wastes  generated by presensitized lithographic  plates are wastewater  from developing and
                  finishing baths and  used plates.  Consumption of chemicals can be reduced by frequently monitoring the bath
                  pH,  temperature, and solution strength, thereby extending the bath life.  Automatic plate processors may also
                  be used since they are designed  to maintain the optimum bath conditions.

                         Nonhazardous developers and fnishers are also  available.   For example,  some developers and
                  finishers have a flash point of 213 °F and are therefore  considered nonflammable.  Presensitized plates that
                  are processed only with water are also available.

                  Benefits of Plate Processing Changes

                      •   Nonhazardous and nonflammable developers and finishers can replace hazardous and  flammable
                         developers and finishers.
                184                         Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                        Industrial Operations: Printing
    •   Counter current rinse tanks can  decrease the amount of  wastewater generated, and  increase
        efficiency.

    •   Presensitized lithographic plates,  plastic plates, or hot metal plates can replace hazardous waste
        generating metal etching or plating processes.

Limitations of Plate Processing Changes

    •   Counter current rinse systems require a large amount of floor space and a high initial equipment cost.

    •   Modifying the type of plates used can be expensive.

        Makeready

        Paper is the largest raw material item and is the most expensive component of the printing operation.
The printed paper produced in a makeready is  frequently the  largest  waste a printer generates, but it is
nonhazardous. The amount of paper waste is determined by the efficiency of the press adjustments needed to
achieve the desired print quality (e.g., proper ink density and accurate registration).

        With proper use, automated press adjustment devices can speed up the makeready step and save
paper and ink. Examples of these devices are automated plate benders, automated plate scanners, automatic
ink density setting systems, computerized registration and ink/water ratio sensors. It is important, however,
that the cost of these items be considered against the degree of quality improvement and the extent  of waste
reduction.

Benefits ofMakereadv Changes

    •   Automated equipment can speed up the makeready stage.

    •   Ink and paper cost savings may be realized with efficient adjustments.

Limitations ofMakereadv Changes

    •   Improvements in quality and waste reduction may not warrant cost of technology.

    •   The capital costs of automated equipment are high.

        Printing and Finishing

        The major waste associated with printing and finishing are scrap paper, waste ink, and  cleaning
solvents. The solvent waste stream consists of waste ink, ink solvents, lubricating oil, and cleaning solvents.
Wastes generated by the printing and finishing operations can be reduced by the following equipment and
techniques.

    •   Adopting a standard ink sequence - can reduce the amount of waste ink and waste cleaning solvents.
        If a standard ink sequence is employed, ink rotation is not changed with a job and it is not necessary
        to clean out fountains in order to change ink rotation.

    •   A web break detector - can note tears in the web. If tears are not detected, the broken web begins to
        wrap around the rollers  and force them out  of the bearing.  Although web break detectors are
        primarily used to avoid severe damage to the presses,  they  also reduce paper and ink wastes by
        preventing press damage.

    •   An automatic ink level controller - can be used to maintain the desired ink level in the fountain and
        to optimize process conditions.

    •   Water-based inks - may be used in place of inks that contain oils. Applications for water-based inks
        are flexographic printing on paper and gravure.  Although water-based ink reduces emissions that
        result from evaporation of ink oils,  it is more  difficult to dry and makes equipment cleaning more
        difficult.

    •   UV inks - consist of one or more monomers and a photosynthesizer that selectively absorbs energy.
        UV inks do not contain solvents,  and the inks are not "cured" until they are exposed to UV light.
        Therefore, UV inks can remain in the ink fountains (and plates) for longer periods of time, reducing
        cleanup frequency.   UV  inks  are particularly  recommended for letterpress  and lithography.


Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                              185
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               Industrial Operations: Printing


JT ,                       Although UV inks reduce the amount of waste generated, they cost 75 to 100 percent more than
                          conventional heat-set inks  and some of the chemicals  in  these inks  are  toxic.   In  addition,
                          conventional commercial paper recycling procedures cannot de-ink papers printed by UV inks.

                      •   Automatic blanket cleaners - can also be used to increase efficiency, thereby reducing the amount of
                          waste generated. An automatic blanket cleaner consists of a controller box, a solvent metering box
                          for each processing unit, and a cloth handling unit. Less toxic and less flammable blanket washers
                          are now  available,  replacing cleaning solvents that contain  benzene, carbon tetrachloride,  and
                          trichlorethylene. However, these new blanket washers have a lower cleaning efficiency.

                      •   Reduce the amount of cleaning solvents - by cleaning ink fountains only when different color ink is
                          used or when the ink may dry out between runs. Aerosol sprays are available to spray onto the ink
                          fountains to prevent overnight drying and to eliminate the need for cleaning the fountains at the end
                          of the day.  This reduces the amount  of waste ink generated  and the amount of cleaning solvents
                          used.

                      •   Alternative printing technologies - such as electrostatic screen printing, also know as pressure-less
                          printing should be considered. In electrostatic screen printing, a thin flexible printing element with a
                          finely screened  opening is used to define the image to be printed.  An electric field is  established
                          between the image element and  the  surface to be printed.  Finely  divided "electroscopic" ink
                          particles, metered through the image  openings, are attracted  to  the printing surface and held by
                          electrostatic force until they are fixed by heat or chemicals.

                 Benefits of Printing and Finishing Changes

                      •   UV inks reduce  the amount of waste generated.

                      •   Web break detectors reduce paper and ink wastes, and prevent press damage.

                      •   Water-based inks reduce emissions that result from evaporation of ink oils.

                 Limitations of Printing and Finishing Changes

                      •   UV inks cost 75 to 100% more than conventional inks.

                      •   UV inks contain toxic chemicals.

                      •   Conventional commercial paper recycling procedures cannot de-ink papers printed by UV inks.

                      •   Water-based inks are more difficult to dry and make equipment harder to clean.

                      •   Less toxic and less flammable blanket washers are generally less efficient.

                 5.10.3.2 Recycling

                          Many of the materials essential to  the commercial printing industry  can be recycled or reused.
                 Fortunately, this recycling has both economic and environmental benefits.  The main recyclable materials and
                 their common method of recycling are listed below.

                          Waste Inks

                          The main  recycling technique for waste inks relies on the blending of different colors  together to
                 make black ink. Small amounts of certain colors or black toner may be needed to obtain an acceptable black
                 color.  Recycling to get  black ink is  generally more practical than recycling to get the original color.  This
                 reformulated black ink is comparable to some lower quality new black inks, such as newspaper ink. For this
                 reason, much of the black ink for newspaper printing contains recycled ink.

                          Labor time necessary to fill, operate,  and empty foe ink recycler is about the same as the labor
                 required to pack waste ink into drums and to manifest it. Therefore, the labor savings is not significant.  The
                 major operating cost savings are reductions in raw materials costs and waste disposal costs.

                 Benefits of Waste Ink Recycling

                      •   Raw material and waste disposal costs decrease.
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                                                                         Industrial Operations:  Printing
    •   Labor time to operate ink recycler is about equal to the time required to pack waste ink for disposal.
    •   Most waste ink can be recycled.
    •   Reduces the mass of waste ink entering the waste stream.
Limitations of Waste Ink Recycling
    •   Recycling to get colored ink is unpractical.
    •   Reformulated ink is lower quality, mainly usable only for newspaper printing.
        Empty Containers
        Most ink  containers are scraped once empty and discarded as solid waste.  Since the degree of
cleanliness is a function of operator effort, the amount of ink discarded can vary widely. By purchasing ink
in recyclable bulk containers, the container can be returned to the ink supplier for refilling instead of being
thrown away. Additionally, the use of bulk containers cuts down on the amount of cleaning required since
the surface area of the container per unit volume of ink stored is reduced.
Benefits of Empty Container Recycling
    •   Bulk containers require less cleaning time p er volume of ink.
    •   Disposal costs are reduced.
    •   Amount of containers entering the waste stream is reduced.
Limitations of Empty Container Recycling.
        •   Higher costs may be encountered for reusable versus disposable containers.
        Waste Paper
        Paper is the largest  supply item a printer buys and it may be the most expensive component of his
work, therefore,  paper use and the disposition of waste paper are critical concerns.  Many printers segregate
and recycle paper according to grade: unprinted white paper is sent separately to recycling; inked paper is one
grade and is  recycled separately; and wrappers  for paper,  which are  a lower  grade, are  also recycled
separately.
Benefits of Waste Paper Recycling
    •   Reduces mass of paper entering the waste stream.
    •   Reduces raw material costs.
Limitations of Waste P aper Recycling
    •   It is not economical to recycle lower grade paper.
    •   Separating the paper by grade requires extra time.
        Lube Oils
        When the printing presses are lubricated with oil, the used oil should be collected and turned over to
a recycler.   The recycler can re-refine the oil into new  lubricating oil, create fuel grade  oil, or use it for
blending into asphalt.
Benefits of Lube  Oil Recycling
    •   Saves potentially hazardous materials from land disposal.
    •   Reduces disposal costs.
Limitations of Lube Oil Recycling
        •   The lubricating oils can be difficult to recover.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                               187
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               Industrial Operations: Printing


JT ,                       Silver and Other Photoprocessing Chemicals

                          Basically,  photoprocessing chemicals consist of developer, fixer,  and rinse water.  Keeping the
                 individual process baths as uncontaminated as possible is a prerequisite to the successful recycling of these
                 chemicals.  Silver is a component in most photographic films and paper and is present in the wastewater
                 produced.   Various economical methods of recovering  silver  are  available  (e.g. metallic replacement,
                 chemical precipitation, electrolytic recovery), and a number of companies market equipment that will suit the
                 needs of even the smallest printing shop.

                          A common method of silver recovery is electrolytic  deposition.  In an  electrolytic recovery unit, a
                 low voltage direct current is created between a carbon anode and a stainless steel cathode. Metallic silver
                 plates onto  the cathode.  Once the silver is removed,  the fixing bath may be able to  be reused  in the
                 photographic development process by mixing the de-silvered solution with fresh solution. Recovered silver is
                 worth about 80% of its commodity price.

                          Another method of silver recovery is metallic replacement.  The spent fixing bath is pumped into a
                 cartridge containing steel wool.  An oxidation-reduction reaction occurs and  the iron in the wool replaces the
                 silver in  the solution. The silver settles to the bottom of the cartridge as sludge.

                          To recycle used film, it may be worthwhile to sort the film into "largely black" versus "lar
                 segments, since the rate of payment for mostly black film may be twice that for mostly clear.

                          Technologies for reuse of developer and fixer are available and include ozone oxidation, electrolysis,
                 and ion exchange.

                 Benefits  of Silver Recycling

                      •   Equipment that will suit the needs of even the smallest printing shop  is available.

                      •   Reduces the mass of waste entering the wastesteam.

                      •   Allows the fixing bath to be reused.

                      •   The recovered silver is worth approximately 80% of the commodity price.

                 Limitations  of Silver Recycling

                      •   For economic reasons, film should be separated into "mostly black" versus "mostly clear."

                 5.11   Waste Water Treatment

                          Water is an indispensable part  of almost  all industrial activities and in most  cases becomes
                 contaminated during the process.  Many industrial plants have pre-treatment processes for wastewater to
                 reduce the quantities or toxicity of pollutants  in the wastewater.  In most  cases this is required when the
                 publicly-owned treatment works (POTW) is not equipped to hand the contaminants in a particular facilities
                 wastewater.

                          The POTW must process wastewater from a variety of sources including communities, industrial
                 processes, commercial usage  (office buildings   and  small businesses)   and  storm and ground  water.
                 Wastewater  is  99.94  percent  water with the remainder being contaminates in the form of dissolved or
                 suspended solids. The  suspended matter is often referred to  as "suspended solids"  to differentiate it from
                 pollutants in solution.  "Sewage" usually connotes human waste, but the term also includes everything else
                 that makes its way from homes to sewers, coming from drains, bathtubs, sinks, and washing machines. There
                 are basically three types of sewage systems that convey wastewater:

                      •   Sanitary Sewer System - A  system that carries liquid and water  carried wastes from residences,
                          commercial buildings, industrial plants, and institutions, together with minor quantities  of ground,
                          storm, and surface wastes that are not admitted intentionally.

                      •   Storm Sewer System - A system that  carries stormwater and surface water, street wash and other
                          wash waters, or drainage, but exclude domestic wastewater and industrial wastes.
                188                         Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                           Industrial Operations: Waste Water Treatment
    •   Combined Sewer System  - A system intended to receive both sanitary wastewater and storm or
        surface water.

        This section briefly discusses wastewater pretreatment.

5.11.1  Process Description
        Wastewater is generated in many of the operations discussed earlier in this chapter.  Many of these
facilities will be required to pretreat their wastewater prior to discharge to the sanitary sewer.  Pretreatment
of wastewater usually  involves  flocculation, pH adjustment,  settling  to remove solids.   Sometimes
flocculation can  be achieved through pH adjustment or  other chemicals  may  be added  to facilitate
precipitation of dissolved contaminants.   Other types of treatment systems are available depending on the
contaminants and contamination level. The extent to which a facility may have to treat wastewater depends
on the contamination levels in the water.

        The  wastewater components of major concern  are those which will: 1) deplete  the oxygen
resources  of  the  stream or reservoir to  which they are discharged, 2)  support undesirable growth of
organisms or fauna in receiving waters, or 3) those with health adverse effects, or even just esthetic impact
(foul odor, discoloration etc.). The major pollutants are made up of both organic and inorganic matter.

        The organic compounds  are normally composed of a combination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and, in some cases,  nitrogen.  There could be other elements as well, such as sulfur, phosphorus and iron.
The principal groups found in wastewater are proteins (40-60%), carbohydrates (25-50%) and fats and oils
(about 10%).  Inorganic compounds are sulfates, chlorides, phosphorus and heavy metals.  Some elements
of both groups are present as suspended  matter. A substantial portion of organic matter is biodegradable,
those which serve as food sources for bacteria and other microorganisms.  The biological  breakdown of
these materials consumes oxygen.  The amount of oxy gen required to stabilize the biodegradable organics is
measured in biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). This parameter is used to size treatment facilities and in
predicting the effects of treated wastewater discharges  on receiving  waters. The chemical oxygen demand
(COD) test is used to measure quantities of nonbiodegradable organics, such as pesticides. Inorganic salts
containing calcium,  magnesium, sodium, potassium, chlorides, sulfates and phosphates are other pollutants
which may be contained in the waste streams.  These dissolved organic and inorganic pollutants are referred
to as total dissolved  solids (TDS).

        There are three major categories for wastewater treatment:

    •   Primary treatment

    •   Secondary treatment

    •   Advanced wastewater treatment

        Primary treatment removes from the wastewater those pollutants that will either settle out or float.
First the water flows through a screen that removes large floating objects. After screening the  water passes
into a grit chamber,  where sand, grit,  cinders, and small stones are allowed to settle to the bottom.  The grit
or gravel is then removed.  At that point the water still contains suspended solids that can be removed in
settling tanks. Floating material is skimmed from the surface.

        Some of the types of the secondary treatments  are discussed below.

5.11.1.1 Trickling Filters

        A trickling filter consists of a bed  of coarse material, such as stones, plastic grids or slats, over
which the wastewater is sprinkled.  As the wastewater trickles through the bed, microbial growth occurs on
the surface of the filter. This method provides the necessary  contact between the wastewater and  the
microbial population. This process is illustrated in Exhibit 5.14 below.

5.11.1.2 Oxidation

        Oxidation ponds are large shallow ponds (lagoons) designed to treat wastewater  through  the
interaction of sunlight, wind,  algae, and oxygen.  The lagoons (ponds) are one of the most used secondary
treatment systems.  The raw wastewater enters the pond at a single point in the middle of the lagoon or at
one edge.  The water is between 2-4 feet deep; deep enough to prevent weed growths but not deep enough to


Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          189
Notes

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               Industrial Operations:  Waste Water Treatment
Notes
prevent mixing by the wind.  Shallow ponds are usually aerobic; meaning that oxygen is present, throughout;
only a layer of sludge on the bottom being anaerobic.  Algae grow by taking energy from the sunlight and
consuming the carbon dioxide and inorganic compounds released by the action of the bacteria in the pond.
The algae, in turn, release oxygen needed by the bacteria to supplement the oxygen introduced into the lagoon
by the wind action.  The most critical factor is to insure that enough oxygen will be present to maintain
aerobic conditions.  Otherwise odor problems can be bothersome.  The sludge from the bottom has to be
periodically removed  by  dredging.  Advantages of oxidation ponds are easy construction, simple operation
and maintenance. Among disadvantages are large space requirements and frequent removal of algae from the
effluent.

                      Exhibit 5.14: One and Two Stage Trickling Filter Systems
                              Influent-

Primary
clarifier
1
'*


Filter

h.


Clarifier
                                                                                 ^Effluent
                    Influent-

Primary
clarifier

'*.


First stage
filter

^
r


Second stage
filter

h.


Clarifier
                                                                                            <• Effluent
                 5.11.1.3 Activated Sludge

                         The activated sludge process is a biological wastewater treatment technique in which a mixture of
                 wastewater and  biological sludge (microorganisms) is agitated and aerated.  The biological solids  are
                 separated from the treated wastewater and returned to the aeration process as needed. The activated sludge
                 derives from the biological mass formed when air is continuously injected into the wastewater.  Under such
                 conditions, microorganisms  are mixed thoroughly with the  organics under conditions that stimulate their
                 growth through use of the organics as food. As the microorganisms grow and are mixed by the agitation of
                 the air,  the individual  organisms clump  together (flocculate) to form  an active mass of microbes called
                 "activated sludge."  In practice, the wastewater flows continuously into an aeration tank where air is injected
                 to mix the activated sludge with the wastewater and to supply the oxygen needed for the microbes to break
                 down the  organics.   Advantages include the fact that the process is versatile because the design can be
                 tailored to handle a wide variety of raw wastewater compositions and to  meet a variety of effluent standards.
                 The  process  is  capable  of  producing a higher  quality effluent than the trickling  filter process.   The
                 disadvantage is a necessity of a careful operation.

                 5.11.1.4 Chlorination and Other Disinfection Techniques

                         Disinfection is the killing of pathogenic bacteria and viruses found in the wastewater. Disinfection
                 is the last step of the secondary treatment.  The most commonly used method is some form of chlorination
                 during which the chlorine is injected into the wastewater by automated feeding systems.  The wastewater then
                 flows into a basin, where  it  is held for approximately thirty minutes to allow  the chlorine to react with the
                 pathogens.

                         An alternative to  chlorine is ozone or usage of UV light.  These methods are not as widely used as
                 chlorine because they do not  have the residual effect of chlorine.
               190
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                                                           Industrial Operations: Waste Water Treatment
5.11.2 Waste Description
        There are two wastes produced from wastewater treatment operations: water and sludge.  The
water is discharged to the sanitary sewer if it meets discharge permit limits.  The sludge is disposed of as
either hazardous or non-hazardous waste depending on the plant operations and constituents in the sludge.

5.11.3 Pollution Prevention Opportunities
        Pollution prevention opportunities for wastewater treatment processes are classified according to
the waste management hierarchy in order of relevance; first, source reduction techniques, then secondly, (in-
process) recycling options.

5.11.3.1 Source Reduction
        There are many  source reduction opportunities for wastewater as discussed in earlier sections of
this chapter.

5.11.3.2 Recycling

        Recycling  and reuse opportunities exist both on and off-site for facilities.  Recycling  and reuse
have innumerable benefits both financially and environmentally.

        In some cases it  is possible to recycle water before it reaches the wastewater treatment process the
assessment team should review sources of wastewater  carefully to evaluate possible opportunities for reuse
of water in process.  Other times it may be possible to reuse a portion of treated wastewater in less critical
plant  operations or to reclaim contaminants  from the wastewater.   For  example, it may  be possible to
process waters containing high  concentrations of metal  through an electrolytic recovery unit  (or other
equipment of similar function) to reclaim the metals in the water for later reuse or recycling.
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          191

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               Industrial Operations:  Waste Water Treatment
,r               REFERENCES
Notes
                        1.  Guide to Cleaner Technologies, Cleaning and Degreasing Process  Changes'.   1994; U.S.
                           Environmental Protection Agency.  Office of Research and Development, Washington DC 20460.
                           EPA/625/R-93/017
                        2.  Guide to Cleaner Technologies, Alternatives to Chlorinated Solvents for Cleaning and Degreasing:
                           1994; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Office of Research and Development, Washington DC
                           20460. EPA/625/R-93/016.

                        3.  Callahan and Green; Hazardous Solvent Source Reduction: 1995; McGraw-Hill, New York, 10020;
                           ISBN 0-07-009749-6.
                        4.  Manual: Pollution Prevention in the Paints and Coatings Industry.  1996; U.S. Environmental
                           Protection Agency.  Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC  20460. EPA/625/R-
                           96/003.

                        5.  International Waste Minimization Approaches and Policies to Metal Plating. 1996;U.S. Environmental
                           Protection Agency.  Office of Solid Waste, Waste Minimization Branch, Washington, DC 20406.
                           EPA/530/R-96/008
                        6.  Guide to Cleaner Technologies, Alternative Finishes: 1994; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
                           Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC 20406. EPA/625/R-94/007.

                        7.  Freeman, Harry M.,  Industrial Pollution Prevention Handbook, 1995; McGraw-Hill, New York,
                           NY 10020; ISBN 0-07-022148-0.

                        8.  Joint  Services Pollution Prevention Handbook, "Paint Stripper, Hot Tank," Revision: 8/96; Internet
                           address:  Http://enviro.nfesc.namy .mil/p21ibrary/8-27_896.html

                        9.  Joint  Services Pollution Prevention Handbook,  "Paint Stripping Using Wheat  Starch Blasting,"
                           Revision: 8/96; Internet address: Http://enviro.nfesc.namy .mil/p21ibrary/5-07_896.html

                        10. Joint  Services Pollution Prevention Handbook, 'Degreasing  and Paint Stripping Using Sponge
                           Blasting," Revision: 7/96; Internet address: Http://enviro.nfesc.namy .mil/p21ibrary/5-06_796.html
                        11. Joint  Services Pollution Prevention Handbook, "High and Medium Pressure Water Paint Stripping
                                              8/96; Internet address: Http://enviro.nfesc.namy.mil/p21ibrary/5-02_896.html
                        12. Joint Services Pollution Prevention Handbook, "Paint Stripping Using Sodium Bicarbonate Medium,"
                           Revision: 8/96; Internet address: Http://enviro.nfesc.namy .mil/p21ibrary/5-02_896.html
                        13. 12th Annual Aerospace Industry, Hazardous Materials Management Conference, "FLASHJET Paint
                           Stripping Effects on Material Properties", Conference Proceedings from August  1997, Technology
                           Group 2.
                        14. Joint  Depot Maintenance Analysis Group Technology Assessment Division, Joint Paint Removal
                           Study: Final Report Laser, October 1996
                        15. Joint Services Pollution Prevention Handbook, "Carbon Dioxide Blasting Operations," Revision:
                           9/96;  Internet address:  Http://enviro.nfesc.namy.mil/p21ibrary/5-02_896.html
                        16. USEPA Office of Research and Development, "Manual: Pollution Prevention in the Paints and
                           Coatings Industry," September 1996, pg. 146.
                        17. McGuinn, Young, and Louis Theodore. Pollution Prevention. Van Nostrand Reinhold Press, NY,
                           NY; 1992.

                        18. Guides to Pollution Prevention: The  Commercial Printing Industry: 1990; U.S.  Environmental
                           Protection Agency.  Office of Research and Development, Washington,  DC  204060.  EPA/625/7-
                           90/008.
                        19. Guides to Pollution Prevention: The Fabricated Metal Products Industry: 1990; U.S. Environmental
                           Protection Agency.  Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC 20460. EPA/625/7-90/006.
               192                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                           Electric Equipment: Motors
                    CHAPTER 6.  ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

        This chapter discusses the electric motors, lighting and associate equipment. A description of each
type of equipment, its general  uses, operation,  and common  opportunities for energy conservation are
presented.


6.1    Motors

        Motors represent the largest single use of electricity in most industrial facilities.  The function of an
electric motor is to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.  In a typical  three-phase AC motor,
current passes through the motor windings and creates a rotating magnetic field. The magnetic field in turn
causes the motor shaft to turn. Motors are designed to perform this function efficiently; the opportunity for
savings with motors rests primarily in their selection and use.

6.1.1   Idle Running

        The most direct power savings can be obtained by shutting off idling motors, thereby eliminating
no-load losses. While the approach is simple, in practice it calls for constant supervision or automatic
control. Often, no-load power consumption is considered unimportant. However, the idle no-load current is
frequently about the same as the full-load current.

        An example  of this type  of loss  in textile mills occurs with  sewing machine motors  that are
generally operated for only brief periods.  Although these  motors are  relatively small (1/3 horsepower),
several hundred may be in use at a plant.  If we assume 200 motors of 1/3 horsepower are idling 90 percent
of the time at 80 percent of full-load ratings:

     Cost of idling per year = 200 motors x 1/3 hp x 80% of load x 6,000 hrs/yr. x 90% idling x $0.041/hp-hr

                                             = $11,800

        A switch connected to the pedal can provide automatic shutoff.

6.1.2   Efficiency at Low Load

        When a motor has a greater rating than the unit it is driving requires, the  motor operates at only
partial load.  In this state, the efficiency of the motor is reduced as illustrated  in Exhibit 6.1.  The use of
oversized motors is fairly common because of the following conditions:

    •   Personnel may not know the actual load; and, to  be conservative, select a motor  larger than
        necessary.

    •   The designer or supplier wants to ensure his unit will  have ample power; so he suggests a driver
        that is substantially larger than the real requirements.  The maximum  load is rarely developed in
        real service. Furthermore, most integral horsepower motors can be safely operated above the full-
        load rating for short periods. (This problem may be magnified if there are several intermediaries.)

    •   When a replacement is  needed and  a motor with the correct rating is not available, personnel install
        the next larger motor.  Rather than replace the motor when one with  the  correct rating becomes
        available, the oversized unit continues in use.

    •   A  larger motor is selected for some unexpected increase  in driven equipment load that has not
        materialized.

    •   Process requirements have been reduced.

    •   For some loads, the starting or breakaway  torque requirement is substantially greater than the
        running torque; thus, oversizing of the motor is  a frequent consequence, with penalties in the
        running operation.

        Plant personnel should be  sure none of the  above procedures are contributing to the use of
oversized motors and resulting in inefficient operation.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          193
Notes

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Notes
               Electric Equipment: Motors
        Replacement of underloaded motors with smaller motors will allow a fully loaded smaller motor to
operate at a higher efficiency.  This  arrangement is generally most economical for larger motors, and only
when they are operating at less than one-third to one-half capacity, depending on their size.

        The identification of oversized motors will require taking electric measurements for particular pieces
of equipment.  The recording wattmeter is the most useful instrument for this purpose to analyze the load over
a representative period of time.

        Another approach that provides an instantaneous reading is to measure the actual speed and compare
it with the nameplate speed.  The fractional load, as a percent of full nameplate load, can be determined by
dividing the operating slip by the full-load slip.  The relationship between load and slip is nearly linear. Other
motors at the facility can often  be used as replacements, reducing or eliminating the investment required for
new motors. Adapter plates and couplings to accommodate the smaller motors would be the major expense.
Scheduling the changes to coincide with maintenance of the motors minimizes the installation costs.

                                    Exhibit 6.1: Motor Efficiency

               (Typical T-Frame, NEMA Design B Squirrel Cage Induction Motor -1,800 rpm)
                          For example, the  annual  savings for replacing a 50-horsepower motor operating at 25 percent of
                 rated load with a 15-horsepower motor that will operate near full load is:
                                                          LFL=0.746(hp)
                                                                               1
                                                                           EffFL-l
                194
                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                            Electric Equipment: Motors
                                      LPL= 0.746 (hp)(PL)\         .
                                                          ^M PL ~-
        where
                L = losses - kW

                Eff = motor efficiency

            subscripts

                FL = at full load

                PL = at partial load
                                     LFL =0.746(15}—	l\ = l.24kW
                                      FL        V  \0.90    J

                                  LPL =0.746 (50 Yo.25)[—	U = l.S2
                                   PL        V  A    \0.837   J
        Reduction in Losses = 0.58 kW

        Annual Savings = 0.58 kW x 6,000 hrs/yr x $0.05/kWh = $174

6.1.3   High-Efficiency Motors

        Whenever possible, all new motor purchases should be high efficiency motors.  Payback of the
premium expense of high-efficiency motors is usually less than two years for motors operated for at least
4,000 hours and at 75 percent load.  An exception may exist when the motor is only lightly loaded or
operating hours are low,  as with intermittent loads.  The greatest potential occurs in the 1 to 20 horsepower
range.  Above 20 horsepower the efficiency gains become smaller, and existing motors over 200 horsepower
are already relatively efficient.

        When  an equipment manufacturer supplies motors, high-efficiency motors should be specified at
the time of purchase. Otherwise, manufacturers normally supply motors of standard design because of their
lower cost.  Because of competitive pressure, these types of motors are likely to be less efficient.  They have
a lower power factor, not possible to spare, and they are more difficult to rewind.

        Higher-motor efficiency is obtained in the high efficiency motors through the:

    •   Use of thinner steel laminations in the stators and rotors;

    •   Use of steel with better electromagnetic properties;

    •   Addition of more steel; increase of the wire volume in the stator;

    •   Improved rotor slot design; and

    •   The use of smaller more efficient fans.

Many  of these approaches  involve  the use  of more material, increased material costs,  or  higher
manufacturing costs, which accounts for the higher first cost.  However, the 25 to  30 percent higher initial
cost  is offset by  lower operating costs.  Other benefits of high-efficiency motors include less effect on
performance from variations in voltage phase imbalance, and partial loading.

        The calculation  of the simple payback for energy-efficient motors  can be complex because of the
variables involved.   Determination of the operating cost of the motor requires multiplying the amount of
electricity the motor uses by the  number of hours the motor is operated  and by the user's electrical cost.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          195
                                                                                                        Notes

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               Electric Equipment: Motors
Notes
Each of these factors has its own variables, including changes in production schedules, variations in motor
load, and demand charges. Some of these figures may be difficult to pinpoint.

        Even when savings calculations are attempted, they can be subject to error because the actual
efficiency of the particular motor is generally not known.  All manufacturers do  not use  the  same test
technique to measure efficiency;  as a result, ratings stamped on nameplates may not be comparable.  Most
manufacturers in the United States use a "nominal" efficiency that refers to a range of efficiencies into which
a particular motor's efficiency must  fall.   Statistical techniques are used to  determine t
efficiency of  a motor with any given nominal efficiency.  For example, a nominal efficiency of 90.2 percent
has a minimum efficiency of 88.5 percent.

        Many users report adopting high-efficiency motors as standard practice without attempting to justify
the premium  except in the case of larger-sized motors.  In general, paybacks of approximately one year have
been experienced.

        Published ratings vary for specific motors.  For instance, a 100-hp,  1,800-rpm,  totally enclosed, fan-
cooled motor from one manufacturer has a guaranteed minimum efficiency of 90.2 percent at full load in the
standard line  and 94.3 percent in the high-efficiency line. The equivalent size motor of another manufacturer
has the same 90.2 efficiency rating for the standard model, but the high-efficiency model has a guaranteed
minimum  efficiency of 91.0 percent.  Verification of actual efficiency of a particular motor requires the use of
sophisticated testing equipment.

        Because of this variation, the use of the guaranteed minimum  efficiency is more conservative in
evaluating savings because all motors should be equal to or higher than the value specified. Exhibit 6.2  and
Exhibit 6.3 compare standard T-frame TEFC motors with high-efficiency motors.

           Exhibit 6.2: Typical Efficiency Comparison for 1 800  rpm Motors: General Electric

Horse
power
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
75
100
125
150
200
Standard T-Frame TEFC
Nominal Average
Expected Efficiency
Full
Load
83.0
84.0
86.0
86.0
88.0
88.0
89.0
91.5
92.0
91.5
93.0
93.0
75%
Load
82.0
84.0
87.0
87.0
88.0
88.0
89.0
91.5
92.0
91.5
93.0
93.5
50%
Load
81.0
83.0
87.0
87.0
88.0
87.0
89.0
91.0
91.0
90.0
91.5
93.0
Guaranteed
Minimum
Full-Load Eff
Not
Available










High Efficiency TEFC
Nominal Average
Expected Efficiency
Full
Load
90.2
91.7
93.0
93.0
93.0
93.6
94.1
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.8
95.8
75%
Load
91.0
92.4
93.6
93.6
93.6
94.1
94.1
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.8
95.8
50%
Load
91.0
92.4
93.6
93.0
93.6
93.6
94.1
94.5
95.0
94.1
95.4
95.8
Guaranteed
Minimum
Full-Load Eff
88.9
90.6
92.0
92.0
92.0
92.7
93.3
94.3
94.3
94.3
95.2
95.2
                196
                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                           Electric Equipment: Motors
                Exhibit 6.3: Typical Efficiency Comparison for 1,800 rpm Motors: Westinghouse

Horse
power
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
75
100
125
Standard T-Frame TEFC
Nominal Average
Expected Efficiency
Full
Load
88.5
88.5
88.5
90.2
90.2
90.2
91.7
91.7
93.0
93.0
75%
Load
87.8
88.2
88.6
89.2
89.9
89.7
91.2
90.8
92.6
92.5
50%
Load
85.2
86.1
87.2
86.7
88.0
87.9
89.5
88.4
91.0
91.0
Guaranteed
Minimum
Full-Load Eff
86.5
86.5
88.5
88.5
88.5
88.5
90.2
90.2
90.7
90.7
High Efficiency TEFC
Nominal Average
Expected Efficiency
Full
Load
90.2
91.7
91.7
93.0
93.0
93.0
94.1
94.1
95.0
95.0
75%
Load
90.4
91.9
91.9
93.3
93.3
92.6
93.7
93.8
94.8
94.6
50%
Load
89.3
91.0
90.9
92.8
92.8
91.0
92.4
92.6
93.8
93.5
Guaranteed
Minimum
Full-Load Eff
88.5
90.2
90.2
91.7
91.7
91.7
93.0
93.0
94.1
94.1
6.1.4   Reduce Speed/Variable Drives

        When equipment can be operated at reduced speeds, a number of options are available.  The
examples discussed below are representative for all industries.

6.1.4.1  Variable Frequency AC Motors

        When centrifugal pumps, compressors, fans, and blowers are operated at constant speed and output
is controlled with throttled valves or dampers,  the motor operates at close to full load all the time-regardless
of the delivered output.  These closed dampers and valves dissipate substantial energy.  Significant energy
savings can be realized if the  driven unit is operated at only the  speed necessary to satisfy the demand.
Variable speed  drives permit optimum operation of equipment by closely matching the desired  system
requirements.

        Variable-frequency  AC controllers are complex devices, and until recently have been expensive.
However, they work with standard AC induction motors, that allows them to be easily added to an existing
drive.   With lower equipment cost and increased  electric  costs,  they become  cost effective in many
applications.  Many types of pumps (centrifugal, positive displacement, screw, etc.) and fans (air cooler,
cooling-tower, heating and  ventilating, etc.),  as  well  as mixers, conveyors, dryers, colanders, crushers,
grinders, certain types of compressors and blowers, agitators,  and extruders, are driven at varying speeds by
adjustable-speed drives.

        This example illustrates the energy  savings for an  adjustable-speed drive on a fan. Exhibit 6.4
shows a fan curve for pressure versus flow characteristics.  The intersection of the fan and system curve at
point A shows the natural operating point for the system without flow control.

        If a damper is used to control the flow, the new operating  point becomes  point.  However, if flow
control  is done by fan speed, the new operating point at reduced speed becomes point C.  The respective
horsepowers are shown on the horsepower curves as points B' and C'.
                                                                                                      Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
197

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               Electric Equipment: Motors
Notes
                                             Exhibit 6.4: Fan Drive: Variable Speed vs. Valve Control
                         Determination of the energy savings requires calculating the horsepower based on the fan curve and
                 the duty cycle at which the fan is operating.  As shown in Exhibit 6.5, the results for a fan controlled by
                 damper are assumed to be as follows:
                                           Exhibit 6.5: Results for a Fan Controlled by Damper

                                        CFM%          Fanhp        Duty Cycle      Weighted hp
100
80
60
40
35
35
31
27
10
40
40
10
3.5
14.0
12.4
2.7
                                                                         Total
                                              32.6
                         For machines that have a free discharge, the fan affinity formula below is used to calculate the
                 reduced horsepower for a variable speed drive.
                         For example, the horsepower for a fan operated at one half speed is:

                                                        hpl  -'  "" '  =12.5%offuUload
                198
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                            Electric Equipment: Motors


        Consequently,  significant savings are possible when speeds  can be reduced.   The new fan
horsepower with variable speed is show in Exhibit 6.6.

                        Exhibit 6.6: Fan Horsepower with Variable Speed Motor

                       CDM%          Fanhp         Duty Cycle     Weighted hp
100
80
60
40
35
18
7.56
2.24
10
40
40
10
3.5
7.5
3.024
0.224
                                                         Total            13.948


        The variable speed drive requires less than half the energy of the outlet damper for this particular
duty cycle.

        The annual savings (AS) is:

                AS = (32.6 hp -13.948 hp) x 6,000 hrs x $0.041/hp-hr = $4,590/yr

        The installed cost of variable drive for a 35-hp motor is approximately $10,000.  Equipment costs
per hp decrease significantly with size, starting at about $250/hp for a 75-hp motor.

        In actual practice, the efficiency of the motor should be factored in for a more accurate saving
calculation based on kW input. The efficiency of the motor begins to drop significantly below 50 percent of
rated capacity.

        The above calculations assume a free discharge.  If a static head is present, as in the case  of a
pump, the static head changes the system curve so that the affinity laws cannot be used directly to calculate
the horsepower at reduced speed.  In this case, precise knowledge of the pump  and the system curves is
required. Then detailed analysis with the aid of a computer is advisable.

6.1.4.2  Solid State DC Drives

        Similar energy savings can be realized by varying drive speeds of DC motors.  Initial cost is greater
than for a variable frequency AC motor drive, particularly in a retrofit situation where the existing AC motor
can be used directly  with the  electric controller.  Brush and commutator maintenance is also a major cost
with DC drives. DC systems are also more sensitive to corrosive and particle-laden atmospheres that are
common in an industrial environment.

        Accordingly, AC drives are preferred unless  process conditions requires some of the  special
characteristics of a DC  system such as very  accurate speed control, rapid reversal of direction, or constant
torque over rated speed range.   Applications include  driving of extruders, drawing machines, coalers,
laminators, winders, and other equipment.

        Other established techniques for varying the speed of a motor are electromechanical slip devices,
fluid drives, and the wound-rotor motor. These devices control speed by varying the degree of slip between
the drive and the driven element. Because the portion of mechanical energy that does not drive the load is
converted to heat, these devices are less efficient and are used primarily because of special characteristics in
a given application.  For example, fluid drives might be used for a crusher because they are characterized by
generally high power capacities, smooth torque transmission, tolerance for shock loads, ability to withstand
periods  of  stall conditions, inherent safety  (totally enclosed with no moving contact), and a tolerance of
abrasive atmospheres.

        Because variable frequency and solid state drives alter the operating speed of the prime mover, they
are preferred for energy conservation reasons.

6.1.4.3  Mechanical Drives

        Mechanical  variable-speed drives are the simplest and least expensive means of varying  speed.
This type of adjustable sheaves can be  opened or closed axially, thus changing the effective pitch at which


Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          199
Notes

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               Electric Equipment: Motors


JT ,               the belt contacts the sheaves. The chief advantages of mechanical drives are simplicity, ease of maintenance,
                  and low cost. Their chief disadvantage is a moderate degree of maintenance and less accurate speed control
                  (normally 5 percent).

                          Belt drives are  available for low to moderate torque applications over a power range to 100 hp.
                  Efficiencies of belt drives are 95 percent, and the reduction ratio can be as much as 10:1.  Metal chain drives
                  for high torque applications are also available.  These are similar in principle to belt drives, but  use metal
                  belts instead of rubber-fabric belts.

                  6.1.4.4   Single-Speed Reduction

                          When a single speed will satisfy the need for speed reduction, less expensive options are available.
                  Although variable speed offers the advantage of using optimum speed in all situations, if the speed range is
                  narrow and the portion of time operated at the lower speeds is small, a  slower single speed is probably the
                  most cost-effective approach.  These inexpensive options  include changes in belt drives, installation of gear
                  reducers, and installation of slower speed motors.

                          With a belt drive, a speed reduction can be  accomplished at minimum expense by  simply changing
                  belt sheaves. Since the change can be conveniently reversed by reinstalling the old sheaves, this method has
                  application when a reduced output is needed  only  for an extended period,  such as seasonally.   Another
                  opportunity may exist when production levels are reduced for an indefinite time, but the original capacity
                  may  be  required again in the future.   A similar approach may  be taken with a  gear change where gear
                  reducers are used.

                          When a one-time speed reduction is needed, a slower-speed motor can be substituted. This is a more
                  long term option as it requires a complete equipment substitute.

                  6.1.4.5   Two-Speed Motors

                          A two-speed motor is an economical compromise between a fixed single-speed and a variable drive.
                  As illustrated  in the previous example,  energy savings  are  agnificant because the power required is
                  proportional to the cube of the speed (rpm).  In practice, a slight increase may result from friction losses.
                  This approach can be used in combination with some throttling to control output within a narrower range.

                          Two speeds can be obtained with a single  winding, but the slower speed must be one-half of the
                  higher.   For example, motor speeds might be 1,800/900, 1,200/600, or 3,600/1,800.  When a motor at  other
                  ratios is required, two sets of stator windings  are necessary.  Multi-speed squirrel-cage motors can also be
                  obtained which have three or four synchronous speeds.

                          The cost of two-speed motors is approximately twice the cost  of a single-speed motor.  If a motor
                  needs to be  operated at the slower speed for any appreciable time, the  savings will easily justify the added
                  investment.  Multi-speed motors also need more expensive starters because the overload protectors must be
                  sized differently at each speed.

                  6.1.5   Load Reduction

                          A reduction in motor load is one of the best means of reducing electricity costs. Proper maintenance
                  of equipment will  also reduce motor load  by  eliminating  friction  losses from  such sources as  the
                  misalignment of equipment, frozen bearings, and belt drag.  Proper lubrication of all moving parts such as
                  bearings and chain drives will minimize friction losses.  The substitution of ball or roller bearings for plain
                  bearings, particularly on line shafts, is another good power saver.

                  6.1.6   High-Starting Torque

                          Loads requiring "normal" starting torque can be satisfied by  a National Electrical Manufacturers
                  Association (NEMA) B motor (the general-purpose motor most commonly  used in trial plants) or a NEMA A
                  motor.   Where high-inertia loads are involved, selection of a motor specifically designed for high-torque
                  capability can permit use of a smaller  motor.  A NEMA B motor sized  to handle high-starting  loads will
                  operate  at less-than-rated capacity once the load has been accelerated to full speed.  On the other hand,
                  selection of a smaller motor of NEMA C or D  design can provide the same starting torque as a  NEMA B
                  motor but will operate closer to the full-rated load under normal running conditions.
                200                         Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                            Electric Equipment: Motors
6.1.7   Rewound Motors

        Rewinding can reduce motor efficiency, depending on the capability of the rewinding shop. Shops
do not necessarily use the best rewind procedure to maintain initial performance.  In some cases the lost
inefficiency, particularly with smaller-sized motors, may not justify rewinding.

        Ideally, a comparison should be made of the efficiency before and after a rewinding.  A relatively
simple procedure for evaluating rewind quality is to keep a log of no-load input current for each motor in the
population.  This figure will increase with poor quality rewinds. A review of the rewind shop's procedure
should also provide  some indication of the quality of work.  Some of the precautions that must  be taken
when selecting a facility to rewind motors are as follows.

    •   When  stripping to rewind a motor, unless the insulation burnout  is performed in temperature-
        controlled ovens or inorganic  lamination insulation  has been used,  the  insulation between
        laminations may break down and increase the eddy current losses.

    •   Roasting  the old winding at an uncontrolled  temperature or using  a hand-held torch to soften
        varnish for easier coil removal should signal the need to go elsewhere.

    •   If the core loss is increased as  a result of improper burnout, the motor will operate at  a higher
        temperature and possible fail prematurely.

    •   If the stator turns are reduced, the stator core loss will increase. These losses are a result of leakage
        (harmonic) flux induced by load current and vary as the  square of the load current.

    •   When rewinding a motor, if smaller diameter wire is used,  the resistance and the I 2 R losses will
        increase.

        A rewinding method developed by Wanlass Motor  Corporation claims to increase efficiencies as
much as 10 percent.  The firm's technique involves replacing the winding in the core with two windings
designed to vary motor speed according to load.   Claims of improved efficiency have been disputed and
tradeoffs have been determined to exist in other features of motor design (cost, starting torque, service life,
etc.).  While the Wanlass motor has been in existence for over a decade, potential users should recognize
that the design remains controversial and has been generally regarded in the motor industry  as offering no
improvement over that which can be achieved through conventional winding and motor design techniques.

6.1.8   Motor Generator Sets

        Solid-state rectifiers  are  a preferred source of direct current for DC  motors or other DC uses.
Motor-generator sets, which have been commonly  used for direct current, are  decidedly less efficient than
solid-state rectifiers. Motor-generator sets have efficiencies  of about 70 percent at full load, as opposed to
around 96 percent for a solid-state rectifier at full load. When the sets are underloaded, the efficiency is
considerably lower because efficiency is the product of the generator and motor efficiencies.

6.1.9   Belts

        Closely associated with motor efficiency  is the energy efficiency of V-belt drives.  Several factors
affecting V-belt efficiency are:

    •   Overbelting: A drive designed years ago  should be reexamined to determine belt ratings.  Higher-
        rated belts can result in an increase in efficiency.

    •   Tension:  Improper tension can cause efficiency losses of up to 10 percent. The best tension for a
        V-belt is the lowest tension at which the belt will not slip under a full load.

    •   Friction:   Unnecessary  frictional losses will  result  from  misalignment, worn  sheaves, poor
        ventilation, or rubbing of belts against the  guard.

    •   Sheave diameter: While a sheave change may not be possible, in general, the larger the sheave, the
        greater the drive efficiency.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          201
Notes

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               Electric Equipment: Motors
Notes
        Substitution  of the  notched Vbelt (cog belt) for the conventional V-belt offers attractive energy
savings.  The V-belt is subjected to large compression stresses when conforming to the sheave diameter. The
notched  V-belt  has less material  in  the  compression  section of  the  belt, thereby minimizing rubber
deformation and compression stresses. The result is higher operating efficiency for the notched V-belt.

        Given  a 60-hp  motor, annual operating  cost (6,000 hrs) is $18,000.   A conservative  1  percent
improvement in efficiency results in annual savings of $180. The premium cost for six, size 128 belts is $78.
                  6.2     Lighting

                          Many lighting systems that represented good practice several years ago are inefficient in view of
                  today's higher electrical costs and new technologies.  A lighting conservation program not only saves energy
                  but is also a highly  visible indication of management's interest in conserving energy in general.  The
                  importance of lighting conservation, therefore, should be considered not only for its dollar savings but also
                  for its psychological effect on the facility's entire conservation program.

                  6.2.1   Lighting Standards

                          The first step in any lighting conservation program is to adopt a lighting standard.  A new standard
                  issued by the Illuminating Engineering Society provides for a range of illuminance instead of a single value.
                  Within the recommended range, the level of illuminance can vary depending on the age of the workers, the
                  importance of speed  and accuracy, and the reflectance of the task background. DuPont's recommended
                  illumination levels  for various  working conditions are shown in Exhibits  6.7  -  6.9. The illumination level
                  specified is to be provided on the work surface, whether this be horizontal, vertical, or oblique.  When there is
                  no definite work area, it is assumed that the illumination is measured on a horizontal plane,  30 inches above
                  the floor.

                          Management should adopt these or similar lighting standards to ensure uniform application
                  of lighting levels.  Without a standard, reductions in lighting are often inconsistent and may result in
                  insufficient illumination in some areas.

                                 Exhibit 6.7: Dupont Recommended Light Levels for Service Building Interiors
Area
Offices
Private
Small
General
General
Stenographic
Drafting rooms
Files
Active
Inactive
Mail room
Sorting
General
Conference rooms
Corridors and stairways
Footcandles*
in Service

70
70
70
70
100
125

30
10

50
30
70
20
Area
Machine and millwright shops
Rough bench and machine
work
Medium bench and machine
work and tool maker's shop
Fine bench and machine work
Extra fine bench and machine
work

Paint shops
Ordinary hand painting,
rubbing, and finishing
Fine finishing
Spray painting booth
Sheet metal shops
Ordinary bench work
Layout bench
Machines — presses, shears,
stamping, etc.
Footcandles*
in Service

50
100
200**
500**


30
70
30

30
70
50
                202
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                                                                         Electric Equipment: Lighting
           Exhibit 6.7:  Dupont Recommended Light Levels for Service Building Interiors (Cont.)
Area
Toilets and washrooms
Restrooms
Janitor's closets
Lunch areas
Main entrances
Patios
Doorways and foyers
Lobbies
Interview rooms
Exits, at floor
Medical and first aid
Reception
First aid rooms
Doctor's offices
Nurse's off ices
Dressing rooms
Cot rooms
Telephone equipment
Switchboards
Terminal and rack equipment
Blue print room
Locker and shower and wash
rooms
Mechanical equipment operating
areas (fan rooms, etc.)
Electrical equipment operating
areas (motors, etc.)
Inactive storage
Loading docks and ramps
Store and stock rooms
General — live storage
Rough bulky material
Bin area used for dispensing
Small stock items
Footcandles*
in Service
20
10
10
30

5
20
30
50
5

50
125
70
70
20
20

50
50
50
20
20
20
5
10

20
10

50
Area
Welding shops
General illumination
Precision manual arc welding
Carpenter and wood working
Rough sawing and bench
work
Medium machine and bench
work
Fine bench and machine work
Electrical shops (maintenance)
General
Bench work — general
Insulating coil winding
Testing
Instrument shops (maintenance)
General
Bench work
Pipe shops
General (bending, etc.)
Cutting and threading
Laboratories — hoods, benches,
and desks
Research
Control
Power and steam plants —
General
Front of panels (vertical at 66
inches above floor)
Centralized control room
Ordinary and boiler control
boards
Bench boards (horizontal)
Boiler room — main floor and
basement
Gauge boards — front of panel
(vertical)
Crusher house
Coal conveyors and ash
handling equipment
Condensers, deaerators, and
evaporators
Footcandles*
in Service

50
1,000**

30
50
100

30
70
100
70

50
100

20
30

70
50

50
40
30
50
20
30
10
5
10
                                                                                                      Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
203

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               Electric Equipment: Lighting
Notes
                             Exhibit 6.7:  Dupont Recommended Light Levels for Service Building Interiors (Cont.)
Area
Tool cribs
Gate houses
Pedestrian entrance
Car entrance
Solvent storage and dispensing
Storage in drums
Dispensing
Cylinder sheds
Footcandles*
in Service
30

20
5

5
10
10
Area
Auxiliaries, boiler feed pumps,
tanks, compressors, power
switchgear, battery rooms,
screen house, intake well,
transformer rooms, etc.
Catwalks
Water-treating area
Refrigeration compressors, air
compressors, etc.
Pump houses
Warehouses— general traffic area
Warehouses (in storage aisle at
floor level)

Footcandles*
in Service
20
3
20
20
20
5
15

                  *   The illumination level in any area should be increased so that it is not less than 1/5 the level in any
                      adjacent area.
                  **  Obtained with a combination of general lighting and specialized supplementary lighting.
                                  Exhibit 6.8: Dupont Recommended Illumination Levels for General Manufacturing
Area
Hand furnaces, boiling tanks,
stationary dryers, stationary and
gravity crystallizers, etc.
Mechanical furnaces, generators
and stills, mechanical dryers,
evaporators, filtration
mechanical crystallizers
Tanks for extractors, cooking
nitrators, percolators, electrolytic
cells
Tank and vat porthole lights, etc.
Light interiors
Dark interiors
Beaters, ball mills, grinders
Mechanical operating equipment
(compressors, fans, pumps, etc.)
Footcandles
in Service
20
30
30

20
70
30
20
Area
Electric operating equipment
(motors, general controls, etc.
Electrical control rooms where
equipment requires frequent
checking, adjustment, etc.
Weight scales, gauges,
thermometers, rotamers, etc.
(Vertical on face of dials, etc.)
Control laboratories
Outdoor platform and tank farms
Active areas
Inactive areas
Stairs, ladders, and steps
Footcandles
in Service
20
30
30
50

5
0.5
3
                  *   Operating personnel do not perform exacting visual tasks except at process control panels, scales, gauges,
                      etc. Necessary lighting is obtained with combination of general lighting plus supplementary lighting.
                204
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                                                                          Electric Equipment: Lighting
                   Exhibit 6.9: Dupont Recommended Illumination Levels for Outdoor Areas*
Area
Bulletin and poster boards
Flood lighting-building exteriors
Entrances
Active (pedestrian or
conveyance or both)
Inactive (normally locked,
infrequently used)
Loading and unloading
platforms
Protective lighting
Boundaries and fence
Vital locations or structures
Building surroundings
General inactive area
Footcandles*
in Service
10-V
15-V(max)

5
0.5
o
J

0.2
5
1
0.1
Area
Railroad yards
Roadways
Curves and intersections
Platforms, catwalks, stairs,
ladders, etc.
Platform operating decks
Catwalks, stairs, and ladders
Plant parking lots
General parking areas
Entrances, exits, and
walkways
Gasoline dispensing pumps
Outdoor work areas
Footcandles*
in Service
0.2

0.5

5
3

0.3
2
3
3
*   As a matter of reference in comparing outdoor lighting values, the intensity of full moonlight a the
    earth's surface is approximately 0.025 footcandles.

6.2.2   Light Meter Audit

        After standards have been adopted, a light meter audit to determine the existing lighting levels
should be conducted for the entire facility.  The condition of the lamps and fixtures should be taken into
account when the audit is made. The cleanliness of the fixtures has an important effect on the light output.
Also, some depreciation of light intensity occurs over the life of most lamps.  If group relamping has been
used, the lighting level will  depend on the  age of the lamps.  Light loss of 10 to 15 percent is normal for
standard 40 W fluorescent lamps that are approaching end of life.

6.2.3   Methods to Reduce Costs

        Examples of energy conservation are given in the sections below.  Some of them are rather simple
and the implementation requires only the will to overcome some old entrenched habits of the people in the
work place.

6.2.3.1  Turn off Lights

        The most obvious and beneficial step to conserve energy  is to turn off lights when they are not
needed. This approach often requires  an extensive publicity program to enlist the support of all employees.
First-line supervisors must understand that conserving light is as much a part of their job responsibility as
improving  productivity.  An effective way for members of management to show support for energy
conservation is to turn off lights in their own offices when unoccupied.

        Frequently, lights can be  turned off in storage or operating areas that are not in use or are seldom
occupied during periods of  reduced production on the evening or the midnight shift.  For example, it is
common practice to leave office lights on until  the cleaning crew has completed its work instead of turning
them off as soon as the offices are  vacated.

        The lighting circuitry may not provide the flexibility needed for a partial curtailment.  In this case,
the cost to modify the wiring must be compared with the potential energy savings to determine  whether
rewiring is justified.

        Fluorescent lamps are  commonly left on over noon hours or  other short periods because of the
belief that frequent starts will shorten tube life.  This problem is substantially reduced now with tubes that
                                                                                                       Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
205

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               Electric Equipment: Lighting


JT ,               are more tolerant of starts and the increased cost of energy  compared with the tube cost.  The break-even
                  point for fluorescent lighting is usually 5 to 15 minutes, depending on the electric rate, lamp cost, and lamp
                  replacement labor rate.  With incandescent lights, however, energy will be saved each time they are turned
                  off.  For high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps, it is usually  not practical to turn lights off for brief periods
                  (less than 30 minutes) because of the long lamp restart time.

                  6.2.3.2   Automatic Controllers

                          A technique for ensuring that lights are turned off when the room is unoccupied is to use presence
                  detectors (infrared, capacitance, or ultrasonic) that detect when the room is unoccupied and will automatically
                  turn off the lights.  One lighting control product uses an ultra-sonic sensor that can handle up to four 20 amp
                  circuits.  This  allows control  of electrical devices as well  as lights. The unit costs about $150 uninstalled.
                  The presence of people in a room is determined by a sensor that detects interruptions in the ultrasonic sound
                  waves transmitted by the unit. The sensor then sends a signal to a controller to turn lights on or off. The
                  sensor  has a time-delay knob that can be manually  set  anywhere from  1  to  12 minutes to ensure that
                  equipment stays on for a certain period of time after a room is occupied.

                          For example, annual  savings for a unit controlling 5,000 watts of lighting that reduces lighting by
                  two hours per day, five days per week at $0.05/kWh would be $125.

                          Another  device that is used  to avoid  leaving lights on needlessly  is a  microprocessor-based
                  automatic lighting control.   These relatively inexpensive devices can be programmed to turn off lights when
                  not needed.  For example, one programmable controller being  offered for about $500 can control up to  50
                  switches. The  user can override the off function by turning on lights at his particular area.  This is done with
                  individual wall switches that cost about $30 per unit installed. When a lighting circuit turns off according to
                  schedule, the toggle switches are moved to the off position.  Switches can also be used alone or  with an
                  existing energy management system.  The traditional approach has been to install lighting control  systems
                  separately,  but firms are attempting  to incorporate lighting systems with an energy management  system
                  because it is more cost effective.

                  6.2.3.3   Remove Lamps

                          Another direct method to reduce lighting is simply to remove lamps from  service where less light is
                  needed. This approach frequently applies to offices or areas in which uniform lighting has been provided.
                  For example, if the fixture is located over an office doorway, lamps can often be removed without reducing
                  the illumination level  at the desktop.  In four-lamp fixtures,  two of the four lamps can be removed if only a
                  partial reduction  in illumination is possible.  Office lighting  loads can frequently be reduced 25 percent by
                  this arrangement.

                          Excess lighting is  also frequently provided in aisles, particularly when  natural  daylight  may  be
                  sufficient.  Lighting levels in storage areas are often higher  than needed.  This  situation can develop when
                  former  operating areas are utilized for storage.  Removal of lamps from these less-critical areas does not
                  affect production.

                          Ballasts in fluorescent fixtures continue to consume current (approximately 10 percent of total load)
                  after the lamps have  been removed.   The entire fixture  should,  therefore, be disconnected if lamps are
                  removed (except for some lamp systems that have circuit interrupting lamp holders).

                  6.2.3.4   Maintain Lamps

                          Dirt and dust  accumulations on the fixtures greatly affect lamp efficiencies.  Light intensity  can
                  depreciate up to 30 percent by the time lamps are replaced; in extremely dirty conditions, depreciation can be
                  higher.   A  minimal cleaning schedule for an average  industrial environment is  to clean fixtures when the
                  lamps are replaced.  The number of lamps required to provide the desired illumination level will depend on
                  the plant's  maintenance program.  Initially,  additional lighting to  offset the  gradual depreciation  of light
                  caused  by dirt must be provided.  If clean luminaires will  improve lighting levels  enough to  permit  the
                  removal of  some  lamps, more frequent lamp maintenance may be justified.  Cleaning costs must be balanced
                  with energy costs to determine the optimum cleaning schedule.

                          In  addition, dirty  or discolored luminaire diffusers  can  also  reduce light output  considerably.
                  Replacement or complete removal may allow the lighting requirements to be satisfied  with fewer lamps.


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                                                                          Electric Equipment: Lighting
6.2.3.5  Lower-Wattage Fluorescent Lamps and Ballasts

        A reduction in fluorescent light level by removing lamps from service can result in a spotty effect
that  is unattractive or provides an unacceptably low  or non-uniform level of illumination.  An alternate
approach to energy saving is substitution of lower-wattage fluorescent lamps and ballasts.  The substitution
may or may not reduce the lighting level, depending on the type of lamp used.  Because the variety of
fluorescent lamps is  so extensive, the following discussion refers  to the general purpose 4-foot rapid start
lamp, but reduced-wattage lamps are also available in other sizes and types.

    a)  Standard Lamp:  The standard lamp  for many years has been the 40-watt cool white, CW (or warm
        white, WW) lamp.  This is the least expensive lamp, but also the least energy  efficient.  Several
        more cost-effective fluorescent lamp  systems are available which use less wattage.

    b)  Energy  Saver (ES)  Lamp:    A  first-generation reduced wattage or  energy-saving lamp was
        introduced in 1974 in 35-watt ratings (now typically rated at 34 watts). These lamps can be used as
        direct replacements for 40-watt lamps in existing luminaires.  They emit the same color white light
        as the lamps they replace. Energy consumption is reduced by 13 to 15 percent with a comparable
        reduction in light output. The conversion to the lower illumination level need not cause personnel
        problems  because the  level of illumination will temporarily increase if the existing system is
        relamped  as a group and the luminaires are  cleaned.  The  ES lamps cost approximately 40 percent
        more than the standard lamps. If the lower lumen output  is acceptable, the energy savings results
        in an attractive payback.

    c)  White Lamps:   A second generation of reduced-wattage lamps, generically designated as "lite
        white", is available when more lumen output is needed than the ES lamp provides. The lite white
        lamps consume  about the same energy  as the ES lamps  (34 watts) but with only about 6 percent
        reduction in light output. The color  of light, however, has a somewhat lower color-rendering index
        than that of  the cool white lamps. Although lite white color differs from cool white, the lamps are
        considered compatible in the  same  system.  These lamps cost about 50 percent more than the
        standard lamps.

    d)  Lite White Deluxe Lamps: If color rendition is important, a third generation of ES lamp, designated
        as "lite white deluxe", can be used.  This lamp combines the high efficiency of the lite white lamp
        with even better color discrimination than the standard lamp.  The lite  white  deluxe  costs
        approximately three times as much as the standard lamp, but it can still be justified on the basis of
        energy saving.  For example, a lite white deluxe costs $2.30 more than the standard lamp. Annual
        energy savings would be $1.80 (6,000 hrs. @ $0.05/kWh) for a payback of 1.3 years.  If conditions
        permit use of the lower cost ED or lite white lamp, payback is about four mo nths.

    e)  Ballasts:  Several options are available in  the ballasts that can be used with any of the  lamps
        described above.  The standard electromagnetic ballast is the least efficient but also least expensive
        type ballast.  The luminaire manufacturer normally provides it unless another type is specified. The
        standard electromagnetic ballast is not economical in sizes of 34 watts and above.

    f)  ES Ballasts:  A more efficient low-loss or energy-saving electromagnetic ballast is also available.
        In evaluating the ballasts, the savings must  be  considered as a unit with the lamps since the more
        efficient ballasts permit the lamps to operate at lower wattage as well.  A two 34-watt lamp system
        with an ES ballast saves 8 to 10 watts over the same  system with a standard ballast. The premium
        for the high-efficiency ballast is approximately $6. Annual savings would be about $2.70 (6,000
        hrs. @$0.05/kWh).

    g)  Electronic Ballasts: More energy-saving electronic ballasts can also be used.  Electronic ballasts
        operate  at a frequency of 25 kilohertz (25,000 Hz) compared to the 60 hertz for standard ballasts.
        The higher frequency allows the lamps to operate at lower wattage.  ES lamps must be used with
        rapid start ballasts. Good quality fluorescent luminaires manufactured in recent years are normally
        equipped with such ballasts.
Notes
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               Electric Equipment: Lighting


JT ,                       Initial problems of reliability with the electronic ballasts appear to have been overcome.  Electronic
                          ballasts, however, have many small components and a relatively  short product history compared
                          with the simple construction and long-established high reliability of the magnetic ballasts.

                          With electronic ballasts, approximately 10 less watts per two 34-watt lamp system are saved over the
                          same system with an energy efficient ballast.  The premium for the  electronic ballast over an ES
                          ballast is about $13.  Annual savings would be $3.00 (6,000 hrs @ $0.05/kWh).  The payback for the
                          electronic ballast is about twice as long as that of the energy-saving ballast.  Comparative prices for
                          standard ballast, energy-saving  magnetic  ballast,  and electronic ballast are approximately $16, $22,
                          and $35, respectively.

                      h)   Performance-Matched Systems: For minimum wattage  systems it is necessary  to use performance-
                          matched fluorescent systems in which the lamp and ballast are specifically tailored to each other for
                          optimum efficiency.  Such systems might not operate satisfactorily  if other than their  designated
                          companion ballasts and lamps are used. However, performance- matched systems use considerably
                          less energy (28 watts per lamp) than the conventional 40-watt systems.

                          The premium necessary for the electronic ballasts with these systems may  reduce the payback to
                  unacceptable levels.  However, when four lamps can be operated from one ballast, the  economics are more
                  attractive.  Plants should evaluate the high-performance systems based on their electrical rates, conditions,
                  and payback standards.

                          Energy-saving lamps are  designed to operate closer to the  optimum operating temperatures than
                  conventional  lamps and are  not  suitable  for use in ambient temperatures  below 60°F.  At  the lower
                  temperatures ES lamps may be difficult to start  or  show sign of instability in operation by  flickering.
                  Accordingly, some low-temperature applications, such as warehouses, may not be suitable for ES lamps.

                          Below 60°F, standard fluorescent lamps will have a lower light output depending on the draft and
                  lamp enclosure.  Plastic sleeves or other jacketing that can retain heat can improve output  when the light
                  output has been noticeably reduced.  However, light output will  also  start to decrease  if above-bulb-wall
                  temperatures exceed 100°F.

                          Users of ES lamps have  reported some problems with ballast  failure.   ES lamps cause a slight
                  increase in voltage across the capacitor,  which in turn can cause premature  iailure in older ballasts.  The
                  problem, therefore, should be considered temporary until overage ballasts have been replaced.

                          A general problem to provide a more energy-efficient lighting system in a retrofit situation would be
                  to replace any 40-watt lamps with one of the  34-watt lamps most suitable to the facility's conditions. This
                  substitution can be done as individual lamps burn  out, or they can be replaced on a group basis.   The rapid
                  payback usually justifies group replacement.  More energy-efficient ballasts should also be substituted, but
                  only as replacements are needed.

                          When a lower illumination level is acceptable but removal of a lamp would  cause a problem of
                  uneven illumination, a more uniform reduction in  light level can be achieved by substituting special lamps.
                  For example,  Sylvania markets two versions of an  ES lamp called Thrift/Mate. These lamps are intended to
                  replace only one of a pair of lamps on the same ballast.  When so installed, both the  Thrift/Mate and the
                  conventional lamp operate at reduced wattage.  The two versions, designated TM33 and TM50, reduce energy
                  consumption by 33 and 50 percent, respectively. The reduction in light output  of the  luminaire is equivalent
                  to the reduction in power consumption.

                          Another method is to replace one of the two fluorescent lamps in a two-lamp fixture with a phantom
                  tube.  The phantom tube produces  no light itself and the  remaining real lamp in the fixture produces only
                  about 70 percent of its normal illumination.  The net result is a  saving of two-thirds in the power used, with
                  an illumination level of about one-third of that normally derived from a two-lamp fixture.

                  6.2.3.6   Fluorescent Retrofit Reflectors

                          Specular retrofit reflectors for fluorescent fixtures are available in  two  basic types:   semi-rigid
                  reflectors, which are secured in the fixtures by mechanical means, and  adhesive films, which  are  applied
                  directly to the interior  surfaces of the fixture.  Film applied directly to the existing fixtures is generally less
                  efficient than the semi-rigid reflectors since it conforms to the fixture contours and cannot be formed to direct


               208                         Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                           Electric Equipment: Lighting
light in any specific manner.  Either silver or aluminum may be used as the reflecting  media.   On the
average,  silver film reflectors have a reflective film index between 94 and 96 percent; the index for
aluminum is 85 to 86 percent.

        In regard to  the energy  aspects of the reflectors, manufacturers claim the reflectors permit the
removal of two  lamps from a four-lamp dirty fixture.  The illumination directly underneath the fixture is
essentially the same. But at angles to either side of the fixture, the decrease is much more  significant.  The
fixture has been changed from a  diffuse fixture to a sharp cut-off fixture. The additional illumination level
with the reflectors is  due in part from enabling the remaining two  lamps to operate at a lower temperature,
which increases their light output 6 to 12 percent.

        While removal of two lamps reduces energy 50 percent, the comparison is  not on an equal basis
and several tradeoffs should be recognized.

    •   The light pattern is more limited in area. The result can be non-uniform lighting on the work plane,
        dark spots between the fixtures, and darkened walls.

    •   The above claim of equivalent illumination is  based  on a comparison with  a dirty fixture.  The
        footcandles with two lamps and reflector is only 65 percent as much as four lamps with a clean
        conventional fixture.

    •   Lamp failure in a de-lamped fixture will not have the partial illumination provided by the second
        pair of lamps.  Consequently, prompt replacement of burned-out lamps becomes more critical.

    •   The efficiency of any reflector depends on  how well it  is maintained.  Even in a clean office
        environment the loss of light output due to dirt buildup in an unmaintained fixture can be as much
        as 35 percent.  The reflectors may be more difficult to clean than normal fixture surfaces.

    •   Silver films are relatively new and their durability is somewhat unknown.

    •   The cost of a reflector often approaches the  price paid for a new fixture.  Approximate installation
        costs for the reflectors range from $35 to $65.

        If the above tradeoffs are acceptable, then the energy savings would justify their use. However, if a
one-third  reduction in light  output  is acceptable,  a  more cost-effective  option  would be to  use  the
Thrift/Mate  lamps and possibly upgrade the cleaning schedule.   The illumination from a clean two-lamp
fixture will be equivalent to the illumination from a dirty two-lamp fixture with the retrofit reflector. Also,
if unequal lighting is acceptable, possibly one-third of the existing fixtures could be removed instead.

6.2.3.7  Lamp Relocation

        Poorly arranged light wastes energy.  Traditionally, light systems have been designed to provide a
uniform level  of light throughout an entire area.  However, with the increased cost of electric energy, the
emphasis today is on designing illumination for the type of task and the location where it will be performed.

        Non-uniform light is actually more visually pleasing as well as less energy consuming. When the
actual work area is properly lighted, the remaining area requires only  a moderate level of general lighting to
provide reasonable visibility and to prevent an excessive brightness imbalance, which can  cause visual
discomfort.

        Task lighting has a number of advantages:

    •   High  light levels  are  concentrated only where needed and  are matched  specifically to the task.
        Overall lighting energy usage is thereby reduced.

    •   Less heat is generated by the lighting system.

    •   Lighting is usually more easily relocated as operations change.

    •   Luminaire  maintenance  and lamp replacement expenses are usually  less because they  are more
        readily accessible.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          209
Notes

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               Electric Equipment: Lighting
Notes
    •   Units are individually controlled, permitting them to be shut off when not needed.

    •   Lighting effectiveness is improved by permitting the most advantageous positioning. Reflection and
        shadows can be avoided.

6.2.3.8  Lighting System Replacement

        Existing incandescent or  mercury  lighting  systems  are  usually  candidates  for  replacement.
Incandescent lighting is suitable for certain applications, but its low efficiency makes it uneconomical for
general illumination.  A rapid payback can  almost always be shown for replacing mercury with more efficient
light sources, especially with high-pressure sodium.

        If a lighting system must be designed to fit a new or modified installation, the alternative systems,
listed with their relative outputs in Exhibit 6.10 should be considered.

        High-pressure  sodium (HPS) lamps provide the  most light per  energy  input  and are the  most
economical when their color characteristics are suitable (the  decided yellow color of low-pressure  sodium
lamps is usually unsatisfactory for most industrial areas). This lamp is offered in a wide choice of wattages,
ranging from a nominal 70  watts to 1,000 watts.  Luminaire manufacturers also  offer a broad variety of
luminaires suitable for various applications in outdoor lighting, manufacturing, and office lighting.

                        Exhibit 6.10: Alternative Lighting Systems Approximate
                              Initial Lumens per Watt Including Ballast
Type of Light
Low Pressure Sodium
High Pressure Sodium
Metal Halide
Fluorescent
Mercury
Incandescent
Smaller
Sizes
90
84
67
66
44
17
Middle
Sizes
120
105
75
74
51
22
Larger
Sizes
150
126
93
70
57
24
                          HPS lighting has found wide acceptance as warehouse lighting, where color rendition is usually not
                  critical.   The high ceiling height common in  warehouses is well  suited to HPS lighting.   To meet the
                  challenge of illuminating warehouse aisles, asymmetrical luminaires specifically  designed for aisle lighting
                  are available. Overlap of light between fixtures will be adequate even if the luminaires are as much as three
                  times as  far apart  as their mounting height from the floor.  HPS luminaires  are  also available for low
                  mounting heights.  The flexibility of HPS lighting has permitted significant inroads into areas that were
                  formerly reserved for fluorescent lighting.

                          For comparable wattage, HPS lamps deliver about 50 percent more lumens than mercury lamps, and
                  500 percent more than incandescent light sources.  Efficiency of most sources increases at higher wattages, so
                  for maximum economy, the HPS lighting system should be designed to use the largest sized lamps that are
                  consistent with good lighting practice and controlled brightness.

                  6.2.4   Summary of Different Lighting Technologies

                          The potential for energy savings in lighting is twofold: the  industry  has produced some money (but
                  not many) and energy saving products primarily because design engineers have specified excessive lighting
                  levels over the years, and secondly some technological advances have occurred.
               210
                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                          Electric Equipment: Lighting
6.2.4.1  Incandescent
        The following features can describe incandescent lighting (light produced by heating an element
until it glows).
    •   Main reason for use is color rendition and dimming,  although recently dimming has been made
        available for other types of light.
    •   Reduced wattage / reduced output replacements are now available although no more efficient.
    •   One type of PAR lamp is now being offered which has an infrared reflective film that makes the
        filament hotter and brighter.
6.2.4.2  Fluorescent
            Fluorescent lighting can be summed as follows:
    •   Light is produced by emitting an electronic field, causing the phosphorous to glow (fluoresce).
    •   More energy efficient.
    •   Varying levels of  color rendering are available  depending on the quality  of the rare earth
        phosphors, and the  cost.  Color rendering  is arbitrary way to compare the color of the light using
        sunlight as 100 percent.
    •   New T8 (one inch diameter) lamps produce light more  efficiently than previous lamps, but must be
        used with electronic ballasts.
    •   Compact fluorescent - twin tube, exit signs.
6.2.4.3  High Energy Discharge
        The following types of lamps fall under the high energy discharge category:
    •   Mercury Vapor,
    •   Metal Halide,
    •   High Pressure Sodium, and
    •   Low Pressure Sodium.
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          211

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               Electric Equipment: Lighting
Notes            REFERENCES
                          1.  Coombs, V.T.,  The Possibility  of Energy Saving by  the Correct Sizing of Electric  Motors,
                             Electrical Review, pp 744-746, December 1975
                          2.  Levers, W.D., The Electrical Engineer's Challenge in  Energy Conservation.,  IEEE Trans, on
                             Industrial Applications, 1A-11,4, 1975
                          3.  Cotton, H., Principles of Electrical Technology, Pitman, 1967
                          4.  Henderson, S.T., and Marsden, A.M., Lamps and Lighting, Arnold, 1972
                          5.  Windett, A.S., Reducing the Cost of Electricity Supply,  Gower Press, 1973
                          6.  Zackrison, H.B., Energy Conservation Techniques for Engineers, Van Nostrand Reinhold
                             Company, 1984
                          7.  Lyons, S.L., Management Guide to Modern Industrial Lighting, Applied Science Publishers,
                             1972
                          8.  Illuminating Engineering Society, IES Lighting Handbook, 1972
               212                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                       Heat: Boilers
                                   CHAPTER 7. HEAT

        This chapter discusses sources of heat in  industrial operations and  associated equipment.  A
description  of  each heat  source,  its general uses, operation,  and  common opportunities for energy
conservation are presented.  There will be case studies referenced throughout the chapter that can be found in
Appendix E.


7.1    Boilers

        A boiler is a device where energy extracted from some type of fuel is converted into heat that is
distributed to needed places to do useful work.  In the process, the carrying media (water or steam) gives up
the heat and is cyclically reheated again and again.   There  are examples where the media (steam) is  not
returned, such as locomotives, but in industrial processes covered in this manual  it would constitute an
exception.  For the most part, boilers take advantage of the phase changes that occur in some substances (for
example water).  The phase change is associated with large amount of energy that can be harnessed to  our
benefit.

        There are four principal boiler categories: (1) natural draft, (2) forced draft, (3) hot water or steam,
and (4) fire tube or water tube. In a natural draft boiler, the combustion air is drawn in by natural convection
and there  is no control  of  the air/fuel ratio.  For forced draft boilers, a blower controls the quantities of
combustion  air and the  air/fuel mixture.   Some boilers produce hot water, typically in the 160° to 190°F
range,  while others produce  steam.  Steam  boilers may  be  low pressure  (approximately 15 psi), medium
pressure (15 to  150 psi), or high pressure  (150 to 500 psi).  Finally, boilers may be  fire-tube or water-tube
boilers. In a fire-tube boiler, the  hot gas flows through tubes immersed in water, whereas in a water-tube
boiler, the water flows through tubes heated by the  hot combustion gases.  There are also some very high
temperature and superheat boilers but these are seldom encountered in typical manufacturing operations. The
typical boiler used in small  to medium sized industrial operations is a forced draft steam boiler at 120-150 psi
and approximately 150 hp.   The following measures are also applicable to utility boilers. Other than  the
major differences of not being natural draft boilers and producing steam at greater than 150 psi, utility boilers
are similar to boilers commonly used by industry.

        This section includes energy conservation strategies for boiler systems.   Combustion air blower
variable frequency drives, air/fuel ratio reset, turbulators, high-pressure condensate return systems, steam trap
repair,  and steam leak repair are discussed in this section.

7.1.1   Boiler Operation and Efficiency

        An ideal model of a boiler operation is based on the Carnot cycle.  The Carnot cycle is defined as
two reversible isothermal and two reversible adiabatic processes.   Heat is  added to the cycle during the
isothermal  process at high temperature (Tn ),  then  follows  an  adiabatic process producing work as  the
working fluid is expanded to  a lower pressure. During the next isothermal stage, heat is rejected to  the low
temperature reservoir at TL.  During the last phase the working fluid is adiabatically compressed to finish the
cycle.  The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle for the given low and high temperatures and its efficiency
is given by:
        The efficiency of a real boiler is always lower.  A model Carnot cycle using the phase changing
medium, would be a boiler that operates at constant temperature while adding heat to the working medium,
then an  expansion device (turbine)  that operates adiabatically,  a condenser  that operates  at constant
temperature while rejecting heat from  the medium and a compressor or a pump that adiabatically brings the
medium to the starting point.  The boilers are designed to  operate at near constant pressure but in reality the
temperature and pressure vary.  If the devices are operated near the saturation region, they will operate at
constant  temperature as well as constant pressure.  The quality of the medium is quite low at the end of
expansion and the fluid before compression is a mixture of liquid and vapor instead of just liquid.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                        213

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                Heat: Boilers
Notes
7.1.1.1  Boiler Efficiency Tips

        Boiler efficiency can be improved and maintained through proper maintenance and monitoring of
operation.  The  eight tips  presented here are  guidelines for improving boiler efficiency but are not all
inclusive.

    1.   Conduct a flue gas analysis on the boiler every two months to test for fuel/air ratio settings  and
        adjust air/fuel ratio to  optimize efficiency.   Optimal percentages of Q  CC>2, and excess air in the
        exhaust gases are shown in Exhibit 7.1.

                              Exhibit 7.1: Optimal Flue Gas Composition
Fuel
Natural Gas
Liquid Petroleum Fuel
Coal
Wood
02
(%)
2.2
4.0
4.5
5.0
C02
(%)
10.5
12.5
14.5
15.5
Excess Air
(%)
10
20
25
30
                         The air fuel ratio should be adjusted to the recommended optimum values if possible; however, a
                         boiler with a wide operating range may require a control system to constantly  adjust the air-fuel
                         ratio.

                     2.  A high flue gas temperature often reflects the existence of deposits and fouling  on the fire and/ or
                         water side(s) of the boiler.  The resulting loss in boiler efficiency can be closely estimated on the
                         basis that a 1% efficiency loss occurs with every 40°F increase in stack temperature.

                         It is suggested  that the  stack  gas temperature be recorded immediately after boiler  servicing
                         (including tube  cleaning)  and  that  this value be  used as the  optimum reading.   Stack gas
                         temperature  readings  should  be taken on a regular  basis and  compared with the established
                         optimum reading at the same firing rate.  A major variation in the  stack gas temperature indicates a
                         drop in efficiency and the need for either air-fuel ratio adjustment or boiler tube cleaning.  Exhibit
                         7.2 illustrates how the stack temperature rises with maladjusted air fuel ratios.  In the absence of
                         any reference temperature,  it is normally expected that the  stack temperature be less than 100°F
                         above the saturated steam temperature at a high firing rate in a saturated steam boiler (this doesn't
                         apply to boilers with economizers and air pre-heaters).

                     3.  After an overhaul of the boiler, run  the boiler and reexamine the tubes for cleanliness after thirty
                         days of operation.  The accumulated amount of soot will establish the criterion as to the necessary
                         frequency of boiler tube cleaning.

                     4.  Check the burner head and orifice once a week and clean if necessary.

                     5.  Check all controls frequently and keep them clean and dry.

                     6.  For water tube boilers burning coal or oil,  blow the soot out once a day.  The National Bureau of
                         Standards indicates that 8 days of operation can result in an efficiency reduction  of as much as 8%,
                         caused solely by sooting of the boiler tubes.

                     7.  Purity of water used for steam generation is extremely important.  It is not usually possible to use
                         untreated waters found in nature as boiler feed water as there are many impurities. Water must be
                         treated to remove the impurities or convert  them into some harmless form.  Other means to remove
                         impurities and  buildup from boilers is a systematic removal by  blowdown.  This way an excessive
                         accumulation of solids is prevented.  Water treatment prevents the formation of scale and sludge
                         deposits on the internal surfaces of boilers.  Scale formations severely retard the heat flow and
                         cause overheating of metal parts. The scale build-up and heat transfer relationship is demonstrated
                         in Exhibit 7.3.
                214
                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                     Heat: Boilers
        The frequency and amount of blowdown depend upon the amount and condition of the feed-water.
        Check the operation of the blowdown system and make sure that excessive blowdown does not
        occur. Normally, blowdown should be no more than 1% to 3% of steam output.

                             Exhibit 7.2: Boiler Efficiency (Natural Gas)
                                                                                                     Notes
Excess
Air
0.0
2.2
4.5
6.9
9.5
12.1
15.0
18.0
21.1
24.5
28.1
31.9
35.9
40.3
44.9
49.9
55.3
61.1
67.3
74.2
81.6
89.8
98.7
108.7
119.7
02
%
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
C02%
11.8
11.5
11.2
11.0
10.7
10.4
10.1
9.8
9.6
9.3
9.0
8.7
8.4
8.2
7.9
7.6
7.3
7.0
6.7
6.5
6.2
5.9
5.6
5.3
5.1
Net Stack Temperature
220
85.3
85.2
85.1
85.0
84.9
84.8
84.7
84.6
84.5
84.3
84.2
84.1
83.9
83.7
83.5
83.4
83.1
82.9
82.7
82.4
82.1
81.8
81.5
81.1
80.6
230
85.1
85.0
84.9
84.8
84.7
84.6
84.5
84.4
84.2
84.1
83.9
83.8
83.6
83.4
83.3
83.1
82.8
82.6
82.3
82.1
81.8
81.4
81.1
80.7
80.2
240
84.9
84.8
84.7
84.6
84.5
84.4
84.2
84.1
84.0
83.8
83.7
83.5
83.3
83.2
83.0
82.8
82.5
82.3
82.0
81.7
81.4
81.1
80.7
80.3
79.8
246
84.8
84.7
84.6
84.5
84.3
84.2
84.1
84.0
83.8
83.7
83.5
83.4
83.2
83.0
82.8
82.6
82.3
82.1
81.8
81.5
81.2
80.9
80.5
80.1
79.4
250
84.7
84.6
84.5
84.4
84.2
84.1
84.0
83.9
83.7
83.6
83.4
83.3
83.1
82.9
82.7
82.5
82.2
82.0
81.7
81.4
81.1
80.7
80.3
79.7
79.4
260
84.5
84.4
84.2
84.1
84.0
83.9
83.8
83.6
83.5
83.3
83.2
83.0
82.8
82.6
82.4
82.2
81.9
81.6
81.4
81.0
80.7
80.3
79.9
79.4
78.9
270
84.2
84.1
84.0
83.9
83.8
83.7
83.5
83.4
83.2
83.1
82.9
82.7
82.5
82.3
82.1
81.9
81.6
81.3
81.0
80.7
80.3
79.9
79.5
79.0
78.5
        Economizers use heat from moderately low temperature combustion gases after the gases leave the
steam generating section (or in many cases also after going through a superheating segment) to preheat feed
water.  Economizers are heating the feed water after it is received from the water feed pumps, so the water
arrives at a higher temperature into a steam generating area. A typical design uses steel tubes where the water
is fed at pressures higher than the pressure in the steam generation part. The feed rate has to correspond to
the steam output of the boiler.  Exhibit 7.4 shows the effect of pre-heating of the feed water on the efficiency
of a boiler unit.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
215

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                Heat: Boilers
Notes
                                     Exhibit 7.3: Effect of Scale Thickness in Boilers on Heat Transfer
                                a
                                o


                                13
                                18
                                TO
                                a
                                
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                                                                                     Heat: Boilers
        Although blowdowns are an absolute necessity for the operation of a boiler, it is important that one
realizes that, depending on the pressure, each blowdown decreases the efficiency of the boiler.  Exhibit 7.5
illustrates the decrease in efficiency where the percent blowdown is calculated as follows:
                                         M
                                            Blowdown
                                        M
                                                    •xlOO
                                          Steam Produced
        Note how sharply the efficiency loss increases with higher pressures.

                             Exhibit 7.5: Efficiency Loss Due to Blowdown
                10

                 9

                 8

                 7

                 6

                 5

                 4

                 3

                 2

                 1
 (A

I
 >»
 Q

 9
'
 ™
ULJ


I
0>
ft.
                                  5%
                                       10%
15%
20%
7.1.1.2  Combustion in Boilers
        Heat is released through a process called "combustion" (burning).  Combustion is a release of heat
energy through the process of oxidation.  The methods used to extract heat are comb ustion of carbon based
fuels or heat generated by electric current.

        To make the combustion happen a mixture of fuel, oxygen and heat is necessary. During the process
of combustion, elements of fuel mix with oxygen and reconfigure to form new combinations of the same
elements.  The result is heat, light and new element combinations. The goal is to maximize heat and that can
happen when the combustion process is tightly controlled.

Complete Combustion:
Carbon
4
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Water
C02
Nitrogen

                                                                                                     Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                                      217

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               Heat:  Boilers
Notes
                 Incomplete Combustion:
                         Carbon
                        Hydrogen
             Oxygen
             Nitrogen
                                                                                          Soot + Aldehydes
Water
 CO,
 CO
                                                                                              Nitrogen
                         Perfect combustion (referred to as  stoichiometric combustion) is the process of burning the fuel
                 without an excess of combustion air.  This process should develop the "ULTIMATE CO2»" (see Exhibit 7.6).
                                                   Exhibit 7.6: Ultimate CO2 Values
Fuel
Natural Gas (can vary)
Propane
No.2 Oil
No.4 Oil
C02 %
11.7-12.1%
13.7%
15.2%
16.0%
                         While these values can be sometimes achieved, Exhibit 7.7: Boiler Combustion Mixtures shows
                 more realistic desired values.
                                               Exhibit 7.7: Boiler Combustion Mixtures
Fuel
Natural Gas
Propane
C02_
10.5%
115-12.0%
No.2 Oil 115-12.0%
No.4 Oil : 125-13.0%
°^
3.5-4.0%
3.5-4.0%
3.5-4.0%
3.5-4.0%
Excess Air
20%
20%
20%
20%
                         Carbon, in burning to carbon monoxide, gives off only about one third of the available heat. A one
                 eighth inch coating of soot on the heat exchanger increases fuel consumption by over 8% as a rule of thumb.
                 Incomplete combustion that results in the formation of CO is dangerous because it is odorless, colorless,
                 tasteless, and contrary to popular belief, it is non-irritating. The gas is also lighter than air and consequently,
                 if it  is escaping from a plugged or leaking boiler fireside, can  rise to  occupied  areas.  CO can only be
                 detected with special test or monitoring equipment.
                 Causes of Incomplete Combustion
                     1.   Insufficient or too much oxygen
                         •   Air problems (rule of thumb -1 cubic foot of air for every 100 Btus of gross heating value).
                         •   Minimum air intake openings for a given input.
                                     Oil - unconfined = 28 square inches per gallon
                                         Confined =140 square inches per gallon
                                     Gas - draft hood = 1 square inch per 5,000 Btu
                                                                     Barometric = 1 square inch per 14,000 Btu
                                            Direct = 1 square inch per 17,500 Btu
                     2.   Insufficient or too much fuel
                218
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                        Heat: Boilers

        •   Fuel is not vaporized - possible reasons
                Worn nozzle
                Clogged nozzle
                Pump pressure is incorrect
                Pump, lines, filter or tank lines are clogged
                Cold fuel
        •   Water in fuel - possible causes
                Supplier doesn't supply quality fuel
                Tank is located outside
                Cover the fill opening and vent to protect from rain
    3.   Insufficient or inconsistent heat
        •   The ignition system is used to provide the proper temperature (called kindling point) for the
            light off of the vaporized fuel under design conditions.  When design conditions are not met,
            light off will not occur.
        •   An established flame is usually sufficient to maintain the kindling point. However, anytime the
            combustion temperature falls  below the kindling point, the combustion triangle is broken and
            combustion stops.  A safety device will shut the fuel off within 3 seconds of flame failure.
Calculating Combustion Efficiency
        The calculation of combustion efficiency is based upon  three factors.
    1.   Chemistry of the fuel
    2.   Net temperature of the  stack gases
    3.   The percentage of oxygen or carbon dioxide by volume  in the stack gases
        Eyeballing the flame  for color,  shape  and stability  is  not enough for maximizing efficiency.
Commercial analyzers are  available to accurately gauge combustion efficiency.  The simplest units measure
only C>2 or CC>2. Exhibit 7.8 lists efficiencies for common heat generation devices.
                                 Exhibit 7.8: Combustion Efficiencies
       Notes
Process Type
Fireplace
Space Heater
Commercial Atmospheric Gas Boiler
Oil Power Burner
Gas Power Burner
Condensing Furnace (Gas or Oil)
Efficiency [%]
10-30
50-82
70-82
73-85
75-83
85-93
        There  are no  standard performance efficiency levels that commercial boiler manufacturers must
adhere to. Efficiency is reported in different terms:
    •   Thermal Efficiency - A measure of effectiveness of the heat exchanger that does not account for
        radiation and convection losses.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
219

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                Heat: Boilers
Notes
    •   Fuel to Steam Efficiency - A measure of the overall efficiency of the boiler accounting for radiation
        and convection losses.

    •   Boiler Efficiency - Refers to either thermal efficiency or Fuel to Steam Efficiency.

        Installation of controllers such as a temperature setback device can result in savings of up to 18% of
annual heating costs. A controller can sense the inside or outside temperature, or both. Controllers manage
the boiler cycling and/or control valves based upon the ratio of the two temperatures and the rate of change of
each.  Burner controls maximize the burner's  efficiency.  One way this can be done  is by using two-stage
(high-low) burners.  Another possibility is the utilization  of higher voltage electronic  ignition that  improves
light off and consequently reduces associated soot accumulation.  Employment of interrupted ignition reduces
the run time  of  ignition  components by approximately  98%  during  heating season increasing  ignition
component life.

7.1.2   Typical Performance Improvements

        Some performance improvements are easily achieved and many of which are  proper maintenance or
operation procedures. This section covers a few of the more common ones.

7.1.2.1   Adjustment of Fuel and Air Ratio

        For each fuel type, there is  an optimum value  for the air/fuel ratio.  The air/fuel ratio is the ratio of
combustion  air to fuel supplied to the burner.   For natural gas boilers,  this is 10% excess air, which
corresponds to 2.2% oxygen in the flue gas.   For coal-fired boilers, the values are 20% excess air and 4%
oxygen. Because it is difficult to reach and maintain these values in most boilers, it is recommended that the
boiler air/fuel ratio be adjusted to give a reading of 3% oxygen in the flue  gas (about 15% excess air) for
gas-fired boilers and  4.5% (25% excess air) for coal-fired boilers.  For natural gas boilers, the efficiency is a
function of excess/deficient  air and stack temperature.  The curves for oil and coal-fired boilers are similar.
Because the efficiency decreases rapidly with  deficient air, it is better to have a slight  amount of excess air.
Also, the efficiency  decreases  as  the  stack  gas temperature increases.   As  a rule  of thumb, the stack
temperature should be 50°  to 100°F above the  temperature of the heated fluid for maximum boiler efficiency
and to prevent condensation from occurring in the stack gases.  It is not uncommon that as loads on the
boiler change and as the boiler ages, the air/fuel  ratio will need readjusting.   It is recommended  that the
air/fuel ratio be checked as often as monthly.  Combustion analyzers are available for less than $1,000, and it
is often recommended that these be purchased. Case  studies illustrating this  opportunity can be found in
Appendix E.

        Exhibit 7.9 illustrates the average cost savings from implementation of this opportunity.

                         Exhibit 7.9: Air/Fuel Ratio Reset: Costs and Benefits
Options 1
Air/Fuel
Ratio Reset
Installed Costs
(S)2
1,673
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
2,339
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
5,691
Simple Payback
(yr)
0.3
                     1.   Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database.  All values are
                         averages based on the database data. The implementation rate for this measure was 70%.

                     2.   One example from the IAC database to further clarify the costs is as follows:  Adjusting the air/fuel
                         ratio on a 6.3 MMBtu/hr boiler at a concrete plant resulted in energy and  cost savings of 1,814
                         MMBtu/yr and $4,760/yr.  The implementation cost was $1,500, which was the cost for flue gas
                         analysis equipment and labor.

                     3.   The energy cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the center,
                         which are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.
                220
                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                       Heat: Boilers
7.1.2.2  Elimination of Steam Leaks

        Significant savings can be realized by locating and repairing leaks in live  steam lines and in
condensate return lines.   Leaks in the steam lines allow steam to be wasted, resulting in higher steam
production requirements from the boiler to meet the system needs.  Condensate return lines that are leaky
return less condensate to the boiler, increasing the quantity of required make-up water.  Because make-up
water is cooler than condensate return water, more energy would be required to heat the boiler feed water.
Water treatment would also increase as the make-up water quantity increased. Leaks most often occur at the
fittings in the steam  and condensate pipe systems.  Savings for this measure depend on the boiler efficiency,
the annual hours during which the leaks occur, the boiler operating pressure, and the enthalpies of the steam
and boiler feed water where enthalpy is a measure of the energy content the steam and feed water.

        Exhibit  7.10 lists average cost savings and  energy conservation from implementation of this
opportunity.

                         Exhibit 7.10: Steam Leak Repair: Costs and Benefits
                                                                                                        Notes
Options1
Steam Leak
Repair
Installed Costs
($)2
873
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
1,628
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
5,548
Simple
Payback (yr)
0.2
    1.   Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database.  All values are
        averages based on the database data.

    2.   The implementation rate for this measure was 81%.One example from the IAC database to further
        clarify the costs is as follows: Repairing steam leaks on a 600 hp boiler system at a rendering plant
        resulted in energy and cost savings of 986 MMBtu/yr and $4,535/yr.  The implementation cost was
        $350.

    3.   The energy cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the center,
        which are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.

7.1.2.3  Variable Frequency Drives for Combustion Air Blowers

        The load on  a  boiler typically varies with  time, and, consequently, the boiler firing-rate varies
between low and high fire. The  amount of combustion air required changes accordingly.  Common practice
has been to  control a damper or  vary the positions of the inlet vanes in order to  control the airflow; that is,
when inlet air is required the damper is essentially closed and  opened as more air is required.  This is an
inefficient method of airflow control because air is drawn against  a partially closed damper whenever the
maximum amount of combustion air is not required.  It is much more efficient to vary the speed of the blower
by installing a variable-frequency drive on a blower motor (note that it is sometimes expensive to install a
variable-frequency drive  if inlet  vanes exist).  Because the power required to move the  air is approximately
proportional to the cube of the  airflow rate, decreasing the flow rate  by  a  factor of two will result in a
reduction of power by a factor of eight.  This measure is particularly significant on boilers of 3.3 MMBtu/h or
greater.

        Combustion air  blower  variable-frequency drives  are available from boiler manufacturers for new
boiler installation.  They  also may be retrofitted to an existing boiler with few changes to the boiler.  Exhibit
7.11 presents average cost savings and energy conservation from implementation of this opportunity.

                  Exhibit 7.11:  (ASD) - Variable-Frequency Drives: Costs and Benefits
Options1
Combustion Air
Blower Variable -
Frequency Drives
Installed
Costs ($)2
23,967
Energy
Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
1,115
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
13,789
Simple
Payback (yr)
1.7
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               Heat:  Boilers
Notes
1.   Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database.  All values are
    averages based on the database data. The implementation rate for this measure was 33%.

2.   One example from the IAC database to further clarify the costs is as follows: Installing variable speed
    drives and corresponding controls on two 250 hp combustion air fans at a food processing plant resulted
    in energy  and cost savings of 488,445  MMBtu/yr and $28,000/yr.   The implementation cost  was
    $80,000.

3.   The energy cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the center, which
    are usually  almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.

7.1.2.4  Maintenance of Steam Traps

        A steam trap holds steam in the steam coil until the steam gives up its latent heat and condenses.  In
a flash tank system without  a steam trap (or a malfunctioning trap), the steam in the process heating coil
would have  a shorter residence time and not completely condense.   The uncondensed high-quality steam
would be then lost out of the steam discharge  pipe on the flash tank. Steam trap operation can be easily
checked by comparing the temperature on each side of the trap.  If the trap is working properly, there will be
a large temperature difference between the two sides of the trap.  A clear sign that a trap is not working is the
presence of steam downstream of the trap.  Non-working steam traps allow steam to be wasted, resulting in
higher steam production requirement from the boiler to  meet the system needs. It is not uncommon that,
over time, steam traps wear and no longer function properly.  Exhibit 7.12 lists average cost savings and
energy conservation from implementation of this opportunity.

                         Exhibit 7.12: Steam Trap Repair: Costs and Benefits
Options1
Steam Trap Repair
Installed
Costs ($)2
2,560
Energy
Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
5,431
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
14,885
Simple
Payback (yr)
0.17
                 1.   Tabulated data were taken from the  Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database.  All values are
                     averages based on the database data. The implementation rate for this measure was 79%.

                 2.   One example from the IAC database to further clarify the costs is as follows:  Repairing one steam trap
                     resulted in energy  and cost savings of 105 MMBtu/yr and $483/yr on a 600 hp boiler at a rendering
                     plant.  The implementation cost was $220.

                 3.   The energy cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the center, which
                     are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.

                 7.1.2.5  High Pressure Condensate Return Systems

                         As steam looses it's heat content is condenses into hot water called condensate. A sudden reduction
                 in the pressure of a pressurized condensate will cause the condensate to change phase into steam, more
                 commonly called flashing.  Flash tanks are often designed into a pressurized return system to allow flashing
                 and to remove non-condensable gases from the steam.   The resulting low-pressure steam in the flash tank
                 can often be used as a heat source.

                         A more efficient alternative is to return the pressurized condensate directly to the boiler through a
                 high-pressure condensate return system.  Heat losses due to flashing  are significant, especially for high-
                 pressure steam systems.  Steam lost  due  to flashing must be replaced by water from the city mains (at
                 approximately  55°F).  This causes the feed water mixture to the  boiler to be significantly below its boiling
                 point, resulting in higher  fuel consumption by the boiler.  Water treatment costs are also greater with
                 increased flash losses.   In a retrofit application, a closed, high-pressure condensate return system would
                 prevent the flashing that occurs in the existing system by returning the condensate to the boiler at a higher
                 pressure and temperature, thereby reducing boiler energy requirements and water treatment costs.

                         Non-condensable  gases (such as air and those formed from the decomposition of carbonates in the
                 boiler feed water treatment chemicals) can be removed from a closed condensate return system through the
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                                                                                     Heat:  Boilers
use of variable orifice discharge modules (VODMs).  VODMs are similar to  steam traps in that they return
condensate but also can remove non-condensable gases.  In a system that does not contain VODMS, these
gases can remain in the steam coil of the equipment being heated and can form pockets of gas that have the
effect of insulating the heat transfer surfaces, thus reducing heat transfer and decreasing boiler efficiency.
Exhibit 7.13 lists average cost savings from installation of a condensate return system.

                     Exhibit 7.13: Condensate Return Systems: Costs and Benefits
                                                                                                     Notes
Options1
High Pressure
Condensate Return
Installed
Costs ($)2
6,931
Energy
Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
9,688
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
12,738
Simple
Payback (yr)
0.5
1.   Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC)  database.  All values  are
    averages based on the database data. The implementation rate for this measure was 59%.

2.   One example from the IAC database to further clarify the costs is as follows: Installing of high-pressure
    condensate return system equipment at food processing plant resulted in energy and cost savings of 4,727
    MMBtu/yr and $ 14,100/yr. The implementation cost was $37,000.

3.   The energy cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the center, which
    are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.


7.2    Heat Recovery Systems

        Heat recovery systems are installed to make use of some of the energy which otherwise would be
lost into the surroundings.  The systems use a hot media leaving the process to preheat other, or sometimes
the same, media entering the process. Thus energy otherwise lost does useful work.

7.2.1   General Considerations

        The first step in heat recovery analysis is to survey the plant and take readings of all recoverable
energy that is being discharged into the atmosphere.  The survey should include analysis of the following
conditions:
    •   Exhaust stack temperatures

    •   Flow rates through equipment
    •   Particulates and corrosives of condensable vapors in the air stream

        Ventilation,  process exhaust  and combustion equipment exhaust  are  the  major  sources  of
recoverable energy. Exhibit 7.14 illustrates typical energy savings achieved by preheating combustion  air
with hot exhaust gases from process or furnaces.

        Regardless of the amount or temperature of the energy discharged, recovery is impractical unless the
heat can be effectively used somewhere else. Also, the recovered heat must be available when it is needed.

        Waste heat recovery systems can be adapted to several applications including:

    •   Space heating                                •   Combustion air preheating

    •   Make-up air heating                          •   Boiler feed water preheating

    •   Water heating                               •   Process cooling or absorption air
                                                        conditioning
    •   Process heating
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               Heat:  Heat Recovery Systems
Notes
                                   Exhibit 7.14: Fuel Savings Realized by Preheating Combustion Air
Furnace
Outlet
Temp. °F
2600
2500
2400
2300
2200
2100
2000
1900
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
Combustion air preheat temperature, °F
400
22
20
18
17
21
16
15
14
13
13
12
11
10
500
26
24
22
21
20
18
17
16
16
15
14
14
13
600
30
28
26
24
23
22
20
19
19
18
17
16
16
700
34
32
30
28
26
25
23
22
21
20
19
19
18
800
37
35
33
31
29
28
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
900
40
38
36
34
32
30
29
27
26
25
24
23
22
1000
43
41
38
36
34
33
31
30
29
27
26
25
25
1100
46
43
41
39
37
35
33
32
31
30
28
27
27
1200
48
45
43
41
39
37
36
34
33
32
30
29
28
1300
50
48
45
43
41
39
38
36
35
33
32
31
30
                         Note:   1.  Numbers represent fuel savings in percent.

                                 2.   Natural gas with 10% excess air.   Other charts are available for different fuels and
                                     various amount of excess air

                 7.2.2   Types of Heat Recovery  Equipment

                         Choosing the type of heat recovery device  for a particular application depends on a number of
                 factors.  For example air-to-air equipment is the most practical choice if the point of recovery and use are
                 closely coupled.  Air-to-liquid equipment is the logical choice if longer distances between the heat source
                 and heat requirements are involved. Included in this section are five types of heat recovery systems:
                                                                     •   Regenerative units

                                                                     •   Recuperators
    •   Economizers

    •   Heat pipes

    •   Shell and tube heat exchangers

7.2.2.1  Economizers

        Economizers are air-to-liquid heat exchangers.  Their primary application is to preheat boiler feed
water.  They may also be used to heat process or domestic water, or to provide hot liquids for space heating
or make-up air heating equipment.  The basic operation is as follows: Sensible heat is transferred from the
flue gases to the de-aerated feed water as the liquid flows through a series of tubes in the economizer located
in the exhaust stack.

        Most economizers have finned tube heat exchangers constructed of stainless  steel while the inlet
and outlet ducts are carbon steel lined with suitable insulation.  The maximum recommended waste gas
temperature  for  standard  units  is  around  1,800°F.   According to economizer  manufacturers, fuel
consumption is reduced approximately 1% for each 40°F reduction in flue gas temperature.  The higher the
flue gas temperature is, the greater potential for energy savings.
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                                                                         Heat: Heat Recovery Systems
7.2.2.2  Heat Pipes

        The heat pipe thermal recovery unit is a counterflow air-to-air heat exchanger.  Hot air is passed
through one side of the heat exchanger and cold air is passed through the other side in the opposite direction.
Heat pipes are usually applied to process equipment in which discharge temperatures are between  150 and
850 °F.  There are three general classes of application for heat pipes:

    1.   Recycling heat from a process back into a process (process-to-process)

    2.   Recycling heat from a process for comfort and make-up air heating (process-to-comfort)

    3.   Conditioning make-up air to a building (comfort-to-comfort)

        Heat pipes recover between 60 to 80% of the sensible heat between the two air streams.  A wide
range of sizes is available,  capable of handling 500 to 20,000 cubic feet of air per minute.   The main
advantages of the heat pipe are:

    •   No cross-contamination

    •   Operates without external power

    •   Operates without moving parts

    •   Occupies a minimum of space

7.2.2.3  Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

        Shell and tube heat exchangers are liquid -to -liquid heat transfer devices. Their primary application
is to preheat domestic water for toilets and showers or to provide heated water for space heating or process
purposes.

    The shell and tube heat  exchanger is usually applied to a furnace process cooling water system, and is
capable of producing hot water approaching 5  to 10°F of the water temperature off  the furnace.   To
determine the heat transfer capacity of the heat exchanger the following conditions of the  operation must be
known:

    1 .   The amount of water to be heated in  gallons per hour

    2.   The amount of hot process water available in gallons per hour

    3.   Inlet water temperature and final water temperature desired

    4.   Inlet process water temperature

7.2.2.4  Regenerative Unit (Heat Wheel)

        The heat wheel is a rotary air-to-air energy exchanger which is installed between the exhaust and
supply air duct work in a make-up or air heating system. It recovers 70 to 90% of the total heat from the
exhaust air stream.  Glass fiber ceramic heat recovery wheels can be utilized for preheating combustion air
with exhaust flue gas  as high as  2,000°F.  Heat  wheels consist of a rotating wheel,  drive mechanism,
partitions, frames, air seals and purge section. Regeneration is continuous as the wheel rotates through the
hot section picking up energy that is then stored and transferred to the cooler air in the supply section.

7.2.2.5  Recuperators

        Recuperators are air-to-air heat exchangers built to provide efficient transfer  of heat from  hot
exhaust gases to cooler air stream.  Recuperators are generally used in the following processes:
    •   Preheating combustion air

    •   Preheating material that has to be heated in the process
    •   Recovery heat from hot gas to supplement or replace the primary heat source in process or comfort
        heating applications
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                Heat: Heat Recovery Systems
Notes
                         There are many different types of recuperator designs available today.  The recuperator described
                 below is primarily used for combustion air preheating.

                         It consists of three basic cylinders, the hot gases flow up through the inner cylinder,  cold
                 combustion air enters  at the bottom  of the outer cylinder, flows upward and  down  through the middle
                 cylinder, exiting from the bottom of the middle cylinder.  Heat energy from exhaust gases  is transferred
                 through the inner cylinder wall to the combustion air by a combination of conduction and radiation heat
                 transfer.  The net effect is preheated air temperature as high as 1,000°F with inlet exhaust gases entering at
                 7.3    HEATING  SYSTEMS

                         Heating systems are an integral part of industry today. They are used for process heating, drying,
                 and comfort/space  heating.  The main purpose of industrial  space heating is to provide comfortable
                 conditions for the people working in these areas but also for purposes such as storage of goods or providing
                 a controlled environment for sensitive equipment.

                         The  objective of heating is to produce a steady, balanced environment regardless of the outside
                 conditions. The type of clothing worn and the additional heat sources such as process waste heat must also
                 be considered when implementing a system.  Conservation of energy in heating means getting the most
                 efficient use from energy while consuming as little as possible.  Energy can be conserved by filling gaps and
                 properly insulating, thus reducing building  heat loss.  Avoiding overheating practices such as heating a
                 building when it is unoccupied can also save in energy costs.

                         The  existing industrial heating systems are for the most part inefficient, dated and are often the
                 principal consumers of energy.  The most widely used system is the conventional convection heater  that is
                 highly inefficient and consumes large amounts of energy. Convection heaters use the circulation of steam or
                 high-pressure hot water in order to generate space heat. Inefficiencies can be attributed to the fact that much
                 energy is lost in heating the space, or the medium, surrounding the object.  It then relies on convection
                 between the medium and the surface of the object to increase the temperature, or create warmth.

                         Another dilemma associated with space heating involves the loss of heat due to stratification.  Most
                 systems are designed to heat an area in order to maintain a desired temperature. Energy is wasted because a
                 majority of the heat is  either lost  to infiltration and ventilation or eventually  rises to the ceiling level
                 requiring  more  energy to  keep the  working  level heated.   There  are  several  energy conservation
                 opportunities that can be applied to these operations to reduce the use of energy.  This section describes
                 these  measures, namely destratification fans and radiant heating systems, and how they can be applied in
                 industry.

                 7.3.1   Destratification Fans

                         Destratification fans are used to destratify air in buildings.  Stratification is a result of an increasing
                 air temperature gradient between the floor and the ceiling in an enclosed area, usually due to stagnant air.
                 When there is insufficient air movement, the  hot air will rise to the ceiling, resulting in warmer temperatures
                 in the upper portion of the area and cooler air temperatures at the working level near the floor.  An example
                 of stratification is  shown in Exhibit 7.15(a).   If stratification is present, the heating requirements of the
                 facility are increased because the heating system is continually working to maintain the thermostat setpoint
                 temperature.  The  thermostat setpoint operates according to the temperature at the working level.  Much
                 effort is required to make up for the heat the working level loses due  to this physical occurrence.  The
                 destratification process initiates the movement of the air, creating a more uniform temperature  distribution
                 within the enclosed space.  The air temperature at the floor level becomes nearly equal to the air temperature
                 at the ceiling thus reducing the amount of energy  needed to heat the facility. The amount of heat lost to
                 ventilation and infiltration is also reduced due to the overall reduction in heat being generated.

                 7.3.1.1  Ceiling Fans

                         The  basic function in destratification is to pull the air from the ceiling level down to the floor level
                 and allow it  to mix with the cooler air and increase the temperature at the working level.  This benefits the
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                                                                            Heat:  Heating Systems
comfort of the workers and also reduces the energy use of the facility. This process can be accomplished by
two different means. The first and most common device used is the ceiling fan. The fan draws the air from
above the fan and forces it downward by the power of the specific motor and blade combination.  The
resulting motion is an air plume, with the warm air moving downward and outward and essentially creating
a mixture like the one shown in Exhibit 7.15(b).  The  total  air volume and coverage is dependent  on the
motor size, height of the fan and the specifications of the fan blade (design,  size, rpm). Ceiling fans are also
applicable in cooling conditions. It creates motion in the air and this can assist with evaporative cooling of
the skin surface.

        The total number of fans needed in a facility can be determined by the following equation.

                                  Total Plant Area
                                                                                                      Notes
                                 Fan Coverage Area
                                                    = Number Fans Needed
The fan coverage area depends on the type and size of fan used and this information can usually be obtained
from the fan manufacturer. Placement of the fans is also important.  The simplest method of determining
placement is to calculate the distance between each fan.  This can be accomplished by using the following
equation.
                                       Distance = ^Fan Coverage Area

        Corner fans should be placed half this distance from each wall and consecutive fans should be
placed this distance apart to obtain maximum coverage.  Obstacles such as stacked merchandise or office
partitions should be taken into consideration when choosing and placing fans.

7.3.1.2  Ducting

        Another option for destratifying the air is to install a hanging device that uses a fan to pull the warm
air from the ceiling, sends it downward through a duct/tube and redistributes the air at the floor level as
shown in Exhibit 7.15(c).  This device has advantages and disadvantages.  It aids in the destratification
process and creates a more uniform temperature distribution without creating disturbing drafts.  It is also
simple to install and can easily be relocated throughout the building. On the other hand, these devices may
be a bit cumbersome and unsightly.  They extend from the  ceiling down to the floor and create additional
obstacles for the workers and may not be appropriate for some areas of the plant.  These devices also do not
possess the cooling applications of the ceiling fans.

                         Exhibit 7.15: Stratification and Destratification of Air

              a) Stratification air pattern, (b)  Destratification air pattern using a ceiling fan,

                             (c) Destratification air pattern using ducting
                              ,.M
                                                     ••'
7.3.2   Electric Heating

        Electrical resistance heating is often inexpensive  and convenient to  install.   However,  electric
energy costs at least twice as much as other sources of heat, such as steam or natural gas, although greater
efficiency in use may partially offset this difference. Before a decision is made to heat with electricity, the
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                Heat: Heating Systems
Notes
                 savings these alternative sources can produce should be evaluated in relation to the cost to install them. For
                 example,  consider the replacement of a  500,000-Btu-per hour electric heater with  a 500,00-Btu-per-hour
                 natural gas heater.

                         Annual Cost of Electric Heater

                                  = 500,000 Btu/hr x S14.65/106 Btu x 80% Eff. - 6,000 hrs/yr = $35,200

                         Annual Cost of Natural Gas Heater

                                  = 500,000 Btu/hr x S3.00/106 Btu x 50% Eff. x 6,000 hrs/yr = $4,500

                         The energy cost saving is = $35,200 - $4,500 = $30,700/yr

                 7.3.2.1  Radiant Heaters

                         Radiant heaters are used for heating spaces by  converting  electric or  gas energy to heat.  It is
                 important to think  thoroughly about the  whole picture before  recommending radiant heaters because
                 considered in isolation they probably would not be economically viable.

                         When dealing with the use of energy for  the purpose of heating sometimes it is better to deal
                 directly with the source of the problem. Convection heaters are inefficient heating devices in that energy is
                 wasted in heating the space and using that heated air to convectively warm the people and/or objects within
                 that space.  Radiant heaters take a different approach.  Radiant heaters operate similar to  the sun.  Radiant
                 energy is transferred at the speed of light as electromagnetic waves. The  heaters emit infrared radiation that
                 is absorbed by the people/objects that it  strikes, which elevates the temperature of the body, but  does not
                 heat the air through which it travels.

                 7.3.2.2  Types of Radiant Systems

                         Radiant heating systems can be gas-fired or electric. The type of radiant heating system used is
                 determined by  the sources available.  For example,  electric radiant heating systems  may be installed in an
                 area of the building where gas is unavailable even though natural  gas is more cost effective than electricity.
                 The efficiencies for both electric and gas  systems  are approximately the  same  but natural gas  infrared
                 systems have a longer lifetime. A radiant heating system is often a relatively easy  retrofit measure but may
                 also be integrated into  new construction.  Radiant heaters come in different sizes, styles  and shapes
                 according to their application. Exhibit 7.16 shows a typical example of a radiant heater.

                         In relation to equipment performance, radiant sources can be categorized into three groups. A low
                 temperature system has  source temperatures up to 300°F and would typically be used as a floor or ceiling
                 heater.  A low-intensity system has sources up to 1200°F.  A medium-intensity system has temperatures up
                 to  1800°F  and would  typically include  a  porous matrix  unit.   High-intensity  systems have source
                 temperatures up to 5000°F and usually consist of an electrical reflector lamp and high temperature resistors.
                 Low-temperature heating systems are usually used in residential and perimeter heating applications such as
                 schools, offices, and airports.   These systems are often incorporated directly into the building structure.
                 Low-,  medium-, and high-intensity systems have more industrial and  commercial uses and  are usually
                 assembled units that are installed into existing structures.

                 7.3.2.3  Applications

                         Use of radiant  systems is ideal  for  comfort heating. Since the infrared radiation elevates body
                 temperature without heating the air through which it travels, the same degree of comfort provided by the
                 convection heaters can be maintained at lower indoor air temperatures with radiant  heaters.  This measure
                 also eliminates the problem of stratification. It is beneficial to use these heaters in spaces where the ceilings
                 are high and stratification is prominent. It is also very practical for areas that are frequently exposed to the
                 outside air  such as  loading dock areas.  Radiant spot heating helps workers to  maintain  a comfortable
                 working temperature even though the space air may be cold. Radiant  heat, unlike convection, does not
                 require a medium to travel through and thus has a much higher heat transfer rate. An advantage of this is its
                 short response time.  The person or object will feel the effects of the system shortly after it is engaged.  The
                 rate of energy transfer is dependent  upon  many  different factors including temperature, emissivity,
                 reflectivity, absorptivity  and transmissivity.  Emissivity is a radiative properly that  indicates how efficiently
                 the surface emits compared to an ideal  radiator and  its value  ranges  between  0  and  1.  Reflectivity,
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                                                                           Heat: Heating Systems
absorptivity, and transmissivity are the fractions of incidental radiation reflected, absorbed, and transmitted,
respectively.

                                Exhibit 7.16: Infrared Radiant Heater
        Radiant systems can also replace conventional heating methods in process heating.  Since radiation
does not need to travel through a medium, more heating work can be accomplished in less space.  The
response time when compared with convection heaters can prove to be an advantage in these industrial
applications.   The shutdown time for an infrared burner varies from one to 30 seconds.  Gas or electric
radiant heaters may be  used for different heating applications.  Applications  include cooking,  broiling,
melting and curing metals, curing and drying rubber and plastics, and preshrinking and finishing of textiles.
                                                                                                    Notes
7.4    FURNACES AND BURNERS

        Furnaces and burners are devices designed to release energy of one form (hydrocarbon bonds) and
convert it into heat. The energy  is typically released from gas or oil fuels through a combustion process.
What type of burner or furnace to use and what is the most efficient way of operation highly depends on the
process where it is used.  There is always more than one way of solving an engineering problem, however:
in some industries years of research and study of the processes involved might lean toward one recognized
approach and therefore define quite narrowly  the equipment best suited.  It is obvious that one has to be
careful not to recommend a change of a furnace without knowing the reason why  the  old seemingly
inefficient one is used.

7.4.1   Burner Combustion Efficiency

        Conserving fuel in heating operations such as melting or heat treating is a complex operation. It
requires careful attention to the following:
    •   Refractories and insulation

    •   Scheduling and operating procedures

    •   Preventative maintenance
    Burners
•   Temperature controls

•   Combustion controls
        Providing the correct  combustion  controls will increase  combustion  efficiency measurably.
Complete combustion of natural gas yields carbon dioxide and water vapor.  If gas is burned with out the
correct amount of air, an analysis of the products of combustion will show it contains about 11-12% CC>2
and 20-22% water vapor.  The remainder is nitrogen, which was present in the air and passed through the
combustion reaction essentially unchanged.

        If  the same  sample of natural gas is burned with less than  the correct amount of air ("rich" or
"reducing fire"), flue gas analysis will show  the presence of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, products of
incomplete combustion.  Both of these gases have fuel value, so exhausting them from furnaces is a waste of
fuel (see Exhibit 7.17).

        If  more  than the  required amount of  air is used  (lean or oxidizing flame), all the gas will  be burnt
but the products  of combustion will contain excess oxygen. This excess oxygen is an added burden on the
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               Heat: Furnaces and Burners
Notes
                 combustion system - it is heated and then thrown away thereby wasting fuel. The following steps should be
                 taken to upgrade burner and combustion controls to prevent these situations:

                     1.   Use sealed burners.  Make all combustion air go through the burner - open cage type burners are
                         very inefficient.

                     2.   Use power burners.  Inspirator or atmosphere burners have very poor mixing efficiency at low
                         inputs, especially for low pressure natural gas.

                     3.   Install a fuel/air ratio control system.

                                          Exhibit 7.17: Percent Excess Air From C(>2 Reading
                                                                 Percent CO
                 7.4.2   Premix Burner Systems
                         Premix burner systems commonly use a venturi mixer known as an aspirator or proportional mixer.
                 Air from the blower passes through the venturi, creating suction on the gas line, and the amount of gas
                 drawn into the mixer drops in proportion to airflow.   Aspirator systems are fairly  simple to  adjust and
                 maintain accurate air/fuel ratios over wide turndown ranges, but their use is limited to premix burners.

                 7.4.3   Nozzle Mix Burners

                         Nozzle  mix burners used  with  a Ratio Regular system  is widely  used for industrial furnace
                 applications.  Orifices are installed in the gas and air lines to a burner and then adjusted so that  air and gas
                 are in correct burning proportions when pressure drops across the orifices are equal.  Once the orifices are
                 set, they will hold the correct air/gas ratio as long as the pressure drop remains the same, no matter what
                 firing rate. Ratio Regular systems have good accuracy and are fairly easy to adjust.

                         On large furnaces where fuel  consumption is extremely high, or on furnaces where  very close
                 control of the atmosphere is required, extremely accurate air/fuel ratio control is vital, both for fuel economy
                 and product quality. On these installations hydraulic or electronic flow controls are often used.
                230
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                        Heat: Furnaces and Burners


                                                                                                       Notes
        These systems feature fixed orifices in both gas and air streams, and these orifices are sized to pass
proportional amounts of gas and air at equal pressure drops, pressure drop signals are fed to a ratio controller
which compares them.  One  of the outstanding features of this system  is that  the air/fuel ratio can be
adjusted by turning a dial.   Since a burner can be thrown off correct gas  ratios by changes in ambient air
temperature and humidity, this ratio adjustment  feature permits the operator to set the burner back to peak
operating efficiency with very little effort.

        On multiple burner furnaces, the combustion products of all burners mix together before they reach
the flue gas sampling point.  Furnaces should have manifolded flue gas outlets to obtain a common sampling
point for flue gas analysis. If, for example, some of the burners are unintentionally set lean, and others rich,
the excess air from the lean  burners could consume the excess fuel from the rich burners, producing flue gas
with optimum CO2 and  practically no  free oxygen or combustibles.  Samples  of these gases could be
misleading and show correct air/gas ratio, when in fact they are not.  Also, if a burner is set rich and the
excess combustibles in the flue gases find air in the stack and burn there, flue gas analysis will again suggest
that the burner is properly adjusted.

        To overcome the  problem of misleading flue gas analysis in  multi-burner furnaces, metering
orifices should be  installed on the gas lines to each burner.  If pressure drops across all orifices are identical,
gas flow to each burner will be the same.

7.4.4  Furnace Pressure Controls

        Furnace Pressure Controls afford additional energy savings, particularly on topflued furnaces.  If a
furnace operates under negative pressure, cold air is drawn into it through badly fitted doors and cracks.
This cold air has to be heated, adding to the  burden on the combustion  system  and wasting fuel.   If the
furnace operates at high positive pressure, flames will sting out through doors, site ports and other openings,
damaging refractories and  buckling shells.   Ideally  a neutral  furnace  pressure  overcomes  both these
problems.  Automatic furnace pressure  controls maintain a predetermined  pressure  at hearth level by
opening or closing dampers  in response to furnace pressure fluctuations.

        In summation, good air/fuel ratio control equipment and automatic furnace pressure controls are
two useful weapons for combating energy waste in heating operations. Properly applied, they also offer the
side benefits of improved product quality and shortest possible heating cycles.

7.4.5  Furnace Efficiency

        Conventional  refractory linings in heating furnaces can have poor insulating abilities and high heat
storage characteristics. Basic methods available for reducing the heat storage  effect and radiation losses in
melt and heat treat furnaces are:

    1.  Replace standard refractory linings with  vacuum-formed refractory  fiber insulation material.

    2.  Install fiber liner between standard refractory lining and shell wall.

    3.  Install ceramic fiber linings over present refractory liner.

        Refractory fiber materials offer exceptional low thermal conductivity  and heat storage.   These two
factors combine to offer very substantial  energy savings in crucible, reverberatory and heat-treat furnaces.
With  bulk densities of 12-22 Ibs/cu ft, refractory fiber linings weigh 8% as much as equivalent  volumes of
conventional brick or castables. In addition, refractory fibers are resistive to damage from extreme and rapid
changes in temperature.  These fiber materials  are simple and fast to install.  The density of fiber refractory
is low, therefore much  less heat is required to bring the lining to operating temperature.  This results in rapid
heating on the start-up. Conversely, cooling is also rapid, since there is less heat stored in the lining.

        The basic design criteria for fiber lined crucible  furnaces are the same as used for furnaces lined
with dense refractories. Two rules should be followed.

    1.  The midpoint of the burner should be at  the same level as the bottom of the crucible, and the burner
        should fire tangentially into the space between the crucible and lining.

    2.  The space between the outside  of the  crucible, and the furnace lining  near the top should be about
        10% of the crucible  diameter.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                        231

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               Heat: Furnaces and Burners
Notes
                         Crucible furnaces can be constructed using a combination of fiber with dense refractory or almost
                 entirely out of fiber.  Increasing the proportion of fiber will increase the energy savings and maximize the
                 other benefits previously listed.

                         Fiber materials are available in varying thicknesses, suitable for a complete monolithic installation,
                 and composition to handle 2400°F, 2600°F, and 2800°F.  The higher temperature compositions contain high
                 aluminum fiber, which lowers the amount of shrinkage at elevated operating temperatures.

                 7.4.6   Furnace Covers

                         Installation of furnace covers is necessary to reduce preheating of combustion air.  Thermal shock
                 and spalling have caused problems in the fabrication and use of furnace covers. Materials available today,
                 such as refractory fiber, have eliminated these problems.

                         In addition  to technological advantages of  fiber insulation, industry has also  developed the
                 capability of vacuum forming these materials over a variety of metallic support  structures.  Fiber insulation
                 can be formed over either expanded metal or angle iron frames, or both, with V-type anchors attached.  The
                 anchors are  made from high temperature alloys, holding  the  fiber to the metallic  support structures to
                 provide an integral,  fully  secured  assembly.   No part of the anchor system is exposed to excessive
                 temperatures.  This eliminates attachment  problems for ladle  pre-heaters, crucible furnace covers, and
                 induction furnace covers.  Installation of furnace covers improves the thermal efficiency of the process by
                 approximately 50%.


                 7.5    Cogeneration

                         Cogeneration is the simultaneous production of electric power and use of thermal energy from a
                 common fuel source.   Interest in Cogeneration stems from its inherent thermodynamic efficiency. Fossil
                 fuel-fired central stations convert only about one-third of  their energy input to electricity  and  reject two-
                 thirds in the form of thermal discharges to the atmosphere.  Industrial plants with Cogeneration facilities can
                 use the rejected heat in their plant process and thereby achieve a thermal efficiency as high as 80 percent.

                 7.5.1   The Economics of Cogeneration

                         In-plant generation of electricity alone is not usually economical; a variable use must be made of
                 the by-product waste heat.  For this reason the demand for both types of energy must then be in balance,
                 typically 100 kW versus 600,000 Btuh, for a gas turbine installation.

                         In most potential applications of industrial Cogeneration, more electric power would be produced in
                 meeting the plant's thermal requirement than could be  used internally.  However, the  enactment of PURPA
                 (Public Utility Regulatory and Policies Act  of 1978) greatly expanded the application for  Cogeneration by
                 granting qualified cogenerators the right to:

                     •   Interconnect with a utility' s grid

                     •   Contract for backup power with the utility at nondiscriminatory rates

                     •   Sell the power to the utility at the utility's avoided cost.

                         There are several reasons for considering Cogeneration besides energy savings.

                     •   Energy  independence

                     •   Replacement of aging equipment

                     •   Expansion of facilities

                     •   Environmental considerations
                     •   PURPA franchise to sell electricity

                     •   Power factor improvement
                         However, plant conditions must fit certain requirements for a successful Cogeneration application.
                232
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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Some factors are:
                                                                               Heat:  Cogeneration


                                                                                                       Notes
    •   The nature of the process must be  suitable for cogeneration.  Certain processes lend themselves
        more readily to cogeneration, such as refining, petrochemical, and pulp and paper industries, which
        have accounted for many of the larger cogeneration installations to date.

    •   The rate differential between electricity and fossil fuels should be relatively high on an equivalent
        Btu basis.

    •   Plant operation of 6,000 hours per year is usually  the minimum needed to justify installation and
        continuous operation thus improving reliability by minimizing dependence on the starting system.

    •   A source of waste fuel in suitable quantity provides an attractive incentive for cogeneration.

        Although plant conditions may appear favorable for cogeneration, the long-term situation should
also be considered before proceeding with a project.  Factors that should be considered for  long-term
evaluation of cogeneration are:

    1.   The long-range cost of fuel for gas- and oil-fired units must be considered

    2.   Excess  coal-fired generating facilities and  abundant coal  supplies  can  result in  increased
        competition from utilities and lower  avoided costs.

    3.   Utilities may press for repeal of PURPA or at least the ability to discount the avoided cost purchase
        rate.

    4.   Long-term continuity of operations.  Facilities that  are expecting significant changes in operation or
        ownership should determine the viability of the initially large investment.

    5.   Reliability requirements of the cogeneration facility will be important.  Maintenance and  reliability
        of equipment  is very important as the cost  of penalty for additional utility charges for any outage
        can be significant where demand charges are high.

        Aside from  long-term effects, other alternatives to cogeneration may negate some  of its benefits.
These  alternatives include renegotiation of  electrical rates, load management, technology  improvements,
process changes, and energy conservation.

    1.   Renegotiating rates may enable an industrial  plant to duplicate the potential economic benefits of
        cogeneration without the risk of building and operating a power plant.

    2.   Load management techniques may be able to modify peak demands.

    3.   Major technological improvements or process changes can occur and significantly alter the present
        energy requirements.

    4.   Where  available capital  is  limited,  energy  conservation  may  be  able  to reduce  electrical
        consumption significantly by using projects with more attractive returns.

7.5.2   Cogeneration Cycles

        There are many possible types of cogeneration cycles but most can be considered variations of the
two basic cycles gas turbine and steam/turbine as shown in Exhibit 7.18.

        In the case of the gas turbine cogeneration cycle, air is compressed and injected into the combustor
along with the fuel, generally natural gas.  The combustion  gases at high temperature and pressures expand
rapidly  in the turbine,  doing work in  the process.   The  turbine drives an electrical generator and  air
compressor.  The exhaust  gas from the turbine, which  is still at a high temperature, is then used to generate
steam in a waste heat boiler.

        The cost of a  gas turbine with heat recovery equipment ranges between $600 to $1,000 per kW,
depending on the specific  design conditions.  Gas turbine systems costs are reduced by over 50 percent with
larger units.

        There  are several advantages of the  gas  turbine  system in comparison with the steam/turbine



Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                        233

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                Heat: Cogeneration
Notes
                 system.

                      •    Lower capital cost (normally 50 to 70 percent of steam/turbine cost)

                      •    Lower operating and maintenance cost.

                      •    Higher power-to-heat ratio that is generally more desirable in industrial applications.

                      A reciprocating engine, generally a diesel, can be used in lieu of the turbine to supply the motive power.
                 Since the exhaust from the engine is at a much lower temperature, only low pressure steam (maximum of 50
                 psig) or hot water can be generated without supplemental heating.

                                                    Exhibit 7.18: Cogeneration Cycles
                                  . Gas TuftJine Cogeneration Cycis


!"'

<;





                                       Ricl
                                 j  II. Steam/Turbine CogeRBraticm Cycle
                 7.5.2.1   Cogeneration High-Spot Evaluation

                          A quick evaluation of potential cost savings from installation of a Cogeneration system can be
                 performed to determine if a more detailed analy sis is warranted.  Example calculations are presented in this
                 section to illustrate a high-spot evaluation. These calculations are illustrated in Exhibit 7.19 and Exhibit
                 7.20.
                234
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                Heat: Cogeneration
                                   Exhibit 7.19: Gas-Turbine Cycle
                                                                                                        Notes
f -J3\
«0 MMBtutir _
	 ^
Aif
Eli?t1?i!Say
ttV I
t-J
Sun*.'
Ell'aiySI
i 4 3Kf
I f3M:MB!iJ'hr
Waste
M(: F Haul
Exteasl 3ailftr
•»-
IfGT
, 	 	 , ^ ~ 	 4

l-freosss SSiati
Si MMBturrr
    Given process steam demand = 30,000 Ibs/hr equivalent to 30 MMBtu/hr
               Heat Input to Boiler = (30 MMBtu/hr) / (70% Waste heat eff.) = 43 MMBtu/hr
    Exhaust = 43-30 = 13 MMBtu/hr
    Electrical output (based on typical 100 kW/600,000 Btu):
                        = {(30 MMBtu/hr) / (0.6 MMBtu/hr)} x 100 kW = 5,000 kW
    Equivalent Btus = 5,000 kW x 3413 Btu/kW = 17 MMBtu/hr
    Total Energy Input = 17 + 30 + 13 = 60 MMBtu/hr
    Annual cost of operation:
                        = 60 MMBtu/hr x 8,000 hrs x $3.00/MMBtu/hr = $ 1,440,000/yr
    Avoided cost of purchased electricity:
                              = 5,000 kW x 8,000 hr x$0.05/kWh = $2,000,000/yr
    Avoided cost of steam:
         = {[(30 MMBtu/hr) x (80,000 hr)] / [80% Steam boiler eff]} x $3.00 /MMBtu = $900,000 per year
    Annual Saving = $2,000,000 + $900,000 - $140,000 = $l,460,000/yr
    Investment = $l,000/kW x 5,000 kW = $5,000,000/yr
                                 Payback = $5,000,000 / 1,460,000 = 3.4 years
    Given      - process steam demand = 30,000 Ibs/hr, equiv. to 30 MMBtu/hr
                - boiler steam = 600 psig, 750 F
                - turbine steam rate =  12.2 Ibs/kWh @ 70% eff. = 17.4 act. Ibs/kWh
        (Refer to Steam Turbine Tables for other conditions)
    kWh = (30,000 Ibs/hr) / (17.4 Ibs/kWh) = 1720 kW
    Equivalent Btu/hr = 1720 x 3413 x 10 -6 = 7.4 MMBtu/hr
    Total energy input = (7.4 + 30) / (80% boiler eff.) = 44 MMBtu/hr
    Annual cost of operation:
                        = 44 MMBtu/hr x 8,000 hrs x $3.00/MMBtu = $l,056,000/yr
    Avoided cost of electricity:
                            = 1720 kW x 8,000 hrs x $0.05/kWh = $688,000/yr
    Avoided cost of process steam:
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                Heat: Cogeneration
Notes
                             = [(30 MMBtu/hr) / (80% boiler eff.)] x (80,000 hrs) x ($3,00/MMBtu/hr) = $900,000/yr

                     Annual Saving = $688,000 + $900,000 - $1,056,000 = $532,000/yr

                     Investment = $l,500/kW x $1,720 kW = $2,580,000/yr

                                               Payback = ($2580,000) / ($532,000) = 4.8 years

                                                   Exhibit 7.20:  Steam-Turbine Cycle
                                                                                              r!?€-1tc1y
                                                                             TVt'^M'"
                                                                                              P TOCOSt: SSS
                                                                                              IS pa
                                                                                              X WVSUfc'1
                         Oil and gas-fired engine cogeneration systems are most suitable for smaller installations (under 1
                 MW).  Packaged units are available from a few kilowatts to over a megawatt.  The systems include a prime
                 mover, generator switchgear, heat recovery, and controls. Equipment costs range from $500 to $l,000/kW.
                 Installation  costs  for plumbing, electrical, and  other facilities  typically add 50  to  150 percent to  the
                 equipment cost. Total turnkey costs range from $700 to $2,000/kW.

                         Experience  with the  smaller  size units  (under  100 kW)  has been relatively short.   In the
                 steam/turbine system, fuel is burned in a boiler to generate steam.  The steam is passed through a topping
                 turbine that drives the electric generator.  The exhaust steam is then used for process heating.

                         The greatest advantage of these systems is their ability to use practically any kind of fuel including
                 lower-cost solid or waste fuels, either alone or in combination.  The capital cost of steam turbine systems is
                 higher, typically 50 to 100 percent greater than  a gas turbine system using natural gas or oil.

                 7.5.2.2  Estimate of Savings

                         A high-spot estimate of savings should be made as early in the investigation as possible to confirm
                 that cogeneration is  merited; a detailed energy-load analysis should be made. This involves preparing a
                 profile on the plant's steam and electric usage, taking into account daily, weekly, monthly, and seasonal
                 variations. Using actual loads instead of average loads is  important to determine whether periods of low-
                 load factor are a problem.   System performance will be best where output is steady instead of fluctuating
                 with load.

                         With this data, plant personnel can select the most advantageous cogeneration cycle, taking into
                 account various possible operating conditions and equipment options. A computer model analysis is very
                 useful  for this  purpose.  Equipment vendors  can be utilized if outside assistance is needed to make the
                 computer analysis.

                         The options that can be considered are as follows:

                      •   Combined cycle - permits the use of a flexible instead  of fixed ratio of electrical to thermal energy
                         to adjust for variations in the steam demand

                      •   Steam pressure  - the higher the  pressure the  more efficient the turbine steam rate.  When high-
                         pressure steam or  gas must be reduced in pressure through a pressure-reducing valve, a simpler
                         system known as "induction generation" can be used to generate electricity.

                      •   Steam injection - adds to turbine efficiency

                      •   Extraction turbine -  provides process steam for use at different pressures
                236
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                              Heat: Cogeneration


                                                                                                     Notes
    •   Water treatment method - high-pressure steam turbines require more sophisticated boiler feed water
        treatment

    •   Dual burners - burners capable of burning more than one fuel add flexibility to use lowest cost fuel

    •   Degree of automation - fully automatic systems increase price significantly

    •   Duct burner in exhaust stream - increases output and permits generation of higher pressure steam

    •   Steam condenser  - permits  additional  electrical generation from  steam  turbine at  some loss in
        efficiency

    •   Generator type - power factor is improved with higher cost synchronous generator

    •   Parallel or independent operation will affect switchgear selection.

        After the operating conditions  and cogeneration facilities have been fully defined, the savings and
investment estimates should be revised to complete the initial evaluation of the cogeneration facility.


7.6    Thermoenergy Storage  Systems

        The application of thermal storage  is based on savings from using lower cost electrical rates with
night-time operation to provide daytime thermal needs.  Two conditions must be  present to make thermal
storage attractive.

        First,  there must be  a  significant difference  between night and  daytime electrical costs.  The
difference can be increased by  higher summertime rates and inclusion of a ratchet provision for the next 11
months. Utilities generally encourage thermal storage because it permits them to transfer a portion of their
daytime load from  expensive peaking facilities to nighttime base-loaded, higher efficiency coal and nuclear
plants.

        Accordingly, the electric rate structure will encourage customers to shift their electrical load from
daytime peak hours to nights and  weekends by any or all of the following provisions in the rate structure.

    •   Time-of-day energy charge

    •   Demand charges (per kW peak  power consumed during peak hours each month)

    •   Winter/summer rates for energy and/or demand charges

    •   A ratchet  clause (monthly  demand  is the  same  or same percentage of the highest demand in
        previous 11 months).

        Second, the daytime  refrigeration  load must result in  high  daytime cost,  generally from peak
demands, which have the potential to be reduced with thermal storage.  Plants with one-shift operation or
high solar load can be good candidates.  Thermal storage has found application, for example, in office air
conditioning.  On  the  other hand,  industrial plants with three-shift operation are normally not good
candidates because of their higher content load.

        Before considering thermal storage  as a means of reducing electrical cost,  alternate methods should
be evaluated, as in most energy conservation approaches.  Some possible alternate methods are absorption
refrigeration, demand control, load scheduling, and using an emergency generator for peak shaving.

7.6.1   High Spot Evaluation

        Where thermal storage appears to  be a viable option, a high spot evaluation should be made to
determine  if further investigation is justified (see Exhibit  7.21).  The incremental electrical cost must be
broken down into its separate components for this evaluation.  In this example, it is assumed there is no off-
peak demand charge and the off-peak electrical energy rate is less than the  on-peak rate.  For simplicity it is
also assumed that the daytime refrigeration load increases the peak demand directly by 1 kW for each kW of
load.  In practice, the peak demand may be caused in part by other operations, therefore, the actual potential
reduction in  peak demand from thermal storage would depend on its interrelationship with other loads.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                        237

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               Heat:  Thermoenergy Storage Systems
Notes
                 7.6.2   Electric Load Analysis

                         A detailed electrical load analysis is necessary to determine the impact thermal storage will have on
                 the existing peak demand because of this interrelationship with other loads.  Use of average loads will not be
                 satisfactory for this purpose.

                         The operating cost per ton for a thermal storage system is also higher than for a conventional
                 system.  The refrigeration machine must operate at a lower temperature, which requires more energy per ton.
                 There is also some inherent loss in storage.  One system reported that power consumption increased by 17
                 percent when the system was producing ice.

                         Exhibit 7.21 shows that incremental investment for thermal storage results in an attractive payback.
                 However, it should be emphasized that the example attributes maximize demand saving over the full year of
                 operation and for the full capacity of the unit.  A well-documented analysis of all energy flows and costs is
                 needed for a more in-depth evaluation. A number of questions will also have to be answered as part of the
                 evaluation, such as:

                     •   Should the thermal storage be for heating storage, cooling storage, or both?

                     •   Should the system handle 100 percent of the  cooling load or only  the portion needed for load
                         leveling?

                     •   Should the storage system be water or ice?

                     •   Should the storage system be for a daily or weekly cycle?

                         Generally, systems have been for daily cycles and load levelers only.

                                              Exhibit 7.21: Thermal Storage High Spot Evaluation
Electrial Rate:
Demand kW
Energy kWh
On-Peak
$9.40
$0.03
Off-Peak
NC
$0.025
Conventional Refrigeration System
Demand Cost/ton-yr = $/kW x 12 months

$9.40 x 12 months =
Energy Cost/ton-yr = 1 kWh/ton x $/kWh x hrs/yr

Total Cost/ton-yr
= $0.03 x 8,000 =
= $113 + $240 =

$113/yr

$240
$353
Thermal Storage System
Cost/ton-yr = 1 kWh/ton x % increase x $/kWh x hrs/yr

Savings
= 1x1. 20 x $0.025x8,000
= $353 - $240 =

$240
$113
Investment
Investment/ton - Conventional Refrigeration System
Investment/ton - Thermal Storage System
Additional Investment/ton
$400
$550
$150
               238
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                             Heat: Thermoenergy Storage Systems

REFERENCES
1.   "Testing & Measurement" Bulletin 4011 Bacharch Inc.
2.   "Boiler Efficiency" Bulletin CB 7767 Cleaver Brooks Co.
3.   "Heat-Timer Model HWR" File No. 30-E-l Heat Timer Co.
4.   "Digi-Span" File No.  980MHeat Timer Co.
6.   "Auto. Vent Damper" Form No.  60-2523 Honeywell Inc.
7.   "Chronotherm 3" Form No. 68-0056-1 Honeywell Inc.
8.   "Perfect Climate" Products Form 70-2317/8-92 Honeywell
9.   "Flame Safeguard Manual" No. 708107 Honeywell
10.  "Principles of Steam Heating" Dan Holohan
11.  Maine Oil & Solid Fuel Board Rules
12.  NFPA Code #31 Installation of Oil Burning Equipment
13.  "Boiler Efficiency Improvement" Dyer/Maples
14.  "Application Data for Burners" Form No. 30-60004A Iron Fireman Div. Dunham Bush Co.
15.  Grainger, Inc., Air Circulators, Dayton Fans, p. 2318.
16.  McMaster-Carr Supply Company, Net Prices Catalog.
17.  Rutgers University, Industrial Assessment Report No. RU-00146, ECO No. 03, pp.  28-30.
18.  Chase Industries, Bulletin No. 8102,1981.
19.  Colorado State University, Allied Signal Energy Conservation Training Program, 1994.
20.  Buckley,  Norman A., "Application of Radiant Heating Saves Energy," ASHRAE Journal, V 31, No. 9,
    September 1991, p. 18.
21.  Incropera, Frank P.  and  DeWitt, David P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer,  3rd Ed., John
    Wiley & Sons, 1990.
22.  University of Tennessee, Industrial Assessment Report No. TN-0535, ECO No. 01, pp. 32-33.
23.  Georgia Institute of Technology, Industrial Assessment Report No.  GT-0541. ECO No. 02, pp. 8-11.
24.  Marks' Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1987.
25.  Dyer, D.  P., G. Maples,  etc., Boiler Efficiency Improvement, Boiler Efficiency Institute, Auburn, AL,
    1981,pp.4-31.
26.  Witte, L.C., P.  S.  Schmidt,  D.R.  Brown, Industrial Energy Management and Utilization, Hemisphere
    Publishing Corp., Washington, D.C., 1988,  pp. 530-532.
27.  Kennedy, W.J., W.C. Turner, Energy Management, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1984.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                         239

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             Heat: Thermoenergy Storage Systems






Notes
                                 THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
             240                     Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                     Prime Movers of Energy: Pumps
                 CHAPTER 8.  PRIME MOVERS OF ENERGY

        This chapter discusses equipment used to move liquids and gases from place-to-place in a facility or
used to pressurize liquids or gases in industrial facilities. A description of each piece of equipment, its general
uses, operation, and common opportunities for energy conservation are presented. There will be case studies
referenced throughout the chapter that can be found in Appendix E.


8.1    Pumps

        Pumps are widely used for transfer of liquids from one place to another. Pumps are usually driven by
electric motors; thus some of the considerations about pumps and electric motors might overlap.  For some
specific applications, pumps can be driven by compressed air or hydraulically.

        There are many types of pumps used in industry depending on the including:   centrifugal pumps
(used predominantly for transfer of large volumes), metering pumps (used for precise delivery of liquids to  a
point of  application  and ensuring the constant discharge  regardless  of backpressure in the lines), and
progressive cavity pumps or peristaltic pumps (used for delivery of very viscous materials and others).

        Pump manufacturer generally provide pump curves at the time of the sale. They are essential for
establishing the operation range and if any changes for pumping systems are considered the curves have to be
considered.

8.1.1   Operation

    Opportunities for savings in pump  operation are often overlooked because pump inefficiency  is  not
readily apparent. Pumps can run inefficiently for several reasons:

     1.   Present operating conditions differ from the design conditions.  This change often occurs after a plant
        has undertaken a water conservation program.

    2.   Oversized pumps were specified and installed to allow for future increases in capacity.

    3.   Conservative design factors were used to ensure the pump would meet the required conditions.

    4.   Other design factors were chosen at the expense of pump efficiency when energy costs were lower.

8.1.1.1  Pump Survey

        A survey of pumps should concentrate  on the following conditions associated with inefficient pump
operation. These are discussed in order of decreasing potential for energy savings in existing installations.
For the survey to produce worthwhile savings, only pumps above a certain size, such as 25 horsepower, need
to be checked:

     1.   Excessive pump maintenance. This problem is often associated with:

        a. Oversized pumps that are heavily throttled.

        b. Pumps in cavitation.

        c. Badly worn pumps.

        d. Pumps that are misapplied for the present operation.

    2.   Any  pump system with large flow or pressure variations.  When normal flows or pressures are  less
        than  75 percent of their maximum, energy is probably being wasted from excessive throttling, large
        bypassed flows, or operation of unneeded pumps.

    3.   Bypassed flow.  Bypassed flow, either from a control  system or  deadhead protection orifices, is
        wasted energy.

    4.   Throttled control valves. The pressure drop across a control valve represents wasted energy, which is
        proportional to the pressure drop and flow.

    5.   Fixed throttle operation. Pumps throttled at a constant head and flow indicates excess capacity.


Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                         241
Notes

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               Prime Movers of Energy:  Pumps


JT ,                  6.  Noisy pumps or valves. A noisy pump generally indicates cavitation from heavy throttling or excess
                         flow. Noisy control valves or bypass valves usually mean a high pressure drop with a corresponding
                         high energy loss.

                     7.  A multiple pump  system.  Energy is  commonly lost from bypassing excess  capacity,  running
                         unneeded pumps, maintaining excess pressure, or having a large flow increment between pumps.

                     8.  Changes from design conditions.  Changes in plant operating conditions (expansbns, shutdowns,
                         etc.) can cause pumps that were previously well applied to operate at reduced efficiency.

                     9.  A low-flow, high-pressure user.  Such users  may require operation of the entire system at higher
                         pressure.

                     10. Pumps with known overcapacity.  Overcapacity wastes energy because more flow is pumped at a
                         higher pressure than required.

                         Once the inefficient pumps have been identified, the potential savings and the cost of implementing
                 the changes should be analyzed. Comparison of the actual operating point with the pump performance curve
                 will facilitate the analysis.   Actual performance may differ from the original  design because  of process
                 changes, faulty basic data, conservative safety margins, or planned expansions never realized.

                 8.1.1.2  Energy Conservation Measures

                         Energy  may be saved in pump operation in a number of ways, including the following  techniques
                 arranged in approximate increasing order of investment cost:

                     1.  Shut Down Unnecessary Pumps-

                         This obvious but frequently overlooked energy-saving  measure can often  be  carried  out after a
                         significant  reduction in  the plant's  water  usage.   If excess capacity is used  because flow
                         requirements vary, the number of pumps in  service can be  automatically controlled by installing
                         pressure switches on one or more pumps.

                     2.  Restore Internal Clearances-

                         This measure should be taken if performance changes significantly. Pump capacity  and efficiency
                         are reduced as internal leakage increases from excessive backplate and impeller clearances and worn
                         throat bushings, impeller wear rings, sleeve bearings, and impellers.

                     3.  Trim or Change Impellers-

                         If head is excessive,  this approach can be used when throttling  is not sufficient  to permit the
                         complete shutdown of a pump.  Trimming centrifugal pump  impellers is the  lowest cost method to
                         correct oversized pumps.  Head can be reduced 10 to 50 percent by trimming or changing the pump
                         impeller diameter within the vendor's recommended size limits for the pump casing.

                     4.  Control by Throttling-

                         Controlling a centrifugal pump by throttling the pump discharge wastes energy.   Throttle control is,
                         however, generally less energy wasteful than two other widely  used alternatives: no control and
                         bypass control. Throttles can, therefore, represent a means to save pump energy.

                     5.  Replace Oversized Pumps-

                         Oversized pumps represent the largest  single source of wasted pump energy.   Their replacement
                         must be evaluated in relation to other possible methods to reduce capacity, such as trimming or
                         changing impellers and using variable speed control.

                     6.  Use Multiple Pumps-

                         Multiple pumps offer an alternative to variable speed, bypass, or throttle control.  The savings result
                         because one or more pumps can be shut down at low system flow while the other pumps operate at
                         high efficiency. Multiple small pumps should be considered when the pumping load is less than half
                         the maximum single capacity.
               242                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                     Prime Movers of Energy: Pumps


    1.   Use a Small Booster Pump -                                                                      -^ .

        The  energy requirements of the overall system can be reduced by the use of a booster pump to
        provide the high-pressure flow to a selected user and allow the remainder of the system to operate at a
        lower pressure and reduced power.

    8.   Change Pump Speed-

        Variable-speed drives  yield the maximum  savings in matching  pump output to  varying  system
        requirements.  However, variable speed drives generally have a higher investment cost than other
        methods of capacity control. Several types of variable-speed drives can be considered:

        •   Variable-speed motors, either variable frequency or DC

        •   Variable-speed drives such as traction drives, for constant-speed motors

        •   Two-speed motors when  low speed can satisfy the requirements for  significant portion of the
            time

        As an example of the  savings from the use of a smaller pump, assume 300 tons of refrigeration are
required during the summer months but  only 75 tons for the remaining nine months.  One  of two 700-gpm
chilled-water pumps, equipped  with 40-horsepower motors, is operated during the winter, with two thirds of
the flow bypassed.  A  new 250-gpm pump  designed for the same discharge head as the original two units
consumes only 10 horsepower.  The electric savings from operating the small pump during the winter is:

        Annual Savings = (40 hp -10 hp) x 6,000 hrs/yr. x 9 months/12 months x $0.041/hp-hr = $5,540

        The installation cost of a new pump is about $5,000.

        The following  example illustrates the possible savings from trimming an impeller. A double suction
centrifugal pump with a 13.75-inch diameter impeller pumps process water. The demand is constant (2,750
gpm) and the pump is controlled by a manual throttle valve.  The pump operates at 164 feet head, 2,750 gpm
and 135.6 brake  horsepower (point A in  Exhibit 8.1).  A 16 psig  (37-foot) pressure drop occurs across the
partially closed throttle valve, with only a 6-foot drop across the completely open valve.

        If the pump were exactly  matched to the system requirements, only  127  feet of head would be
required without the valve.  Because even the fully open valve has a 6-foot pressure drop, the minimum head
required becomes 133 feet.  To this, a 5 percent allowance should be added as a tolerance for the accuracy of
the field measurements  and impeller trimming.  The minimum total head required is  140 feet.  Based on the
pump affinity laws, the trimmed impeller diameter should be 13 inches, as shown in step 1 below.

        With a trimmed 13-inch impeller, the pump will operate slightly throttled at 140-feet head, 2,750 gpm
and  115.7-brake  horsepower, as  shown by point B  in Exhibit  8.1.  The trimmed impeller reduces  power
consumption by 19.9-brake horsepower and saves $5,440 per year (see steps 2-4). Trimming and balancing an
impeller usually cost less than $1,000, and payback, therefore, is less than three months.

    1.   Determine the impeller diameter needed to reduce the head from 164 feet to 140 feet and maintain
        2,750-gpm flow. Apply the affinity laws noting that both the head and flow are reduced as the
        impeller is trimmed

        a. H1/H2=D12/D22andQ1/Q2=D1/D2 Hj Qj /H2 Q2 =Di3 /D23

        b. Holding Q constant = Dj /D2 = (Hi /H2 )1/3 = (164 / 140)1/3 = 1.054

        c. D! = (D2 / 1.054) = 13.0 inches

        where,

        H = head in feet; HI , before the reduction, and H2 , after  the reduction

        D = diameter of the impeller in inches

        Q = flow in gpm

        E = pump efficiency
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                         243

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               Prime Movers of Energy: Pumps
Notes
                                          Exhibit 8.1: Typical Centrifugal Pump Characteristics
                      2.       Point A: Oversized pump (13.75-inch impeller) throttle back to 2,750 gpm.
                      3.       Point B: Trimmed impeller (13 inches) throttled back to 2,750 gpm.
                              bhp = (140 x 2,750) / (3,960 x 0.84) = 115.7
                      4.       Annual Savings = 135.6 -115.7 = 19.9 bhp
                              $/yr = 19.9 x (1/0.90) motoreff.  ' 6,000 hrs/yr ' $0.041/hp-hr = $5,440
                          As with other equipment, energy conservation for pumps should begin when the pump is designed.
                 Nevertheless, the savings from modification of an existing system often justify the cost.
                          The following example illustrates the application of affinity laws for variable frequency drive pump
                 savings. With fans  the affinity laws can be applied directly because the system resistance is purely flow-
                 related.  With pumps or fans having a static head offset, the system resistance curve also changes with pump
                 speed.
                          A typical centrifugal pump  curve in Exhibit 8.2 shows that by  throttling the 1,750 rpm motor the
                 pump delivers 2,500 gpm at 236 ft. head.  Given a system analysis showing that 150 ft. of head is required to
                 deliver  2,500 gpm with no throttling, the savings for operating the pump at reduced speed without throttling
                 can be determined by the following trial-and-error method.
                          The affinity laws are:
                                              Si / S2 = Qi / Q2 = (Hi /H2)1/3 = (BHP /BHP )1/3
                      where,
                          Si = original pump speed, rpm
                          S2 = new pump speed, rpm
                          Qi  = flow on original pump curve, gpm
                          Q2  = system flow required, gpm
                          HI  = head on original pump curve, ft.
                          H2  = head required by system for Q2, ft.
               244
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                 Prime Movers of Energy: Pumps

    BHPi = pump horsepower at Qi and HI
    BHPi = pump horsepower required for operation at Q2, H2
1.   Assume a new pump speed, try 1,500 rpm.
2.   Calculate the speed ratio
        Si/S2 = 1,500/1,700 = 0.8824
3.   Calculate Qi from the affinity laws.
        Qi = Q2 / (Si / S2) = 2,500/0.8824= 2,833 gpm
4.   Determine HI from the original curve at Qi
        HI =233 ft.
5.   Calculate H2 from the affinity laws:
        H2 = (S2/Si)3xHl
        = 0.8824x233
        = 205.6 ft.
6.   Compare H2 from step 5 with the desired H2. Since H2 at 205.6 ft. is greater than the desired HI at
    150 ft., the calculation must be repeated using a lower rpm. Several iterations of this procedure give:
        Si = 1,405 rpm, Qi = 3,114 gpm, and HI = 232.5 ft.
    From Q  and HI above a new operating point 1 is determined.  The important  concept here is that
    point 1 is not the original system operating point (2,500 gpm, 236 ft.).  Rather it is the one and only
    point on the original pump curve that satisfies the affinity law equations at the new operating point 2
    (2,500 gpm, 150 ft.). It must be determined before BHP2 can be calculated from the  affinity laws.
                             Exhibit 8.2: Centrifugal Pump Curve
                                                                                                       Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                                             245

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Notes
Prime Movers of Energy: Pumps

      1.   From the pump curve determine BHPi for Qj at 3,114 gpm.
              BHP!=258
      8.   Calculate BHP2 using affinity law
              BHP2=BHP! (S2/SO3
              = 258 (1,405/1,750)3 = 258 x 0.5175
              = 133.5 BHP
      9.   From the  pump  curve determine  the actual BHP  (BHPA) for the original operating point at 2,500
          gpm.
              BHPA = 230 BHP
      10.  Determine reduction in horsepower:
              BHP savings = 230 -133.5  = 98.5 BHP
              Note the savings are not found from BH?! -BHP2, BHPA-BHP2
          These calculations can be performed for other types of pumps using the curves presented in Exhibits
  8.3 - 8.5. Manual  calculation of savings for variable speed drives will be tedious if they must be determined
  for a number of conditions. Computer programs can simplify the task.
                  Exhibit 8.3: Typical Pump and System Curves, Driven by Adjustable Speed Drive
                                            Curve.        1
                                Pump Curve,        2
               246
                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                   Prime Movers of Energy: Pumps
              Exhibit 8.4: Typical Pump and System Curves for Pump with Throttling Valve
                                          Sy&tem Curve
                                          Throttled
                                                                                                    Notes
           Exhibit 8.5: Pump Power Requirements for Throttling and Adjustable Speed Motors
              Q.
              JC
              Q.

              CL
                      20
                       15
                      10
                                             X
                                           /
                                         /
 Adjustable
jSpeeet   j
 Method
!        I


V

40%

1
1
1
©0%
Row
I
I
1
80% 1
(%)
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                             247

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               Prime Movers of Energy: Pumps
Notes
8.1.2   Considerations for Installation Design

        The position of the pump with respect to the reservoir from which the liquid is to be taken is of
utmost importance.  If the pump is higher than the tank from which the fluid is being pumped the boiling of
the fluid at local temperature can occur.   The formation of the bubbles is  called cavitation.   The bubble
collapse can happen at the higher pressure region (tips of the impeller), thus causing  "cavitation erosion."
This results in a very low pump and damage of the impeller will follow soon.  In order  to avoid cavitation in
the pump, the installation has to satisfy a condition of net positive suction head (NPSH). The manufacturer of
the pump supplies the net positive suction head required and that is the minimum pressure head at the inlet for
the type and model of the pump that has to be maintained in order to avoid cavitation  inside the pump. The
net positive suction head required  accounts for pressure drop inside the pump. The pressure head at the inlet
has to be calculated for each installation. Conventional tools for pressure losses in pipes are commonly used
and adequate.   Since the occurrence of bubbles forming inside the housing of the pump  is absolutely
forbidden, the backpressure of the system is of the same  importance as NPSH. Adequate backpressure will
prevent the formation of  bubbles  and  can be achieved, if not currently  available, by installation of
backpressure valve.

                 Exhibit 8.6: Comparative Energy Usage with Various Methods of Control
Operating
Situation
Constant Operation
at Full Capacity
Single Speed Fan
Cycling
Two Speed Fan
Cycling
Variable Control at
Constant Speed
Variable Speed
Control
Hours of
Operation
1202.2
P = 765.3 (*)
B = 852.7
P=1132(*)
B=1146
1202.2
1202.2
Average kW
Usage
P=16.2
B = 32.4
P=16.2
B = 32.4
P = 4.3
B = 8.55
P = 2.72
B = 5.44
P=1.99
B = 3.98
Propeller Fan
Energy [kWh]
19475.6
12.397.9
4867.6
3270
2392.4
Blower Fan
Energy [kWh]
38951.2
27627.5
9798.3
6540
4704.8
                     *The propeller fan will operate slightly fewer hours in these modes because of the cross tower's cooling
                     effect with the fan off.


                 8.2    Fans

                         Fans  provide the necessary energy input to pump  air from one  location to another while  they
                 overcome the various  resistances created by the equipment and the duct distribution system.  Fans are
                 generally  classified as either centrifugal fans or axial-flow fans, according to the manner of airflow through
                 the impeller.  There are a number of subdivisions of each general type.  The subdivisions consist of different
                 styles of impellers and the strength and arrangement of construction.  Because the type of impeller dictates
                 fan characteristics, it influences the amount of energy (horsepower) the fan needs to transport the required
                 volume of air.  The centrifugal fan has four basic types  of impellers-airfoil, backward curved, radial, and
                 forward-curved.  Exhibit 8.7 shows the  nominal  efficiency of the various types of fans at normal  operating
                 conditions
               248
                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                       Prime Movers of Energy: Fans
                 Exhibit 8.7: Nominal Efficiency of Fans at Normal Operating Conditions
                                                                                                       Notes
Type of Fan
Axial Fan
Centrifugal Fans
Airfoil Impellers
Backward -Curved Impeller
Radial Impeller
Forward -Curved Impeller
Efficiency %
85-90

75-80
70-75
60-65
55-60
        Reductions in exhaust airflow are usually obtained by adjustment of dampers in the duct.  Damper
control is a simple and low-cost means of controlling airflow, but it adds resistance, which causes an increase
in fan horsepower.  Accordingly, if fan  output is heavily throttled or dampered, the savings opportunity of
alternate methods of volume control should be investigated.
        More efficient methods of volume control are to:
    1.   Install inlet vane control.
    2.   Reduce the speed of the fan.
    3.   Provide variable-speed control.
        Exhibit 8.8 shows the reduction in horsepower realized by reducing fan speed.
                        Exhibit 8.8: Effect of Volume Control on Fan Horsepower
                  too
                   M
              g
              0   40
                   20
                                 »
                                              40           eo
                                               Percent Volume
                                                                      eo
100
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
               249

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              Prime Movers of Energy: Fans
Notes
        Before alternate methods of volume control are considered, the condition of the existing fan and duct
system should be checked.  Some factors that can reduce fan efficiency are:

        1.   Excessive static -pressure losses through poor duct configuration or plugging.

        2.   Duct leakage from poor joints or flange connections, access doors left open, damage or
            corrosion, etc.

        3.   An improperly installed inlet cone, which inadequately seals the fan inlet area and allows
            excessive air recirculation.

        4.   Excessive fan horsepower caused by poor fan maintenance, such as bad bearings, shaft
            misalignment, worn impeller blades, or corroded fan housing.

        5.   Dirt and dust accumulations on fan blades or housing.

        6.   Buildup of negative pressure.

Once the  existing system operates as  efficiently as possible, alternate methods to  control flow can  be
evaluated.

8.2.1   Inlet Vane  Control

        Inlet vane control is the most commonly used device for automatic control of centrifugal or in-line
fan output after damper control. Prespinning as well as throttling the air prior to its entry into the wheel
reduces output  and saves power. Fans  must be of sufficient size to permit retrofitting;  the wheel diameter
should be larger than 20 inches.

8.2.2   Reduced Speed

        When fan output can be reduced permanently, an economical method is to change belt sheaves.  A
slower-speed motor can also be used if the  first approach is not suitable.  A two-speed motor is another
alternative if the fan operates  at low volume for a significant portion of the time but full capacity is still
required part-time.

        As an example of the savings to be realized from a reduction in fan speed, assume the exhaust airflow
requirements have been reduced 50 percent on a 20-horsepower centrifugal fan. Reducing fan rpm 50 percent
by changing  belt sheaves will halve fan output.  Exhibit  8.8 shows a horsepower comparison of various
methods of centrifugal fan control for typical fans. A 50 percent reduction with an outlet damper requires 80
percent of rated power; with a slower-speed motor, only 25 percent of rated power is required.  (Refer to  the
variable speed control curve on the Exhibit.) Therefore:

             Annual Savings = (20 hp x 80% - 20 hp x 25%) x 6,000 hrs/yr x $0.041/hp-hr = $2,700

        The reduction in fan output will result in operation of the electric motor at less than rated capacity. If
the horsepower required at the reduced flow is less than about one third of rated horsepower,  the potential
savings for substitution of a smaller motor should also be investigated.

8.2.3   Variable Speed

        If fan  output must be varied but operates at reduced capacity much of the time,  a variable drive
should be evaluated.  (See  separate discussion on variable-speed drives.) Automatic variation of fan speed
through fluid or magnetic couplings or variable-speed motors has limited application because of the high
initial cost.


8.3    Air Compressors

        Air compressors in manufacturing facilities  are often large consumers of electricity. There are two
types of air compressors: reciprocating and screw compressors. Reciprocating compressors operate in manner
similar to that of an automobile engine.   That is, a piston moves back and forth in a cylinder to compress  the
air.  Screw compressors work  by entraining the  air between two rotating  augers.  The space between the
augers becomes smaller as the air moves toward the outlet, thereby compressing the air.
              250
                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                           Prime Movers of Energy:  Air Compressors
        Screw compressors have fewer moving parts than reciprocating compressors have and are less prone
to maintenance problems. However, especially for older types of screw compressors, screw compressors tend
to use more energy than reciprocating compressors do, particularly if they are oversized for the load.  This is
because many screw compressors continue to rotate, whereas reciprocating compressors require no power
during the unloaded state.

        This section includes energy conservation measures for increasing outside air usage, reducing air
leakage around valves and fittings in compressor air lines, recovering air compressor cooling water, recovering
air compressor waste heat, pressure reduction, adding screw compressor, controls, compressor replacement,
and adding low-pressure blowers.

8.3.1   Waste Heat Recovery

        For both  screw and reciprocating  compressors,  approximately  60%  to  90% of the energy of
compression is available as heat, and only the remaining 10% to 40% is contained in the compressed air.  This
waste heat may be used to offset space heating requirements in the facility or to supply  heat to a process.  The
heat energy recovered from the  compressor can be used  for space heating during the heating season.  The
amount of heat energy that can be recovered is dependent on the size of the compressor and the use factor.
The  use factor  is the fraction of the yearly hours  that  the compressor is used.  For this measure to be
economically viable, the compressor should be located near the heat that is to be used.

                   Exhibit 8.9:  Compressor Waste Heat Recovery: Costs and Benefits
     Notes
Options1
Waste Heat
Recovery
Installed Costs
($)2
2,098
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
676
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
2,786
Simple Payback
(yr)
0.8
    1.   Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database.  All values  are
        averages based on the database data. The implementation rate for this measure was 34%.

    2.   One example from the IAC database to further clarify the costs is as follows: The waste heat from a
        75 hp screw compressor was used to heat the plant.  The energy savings were 417  MMBtu/yr,  the
        cost savings were $2,594/yr, and the implementation cost was $1,530 - giving a simple payback of
        seven months.

    3.   The energy cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the center,
        which are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.

8.3.2   Operating Pressure Reduction

        Demand and energy savings can be realized by reducing the  air pressure control setting on an air
compressor. In many cases, the air is compressed to a higher pressure than the air-driven process equipment
actually requires. By determining the minimum  required pressure, one may find that the pressure control
setting on the compressor can be lowered. This is done by a simple adjustment of the pressure  setting  and
applies to both screw and reciprocating compressors. The resulting demand and energy savings depend on the
power rating of the compressor, the load factor, the use factor, the horsepower reduction factor, the current and
proposed discharge pressures, the inlet pressure, and the type of compressor.  The power reduction factor is the
ratio of the proposed power consumption to the current power consumption base on operating pressure.  The
inlet pressure is the  air pressure at the air intake to the compressor, usually local atmospheric pressure. This
measure should only be considered when the operating pressure is greater than or equal to 10 psi higher than
what is required for the equipment (with exception to situations  with extremely long delivery lines or high
pressure drops).
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
251

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               Prime Movers of Energy: Air Compressors
Notes
                                          Exhibit 8.10: Pressure Reduction: Costs and Benefits
Options1
Pressure
Reduction
Installed Costs
(S)2
864
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
187
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
2,730
Simple Payback
(yr)
1.0
                      1.  Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database. All values are
                         averages based on the database data.  The implementation rate for this measure was 48%.

                      2.  One example  from the IAC database to further clarify the costs is  as follows: Reducing the air
                         pressure control setting on a 75 hp  air compressor from 115 psig to 100 psig resulted in energy
                         savings of 22,500 kWh and cost savings of $l,180/yr. The implementation cost was $270, resulting
                         in a simple payback of three months.

                      3.  The energy cost savings is based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the center,
                         which are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.

                 8.3.3  Elimination of Air Leaks

                         Air leaks around valves and fittings in compressor air lines may represent a significant energy cost in
                 manufacturing facilities.  Sometimes up to 20% of the work done by the compressor is to make up for air
                 leaks.  The energy loss as a function of the hole diameter  at an operating pressure of 100 psi is shown in
                 Exhibit 8.11.  When determining the energy savings from elimination of air leaks, the gage and the absolute
                 pressures  are used in calculating the amount  of air lost due to air leaks. The gage pressure is the system
                 pressure supplied by the compressor  and the absolute pressure is the sum  of the gage pressure and the
                 atmospheric pressure. A case study of this opportunity is presented in Appendix E.

                                     Exhibit 8.11: Fuel and Air Losses Due to Compressed Air Leaks
Hole Diameter
[in]
3/8
1/4
1/8
1/16
1/32
Free Air Wasted
[ft3/yr] by a Leak of
Air at 100 psi
90,400,000
40,300,000
10,020,000
2,580,000
625,000
Energy Wasted
Per Leak
[kWh/h]
29.9
14.2
3.4
0.9
0.2
                                                  Source: National Bureau of Standards

                                         Rule of Thumb—=5%-10% of total energy consumption

                                          Exhibit 8.12: Leakage Reduction: Costs and Benefits1
Options1
Leak
Reduction
Installed Costs
($)2
934
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
230
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
3,540
Simple Payback
(yr)
0.3
                      1.  Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database. All values are
                         averages based on the database data.  The implementation rate for this measure was 79%.

                      2.  One example from the IAC database to further clarify the costs is as follows: Repairing air leaks in a
                         compressed air system having air compressors of 150 hp, 60 hp and 25 hp-all operating at 110 psig-
               252
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                             Prime Movers of Energy: Air Compressors
        resulted in energy savings of 35,750 kWh and cost savings of $2,760/yr.  The implementation cost
        was $500.
    3.   The energy cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the center,
        which are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.
        Equations for Air Flow, Power Loss, and Energy Savings
        The volumetric flow rate  of free  air exiting the hole is dependent upon whether the flow is choked.
When the ratio of atmospheric pressure to  line pressure is less than 0.5283, the flow is said to be choked (i.e.,
traveling at the speed of sound).   The ratio of 14.7 psia atmospheric pressure to 129.7 psia line pressure is
0.11.  Thus, the flow is choked.  The volumetric flow rate of free air, \£ exiting the leak under choked flow
conditions is calculated as follows:
                                                                                                         -^ .
                                Vf=
where
                 Vf = volumetric flow rate of free air, cubic feet per minute
                 NL = number of air leaks, no units
                 Tj = temperature of the air at the compressor inlet, °F
                 PI = line pressure at leak in question, psia
                 P! = inlet (atmospheric) pressure, 14.7 psia
                 64 = isentropic sonic volumetric flow constant, 28.37 ft/sec-°R0.5
                 Cs= conversion constant, 60 sec/min
                 Q = coefficient of discharge for square edged orifice , 0.8 no units
                 7i = Pythagorean constant, 3.1416
                 D = leak diameter, inches (estimated from observations)
                 C6 = conversion constant,  144 in2 /ft2
                 TI = average line temperature, °F
        The power loss from leaks is estimated as the power required to compress the volume of air lost from
atmospheric pressure, P;, to the compressor discharge pressure, P0, as follows :
                                Pt x C6 x V x
                                               k

                                                  x NxC7 x
                            L=
        where
                                                 F  x F
                                                 ^a A '-'m

                L = power loss due to air leak, hp
                k = specific heat ratio of air, 1 .4, no units
                N = number of stages, no units
                Cv  = conversion constant, 3.03 x 10-5 hp-min/ft-lb
                P0 = compressor operating pressure, psia
                Ea = air compressor isentropic (adiabatic) efficiency, no units
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                                                    253

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               Prime Movers of Energy: Air Compressors

JT ,                               Eg = 0.88 for single stage reciprocating compressors
                                  Eg = 0.75 for multi-stage reciprocating compressors
                                  Ea = 0.82 for rotary screw compressors
                                  Eg = 0.72 for sliding vane compressors
                                  Eg = 0.80 for single stage centrifugal compressors
                                  Eg = 0.70 for multi-stage centrifugal compressors
                                  Ea = 0.70 for turbo blowers
                                  Eg = 0.62 for Roots blowers 3
                                  £„, = compressor motor efficiency, no units
                          The annual energy savings, ES, are estimated as follows:
                                                                ES = L x H x C8
                  where
                                  H = annual time during which leaks occurs, h/yr
                                  C8 = conservation factor, 0.002545 MMBtu/hp-h

                          The annual cost savings, CS, can be calculated as follows:
                                                         CS = ESx unit costof eletricity
                          Quantifying air leaks is relatively simple if the system can be shut down for 10 to 15 minutes and if
                  there is an operating pressure gage in the system.
                          It is a good idea to ask plant personnel to shut down their compressors briefly (and close a valve near
                  the compressor if the compressor begins to relieve the system pressure through and automatic bleed). It is
                  important to assure that there are no plant processes taking air from the system at the time of this test—the
                  only  thing relieving the pressure should be leaks.  If there is not an operating plant pressure gage in the
                  system, a cheap one and a collection of bayonet fittings should be at hand so the gage can be attached to the
                  end of one of the plant's supply hoses.
                          One  should monitor the pressure decay as a function of time for about a 10 psi drop and then
                  measure the sizes of the major receivers/accumulators  and major air headers.  The pressure drop test never
                  takes more than 15 minutes,  and usually  less.  Measuring the size of major receivers and air lines is a short
                  job for an experienced student.  Small lines (1.5 inch or less) can be ignored an leaving them out makes the
                  result conservative.
                          Application of the perfect gas law will yield the leak rate in scfm.  Then one can turn to a reference
                  like the DOE/C/40520-TZ by  Varigas Research to get compressor hp required per scfm.  It is possible to
                  correct the 100 psig data there to other pressures.
                          This is a much better procedure than listening for leaks and 'quantifying' them by ear as  to such
                  things as 'roar',  'gush', 'whisper', etc. because the leak rate is reasonably quantified in a conservative way.  It
                  has the disadvantage of leaving the Assessment Team clueless about the cost of repair, which must then be
                  estimated.   It is a good practice to listen for the big leaks and  to try to see what is causing them to aid in
                  eliminating costs.
                          This procedure, along with a couple of other common projects is covered in two recent publications:
                          "Five Common Energy  Conservation Projects in Small- and Medium-Sized Industrial Plants," 15th
                  National Industrial  Energy Technology  Conference," Houston, TX, March, 1993, by Darin W.   Nutter,
                  Angela!. Britton, and WarrenM. Heffington, pp. 112-120.
                254                         Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                            Prime Movers of Energy: Air Compressors
        The same article was rewritten for Chemical Engineering. The reference is:

        "Conserve Energy to Cut Operating Costs," Chemical Engineering, September, 1993, pp.  126- 137,
same authors.

8.3.4   Cooling Water Heat Recovery

        Air compressors, 100 hp and larger, are often cooled by water from a cooling tower. The temperature
of the  water after leaving the cooling  coils of the compressor may be sufficiently high that heat can be
extracted from the water and used in a process.  For example, boiler feed water could be preheated by using
waste heat from water used to cool the compressor. Preheating make-up water displaces boiler fuel that would
ordinarily be used to heat the make-up water.

                     Exhibit 8.13: Waste Water Heat Recovery: Costs and Benefits
     Notes
Options1
Water Waste
Heat
Recovery
Installed Costs
($)2
16,171
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
3,306
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
14,676
Simple Payback
(yr)
1.1
    1.   Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database and represent HOT
        waste water rate for this measure was 41%.

    2.   One example from the IAC database to further clarify  the costs is as follows:  Installing a heat
        exchanger to recover heat from waste water to heat-incoming city water resulted in energy savings of
        145 MMBtu/yr, cost savings  of $777/yr, and an implementation cost  of $2,600, giving  a simple
        payback of 3.4 years.

    3.   The energy cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the center,
        which are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.

8.3.5   Compressor Controls

        Screw compressors may consume up to 80% of their rated power output when they are running at less
than full capacity.  This  is because many screw compressors are controlled by closing throttling valves.  The
inlet throttling valve on  a typical throttled-inlet, screw-type  compressor is partially closed in response to a
reduced air system demand. The pressure rise across the compression portion of the unit does not decrease to
zero, and thus power is still required by the unit. Accordingly, an older unit will continue to operate at 80% to
90% and a  new unit at 40% to 60% of its full load capacity horsepower.  When several screw-type air
compressors are being used, it is more efficient to shut off the units based on decreasing load than to allow the
units to idle, being careful not to exceed the maximum recommended starts/hour for the compressor. Modular
systems that conserve energy by  operating several small compressors that are brought on-line as needed
instead of operating one large compressor continuously are often found in retrofit and new installations.

                     Exhibit 8.14: Screw Compressor Controls: Costs and Benefits
Options 1
Modify
Screw
Compressor
Controls
Installed Costs
($)2
3,463
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
342
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
5,074
Simple Payback
(yr)
0.7
    1.   Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database.  All values are
        averages based on the database data.  The implementation rate for this measure was 48%.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
255

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               Prime Movers of Energy: Air Compressors
Notes
    2.   One example from the IAC database to further clarify the costs is as follows: Installing controls on a
        100 hp compressor resulted in energy savings of 128,600 kWh and a cost savings of $6,750/yr, at an
        implementation cost of $1,500.

    3.   The energy cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported  to IAC from the center,
        which are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.

8.3.6   Outside Air Usage

        The amount of work done by an air compressor is proportional to the temperature of the intake air.
Less energy is needed to compress cool air than to compress warm air. On average, outside air is cooler than
in inside a compressor room.  This is often the case even on very hot days. Piping can often be installed so
that cooler  outside air can be supplied to the intake on the compressor. This is particularly simple and cost-
effective if the compressor is located adjacent to an exterior wall.

        The energy  and cost savings are dependent on the size of the compressor, the load factor, and the
number of hours during  which the compressor is used. The load factor is the average fraction of the rated
load at which the compressor operates.  The payback period is nearly always less than two years.  The load
factor is fairly constant  for compressors that operate only when they are actually  compressing air.   Most
reciprocating compressors  are operated in this manner.  When on,  they operate with fairly constant power
consumption, usually nearly equal to their rated power consumption; when they are cycled off, the power
consumption is zero.  Screw compressors are  often operated in a different manner.  When  loaded (i.e.,
actually compressing air), they operate near their rated power, but when compressed  air requirements are met,
they are not cycled off but continue to rotate and are "unloaded." Older screw compressors may consume as
much as 85% of their rated power during this unloaded state.   Therefore, if a screw compressor is to be
operated continuously, it should be matched closely to the compressed air load that  it supplies.  Often, plant
personnel purchase compressors having several times the required power rating.  This may be done for a
variety of reasons, but often in anticipation of expansion of the facility and a commensurate increase in the
compressed air requirements.

                         Exhibit 8.15: Outside Air Usage: Costs and Benefits
Options1
Outside Air
Usage
Installed Costs
($)2
593
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
82
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
1,246
Simple Payback
(yr)
0.5
                      1.  Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database.  All values are
                         averages based on the database data. The implementation rate for this measure was 52%.

                      2.  One example from the IAC database to further clarify the costs is as follows: Supplying outside air
                         to the intakes of three air compressors (100 hp, 75 hp, and 50 hp) resulted in energy and cost savings
                         of 10,050 kWh and $4907 yr.  The implementation cost was $780.

                      3.  The energy cost  savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the center,
                         which are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.

                 8.3.7  Compressor Replacement

                         It is often advantageous to  install a smaller compressor to more closely match the compressed air
                 requirements normally met  by  oversized  or large compressors, for processes that  have  periods of low
                 compressed air usage.  A smaller compressor  will reduce energy usage  and associated costs because the
                 smaller compressor will operate at a better efficiency than the larger compressor when air requirements are
                 low.  Generally pre-1975 stationary screw-type compressors, if  oversized for  the  load, will run unloaded
                 much of the time when the load is low.  They are unloaded by closing the inlet valve and hence are referred to
                 as modulating inlet type  compressors.  Based on manufacturers' data, these compressors can consume as
                 much as 85% of the full load horsepower when running  unloaded.  Some pre- and  post-1975 compressor
                 manufacturers have developed systems that close the inlet valve but also release the oil reservoir pressure and
               256
                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                            Prime Movers of Energy: Air Compressors
reduce oil flow to the compressor.  Other strategies have also been developed but are not usually found on
older  (pre-1975) screw-type compressors.  The unloaded horsepower for screw compressors operating with
these  types of systems typically ranges from 80% to  90% of the full load horsepower for older compressors
and from 40% to 60% for newer compressors, depending on the particular design and conditions. In any event,
if the compressed air requirements are reduced during particular periods (such as a third shift), but are not
eliminated entirely, then installing a smaller compressor to provide the air requirements during these periods
can be cost-effective.

                          Exhibit 8.16: Optimum Sized Equipment: Costs and Benefits
Options1
Compressor
Replacement
Installed Costs
($)2
11,826
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
975
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
9,828
Simple Payback
(yr)
1.2
                                                                                                      Notes
    1.   Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database.  All values are
        averages based on the database data. The implementation rate for this measure was 39%.

    2.   One example from  the IAC database to further clarify the costs  is  as follows: A manufacturer of
        computer peripheral equipment replaced a 200 hp air compressor with a 75 hp air compressor.  The
        energy savings were $61,850 kWh and the cost savings were $2,725.  The implementation costs were
        $4,000.

    3.   The energy cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as  reported to IAC from the center,
        which are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.

8.3.8   Low-Pressure Blowers

        Compressed air  is  sometimes  used to  provide  agitation of liquids, to  control vibration units for
material handling (as air lances), and for other low-pressure pneumatic mechanisms.  For such purposes, it is
more efficient to use a blower to provide the required low-pressure air  stream.  Use of low-pressure air from
the blower would  reduce energy consumption  by eliminating the practice of  compressing  air and then
expanding it back to low pressure for use.

                        Exhibit 8.17: Reduce Compressed Air Usage:  Costs and Benefits1
Options1
Low
Pressure
Blowers
Installed Costs
($)2
3,023
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
404
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
5,677
Simple Payback
(yr)
0.5
    1.
    2.
        Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database.  All values are
        averages based on the database data.  The implementation rate for this measure was 54%.
        One example from the IAC database to further clarify the costs is as follows: A plating facility added
        a low pressure blower.  The energy savings  were $41,000  kWh/yr and the cost savings were
        $3,200/yr.  The implementation cost was $5,000.

    3.   The energy cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the  center,
        which are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.

8.3.9   General Notes on Air Compressors

    1.   Screw units use 40-100% of rated power unloaded.

    2.   Reciprocating units are more efficient, more expensive.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                                                 257

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               Prime Movers of Energy: Air Compressors

JT ,                  3.   About 90% of energy consumption becomes heat (10%).
                     4.   RULE OF THUMB: Roughly 20 hp per 100 cfm @ 100 psi.
                     5.   Synchronous belts generally are not appropriate (cooling fins, pulley size).
                     6.   Use low  pressure blowers vs. compressed air whenever  possible (agitation, heat guns, pneumatic
                         transfer, etc.).
                     7.   Cost of air leaks surprisingly high.
                     8.   Second, third, weekend shifts may have low air needs that could be served by smaller compressor.
                     9.   Outside air is cooler, denser, easier to compress than warm inside air.
                     10. Using synthetic lubricants can reduce friction.
                     11. Older compressors are driven by older, less efficient motors.
                     12. Compressors may be cooled with chilled water or have reduced condenser capacity.
                 REFERENCES
                 1.   Compressed Gas Association, Handbook of Compressed Gases, Reinhold, 1966
                 2.   White, F.G, Industrial Air Compressors, Foulis, 1967
                 3.   Janna, W.S., Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, PWS Publishing Company, 1993
                 4.   Wolanski, W., Negoshian, J., and Henke, R., Fundamentals of Fluid Power, Houghton Miffin, 1977
                 5.   Anderson B., The Analysis and Design of Pneumatic Systems, John Wiley and Sons, 1967
                 7.   Fluid Power Handbook and Directory, Hydraulics And Pneumatics, 1994
                 8.   Marks' Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, McGraw-Hill, 1987
                 9.   Vacuum and Pressure Systems Handbook, Gast Manufacturing Corporation, 1986
                 10. A.H.  Shapiro, The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow, Vol 1, Ronald Press,
                     NY, 1953, p. 100.
                 11. Chapters 10 and  11,  Compressed Air and  Gas Handbook, Fifth Edition, Compressed Air and Gas
                     Institute, New Jersey,  1989.
                 12. Varigas Research, Inc., Compressed Air Systems, A Guidebook on Energy and Cost Savings, Timonium,
                     MD, 1984.
                 13. National Technical Information  Service, Compressed Air Systems, A Guidebook on Energy and Cost
                     Savings, #DOE/CS/40520-T2, March 1984.
                 14. American Consulting Engineers'  Council,  Industrial Market and Energy Management Guide, SIC 32,
                     Stone, Clay and Glass Products Industry, Washington, D.C. 1987, P. 111-30.
                 15. Turner, et.  al, Energy Management Handbook, John  Wiley and Sons, New York, NY, 1982, pp. 424-
                     425.
                 16. Witte, L.C., P.S.  Schmidt,  D.R. Braun, Industrial Energy Management and Utilization, Hemisphere
                     Publishing Corp., Washington, D.C., 1988, pp. 433 - 437.
                 17. Baumeister, T., L.S. Marks,  eds.,  Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 7th Edition, McGraw-
                     Hill Book Co., New York, NY, 1967, pp. 14.42 - 14.61.
               258                         Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                              Thermal Applications:  Cooling Systems
                   CHAPTER 9.  THERMAL APPLICATIONS

This chapter discusses thermal applications and equipment such as cooling towers, adsorption refrigeration,
mechanical refrigeration, and insulation.  A description of each application and equipment, its general uses,
operation, and common opportunities for energy conservation are presented.


9.1    Cooling Systems

        For process cooling it is always best from the standpoint of energy conservation to use the lowest
form of energy first.  That is, for a piece of equipment or a process that is air cooled, first use outside air (an
economizer) if the outside air temperature is low enough.  The next step, in appropriate climates, would be to
use direct evaporative cooling.  This is a process in which air passing through water droplets (a swamp
cooler) is cooled, as energy from the air is released through evaporation of the water. Evaporative cooling is
somewhat more energy intensive than the economizer but still provides some relatively inexpensive cooling.
The increase in energy use is due to the need to pump water. Indirect evaporative cooling is the next step up
in energy use.  Air in a heat exchanger is cooled by a  second stream  of  air or water that  has been
evaporatively cooled, such as by a cooling tower and coil.  Indirect evaporative cooling may be effective if
the wet-bulb temperature is fairly  low.   The wet-bulb temperature is  the  temperature indicated by  a
thermometer for which the bulb is covered by a film of water. As the film of water evaporates, the bulb is
cooled.  High wet-bulb temperatures  correspond to higher air saturation conditions. For example, dry air has
the ability to absorb more moisture than humid air, resulting in a lower, wet-bulb temperature.

        Indirect evaporative cooling involves both a cooling tower and swamp cooler, so more energy will
be used than for the economizer and evaporative cooling systems because of the pumps and fans associated
with the cooling tower.  However, indirect cooling systems  are still less energy intensive than systems that
use a chiller. The final step would be to bring a chiller on line.

        Many plants have chillers that provide cooling for various plant processes.   Chillers consist of a
compressor,  an evaporator, an expansion valve, and a condenser.   Chillers are classified as reciprocating
chillers, screw chillers, or centrifugal chillers, depending on the type of compressor used.  Reciprocating
chillers are usually used in smaller systems (up to 25 tons [88 kW]) but can be used in systems as large as 800
tons (2800 kW).  Screw chillers are available  for the 80 tons  to 800 tons range (280 kW to 2800 kW) but are
normally used  in the 200 tons to 800 tons range (700 kW to  2800  kW).  Centrifugal chillers are available in
the 200 tons to 800 tons range  and are also used for very large systems (greater than 800 tons [2800 kW]).
The evaporator is a tube-and-shell heat exchanger used to transfer heat to evaporate the refrigerant.  The
expansion valve is usually some form of regulating valve (such as a pressure, temperature, or liquid-level
regulator), according to the type of control used. The condenser is most often a tube-and-shell heat exchanger
that transfers heat from the system to the atmosphere or to cooling water.

        This section contains information pertaining to cooling systems, particularly chiller systems.  Refer to
Brief #4 "Outside Air Economizers,"  Brief #5, "Evaporative Cooling," Brief #6, "Cool Storage," and Bnef #7,
"Heat  Recovery from  Chillers" in  DSM Pocket  Guidebook, Volume 2:  Commercial  Technologies  for
information relating  to cooling systems that may be found in industry.  Topics discussed in this section
include condenser water  and chilled water  temperature reset at the chiller,  hot-gas defrost of chiller
evaporator coils, and two-speed motors for cooling tower fans.

9.1.1       Cooling Towers

        The most common types of cooling  towers dissipate heat by evaporation of water that is trickling
from different levels of the tower.  Usually the water is sprayed into the air, so the evaporation  is easier.
Cooling towers conserve water, prevent discharge of heated water into natural streams and also avoid treating
large  amount  of make-up water.  The wet-bulb  temperature should not exceed the maximum expected
temperature, which occurs in the summer.  In the past, most cooling towers were atmospheric.  They relied on
natural air circulation, making them  not very efficient in their cooling capacity.  In addition, high pumping
heads were required to force the water to a certain height and let it run down on the system of platforms after
spraying.  The spray losses were substantial and make-up water was required in significant amounts. Exhibit
9.1 gives an example of two types of towers and their energy requirements.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                         259
Notes

-------
               Thermal Applications: Cooling Systems
Notes
        Three types of towers are widely used today.   Mechanical forced-draft towers (see Exhibit 9.2),
induced draft towers (see Exhibit 9.3) and hyperbolic. Mechanical forced-draft is designed to provide an air
supply at ground level and at amounts that are easily controlled by fans.  Unfortunately,  there are some
problems with this design as well. Firstly, it is a non-uniform distribution of air over the area.

             Exhibit 9.1: Comparison of F.D. Blower Tower vs. Propeller Tower for 400 Tons
Cooling
Tower Type
Counter flow
with Blower
Crossflow
w/Propeller
Operating
Fan Motor
(hp)
40

20

Fan Motor
kW1
32.4

16.2

Tower Pump
Head
ft2
23

10

Additional
Pump Motor
kW3
6.9

3.0

Total
Operating
kW
39.3

19.2

                           1.   Fan and pump motor efficiencies assumed to be 92%.

                           2.   That portion of total pump attributable to the cooling tower;  sum of static lift plus losses in
                               tower's internal water distribution system.

                           3.   Pump efficiency assumed to be 82%.

                                            Exhibit 9.2: Mechanical Forced-Draft Cooling Tower
                                    Water
                                    Sprays
                                                                                                     Water
                                                                                                      Out
                             Secondly, the vapor is recirculated from the discharge into the inlet causing ice formation on the
                     blades of draft fans, when the temperatures drop low enough in the winter months.  Thirdly, the physical
                     limitations of the fan size might prove a problem.

                             In case of induced-draft towers the  fan mounted on the top of the roof.  This arrangement
                     improves air distribution  and  less make-up water is needed.  The hyperbolic tower is based on the
                     chimney  effect.  The  effect of the chimney eliminates the need for fans that are necessary for both
                     induced-draft and mechanical forced-draft cooling towers.  If the tower is of a substantial height, above
               260
                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                              Thermal Applications:  Cooling Systems
    250 feet, the tower orientation should be with the broad side to the winds that are prevailing in the region.
    Shorter towers should have long axis parallel to the prevailing winds.
                                                                      Notes
                 Water »
Exhibit 9.3: Induced Draft Cooling Tower

          Air Out          f              Wats? Li-
                                  Exhibit 9.4: Free Cooling/Air Preheat
             Qytside
             Air
                                                             40
                                              Heated Air
                                             45
                                                     Exchanger
                                         501=
                                                                                 Chiliad
                                                                                 Water
                                                                                 System
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                 261

-------
               Thermal Applications: Cooling Systems
Notes
                                                  Exhibit 9.5: Indirect Free Cooling Loop
                                            Coding To

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                               Exhibit 9.6: Free Cooling (Water Side Economizer) Define Operating Conditions

Comfort Cooling Data
Processing
Total Load
Peak Load Design Conditions
700 Tons
SOOTons
1000 Tons

Flow Rate
Returning Temperature
Leaving Temperature
2400 GPM
55°F
45°F
Off Season Design
Conditions
200Tons
300 Tons
500 Tons
Alternate
Number 1
1200 GPM
60°F
SOT
Alternate
Number 2
2400 GPM
60°F
55°F
               262
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                              Thermal Applications: Cooling Systems
    9.1.2   Typical Performance Improvements

            The  improvements in the area of cooling  water are  listed  in this section.   The thorough
    understanding of the operation and knowing all local conditions (temperatures, prevailing winds etc.) are
    the key for being able to make a valuable contribution.
    9.1.2.1
Condenser Water Temperature Adjustment
            The power consumption of any chiller increases as the condensing water temperature rises.
    Condensing water is water that has been cooled in a cooling tower to be used to condense vaporized
    refrigerant in the condenser.  This is because, as the condenser temperature increases, the pressure rise
    across the  compressor  increases and, consequently, the work done by the compressor increases.
    Condensing water temperature set points are typically in the range between 65°F and 85°F, but can be as
    low as 60°F. In many cases the setpoint temperature is in the middle of the range, at abou
    of thumb is that there is a 0.5% improvement in chiller efficiency for each degree Fahrenheit decrease in
    the setpoint temperature for the condenser  water.  The improvement tends to be higher near the upper
    range of setpoint temperatures  and decreases as the setpoint temperature decreases.  The amount of
    allowable decrease in the setpoint temperature must be determined by a detailed engineering analysis.
    This analysis should include the following: the system capacity, minimum  requirements for the plant
    process served by the condenser water system,  and number  of hours per year that the wet bulb
    temperature is below a given value.

                Exhibit 9.7: Condenser Water Supply Temperature Reset: Costs and Benefit
Options1
Condenser
Installed Costs
($)2
2,678
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
489
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
6,217
Simple Payback
(yr)
0.4
                                                                                      Notes
        1.   Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database.  All values
            are averages based on the database data. The implementation rate for this measure was 67%.

        2.   One  example from the IAC data base to further clarify the costs  is as follows: Resetting the
            condenser water temperature an electronics plant resulted in energy and cost savings of 58,218
            kWh/yr and $2,390/yr.  The implementation cost was $200.

        3.   The  energy  cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the
            center, which are usually almost identical to  actual savings reported from the facility.
    9.1.2.2
Chilled Water Supply Temperature Adjustment
            The efficiency of chillers increases as the chilled water temperature increases.  This is because,
    in order to obtain lower chilled water temperature, the refrigerant must be compressed at a higher rate,
    which in turn increases the compressor power requirements and decreases the efficiency of the chiller.
    There is  approximately a 1% increase in efficiency for  each degree Fahrenheit  increase in the chilled
    water setpoint temperature.  The efficiency increase tends to be higher near the lower temperatures in the
    setpoint range and decreases as the setpoint temperature increases.  The amount of allowable increase
    must be determined by a detailed engineering analysis  that evaluates the  load requirements from the
    chiller, the design chilled water temperature, and other aspects of the system. It is not uncommon to find
    chilled water setpoints that are lower than is required from industrial chillers.

                 Exhibit 9.8:  Chilled Water Supply Temperature Reset: Costs and Benefits
Options1
Condenser
Water Supply
Temp Reset
Installed Costs
($)2
766
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
384
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
4,449
Simple Payback
(yr)
0.2
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               Thermal Applications:  Cooling Systems
Notes
                         1.   Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database. All values
                             are averages based on the database data. The implementation rate for this measure was 57%.

                         2.   One  example from the IAC  data base to further clarify the costs is as follows:  Resetting the
                             chilled water temperature in a manufacturing plant resulted in energy savings of 39 MMBtu/yr,
                             a cost savings of $537/yr, and no implementation cost, thus giving an  immediate payback.

                         3.   The  energy cost savings are based  on proposed dollar savings as  reported to IAC  from the
                             center, which are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.

                     9.1.2.3      Variable Speed (or Two-Speed) Motors for Cooling Tower Fans

                             Cooling tower performance is affected by the outdoor wet-bulb temperature. Higher wet-bulb
                     temperatures  correspond to higher air saturation temperatures.  As air loses the ability to extract heat
                     from water droplets flowing through a cooling tower (increasing wet-bulb temperature), a higher air flow
                     rate is required to remove the desired  amount and reduce  the condenser water to the design temperature.
                     The cooling water fan motor is often sized to perform under design conditions (i.e., full water flow rate at
                     maximum air flow rate and  design wet-bulb  temperature).  During periods  of lower outdoor wet-bulb
                     temperature, the design amount of cooling can be obtained with lower air flow rates. As the air flow rate
                     decreases, the fan speed and the motor power requirements also decrease. It may then be beneficial to
                     install a two-speed motor for the cooling tower fan to reduce the fan motor power consumption.  Two-
                     speed motors may be part of new or retrofit construction. Savings for the addition of a two-speed fan
                     motor are estimated based on the number of hours per year that the wet-bulb occur at various temperature
                     ranges between design wet-bulb and minimum wet-bulb temperatures and the power requirements for
                     various air flow rates.  It  should also be noted that variable speed drives for fan motors achieve cooling
                     tower energy  savings in the same manner as two-speed motors.

                                  Exhibit 9.9: Two-Speed Motors on Cooling Tower Fans: Costs and Benefits1
Options1
Two Speed
Motors on
Cooling
Tower Fans
Installed Costs
(S)2
4,179
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
164
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
2,400
Simple Payback
(yr)
1.7
                         1.   Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial  Assessment Center (IAC) database in 1994.
                             Today the database does not have a separate category for this item.  The implementation rate for
                             this measure was 20%.

                         2.   One example from the IAC data base to further clarify the costs is as  follows:  Installing two-
                             speed motors on the cooling towers at a plastic  film extrusion plant resulted in energy and cost
                             savings of 58,335 kWh/yr and $2,680/yr.  The implementation cost was $8,900.

                         3.   The energy cost savings are based on actual dollar savings as reported to IAC from the facility
                             when compared to one-speed motors.

                     9.1.2.4      Hot Gas Defrost

                             Frost builds up on air cooler unit (freezer) evaporator coils when the unit operates at less than
                     32°F.  Frost is the result of moisture in the  air freezing to the coil as the air passes over the coil.   The
                     performance of the coil is adversely affected by  frost. Frost acts as an insulator and reduces the heat
                     transfer capability of the coil, and it restricts airflow through the coil.  Frost buildup is unavoidable and
                     must be removed periodically from the coil.

                             One method of frost removal is to use the hot refrigerant discharge  gas leaving the compressor.
                     During the defrost cycle, hot gas is circulated through the coil to melt the frost.  Hot-gas defrost systems
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                                                               Thermal Applications:  Cooling Systems
    may be used for all cooling unit capacities and may be included in new or retrofit construction.  For
    retrofit  applications, hot-gas defrost systems most often replace electric resistance defrost systems.
    Using waste heat off the hot-gas side for defrost may result in savings on the order of 10% to 20% of the
    total system usage.

                          Exhibit 9.10: Temperature vs. Time of Blower Operation
      Notes
                     0    1000    ZQW   30»    WOO    5000    6000    70W    8000   WOO
                                                     Hours
                         Exhibit 9.11: Evaporator Coils Defrost: Costs and Benefits
Options1
Hot Gas
Defrost
Installed Costs
($)2
9,750
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
489
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
6,656
Simple Payback
(yr)
1.4
    1.   Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database All values are
        averages based on the database data.

    2.   One example from the IAC database to further clarify the costs is as follows: Installing a hot-gas
        defrost system in a dairy resulted in energy and cost savings of 20,500 kWh/yr. and $l,070/yr. The
        implementation cost was $2,500.

    3.   The energy cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the center,
        which are usually almo st identical to actual savings reported from the facility.


9.2    Absorption Refrigeration

        Packaged absorption  liquid chillers are used to produce chilled  liquid for air-conditioning and
industrial  refrigeration processes.  The chillers  are usually powered  by low-pressure  steam or hot water,
which can be supplied by the plant boiler or by waste heat from a process.

        Where prime energy is needed, mechanical refrigeration is usually  preferable.  The conditions that
favor the application of absorption refrigeration are the availability of a source of waste heat. Absorption
refrigeration may also have application in special situations, as for example  a high electrical demand charge
with a ratchet clause in the rate schedule.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
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               Thermal Applications: Absorption Refrigeration
Notes
9.2.1   Operation

        In the absorption cycle, two distinct chemicals are used and the cycle is driven by heat. The most
common absorption system fluids are water as the volatile fluid and lithium bromide brine as the absorber
fluid.  Exhibit 9.12 illustrates the operation of a two-stage absorption chiller. Refrigerant enters the top of the
lower shell from the condenser section and mixes with refrigerant being supplied from the refrigerant pump.
Here the liquid sprays over the evaporator bundle.  Due to the low vacuum (6 mm Hg) some of the refrigerant
liquid vaporizes, cooling the refrigerant water to a temperature that corresponds closely to the shell pressure.

                              Exhibit 9.12: Two-Stage Absorption Chiller
                         As the refrigerant vapor/liquid migrates to the bottom half of the shell, a concentrated solution of
                 liquid bromide is sprayed into the flow of descending refrigerant.  The hygroscopic action between lithium
                 bromide  (a salt with  an especially strong attraction for water)  and water-and the related changes in
                 concentration and temperature-result in the extreme vacuum in the evaporator directly above.

                         Dissolving lithium bromide in water also gives off heat that is removed by the cooling water.  The
                 resultant dilute lithium bromide solution  collects in the bottom of the absorber where it flows down to the
                 solution pump.

                         The dilute mixture of lithium bromide and refrigerant vapor is pumped through the heat exchangers,
                 where it is preheated by a hot, concentrated solution from the concentrators (generators).  The solution  then
                 flows to the first-stage concentrator where it is heated by an external heat source of steam or hot water.  The
                 condenser water used in the absorber and the condenser is normally returned to a cooling tower.

                         The vapor is condensed in the second concentrator where the liquid refrigerant flows to the lower
                 shell and is once again sprayed over the evaporator. The  concentrated solution of lithium bromide from the
                 concentrators is returned to the solution pump where it is recycled to the absorber.

                         The degree of affinity of the  absorbent for refrigerant vapor is a function of the concentration and
                 temperature of the absorbent solution.  Accordingly, the capacity of the machine is a function  of the
                 temperature of the heat source and cooling water (see Exhibit 9.13).

                         Two-stage absorption requires higher water temperature or steam  pressure, but because no additional
                 heat is required in the second concentrator, two-stage absorption machines are 30 percent to 40 percent more
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                                                         Thermal Applications: Absorption Refrigeration
efficient. However, two-stage absorption machines cost significantly more than single-stage absorption units
on an equal tonnage basis.

9.2.1.1  Capacity

        Modern absorption refrigeration units range in capacity from about 100 tons to 1,600 tons for chilled
water service.  Most ratings are based on a minimum chilled water outlet temperature of 40°F, a minimum
condenser water temperature of 70°F at the absorber inlet,  and a generator steam pressure of 12 psig.  Hot
water or hot process fluids can be used in lieu of steam for the generator; however, the fluid inlet temperature
must be at least 240°F for maximum capacity.

           Exhibit 9.13: Capacity as Function of Temperature of Heat Source and Cooling Water
                      12-
                 to
                 2

                 I
                 
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               Thermal Applications: Absorption Refrigeration
Notes
        Although absorption refrigeration machines are generally more difficult to operate and require more
maintenance than  reciprocating  and centrifugal machines, they allow waste  stream  to  be utilized more
efficiently and in the proper application can result in substantial energy savings.

9.2.1.3  Direct-Fired Two-Stage Absorption Refrigeration

        A recent development is the use of direct gas firing or waste heat as the energy source in lieu of
steam. The gas stream must be 550°F  for use in this  application.  Possible sources are drying ovens, heat-
treating facilities,  paint-baking ovens, process ovens, or any process which gives off a clean, high-
temperature exhaust gas.  A special advantage of this unit is that it can be directly integrated into a packaged
cogeneration system.

               Exhibit 9.14: Cost Comparison of Mechanical and Absorption Refrigeration
Mechanical Refrigeration
Typical hp required
Cost/ton-hr
Absorption Refrigeration
Typical Steam Required for single-stage
Cost/ton-hr
Typical steam required for two -stage
Cost/ton-hr
Typical gas required for direct-fired,
two -stage
Cost/ton-hr
= lhp/ton
=$0.041

=181bs@14psig/ton
=18 Ibs/hr x S4.01/M Ibs steam
= $0.072
=12 Ibs/hr @ 14 psig/ton
= 12 Ibs/hr x S4.01/M Ibs. Steam =$0.048
=13,OOOBtu/ton
=13,000 Btu/hrx $3.00/MMBtu
= $0.039
                         Exhibit 9.14 shows a cost comparison of mechanical vs. absorption refrigeration.  The attractiveness
                 of absorption refrigeration depends on the relative cost of electricity and fuel if prime energy is used, or the
                 availability of waste heat, which requires no prime energy.  With the unit costs selected for the manual, the
                 two-stage absorption is slightly more costly to operate than mechanical refrigeration.  Where waste heat can
                 be utilized, absorption refrigeration is, of course, the obvious choice.

                         In considering the use of waste heat for absorption refrigeration, it is worth a reminder that the first
                 step  should be to  determine whether reducing or eliminating the waste  heat is possible.  A common
                 application is  the use of absorption refrigeration to utilize  steam vented to atmosphere.  However, in most
                 cases a thorough study of the steam system will identify means of balancing the system to eliminate the loss
                 of steam.


                 9.3    Mechanical Refrigeration

                         Refrigeration machines provide chilled water or other fluid for both process aid  air conditioning
                 needs. Of the  three basic types of refrigeration systems (mechanical  compression, absorption, and steam jet),
                 mechanical compression is the type generally used.  The other two have application only in special situations.

                         Absorption refrigeration is discussed in the previous section. The energy requirements of the steam
                 jet refrigeration unit are high when compared with those for mechanical compression; therefore, the use of
                 steam jet  refrigeration is limited to applications having very low cost steam at 125 psig, a low condenser
                 water cost, and a high electrical cost.  With today's energy costs, this  type of system is rarely economical.

                 9.3.1   Mechanical Compression

                         The  mechanical compression refrigeration  system  consists  of  four basic parts; compressor,
                 condenser, expansion device, and evaporator.  The basic system is shown in Exhibit 9.15. A  refrigerant, with
                 suitable characteristics, is circulated within the  system.  Low-pressure liquid refrigerant is evaporated in the
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                                                      Thermal Applications: Mechanical Refrigeration
evaporator (cooler), thereby removing heat from the warmer fluid being cooled. The low-pressure refrigerant
vapor is compressed to a higher pressure and a correspondingly higher saturation temperature. This higher
pressure and temperature vapor is condensed in the condenser by a cooling medium such as  cooling tower
water, river water, city water, or outdoor air.  The higher pressure and temperature refrigerant liquid is then
reduced in pressure by an expansion device for delivery to the evaporator.

                      Exhibit 9.15: Mechanical Compression Refrigeration System


xpansion
Device


)
*
Condenser

Hot Gas -x i
^ \
(OphonaJ) \
^—^.A.
Fluid for
Condensing
,
Compressor
                                      Evaporator
_Fiuid to
 be Cooled
                                      Notes
        Reciprocating chiller compressors are generally  used below 200 tons.   Screw compressors  are
generally economical in the 300- to 800-ton range but are available as low as 40 tons.  Centrifugal units are
usually used for larger installations but are available in a broad range of capacities (75 to 5,000 tons or more).

        Reciprocating compressors offer the  lowest power requirement per ton of refrigeration.  A typical
difference at 100-ton capacity  is  1.00 kW/ton for a centrifugal versus  0.80 kW/ton for a  reciprocating
machine.  Although the reciprocating unit is more energy efficient, the savings are not sufficient to justify
replacement in a normal situation.

        The characteristics of a  centrifugal  compressor make it  ideal  for  air conditioning applications
because it is suitable for variable  loads, has few  moving parts, and is economical to operate.  The power
requirement of the centrifugal compressor is about 0.75 kW/ton when 45°F chilled water is produced, and it
requires 3 gpm/ton of condenser water.  Mechanical  compressors are normally driven by an electric motor
although many installations utilize a steam turbine drive.

9.3.2   Methods to Reduce Costs

        The ultimate users of the cooling system and the distribution system, as well as the refrigeration
machines, must operate the systems efficiently.  The following steps will lead to the most energy-efficient
operation of the refrigeration system.

    1.   Use refrigeration efficiently.

    2.   Operate at the lowest possible condenser temp erature/pressure  (lowest entering condenser water
        temperature).

    3.   Operate at the highest possible evaporator temperature/pressure (highest leaving  chilled-water
        temperature); do not overcool.

    4.   Operate multiple compressors economically.

    5.   Recover heat rejected in the condenser.

    6.   Use a hot  has bypass only when necessary.
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               Thermal Applications:  Mechanical Refrigeration
Notes
9.3.2.1  Use Refrigeration Efficiently

        The most direct saving will obviously result from shutting down the equipment when refrigeration is
not required.   Short of shutting down equipment, the refrigeration load may be reduced by ensuring the
cooling medium  is utilized efficiently  at the point of use.  A typical  problem is overcooling.   Other
unnecessary losses are inadequate insulation or poor operating practices such as simultaneous heating and
cooling.

        A reduction in refrigeration load will, of course, reduce the operation of the refrigeration machines,
including the associated pumps and cooling  towers.  Economizer cycles on air conditioning units will also
permit early shutdown  of refrigeration machines.  Refer to the HVAC section for details of economizer cycle
operation.

9.3.2.2  Reduce the Condensing Temperature (Pressure)

        The most significant method to reduce  compressor horsepower (aside from load reduction) is to
lower the condensing temperature (pressure).  Typically, efficiency improves about 1.5 percent for each 1
degree decrease in refrigerant condensing temperature.

        The pressure-enthalpy  diagram Exhibit  9.16 illustrates how energy  is conserved in the refrigerant
cycle (Carnot cycle). At point  1 the refrigerant liquid starts evaporating and absorbs heat from the cooling
load.  At point 2 all of the liquid is evaporated and emerges as a vapor. Between point 2 and 3 mechanical
work is performed to compress the working fluid in the compressor.  Between points  3 and 4, the vapor
passes to the condenser where heat is removed by the cooling water and the refrigerant returns to the liquid
state. Between points 4 to 1 the refrigerant experiences a drop in pressure induced by the expansion valve.
Lowering the condensing pressure lowers line 3- 4 to 3'-4', thereby reducing the load on the compressor.

        Opportunities  to  reduce  condensing temperature will exist when the cooling tower or air-cooled
condenser is  operating at less  than full capacity.  Because the cooling  tower or air-cooled condenser is
designed for summer conditions,  excess capacity should exist in the winter.   Rather than controlling to a
constant condensing temperature, the  lowest possible temperature consistent with the capability  of  the
refrigeration system should be used. Although additional costs are incurred for cooling, these are more than
offset  by  the  reduction in  compressor horsepower.   The condition of the  cooling tower  or  air-cooled
condenser is also important for obtaining minimum temperature.

                               Exhibit 9.16: Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram
                                                  -- Condensing JHea: trrswisij ttym  ^^  I.
                                                ^   rainperir.t -.n the csf;^^-ssff
                                                             Enthalpy
                         Although it is economical to  operate  at  a  lower-entering-condenser-water-temperature than the
                 design temperature, too low a condensing temperature reduces the pressure differential across the refrigerant
                 control (condensing pressure to vaporizing temperature), which reduces the capacity of the control and results
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                                                      Thermal Applications: Mechanical Refrigeration
in starving the evaporator and unbalancing the system. As a rule, the condenser temperature (refrigerant side)
should not be less than 75°F to 80°F, or less than 35°F above the refrigerant temperature in the evaporator.
        The partial-load power requirements of a typical centrifugal  refrigeration compressor at different
entering condenser water temperatures are shown in Exhibit 9.15.
        The  following  example  calculates the  annual  savings  from  reducing the  condenser  water
temperature.  A 1,000-ton refrigeration compressor rated at 750 kilowatts at full load is operating at a 700-ton
load.  The condenser water temperature is reduced from 85°F to 65°F during the five winter months.
        Percent design Load = (700 ton actual load) / (1,000 ton design load) x 100 = 70%
        From Exhibit 9.17, the percent of full load power at 70 percent design load is:
                At 85°F condenser water, 65.5 percent
                At 65°F condenser water, 60.0 percent
                Input kW at 85°F condenser water    = 750 x 65.6%
                                                     Notes
                Input kW at 65°F condenser water

                Savings
                Annual Savings
= 491
= 750x60.0%
= 450
= 41kW
= 41 kW x 6,000 hrs/yr x 5 mos/12 x 0.05 $/kWh
= $5,130
           Exhibit 9.17: Partial Load Requirement for Centrifugal Refrigeration Compressors
                     '-(SO
                      'JO
                      30  f
                      70
                      •80  f-
                      50
                      40
                      ,4
                                         -4-
                                                 -4-
                                         43       SO       .80
                                        ce«l &f 0«ssif n io«il
        Closely related  to  lower cooling water temperature is proper maintenance of the condensers.
Inadequate water treatment can lead to scaling which can decrease heat transfer through the heat exc hanger
tubes.   A  gradual increase in refrigerant temperature at constant  load  conditions is an early  signal of
condenser tube fouling.
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               Thermal Applications: Mechanical Refrigeration
Notes
9.3.2.3  Raise the Evaporator Temperature (Pressure)

        An increase in evaporator temperature  reduces the energy required by the refrigeration machine
because it must perform less work (reduced lift)  per ton of refrigeration produced.   The amount of energy
reduction  depends on  the  type  of refrigeration machine.   For a centrifugal machine, the reduction is
approximately  1  to  1.5 percent for each degree the  evaporator temperature increases at normal evaporator
temperatures for air conditioning.

        As shown in Exhibit  9.16 increasing  the evaporator temperature raises line 1-2 to l'-2', thereby
reducing the load on the compressor between points  2  and 3.   The effect is the  same as reducing the
compressor load by a reduction  in condensing pressure (temperature) described in  the previous method.
Consult the actual performance curve for the individual machine for a more accurate estimate of horsepower
reduction.

        In some cases a higher evaporator temperature may not be possible if it is fixed by production
requirements.  An opportunity  to increase the evaporator temperature (chilled water temperature) will exist
when the flow of chilled water to the various users is throttled. The throttle condition indicates that less than
full design flow is required by the  units to satisfy the load.  The chilled-water temperature can be increased
until it reaches the point at which any single user is requiring close to full flow.  The system temperature will
be controlled by the single user that first reaches full capacity.

        While some  saving  in  compressor power is obtained  by  increasing  the  leaving chilled-water
temperature, greater savings are possible with  a centrifugal compressor by changing the compressor speed.
The reason is that, at a constant speed, closing the pre-rotation vanes on the compressor raises the chilled-
water temperature.  This causes the reduction in power to be less than expected for the corresponding increase
in evaporating temperature.  The speed change could be accomplished by changing  gears; or if a variable
chilled-water temperature is appropriate, a variable-speed drive could be considered.

        To find the savings from an increase in the chilled-water temperature from 45°F to 50°F, use the
following  example.  The refrigeration machine  is  rated at 1,000 tons and  operates at an average load of 600
tons for five months per year.

        Conditions: input = 412 kW; 1,800 gpm condenser water and condenser water flow does not change.

        Annual Savings = 412 kW x (50°F - 45°F) x 1% x 6,000 hrs/yr. x 5 mos/12 x $0.05/kWh = $2,580

9.3.2.4  Operate Multiple Compressors Economically

        If an  installation has multiple refrigeration units, economic operation of these units can Educe
energy  consumption.   The operating characteristics of the compressors used will determine the most
economical mode of operation.  The power requirements of reciprocating compressors make their operation
more efficient  if one compressor is unloaded or shut  down before a second compressor is unloaded.  On the
other hand, the partial load requirements of a centrifugal compressor, as shown in Exhibit 9.17 make it more
economical to  operate two compressors at equal partial load than one compressor at full load and the second
at low load.  For example,  it is more economical to operate two  centrifugal compressors at 80 percent of
capacity than one at 100 percent and the second at 60 percent.

        The same approach can be used in the assignment of refrigeration machines to cooling equipment.  It
is important that the capacity of the refrigeration machine match the capacity of the cooling unit(s) it serves.
Therefore, in a system of multiple refrigeration machines and cooling units, care must be taken to assign the
refrigeration machines to the cooling units correctly.

        Where two or more refrigeration machines supply  separate chilled water systems and are located in
close proximity to each other  interconnection  of the chilled water systems can be  considered.  With this
modification, during periods of light loads one machine may be able to carry the load for  more than one
system.

        The following example illustrates the savings from operating two compressors equally loaded, based
on five months per year operation.  One centrifugal compressor rated at  1,000 tons, 750 kilowatts, and 85°F
entering condenser water temperature is operating at a 900-ton load and 75°F entering condenser water. A
second 1,000-ton compressor is not  running.
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                                                      Thermal Applications: Mechanical Refrigeration

        From Exhibit 9.17 you can see the percent of full-load power at 75°F entering condenser water is:         -^ .
                At 90 percent design load, 84.0 percent
                At 45 percent design load, 40.5 percent
                Input kW at 900 tons     =750kWx84%
                                        = 630kW
                Input kW (two units at 450 tons each)
                                        = 750 kW x 40.5% x 2 compressors
                                        = 608kW
                Savings                 =22kW
                Annual Savings         = 22 kW x 6,000 hrs/yr. x 5 mos/12 x $0.05/kWh
                                        = $2,750
9.3.2.5  Recover Heat
        Heat rejected at refrigeration machine condensers can be considered for recovery.  The amount of
heat rejected in the condenser is 12,000 Btu per hour plus the heat of compression is about 2,500 Btu/hr per
ton, giving a total heat  rejection  of about 14,500 Btu/hr per ton produced.  The use of a split condenser
permits partial recovery  of rejected heat. A split condenser uses two cooling water streams: a process stream
that is preheated in the first condenser and cooling tower water for the second condenser.  The preheating of a
process stream reduces the heating load on the cooling tower. This heat recovery scheme is applicable only if
the plant can use a low temperature heat source.
        In the  following example, a mechanical  compressor rated at 1,000 tons is operating five months a
year at an average 600-ton load. The savings from recovering 50 percent of the rejected heat to preheat water
now heated by a steam hot water heater are:
        Heat Rejected     = 600 tons x 14,500 Btu/ton-hr
                                = 8,700,000 Btu/hr
        Annual Savings  = 8,700,000 Btu/hr x 50% x 6,000 hrs/yr. x 5 mos/12 x $4.24 / 106 Btu
                         = $46,100
9.3.2.6  Reduce Operation of Hot-Gas Bypass
        On mechanical refrigeration machines, the primary elements for load controls are the suction damper
or vanes, and the hot-gas bypass that prevents compressor surge at low loads. The suction vanes are used to
throttle refrigerant gas flow to the compressor within the area of  stable compressor operation.  As load or
flow drops, where it approaches the  compressor surge point, the  hot-gas bypass is opened to maintain
constant gas flow through the compressor.  Below this load point for the hot-gas bypass, compressor flow,
suction, and  discharge conditions remain fairly  constant, so  that power consumption is nearly constant.
Obviously, opening the hot-gas bypass  too  soon, or having a leaking  hot-gas bypass valve, will  increase
operating cost (kilowatts per ton).
        It is not uncommon to find the bypass controls taken out of service, with the bypass set to maintain a
fixed opening and constantly recycle high-pressure refrigerant vapors to the suction side of the compressor.
A second frequent deficiency occurs when the hot-gas bypass is faulty or grossly oversized and is leaking. A
third source of energy loss is faulty load control,  which can cause improper operation of the hot-gas bypass
valve.  Considerable energy can be saved and capacity recouped if the defective hot-gas bypass valves and
their controls are corrected.
9.3.2.7  Optimize Refrigeration Performance
        The most basic approach to reducing refrigeration costs is to ensure that the refrigeration units are
operating  at maximum efficiency.  To monitor performance, each refrigeration  machine must have proper
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               Thermal Applications:  Mechanical Refrigeration
Notes
instrumentation.  This instrumentation includes flow meters for both the chilled water and the condenser
water, pressure gauges at the inlet and outlet of both the condenser and evaporator, and temperature wells in
both the inlet and outlet of the condenser and the evaporator.  These temperature wells should be located in
such a manner that a liquid can be placed in the well.  The temperature measuring device used to test the
equipment should read accurately to one-tenth of a degree.


9.4    Insulation

        Although not generally viewed as a part of the  mechanical design system, insulation is an important
part of every piece of equipment or building where any transfer of fluids or gases takes place and the their
temperature is required to be different then that of ambient air.  Properly insulated pipes, tanks and other
equipment can save thousands of dollars.

        There are  several opportunities in the industrial sector to realize energy  savings by  installing
insulation in manufacturing facilities.  Good insulation design and installation are very important in terms of
performance and energy efficiency.  It is essential  to determine the most appropriate type and thickness of
insulation for  specific applications.  The most cost-effective approaches involve insulating pipes and tanks.
These opportunities are described in this section.

9.4.1   Insulation of Pipes

        Every facility has piping of some type to carry fluids and gases to the place of use. Most often these
pipes carry hot and cold water used for restrooms  and  kitchen facilities.  In industrial applications piping is
used to transfer steam, hot water, and chilled water to various manufacturing applications.  Insulating the
pipes can reduce energy loss during transfer of these fluids and gases. Illustrations of the potential energy
savings from insulation of piping are given below.

                Exhibit 9.18: Recommended Thickness for Pipe and Equipment Insulation
Nominal
Size (in)
1
1.5
2
3
4
6
8
Pipe
Thickness
Heat Loss
Surface Temp
Thickness
Heat Loss
Surface Temp
Thickness
Heat Loss
Surface Temp
Thickness
Heat Loss
Surface Temp
Thickness
Heat Loss
Surface Temp
Thickness
Heat Loss
Surface Temp
Thickness
Heat Loss
Surface Temp
Process Temperature ('F)
150
1
11
73
1
14
73
1.5
13
71
1.5
16
72
1.5
19
72
2
21
71
2
26
71
250
1.5
21
76
2
22
74
2
25
75
2.5
28
74
o
3
29
73
3
38
74
3.5
42
73
350
2
30
78
2.5
33
77
o
3
24
75
3.5
39
75
4
42
74
4
54
75
4
65
76
450
2.5
41
80
3
45
79
3.5
47
77
5
54
77
4
63
78
4
81
79
4
97
80
550
3.5
49
79
4
54
79
4
61
79
4
75
81
4
88
82
4.5
104
82
5
116
81
650
4
61
81
4
73
82
4
81
83
4.5
94
83
5
102
86
5
130
84
5
155
86
750
4
79
84
4
94
88
4
105
87
4.5
122
87
5.5
126
85
5.5
159
87
5.5
189
89
850
4.5
96
86
5.5
103
84
5.5
114
85
6
133
86
6
152
87
6.5
181
88
7
204
88
950
5
114
88
5.5
128
88
6
137
87
6.5
154
87
7
174
88
7.5
208
89
8
234
89
1050
5.5
135
89
6
152
90
6
168
91
7
184
90
7.5
206
90
8
246
91
8.5
277
92
               274
                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                       Thermal Applications: Insulation
9.4.1.1  Steam and Hot Water

        Steam lines and hot water pipes should be insulated to prevent heat loss from the hot fluids.
Recommended thickness for pipe insulation may be determined from the Exhibit 9.18.  The energy and cost
savings will depend on the size of the pipe (diameter and length of run), the temperatures of the fluids and the
surroundings, the annual hours during which the pipes  are heated, the efficiency of the heat supply, the heat
transfer coefficient, and the fraction of the year during which heat loss from the pipes does not contribute to
space heating.  Exhibit 9.19 gives average cost savings from insulation of steam or hot water pipes.

                   Exhibit 9.19: Steam Lines and Hot Water Pipes: Costs and Benefits
Options1
Steam Lines
and Hot
Water Pipes
Installed Costs
($)2
2,087
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
984
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
3,201
Simple Payback
(yr)
0.7
    1.   Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database.  All values are
        averages based on the database data. The implementation rate for this measure was 68%.

    2.   One example from the IAC  data base to  further clarify the costs is as follows: Insulating 500 ft of
        condense return pipes located throughout a plant having a 300 MMBtu/hr steam boiler resulted in
        energy savings of 370 MMBtu/yr and a cost savings of $960/yr.   The implementation cost was
        $1,920.

    3.   The energy cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the center,
        which are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.

9.4.1.2  Cold Water

        Lines containing chilled water should be insulated to prevent condensation and frost build-up on the
lines and to prevent heat gain. Condensation will occur whenever moist air comes into contact with a surface
that is at a temperature lower than the dewpoint of the vapor. In addition, heat gained by uninsulated chilled
water lines can adversely affect the efficiency of a cooling system.


                            Exhibit 9.20: Chilled Water Pipes: Costs and Benefits *
Options1
Chilled
Water Pipes
Installed Costs
($)2
970
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
56
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
850
Simple Payback
(yr)
1.1
    1.   Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database in 1994.  The
        database does not have a separate category for Chilled Water Pipes.  The implementation rate for
        this measure was 52%.

    2.   One example from the IAC database to further clarify the costs is as follows:  Insulating 250 ft of
        cold pipe in a brewery resulted in energy savings of 3,500 kWh/yr and a cost savings of $234/yr.
        The implementation cost was $1,200.

    3.   The energy cost savings are based on actual dollar savings as reported to IAC from the facility.

9.4.2   Insulation of Tanks

        Tanks, similar to pipes, should be properly insulated if their purpose is to hold media at certain
temperatures, especially should that be for prolonged periods of time.
     Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
275

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               Thermal Applications: Insulation
Notes
9.4.2.1  Hot Media

        Often, tanks containing hot fluids in manufacturing operations lack adequate insulation. The tanks
may be insulated  with blanket type  flexible  insulation (1  in. thick,  1.5  Ib. density)  or  rigid insulation,
depending on the type of tank.  The savings would increase as the boiler efficiency decreases.  The savings
would also increase as the temperature in the tank increases.

                             Exhibit 9.21: Hot Tanks: Costs and Benefits1
Options1
Hot Tanks
Installed Costs
($)2
1,700
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
1,183
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
5,198
Simple Payback
(yr)
0.4
                      1.  Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database.  All values are
                         averages based on the database data.  The implementation rate for this measure was 44%.

                      2.  The cost of insulation is typically around $0.50/ft2.  One example from the IAC database to further
                         clarify the costs is as follows: Insulating the manufacturing tanks in a food plant resulted in energy
                         savings of 135 MMBtu/yr. and cost savings of $470/yr.  The implementation cost was $1,090.  The
                         tanks had a top area of 50 ft2 and side areas of 175 ft2 and contained fluids at temperatures between
                         150°F and 230°F. The tanks were located in a room at 70°F.

                      3.  The energy cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the center,
                         which are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.

                 9.4.2.2  Cold Media

                         Uninsulated tanks containing cold fluids are occasionally found in applications, such as chilled water
                 tanks that are located  in areas where there can be considerable heat gain through the tank surfaces.  If the air
                 surrounding the tank is at a higher temperature than that of the tank, heat will be transferred to the contents of
                 the tank. By insulating these tanks, the heat transfer will be reduced and insulating these tanks can reduce the
                 load on the refrigeration system reduced, resulting in significant energy savings.

                                              Exhibit 9.22: Cold Tanks: Costs and Benefits
Options1
Cold Tanks
Installed Costs
($)2
460
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
36
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
520
Simple Payback
(yr)
0.7
                      1.  Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database in 1994.  Today
                         the database does not have a separate category for Cold Tanks. All values are averages based on the
                         database data. The implementation rate for this measure was 54%.

                      2.  One example from the IAC database to further clarify the costs is as follows. The energy savings on
                         a refrigeration system having a coefficient of performance of 2 and an uninsulated chilled water tank
                         of 47 ft2 at  a temperature of 52°F in a room at 85°F would be over 2,636 kWh/yr. if the tank were
                         insulated with 1 in. of fiberglass.

                      3.  The energy cost savings are based on actual dollar savings as reported to IAC from the facility.

                 9.4.3  Building Insulation

                         Any uninsulated surface (doors, walls, roofs) is a potential heat sink in buildings. The example in
                 the following section can be extrapolated for basically any surface, R-values being the key in evaluation of
                 different insulation.
               276
                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                       Thermal Applications: Insulation
9.4.3.1  Dock Doors

        Uninsulated dock doors can be a source of significant heat loss  in manufacturing facilities.  The
doors can often be insulated by installing styrofoam or fiberglass in the door panels. The savings depend on
the size of the doors, the efficiency of the heating system, the R-values of the insulated and uninsulated doors,
and the number of degree heating hours  per year.  Degree Heating Hours is  a measure relating ambient
temperature to heating energy required.  If the outside temperature is 1 degree below the base temperature in
the plant for 1 hour then that represents 1 degree heating hour.

                             Exhibit 9.23: Dock Doors: Costs and Benefits1
Options1
Dock Doors
Installed Costs
($)2
2,882
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
540
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
2,590
Simple Payback
(yr)
1.7
    2.
    3.
Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database.  All values are
averages based on the database data.  The implementation rate for this measure was 52%.

One example from the IAC database to further clarify the costs is as follows: Installing insulation on
an uninsulated dock door resulted  in an energy  savings  of 459 MMBtu/yr., a cost savings of
$2,157/yr, and an implementation cost of $3,700, giving a simple payback of 1.7 years.

The energy cost savings are based on proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the center,
which are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.
9.4.4   Recommended Insulation Standards

        Many insulating materials are not suitable for use in direct contact with austenitic stainless steel at or
above  140°F or with aluminum.  If installed wicking type  insulation  materials become wet, the  soluble
ingredients leach out and deposit on the surface of the metal substrate.  The deposited ingredients usually
consist of sodium silicate (if insulation has been inhibited) and chlorides and alkalites.  The chlorides in these
deposits can cause stress corrosion cracking of austenitic stainless steel at the above mentioned temperatures
if there is not enough sodium silicate inhibitor to neutralize them.  Alkaline ingredients in insulation, when
wet, can cause  corrosion of unprotected aluminum substrate.  Where aluminum substrate protection is
required, cost the aluminum with fibrated asphalt cutback.  Excess wetting with water or especially with acid
solution can  substantially reduce  the  service life of the inhibitor. In addition, wet insulation can  corrode
unprotected carbon steel pipe and equipment, especially during storage or shutdown periods.

        Inhibited insulation that is suspected of having been wet is not recommended for use on austenitic
stainless steel.  Use  inhibited insulation for austenitic  stainless steel at or  above 140 °F.  If new inhibited
insulation is not available, provide field applied protection against stress corrosion cracking.  Although the
coating can be applied either to the insulation or the metal, the metal is preferred.

9.4.4.1  Lowest Cost System

        The lowest recommended cost system recommended is based on both installed and continuing cost,
consistent with reasonable safety and return on investment.  In other words, the lowest cost thermal insulation
system is one that will remain in place for the designed life of the system and provide the desired function.
As  usually is the case, the options might not be such a clear cut in real  life as it seems on paper.  The
interruption of the service caused by maintenance has to be accounted for as well.

9.4.4.2  Economic Factors to be Considered in Basic Insulation Selection

        Different types of insulation have different applications where they are best suited for use.  Four
basic types of  insulation are listed here with there basic usage parameters.  When considering insulation
opportunities, the Assessment Team  must consider  the  type of insulation and the application in the
opportunity analysis.
                                                                                                 Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                                           277

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               Thermal Applications: Insulation
Notes
        Glass Fiber

        Glass fiber insulation has the disadvantage of moisture absorption and low resistance to abuse. The
continuing maintenance can offset any advantage of the initial cost.

        Calcium Silicate

        Calcium silicate and  inhibited calcium silicate provide the lowest cost system in the temperature
range between 300°F and 1,200°F. They are also satisfactory down to  140 °F if polyisocyanurate foam is not
suitable.

        Polvisocvanurate

        Polyisocyanurate foam  is preferred to both glass fiber and  calcium silicate for low temperature
applications  (140°F to 300°F).  When compared with calcium silicate, polyisocyanurate has better moisture
resistance that is particularly important for outdoor application.   Material  and installation  costs  are
comparable with those for calcium silicate. Polyisocyanurate insulation is suitable over a temperature range
of -100°F to 300°F and, therefore, is excellent for dual temperature applications.

        Mineral Wool

        Mineral wool provides the lowest cost system in the temperature range of 1,200°F to  1,800°F. This
is true only if the metal surfaces to be insulated are not austenitic stainless steel and/or abuse resistance is not
a factor.

9.4.4.3  Finish Factors  Influencing Insulation Selection

        Where the chemical environment permits, the lowest initial cost finish for pipe is kraft aluminum
laminate.  The finish is  limited to dry, indoor, no abuse areas; and may discolor with age.  The lowest cost
finish on a continuing basis for pipe and  cylindrical sections of indoor or outdoor equipment, if chemical
resistance is not an issue, is smooth aluminum j acket fastened with stainless steel bands.  Reinforced mastic
finishes should be used only  over irregular shapes and where absolutely  necessary.  Stainless steel pipe
covering is recommended only in special situations where other finishes do not provide adequate protection.

9.4.5  Process Equipment

        Insulating process equipment does not differ  in principle from insulating tanks or pipes.  The
purpose is to  maintain  certain temperature where required  and minimize heat input to make up for heat
transfer loses, usually to the atmosphere.  Contrary to  a variety of service lines or holding tanks, where the
temperature  is not important at the given location and an improper insulation only constitutes economic loss,
temperature  in the process equipment is essential for the process and  sometimes  the insulation is a very
convenient way to ensure it.

9.4.5.1  Injection Mold Barrels

        The barrels on  injection molding machines are heated to a very high temperature to allow plastic to
flow into the mold. The heat loss from the barrels contributes to the air conditioning load in the plant as well
as increasing the energy required to keep the barrels hot. Rock wool blanket insulation is made specifically
for  this purpose  and is easily removed  if maintenance on the barrels  is required.   This measure is  not
recommended  when ABS or PVC plastics are being molded because the shear forces generate so much heat
that cooling is  required.

                          Exhibit 9.24: Insulate Equipment: Costs and Benefits
Options1
Injection
Mold
Barrels
Installed Costs
($)2
2,435
Energy Savings
(MMBtu/yr)
695
Cost Savings
($/yr)3
3,621
Simple Payback
(yr)
0.7
               278
                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                      Thermal Applications: Insulation
    1.   Tabulated data were taken from the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) database.  All values are
        averages based on the database data. The implementation rate for this measure was 46%.

    2.   One example from the  IAC data base  to further clarify the costs is as follows:  Insulating injection
        mold barrels resulted in an  energy savings  of 375 MMBtu/yr, a cost savings of $2,589,  and an
        implementation cost of $2,028, giving a simple payback often months.

    3.   The energy cost savings are based on  proposed dollar savings as reported to IAC from the center,
        which are usually almost identical to actual savings reported from the facility.
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          279

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              Industrial Operations: Office Operations
Notes           REFERENCES
                         1.  Handisyde, C.C., and Mellmsh, D.J., Thermal Insulation of Buildings, HMSO, 1971

                         2.  Malloy, IF., Thermal Insulation, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1969

                         3.  The Association of Energy Engineers, Corporate Energy Management Manual, The Fairmont
                            Press, 1979

                         4.  Thumann A., and Mehta D.P., Handbook of Energy Engineering, The Fairmont Press, 1992

                         5.  Kennedy, W.  Jr., W.C.  Turner, Energy Management, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
                            1984, pp. 204-221.

                         6.  1989 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
                            Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, GA, 1989.

                         7.  Motor Master, Washington State Energy Office, Olympia, WA, 1992.
              280                         Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                              HVAC: Air Conditioning


                                 CHAPTER 10.     HVAC
This chapter discusses heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment.  A description of each
type of equipment, its  general uses, operation, and  common  opportunities for energy  conservation  are
presented


10.1   Air Conditioning

        Air conditioning is the process of treating air to control its temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and
distribution to meet the requirements of the  conditioned space.  If the primary function of the system is to
satisfy the comfort requirements of the  occupants of the conditioned space, the  process is referred to as
comfort air conditioning.   If the primary function is other  than  comfort, it is identified as  industrial air
conditioning.   The term ventilation is applied to processes that supply air to or remove air from a space by
natural or mechanical means. Such air may or may not be conditioned.

10.1.1 Equipment

        Air conditioning systems utilize various types of equipment, arranged in a specific order, so that
space conditions can be maintained.  Basic components consist of:

    •   A fan to move air.

    •   Coils to heat and/or cool the air.

    •   Filters to clean the air.

    •   Humidifiers to add moisture to the air.

    •   Controls to maintain space conditions automatically.

    •   A distribution  system  to channel the air to  desired locations, including dampers to control the
        volume of air circulated, as shown in Exhibit 10.1.

        Within each  basic component there are different types and styles,  each with their own operating
characteristics and efficiency, method and materials of construction, and cost, all of which greatly affect the
initial design  and resulting operating economics of the system.  While this manual is directed principally to
conservation with existing installations, ideally energy conservation should start during the initial design and
equipment selection stages of the system.

10.1.1.1  Fans

        The centrifugal fan with  a backward-curved impeller is the predominant fan used  in "built-up" type
air  conditioning  units, while the forward-curved  impeller centrifugal fan is used in "package"  type air
handling units.

10.1.1.2 Coils

        Coils are used in air conditioning systems  either to heat or cool the air.  The typical coil consists of
various rows deep of finned tubing.  The number of fins per inch varies from 3 to 14. The greater the number
of fins per inch and row's depth that a coil contains, the greater its heat transfer rate will be.  An increase in
heat transfer surface results in an increase in heat transfer efficiency and also in increased  airflow resistance
that will, in turn, require increased fan horsepower.

        Heating coils will use either steam or hot  water as a heating medium.  The primary purpose of the
coil depends upon its  location in the  air handling system. A preheater is the name given to a coil located in
the  makeup outdoor air duct.  The preheater's purpose is to raise the temperature of makeup air to above
freezing.  The heating coil doing the final heating of the  air before it enters the conditioned space is referred
to as a reheater.   Its purpose  is to maintain satisfactory  space temperature by adding heat to the supply air
when it is required.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          281
                                                                                                        Notes

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               HVAC:  Air Conditioning
Notes
                                                Exhibit 10.1: Air Conditioning Equipment
                                                       C»mscsr          r-n*«ic«
                                           **?"»*  HlB     i        #»     \
                                             '
                          Cooling coils similar to that of the heating coils described above except that the coils cool the air
                 instead of heating.  The cooling medium used is chilled-water, brine, or refrigerant in a direct expansion-type
                 coil.  Direct expansion-type coils are used on small systems when a chilled water system is not economical.
                 Chilled water is used on all other systems when the air temperature required is above 50°F.  When the air
                 temperature required is less than 50°F, a brine solution is used as the cooling medium because of its exposure
                 to subfreezing temperatures in the refrigeration machine.

                 10.1.1.3 Air Washers

                          A spray-type air washer consists of a chamber or casing containing  a spray nozzle system, a tank for
                 collecting the spray water as it falls, and an eliminator section at the discharge end for removal of entrained
                 drops of water from the air.  An air washer can be used either to  humidify or dehumidify the  treated air
                 depending upon the temperature of the spray water. Air washers will also clean the air to a small extent.  Air
                 washer efficiency increases as the  volume of spray water circulated increases.  When spray water  is used for
                 humidification purposes, it is recirculated with only sufficient makeup to satisfy evaporation losses.  When
                 spray water is used for cooling, it is a mixture of recirculated water and chilled water.  The amount of chilled
                 water is controlled to provide desired results.

                          The use of air washers in the comfort air conditioning field has been gradually replaced by the use of
                 cooling coils.  Some industrial air conditioning systems, particularly in the textile  industry, still use air
                 washers.

                 10.1.1.4 Air Cleaners

                          Air cleaners (filters) are used to reduce the dirt content of the air supplied to the conditioned space
                 and to keep equipment clean.  The type of air cleaning equipment required depends upon the requirements of
                 the conditioned space, the  amount of dirt to be removed from the air stream, and the size of the dirt particles
                 to be removed.  The smaller the particles size to be removed, the harder and more expensive the air cleaning
                 procedure.
               282
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                               HVAC: Air Conditioning
        Three  operating  characteristics distinguish the various types of air cleaners:  efficiency, airflow
resistance, and life or dust-holding capacity.  Efficiency measures the ability of the air cleaner to remove
particulate matter from  an air stream.  The interpolation of air cleaner ratings for  efficiency  and holding
capacity is complicated by the fact that there are three types of tests, along with certain variations, employed
for testing filters.  The operating conditions that exist are so varied that there is no individual test that will
adequately describe all filters.  Air cleaners used in the comfort air conditioning field fall into three  broad
categories: fibrous media, renewable media, and electronic.  Various combinations of these types can be used.
Air cleaners for industrial  applications fall into five basic types: gravity and momentum collectors, centrifugal
collectors, fabric collectors, electrostatic precipitators, and wet collectors.

        The installation cost and the operating cost of an  air cleaning system vary over a wide range.
Therefore, an economical installation is one in which the air cleaning unit(s) provides only the degree of
cleaning required to satisfy  the actual space requirements  and not those of an  arbitrarily excessively clean
environment.

        The pressure drop to which the air cleaning devices subject the air system  varies from a low of 0.1
inch of water gauge (inches  W.G.) to  10.0 inches W.G. in industrial air conditioning systems.  In comfort air
conditioning, generally, the higher the air cleaner efficiency,  the higher  its pressure drop  will  be.  Air
conditioning systems must compensate for the pressure drop through an increase in fan horsepower.

10.1.1.5 Humidifiers

        Humidifiers are devices that  add moisture to the air stream, thereby raising the relative humidity of
the conditioned space.  In most  comfort air conditioning systems and in many industrial air conditioning
systems, humidifying devices are commonly sparging steam or atomizing water directly into the air stream.

        Since the advent of energy conservation,  the standards for comfort air conditioning systems have
been reviewed and revised.  One of the revisions eliminated  the  control of humidity as a  comfort air
conditioning system standard, since controlling humidity requires additional energy consumption year-round.
In industrial air conditioning systems that employ humidity control, it is recommended that this need be
reviewed and be reduced to the lowest degree the process will permit.

10.1.1.6 Controls

        Controls for an air  conditioning system contain various control loops,  which automatically control
selected functions of the air conditioning system operation.  The control system can be very simple or very
complex depending upon the size and complexity of the air conditioning system, the extent of operation, and
the degree of sophistication desired.

        Control  systems can  control temperatures, humidity,  duct pressure,  airflow, sound  alarms, and
provide data to remote locations.  These systems  are operated either pneumatically or electronically, or a
combination of both can be used.  For the most economical operation of the air conditioning system, controls
must be maintained.  Their calibrations should be routinely checked along with the proper operation of valves
and dampers.

10.1.1.7 Distribution System

        The distribution  system is a network  of ducts which transports the air between the conditioning
equipment and the conditioned space(s).  The system  consists of outlet  and inlet terminals (diffusers,
registers, grilles) for distribution of air within the conditioned space, and dampers (automatic and manual) for
control of air volume.   The design of the distribution system greatly  affects the amount of pressure drop
(resistance) it adds to the total system.  Low-pressure (low-velocity) systems are designed with duct velocities
of 1,300 fpm or less for comfort  air conditioning systems and up to 2,000 fpm for industrial air conditioning
systems.  High-pressure (high-velocity) systems employ duct velocities from 2,500 fpm on  small systems
(1,000  to 3,000 cfm) up to 6,000 fpm on large systems (40,000 to 60,000 cfm).  Higher duct velocities result
in higher duct system resistance (pressure drop resulting in increased fan horsepower).

10.1.2 Psychrometry

        Psychrometry  deals with the determination of the thermodynamic  properties of moist air and the
utilization of these properties  in the analysis of conditions and processes  involving  moist  air.   Air
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          283
Notes

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               HVAC: Air Conditioning

JT ,              conditioning deals with changing the properties of air to provide desired results in the conditioned space. The
                 psychrometric chart, a graphical representation of the thermodynamic properties of moist air, is an invaluable
                 aid in illustrating and solving air conditioning problems.
                          Since the properties of moist air are affected by barometric pressure, corrections must be made when
                 equipment installation is done at other than sea level (29.92 inches Hg).  Psychrometric charts are available
                 for elevations at  sea level, 2,500 feet,  5,000 feet, 7,500 feet, and  10,000 feet.  Also, charts are  available for
                 different temperature ranges.  The properties of moist air shown on a psychrometric chart  are dry bulb (DB)
                 temperature, wet bulb (WB) temperature,  dew point temperature (DP), relative humidity (RH) in percent,
                 specific humidity (W) in grains per pound, specific enthalpy (h) in Btu per pound, and  specific volume (V) in
                 cubic feet per pound. A description of these terms is listed in Appendix D. These properties can be found by
                 using a typical psychrometric chart.
                 10.1.3  Computation
                          The following formulae and factors are used in the air conditioning field:
                      Btu = (Ibs) (sp. heat) (At)
                      Btu/hr = (Ibs/hr) (sp. heat) (At)
                      Btu/hr = (Ibs/hr) (hg - hf)*
                      Lbs/hr std. air  = (cfm) (Ibs/cf) (60 min/hr)
                                      = (cfm) (0.075) (60)
                                      = (cfm) (4.5)
                      SH, Btu/hr std. air      = (Ibs/hr) (sp. heat) (At)
                                      = (cfm) (4.5) (0.24) (At)
                                      = (cfm) (1.08) (At)
                              cfm = SH / [(1.08)(room temperature - supplied air temperature)]
                      LH, Btu/hr std. air      = (Ibs/hr) (hg -hf) (grains of moisture diff 77,000  grains/lb)
                                      = (cfm) (4.5) (1,054) (grains diff/7,000)
                                      = (cfm) (0.68) (grains diff.)
                      Lbs/hr water  = (gpm) (Ibs/gal) (min/hr)
                                      = (gpm) (10.33) (60)
                                      = (gpm) (500)
                      hpair = [(cfm)( AP)] / [(6,350)(fan efficiency)]
                      hpwater = [(gpm)( AP)] / [(3,960)(pump efficiency)]
                 where
                          At = temperature difference
                          AP = pressure difference
                          *(hg -hf) = 1,054 Btu/lb represents the heat of vaporization at 70°F.  Variation in  value for different
                          conditions will be small.
                 10.1.4  Energy Conservation
                          The potential for energy conservation in the air conditioning field can vary greatly depending upon
                 the following:
               2§4                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                              HVAC: Air Conditioning

    1.   Design of systems                             4.   Maintenance of control systems
    2.   Method of operation                          5.   Monitoring of system
    3.   Operating standards                          6.   Competence of operators
        Examples of various energy-saving methods used in the following sections are based on a facility
having the following characteristics:
    1.   Supply fan capacity:               10,000 cfm @ 3,0 in S.P., 6.8 bhp
    2.   Outdoor air:                      30% = 3,000 cfm
    3.   Return air:                        70% = 7,000 cfm
    4.   Room temperature:                75°F DB, 62.5°F WB, 55.0°F DP, 50% RH
    5.   Room loads:                      summer = 108,000 Btu/hr/(sensible heat)
                                         winter = 216,000 Btu/hr/(sensible heat)
    6.   Space, volume:                    55,000 cu.  ft.
    7.   Space, area:                       5,500 sq. ft.
    8.   Space, cfm/sq.ft.:                  1.8
    9.   Space, supply air temp.:            summer design = 65°F,
                                         winter design = 95°F
    10. Design preheater load :            162,000 Btu/hr= 169 Ibs/hr (based on 50°F disc, temp.)
    11. Design on cooling coil load:        364,500 Btu/hr = 30 tons
    12. Design outdoor temp.:             summer = 95°F DB, 78°F WB; winter 0°F
    13. Design outdoor degree days :       5,220 (65°F), 3,100 (55°F), 2,100 (SOT)
    14. Design outdoor avg. winter temp.:   41.4°F(Oct. to Apr. inclusive)
                                         < 67.0°F, 3,052 hrs/yr
                                         38.0°F = Avg. < 50°F, 3,543 hrs/yr
                                         33.0°F = Avg.  < 40°F, 2,162 hrs/yr
    15. Equiv. hrs/season refrig. at full load: 750 hrs
10.1.4.1  Operate Systems Only When Needed
        Air conditioning systems, including refrigeration machines, pumps,  and cooling tower systems,
should be operated only  when areas are occupied (for comfort air conditioning systems) and when processes
are operating  (for non-comfort  air conditioning system).   It is not  uncommon for systems to operate
continuously.   Reducing  operating hours will  reduce  electrical, cooling,  and  heating requirements.
Continuous operation during normal working hours of 8 a.m. to 5 p.m., five days per week, such as that for an
office building is a good  example of excessive operation of equipment.
        The savings resulting from reducing operating hours from 168 hours per week to 50 hours per week
is calculated as follows.

    Savings from Reduced Fan Operation
        = (Supply fan bhp) (Cost, $/hp-yr) [(hrs/wk shut off) / (hrs/wk current operation)]
        = (6.8) ($360) [(168 - 50) / (168)]  = $l,720/yr
Notes
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               HVAC: Air Conditioning

JT ,                   Savings from Reduced Space Heating Operating
                          =  {[(24)(deg  day)(design  htg.  load, Btu/hr)]  / [room  T - outside T]}(stm. cost,  $/MM-Btu) x
                            {(hrs/week off) / (hrs/week current on)}(allowance for heat up)
                          = {[(24)(5,220)(216,000)] / [(75 - 0)]}{$4.24 / 10 6 }{(168 - 50) / 168}(0.5) = $537/yr

                      Savings from Reduced Preheater Operation of Outdoor Air
                          = (cfrn) (1.08)* (design disc. temp.  - avg. temp. < disc. temp.)x (hrs/yr temp. < disc, temp.) x (stm.
                            cost, $/MM-Btu) x {(hrs/week off) / (hrs/week current operation)}
                          = (3,000) (1.08) (50 - 38) (3,543) {$4.24/ 106}{(168 - 50) / 168} = $410/yr
                            * Factor of 1.08 = 0.075 Ibs/cu. ft. xO.24 sp. heat x 60 min/hr

                      Savings from Reduced Cooling Operation
                          = (design cooling oil  load, tons) (equiv.  hrs/season @  full load) x  (refrig. sys.  load, hp/ton)
                            {(hrs/week off) / (hrs/week current operation)} x (cost, $/hp-hr) (allowance for cool down)
                          = (30) (750) (1.25){(168 - 50) / 168}($0.041) (0.75) = $607/yr

                      Summary of Total Annual Savings
                                                  Fans                    =  $1,720
                                                  Space Heating            =    537
                                                  Preheater                =    410
                                                  Space Cooling            =    607
                                                  Total                    =  $3,274
                 10.1.4.2  Eliminate Overcooling and Overheating
                          Eliminating  overcooling  and  overheating normally  requires revising  operating  standards and
                 modifying air conditioning system controls. Instead of maintaining a constant temperature, the more energy
                 efficient standard allows the temperature to fluctuate within a dead-band range.  Heating should be used only
                 to keep the temperature of the conditioned space from going typically below 68°F to 70°F and cooling should
                 be used  only  to keep the temperature from exceeding  78°F to 80°F.  These conditions apply only during
                 normal hours  of occupancy.  During unoccupied periods, the standard should specify minimum conditions
                 necessary to protect the building's contents.  Process requirements may, of course, dictate maintaining special
                 conditions.  Exhibit 10.1 illustrates a  single zone  system with a  simple control  system that results in
                 overcooling and overheating.  Exhibit  10.2 shows this system with a modified control system that would
                 eliminate simultaneous cooling and heating.
                      Cooling Example
                          The cooling coil  and reheat coil are controlled as shown in Exhibit  10.1.  The savings resulting
                 during the heating  season  if the coils were controlled  in sequence as shown in Exhibit 10.2 is calculated
                 below.  Assume that the mixed air temperature entering the cooling coil is 68°F, and the heating season is
                 seven months long.
                    Savings from Eliminating Excessive Cooling
                          = {[(cfm)(1.08)(temp. diff)] / [Btu/ton]} (hp/ton) ($/hp-yr) (htg. season, mos./12)
                          = {[(10,000)(1.08)(68 - 50)] / [12,000]}(1.25) ($360)(7/12) = $3,040/yr
               2§6                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                               HVAC:  Air Conditioning
    Total Annual Savings
                Cooling
                Reheating
                Total
    Heating Example
$3,070 (from previous example)
3,040
 5,110
        The savings resulting from changing the room thermostat setting from 75°F to 68°F during the
heating season is calculated as follows.
    Given:
        1. Room heating load at 75°F = 216,000 Btu/hr
        2. Room heating load at 68°F = (216,000)(68/75) = 195,800 Btu/hr
        Annual Costvs-p
                = {[(24)(deg day)(design htg. load, Btu/hr)] / [room T - outside T]}(stm. cost, $/MM-Btu)
                = {[(24)(5,220)(216,000)] / [(75 - 0)]}{$4.24/ 106} = $1,530
        Annual Costg8°F
                = (Annual cost at 75°F) [(68°F - winter average temp.) / (75°F - winter average temp.)]
                = ($1,530)[(68 - 41.4)7(75 - 41.4)] = $1,211
        Annual Savings = $1,530 - $1,211 = $319
    Note: Difference in cost is proportional to temperature difference maintained with ambient temperature
                        Exhibit 10.2: Modified Air Conditioning  System Controls
                                                                                                         Notes
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               HVAC: Air Conditioning
Notes            10.1.4.3 Eliminate Reheat
                         When humidity control is required, the conventional method is to cool the air to the required dew
                 point temperature to remove the excess moisture and then reheat the air to deliver it at the desired humidity
                 and temperature  as illustrated in Exhibit 10.2.  The cost of reheating for humidity control is not considered
                 justified in today's energy situation for comfort air conditioning systems.

                         The  inclusion of a humidity standard is not recommended for normal air  conditioning  comfort
                 standards and should be discontinued.  Likewise, no system should operate in a manner that requires it to heat
                 and cool at the same time.  At any given instant the system should be either heating or cooling—never both.
                 The process of cooling and then reheating is inefficient, whether for humidity control or because of system
                 design.

                 10.1.4.4 Economizer Cycle

                         Many air conditioning  systems operate  with a  fixed  minimum  amount  of outdoor air.   The
                 mechanical refrigeration load on these systems can be reduced by modifying the system to utilize outdoor air
                 at up to 100 percent of its supply airflow when outdoor air is  cooler than return  air. This is referred to as an
                 economizer cycle. Many systems do not have an economizer  cycle and fail to take advantage of its potential
                 savings.

                         An economizer cycle will eliminate  or reduce mechanical cooling  when the outdoor air is cooler
                 than return air. When  outdoor air is warmer than return air, only the minimum amount of outdoor air required
                 for fresh air supply is used.

                         The  switchover point of an economizer  cycle is  usually done by  one of two methods:   sensing
                 outdoor dry bulb (DB) temperature or sensing outdoor and return air enthalpy (heat content).  Exhibit 10.3,
                 Exhibit 10.4 (dry bulb method), and Exhibit 10.5 illustrate the two methods of economizer control.

                         In the outdoor DB temperature switchover method, when the outdoor DB temperature is above the
                 set point temperature,  the  dampers are in their normal position-outdoor damper closed to minimum air inlet
                 flow position and return air damper  fully open.   When the  outdoor DB temperature is less than set point
                 temperature, the dampers are modulated by the temperature controller.

                         In the enthalpy switchover  method, the enthalpy  control senses  DB temperature  and relative
                 humidity in both the outdoor air and  return air streams and feeds these values into an enthalpy logic center.
                 The logic  center compares the enthalpy (heat content) of each air stream and allows outdoor air to be used
                 whenever its enthalpy  is less than that of the return  air.

                         When the outdoor enthalpy is greater than the enthalpy of the return air, the dampers are maintained
                 in their normal position—outdoor damper closed to minimum air inlet flow  position  and return air damper
                 fully open in  the same manner as the outdoor temperature switchover method. When the outdoor enthalpy is
                 less than the enthalpy of the return air, the dampers are modulated by the temperature controller.

                         The  energy switchover method is more efficient because it is based on the true heat content of the
                 air.   The enthalpy of  air is a function of both the DB temperature and its relative humidity  (or wet bulb
                 temperature).  Therefore, DB temperature alone is not a true measure of the air's heat content.  Under certain
                 conditions, air with a higher DB temperature can have a lower enthalpy than air with a lower DB temperature
                 because of differences in humidity.   The  outdoor DB temperature switchover method  utilizes a single
                 conservative DB temperature between 55°F  to 60°F, which ensures the enthalpy of the outdoor air is always
                 less than the enthalpy  of the return air. On the other hand, since the enthalpy switchover method determines
                 the use of outdoor air  on its enthalpy, the switchover point will vary and normally occur at a higher outdoor
                 DB  temperature than  the DB temperature  typically  selected for the outdoor DB switchover  method.
                 Consequently, less mechanical cooling is required than with the outdoor DB temperature switchover method.

                         In the method shown in Exhibit 10.3, which is found  in many installations, the makeup air and return
                 air dampers are  controlled to maintain a fixed mixed air temperature.  In Exhibit 10.4 the control system that
                 operates the chilled-water valve also operates the  makeup  air and return air dampers in sequence with the
                 chilled-water valve.  The method illustrated in Exhibit 10.4 is  better because  it results in a lower load on the
                 cooling coil.  The preferred method, however, is shown in Exhibit 10.5, which  utilizes enthalpy control for
                 switchover.
                                            Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                             HVAC: Air Conditioning
           Exhibit 10.3: Economizer Cycle (Outdoor Temp. Switchover, Mixing Temp. Control)
                Minimum
                     A*
                                \
          "/
                                                                  Coesng Coil
  i
4.
                                                                 -^o—*-
                                     ftelum
                                      Air
                                                                            From
           Exhibit 10.4: Economizer Cycle (Outdoor Temp. Switchover, Chilled H 2 O Control)
                  Minimum
                    M* Ai<
                     r Air
          /
                                                       |
                                       A
                                     fiatum
                                       Air
  I            T,  i^'-'tspsig
  !            i
              Exhibit 10.5: Economizer Cycle (Enthalpy Switchover, Chilled H 2 O Control)

                                                                     pg Cos!
                i  Minimum
                 OuHcic." An
                                           '1
                                       A
                                       atyr
                                       Air
                                                                           Contrdi-ei
        The savings resulting from an economizer cycle vary with the type of economizer cycle control and
the type of air conditioning system control. Savings for different conditions are given in the examples shown
below.
                                                                                                      Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
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               HVAC: Air Conditioning
*T  .              Outdoor Temperature Method
                         The saving resulting from an economizer cycle with outdoor temperature switchover at 56.5°F on a
                 year-round air conditioning system (continuously operating) is calculated as follows.  The preheater discharge
                 temperature is controlled at 40°F. Savings are determined in two steps.
                     1.   Economizer savings when the outdoor temperature is < 40°F.  The temperature of the air entering the
                         cooling coil when the outdoor air is less than 40°F is 64.5°F.*
                         = {[(cfm)(1.08)(temp. diff.)] / [Btu/ton]}(hp/ton)(refrig., hp/ton)(cost, $/hp-yr) x {(hrs temp < 40°F)
                           / (8,760)}
                         = {[(10,000)(1.08)(64.5 - 56.5)] / [ 12,000]}(1.25) ($360)(2,162/8,760) = $800/yr
                     2.   Economizer savings when the outdoor temperature is between 40°F and 56.5°F.  (Above 56.5°F only
                         minimum  30%  outdoor air is used.) The  average temperature of air entering the cooling  coil is
                         approximately  67°F*, which represents the midpoint  between the maximum  and the minimum
                         temperature that would occur.
                         = {[(10,000)(1.08)(67* - 56.5)] / [12,000]}{(1.25) ($360)[(3,052) / (8,760)] = $l,481/yr
                                                                                  Max    Min
                                                 Outdoor temp.            =       56.5°F   40.0°F
                                                 30% outdoor air          =       17.0     12.0
                                                 70% return air @ 75T     =       52.5     52.5
                                                 Avg. temp.               =       69.5     64.5
                                         Average = (69.5°F + 64.5°F) / 2 = 67°F
                         Annual Savings for Condition A
                                 Outdoor temp. < 40°F = $ 800
                                 Outdoor temp, between 40°F and 56.6°F = 1,400
                                 Total $2,280
                                 *Temperature of air entering coil.
                 Enthalpy Switchover Method
                         Given the same conditions as the previous example, the savings from an economizer cycle using the
                 enthalpy method.  To determine either enthalpy, the wet  bulb (WB) temperature or dry bulb temperature (DB)
                 and relative humidity are needed.  The  enthalpy value for the particular condition can be read from a
                 psychrometric chart.
                         For this example, an average outdoor air relative humidity of 50 percent at 56.5°F is assumed, which
                 corresponds to 47.5°F WB  temperature.  The actual additional  reduction in cooling load over the outdoor
                 temperature method will depend on the outdoor air conditions at the time.  The reduction can vary over the
                 range from no reduction when conditions approach 62.5°F WB  to a maximum reduction when approaching
                 47.5°F  WB.  For practical purposes it can assumed an  average reduction of approximately one  half of the
                 maximum.
                         The cooling load when all return air is used is:
                                 Btu/hr = (ret. air cfm) (4.5) (h ret. air - h cooling air disc.)
                                 = (7,000) (4.5) (28.2-19.0)
                                 = 289,000 or 24.15 tons
                         The cooling load when all outdoor air is used is zero.
               290                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                              HVAC:  Air Conditioning
        Therefore,  the average reduction in cooling load using outdoor air with the enthalpy switchover
method is:
        Reduction cooling load = 289,800 / 2 = 144,900 Btu/hr
        Enthalpy remains constant for any  given WB temperature irrespective of  DB temperatures.
Accordingly, the number of hours for which a given  enthalpy existed can be obtained from local weather
records of WB temperatures.  For this example, the outdoor WB temperature was between 47.5°F WB and
62.5°F WB for approximately 2,000 hours per year.
        Additional  annual savings using enthalpy control:
                = [(Btu/hr saved) / (Btu/ton)](refrig., hp/ton)(cost, $/hp-yr)[(hrs. applicable) / (8,760)
                = [(144,900) / (12,000)](1.25)($360)[(2,000) / (8,760)] = $l,240/yr
        Total annual savings for the enthalpy switchover method over no economizer  cycle include the
above savings plus the savings for the DB switchover outdoor temperature method in the previous example.
                Outdoor temperature method               =       $2,280
                Additional savings with enthalpy method   =       $1.240
                Total                                            $3,520
10.1.4.5 Minimize Amounts of Makeup and Exhaust Air
        The amount of makeup air a system must have  depends upon the largest demand caused by the
following:
    1.  Ventilation for personnel
    2.  Exhausting  of air from work areas
    3.  Overcoming of infiltration
        In many systems, the sum of items No. 2 and 3 dictates the amount of makeup air required.  When
this is the case, the amount  of air  being exhausted should be reviewed to determine if  it is excessive.
Minimizing  infiltration requires that all openings between  conditioned and non-conditioned  spaces be closed
and that doors and  windows  fit tightly.   The ventilation rate for people can vary between  5 to 20 cfm and
sometimes higher depending  on the use of the room. Also,  excessive damper leakage can result in an
excessive amount of makeup air.
        Excess makeup air in the winter  will result in additional heating load.  The cost to preheat 1,000 cfm
of outdoor air to 50°F is calculated as follows.
        Cost = (cfm) (1.08) (SOT - avg. temp. < 50) (hrs./yr.  temp < 50°F)x (stm. cost, $/MM-Btu)
        = (1, 000) (1.08) (50 - 38) (3,543) ($4.26 /  106) = $196/yr.
        Excess make-up  air in  the summer will result in additional cooling load.  The  cost of cooling is
estimated to be $410/yr. Total annual savings = $196 + $410  = $606
10.1.4.6 Minimize the Amount of Air Delivered to a Conditioned Space
        The amount of air delivered to a conditioned space is governed by one or more of the following:
    1.  Heating and/or cooling load
    2.  Delivery temperature
    3.  Ventilation requirements (exhaust, people, infiltration)
    4.  Air circulation (air changes)
        The design of both comfort and many industrial air condition systems requires that, for good air
circulation, the amount of supply air should provide an air  change every 5 to 10 minutes. The design of many
systems will be for  a 6- to 7-minute change. Reducing airflow will reduce fan horsepower.  The model that
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          291
Notes

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Notes
HVAC:  Air Conditioning

  has been used is such a system; it requires heat, and the air change is 5.6 minutes (1.8 cfm per square foot, 10-
  foot ceiling height).
           The method used in reducing the system's airflow has a great influence on the amount of horsepower
  saved. Three methods normally used are:
      1.   Fan discharge damper
      2.   Fan vortex damper (fan inlet)
      3.   Fan speed change
           The savings resulting from  reduced reheat and fan horsepower on  a year-round air conditioning
  system when the airflow is reduced  from  1.8 cfm per square  foot (5.6 minute air change) to 1.1 cfm per
  square foot (9.1 minute air change) can be calculated as follows.
      1.   Find the new airflow
               cfm 2 = (cfm)[(air change 2) / (air change 1)] = 10,000 (1.1/1.8) = 6,110
      2.   Find the new supply temperature:
               Supplied air inlet temp. = room temp. - [(given room sensible load, Btu/hr]) / [(1.08)(cfm)]
               = 75 -  [(108,000) / (1.08 x 6,110)] = 58.6°F
      3.   Find the savings from reheat reduction:
               Costi.g = (cfm) (1.08) (T2  - TI) (cost, $/MM-Btu/hr-yr)
                  = (10,000) (1.08) (65 - 56.5) [($37,100) /  106] = $3,406/yr
                              Costi.i =(6,110) (1.08) (58.6-56.5) [($37,100)7 10°] = $514/yr
                              Annual Savings (Reheat Reduction) = $3,406 - $514 = $2,892
                     4.  Find the cfm reduction (in percent):
                              cfm reduction = [(cfm2)/(cfm1](100)=[(6,l 10)/(10,000)](100)=61%
                     5.  Find the total savings:
                                                       Exhibit 10.6:  Total Savings
Method of
Reduction
Outlet
Damper
Inlet Vane
Damper
Fan Speed
Hp Red*
%
14.2
45.0
63.8
Initial hp
6.8
6.8
6.8
Saved hp
0.97
3.06
4.34
Cost
$/hp-yr
360
360
360
Savings**
$/yr
349
1,100
1,560
                          *Based on continuous operation
                          **From Exhibit 10.7
                     6.   Find the total savings:
               292
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                                                                              HVAC:  Air Conditioning
                       Exhibit 10.7: Effect of Volume Control on Fan Horsepower
$ Savings
Method
Outlet Damper
Inlet Vane
Damper
Fan Speed
Fanhp
349/yr
1,100/yr
1,560/yr
Reheat
2,900/yr
2,900/yr
2,900/yr
Total
3,249/yr
4,000/yr
4,460/yr
10.1.4.7  Recover Energy

        The  use of air-to-air heat exchangers permits the exchange of energy  between an exhaust air
stream(s) and a makeup air stream(s). Many of the exchangers will permit the exchange of only sensible heat
while a few will permit the exchange of enthalpy  (total heat).  The transfer recovery efficiency of air-to-air
heat exchangers varies from 55 percent to 90 percent, depending upon the type of heat exchanger and the face
velocity.

10.1.4.8 Maintain Equipment

        The physical condition of the air handling unit is important to its efficient operation. Filters should
be cleaned or replaced  as soon as the maximum allowable pressure drop across the filter is attained.  If dirt
builds up to a point where the pressure drop exceeds the maximum allowable, the resulting system pressure
increase will reduce the fan's pressure and subsequently reduce the air handler's efficiency.

        As mentioned in an  earlier section,  dampers should seal tightly. Air leakage due to poor damper
operation or condition will result in added loading of the air handling unit.  The fans should be checked for
lint, dirt, or other causes for reduced flow.


10.2   HVAC  Systems

        In this section the HVAC will be treated like a system of different functions put together; in  other
words the transparency of individual components might not be very transparent.  However, in some cases it is
important to treat the whole operation  in such a way.  Exhibit  10.8 summarizes energy usage in buildings
much of that can be contributed to HVAC,  i.e., conditioning of buildings for personnel comfort.    The
remainder of this chapter will discuss some of the design factors in HVAC and energy conservation methods
for HVAC systems.

                                Exhibit 10.8: Energy Use in Buildings
                                          Other
                                          10%
                     Fans & Pumps
                        30%
                                                                     Lighting
                                                                       30%
                                                           Boilers &
                                                            Chillers
                                                             30%
                                                                                                       Notes
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Notes
              HVAC: HVAC Systems
10.2.1  Equipment Sizing Practices

        Usually all existing energy consuming systems are oversized.  The reasons for oversizing of HVAC
equipment include:
                    1.
                    2

                    3.
        All HVAC design procedures are conservative.

        A "Safety Factor" is then applied.

        Design is for a near-extreme weather condition that is very seldom obtained (2-3% of annual hours).
                    4.  Standard equipment size increments usually result in further oversizing.

                Any attempt to conserve energy amplifies the effect of statements above. Operating efficiencies of equipment
                decrease with decreasing load - usually exponentially.

                10.2.1.1 Reducing Capacity by Fan/Pump Slowdown

                        The capacity of HVAC systems can be reduced by using a slowdown technique to reduce the hp
                output.  It should be noted that reducing the hp output of fan and pump motors will also reduce their
                efficiency. Exhibits 10.9 and 10.10 illustrate the affects of this technique.

                                                                    CFM,
                                                           HP,
                                                           HP,
                                                    CFM2
                                                  OR
                                                  (GPM,
                                                  (GPM,
                        Thus:   If CFM/GPM is reduced by  10%, the new hp will be 73% of original and for CFM/GPM
                reduction of 40%, new hp will be 22% of original.

                                                  Exhibit 10.9: Load vs. Efficiency
                           1100%

                                                                                              100%
                                            Exhibit 10.10: Control Valve Characteristics
              294
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                                                                                HVAC:  HVAC Systems
                    100?
           fufii Down
           (msn. Flow}

                                                                                 100%
                         Common
                         Operating
                         Range
10.2.1.2 Maximize HVAC Savings
        Energy conservation in HVAC systems can be maximized by using these techniques:
    1.   Reduce fan & pump horsepower - replace motors if necessary.
    2.   Reduce operating time - turn it off when not needed.
    3.   Retrofit existing HVAC systems to some form of VAV (Variable Air Volume) systems.
    5.   Eliminate or minimize reheat.
    6.   Maintain, calibrate & upgrade control systems.
These techniques were discussed in detail earlier in the chapter for independent systems but can be applied to
HVAC system components.  When  evaluating HVAC requirements and energy  conservation measures,
facilities should take into consideration all heating and cooling loads as illustrated in Exhibit 10.11. This will
provide the correct criteria for evaluations and cost savings estimates.
10.2.2 Design for Human Comfort
        Providing comfortable conditions for people engaged in the working process is not a superfluous
luxury, as might be viewed by some.  Good working  conditions definitely increase productivity, besides the
indirect benefit of employees' satisfaction in their workplace. However, all the comfort should be provided at
the minimum expense, whether it a company or a private residence.
        Determination of the correct HVAC needs for a facility involves many steps,  including:
    •   Determination of indoor conditions and how  they affect energy use,
    •   Impact upon equipment selection, ducting, and register design,
    •   How to determine if certain conditions will meet acceptable comfort criteria.
      Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
295

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              HVAC: HVAC Systems
Notes
The American  Society of Heating, Refrigeration,  and Air Conditioning Engineers  (ASHRAE) publish
standards for many aspects of HVAC design.  One example is ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, "Ventilation for
Acceptable Indoor Air Quality."

                            Exhibit 10.11: Heating and Cooling Loads
                                                                  OUTSIDE AIR



                                                                TRANSMSSON
                                                                h€AT GAN
                             I

                            0°F

                                  §
                                  i
              l§
                                               80 LA R HE AT GAIN
                                               (VARES)
                                                  LIGHTING HE AT GAIN

                                                                         70 °R
                                     I€ATLCBS
                                          4«1
                                     OUTSDEAIR
                                     HE A TINS
                                                                                       100%
                       ASHRAE Standard 90-1980 "Energy Conservation in New Building Design" gives the following
                guidelines for energy conservation regarding HVAC systems.

                    1.   Summer

                       •   Troom>78°F

                       •   (fe-oom: Min HVAC energy use

                       •   >0.3 ACH (residential)
              296
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                                                                                 HVAC: HVAC Systems
    2.   Winter
        •   Troom>72°F
        •   > 0.3 ACH (residential)
Exhibit 10.12 defines the comfort zone for personnel using criteria such as temperature and vapor pressure.
From this chart the comfort zone for consideration in the HVAC design is:
    1.   Summer
        •   73°F<60%
    2.   Winter
        •   68°F < Tdb < 75°F
        •   30%<70%
        Most of the work on comfort since about 1970 has been to redefine the x-axis on the comfort chart to
be more general (i.e., include effects of heat radiation,  clothing,  metabolism, air motion,  etc.).  There are
different approached to  quantifying comfort.  To minutely quantify  comfort is  the  EUROPEAN approach
(reason: they don't heat their buildings as much).  The UNITED STATES approach is  to adjust the thermostat
(becoming less  acceptable to do so).
                                 Exhibit 10.12: Comfort Zone Detail
                                                                            w
                                                                            01
                                                                           s.
                                                                           2
                                                                           §
                         1,7
                              •^
                    Clo at PPD»<>%
.50
10.2.2.1 Factors Affecting Comfort
        There  are three major factors affecting personnel comfort.   These are biological, dothing, and
environmental indices.
        Biological factors that affect personnel  comfort include respiration, metabolism, and the types  of
activities personnel are performing.   Exhibit 10.13 illustrates the biological factors that affect  a persons
comfort. For example, a persons average core temperature is:
                                          TCORE=37°C + 1°C (98.6°F)
but their actual skin temperature may be:
                                    TSKiN=92.7°F (buffer, adjusts to ambient)
                                           Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
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               HVAC: HVAC Systems
Notes
                                           Exhibit 10.13: Biological Factors Affecting Comfort
Respiration
                                                                                     Radiation
                                                                                     Convection
                                                                                     Evaporation
                         A person's activity has a great affect on their metabolic heat generation. For example an adult
                 male's heat generation rate during three different activities would be:
                         •    100 W; seated at rest
                         •    850 W; heavy exercise
                         •    1,500 W; Olympic Athlete
                 Exhibit 10.14 lists the heat flux generated for various activities further illustrating how much activity affects
                 comfort.
                                          Exhibit 10.14: Heat Flux Generated by Various Activities
Various Activites3
Resting
Sleeping
Reclining
Seated, quiet
Standing, relaxed
Walking (on the level)
0.89 m/s
1.34m/s
1.79 m/s
Office Activities
Reading, seated
Writing
Typing
Filing, seated
Filing, standing
Walking about
Lifting/packing
Driving/Flying
Car
Aircraft, routine
Btu/h-ft2

13
15
18
22

37
48
70

18
18
20
22
26
31
39

18-37
22
metb

0.7
0.8
1.0
1.2

2.0
2.6
3.8

1.0
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.4
1.7
2.1

1.0-2.0
1.2
                                       Exhibit 10.15: Heat Flux Generated by Various Activities (cont.)
               298
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                                                                                 HVAC: HVAC Systems
Various Activites3
Aircraft, instrument landing
Aircraft, combat
Heavy vehicle
Miscellaneous Occupational Activities
Cooking
House cleaning
Seated, heavy limb movement
Machine work
Sawing (table saw)
Light (electrical industry)
Heavy
Handling 50-kg bags
Pick and shovel work
Miscellaneous Leisure Activities
Dancing, social
Tennis, singles
Basketball
Wrestling, competitive
Btu/h-ft2
33
44
59

29-37
37-63
41

33
37-44
74
74
74-88

44-81
66-74
90-140
130-160
met*5
1.8
2.4
3.2

1.6-2.0
2.0-3.4
2.2

1.8
2.0-2.4
4.0
4.0
4.0-4.8

2.4-4.4
3.6-4.0
5.0-7.6
7.0-8.7
        3   Complied from various Sources.  For additional information see Buskirk (1960), Passmore and
            Dumm (1967), and Webb (1964)

        b   lmet= 18.43 Btu/h-ft2

        Clothing is the second major factor affecting comfort.  Clothing acts as insulation for the skin.  As
illustrated in Exhibit 10.15 and Exhibit 10.16, the insulation value of clothing can vary widely.
    •   Clothing resistance (clo); 1 do = 0.155 m 2 •

    •   I clo*R-l
°C/W = 0.88h-ft2-°F/Btu
                                  Exhibit 10.16: Clothing Resistance
clo
'/2
1
4
Attire
Slacks, short sleeve shirt
Three-piece suit
Fur coat
                                                                                                         Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                  299

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               HVAC: HVAC Systems
Notes
                                               Exhibit 10.17: Garment Insulation Values
Garment3 Description
Underwear
Man's briefs
Panties
Bra
T-shirt
Full slip
Half slip
Long underwear top
Long underwear bottom
Footwear
Ankle -length athletic socks
Calf-length socks
Knee socks (thick)
Panty hose stockings
Sandals/thongs
Slippers (quilted, pile -lined)
Boots
Shirts and Blouses
Sleeveless, scoop-neck blouse
Short -sleeve, dress shirt
Long-sleeve, dress shirt
Long-sleeve, flannel shirt
Short -sleeve, knit sport shirt
Long-sleeve, sweat shirt
Trousers and Coveralls
Short shorts
Walking shorts
Straight trousers (thin)
Straight trousers (thick)
Sweat pants
Overalls
Coveralls
I/clo

0.04
0.03
0.01
0.08
0.16
0.14
0.20
0.15

0.02
0.03
0.06
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.10

0.12
0.19
0.25
0.34
0.17
0.34

0.06
0.08
0.15
0.24
0.28
0.30
0.49
Garment3 Description
Dresses and Skirts
Skirt (thin)
Skirt (thick)
Long-sleeve shirt dress (thin)
Long-sleeve shirt dress (thick)
Short-sleeve shirt dress (thin)
Sleeveless, scoop neck (thin)
Sleeveless, scoop neck (thick)
Sweaters
Sleeveless vest (thin)
Sleeveless vest (thick)
Long-sleeve (thin)
Long -sleeve (thick)
Suit Jackets and Vests (lined)
Single-breasted (thin)
Single-breasted (thick)
Double breasted (thin)
Double breasted (thick)
Sleeveless vest (thin)
Sleeveless vest (thick)
Sleepwear and Robes
Sleeveless, short gown (thin)
Sleeveless, long gown (thin)
Short-sleeve hospital gown
Long-sleeve, long gown (thick)
Long-sleeve pajamas (thick)
Short-sleeve pajamas (thin)
Long-sleeve, long wrap robe
(thick)
Long-sleeve, short wrap robe
(thick)
Short sleeve, short robe (thin)
I/clo

0.14
0.23
0.33
0.47
0.29
0.23
0.27

0.13
0.22
0.25
0.36

0.36
0.44
0.42
0.48
0.10
0.17

0.18
0.20
0.31
0.46
0.57
0.42
0.69
0.48
0.34
                         3   "Thin" garments are made of lightweight, thin fabrics worn in the summer; "thick" garments are
                         heavy weight, thick fabrics worn in the winter.

                             Knee-length
               300
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                 HVAC: HVAC Systems
        Environmental indices that affect personnel comfort include factors such as temperature, humidity,
and air flow.   Operating temperatures that take into account humidity can be determined using the following
equations.
                                                 h, +
                                       To=aTr+(\-ot)Ta
    where   Tr = mean radiant temperature
            Ta = dry bulb temperature
                                            1         2
                                            -< oc< —
                                            3         3
        Exhibit 10.18 lists equations for convection heat transfer coefficients for various activities.
                         Exhibit 10.18: Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients
Equation
Hc=0.061V°6
Hc=0.55
Hc=0.475+ 0.44V067
Hc=0.90
Hc=0.92V0.53
Hc=(M-0.85)° 39
Hc=0.146V°39
Hc=0.068V°69
Hc=0.70
Limits
40
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              HVAC: HVAC Systems
Notes            10.2.3  General Types of Building Heating and Cooling
                         Exhibits 10.19 - 10.25 illustrate the various types of building heating and cooling systems that are
                 currently available.  These include:
                     •    Sprayed coil dehumidifier,
                     •    Evaporative cooling and air washer,
                     •    Humidity control through cooling override,
                     •    Single zone - all direct control from space thermostat,
                     •    Dual duct air handling system,
                     •    Multi-zone air handling unit, and
                     •    Hybrid VAV control system.
                                              Exhibit 10.19:  Sprayed Coil Dehumidifier
                                          Exhibit 10.20: Evaporative Cooling & Air Washer
                                     Spray
                                    Nozzles
                                            Pump
                                     Eliminators
                                       Air Ftow
                                                                                 Makeup
                                                                                  Water
               302
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                  HVAC: HVAC Systems
                       Exhibit 10.21: Humidity Control Through Cooling Override


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                 Exhibit 10.22: Single Zone - All Direct Control from Space Thermostat
           Fr om SuppJ)? Fan Slar las
                      Minimum Position Switch
                   I	I
                           HI

                  Air
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                                                                  •CHS
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                                     Space  !
                                     Therm J
                                    fa 9 
-------
               HVAC: HVAC Systems
Notes
Supply
Fan
                               Air
                                 1
                                             Exhibit 10.23: Dual Duct Air Handling System
                                      )^
                                      i  Supply
                                                     KB
                                                    VI
                                                            IMS
                                                           'ing
                                                         Coil
                              Cooling
                                                1    NO
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                                                                                 | - 1_
                                                                                       "~~   I  Cltlfilf
                                                                                       ~
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                                              Exhibit 10.24: Multi-zone Air Handling Unit
                              Fan

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                                    +
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               304
                 Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                HVAC: HVAC Systems
                              Exhibit 10.25: Hybrid VAV Control System
10.3  VENTILATION

        Many operations require ventilation to control the level of dust, gases, fumes, or vapors.  Excess
ventilation for this purpose can add significantly to the heating load.  All air that is exhausted from the
building must be replaced by outside air.

        During the heating season the air must be heated to room temperature by makeup air units or by
infiltration and mixing with room air.  When process heating is also involved, excess ventilation results in a
loss of energy at all times.

        A common problem during the winter heating season is negative building pressure resulting from
attempting to exhaust more air than  can be supplied.  The  most obvious problem encountered with air
starvation is difficulty in opening doors. Negative pressure will lead to a number of other problems.

    1.  Heaters, ovens, and other plant equipment that depend on natural draft cannot operate properly under
        negative pressure and their combustion efficiency drops.

    2.  Downdrafts can cause condensation and  corrosion.   Fumes can also be drawn into the plant,
        affecting employee health and effectiveness.

    3.  Without proper exhaust, air stagnation creates concentrations of fumes or odors. Warm, moist air
        may even condense on manufactured products or mechanical and electrical equipment.

    4.  Workers near the  building's  perimeters may be subjected  to  drafts as the  pressure differential
        between inside and outside draws cold air through doors and windows.  Downdrafts can also occur
        around ventilation hoods  that are temporarily inoperative.   Turning up the thermostat causes
        employees in the middle of the building to roast and offers little help to those near the walls.

    5.  Exhaust fans  cannot  work  at rated  capacity under  negative pressure causing dust,  dirt, and
        contaminants in the  plant increase.   Maintenance, housekeeping, and operating costs rise, and
        equipment wears out much faster.  If new exhaust fans are added without equivalent makeup air
        capacity, equipment efficiency suffers.

        Exhaust airflows are  usually established for the more demanding winter conditions when negative
pressures may exist.  Consequently, with no adjustment to the exhaust system during the non-heating season
when the building  pressure is at equilibrium with the outside air, the exhaust rate will be greater.  Where no
                                                                                                       Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
305

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               HVAC:  Ventilation
JT ,              process heating is involved, the resulting higher summer exhaust rate is not a problem.  However, when
                 process heating is involved, such as with ovens, the higher exhaust rate will increase the heat loss.
                 10.3.1 Losses
                         Losses of air from buildings are inevitable.  The air which was heated will slowly seep through gaps
                 around windows, doors and ducts.  It is a phenomenon one has to deal with.  On the other hand, not only that
                 the total elimination of air leaks would be prohibitively expensive, but also could cause condensation and/or
                 pressure inequality in the building with respect to the outside.
                 10.3.1.1 Room Air
                         The following two equations may be used to estimate makeup air heating costs on an hourly and
                 yearly basis.
                     Hourly Cost = 1.08 x cfm x At x (C/eff.)
                     Yearly Cost = (0.154 x cfm x D x dg x C) / eff.
                     where,
                         cfm =   air volume, cfm
                         At =    outside temperature - inside temperature, °F
                         C=     cost of fuel, $/Btu
                         eff =    heater efficiency; if unknown, use 0.80 for indirect-fired heater
                         D =     operating time, hours/week
                         dg =    annual degree  days: 4,848  for New York  City,  New  York  or  5,930 for Pittsburgh,
                         Pennsylvania
                 For example, assume 10,000 cfm with 40°F outside temperature, operating 15 shifts per week.
                         Cost/hr= l.OSx 10,000 x (70-40) x ($3.00/106 Btu) x (1/80%) = $1.215
                         Annual Cost = 0.154 x 10,000 x 120 x 4,848 x ($3.00/106 Btu) x (1/80%) = $3,360
                 10.3.1.2 High-Temperature Exhaust
                         In the case  of a high-temperature exhaust, as from an oven, the  loss is magnified by the higher
                 temperatures of either the dry air or the air-water mixture.  During the heating season, this loss also involves
                 heating an equivalent amount of makeup air  to  room  temperature  before  further heating to exhaust
                 temperature in the oven.
                         An example  of the potential saving for a reduction in exhaust for 1,000 cfm at 250°F is as follows:
                     1.   Saving for heating outside air to 65°F, given:
                         cfm =1,000
                         D = 120 operating hours per week
                         dg = 2,500 degree days
                         C = $4.24/MMBtu heat in steam
                         Using the above formula:
                             Annual savings = 0.154 x 1,000 x 120 x 2,500 x ($4.24/106) = $196/yr
                     2.   Saving for reduction in process heat load (250°F - 65°F)
                             Annual Savings = 1,000 x 1.08* x (250°F - 65°F) x 6,000 x ($4.24/106) " = $5,083/yr
                         Total Saving = $196 + $5,083 = $5,279/yr
               305                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                   HVAC:  Ventilation
                1.08 = 60 min/hr x 0.075 Ibs/cu ft x 0.24 specific heat of air
                If a direct-fired gas makeup unit is used, the air is heated at nearly 100 percent efficiency.
                For an indirect unit an efficiency of 80 percent or $3.75/MMBtu can be used.
Additional saving in fan horsepower is possible if fan speed is reduced.

10.3.1.3 Air-Water Mixture

        The heat loss is considerably greater when water vapor is included with the exhaust, as occurs with
washing or drying.  As an example of the heat loss from an exhaust including water vapor, the enthalpy of dry
air at 110°F is 26.5 Btu per pound; the enthalpy of a saturated mixture of air and water vapor is 87.5 Btu per
pound of dry air.  The extent of this loss emphasizes the importance of using minimum exhaust where heated
baths are involved.   A high  temperature psychrometric chart can be used to determine enthalpies at other
conditions.

10.3.2 Balance Air Flows

        Too often no provision is made to supply sufficient makeup air. Consequently, it must leak through
doors, windows, and stray openings, producing undesirable drafts in the vicinity of the leakage.

        Barring the ability to make sufficient reduction in exhaust to balance the air supply and demand, the
best practice is to add more makeup air units to supply  heated  air in amounts equal to that exhausted and
distribute it in the region of the exhaust system.  While this will contribute little to energy conservation, it will
eliminate the problems associated with negative pressure.

        Plant  personnel  should check all exhausts to determine  if losses can be reduced or eliminated.
Measures than can be taken to reduce exhaust losses are:

     1.  Shut off fans when equipment is down.

    2.  Reduce volume to a minimum.

    3.  Reduce temperature.

    4.  Recover exhaust.

10.3.2.1 Shut off Fans

        The most obvious improvement is to shut off any exhaust fans that are not needed. Exhaust fans are
often left running even if the equipment they  are  ventilating is down.  Some typical examples are spray
booths and ovens or dryers.  Fans can also be left on during periods of no production, such as evenings or
weekends.

10.3.2.2 Reduce Volume

        The next best improvement is to reduce exhaust rates to the  minimum. Some reduction in existing
rates may be possible because:

     1.  Exhaust rates may have been established with a large margin of safety when energy costs were not a
        significant factor.

    2.  The exhaust rate may have been increased at one time  to resolve a temporary problem, which no
        longer exists.

    3.  Rates may be set to satisfy the most extreme need, which may be far in excess of normal operation.

        In the first  case,  a simple adjustment of the damper setting to reduce flow may be sufficient.  Where
production loads fluctuate, the damper setting can be varied with the load when practical.

        Often, one of the most direct and easiest  means to  reduce the volume of exhaust air is by proper
hood design. In many instances, equally effective ventilation can be provided with less exhaust by improving
the  design  of the exhaust hoods.   The result  is lower fan power  consumption and reduced heat loss.  In
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                          307
Notes

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               HVAC:  Ventilation
JT ,              general,  the  most effective hood designs are those which completely surround the emission source with
                 minimum openings to the surrounding area.  The following are some guidelines for optimum hood design.
                     Enclosure
                          The  more complete the enclosure, the less exhaust air is required.  Exhaust hoods are commonly
                 located at a considerable distance from the surface of a tank. As a consequence, room air is exhausted along
                 with the  fumes.  Rates are also increased if control is upset by cross drafts in  the area.  The following steps
                 can provide a more complete enclosure.
                     1.   Extend the hood vertically on one or more sides.  This approach can be taken where access is not
                          necessary on all sides.
                     2.   Provide a hanging drop cloth or plastic strips that will allow for access when necessary without
                          undue interference with operation.
                     Distance from Source
                          If enclosing the source with side panels is not practical, the hood should be as close as possible to the
                 source and shaped to control  the area of contamination.  The required volume varies as the square  of the
                 distance from the source.
                         The addition of flanges will eliminate air flow from ineffective zones where no contaminant exists.
                 Air requirements can be reduced as much as 25 percent by incorporating flanges in the hood design.
                     Capture Velocity
                         The airflow past the source must be sufficient to capture the contaminant.  However, if no standards
                 or arbitrary standards in excess of needs are used, proper capture velocity or volume should be determined to
                 avoid unnecessary exhaust.
                     Large Openings
                         Where exhaust openings are of necessity large  in size, the hood can be made more effective by
                 incorporating multiple take-offs, slotted openings, baffles, etc.  Hoods with this feature will provide more
                 uniform flow over the area to be ventilated and reduce total air requirements.
                     Outside Air
                         The introduction of outside air, where possible, at the point of ventilation will reduce the amount of
                 room air exhausted.  Heating requirements will, therefore, be reduced to the extent the exhaust air includes
                 outside air instead of heated room air.
                 10.3.2.3 Reduce Temperature
                         Process requirements usually dictate the temperature  at which the process must be maintained.
                 However, a review of conditions may indicate opportunities to reduce temperature in the following areas:
                     •   Current practice maintains temperature above standard to provide a wide margin of safety.
                     •   The standard was established arbitrarily or without adequate testing.
                     •   The standard was established to handle a worst-case situation, which no longer exists or occurs
                         rarely (at which time exhaust rate could be increased).
                 10.3.2.4 Recover Heat
                         Heat recovery from the exhaust air should  be  considered after first completing the steps to reduce
                 exhaust loss by any of the above methods.  Several precautions should be considered in the evaluation of a
                 heat recovery system.
                     1.  Because air is less dense than water, large volumes of air are required to approach the equivalent Btu
                         content of wastewater.  Where heat recovery from both systems cannot be beneficially  utilized, a

               308                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                    HVAC:  Ventilation
        heat recovery system for water is generally preferable to air because of the former's better payback
        and lower maintenance.  The plant-wide potential for waste recovery should, therefore, be studied
        first to ensure the design of any installation will be coordinated with an overall plan.

    2.   Any evaluation  of savings must reflect the actual  hours  of use.  For example, if air-to-air heat
        recovery from an oven is planned for heating the building, the recovery system will be in use only
        during the heating season. Furthermo re, if the oven is not operating continuously, the heat recovery
        system will be available for this purpose for an even shorter period.

    3.   Although considerable heat may be lost in exhaust gases, especially when a number of sources are
        involved, the potential for heat recovery is dependent on the temperature of the gases. When the
        temperature range is low (200°F to 400°F), the potential for economical recovery is minimized.

    4.   The exhaust  gases may contain  some contaminants that will foul heat exchanger surfaces.  In this
        situation, the  ease of cleaning the exchanger is of prime importance.

10.3.3 Types of Heat Exchangers

        As the name  indicates, the heat  exchanger is a device where heat from one medium is transferred
into another.  This way, some of the energy otherwise lost is used to help achieve desired conditions.  Several
types of heat exchangers are available depending on the application.

10.3.3.1 Rotary Heat Exchanger

        Because the  matrix in this type of exchanger has fine air passages, the rotor may soon become
blocked if it is installed in an  air stream containing contaminants.  This heat exchanger has the highest
efficiency,  recovering 70 to 85 percent of the exhaust energy, including both latent and sensible heat.  It is
best suited to a clean air stream since some blockages of the exhaust air to the supply side can occur.

10.3.3.2 Sealed Heat Pipe Heat Exchanger

        The heat pipe operates on the principle that when heat is  applied to one end  of a sealed tube,
evaporation of a fluid in the pipe occurs.   The vapor flows to the cold end where it is condensed. The
condensed working fluid is then transported by capillary action to the warm end where the cycle is repeated.
In this exchanger, the  fins mounted on the outside of the tube to aid heat transfer may also become blocked
with contaminants. Heat exchanger efficiency decreases when deposits build up on the surface, so keeping
the surfaces clean is important. The unit recovers 60 to 80  percent of the sensible heat.

        The use of a filtering system and/or periodic cleaning are often necessary to  ensure clean heat
transfer surfaces. The advantages of the heat pipe are minimal maintenance, because it contains no moving
parts; and no cross-contamination, because the exit and incoming gas streams are completely sealed off from
each other.

10.3.3.3 Plate Heat Exchanger

        Heat transfer is accomplished by  counter flowing  two  streams between plates.  This type of
exchanger is less likely to become blocked with contaminants and is more easily  cleaned. Maintenance is
also minimized because there are no moving parts.  This type is suitable for either air-to-air or air-to-water
heat recovery.  About  70 percent of the sensible heat is recovered by these units.

        The equipment  cost for  an  air-to-air heat exchanger from one manufacturer ranges from $0.60 to
$1.60 per cfm depending on the size,  usage, efficiency,  airflow, pattern, etc. An air-to-water heat exchanger
costs from  $1.30 to $3.10 per cfm, again depending on efficiency, size, usage, etc. Installation costs range
from 1 to 2.5 times the cost of the equipment.

        If  the  exhaust gases contain oil mists and other contaminants,  some form  of filter unit may be
necessary ahead  of the heat  exchanger.   Either a conventional filter or  electrostatic precipitator can be
considered.

10.3.3.4 Coil-Run-Around System

        The  above three types of heat  exchangers  require the supply  and exhaust stream to be brought
together. A coil-run-around unit permits the two streams to be physically separated by using an intermediary
     Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
309

-------
               HVAC: Ventilation
JT ,              fluid, usually ethylene glycol, to transfer energy between the two streams. The ethylene glycol is circulated
                 in a closed loop through heat exchangers in the "hot" and "cold" stream.  Coil-run-around systems recover 60
                 to 65 percent of the sensible heat between the two streams.

                 10.3.3.5 Hot Oil Recovery System

                         This  system  has  the  advantages  of eliminating heat  exchanger fouling and reducing pollution
                 abatement problems.  In this system, exhausts are passed through cool, cascading oil, which absorbs most of
                 the heat as well as the high boiling chemicals. The hot oil passes over exchange coils containing incoming
                 process water and is then recycled.

                         Where  flammable  solvents are used,  lower flammable  limit (LFL) monitoring  equipment is
                 necessary. Improved LFL  systems include self-checking equipment and completed control loops  that allow
                 the  use of modulated dampers to provide  for minimal safe ventilation requirements.  The  self-checking
                 system eliminates much of the periodic  need  to calibrate  and  check the function of safety  circuits.
                 Accordingly, exhaust reduction can be considered for drying ovens containing solvent vapors. The capital
                 expenditure for an LFL monitor is about $15,000.
                 REFERENCES

                         1.   American  Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air  Conditioning Engineers,  Handbook of
                             Fundamentals, 1972

                         2.   Sherratt, A.F.C., Energy Conservation and Energy Management in Buildings, Applied Science
                             Publishers, 1976

                         3.   Southern California Gas Company, How to Save Energy in Commercial Buildings, Publication
                             7436

                         4.   ASHRAE Standard 90-75, Energy Conservation in New  Building Design, ASHRAE, 1975

                         5.   Reay, D.A., Industrial Energy Conservation, Pergamon  Press, 1977

                         6.   Kenney, W.F., Energy Conservation in the Process Industries, Academic Press, 1984

                         7.   Payne, G.A., The Energy Managers 'Handbook, IPC Science and Technology Press, 1977
               310                         Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                        Appendix A: EPA Regional Offices
                                APPENDIX A
                        EPA REGIONAL OFFICES
Region #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Area's Included
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont,
Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
Connecticut
New York, New Jersey, Puerto
Rico, US Virgin Islands
Delaware, Maryland,
Pennsylvania, Virginia, West
Virginia, District of Columbia.
Mississippi, Tennessee, Alabama,
Georgia, Florida, Kentucky, South
Carolina, North Carolina
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,
Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin
Arkansas, Louisiana, New
Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska
Colorado, Montana, North
Dakota, South Dakota, Utah,
Wyoming
Arizona, California, Hawaii,
Nevada, Guam, American Samoa.
Alaska, Idaho, Oregon,
Washington
EPA Regional Address
EPA Regionl
John F. Kennedy Building
Boston, MA 02203
EPA Region 2
290 Broadway - 26th Floor
New York, New York 10007-1866
EPA Region 3
841 Chestnut Building
Philadelphia, PA 19107
EPA Region 4
Atlanta Federal Center
61 Forsyth Street, SW
Atlanta, Georgia 30303-3104
EPA Region 5
77 W Jackson Blvd
Chicago, IL 60604
EPA Region 6 Main Office
1445 Ross Avenue
Suite 1200
Dallas, Texas 75202
EPA Region 7
726 Minnesota Ave.
Kansas City, Kansas 66101
EPA Region 8 Office
999- 18th St., Suite 500
Denver, Colorado 80202
EPA Region 9 Office
75 Hawthorne Street
San Francisco, CA 94105
EPA Region 10
1200 6th Avenue
Seattle, WA 98101
Regional Phone #
(888)EPA-7341
(212) 637-5000
(215) 566-2900
(404) 562-9900
(312) 353-2000
(214) 665-2200
(913) 551-7003
(303)312-6312
(415)744-1500
(206) 553-1200
                                                                                    Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
A-l

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Appendix A: Energy Conservation Resources


                          ENERGY CONSERVATION RESOURCES
  1.   Silver, Daniel M.  "The Sustainable Energy Guide: International Resources for Energy-Efficiency and
      Renewable Energy."    International  Institute for Energy Conservation Publications, Washington DC,
      1994.

  2.   Energy Conservation Program Guide for Industry and Commerce, NBS Handbook 115 and Supplement,
      U. S. Department of Commerce and Federal Administration, U. S. Government Printing Office,  1975.

  3.   Industrial Market and Energy Management Guide, American Consulting Engineers Council, Research
      and Management Foundation, 1987.

  4.   Levers, W.D., The Electrical Engineer's Challenge in Energy Conservation.,  IEEE Trans. Of Industrial
      Applications, 1 A-11,4,1975

  5.   Windett, A.S., Reducing the Cost of Electricity Supply, Gower Press, 1973

  6.   Zackrison, H.B., Energy Conservation Techniques for Engineers, Van Nostrand Reinhold  Company,
      1984.

  7.   California Environmental Protection Agency,  Waste Audit Study of the Electric Utility  Industry,  Cal-
      EPA, Department of Toxic substance Control, December 1991.

  8.   Flavin, Christopher and  Alan  B.  Durning.  Building on  Success:  The Age  of Energy  Efficiency.
      WorldWatch Institute, Washington, D.C., 1988.

  9.   Gulp, Archie W. Principles of Energy Conversion. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991.

  10. Freeman, S. David. Energy: The New Era. Walker, New York, 1974.

  11. Shinskey, F. Greg. Energy Conservation Through Control. Academic Press, New York, 1978.

  12. Dumas, Lloyd J.  The Conservation Response: Strategies for the Design and Operation of Energy-Using
      Systems. Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass, 1976.

  13. Hafemeister, David W.  Energy Sources: Conservation and Renew able s.  AIP Conference Proceedings,
      American Institute of Physics, New York, 1985.

  14. Stasiowski, Frank A.   Nine Hundred and Forty Three Ways to Save Energy. Practice Management
      Associates, Ltd., Newton, Massachusetts, 1991.

  15. Kreith, Frank and George Burmeister.  Energy Management  and Conservation. National  Conference of
      State Legislatures, Denver, CO, 1993.

  16. Geller, Howard  S. and  John M. DeCicco.  Energy Efficiency and Job Creation: The Employment and
      Income Benefits from Investing in Energy Conserving Technologies.  American Council  for an Energy
      Efficient Economy, Washington, D.C., 1992.

  17. Watson, Donald. Energy Conservation Through Building Design. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979.

  18. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.  IEEE Recommended Practice Energy Conservation and
      Cost-Effective Planning in Industrial Facilities. IEEE , New York, 1984.

  19. Kreith, Frank and Ronald West. CRC Handbook of Energy Efficiency. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1997.
                            Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

-------
                                                          Appendix A: Pollution Prevention Publications
POLLUTION PREVENTION PUBLICATIONS
Title EPA Document Number
The Automotive Refinishing Industry.
The Automotive Repair Industry.
The Commercial Printing Industry.
The Fabricated Metal Products Industry.
The Fiberglass-Reinforced And Composite Plastics Industry.
The Marine Maintenance And Repair Industry.
The Mechanical Equipment Repair Industry.
Metal Casting And Heat Treating Industry.
The Metal Finishing Industry.
Municipal Pretreatment Programs.
Non-Agricultural Pesticide Users.
The Paint Manufacturing Industry.
The Pesticide Formulating Industry.
The Pharmaceutical Industry.
The Photoprocessing Industry.
The Printed Circuit Board Manufacturing Industry.
Research And Educational Institutions.
Selected Hospital Waste Streams.
Wood Preserving Industry.
OTHER MANUALS'
Facility Pollution Prevention Guide
Opportunities For Pollution Prevention Research To Support the
33/50 Program
Life Cycle Design Guidance Manual.
Life Cycle Assessment: Inventory Guidelines and Principles
Pollution Prevention Case Studies Compendium
Industrial Pollution Prevention Opportunities For The 1990's EPA
EPA 625/791/016
EPA 625/791/013
EPA 625/790/008
EPA 625/790/006
EPA 625/791/014
EPA 625/791/015
EPA 625/R92/008
EPA 625/R-92-009
EPA625/R92/011
EPA 625/R93/006
EPA 625/R93/009
EPA 625/790/005
EPA 625/790/004
EPA 625/791/017
EPA 625/791/012
EPA 625/790/007
EPA 625/790/010
EPA 625/790/009
EPA625/R93/014
EPA625/R92/088
EPA/600/R92/175
EPA/600/R92/226
EPA/600/R92/245
EPA/600/R92/046
EPA/600/891/052
                                                                                                        Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
A-3

-------
              Appendix A: Pollution Prevention Publications
Notes
                                            Title
EPA Document Number
                Achievements In Source Reduction And Recycling For Ten
                Industries In The United States

                Background Document On Clean Products Research And
                Implementation

                Opportunities For Pollution Prevention Research To Support
                The33/50 Program

                Waste Minimization Practices At Two CCA Wood Treatment Plants

                WMOA Report And Summary - Fort Riley, Kansas

                WMOA Report And Summary - Philadelphia Naval Shipyard/
                Governors Island

                Management Of Household And Small-Quality-Generator
                Hazardous Waste In The United States

                WMOA Report And Summary - Naval Undersea Warfare
                Engineering Station, Report, WA

                WMOA Report And Summary - Optical Fabrication Laboratory,
                Fitzsimmins Army Medical Center, Denver, Colorado

                WMOA Report And Summary - A Truck Assembly Plant

                WMOA Report And Summary - A Photofinishing Facility

                WMOA Report And Summary - Scott Air Force Base

                Guidance Document For The Write Pilot Program With State And
                Local Governments

                Machine Coolant Waste Reduction By Optimizing Coolant Life

                Recovery Of Metals Using Aluminum Displacement

                Metal Recovery/Removal Using Non-Electrolytic Metal Recovery

                Evaluation Of Five Waste Minimization Technologies At The
                General Dynamics Pomona Division Plant

                An Automated Aqueous Rotary Washer For The Metal Fabrication
                Industry

                Automotive And Heavy Duty Engine Coolant Recycling By
                Filtration

                Automotive And Heavy Duty Engine Coolant Recycling By
                Distillation

                Onsite Waste  Ink Recycling

                Diaper Industry Workshop Report
   EPA/600/291/051


   EPA/600/290/048


   EPA/600/R92/175


   EPA/600/R93/168

  EPA/600/S2-90/031

  EPA/600/S2-90/062


  EPA/600/S2-89/064


  EPA/600/S2-91/030


  EPA/600/S2-91/031


  EPA/600/S2-91/038

  EPA/600/S2-91/039

  EPA/600/S2-91/054

  EPA/600/S8-89/070


  EPA/600/S2-90/033

  EPA/600/S2-90/032

  EPA/600/S2-90/033

  EPA/600/S2-91/067


  EPA/600/Sr-92/188


  EPA/600/S2-91/066


  EPA/600/Sr-92/024


  EPA/600/Sr-92/251

  EPA/600/S2-91/251
              A-4
                                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

-------
                                                        Appendix A: Pollution Prevention Publications
                             Title
EPA Document Number
Industrial Pollution Prevention Opportunities For The 1990's

Hospital Pollution Prevention Case Study
Waste Minimization Audit Report: Case Studies Of Minimization Of
Cyanide Waste From Electroplating Operations

Waste Minimization Audits At Generators Of Corrosive And Heavy
Metal Wastes

Waste Minimization Audit Report: Case Studies Of Minimization Of
Solvent Wastes From Parts Cleaning And From Electronic Capacitor
Manufacturing Operations

Waste Minimization In The Printed Circuit Board Industry - Case
Studies

Waste Minimization Audit Report: Case Studies Of Minimization Of
Solvent Wastes And Electroplating Wastes At A DOD Installation
Waste Minimization Audit Report: Case Studies Of Minimization Of
Mercury -Bearing Wastes At A Mercury Cell Chloralkali Plant

Pollution Prevention Opportunity Assessment: USDA Beltsville
Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland

Pollution Prevention Opportunity Assessment For Two Laboratories
At Sandia National Laboratories

Ink And Cleaner Waste Reduction Evaluation For Flexographic
Printers

Mobile Onsite Recycling Of Metalworking Fluids

Evaluation Of Ultrafiltration To Recover Aqueous Iron Phosphating/
Degreasing Bath

Recycling Nickel Electroplating Rinse Waters By Low Temperature
Evaporation And Reverse Osmosis

WASTE MINIMIZATION ASSESSMENT FOR:

Aerial Lifts.

Aluminum And Steel Parts.

Aluminum Cans.

Aluminum Extrusions.

Automotive Air Conditioning Condensers And Evaporators.

Baseball Bats And Golf Clubs.

Caulk.
  EPA/600/Sr-91/052

  EPA/600/S2-91/024

  EPA/600/S2-87/055


  EPA/600/S2-87/056


  EPA/600/S2-87/057



  EPA/600/S2-88/008


  EPA/600/S2-88/010


  EPA/600/S2-88/011


  EPA/600/Sr-93/008


  EPA/600/Sr-93/015


  EPA/600/Sr-93/086


  EPA/600/Sr-93/114

  EPA/600/Sr-93/144


  EPA/600/Sr-93/160




   EPA600/S-94-011

   EPA 600/S-94-010

   EPA600/M91/025

   EPA 600/S-92-010

   EPA600/S-92-007

   EPA600/S-93-007

   EPA600/S-94-017
                                                                                                      Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                             A-5

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              Appendix A: Pollution Prevention Publications
Notes
                                             Title
EPA Document Number
                 Can-Manufacturing Equipment.

                 Chemicals.

                 Commercial Ice Machines And Ice Storage Bins.

                 Components For Automobile Air Conditioners.

                 Compressed Air Equipment Components.

                 Custom Molded Plastic Products.

                 Cutting And Welding Equipment.

                 Electrical Rotating Devices.

                 Felt Tip Markers, Stamp Pads, And Rubber Cement.

                 Fine Chemicals Using Batch Processes.

                 Finished Metal And Plastic Parts.

                 Finished Metal Components.

                 Gravure-Coated Metalized Paper And Metalized Film

                 Heating, Ventilating, And Air Conditioning Equipment.

                 Industrial Coatings.

                 Injection-Molded Car And Truck Mirrors.

                 Iron Castings And Fabricated Sheet Metal Parts.

                 Labels And Flexible Packaging.

                 Machined Parts.

                 Metal Bands, Clamps, Retainers, And Tooling.

                 Metal-Plated Display Racks.

                 Microelectronic Components.

                 Military Furniture.

                 Motor Vehicle Exterior Mirrors.

                 New And Reworked Rotogravure Printing Cylinders.

                 Orthopedic Implants.

                 Outdoor Illuminated Signs.

                 Paper Rolls, Ink Rolls, Ink Ribbons, And Magnetic And Thermal
                 Transfer Ribbons.
   EPA 600/S-92-014

   EPA 600/S-92-004

   EPA 600/S-92-012

   EPA 600/S-92-009

   EPA 600/M91/024

   EPA 600/S-92-034

   EPA 600/S-92-029

   EPA600/S-94-018

   EPA600/S-94-013

   EPA 600/S-92-055

   EPA 600/S-94-005

   EPA 600/S-92-030

   EPA 600/S-94-008

   EPA600/M91/019

   EPA600/S-92-028

   EPA 600/S-92-032

   EPA 600/S-95-008

   EPA 600/S-95-004

   EPA600/S-92-031

   EPA600/S-92-015

   EPA600/S-92-019

   EPA600/S-94-015

   EPA 600/S-92-017

   EPA 600/S-92-020

   EPA 600/S-95-005

   EPA 600/S-92-064

   EPA600/M91/016

   EPA 600/S-95-003
              A-6
                                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

-------
                                                       Appendix A:  Pollution Prevention Publications
                            Title
EPA Document Number
Parts For Truck Engines




Penny Blanks And Zinc Products.




Permanent-Magnet DC Electric Motors.




Pliers And Wrenches.




Prewashed Jeans.




Printed Circuit Boards.




Printed Circuit Boards.




Printed Labels.




Printed Plastic Bags.




Product Carriers And Printed Labels.




Prototype Printed Circuit Boards.




Rebuilt Railway Cars And Components.




Refurbished Railcar Bearing Assemblies.




Rotogravure Printing Cylinders.




Screwdrivers.




Sheet Metal Cabinets And Precision Metal Parts.




Sheet Metal Components.




Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers And Schottky Rectifiers.




Surgical Implants.




Treated Wood Products.




Water Analysis Instrumentation




WASTE REDUCTION ACTI VIES AND OPTIONS FOR A:




Printer Of Forms And Supplies For The Legal Profession




Nuclear Powered Electrical Generating Station




State DOT Maintenance Facility




Local Board Of Education In New Jersey




Manufacturer Of Finished Leather




Manufacturer Of Paints Primarily For Metal Finishing




Manufacturer Of Writing Instruments
   EPA 600/S-94-019




   EPA600/S-92-037




   EPA 600/S-92-016




   EPA600/S-94-004




   EPA 600/S-94-006




   EPA600/M91/022




   EPA 600/S-92-033




   EPA600/M91/047




   EPA600/M/90/017




   EPA600/S-93-008




   EPA 600/M91/045




   EPA600/M91/017




   EPA 600/M91/044




   EPA 600/S-93-009




   EPA600/S-94-003




   EPA 600/S-92-021




   EPA600/S-92-035




   EPA 600/S-92-036




   EPA600/S-94-009




   EPA 600/S-92-022




   EPA 600/S-92-013








   EPA/600/S-92/003




   EPA/600/S-92/025




   EPA/600/S-92/026




   EPA/600/S-92/027




   EPA/600/S-92/039




   EPA/600/S-92/040




   EPA/600/S-92/041
                                                                                                    Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                            A-7

-------
               Appendix A: Pollution Prevention Publications
Notes
                                              Title
EPA Document Number
                 Manufacturer Of Room Air Conditioner Units And Humidifiers

                 Autobody Repair Facility

                 Fabricator And Finisher Of Steel Computer Cabinets

                 Manufacturer Of Artists' Supply Paints

                 Manufacturer Of Wire Stock Used For Production Of Metal Items

                 Manufacturer Of Commercial Refrigeration Units

                 Waste Reduction: Pollution Prevention Publications Transporter Of
                 Bulk Plastic Pellets

                 Manufacturer Of Electroplated Wire

                 Manufacturer Of Systems To Produce Semiconductors

                 Remanuf acture Of Automobile Radiators

                 Manufacturer Of Fire Retardant Plastic Pellets And Hot Melt
                 Adhesives

                 Printing Plate Preparation Section Of A Newspaper

                 Manufacturer Of General Purpose Paints And Painting Supplies

                 Manufacturer Of Fine Chemicals Using Batch Processes

                 Laminator Of Cardboard Packages

                 Manufacturer Of Hardened Steel Gears

                 Scrap Metal Recovery Facility

                 Manufacturer Of Electroplating Chemical Products

                 Manufacturer Of Plastic Containers By Injection Molding

                 Fossil Fuel-Fired Electrical Generating Station

                 Manufacturer Of Commercial Dry Cleaning Equipment

                 Electrical Utility Transmission System Monitoring And Maintenance
                 Facility

                 Manufacturer Of Orthopedic Implants
   EPA/600/S-92/042

   EPA/600/S-92/043

   EPA/600/S-92/044

   EPA/600/S-92/045

   EPA/600/S-92/046

   EPA/600/S-92/047

   EPA/600/S-92/048


   EPA/600/S-92/049

   EPA/600/S-92/050

   EPA/600/S-92/051

   EPA/600/S-92/052


   EPA/600/S-92/053

   EPA/600/S-92/054

   EPA/600/S-92/055

   EPA/600/S-92/056

   EPA/600/S-92/057

   EPA/600/S-92/058

   EPA/600/S-92/059

   EPA/600/S-92/060

   EPA/600/S-92/061

   EPA/600/S-92/062

   EPA/600/S-92/063


   EPA/600/S-92/064
              A-8
                                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                  Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources


                TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER INFORMATION SOURCES


                                   GOVERNMENT- NATIONAL
Provider:        Asbestos Abatement/Management Ombudsman
Telephone:      (703) 305-5938 or (800) 368-5888
Hours:          8:00 a.m. - 4:30 p.m. (EST) M-F
Abstract:        The assigned mission of the Asbestos Ombudsman is to provide to the public information
on handling, abatement, and management of asbestos in schools, the work place, and the home.  Interpretation
of the asbestos in schools requirements is  provided. Publications to explain recent legisktion are also
available. Services are provided to private citizens, community services, state agencies, local agencies, local
public and private school systems, abatement  contractors, and consultants.

Provider:        Association of Small Business Development Centers
Membership:    State small business development centers
Name:          Jim King
Position:        Chairman, Government Relations
Telephone:      (518) 443-5398
Fax:            (518)465-4992
E-mail:          kingi (S.svsadm. sunv. edu
Name:          Kathleen Dawson
Position:        Executive Director
Telephone:      (703) 448-6124
Fax:	(703)448-6125	

Provider:        U. S. EPA Small Business Ombudsman Clearinghouse/Hotline
Telephone:      (703) 305-5938, (800) 368-5888
Hours:          Message  recorder is on 24 hours a day.
Abstract:        The mission  of the U.S. EPA Small Business Ombudsman Clearinghouse/Hotline is to
provide information to private citizens, small  communities, small business enterprises, and trade associations
representing the small business  sector  regarding  regulatory activities. Technical questions  are answered
following appropriate contacts with program office staff members. Questions addressed  cover  all media
program aspects within U.S. EPA.

Provider:        Green Lights and Energy Star Programs
Telephone:      (202) 775-6650, (888) STAR-YES [782-7937]
Abstract:        The success of  the Green Lights program depends on the actions taken by Partners  and
Allies to implement  energy-efficient lighting upgrade projects, ultimately resulting in sustained pollution
prevention.  U.S. EPA's  participant support programs provide planning and implementation  guidance  for
successful lighting upgrade projects. U.S. EPA offers four types of support programs: Information, Planning,
Analysis Tools, and Communications.

Provider:        Indoor Air Quality Information Clearinghouse (IAQINFO)
Telephone:      (800) 438-4318
Fax:            (202)484-1510
E-mail:          iaqinfofSlaol.com
Hours:          9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. (EST), M-F; after-hours voice mail
Abstract:        The purpose of the IAQINFO is to help you locate information to  answer your questions
about indoor air pollution.  IAQINFO can provide information on (1) the sources, health effects, testing  and
measuring,  and controlling indoor air pollutants;  (2) constructing and  maintaining homes and buildings to
minimize indoor air quality problems; (3) existing standards and guidelines related to indoor air quality;  and
(4) general information on Federal and State legislation.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                            A-9
Notes

-------
               Appendix A:  Technology Transfer Information Sources


JT ,              Provider:        Information Resources Center (formerly the library)
	           Telephone:      (202) 260-5922
                 Hours:          8:00 am. - 5:00 p.m., M-F (walk-in)
                 E-mail:          librarvhq(5),epamail.epa. gov
                 Abstract:        The Information Resources Center  is open  to U.S. EPA personnel  and the public.  It
                 provides access to U.S. EPA publications,  books and journals related to environmental issues, and to the
                 Federal regulations.

                 Provider:        National Radon Helpline
                 Telephone:      (800) 55-RADON [557-2366]
                 Abstract:        The National Radon Helpline  provides general information and  respond to consumer
                 questions on radon.

                 Provider:        National Response Center
                 Telephone:      (800) 424-8802
                 Abstract:        The National Response Center (NRC) is the federal  government's national communications
                 center, and is staffed 24 hours a day by U.S.  Coast Guard. The NRC receives all reports of releases involving
                 hazardous  substances and oil that trigger the federal notification requirements under several laws. Reports to
                 the NRC activate the National Contingency Plan and the federal government's response capabilities. It is the
                 responsibility of the NRC staff to notify the  pre-designated on-scene  coordinator (OSC) assigned to the area
                 of the incident and to collect available information on the size and nature of the release, the facility or vessel
                 involved, and the party(ies) responsible for the release. The NRC maintains reports of all releases and spills in
                 a national database called the Emergency Response Notification System.

                 Provider:        National Small Flows Clearinghouse
                 Telephone:      (800) 624-8301, (304) 293-4191
                 Hours:          8:00 am. - 5:00 p.m. (EST) M-F
                 Abstract:        The National Small Flows Clearinghouse was established to provide small communities
                 with information and technical assistance to address wastewater treatment issues.

                 Provider:        Oil Spill Program Information Line
                 Telephone:      (202) 260-2342
                 E-mail:          oilinfo(g)epamail.epa. gov
                 Abstract:        U.S. EPA maintains an oil spill program information line to answer questions and provide
                 information to the public and owners and operators of regulated facilities  on the following topics: Facility
                 Response Plan rulemaking, Emergency Response Notification  System (ERNS), NCP  product schedule,  and
                 other questions related to U. S. EPA's oil spill program.

                 Provider:        Radon Fix-It Line
                 Telephone:      (800) 644-6999
                 Hours:          12:00 p.m. and 8:00 p.m. (EST), M-F
                 Abstract:        The Consumer Research Council, a  nonprofit consumer organization, operates the Radon
                 Fix-it Line, which is free of charge.  The  Radon Fix-it  Line provides guidance and encouragement to
                 consumers with elevated radon levels  of 4  pCi/L or higher to take the necessary steps toward fixing their
                 homes.

                 Provider:        Safe Drinking Water Hotline
                 Telephone:      (800) 426-4791
                 Hours:          9:00 am. - 5:30 p.m. (EST), M-F
                 E-mail:          hotline-sdwa@epamail.epa.gov
                 Abstract:        The Hotline assists Public Water Systems, State  and local officials, and members of the
                 public with information on U.S. EPA regulations and  programs authorized by the Safe  Drinking Water Act
                 Amendments of  1986 and 1996. This includes drinking water regulations, other related drinking water topics,
                 wellhead protection and ground water protection program information.	
               A-10                         Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                   Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
                                    GOVERNMENT - REGIONAL

Provider:        National Response Center - regional programs
Telephone:









Region I
Region II
Region III
Region IV
Region V
Region VI
Region VII
Region VIII
Region IX
Region X
(617)223-7265
(732) 548-8730
(215)566-3255
(404) 562-8700
(312)353-2318
(214) 665-2222
(913)281-0991
(303) 293-1788
(415)744-2000
(206) 553-1263
Provider:       Region I Air Quality Information Line
Telephone:      (617) 565-9145
Abstract:       The Air Quality  Information Line is a voice mail system that routes the caller to  the
appropriate Region I air  quality point of contact for the purpose of lodging complaints, asking questions,
requesting information, and providing tips.

Provider:       Region I General Information
Telephone:      (617) 565-3420
Abstract:       This  is the  telephone  number  for  the  operator  and employee locator for Region  I.
Questions, requests for information, and complaints are  routed to the appropriate office or person.

Provider:       Region II Superfund Investigators Hotline
Telephone:      (800)245-2738
Abstract:       This hotline is exclusively for the public with potential information on Superfund sites.

Provider:       Region II Superfund Ombudsman
Telephone:      (888) 283-7626
Abstract:       The Ombudsman assists  the  public and regulated community in resolving problems
concerning any requirement under Superfund. The Ombudsman handles complaints from citizens and the
regulated community, obtains facts, sorts information, and substantiates policy.

Provider:       Region III Customer Service Hotline
Telephone:      (800) 438-2474 (within Region III)
                (215) 566-5122 (outside Region III)
Abstract:       The Customer Service Hotline provides general  information to the  public regarding the
Region and its programs.  The hotline also sends out materials, and refers inquiries to the appropriate office or
person.

Provider:       Region III Small Business Assistance  Center
Telephone:      (800) 228-8711 (within Region III)
                (215) 566-5122 (outside Region III)
Abstract:       The center helps small businesses comply with U.S. EPA regulations.

Provider:       Region III Superfund Ombudsman
Telephone:      (800) 553-2509(within Region III)
                (215) 566-5122 (outside Region III)
Abstract:       The Ombudsman assists  the  public and regulated community in resolving problems
concerning any requirement under Superfund. The Ombudsman handles complaints from citizens and the
regulated community, obtains facts, sorts information, and substantiates policy.

Provider:       Region IV Helpline


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Notes

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Notes
Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources


  Telephone:      (800)241-1754
  Abstract:        The  Region IV Helpline provides general information to the public regarding the Region
  and its programs. The helpline also sends out materials upon request, and refers inquiries to the appropriate
  office or person.

  Provider:        Region VIIU. S. EPA Action Line
  Telephone:      (913) 551-7122 (Kansas City calling area)
                  (800) 223-0425
  Abstract:        The  action line provides assistance to citizens on any issue under U.S. EPA's purview.  The
  Action Line receives all incoming inquiries and refers them to the appropriate offices.

  Provider:        Region IX Public Information Center
  Telephone:      (415) 744-1500
  Hours:         8:00  am. -12:00 p.m. and 1:00 p.m. - 4:00 p.m., M-F
  Abstract:        The  Region  IX Public Information Center  provides general information  to  the  public
  regarding the Region and its programs. The Center also sends out materials upon request, and refers inquiries
  to the appropriate office or person.

  Provider:        Region IX RCRA Hotline/Information Line
  Telephone:      (415)744-2074
  Hours:         1:00  p.m. - 4:00 p.m., M-F
  Abstract:        The  RCRA Hotline/Information Line general information to the public regarding the RCRA
  regulatory requirements and related issues. The information line also routes inquiries to the appropriate office
  or person.	

                                        GOVERNMENT - STATE

  Provider:        Alabama Small Business Assistance Program
  Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                  Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                  Independently owned businesses
  Internet URL:   www.adem.state.al.us
  Affiliations:     Alabama Department of Environmental Management, Air Division
  Name:          James Moore
  Position:        Program Manager
  Telephone:      (334)271-7861
  Fax:            (334)271-7950
  E-mail:         Rbr(g).adem. state, al. us
  Name:          Toll  Free Hotline (National)
  Telephone:      (800) 533-2336	

  Provider:        Alabama Small Business Development Center
  Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                  Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
  Internet URL:   www.cba.ua.edu/~cba/sbdc.html
  Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                  U.S.  Small Business Administration
  Name:          John Sandefur
  Position:        State Director
  Telephone:      (205) 934-7260
  Fax:            (205) 934-7645
  E-mail:         asbdOOS @.uabdpo .dpo.uab.edu

  Provider:        Alaska Small Business Assistance Program
  Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
              A-12
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                                                  Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.state.ak.us/akdec
Affiliations:     Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation
Name:          David Wigglesworth
Position:        Acting Director
Telephone:      (907)269-7571
Fax:            (907) 269-7600
E-mail:          CompAsst@.envircon. state, ak. us
Name:          Scott Lytle
Position:        Manager
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (State)
Telephone:      (800)510-2332
                                                                                      Notes
Provider:        Alaska Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S. Small Business Administration
Name:          Jan Fredericks
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (907) 274-7232
Fax:            (907)274-9524
E-mail:          ani af@.uaa. alaska. edu
Provider:        Arizona Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www. adeq. state. az.us/admin/do/comp.htm
Affiliations:     Arizona Department of Environmental Quality, Customer Service
Name:          Gregory Workman
Position:        Program Manager
Telephone:      (602) 204-4337
Fax:            (602) 207-4872
E-mail:          workman. gregory@,ev.state.az.us
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (State)
Telephone:      (800) 234-5677	

Provider:        Arizona Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.dist.maricopa.edu/sbdc
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                Maricopa Community College
                U. S. Small Business Administration
Name:          Michael York
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (602) 731 -8722
Fax:            (602)731-8729
E-mail:          vorkfSlmaricopa.edu
Provider:
Arkansas Small Business Assistance Program
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                                                                               A-13

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               Appendix A:  Technology Transfer Information Sources
Notes
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Affiliations:     Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and Ecology
Name:          Robert Graham
Position:        Small Business Ombudsman
Telephone:      (501) 682-0708
Fax:            (501) 682-0707
E-mail:          help -sba@.adea. state, ar.us
                 Provider:        Arkansas Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:    www.ualr.edu/~sbdcdept
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                 U.S. Small Business Administration
                                 University of Arkansas at Little Rock
                 Name:           Janet Nye
                 Position:         State Director
                 Telephone:      (501) 324-9043
                 Fax:             (501) 324-9049
                 E-mail:          imnvefSlualr.edu
                 Provider:        California Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:    www.arb.ca.gov/cd/cd.htm
                 Affiliations:     California Environmental Protection Agency, Air Resources Bureau
                 Name:           Peter Venturini
                 Position:         Director
                 Telephone:      (916) 445-0650
                 Fax:             (916) 327-7212
                 E-mail:          helplinefSlarb.ca. gov
                 Name:           Toll Free Hotline (State)
                 Telephone:      (800) 272-4572	

                 Provider:        California Small Business Development Center Program
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:    www.commerce.ca. gov/small
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                 Name:           Kim Neri
                 Position:         State Director
                 Telephone:      (916) 324-5068
                 Fax:             (916) 324-5084
                 E-mail:          kimn(5),smtp. doc, ca. gov

                 Provider:        California South Coast Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:    www. aqmd. gov/business
              A-14
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                                                  Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Affiliations:     California South Coast Air Quality Management District
Name:          Natalia Porche
Position:        Director
Telephone:      (909)396-3218
Fax:            (909) 396-3335
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (National)
Telephone:      (800) 388-2121	

Provider:        Colorado Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www. state. co.us/gov_dir/regulatory_dir/orr.htm
Affiliations:     Colorado Department of Health, Air Pollution Control Division
Name:          Nick Melliadis
Position:        Director
Telephone:      (303) 692-3175
Fax:            (303)782-5493
Name:          Toll Free Hotline
Telephone:      (800) 333-7798	

Provider:        Colorado Small Business Development Center Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www. state. co.us/gov_dir/obd/sbdc.htm
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S. Small Business Administration
Name:          Joseph Bell
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (303) 892-3809
Fax:            (303) 892-3848
E-mail:          sbdclcl(Slattmail_com
Name:          Toll Free Hotline
Telephone:      (800) 726-8000	

Provider:        Connecticut Small Business Assistance Program
Membership :   Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Affiliations:     Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection
Name:          Glen Daraskevich
Position:        Program Manager
Telephone:      (860) 424-3545
Fax:	(860)424-4063	

Provider:        Connecticut Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.sbdc.uconn.edu
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S. Small Business Administration
                University of Connecticut
Name:          Dennis Gruell
      Notes
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A-15

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              Appendix A:  Technology Transfer Information Sources
Notes
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (860) 486-4135
Fax:            (860)486-1576
E-mail:          gruell@,ct. sbdc.uconn.edu
                 Provider:       Delaware Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:   www.dnrec.state.de.us/tbusperm.htm
                 Affiliations:     Delaware Department of Natural Resource Conservation
                                University of Delaware
                 Name:          George Petitgout
                 Position:        Small Business Ombudsman
                 Telephone:      (302) 739-6400
                 Fax:            (302) 739-6242
                 Name:          Phil Cherry
                 Position:        Program Director

                 Provider:       Delaware Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                U.S. Small Business Administration
                 Name:          Clinton Tymes
                 Position:        State Director
                 Telephone:      (302) 831-1555
                 Fax:            (302)831-1423
                 E-mail:         43220@brahms.udel.edu

                 Provider:       District of Columbia Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Affiliations:     District of Columbia ERA, Air Resources Management Division
                 Name:          Olivia Achuko
                 Position:        Program Manager
                 Telephone:      (202) 645-6093
                 Fax:	(202) 645-6102	

                 Provider:       District of Columbia Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:   www.cldc.howard.edu/~husbdc
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                Howard University
                                U.S. Small Business Administration
                 Name:          Woodrow McCutchen
                 Position:        Executive Director
                 Telephone:      (202) 806-1550
                 Fax:            (202) 806-1777
                 E-mail:         husbdcfSlcldc. howard.edu
              A-16
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                                                  Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Provider:        Florida Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www. dep. state.fl. us/air/pro grams/sbap/index.htm
Affiliations:     Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Air Regulations
Name:          Bob Daugherty
Position:        SBAP Principal
Telephone:      (904)488-1344
Fax:            (904) 922-6979
E-mail:          cl ark_l fg).dep. state. fl. us
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (State)
Telephone:      (800) 722-7457

Provider:        Florida Small Business Development Center Network
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www. f sbdc. uwf. edu
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U.S. Small Business Administration
                University of West Florida
Name:          Jerry Cartwright
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (904) 444-2060
Fax:            (904) 444-2070
E-mail:          fsbdc@uwf.edu

Provider:        Georgia Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.DNR. State. Ga.US/dnr/environ
Affiliations:     Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Air Protection Bureau
Name:          Anita Dorsey-Word
Position:        Program Manager
Telephone:      (404) 362-2656
Fax:	(404)363-7100	

Provider:        Georgia Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.sbdc.uga.edu
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S. Small Business Administration
                University of Georgia
Name:          Henry Logan, Jr.
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (706) 542-6762
Fax:            (706) 542-6776
E-mail:          sbdcdir(g),uga. cc.uga.edu

Provider:        Hawaii Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
      Notes
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Notes
Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources


                  Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                  Independently owned businesses
  Affiliations:     Hawaii Department of Health, Clean Air Branch
  Name:          Robert Tarn
  Position:        Program Manager
  Telephone:      (808) 586-4200
  Fax:            (808) 586-4370
                 Provider:       Hawaii Small Business Development Center Network
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:   www.maui. com/~sbdc/hilo.html
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                U.S. Small Business Administration
                                University of Hawaii at Hilo
                 Name:          Darryl Mleynek
                 Position:        State Director
                 Telephone:      (808) 974-7515
                 Fax:            (808) 974-7683
                 E-mail:         darrvlm(5),interpac.net
                 Provider:       Idaho Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Affiliations:     Idaho Department of Environmental Quality
                 Name:          Doug McRoberts
                 Position:        Small Business Ombudsman
                 Telephone:      (208) 373-0298
                 Fax:            (208) 373-0417
                 E-mail:         dmcrober(g)deq.state.id.us
                 Provider:       Idaho Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:   www.idbsu.edu/isbdc
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                Boise State University
                                U.S. Small Business Administration
                 Name:          Jame Hogge
                 Position:        State Director
                 Telephone:      (208) 385-1640
                 Fax:            (208) 385-3877
                 E-mail:         ihogge@bsu.idbsu.edu
              A-18
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                                                  Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Provider:        Illinois Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www. commerce. state. il. us
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S. Small Business Administration
Name:          Jeff Mitchell
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (217) 524-5856
Fax:            (217)524-0171
E-mail:          j eff. mitchell@.accessil. com
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (State)
Telephone:      (800)252-3998
Provider:        Illinois Small Business Environmental Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.commerce.state.il.us/dcca/files/fs/ba/ba35.htm
Affiliations:     Illinois Department of Commerce and Community Affairs
Name:          Mark Enstrom
Position:        Program Manager
Telephone:      (217) 524-0169
Fax:	(217) 785-6328	

Provider:        Indiana Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.state.in.us
Affiliations:     Indiana Department of Environmental Mgmt, Office of Pollution Prevention
Name:          Maggie Me Shane
Position:        Office of Business Relations
Telephone:      (317) 232-5964
Fax:	(317)233-5627	

Provider:        Indiana Small Business Development Center Network
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S. Small Business Administration
Name:          Stephen Thrash
Position:        Executive Director
Telephone:      (317)264-6871
Fax:            (317)264-3102
E-mail:          sthrashfSlin.net
Name:          Toll Free F ax on Demand Hotline
Fax:	(800) 726-8000	

Provider:        Iowa Air Emissions Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
      Notes
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Notes
              Appendix A:  Technology Transfer Information Sources
Internet URL:    www.iwrc.org
Affiliations:     Iowa Waste Reduction Center
                University of Northern Iowa
Name:          John Konefes
Position:        Director
Telephone:      (319) 273-2079
Fax:            (319)273-2926
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (State)
Telephone:      (800)422-3109	
                 Provider:       Iowa Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:   www.iowasbdc.org
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                Iowa State University
                                U.S. Small Business Administration
                 Name:          Ronald Manning
                 Position:        State Director
                 Telephone:      (515)292-6351
                 Fax:            (515)292-0020
                 E-mail:         rmanning(5),iastate.edu
                 Provider:       Kansas Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:   www.sbeap.niar.twsu.edu
                 Affiliations:     Kansas Department of Health and Environment
                                University of Kansas
                 Name:          Frank Orzulak
                 Position:        Director
                 Telephone:      (913) 864-3978
                 Fax:            (913) 864-5827
                 E-mail:         ceet(g)falcon. ku. edu
                 Name:          Toll Free Hotline (State)
                 Telephone:      (800) 578-8898
                 Provider:       Kansas Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                U.S. Small Business Administration
                 Name:          Debbie Bishop
                 Position:        State Director
                 Telephone:      (913)296-6514
                 Fax:            (913)291-3261
                 E-mail:         ksbdc(5),cinetworks.com
                 Provider:       Kentucky Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
              A-20
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                                                  Appendix A:  Technology Transfer Information Sources
Internet URL:   www. gatton. gws.ukv.edu/KentuckvBusiness/kbeap
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S. Small Business Administration
                University of Kentucky
Name:          Janet Holloway
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (606)257-7668
Fax:            (606)323-1907
E-mail:          cbeih@pop.ukv.edu
Provider:        Kentucky -University of Kentucky Business Environmental Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:   gatton.gws.uky.edu/KentuckyBusiness/kbeap/kbeap.ht
Affiliations:     Kentucky Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection
                University of Kentucky
Name:          Greg Copely
Position:        Director
Telephone:      (606)257-1131
Fax             (606)323-1907
E-mail:          kbeapfSlpop.ukv. edu
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (State)
Telephone:      (800) 562-2327	

Provider:        Louisiana  Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:   www.deq.state.la.us/oarp/sbap/sbap.html
Affiliations:     Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality (Air)
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (State)
Telephone:      (800) 259-2890
Name:          Vic Tompkins
Position:        Director
Telephone:      (504) 765-2453
Fax:            (504) 765-0921
E-mail:          sbap@,deq.state.la.us

Provider:        Louisiana Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:   leap.nlu.edu/html/lsbdc/index.htm
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                Northeast Louisiana University
                U. S. Small Business Administration
Name:          Dr.  John Baker
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (318) 342-5506
Fax:            (318)342-5510
E-mail:          brbaker@,alpha.nlu. edu

Provider:        Maine Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
      Notes
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              Appendix A:  Technology Transfer Information Sources
Notes
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.state.me.us/dep
Affiliations:     Maine Department of Environmental Protection, Office of Pollution Prevention
Name:          Brian Kavanah
Position:        Program Coordinator
Telephone:      (207) 287-6188
Fax:            (207) 287-7826
E-mail:          brian.w.kavanah(5).state.me.us
                 Provider:       Maine Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:   www.usm.maine.edu/~sbdc
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                U.S. Small Business Administration
                                University of Southern Maine
                 Name:          Charles Davis
                 Position:        State Director
                 Telephone:      (207) 780-4420
                 Fax:            (207) 780-4810
                 E-mail:         msbdc(g),portland.maine.edu
                 Provider:       Maryland Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:   www.mde.state.md.us/epsc/sbap.html
                 Affiliations:     Maryland Department of the Environment, Air & Radiation Mgt. Admin.
                 Name:          Lorrie Del Pizzo
                 Position:        Project Manager
                 Telephone:      (410)631-6772
                 Fax:            (410)631-4477
                 Name:          Toll Free Hotline (National)
                 Telephone:      (800)433-1247	

                 Provider:       Maryland Small Business Development Center Network
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                U.S. Small Business Administration
                 Name:          James Graham
                 Position:        State Director
                 Telephone:      (301) 403-8300
                 Fax:            (301) 403-8303
                 E-mail:         dwirth(g)mbs.umd.edu

                 Provider:       Massachusetts Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Affiliations:     Massachusetts Exec. Office of Env. Affairs, Office of Technical Assistance
                 Name:          George Frantz
              A-22
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                                                  Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Position:
Telephone:
Fax:
Program Director
(617) 727-3260
(617) 727-3827
Provider:        Massachusetts Small Business Development Center Network
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.umassp.edu/msbdc
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                University of Massachusetts- Amherst
Name:          John Ciccarelli
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (413)545-6301

Fax:            (413)545-1273
E-mail:          i.ciccarelli(g),dpc.umass.edu

Provider:        Michigan Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.deq.state.mi.us/ead/iasect/eac.html
Affiliations:     Michigan Department of Natural Resources
Name:          Dave Fiedler
Position:        Manager, Clean Air Asst. Prog.
Telephone:      (517)373-0607
Fax:            (517)335-4729
E-mail:          eac(g).deq.state.mi.us
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (National)
Telephone:      (800)662-9278	

Provider:        Michigan Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    BizServe.com/sbdc
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S.  Small Business Administration
                Wayne State University
Name:          Ronald Hall
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (313)964-1798
Fax:            (313)964-3648
E-mail:          ron@misbdc.wayne.edu

Provider:        Minnesota Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.pea, state.mn.us/pro grams/sbap_p.html
Affiliations:     Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
Name:          Barbara Conti
Position:        Program Coordinator
Telephone:      (612) 297-7709
Notes
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Notes
Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources


  Fax:            (612) 297-7709
  E-mail:         barbara.conti(g),pca. state.mn.us
  Name:          Phyllis Strong
  Position:        Compliance Asst. Specialist
  E-mail:         phvllis.strong(g),pca. state, mn.us
  Name:          Toll Free Hotline (State)
  Telephone:      (800) 657-3938
                 Provider:        Minnesota Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:    www.d.umn.edu/~iiacobsl/sbdc.html
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                 U.S. Small Business Administration
                 Name:           Mary Kruger
                 Position:         State Director
                 Telephone:      (612) 297-5770
                 Fax:             (612)296-1290
                 E-mail:          marv.kruger@,state.mn.us
                 Provider:        Mississippi Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Chemical marketers
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Affiliations:     Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality
                 Name:           Jesse Thompson
                 Position:        BAP Principal
                 Telephone:      (601) 961-5171
                 Fax:             (601) 961-5742
                 E-mail:          iesse_thompson(g)deq. state.ms.us
                 Name:           Toll Free Hotline (National)
                 Telephone:      (800) 725-6112	
                 Provider:        Mississippi Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:    www.olemiss.edu/depts/mssbdc
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                 U.S. Small Business Administration
                 Name:           Raleigh Byars
                 Position:         State Director
                 Telephone:      (601) 232-5001
                 Fax:             (601) 232-5650
                 E-mail:          rbvarsfatolemiss.edu
                 Provider:        Missouri Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:    www.missouri.edu/~sbdwww
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                 U.S. Small Business Administration
              A-24
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                                                  Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
                University of Missouri
Name:          Max Summers
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (573) 882-0344
Fax:            (573) 884-4297
E-mail:          sbdc-mso(5),ext.missouri.edu
Provider:        Missouri Small Business Technical Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www. state.mo.us/dnr/deq/tap/hometap.htm
Affiliations:     Missouri Department of Natural Resources
Name:          Byron Shaw, Jr.
Position:        Chief, Business Assistance Unit
Telephone:      (573) 526-5352
Fax:            (573) 526-5808
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (National)
Telephone:      (800)361-4827	

Provider:        Montana Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.deq.mt. gov/pcd/index.htm
Affiliations:     Montana Department of Environmental Quality, Air Quality Division
Name:          Mark Lambrecht
Position:        Project Manager
Telephone:      (406) 444-1424
Fax:            (406) 406-4441
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (National)
Telephone:      (800) 433-8773	

Provider:        Montana Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S.  Small Business Administration
Name:          Ralph Closure
E-mail          Acting Director
Telephone:      (406) 444-4780
Fax:            (406)444-1872
E-mail          rclosure@mt. gov

Provider:        Nebraska Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Affiliations:     Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality
Name:          Dan Eddinger
Position:        SBAP Principal and Ombudsman
Telephone:      (402)471-3413
Fax:            (402)471-2909
E-mail:          edh@,nccibm. artpnc. eta, gov
      Notes
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A-25

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              Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Notes
                Provider:       Nebraska Small Business Development Center
                Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                Internet URL:   www.nbdc.unomaha.edu
                Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                U.S. Small Business Administration
                                University of Nebraska at Omaha
                Name:          Robert Bemier
                Position:        State Director
                Telephone:      (402) 554-2521
                Fax:            (402) 554-3473
                E-mail:         rbemierfSlcbafacuity. unomaha. edu
                Provider:       Nevada Small Business Assistance Program
                Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                Affiliations:     Nevada Department of Environmental Protection
                Name:          David Cowperthwaite
                Position:        Small Business Program Manager
                Telephone:      (702) 687-4670
                Fax:            (702) 687-5856
                Name:          Janet Goldman
                Position        Technical Asst. Coordinator
                Telephone:      (702)784-3164
                Name:          Toll Free Hotline (State)
                Telephone:      (800) 992-0900	
                Provider:       Nevada Small Business Development Center
                Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer emp loyees
                                Independently owned businesses
                Internet URL:   www.scs.unr.edu/nsbdc
                Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                U.S. Small Business Administration
                                University of Nevada, Reno
                Name:          Sam Males
                Position:        State Director
                Telephone:      (702)784-1717
                Fax:            (702) 784-4337
                E-mail:         wmoore@scs.unr.edu
                Name:          Toll Free Hotline (State)
                Telephone:      (800) 882-3233
                Provider:       New Hampshire Small Business Assistance Program
                Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                Affiliations:     New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services, Air Resources Division
                Name:          Rudolph Cartier
                Position:        Small Business Ombudsman
                Telephone:      (603)271-1379
                Fax:            (603)271-1381
              A-26
                                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                  Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
E-mail:          cartierfSldeS arsb .mv. com
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (State)
Telephone:      (800) 837-0656	
                                                                                     Notes
Provider:        New Hampshire Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www. ermine. com/sbdc/index.htm
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S. Small Business Administration
                University of New Hampshire
Name:          Mary Collins
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (603) 862-2200
Fax:            (603) 862-4876
E-mail:          LM1 @,christa.unh. edu
Provider:        New Jersey Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.state.ni .us/dep
Affiliations:     New Jersey Dept. of Environmental Protection, Office of Permit Information
Name:          Chuck McCarty
Position:        Director
Telephone:      (609)292-3600
Fax:	(609)777-1330	

Provider:        New Jersey Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with  100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.nj.com/nisbdc
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                Rutgers University
Name:          Brenda Hopper
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (973) 353-5950
Fax:            (973)353-1110
E-mail:          bhopper@,andromeda.rutgers.edu

Provider:        New Mexico Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with  100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Affiliations:     New Mexico Environmental Department, Air Quality Bureau
Name:          Lany Weaver
Position:        Program Manager
Telephone:      (505) 827-0042
Fax:            (505) 827-0045
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (National)
Telephone:      (800) 810-7227	
Provider:
New Mexico Small Business Development Center
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                                                                               A-27

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              Appendix A:  Technology Transfer Information Sources
Notes
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                Santa Fe Community College
Name:          J. Roy Miller
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (505) 438-1362
Fax:            (505)471-9469
E-mail:          rmiller(g).santa-fe.cc.nm.us
                 Provider:       New York Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Affiliations:     New York State Environmental Facilities Corporation
                 Name:          Marian Mudar
                 Position:        Environmental Program Manager
                 Telephone:      (518)457-9135
                 Fax:            (518)485-8494
                 E-mail:         mudar(5)nv efc.org
                 Name:          Toll Free Hotline (State)
                 Telephone:      (800) 780-7227	
                 Provider:       New York Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                 Name:          James King
                 Position:        State Director
                 Telephone:      (518)443-5398
                 Fax:            (518)465-4992
                 E-mail:         kingjlfSlsvsadm. sunv.edu
                 Provider:       North Carolina Small Business and Technical Center
                 Membership:    Businesses classfied as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:   www.sbtdc.org
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                 Name:          Scott Daugherty
                 Position:        Executive Director
                 Telephone:      (919)715-7272
                 Fax:            919)715-7777
                 E-mail:         srdaughe. sbdc(5).mhs. unc.edu
                 Provider:       North Carolina Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Affiliations:     North Carolina Department of Health and Natural Resources
                 Name:          Fin Johnson
                 Position:        Program Manager
                 Telephone:      (919)733-0824
              A-28
                                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                  Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Fax:
(919)715-6794
                                                                                                     Notes
Provider:        North Dakota Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.ehs.health.state.nd.us/ndhd/
Affiliations:     North Dakota Department of Health
Name:          Jeff Burgess
Position:        Environmental Engineer
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (State)
Telephone:      (800) 755-1625
Name:          TomBachman
Position:        Manager of Permitting
Telephone:      (701)328-5188
Fax             (701) 328-5200
E-mail:          health(5),pioneer. state. nd. us
Provider:        North Dakota Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S. Small Business Administration
Name:          Walter Kearns
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (701)777-3700
Fax             (701)777-3225
E-mail:          Kearns@prairie.nodak.edu
Provider:        Ohio Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.epa.ohio.gov/other/sbao/sbaindex.html
Affiliations:     Ohio EPA, Division of Air Pollution
Name:          Jim Carney
Position:        Program Representative
E-mail:          iim.camevfgtoentral.epa.ohio.us
Name:          Rick Carleski
Position:        Program Supervisor
Telephone:      (614) 728-1742
Fax             (614) 644-3681
Provider:        Ohio Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.soerf.ohiou.edu/~osbdc
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S. Small Business Administration
Name:          Holly Schick
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (614)466-2711
Fax             (961)466-0829
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                                                                               A-29

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Notes
              Appendix A:  Technology Transfer Information Sources
E-mail:          hschickfSlodod.ohio. gov
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (National)
Telephone:      (800)848-1300
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (State)
Telephone:      (800) 248-4040
                 Provider:        Oklahoma Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:    www.deq.oklaosf.state.ok.us.SBAPintr.htm
                 Affiliations:     Oklahoma Department of Environmental Quality
                 Name:           Adrian Simmons
                 Position:         Wood Furniture, Emissions
                 Name:           Alwin Ning
                 Position:         Electroplating & Printing
                 Telephone:      (405)271-1400
                 Fax             (405)271-1317
                 Name:           Judy Duncan
                 Position:         Director, Customer Services Div.
                 Name:           Kyle Arthur
                 Position:         Degreasing, Dry Cleaning, Title V
                 Name:           Toll Free Hotline (State)
                 Telephone:      (800) 869-1400
                 Provider:        Oklahoma Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                 Southeastern Oklahoma State
                                 U.S. Small Business Administration
                 Name:           Grade Pennington
                 Position:        State Director
                 Telephone:      (800) 522-6154
                 Fax             (405) 920-7471
                 E-mail:          gpennington@,sosu.edu
                 Provider:        Oregon Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:    www.deq.state.or.us
                 Affiliations:     Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, Air Quality Division
                 Name:           Terry Obteshka
                 Position:         Director
                 Telephone:      (503) 229-6147
                 Fax             (503) 229-5675
                 E-mail:          obteshka.terry @,deq.state.or.us
                 Name:           Toll Free Hotline (State)
                 Telephone:      (800) 452-4011	

                 Provider:        Oregon Small Business Development Center Network
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
              A-30
                                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                  Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
                Independently owned businesses
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                Lane Community College
                U. S. Small Business Administration
Name:          Edward (Sandy) Cutler
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (541)726-2250
Fax             (541) 345-6006
E-mail:          cutlers(5)ianecc.edu
Provider:        Pennsylvania Air Help Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www. dep. state.pa.us/dep/deputate/pollprev
Affiliations:     Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources, Bureau of Air Quality
Name:          Scott Kepner
Position:        Director
Telephone:      (717)787-1663
Fax             (717)772-2303
E-mail:          webmaster(5),al.dep.state.pa.us
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (National)
Telephone:      (800) 722-4343	

Provider:        Pennsylvania Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www. liberty net. org/pasbdc
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania
                U. S. Small Business Administration
Name:          Gregory Higgins
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (215)898-1219
Fax             (215)573-2135
E-mail:          ghiggins(g),wharton.upenn.edu

Provider:        Rhode Island Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Affiliations:     Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management
Name:          Pam Annarummo
Position:        Program Supervisor
Name:          Richard Enander
Position:        Technical Assistance Mangager
Telephone:      (401) 277-6822
Fax	(401)277-3810	

Provider:        Rhode Island Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.ri-sbdc.com
      Notes
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A-31

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Notes
Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources


  Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                  Bryant College
                  U.S. Small Business Administration
  Name:          Douglas Jobling
  Position:        State Director
  Telephone:      (401)232-6111
  Fax             (401) 232-6933
                 Provider:        South Carolina Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:    www.state.sc.us/dhec/eqchome.htm
                 Affiliations:     South Carolina Bureau of Air Quality Control
                 Name:           Chad Pollock
                 Position:         Technical Assistance
                 Telephone:      (803) 734-2765
                 Fax             (803) 734-9196
                 E-mail:          pollocrc(g),columb3 0. dhec. state, sc. us
                 Name:           Donna Gulledge
                 Position:         Small Business Ombudsman
                 Telephone:      (803) 734-6487
                 Fax             (803) 734-9196
                 E-mail:          gulleddh@.columb30. dhec.state.se. us
                 Name:           Toll Free Hotline (National)
                 Telephone:      (800) 819-9001	
                 Provider:        South Carolina Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:    sbdcweb.badm.sc.edu
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                 U.S. Small Business Administration
                                 University of South Carolina
                 Name:           John Lenti
                 Position:         State Director
                 Telephone:      (803) 777-4907
                 Fax             (803) 777-4403
                 E-mail:          Lenti@darla.badm. sc.edu
                 Provider:        South Dakota Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:    www. state, sd.us/state/executive/denr
                 Affiliations:     South Dakota Department of Environmental and Natural Resources
                 Name:           Bryan Gustafson
                 Position:         Air Permitting
                 Telephone:      (605)773-3351
                 Fax             (605) 773-6035
                 E-mail:          i oen@,denr. state. sd. us

                 Provider:        South Dakota Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
              A-32
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                                                  Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S. Small Business Administration
                University of South Dakota
Name:          Robert Ashley, Jr.
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (605) 677-5498
Fax             (605) 677-5272
E-mail:          rashlev@sundance.usd.edu
Provider:        Tennessee Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.state.tn.us/environment/permits/handbook
Affiliations:     Tennessee Department of the Environment and Conservation
Name:          Linda Sadler
Position:        Director
Telephone:      (615)532-0779
Fax             (615)532-0614
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (National)
Telephone:      (800)734-3619	

Provider:        Tennessee Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.tsbdc.memphis.edu
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U.S. Small Business Administration
                University of Memphis
Name:          Dr. Kenneth Burns
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (901)678-2500
Fax             (901) 678-4072
E-mail:          gmicklefgjadminl .memphis.edu

Provider:        Texas Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.tnrcc.state.tx.us/exec/small_business
Affiliations:     Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission
Name:          Kerry Drake
Position:        Manager, Technical Asst. Prog.
Telephone:      (512)239-1112
Fax             (512)239-1055
E-mail:          sbap(5),tnrcc. state.tx.us
Name:          Toll Free Hotline (National)
Telephone:      (800) 447-2827	

Provider:        Texas- Houston Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
      Notes
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A-33

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              Appendix A:  Technology Transfer Information Sources
Notes
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    SmBizSolutions.uh.edu
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U.S. Small Business Administration
                University of Houston
Name:          Mike Young
Position:        Regional Director
Telephone:      (713)752-8444
Fax             (713)756-1500
E-mail:          MYoung@UH.EDU
                 Provider:       Texas- North Texas Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:   www.dcccd.edu/bip/sbdc.htm
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                Dallas County Community College
                                U.S. Small Business Administration
                 Name:          Elizabeth Klimback
                 Position:        Regional Director
                 Telephone:      (214) 860-5835
                 Fax            (214) 860-5813
                 E-mail:         emk9402@.dcccd. edu

                 Provider:       Texas- Northwest Texas Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:   nwtsbdc.ttu.edu
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                Texas Tech University
                                U.S. Small Business Administration
                 Name:          Craig Bean
                 Position:        Regional Director
                 Telephone:      (806) 745-3973
                 Fax            (806) 745-6207
                 E-mail:         odaus@.ttacs. ttu.edu

                 Provider:       Texas- South Texas Border Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:   www.lot49.Tristero.Com/sa/sbdc
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                U.S. Small Business Administration
                 Name:          Robert McKinley
                 Position:        Regional Director
                 Telephone:      (210) 458-2450
                 Fax            (210) 458-2464
                 E-mail:         rmckinlefSlutsadt.utsa.edu

                 Provider:       Utah Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
              A-34
                                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                  Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.deq.state.ut.us
Affiliations:     Utah Department of Environmental Quality, Division of Air Quality
Name:          Frances Bernards
Position:        Program Manager
Telephone:      (801) 536-4056
Fax             (801) 536-4099
E-mail:          fbernard(g).deq. state, ut. us
Name:          Toll Free Hotline
Telephone:      (800) 270-4440	

Provider:        Utah Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.slcc.edu/utahsbdc
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                Salt Lake Community College
                U. S. Small Business Administration
Name:          Mike Finnerty
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (801) 957-3480
Fax             (801) 957-3489
E-mail:          finnermi@slcc.edu

Provider:        Vermont Small Business Compliance Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Affiliations:     Vermont Agency of Natural Resources
Name:          Judy Mirro
Position:        Director
Telephone:      (802)241-3745
Fax             (802)241-3273
E-mail:          iudvmfSlwaste. man, anr. state, vt. us

Provider:        Vermont Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S. Small Business Administration
Name:          Donald Kelpinski
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (802)728-9101
Fax             (802) 728-3026
E-mail:          dkelp insfSlni ght. vtc .vsc.edu
Name:          Peter Crawford
Position:        Dir., Environmental Asst. Prog.
E-mail:          pcrawforfSlvtc. vsc. edu
Provider:        Virginia Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
      Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
A-35

-------
               Appendix A:  Technology Transfer Information Sources
Notes
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:    www.dba.state.virginia.us
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U.S. Small Business Administration
Name:          Robert Wilbum
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (804) 371-8253
Fax             (804) 225-3384
E-mail:          rwilburn@.dba. state, va. us
                 Provider:
                 Membership:
                 Internet URL:
                 Affiliations:
                 Name:
                 Position:
                 Telephone:
                 Fax
                 E-mail:
                 Name:
                 Telephone:
                Virginia Small Business Policy and Technical Assistance Program
                Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
                www.deq.state.va.us/osba/smallbiz.html
                Virginia Department of Environmental Quality
                Richard Rasmussen
                Manager
                (804) 698-4394
                (804) 698-4510
                rgrasmussefSldeq. state, va. us
                Toll Free Hotline (State)
                    i 592-5482
                 Provider:        Washington Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Affiliations:     Washington Department of Ecology
                 Name:           L eight on Pratt
                 Position:        Small Business Ombudsman
                 Telephone:      (360)407-7018
                 Fax             (360) 407-6802
                 Provider:        Washington Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Internet URL:    www.sbdc.wsu.edu
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                 U.S. Small Business Administration
                                 Washington State University
                 Name:           Carol Riesenberg
                 Position:         State Director
                 Telephone:      (509) 335-1576
                 Fax             (509) 335-0949
                 E-mail:          riesenbel@,wsu.edu
                 Provider:        West Virginia Small Business Assistance Program
                 Membership:     Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Affiliations:     West Virginia Office of Air Quality
                 Name:           Fred Durham
                 Position:        Director
              A-36
                                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                  Appendix A:  Technology Transfer Information Sources
Telephone:
Fax
E-mail:
Name:
Telephone:
(304) 558-1217
(304) 558-1222
durhaf@mail.wvnet.edu
Toll Free Hotline (State)
(800) 982-2474
Notes
Provider:        West Virginia Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:   www.wvdo.org/sbdc
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S. Small Business Administration
Name:          Hazel Kroesser-Palmer
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (304) 558-2960
Fax             (304) 558-0127
E-mail:          palmeh(g)mail. wvnet. edu
Provider:        Wisconsin Clean Air Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:   badger, state.wi.us/agencies/commerce
Affiliations:     U.S. Small Business Administration
                University of Wisconsin
                Wisconsin Department of Commerce
Name:          Cliff Fleener
Position:        Clean Air Specialist
E-mail:          cfleenerfSttnail. state, wi. us
Name:          Pam Christenson
Position:        Technical Assistance Director
Telephone:      (608) 267-9214
Fax             (608) 267-0436
E-mail:          pchristefSlmail. state, wi. us
Provider:        Wisconsin Small Business Development Center
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                U. S. Small Business Administration
Name:          Erica Mclntire
Position:        State Director
Telephone:      (608) 263-7794
Fax             (608) 263-7830
E-mail:          mcintire@,admin.uwex.edu
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                                A-37

-------
               Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Notes
Provider:       Wyoming Small Business Assistance Program
Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                Independently owned businesses
Internet URL:   www.deq.state.wv.us/ms/outweb.htm
Affiliations:     Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality, Division of Air Quality
Name:          Charles Raffelson
Position:        Program Coordinator
Telephone:      (307) 777-7391
Fax             (307) 777-5616
E-mail:          dclark(5).missc. state, wv. us
                 Provider:        Wyoming Small Business Development Center
                 Membership:    Businesses classified as non-major sources
                                 Businesses with 100 or fewer employees
                                 Independently owned businesses
                 Affiliations:     Association of Small Business Development Centers
                                 U.S. Small Business Administration
                 Name:          Diane Wolverton
                 Position:        State Director
                 Telephone:      (307) 766-3505
                 Fax	(307) 766-3406	
                                                     NON-PROFIT - NATIONAL
                 Provider:
                 Membership:
                 Internet URL:
                 Affiliations:
                 Name:
                 Position:
                 Telephone:
                 Fax
                 E-mail:
                Center for Emissions Control
                Chlorinated solvent producers
                www.cec-dc.org
                Chlorine Institute
                Stephen Risotto
                Executive Director
                (202) 785-4374
                (202) 833-0381
                srisotto(5),cec-dc.org
                 Provider:        Research Triangle Institute
                 Membership:    Researchers
                 Internet URL:    www.rti. org/gen_info.html
                 Affiliations:     Duke University
                                 North Carolina State University
                                 University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
                 Name:          Jesse Baskir, Ph.D.
                 Position:        Director
                 Telephone:      (919) 541-5882
                 Fax             (919) 541-7155
                 E-mail:          ibaskir@rti.org
                                                       NON-PROFIT - STATE

                 Provider:        Louisiana Chemical Association
                 Membership:    Chemical distributors
                                 Chemical manufacturers
                                 Chemical marketers
                 Internet URL:    www.Idol.state.la.us/career/rl/lca_memb.htm
                 Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
              A-38
                                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

-------
                                                   Appendix A:  Technology Transfer Information Sources
                Federation of State Chemical Associations
                Louisiana Chemical Industry Association
Name:          Dan Borne
Position:        President
Telephone:      (504) 344-2609
Fax             (504) 344-1007
Name:          Henry T. Graham, Jr.
Position:        Director, Environ. & Legal Affairs
       Notes
Provider:       Louisiana Chemical Industry Alliance
Membership:    Chemical distributors
                Chemical manufacturers
                Chemical marketers
                Chemical recyclers
                Contractors
                Raw materials suppliers
                Vendors
Affiliations:     Louisiana Chemical Association
Name:          Dan Borne
Position:        President
Telephone:      (504) 344-2609
Fax             (504) 344-1007
E-mail:         danfgUca.org
Name:          Phillip Bowen
Position:        Vice President
E-mail:         phillip(5).lca.org
Provider:       Minnesota Chemical Technology Alliance
Membership:    Chemical distributors
                Chemical engineers
                Chemical manufacturers
                Chemical marketers
                Chemical recyclers
Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                Federation of State Chemical Associations
Name:          Joel Carlson
Position:        Director
Telephone:      (612) 926-5428
Fax             (612) 332-2089
Provider:       Plastics Processors Association of Ohio
Membership:    Plastics processors
                Rubber product manufacturers
Internet URL:   www.polysort.com
Affiliations:     Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc.
Name:          Chris Chrisman
Position:        Executive Director
Telephone:      (800) 326-8666
Fax             (330)665-5152
E-mail:         ppaohio@,polv sort, com
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
A-39

-------
               Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Notes
                              PRIVATE COMPANY - INTERNATIONAL

Provider:        Alliance for Responsible Atmospheric Policy
Membership:    CFCs, HCFCs & HFCs prod. Mfg.
                Producers of CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs
Name:          David Stirpe
Position:        Legislative Council
Telephone:      (703) 243-0344
Fax	(703) 243-2874	
                                         PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION - INTERNATIONAL

                 Provider:        American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists
                 Membership:     Textile chemists
                                 Textile colorists
                 Internet URL:    www.aatcc.org
                 Name:          Jerry Tew
                 Position:        Technical Director
                 Telephone:      (919) 549-8141
                 Fax	(919) 549-8933	

                 Provider:        American Oil Chemists Society
                 Membership:     Fats, oils, & related materials chemists
                                 Fats, oils, & related materials manufacturers
                 Internet URL:    www.aocs.org
                 Name:          James C. Lyon
                 Position:        Executive Director
                 Telephone:      (217) 359-2344
                 Fax             (217) 351-8091
                 E-mail:          general @.aocs. org

                 Provider:        Center for Waste Reduction Technologies
                 Membership:     Chemical manufacturers
                                 Contractors
                                 Downstream manufacturing industries
                                 Petroleum products manufacturers
                                 Pharmaceutical manufacturers
                                 Raw materials suppliers
                 Internet URL:    198.6.4.175/docs/cwrt.index.htm
                 Affiliations:     American Institute of Chemical Engineers
                 Name:          Jack Weaver
                 Position:        Director
                 Telephone:      (212) 705-7424
                 Fax             (212) 838-8274
                 E-mail:          cwrt(5),aiche.org

                 Provider:        Electrochemcial Society
                 Membership:     Electrochemical engineers
                                 Electrochemical facilities
                                 Electrochemical scientists
                 Internet URL:    www. electrochem. org
                 Affiliations:     American Association for the Advancement of Science
                                 Chemical Heritage Foundation
                                 Federation of Materials Sciences
                 Name:          V.H. Brannecky
              A-40
                                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

-------
                                                  Appendix A:  Technology Transfer Information Sources
Position:
Telephone:
Fax
E-mail:
Executive Secretary
(609)737-1902
(609) 737-2743
ecs@.electrochem.org
Notes
Provider:        Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry
Membership:    Pulp and paper industry professionals
                Pulp and paper manufacturers
                Pulp and paper processors
                Pulp-derived chemical products manufacturers
Internet URL:   www.tappi.org
Affiliations:     American Forest and Paper Association
                National Council for Air and Stream Improvement
                Paper Industry Management Association
Name:          Wayne Gross
Position:        Executive Director
Telephone:      (770) 209-7233
Fax	(770)446-6947	
                           PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION - NATIONAL
Provider:
Membership:

Internet URL:
Name:
Position:
Telephone:
Fax
American Chemical Society
Chemical engineers
Chemists
www.acs.org
John K. Cram
Executive Director
(202) 872-8724
(202) 872-6206
Provider:        American Institute of Chemical Engineers
Membership:    Chemical engineers
Internet URL:   www.aiche.org
Affiliations:     Center for Chemical Process Safety
                Center for Waste Reduction Technologies
                Design Institute for Emergency Relief Systems
                Design Institute for Physical Property Data
Name:          Sean Devlin Bersell
Position:        Director, Government Relations
Telephone:      (202) 962-8690
Fax             (202) 962-8699
Provider:        Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology
Membership:    Chemical coatings manufacturers
                Chemical coatings users
Internet URL:   www.coatingstech.org
Affiliations:     National Paint and Coatings Association
Name:          Robert F. Ziegler
Position:        Executive Vice President
Telephone:      (610) 940-0777
Fax             (610) 940-0292
Provider:        Society of Cosmetic Chemists
Membership:    Chemists
Name:          Theresa Cesario
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                                A-41

-------
               Appendix A:  Technology Transfer Information Sources
Notes
Position:        Business Administrator
Telephone:      (212)668-1500
Fax             (212)668-1504
E-mail:          societvcoschemfSlworldnet. att.net
                                              PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION - STATE
                 Provider:        Alabama Chemical Association
                 Membership:     Chemical distributors
                                 Chemical manufacturers
                                 Chemical marketers
                 Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                                 Federation of State Chemical Associations
                 Name:          Kelli Heartsill
                 Position:        Executive Director
                 Telephone:      (334) 265-2154
                 Fax	(334) 834-6398	
                                             TRADE ASSOCIATION - INTERNATIONAL
                 Provider:        Adhesives and Sealants Council
                 Membership:     Adhesives manufacturers
                                 Consultants
                                 Equipment manufacturers
                                 Sealant manufacturers
                 Internet URL:    www. ascouncil.org
                 Name:          Mark Collate
                 Position:         Director of Government Relations
                 Telephone:      (202) 452-1500
                 Fax             (202)452-1501
                 Provider:        Chlorine Institute
                 Membership:     Chlor-alkali chemical distributors
                                 Chlor-alkali chemicals manufacturers
                                 Chlor-alkali chemicals marketers
                 Internet URL:    www.cl2.com
                 Affiliations:     Center for Emissions Control
                                 Chemical Manufacturers Association
                                 Halogenated Solvents Industry Alliance
                 Name:          Arthur Duncan
                 Position:         VP Health, Safety, & Environment
                 Name:          Dr. Robert Smerko
                 Position:         President
                 Telephone:      (202) 775-2790
                 Fax	(202) 223-7225	
                 Provider:        International Institute of Synthetic Rubber Products
                 Membership:     Synthetic Rubber Producers
                 Name:           R.J. Killian
                 Position:        Managing Director
                 Telephone:      (713)783-7511
                 Fax             (713)783-7253
                 E-mail:          iisrp@.attmail. com
              A-42
                                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

-------
                                                   Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Provider:       Pulp Chemicals Association
Membership:    Pulp-derived chemical product manufacturers
Name:          Jennie Lazarus
Position:        PCA Coordinator
Telephone:      (770) 209-7237
E-mail:         ilazarus(g),tappi.org
Name:          Matthew Coleman
Position:        Executive Director
Telephone:      (770) 446-1290
Fax             (770) 446-1487
Provider:       Suppliers of Advanced Composite Materials Association
Membership:    Advanced composite materials suppliers
Affiliations:     Suppliers of Advanced Materials Processing Engineers
Name:          Lynne Justice
Position:        Director of Administration
Telephone:      (703)841-1556
Fax             (703) 812-8743
E-mail:         iaistaff(Slworldnet. att.net
                                TRADE ASSOCIATION - NATIONAL
Provider:
Membership:

Internet URL:
Name:
Position:
Telephone:
Fax
Adhesives Manufacturers Association
Adhesives manufacturers
Raw materials suppliers
www.adhesive.org/ama
Frank Moore
Director, Government Relations
(202)857-1127
(202)857-1115
                                                                                       Notes
Provider:       Alliance of Chemical Industries of New York State, Inc.
Membership:    Chemical manufacturers
                Service providers to the Chemical Industry
Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                Federation of State Chemical Associations
Name:          Diana Hinchcliff
Position:        Executive Director
Telephone:      (518)427-7861
Fax             (518)427-7008
Provider:       American Crop Protection Association
Membership:    Agricultural crop protection distributors
                Agricultural crop protection formulators
                Agricultural crop protection manufacturers
                Pest control product distributors
                Pest control product formulators
                Pest control product manufacturers
Internet URL:   www.acpa.org
Name:          Ray McAllister
Position:        Director, Regulatory Affairs
Telephone:      (202)296-1585
Fax             (202) 463-0474
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                                A-43

-------
               Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Notes
Provider:       American Fiber Manufacturers Association
Membership:    Fibers, filaments, and yarns manufacturers
Internet URL:   www.fibersource.com(under construction)
Affiliations:     Fiber Economics Bureau
Name:          Dr. Robert Barker
Position:        Vice President
Telephone:      (202) 296-6508
Fax             (202) 296-3052
E-mail:         inks@afma.org
Name:          Jeff Inks
                 Provider:        American Petroleum Institute
                 Membership:    Petroleum product manufacturers
                                 Petroleum products users
                 Internet URL:   www.api.org
                 Name:          Joe Lastelic
                 Position:        Senior Media Relations Rep
                 Telephone:      (202) 682-8000
                 Fax             (202) 682-8096
                 E-mail:          prfSlapi.org
                 Provider:        Biotechnology Industry Organization
                 Membership:    Biotechnology companies
                                 State biotechnology centers
                 Internet URL:   www.bio.org
                 Affiliations:     Arkansas Biotechnology Association and Biomedical Technology Center
                                 Bay Area Bioscience Center
                                 BIO+Flonda
                                 BIOCOM/San Diego
                                 Biotechnology Association of Maine
                                 Biotechnology Council of New Jersey
                                 California Healthcare Institute
                                 Colorado Biotechnology Association
                                 Connecticut United For Research Excellence
                                 Edison Biotechnology Center
                                 Georgia Biomedical Partnership
                                 Illinois Alliance for Biotechnology
                                 Iowa Biotechnology Association
                                 Los Alamos National Lab
                                 Maryland Bioscience Alliance
                                 Massachusetts Biotechnology Council
                                 Michigan Biotechnology Association
                                 Minnesota Biotechnology Association
                                 New York Biotechnology Association
                                 North Carolina Bioscience Organization
                                 Oregon Bioscience Association
                                 Pennsylvania Biotechnology Association
                                 South Dakota Biotechnology Association
                                 Texas Healthcare and Bioscience Institute
                                 Utah Life Science Industries Association
                                 Virginia Biotechnology Association
                                 Washington Biotechnology & Biomedical Association
                                 Wisconsin Biotechnology Association
                 Name:          Richard G. Godown
                 Position:        President
                 Telephone:      (202) 857-0244
              A-44
                                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                  Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Fax
E-mail:
(202) 857-0237
infofSlbio.org
Notes
Provider:       Chemical Coalers Association International
Membership:    Chemical coatings manufacturers
                Chemical coatings users
Internet URL:   www.finishing.com/CCAI/index.html
Name:          Anne Goyer
Position:        Executive Director
Telephone:      (513) 624-6767
Fax             (513)624-0601
E-mail:          avgover@mci2000.com
Provider:       Chemical Industry Council of Maryland
Membership:    Chemical distributors
                Chemical manufacturers
                Chemical marketers
                Chemical recyclers
Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                Federation of State Chemical Associations
Name:          Roy Vaillant
Position:        Managing Director
Telephone:      (410)974-4071
Fax             (410)974-4071
Provider:       Chemical Manufacturers Association
Membership:    Chemical manufacturers
Internet URL:   www. cmahq. com
Affiliations:     Alabama Chemical Association
                Alliance of Chemical Industries of New York State, Inc.
                Association of Water Technologies
                Chemical Council of Missouri
                Chemical Industry Committee, Tennessee Association of Business
                Chemical Industry Committee, WV Manufacturers Association
                Chemical Industry Council of Associated Industries of Kentucky
                Chemical Industry Council of California
                Chemical Industry Council of Delaware
                Chemical Industry Council of Illinois
                Chemical Industry Council of Maryland
                Chemical Industry Council of New Jersey
                Chlorine Institute, The
                Compressed Gas Association, Inc.
                East Harris County Manufacturers Association
                Federation of State Chemical Associations
                Florida Chemical Industry Council
                Louisiana Chemical Association
                Manufacturers and Chemical Industry  Council of North Carolina
                Massachusetts Chemical Technology Alliance
                Michigan Chemical Council
                Minnesota Chemical Technology Alliance
                Ohio Chemical Council
                Pennsylvania Chemical Industry Council
                Plus most of the Federation of State Chemical Associations
                Responsible Care Partnership Program Partner Associations
                Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturers Association
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                                A-45

-------
               Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Notes
                Texas Chemical Council
                Vinyl Institute
Name:          Joe Mayhew
Position:        Asst. VP, Environment & Policy
Telephone:      (703)741-5000
Fax             (703)741-6000
                 Provider:        Chemical Producers and Distributors Association
                 Membership:    Chemical distributors
                                 Chemical manufacturers
                 Name:          Warren Stickle
                 Position:        President
                 Telephone:      (703) 548-7700
                 Fax             (703)548-3149
                 E-mail:          cpdafSdx. netcom.com
                 Provider:        Chemical Specialties Manufacturers Association
                 Membership:    Chemical manufacturers
                 Internet URL:    www.csma.org
                 Name:          Philip Klein
                 Position:        Director, Fed. Legislative Affairs
                 Telephone:      (202)872-8110
                 Fax             (202)872-8114
                 E-mail:          csmafSli uno.com
                 Provider:        Chlorine Chemistry Council
                 Membership:    Chlorine producers
                 Internet URL:    www.c3.org
                 Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                 Name:          Clifford Howlett
                 Position:        Executive Director
                 Telephone:      (703)741-5000
                 Fax             (703)741-6084
                 E-mail:          info(g).c3.org
                 Provider:        Color Pigments Manufacturers Association, Inc.
                 Membership:    Color pigment manufacturers
                 Name:          Doug Nelson
                 Position:        Research and Regulatory Affairs
                 Telephone:      (703) 684-4044
                 Fax             (703)684-1795
                 Provider:        Composite Fabricators Association
                 Membership:    Composite distributors
                                 Composite manufacturers
                                 Composite suppliers
                                 Composite users
                                 Consultants
                                 Educators
                                 Retirees
                 Internet URL:    www.cfa-hq.org
                 Name:          Robert Lacovara
                 Position:        Director, Technical Services
                 Name:          Steve McNally
                 Position:        Director, Government Affairs
              A-46
                                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

-------
                                                    Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Telephone:
Fax
E-mail:
(703)525-0511
(703)525-0515
cfa@,cfa -hq.org
Notes
Provider:        Cosmetic, Toiletry, and Fragrance Association
Membership:     Personal care product distributors
                 Personal care product manufacturers
                 Raw materials suppliers
Internet URL:    www.ctfa.org
Affiliations:      Cosmetic Ingredient Review
Name:           Joyce Graff
Position:         Manager, Environmental Affairs
Telephone:       (202)331-1770
Fax              (202)331-1969
Provider:       Fertilizer Institute
Membership:    Consultants
                Fertilizer distributors
                Fertilizer manufacturers
                Raw materials suppliers
Name:          Jim Skillen
Position:        Dir, Envir. & Energy Programs
Telephone:      (202) 675-8250
Fax             (202) 544-8123
Provider:       Fire Retardant Chemical Association
Membership:    Fire retardant materials producers
                Fire retardant materials users
Name:          Russel C. Kidder
Position:        Executive Vice President
Telephone:      (717)291-5616
Fax             (717)295-9637
Provider:       Foodservice and Packaging Institute, Inc.
Membership:    Disposable foodservice product distributors
                Disposable foodservice products manufacturers.
                Equipment manufacturers
                Raw materials suppliers
Internet URL:   www.fpi.org
Name:          Ann Mattheis
Position:        Director, Public Affairs
Name:          Richard B. Norment
Position:        President
Telephone:      (703) 527-7505
Fax             (703)527-7512
E-mail:         fooserv@.crosslink.net
Provider:       International Fabricare Institute
Membership:    Dry Cleaners
                Launderers
Internet URL:   www.ifi.org
Name:          Jim Patrie
Position:        President
Telephone:      (301)622-1900
Fax             (301) 236-9320
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                                  A-47

-------
Notes
Appendix A:  Technology Transfer Information Sources


  E-mail:         communications(5),ifi.org
  Name:          Toll Free Hotline (National)
  Telephone:     (800) 638-2627	
                 Provider:       International Slurry Surfacing Association
                 Membership:    Asphalt slurry seal companies
                                 Professionals involved in asphalt slurry seal
                 Internet URL:   www.historv.rochester.edu/issa
                 Affiliations:     Foundation for Pavement Rehabilitation and Maintenance Research
                 Name:          John Fiegel
                 Position:        Executive Officer
                 Telephone:      (202) 857-1160
                 Fax             (202)857-1111
                 E-mail:         issa@spa.com

                 Provider:       Metal Finishing Suppliers Association
                 Membership:    Metal finishing materials suppliers
                 Internet URL:   www.metal-finishing.com/mfsa.htm
                 Name:          Dr. Rebecca Spearot
                 Position:        Environmental Affairs Chair
                 Name:          Ken Hankinso
                 Position:        Environmental Affairs Vice Chair
                 Name:          Richard W. Grain
                 Position:        Executive Director
                 Telephone:      (630) 887-0797
                 Fax	(630) 887-0799	

                 Provider:       National Association of Chemical Distributors
                 Membership:    Chemical distributors
                 Internet URL:   www.nacd.com
                 Affiliations:     National Association of Chemical Distributors Education Foundation
                 Name:          Geoffrey O'Hara
                 Position:        Director, Government Affairs
                 Name:          William Allmond
                 Position:        Director, Regulatory Affairs
                 Telephone:      (703) 527-6223
                 Fax	(703) 527-7747	

                 Provider:       National Association of Chemical Distributors Education Foundation
                 Membership:    Chemical distributors
                                 Chemical manufacturers
                                 Chemical marketers
                                 Chemical recyclers
                                 Chemical users
                 Internet URL:   www.nacd.com/NACDEF
                 Affiliations:     National Association of Chemical Distributors
                 Name:          Lisa Capone
                 Position:        Program Manager
                 Telephone:      (703) 527-6223
                 Fax	(703) 527-7747	

                 Provider:       National Association of Chemical Recyclers
                 Membership:    Chemical recyclers
                 Internet URL:   www.bismarck.com/nacr/nacr.html
                 Affiliations:     Cement Kiln Recycling Coalition
              A-48
                                            Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

-------
                                                   Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Name:          H. Peter Nerger
Position:        President
Telephone:      (202) 296-1725
Fax             (202)296-2530
E-mail:          103612,514(5),compuserve.com
Provider:       National Association of Printing Ink Manufacturers, Inc.
Membership:    Printing ink manufacturers
Internet URL:   www.napim. or g/napim
Affiliations:     National Printing Ink Research Institute
Name:          George Fuchs
Position:        Environmental Manager
Telephone:      (201) 288-9454
Fax             (201)288-9453
E-mail:          napim(g)napim. org

Provider:       National Paint and Coatings Association
Membership:    Chemical coatings manufacturers
                Chemical coatings users
                Paint distributors
                Paint manufacturers
                Paint users
                Raw materials suppliers
Internet URL:   www.paint.org
Name:          J. Andrew Doyle
Position:        Executive Director
Telephone:      (202) 462-6272
Fax             (202)462-8549
E-mail:          npca(g).paint.org
Name:          Sony a McDavid
Position:        Asst. Dir. Environmental Affairs
Name:          Stephen R. Sides
Position:        Director, Health, Safety, & Env.

Provider:       National Pest Control Association
Membership:    Pesticides applicators
Internet URL:   www.pestworld.com
Name:          Bob Rosenberg
Position:        Director of Government Affairs
E-mail:          Bob_Rosenberg(g),msn.com
Name:          Gene Harrington
Position:        Manager of Government Affairs
E-mail:          Harrington(g).pestworld. org
Name:          Rob Lederee
Position:        CEO & Executive Vice President
Telephone:      (703) 573-8330
Fax             (703)573-4116
E-mail:          L ederer (Slpestworld .org

Provider:       Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America
Membership:    Research-based pharmaceutical operations
Internet URL:   www.phmia.org
Affiliations:     Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America Foundation
Name:          Thomas White
Position:        Associate  Vice President
      Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
A-49

-------
               Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Notes
Telephone:
Fax
(202) 835-3546
(202) 835-3597
                 Provider:        Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manufacturers Association
                 Membership:    Polyiso insulation manufacturers
                                 Raw materials suppliers
                 Name:          Rebecca Loyd
                 Position:        Secretary
                 Telephone:      (202) 624-2709
                 Fax             (202) 628-3856
                 E-mail:          pima(5),buildernet.com

                 Provider:        Powder Coatings Institute
                 Membership:    Powder coating equipment suppliers
                                 Powder coating facilities
                                 Powder coating materials manufacturers
                                 Powder coating materials marketers
                                 Resin manufacturers
                 Internet URL:   www.powdercoating.org
                 Name:          Greg Bocchi
                 Position:        Executive Director
                 Telephone:      (703)684-1770
                 Fax             (703)684-1771
                 E-mail:          pci-infofSlpowdercoating. ore

                 Provider:        Rubber Manufacturers Association
                 Membership:    Rubber product manufacturers
                                 Tire manufacturers
                 Internet URL:   www.rma.org
                 Affiliations:     Scrap Tire Management Council
                                 Tire Industry Safety Council
                 Name:          Kristen Udowitz
                 Position:        Communications and Marketing
                 Telephone:      (202) 682-4800
                 Fax             (202) 783-3512
                 E-mail:          kristenfSltmn.com

                 Provider:        Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc.
                 Membership:    Plastics mold makers
                                 Plastics processors
                                 Raw materials suppliers
                 Internet URL:   www.socplas.org
                 Name:          Pat Toner
                 Position:        Technical Vice President
                 Telephone:      (202) 974-5200
                 Fax             (202) 296-7005
                 E-mail:          feedback@socplas.org
                 Name:          Tom Southall
                 Position:        Information Manager

                 Provider:        Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturers Association
                 Membership:    Chemical distributors
                                 Chemical manufacturers
                                 Chemical marketers
                                 Service providers to the Chemical Industry
              A-50
                                            Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

-------
                                                  Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Internet URL:   www.socma.com
Name:          Cheryl O. Morton
Position:        Director, Technical Affairs
Name:          Gray don Powers
Position:        President
Name:          Mary J. Legatski
Position:        Director, Government Relations
Name:          Robert Grasso
Position:        Vice President of Govt Affairs
Telephone:      (202)296-8577
Fax             (202) 296-8120
Name:          Sherry L. Edwards
Position:        Director, Public Policy
      Notes
Provider:       Vinyl Institute
Membership:    Vinyl additives & modifiers manufacturers
                Vinyl chloride monomer manufacturers
                Vinyl manufacturers
                Vinyl packaging manufacturers
Internet URL:   www.vinvlinfo.org
Affiliations:     Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc.
                Vinyl Environmental Resource Center
Name:          Robert H. Burnett
Position:        Executive Director
Telephone:      (973) 898-6699
Fax             (973) 898-6633
E-mail:          vi@socplas.org
                                  TRADE ASSOCIATION - STATE

Provider:       Chemical Council of Missouri
Membership:    Chemical distributors
                Chemical manufacturers
                Chemical marketers
                Chemical recyclers
Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                Federation of State Chemical Associations
Name:          Sandra Bennett
Position:        Executive Administrator
Telephone:      (573) 636-2822
Fax             (573)636-8749
Provider:       Chemical Industry Committee, Tennessee Association of Business
Membership:    Chemical distributors
                Chemical manufacturers
                Chemical marketers
                Chemical recyclers
Internet URL:   www.tennbiz.org
Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                Federation of State Chemical Associations
Name:          Dave Goetz
Position:        Executive Director, CIC
Telephone:      (615) 256-5141

Fax             (615)256-6726
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
A-51

-------
               Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Notes
                 E-mail:
infofSltennbiz. ore
                 Provider:       Chemical Industry Committee, WV Manufacturers Association
                 Membership:    Chemical distributors
                                 Chemical manufacturers
                                 Chemical marketers
                                 Chemical recyclers
                 Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                                 Federation of State Chemical Associations
                 Name:          Karen Price
                 Position:        President
                 Telephone:      (304) 342-2123
                 Fax             (304) 342-4552
                 E-mail:         wvmafg) city net. net

                 Provider:       Chemical Industry Council of Associated Industries of Kentucky
                 Membership:    Chemical distributors
                                 Chemical manufacturers
                                 Chemical marketers
                                 Chemical recyclers
                 Internet URL:   www.aik.org
                 Affiliations:     Associated Industries of Kentucky
                                 Chemical Manufacturers Association
                                 Federation of State Chemical Associations
                 Name:          John Nickols
                 Position:        Executive Vice President
                 Telephone:      (502)491-4737
                 Fax	(502)491-5322	

                 Provider:       Chemical Industry Council of California
                 Membership:    Chemical distributors
                                 Chemical manufacturers
                                 Chemical marketers
                                 Chemical recyclers
                 Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                                 Federation of State Chemical Associations
                 Name:          Paul Kronenberg
                 Position:        Executive Director
                 Telephone:      (916)442-1420
                 Fax	(916) 442-3387	

                 Provider:       Chemical Industry Council of Delaware
                 Membership:    Chemical distributors
                                 Chemical manufacturers
                                 Chemical marketers
                                 Chemical recyclers
                 Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                                 Federation of State Chemical Associations
                 Name:          William Wood
                 Position:        Executive Director
                 Telephone:      (302) 655-2673
                 Fax             (302) 655-2673
                 Provider:
Chemical Industry Council of Illinois
              A-52
          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

-------
                                                   Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Membership:    Chemical distributors
                Chemical manufacturers
                Chemical marketers
                Chemical recyclers
Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                Federation of State Chemical Associations
Name:          Jack Toslosky
Position:        Executive Director
Telephone:      (847) 823-4020
Fax             (847) 823-4033
       Notes
Provider:       Chemical Industry Council of New Jersey
Membership:    Chemical distributors
                Chemical manufacturers
                Chemical marketers
                Chemical recyclers
Internet URL:   www.cicnj.org
Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                Federation of State Chemical Associations
Name:          Hal Bozarth
Position:        Executive Director
Telephone:      (609) 392-4214
Fax             (609) 392-4816
Provider:       Chemical Industry Council of North Carolina
Membership:    Chemical distributors
                Chemical manufacturers
                Chemical marketers
                Chemical recyclers
Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                Federation of State Chemical Associations
Name:          George Everett
Position:        Executive Director
Telephone:      (919)834-9459
Fax             (919)833-1926
E-mail:          gtenccic(5),aol. com
Provider:       Florida Manufacturing and Chemical Council
Membership:    Chemical distributors
                Chemical manufacturers
Internet URL:   www.fmcc.org
Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                Federation of State Chemical Associations
Name:          Nancy D.  Stephens
Position:        Executive Director
Telephone:      (904) 224-8141
Fax             (904) 224-5283
E-mail:          fmccfSlintemetmci.com
Provider:       Massachusetts Chemical Technology Alliance
Membership:    Chemical distributors
                Chemical engineering firms
                Chemical manufacturers
                Chemical marketers
                Chemical recyclers
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
A-53

-------
Notes
Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources


                  Chemical users
  Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                  Federation of State Chemical Associations
  Name:          Michael DeVito
  Position:        Executive Director
  Telephone:      (617)451-6282
  Fax             (617) 695-9568
                 Provider:        Michigan Chemical Council
                 Membership:    Chemical distributors
                                 Chemical manufacturers
                                 Chemical marketers
                 Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                                 Federation of State Chemical Associations
                 Name:          Andrew Such
                 Position:        Executive Director
                 Telephone:      (517) 372-8898
                 Fax             (517) 372-9020
                 Provider:        Ohio Chemical Council
                 Membership:    Chemical distributors
                                 Chemical manufacturers
                                 Chemical marketers
                                 Chemical recyclers
                 Internet URL:   www. ohiochem. ore
                 Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                 Name:          Peggy Smith
                 Position:        Secretary/Executive Director
                 Telephone:      (614)224-1730
                 Fax             (614)224-5168
                 E-mail:          ohchem@infinet. com
                 Provider:        Pennsylvania Chemical Industry Council
                 Membership:    Chemical engineers
                                 Chemical manufacturers
                                 Chemical marketers
                                 Chemical recyclers
                 Internet URL:   www.pcic.org/home.html
                 Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                                 Federation of State Chemical Associations
                 Name:          David W. Patti
                 Position:        Executive Director
                 Telephone:      (717) 232-6681
                 Fax             (717) 232-4684
                 E-mail:          infofg).pcic.org
                 Name:          Juli Conrad
                 Position:        Staff Assistant, Govt. Affairs
                 Name:          Matthew Tunnell
                 Position:        Government Affairs  Coordinator
                 Provider:
                 Membership:
                  Texas Chemical Council
                  Chemical distributors
                  Chemical manufacturers

                  Chemical marketers
              A-54
                                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                   Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
                Chemical recyclers
Internet URL:   www.txchemcouncil. ore
Affiliations:     Chemical Manufacturers Association
                Federation of State Chemical Associations
Name:          Jim Woodrick
Position:        President
Telephone:      (512)477-4465
Fax             (512)477-5387
E-mail:         kncard(g)inail.eden.com
                                     UNIVERSITY - NATIONAL

Provider:       Center for Clean Products and Clean Technologies at the University of Tennessee
Membership:    Academic researchers
Internet URL:   www.ra.utk.edu/eerc/clean2.html
Affiliations:     University of Tennesee - Knoxville
                University of Tennessee Energy, Environment, and Resources Center
Name:          Gary A. Davis
Position:        Director
Telephone:      (423)974-4251
Fax             (423)974-1838
E-mail:         davisgfSleerc. gw.utk.edu

Provider:       Center for Clean Technology at UCLA
Membership:    Academic researchers
Internet URL:   www.cct.seas.ucla.edu
Affiliations:     University of California- Los Angeles
Name:          Dr. Selim Senkan
Position:        Director
Telephone:      (310)206-3071
E-mail:         cct@seas.ucla.edu

Provider:       Hazardous Substance Research Center South & Southwest
Membership:    Academic researchers
Internet URL:   www.eng.lsu.edu/center/hsrc.html
Affiliations:     Georgia Institute of Technology
                Louisiana State University
                Rice University
                U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Name:          Danny D. Reible
Position:        Director
Telephone:      (504) 388-6770
Fax             (504) 388-5043
E-mail:         cmreibfSllsuvm sncc.lsu.edu

Provider:       Indiana Pollution Prevention and Safe Materials Institute
Membership:    Academic researchers
Internet URL:   www. ecn.purdue.edu/IPPI/
Affiliations:     Purdue University
Name:          Lynn A. Corson Ph.D.
Position:        Director
Telephone:      (317) 494-6450
Fax             (317)494-6422
E-mail:         corsonlfSlecn. purdue.edu
       Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
A-55

-------
               Appendix A: Technology Transfer Information Sources
Notes
Provider:       University of Louisville, Kentucky Pollution Prevention Center
Membership:    Academic researchers
                Business and industry
Internet URL:   www.kppc.org
Affiliations:     University of Louisville
Name:          Cam Metcalf
Position:        Executive Director
Telephone:      (502) 852-0965
Fax             (502) 852-0964
E-mail:          icmetcO 1 @athena.louisville.edu
                 Provider:        Massachusetts Institute of Technology Environmental Technology  and Public Policy
                                 Program
                 Membership:    Academic researchers
                 Internet URL:    web.mit.edu/dusp/etpp/index-t.html
                 Affiliations:     Massachusetts Institute of Technology
                 Name:          David Laws
                 Position:        Program Administrator
                 Name:          Lawrence Susskind
                 Position:        Co-Principal Investigator
                 Telephone:      (617) 256-5724
                 Fax             (617) 253-7402
                 E-mail:          etp@mit.edu
                 Name:          Vicki Norberg-Bohm
                 Position:        Co-Principal Investigator

                  Provider:       Massachusetts Institute  of Technology Program  in Technology,  Business, and  the
                                 Environment
                 Membership:    Academic researchers
                 Internet URL:    web.mit.edu/ctpid/www/tbe/overview.html
                 Affiliations:     Massachusetts Institute of Technology
                 Name:          Dr. John Ehrenfeld
                 Position:        Director
                 Telephone:      (617) 253-5724
                 Fax             (617) 253-7402
                 E-mail:	Jehren@mit.edu	

                                                        UNIVERSITY - STATE

                 Provider:        University of Tennessee Waste Management Research and Education Institute
                 Membership:    Academic researchers
                 Internet URL:    www.ra.utk.edu/eerc/wmrei2.html
                 Affiliations:     University of Tennessee
                 Name:          Dr. Gary Sayler
                 Position:        Acting Director
                 Telephone:     (423) 974-4251
                 Fax             (423) 974-1838
                 E-mail:          savler@utk.edu
              A-56
                                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                    Appendix A: Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Websites


                         POLLUTION PREVENTION WEBSITES

Department of Energy (DOE) Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Network
http://www.eren.doe.gov/
- The DOE Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Network offers resources and archives about energy
conservation techniques and developments.

Department of Energy (DOE) EPIC Home Page P2 Information Clearinghouse
http: //epic. er. doe. gov/epic
- The DOE EPIC home page  provides a database search of DOE documents, P2 Regulations, Internet search
engines,  a P2  Calendar,  P2 software,  environmental  information sources,  material exchange,  material
substitution and recycling information.

Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Industrial Technologies (OFT)
http://www.oit.doe.gov/

- The DOE OIT creates  partnerships among industry,  trade groups, government agencies,  and other
organizations to research, develop, and deliver advanced energy efficiency, renewable energy, and pollution
prevention technologies for industrial customers.

Defense Environmental Network & Information Exchange (DENTX)
http://denix.cecer.army.mil/
- DENIX provides the general public with timely access to environmental legislative, compliance, restoration,
cleanup, safely  & occupational health, security,  and DoD guidance information. Information on  DENIX is
updated daily and can be accessed through the series of menus listed below, the site map, or via the DENIX
full-text search engine

Energy and Environment - Division of Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
http://www.lbl.gov/LBL-Programs/

- Berkeley Lab is a pioneer in energy efficient technologies. Among its many contributions are energy saving
"superwindows," solid-state ballasts for fluorescent lights, rechargeable electric batteries, and aerogels. In
1993, two out  of the three  major energy research awards from the U.S. Department of Energy  went to
Berkeley Lab scientists.

Enviro$en$e Home Page
http://es.epa.gov/index.html
- The most comprehensive environmental website. Provides search services, industry sector notebooks, links
to DOE, EPA, DOD,  Federal, Regional and State Agencies, Academia, public  interest groups, industry and
trade  associations, international resources, vendor information, material  exchange and substitution libraries,
P2 information exchange programs and other valuable P2 resources. Information is constantly updated. An
information brochure is  available through the Pollution Prevention  Clearinghouse (Voice  Number 202/260-
1023). PPIC order number A103.

Enviro$en$e - American Institute for Pollution Prevention Home Page
http ://es.epa. gov/aipp/
- The AIPP promotes P2 within industry and throughout  society, in part by working through its member
organizations.  The website provides general P2 information, AIPP meetings, membership organizations, P2
resource materials, P2 publications and P2 project updates.

EPA Home Page
http: //www. ep a. go v/
- This website provides access to a large amount of information.  Users may search for environmentally
related information, public information centers, grants and financing, press releases, software, databases and
newsletters regarding EPA's policies, regulations and assistance programs.  Provides information on EPA's
information holdings including documents, TRI, RCRA and other environmental data.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                            A-57
Notes

-------
             Appendix A: Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Websites
Notes
                 EPA Region 3 Home Page
                 http://www.epa.gov/region3/
                 - This website  provides access to information regarding EPA Region 3  offices, programs, staff, and
                 announcements.

                 EPA Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Division
                 http: //www. epa. gov/appd. html
                 - This site provides information on the activities of EPA's Atmospheric P2 Division. Information on the
                 Energy Star  Program, Green Lights Program, Methane Outreach Program, publications, and software tools
                 are also located at this website.

                 Global Environmental Network for Info Exchange (GENIE)
                 http://www-genie.mrrl.lut.ac.uk
                 - Started  in  1992 by the Economic and Social Research Council, the Global Environmental Change Data
                 Network Facility seeks to make information exchange among researchers more convenient.

                 Great Lakes Regional Environmental Information System
                 http: //ep awww. cie sin. org/
                 - The Great Lakes Website is a regional directory and data access system developed by  CIESIN with
                 support from the EPA's great Lakes Program, and the Great Lakes National Program Office.  It provides
                 directory  information,  on-line resources, documentation of EPA's activities in the Great Lakes Region, and
                 a P2 forum for P2 technical assistance providers and P2 vendor information.

                 Great Lakes Regional Pollution Prevention Roundtable
                 http: //www. hazard. uiuc. edu/wmrc/greatl/
                 - This site provides a forum for the exchange of information on pollution prevention programs, technologies
                 and regulations impacting the Great Lakes region.

                 Great Lakes Regional Pollution Prevention Roundtable Tech Info Database
                 http://es.epa.gov/p2pubs/techpubs/descript.html
                 - This site provides access to past discussion topics on the Great Lakes Regional Pollution Prevention
                 Roundtable.

                 International Cleaner Production Info Clearinghouse (ICPIC)
                 Telnet service through: fedworld.gov
                 - The ICPIC  site provides international resources on cleaner production techniques.

                 Kentucky Pollution Prevention Center
                 http ://www.kppc. org/about.html
                 - The Kentucky Pollution Prevention Center (formerly Kentucky Partners) is  Kentucky's statewide program
                 helping small and medium-sized  manufacturers  to  identify and implement pollution prevention.  They
                 provide information, technical assistance, training, and applied research to help Kentucky manufacturers to
                 voluntarily reduce multi-media waste.

                 Northeast Business Environmental Network (NBEN)
                 http ://www.nben. org/
                 - This site provides the latest information on environmental, health and safety issues to businesses of all
                 sizes and types, technical assistance and regulatory agencies, and environmental groups.  NBEN sponsors
                 workshops and conferences.  In addition, NBEN members  share  information on proven techniques for
                 implementing environmental management systems and self-auditing.

                 Ohio Technical Assistance Resources for Pollution Prevention (TARP2)
                 http://www.epa.state.oh.us/opp/tarp/tarp2.html
                 - TARP2 is a resource tool designed by the Office of Pollution Prevention within the Ohio Environmental
                 Protection Agency. TARP2 provides an extensive listing of resources for researching P2 opportunities.
            A-58
                                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

-------
                                     Appendix A: Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Websites


Pacific Northwest Pollution Prevention Center (PPRC)
http: //pprc. pnl. go v/pprc
- The PPRC is a nonprofit organization that works to protect the public health, safety and the environment by
supporting projects that result in pollution prevention and toxics use elimination and reduction. The database
includes  over 300 P2 projects.   The site offers  search  engines, up-to-date newsletters, P2  conference
schedules and abstracts on P2 research projects.    Request for Proposals  (RFP) Clearinghouse provides
information about P2 projects.

P2GEMS
http ://tun.uml.edu/P2GEMS
- P2GEMS  is an Internet search tool for facility planners, engineers, and managers that provides technical,
process, and materials management information on the web. It provides access to over 500 P2 resources on
the Internet.

P2 Pillar Needs Assessment Report for FY96
http://www.wl.wpafb.af.mil/pprevent
- This  site  provides access to summaries of  the U.S. Air Force Environmental, Safety and Occupational
Health Technology Needs  Survey.   Pollution prevention  needs and research on available technology to
address these needs are included in a two volume publication.

Pollution Prevention Yellowpages
http: //www. p2. org/nppr_y p s. html
- The P2 Yellowpages is linked to  the Enviro$en$e website and provides information on state, local, and
federal pollution prevention technical assistance programs.

Material Substitution

EPA RTI's  Solvent Alternative Guide (SAGE)
http ://clean. rti. org/
- This  Database includes a guide to help web browsers find less toxic solvent alternatives. The Solvent
Substitution Database in the Enviro$en$e site is another  useful website to explore.   Hazardous Solvent
Substitution Data Systems,  Solvent Handbook Database Systems, Department of Defense Technical Library,
and  the  National  Center  for  Manufacturing Science  Alternatives Database  links  are available  from
Enviro$en$e.

Environmental Stewardship - Pollution Prevention - Los Alamos National Laboratory (P3O)
Material Substitution Resource List
http://perseus.lanl.gov/NON-RESTRICTED/MATSUB_List.html
- This  website provides  information  on material substitution  alternatives and  links to over 26 material
substitution related sites on the Internet.

Illinois Waste Management and Research Pollution Prevention Program
http://www.inhs.uiuc.edu/hwric/p2.html
- This site offers a publications list provided by the HWRIC, a division of the Illinois Department of Energy
and Natural Resources.

Recycling Information

Environmental Stewardship - Recycling Programs - Los Alamos National Laboratory
http://perseus.lanl.gov:80/PROJECTS/RECYCLE
- This  internet  site documents the recycling programs at the Los Alamos National Laboratory.  Recycled
materials are listed along with links to other recycling information sites in the country.

 Global Recycling Network
http: //grn. com/grn/
- This site provides recycling related information to buyers and sellers of recyclable commodities.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                            A-59
Notes

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             Appendix A: Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Websites
Notes
                 Recycler's World
                 http://www.recycle.net
                 - This site was established as a world-wide trading site for information related to secondary or recyclable
                 commodities, by products, used surplus items or materials.

                 Technical Associations. Technology Transfer, and Industry

                 Air & Waste Management Association
                 http ://www. awma. org/
                 - This site provides industry publications, membership  information, a buyer's guide, meeting  dates,
                 employment and educational resources, and links to other relevant sites.

                 Air & Water Management Association
                 Delaware:  http://www.awma.org/section/delaware/delawaremain.htm
                 South Atlantic: http://www.stackhawk.com/sasmtgs.htm
                 Baltimore and Washington: http://www.awma.org/baltwash/baltwas.htm
                 Virginia:  http://www. awma. org/dominion/dominion.htm
                 - These websites contain information regarding the A&WMA activities for members in EPA Region 3.

                 The American Plastics Council
                 http ://www.plasticsresource. com/
                 - The website is organized and formatted to meet the needs of specific user groups.  The APC provide
                 general and environmental information on the server.

                 Envirobiz - International Environmental Information Network
                 http: //www. envirobiz. com/
                 - The site is sponsored  by  the International  Environmental Information Network,  and it provides
                 information about  various  businesses,  policies, environmental  technologies, events, products, and
                 environmental services. The site also has searchable databases.

                 Environmental Law Institute
                 http://www.eli.org/
                 - Incorporates ELI publications, programs, law and policy documents related to environmental law.

                 The National Institute of Standard and Technology (NIST)
                 http: /www. ni st. go v/
                 - NIST provides a wide  variety of services and programs to help U.S. industry, trade other government
                 agencies,  academia and the  general public  improve the quality of their products.  The website provides
                 access to international uniform practices.

                 National Technology Transfer Center's Environmental Technology Gateway
                 http: //www. nttc. edu/environmental. html
                 - This site is an excellent source of links to other environmental information. It provides information on
                 technology transfer, manufacturing industries, business assistance, conferences, programs, phone numbers,
                 Pollution Prevention Yellow Pages, other general information and links to  over 150 websites.  Information
                 includes links  to various  agencies (EPA, DOE, DOD, NASA, and others), federal laboratories, and White
                 House information.

                 NIST's Manufacturing  Extension Partnership
                 http://www.mep.nist.gov/
                 - Provides hands-on technical assistance to America's smaller manufacturers.
             A-60
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                                     Appendix A: Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Websites


Project XL
http://199.223.29.233/ProjectXL/xl_home.nsf/all/homepage
- Project XL is a national pilot program that tests innovative ways of achieving better and more cost-effective
public health and environmental protection. Under Project XL, sponsors (private facilities, industry sectors,
Federal facilities, and communities) can implement innovative strategies that produce superior environmental
performance, replace specific regulatory requirements, and promote greater accountability to stakeholders.
The website provides information on the specific XL projects, legal and policy documents, EPA contacts and
access to an XL Communities Home Page.

The Tellus Institute
http://www.tellus.com
- The Tellus Institute is a nonprofit organization that offers P2 information regarding resource management
and environmental issues.

UCLA Center for Clean Technology (CCT)
http://cct.seas.ucla.edu/cct.pp.html
- The site provides information on P2 research conducted at the CCT. Research and novel educational efforts
focus on developing innovative technologies and improving the understanding of the flow of materials.

United Nationals Environment Program
http ://www.unep. or.jp/
- This site provides a survey of databases on environmentally sound technologies

The Water Environment Federation
http://wef.org/
- The  WEF  provides  information on information searches, links, catalogs,  events,  missions  and other
activities as they relate to water issues.

Waterwiser
http: //www. waterwi ser. org/
- Waterwiser provides a source of information on water efficiency and conservation.

Design for the Environment

Carnegie Mellon University Green  Design Initiative Home Page
http://www.ce.cmu.edu/GreenDesign/
- This site provides access to research, publication lists, and education programs in green design.

Pacific Northwest Laboratory's Design for Environment Page
http: //pprc. pnl. go v/pprc
- The PPRC is a nonprofit  organization that works to protect public health, safety and the environment by
supporting projects that result in pollution prevention and the elimination or reduction in toxics use.  The
database includes over 300 P2 projects.  The request for Proposals (RFP) Clearinghouse provides information
about  P2  projects.  The site offers search engines, up-to-date newsletters, P2 conference  schedules  and
abstracts on P2 research projects.

Sources of Environmental Responsible Wood Products
http: //www .ran. org/ran/ran_c amp ai gns/r ain_wood/index. html
- Information on  environmentally sound wood product alternatives is available at this site.

UC Berkeley Consortium on Green Design and Manufacturing
http: //greenmfg. me. berkeley. edu/green/Home/Index. html
- Research, publications, contacts and green design software is available at site.
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                            A-61

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             Appendix A: Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Websites
Notes
                 State Internet Programs

                 Alabama DEM
                 http://www.adem.state.al.us
                 - This site offers information on ADEM contacts, organization structure, rules and regulations, daily ozone
                 and AQI and a calendar of events.

                 California Environmental Protection Agency (Cal/EPA), Dept of Toxic Substances Control
                 http ://www. calepa. ca. gov/dtsc/txpollpr.htm
                 - This site provides a list of publications for various processes and industries.

                 Colorado Dept of Public Health & Environment
                 http: //www. sni. net/li ght/p 3 /
                 -  This  site has information  on the  P2 program's free,  confidential  on-site  assessments; telephone
                 consultations; industry-specific fact sheets and case studies; training programs and technical workshops; a
                 resource library; presentations to trade and industrial organizations; program development and support for
                 local  governments and tribes; grants for entities involved in providing pollution prevention educational and
                 outreach activities; and technical assistance.

                 Connecticut Dept. of Environmental Protection, P2 & Compliance Assurance
                 http://dep.state.ct.us/Cmrsoffc/Initiatv/p2.htm
                 - This site provides technical assistance to state agencies and small businesses; and educational programs
                 for the public, businesses, and  institutions, financial assistance  for  small businesses, and  evaluation of
                 marketing strategies, incentives and other forms  of assistance for development of new technologies or
                 products that support pollution prevention.
                 Delaware DNREC
                 http: //www. dnrec. state. de. us/
                 - This site provides access to DNREC  air,  waste, water, and emergency services programs.
                 pollution prevention programs for businesses  is available through this site.
Links to
                 Florida DEP Pollution Prevention Program
                 http://www.dep.state.fl.us/waste/programs
                 - Direct access to Florida's P2 resource center and technical assistance programs is available at this site.
                 Factsheets, case studies and a calendar of events is also available.

                 Georgia Pollution Prevention Assistance Division
                 http://www.Georgianet.org/dnr/p2ad/
                 - Provides a list of servers and P2 assistance programs on national and regional levels.

                 Illinois Waste Management and Research Center
                 http ://www.hazard.uiuc. edu/wmrc/
                 - This site provides information on available pollution prevention services, access to library/clearinghouse,
                 research funding and GLS and environmental database services.

                 Indiana Dept. of Environmental Management, Office of P2 & Technical Assistance
                 http://www.state.in.us/idem/
                 - This site includes information on source reduction plans for industries to prevent pollution, grant programs
                 to encourage  innovation in pollution reduction, state-wide recycling efforts, and education and outreach
                 efforts through workshops and seminars.

                 Kansas State University Pollution Prevention Institute
                 http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/dp_nrgy/ppi/ppihome.htm
                 - This site provides access to PPI fact sheets, case studies, publications list and staff.
             A-62
                                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                     Appendix A: Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Websites


Kentucky Pollution Prevention Center
http ://www .kppc.org/
- Pollution prevention staff, newsletters, training calendar and information on the materials exchange, ISO
14000/EMS Alliance, Wood Waste Alliance, environmental justice and other useful sites are available.

Kentucky Business Environmental Assistance Program
http://gatton.gws.uky.edu/KentuckyBusiness/kbeap/kbeap.htm
- Regulatory updates, publications, permit applications and other related sites are accessible through this site.

Louisiana DEQ Home Page
http://www.deq.state.la.us/
- This site provides access to DEQ Offices and a calendar of events. The search engine searches for specific
topics by using key words and phrases.

Maine DEP's P2 Resource List
http://www.state.me.us/dep/p21ist.htm
- In addition to providing general P2 information on their website, the Maine Department of Environmental
Quality lists pollution prevention resources available on the Internet. Technology transfers, P2 equipment
information, on-line networking, library information, document search, chemical  data, regulatory, recycling,
and environmental software links are listed in the server.

Michigan DEQ
http://www.deq.state.mi.us/ead/
- This  website  contains  pollution prevention information provided by the Michigan EPA.   Regional
information regarding the Environmental Assistance Division is provided.  Program descriptions, contact
names, bulletins,  calendars, publications, fact sheets and other Internet linkages to Environmental sites are
listed.

New Jersey Technical Assistance Program for Industrial Pollution Prevention
http: //www. nj it. edu/nj tap
- This  site contains information on NJTAP's functions: provides  environmental opportunity assessments;
functions  as an information clearinghouse for literature  and videotapes related to pollution  prevention;
delivers education and training; and adopts and develops novel pollution prevention technologies.

New York Dept. of Environmental Conservation, P2 Unit
http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/pollution/prevent.html
- The P2 Unit provides technical and compliance assistance to help public and private interests.  The P2 Unit
implements regulatory programs  and encourage public and private interests to avoid generating pollutants and
to reduce,  reuse and recycle waste materials to attain a 50-percent reduction in waste.

North Carolina Waste Reduction Resource Center of the Southeast
http: //owr. ehnr. state. nc. us/wrrc/
- The WRRC, located in Raleigh, NC, was established in 1988 to provide multimedia waste reduction support
for U.S. EPA Regrons III and IV.

Ohio EPA Office of Pollution Prevention
http://www.epa.ohio.gov/opp/oppmain.html
- This website lists the service provided by the Ohio EPA and provides an extensive list of resources available
in researching pollution prevention opportunities.

Pennsylvania DEP - P2 and Compliance Assistance
http://www.dep. state.pa.us/dep/deputate/pollprev/pollution_prevention.html
- Access to  publications, conference information and current events, as well as green technologies and
technical assistance.
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                             A-63

-------
             Appendix A: Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Websites
Notes
                 Pennsylvania Small Business Assistance Program
                 http://www.dep. state, pa. us/dep/deputate/airwaste/aq/Small_Business/small_business. htm
                 - This site offers hands-on assistance for small businesses from the PA EPA.  Specific regulations and P2
                 opportunities for several industries are mentioned.

                 TNRC (Texas) Office of P2 and Recycling
                 http://www.tnrcc.state.tx.us/exec/oppr/index.html
                 -  Pollution  prevention  programs,  staff  and  access  to  the  Small  Business  Assistance  Program
                 (http://www.mrcc.state.tx.us/exec/small_business/index.html) is accessible through this site.

                 Virginia DEQ, Office of Pollution Prevention
                 http://www.deq.state.va.us/opp/opp.html
                 - This site contains fact sheets, success stories, a newsletter, publications, p2 links, and a link to Businesses
                 for the Bay.

                 Washington Department of Ecology Home Page
                 http://www.wa.gov/ecology/
                 - Access to Ecology resources,  laws and regulations, tools, and publications is available at this site.

                 Academic Resource Centers

                 The National Pollution Prevention Center (NPPC) for Higher Education
                 http://www.umich.edu/~nppcpub/index.html
                 - The site provides  educational material to universities, professionals and the public.  The NPPC actively
                 collects, develops and disseminates pollution prevention educational materials.

                 Federal Government Sites

                 The Code of Federal Regulations
                 http://law.house.gov/cfrexpl.htm
                 - This site contains a complete list of federal regulations.

                 Department of Energy's Environmental Management Home Page
                 http://www.em.doe.gov/
                 -This site provides access to DOE's environmental management page and information clearinghouse.

                 Fedworld
                 http://www.fedworld. gov/
                 - This website provides a gateway to over 125 federal Bulletin Boards.

                 Library of Congress
                 telnet: ://locis. loc.gov/
                 - This site allows the web browser to search for topics by author, book, subject, keyword, etc.

                 Research Triangle  Park Air BBS
                 telnet: //ttnbb s. rtpnc. ep a. go v/
                 - The website provides information for professionals in the air monitoring and air pollution control areas.

                 THOMAS
                 http: //thomas. loc. gov/
                 - The website contains full text documents of current congressional legislation.
             A-64
                                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                     Appendix A: Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Websites
Environment. Health, and Safety
Great Links Page
http://tis.eh.doe.gov/
- The website provides accurate and current information regarding MSDS sheets, EPA Chemical Fact Sheets,
and other topics related to materials, health and safety.

OSHA
http://www.osha. gov/
- This website provides information on  OSHA  standards,  programs and services, compliance  assistance
programs, and technical information.

Water Online
http: //www. wateronline. com/
- This site supplies information  on manufacturers markets, discussion forums,  engineering technology,
resource libraries and associations.

Energy Conservation Related Servers

Climate Wise
http://www.epa.gov/oppeinet/oppe/climwise/cwweb/index.htm
- This  site provides information on EPA's Climate Wise program; a government-industry partnership that
helps businesses improve energy efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

DOE Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Network
http://www.eren.doe.gov/
- This site is the primary page for obtaining information from Energy Efficiency.

The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
http: //www. epri. com/
- EPRI provides research and development activities and P2 initiatives for the electric utility industry.

The Energy Analysis and Diagnostics Center (EADC)
http://128.6.70.23/
- This  site provides links to information from the Industrial Assessment Center headquartered  at Rutgers
University.

Energy Information Administration
http://www.eia.doe.gov/
- This site offers information on energy prices, consumption information, and forecasting for a variety of fuel
groups.

Technology Transfer

EPA Online Library System
telnet://epaibm.rtpnc.epa.gov/  Login Password: "public access"
- The site provides web browsers access to a hazardous waste database.

National Technology Transfer Center's Environmental Technology Gateway
http: //www. nttc. edu/environmental. html
- This  site is  an excellent source of links to other environmental information.  Provides information  on
technology transfer, manufacturing industries, business assistance, conferences, programs, phone numbers,
Pollution Prevention Yellow Pages, other general  information and links to over 150 websites.  Information
includes links to various  agencies (EPA, DOE, DOD, NASA, and others),  federal laboratories,  and White
House information.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                            A-65
                                                                                                       Notes

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             Appendix A: Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Websites
Notes
                 Plating/Finishing

                 American Electroplating and Surface Finishing Industry Home Page
                 BB # 201-838-0113 or http://www.aesf.org
                 -The website features Industry specific information regarding P2 technologies and environmental issues in
                 the Electroplating and surface Finishing Industry.

                 Finishing Industry Homepage
                 http: //www. finishing, com
                 - This site provides information on new technologies, resources, conferences, and problems encountered by
                 businesses involved in metal finishing, specifically anodizing, plating, power coating, and surface finishing.

                 National Metal Finishing Resource Center
                 http://www.nmfrc.org
                 - Provides vendor information, compliance assistance and access to Common Sense Initiative research and
                 development and access to a technical database.

                 ISO 14000

                 EPA Standards Network (ISO 14000)
                 http://es.epa.gov/partners/iso/iso.html
                 - The website provides information on ISO Environmental Management Standards and their potential
                 impact in the United States.

                 Exploring ISO 14000
                 http: //www. mgmt 14k. com
                 - A primer to the ISO  14000, this site includes features like frequently asked questions, full text articles.
                 The site covers ISO 14000 in depth and touches on ISO 9000 as well.

                 International Organization on Standardization (ISO)
                 http://www.iso.ch/meme/TC207.html
                 - The official organization for information on ISO  14000 and other international standard documentation.
                 The URL points to the  actual provisions of the ISO 14000 as directed by the Technical Committee 207, its
                 administering body.

                 ISO 14000 Info Center
                 http://www.ISO14000.com/
                 - This website provides information on ISO  14000 articles, education and training, opportunities, a list of
                 certified companies, publications, organizations,  and other resources.

                 ISO Online
                 http://www.iso.ch/infoe/guide.html
                 - ISO Online is an electronic information service providing information on international standards, ISO
                 technical committees, meetings, and calendar.

                 NIST's Global Standards Program (GSP)
                 http://ts.nist.gOV/ts/htdocs/210/216/216.htm
                 - NIST promotes the  economic growth of U.S. industry by helping develop and apply technology.  General
                 ISO 14000 information is provided.
                 Laser Printer Toner Cartridge Remanufacturing Information
                 http: //www. toners, com/
                 - Describes a list of products and available locations.
             A-66
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                                     Appendix A: Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Websites


Printing Industry of America
http://www.printing.org/
- Provides information on technical assistance, education and publications, industry research and upcoming
legislation.

Printer's National Environmental Assistance Center
http://www.inhs.uiuc.edu/pneac/pneac.html
- Provides documentation of environmental impacts of the printing industry and offers technical assistance to
the printing industry. The site has links to Enviro$en$e and other websites.

Affirmative Procurement

Affirmative Procurement
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/procure.htm
- This website provides a list of guidelines and resources to assist federal, state, and local agencies and others
purchase and use products containing recovered materials.

Compliance Assistance

Agriculture Compliance Assistance Center (AgCenter)
http://es.epa.gov/oeca/ag/
- The AgCenter provides "one-stop shopping" for the agriculture community, including information on the
latest pollution prevention technologies and EPA requirements.

Automotive Service and Repair: Greenlink™
http ://www. ccar-greenlink.org
- This site offers  access to  environmental compliance information and pollution prevention information to
those working in the automotive service, repair, and autobody industry.

National Metal Finishing Resource Center
http://www.nmfrc.org/welcomel .htm
- This website offers vendor directories, technical databases,  conference  information,  and compliance
assistance.

Cleaner Production

Climate Wise
http://www.epa.gov/oppeinet/oppe/climwise/cwweb/index.htm
- This site provides information  to EPA's Climate Wise program;  a government-industry partnership that
helps businesses improve energy  efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

United Nations Environment Programme
http: //www. unep .or.jp/
- This site provides a survey of databases on environmentally sound technologies.

Life Cycle Analysis

Life Cycle Assessment

ECOSITE
http://www.ecosite.co.uk/
- Provides information on recent events in LCA, case studies and downloadable copies of software.

European Network for Strategic Life Cycle Assessment Research and Development
http: //www. leidenuniv. nl/interfac/cml/lcanet/hp22. htm
-A platform for LCA research and development.
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                            A-67
Notes

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             Appendix A: Energy Conservation and Pollution Prevention Websites
Notes
                 EcoDS (Environmentally Conscious Decision Support System)
                 http://shogun.vuse.vanderbilt.edu/usjapan/ecods.htm
                 - Site for a decision support tool for a cost-risk evaluation of environmentally conscious alternatives using
                 streamlined LCA.
            A-68
                                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                 Appendix B:  Thermodynamic Analysis
                                       APPENDIX B
THERMODYNAMIC  ANALYSIS
        Topics covered are selected materials from thermodynamics. Included are areas that are most likely
to be less familiar to a general auditor.
Psychrometrics
        Psychrometrics is the study of moist air equilibrium thermodynamics process.  Why is it important?
People need to maintain  an internal environment that is comfortable (temperature,  humidity, fresh  air).
Therefore, the HVAC system must regulate all three variables.
                             Exhibit B.1: Variable for HVAC Regulation
Variable
Temperature
Humidity
Air Flow
Summer
High
High
Low
Winter
Low
Low
Low
        The brief summary covers:
1.   Properties of real air
2.   Limitations due to saturation (Boiling Curve)
3.   Definitions of state variable
    •   Humidity Ratio (Ib of moisture/lb of dry air)
    •   Enthalpy (Btu/lb of dry air)
    •   Specific Volume = 1/Density
        The molecular weight of air is given as:
                                       m = 28.9645-
Ibm
                                                   Ibxmol
        Thus, the gas constant can be found fcr air, Rj, by dividing the universal gas constant by the
molecular weight.
                                        1545.32         ftxlb
                                   Ra =	= 53 .352	
                                        28.9645
   IbmxR
                                                                                                     Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                            B-l

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               Appendix B:  Thermodynamic Analysis
Notes
Properties of Air
                                                    Exhibit B.2: Components of Air
Component
N2
02
Ar
C02
Ne
He
CH4
H2
S02
Kr
Xe
03
% By Volume
78.8
20.95
0.93
0.03
0.0018
0.005
0.00015
0.00005
Small
Small
Small
Small
                 Water Vapor
                         By manipulating the ideal gas equation, a relationship between the ideal gas law and the density for
                 air can be developed.
                                                      PV = mRT  or p= — =	
                                                                    K  V  RT
                         Looking at the new equations one can see that the density in the inversely proportional to the gas
                 constant R.  So using the information obtained for air in the previous section the density of air to the density
                 of water vapor based on proportionality can be compared.
                                                              1              1
                                                       Ch x	» Ov oc -
                                                            53.352     '"    85.778
                         From this, it can be concluded that water vapor is much less dense than dry air.
                 Real Air (Moist Air)
                         Realistically, air is not completely dry; it contains some moisture.
                 •    x% Water Vapor
                 •    (l-x)%DryAir
                         In order to determine the density of real air, one must consider the densities of both dry air and water
                 vapor.
                                                             P=
                          Then substitute the densities with the ideal gas relation found in the previous section.
               B-2
                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                 Appendix B: Thermodynamic Analysis
                                           Pa     \
                                         ~ RaT   Rv,T
                                         P-Pw   Pw
                                          RaT
                                          p
                                                j^i-—;
                                         RaT   RaT     Rw
                                          p          Pw
                                       = —	0.378—-
                                         RaT        RaT
Amount of Water Vapor in a Moist Air Mixture
        The amount of moisture in air is described by the humidity ratio, W.  The humidity ratio can be
defined by:
                                         _ Ibmof moistureIV
                                            Ibm of dry air / V
        Some manipulation and substitution yields an expression for the humidity ratio.
                                  „.
                                  W =
                                                  x =
               18.015
xama    m_    28.9645
        Xa       1-Xw
                                   0.622 —
                              W =•
                                    1--
    • = 0.622   Pw  =0.622 —
            P-Pw        Pa
                                       P
        This expression shows that the humidity ratio is proportional to the ratio of water pressure to the air
pressure. The figure below shows how the humidity ratio varies with respect to temperature. As one can see,
the humidity ratio increases significantly as temperature increases.
                               Exhibit B.3: Humidity vs. Temperature
                                              (Boiling Curve)
                                                                boiling
Energy Content
        Enthalpy, h, is a measure of the energy content in the air.  The enthalpy of an air/moisture mixture
can be expressed as:
                                                                                                      Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                          B-3

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               Appendix B:  Thermodynamic Analysis

Notes
                                                             h = ha +Whw
                         using
                                                    ha=0.24T
                         where
                                           hfg = latent heat of vaporization, Btu/lb
                                           Cp, s = specific heat of water vapor = .0444 Btu/lb - °F
                         Substituting these in for the first equation results in:
                                                     h = 1075. 15 + 0.444 (T - 32)
                                                       = 1061 +.0444
                                                     .-. h = 0.24r + ^(1061 + .444T)
                         where
                                  T is in °F
                                  W is in Ibm, w/lbm, a
                 Relative Humidity
                                                         _p
                                                              w,s     f(T}
                                                              P^
                                                               P  _ P-
                                                                    Pw,
                                                               P
                         where Pw s is found from the Boiling Curve
                          Given 4> and T to get W:
                  1 .    T — > Pw s (from Boiling Curve)
                  2.    PW=(|)PW,S
                  3.    W = 0.622 (PW/(P-PW)
                  Specific Volume
                                  Specific volume is defined as the volume per unit mass.
                                                                         V
                                                                   Va = 	
                                                                        ma
                          Once again using the ideal gas law
               B-4                         Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                  Appendix B: Thermodynamic Analysis
                                       PV = RT
                                            RaT    RaT       RaT
                                            Pa   P-PW   Jon—
                                                                 P
                                            = [1+1.608^]
                                        Pa
        Since specific volume is volume divided by mass, it can also be defined as the inverse of density
(mass divided by volume).
                                                       1
                                                   P= —
                                                       Va
Psvchrometric Example
        Given :Ti = 90 °F,   =.090
        Calculate the energy per poundof dry air to coolto 57°F,  0= 1.

        Method 1 ('Analytical')

•   At State 1 :
     (from Table 2 in Chapter 6 of ASHRAE Fundamentals)
     Pws, 1=0. 6489 psi
     P = (0.90)(0.6489 ) = .0629 psi
     W\ = 0.622 x 0.629(14.7 - 0.629) = 0.02780 [Ibm/lba]
     hi = (0.24 )(90) + (0.02780 )[1061 + (0.444 )( 90)] = 52 .2

     State 3
     Pwas,3 = Pws, 57 degF = 0.2302 psi
     h =(0.24)(57) +(0.009895 )[1061  +(0.444)(57)] = 24.4[Btu/lb.]
     .-. /\h = 24.4 - 52.2 = -27 .8 [Btu/lb of dry air]
        Method 2 ('Graphical')
     1.   Locate point 1 at TI =90°F, (JFO.90
        Read hi « 52. 5 Btu/lb
     2.   Locate point 3 at T3 =57°F, fy=l
        Readh! « 24 Btu/lb
     3.   Calculate Ah
        Ah= 24 -52.5 = -28.5
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                             B-5

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               Appendix B:  Thermodynamic Analysis
Notes
Exhibit B.4: Humidity vs Temperature (Boiling Curve)

               For Psychrometric Example
                                           W
                 Air Conditioning Processes

                        Air conditioning of air is done to ensure proper conditions for a specific process or make more
                 pleasant working environment for the people.
                 Heat Addition to Moist Air
                                               Exhibit B.5: Humidity vs. Temperature
               B-6
  Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                 Appendix B:  Thermodynamic Analysis
                                 Exhibit B.6: Conservation of Mass
                                        STEAM i
            •
            ma,1
             hi-
            Wi
        Conservation of mass
        Conservation of energy
                                       ma,\ = ma,2
                                       lha,\W\ = lha,2W2
                                           q\ -> 2 = ma,\(h2-h\)
        Example
        Given : T\ = 35°F,0i = 100%, 20,000 cfmi
        Air to be heatedto 100 °F
        Find : The heater size required.
    State 1
    Specific volume = 1 /Density
 1    RT
— = — — [1+1. 608 IF]
                          v = — =
                              P
                           p=-
                                                     Pa,\
                                                   (14.7)(144)
                                                      ma,2
                                                                                   W2
    State 2
                                 (53.35)(460 + 35)(1= 1.608^1)
                                 Pws.i = 0.09998 -+ from tables or charts at 35°F
                                 .-./>= (0.09998)(1) = 0.09998
                                 W\ = 0.622 x 0.09998  /(14.7 - 0/0.09998) = 0.004259
                                 .-. h\ = (0.24)(35) +(0.004259 )[1061 + (0.444)(35)]
                                 fe = 12.985Btu/lb
                               W 2=^1=0.4259
                               hi= (0.24)(100) + (0.004259 )[1061 +(0.444)(100)]
                               h 2 =28.708
                                                                                                      Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                    B-7

-------
               Appendix B: Thermodynamic Analysis
Notes
                       Calculate the mass flow rate of air:
ma = (20,000
                                                       min      hr

                                                           (14.7)044)
                                                                   )pb,i
                                                 (53.35)(495)[1+(1.608)(0.004259 ;
                                                                                • = 0.07961'
                                                Ib
ma = (20,000
                                                                                          Ib
                                                                   )(0. 07961 --) = 95,534
                                                       min      hr          /A3         hr


                                               i = (95,534— )( 28.708 -12.985 — ) = 1 .502million—
                                                         hr                Ib                hr
                                                     nboiler
                                                                  0.8
                                                                         =1.878x10

                  Cooling of Moist Air
                                               Exhibit B.7: Humidity vs. Temperature
                                             W
                                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                   Appendix B:  Thermodynamic Analysis
                                    Exhibit B.8:  Mass Conservation
           ma,1

            hi

1


1
i ^~^ -s


J 1

i

                             W
                                         mw,h

                                      Exhibit B.9: Boiling Curve
         hi -ha is all latent heat removal
         /?a - /Z2 is all sensible heat removal
         /n - hi is total heat removal
hi
                                                                                   Wi
        Determine the tons of refrigeration required to cool 10,000 cfrn of air at 85 °F
        dry bulb teperatuie, 0= 0.50, to 50°F,= 1.
                                                                                                         Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
               B-9

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               Appendix B:  Thermodynamic Analysis
Notes
          Exhibit B.10: Boiling Curve
                                           W
                                                               50
                                   85
                         From the chart
               him 34. 5
               /*2«20.2
                                                                        vi « 14.01
                                                                        Wi* 0.013
                                                                       0.0076
                         From tables hWi2 =18.11 Btu/lb a
                          or
                              hw,2 =CP = l{Btu/[lb deg F(50 -32 degF)]} = 18 Btu/lba
                                rha =(10,000 ft 3/min)/(14.01ft3 /min) =713.8 Ib dry air per minute
                              q\ -> 2 = ma[(hi - hi) + (W\-W2)hw)
                                = [713.8(lb/rmn)]{[20. 2-34.5(Btu/lb)] +(0.013-0.0076)(18)(Btu/lb)} =-10.138 Btu/min
                              That is, the heat removal rate is 10,138 Btu/min or 608,278 Btu/h.
                                 1 ton of A/C = (1 ton of ice/day)x (day/24 hr) x (144 Btu/lb) x (20001b/to n)
                              where the later heat of fusion for ice is 144 Btu/lb.
                                                          1 ton fo A/C =12,000 Btu/h
                                                          608,278Btu/hr
                                                                         • = 50.7tons
                 Heat Loss Calculations

                         where
                         Q= total heat loss
                         QTRANS = transmission heat loss
                         QINFIL = infiltration heat loss
                                                         12,000 Btu/hrton
                  Q - QTRANS + QINHL
               B-10
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                   Appendix B:  Thermodynamic Analysis
                                             QTRANS = UA(T1-T0)
        where
                UA = heat loss coefficient
        Tj = inside air temperature
        T0 = outside air temperature
                                           QlNFIL ~ QsENS +
                                                            LATENT
        where
                 QSENS = sensible heat loss
        QLATENT = latent heat loss
                                                  — T/ r1 /"T   T ^
                                              SENS" vp ^pUi ~ J-oJ
        where
                 V = volume of air entering building
                p = air density
                 Cp = specific heat of air

                                          QLATENT:

        where
                 W; = inside air humidity ratio
                 W0 = outside air humidity ratio
        h^ = latent heat of vapor at T;

        Simple Equations for Standard Air
                                           QSENS = 0.018 xV(Ti-To)
                                         QLATENT = 79.5 xFCW,-W0)
                                                                                                         Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                             B-l 1

-------
Notes
               Appendix B:  Thermodynamic Analysis
Heat Gain Calculations
                         where
                         where
                                                           Q - QTRANS + OPEN + Or
                                                                                :NT
                                  QFEN = fenestration heat gain
                                  QINT =   internal heat gain
                                                       (QTRANS / A) = cat + h(To- Ti) -
                                  a= absorptanoe of surface for solar radiation, no unit
                                  It = solar radiation incident on surface, Btu/hr ft
                                  ho =heat transfer coefficient, BTU/hr ft
                                  To = outdoor air temperature, °F
                                  Ts = surface air temperature, °F
                                  e= emittance of surface, no units
                                   R = difference between radiation incidence on the surface and
                                       black body radiation at To, Btu/hr ft2
                                                    (QTRANS /A) = ho(TsoL - AIR - Ts)
                                                    T SOL - AIR = To + cLIho - s3l I ho
               B-12
                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                            Appendix C: Instrumentation for Audits

                                     APPENDIX C

ENERGY AND WASTE INSTRUMENTATION FOR ASSESSMENTS
        It is important to be able to gather all the information necessary for competent evaluation of energy
usage and waste generation. Hardware designed to help data collection is available and should be used.  Since
manufacturers of measuring equipment constantly strive for better products it is a good practice to keep up
with the latest development in the field. Then one is able to make use of state-of-the-art technology to achieve
better results in his or her own work.

        Equipment List
          _1.   Thermo Anemometer
          _2.   Velometer - (Analog)
          _3.   Amprobe Ampere Meter (Digital)
        	4.   Amprobe Ampere Meter (Analog)
        	5.   PWF Meter
        	6.   Rubber Gloves
        	7.   Infra Red-Temp Sensor - Kane May 500
        	8.   Temperature Probes/Flukes Meters
        	9.   Light Meters
        	10.  Combustion Analyzer - Kane May 9003 (Silver)
        	11.  Combustion Eff.  Computer and Separate Probe
        	12.  Ultra Sonic Flow Meter
        	13.  Drill and Bit from ME shop
        	14.  Safety Glasses, Ear Plugs
        	15.  Dust Masks
        	16.  Amprobe Chart Recorder
        	17.  Energy Conservation Opportunity Books
        	18.  Tool Box (include flashlight, wire brush, rags)
        	19.  Preaudit Data Sheet
               Number of Cases taken to site
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency                            C-l

-------
               Appendix C: Instrumentation for Audits
Notes
           Product and Supplier List
                 Combustion Analyzer

                 Energy Efficiency Systems
                 Enerac 2000 - $3,000
                 Pocket 100 - $1,500
                 1300 Shames Drive
                 Westbury,NY11590
                 (800) 695-3637

                 Universal Enterprises
                 KM9003 - $2,000
                 5500 South West Arctic Drive
                 Beaverton, OR 97005
                 (503) 644-9728

                 Goodway Tools Corporation
                 ORSATandEFF-1
                 404 W. Avenue
                 Stanford, CT 06902
                 (203) 359-4708

                 Bacharach, Inc.
                 FYRITEII-$695
                 625 Alpha Drive No CO or Combustibles
                 Pittsburgh, PA 15238
                 (412) 963-2000

                 Dwyer Instruments, Inc.
                 Highway 212 at 12
                 P.O. Box 373
                 Michigan City, IN 46360
                 (219) 872-9141

                 Milton Ray Company
                 Hays-Republic Division
                 742 East Eighth Street
                 Michigan City,  IN 46360

                 Burrell Corporation
                 2223 5th Avenue
                 Pittsburgh, PA 15219

                 Amp Probe

                 Grainger
                 Analog Amprobe #RS3 - $100
                 Digital Amprobe #3A360 - $350
                 4885 Paris Street
                 Denver, CO
                 (303)371-2360
                         Cogeneration:

                         Martin Cogeneration Systems (913) 266-5784
                         1637 SW 42nd St.
                         PO Box 1698
                         Topeka,KS 66601

                         Waukesha/Dresser
                         Waukesha Engine Division
                         Dresser Industries
                         lOOOWSt. PaulAve.
                         Waukesha, WI 53188

                         Tecogen Inc.
                         45 IstAve.
                         PO box 9046
                         Waltham, MA 02254-9046

                         Stewart and Stevenson, Inc.
                         Gas Turbine Product Divisbn
                         16415 Jacintoport Blvd.
                         Houston, TX 77015
                         (713)457-7519
                         Boilers:

                         Kewanee Boiler Corporation
                         Suite 200
                         16100 Chesterfield Village Parkway
                         Chesterfield, MO 63017
                         (314) 532-7755

                         Boiler Efficiency Institute
                         School of Engineering
                         Auburn University
                         PO Box 2255
                         Auburn, AL 36830

                         (Steam Traps)
                         Yarway Corporation
                         PO Box 1060
                         Wheaton,IL60189
                         (312)668-4800

                         Weben-Jarco Inc.
                         PO Box 763460
                         Dallas, TX 75376-3460

                         Uniluc Manufacturing Company Inc.
                         (416) 851-3981
                         140HanlanRd.
                         Woodbridge (Toronto) Ontario, Canada L4L3P6
               C-2
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                Appendix C: Instrumentation for Audits
Waste Heat Recovery:

Beltran Associates, Inc.
200 Oak Dr.
Syoset,NY11791
(516)921-7900

Therma Stak
1-800-521-6676
Des Champs Labs Inc.
(201) 884-1460

Z Duct Energy Recovery Systems
PO Box 440
17FarinellaDr.
East Hanover, NJ 07936
ITT Bell & Gossett
8200 N. Austin Ave.
Morton Grove, IL 60053
(708) 966-3700

Ingersoll Rand
1-757-485-8037
Taco, Inc.
1160 Cranston St.
Cranston, RI 02920
(401) 942-8000

Lighting:

Valmont Electric (217) 446-4600
Hunt Electronics
1430 E. Fairchild St.
Danville, IL 61832

The Watt Stopper, Inc.
296 Brokaw Rd.
Santa Clara, CA 95050
(408)988-5331

MagneTek Universal Manufacturing
200 Robin Rd.
Paramus, NJ 07652
(201) 967-7600

Philips Lighting Company (908) 563-3000
200 Franklin Square Dr.
PO Box6800
Somerset, NJ 08875-6800
Powerline Communications, Inc.
(Light Controls)
123 Industrial Ave.
1-800-262-7521
Williston, VT 05495

Conservolite, Inc.
PO Box 215
Oakdale, PA 15071
(412) 787-8800

General Electric
4400 Cox Rd.
Glen Allen, VA 23058-4200
1-800-327-0097

Implementation Costs/Pricing:

RS Means Company Inc. 1-800-334-3509
100 Construction Plaza
PO Box 800
Kingston, MA 02364-0800

Grainger
Regional  Offices
http: //www. grainger. com

General Information:

ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals

HVAC:

McQuay  - Perfex Inc.
13600 Industrial Park Blvd.
PO Box 1551
Minneapolis, MN 55440

Weben Jarco, Inc.
(Hot Water Systems)
4007 Platinum Way
Dallas, TX 75237
1-800-527-6449

ECCI
(Evaporative Cooling)
PO Box 29734
Dallas, TX 75229
(214) 484-0381

Carrier Corporation
(Chillers)
Syracuse, NY 13221
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                           C-3

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               Appendix C: Instrumentation for Audits
Notes
Trane Company
Clarksville, TN 37040

The Marley Cooling Tower Company
(Cooling Towers)
5800 Foxridge Dr.
Mission, KS 66202 (913) 362-1818

Roberts - Gordon Appliance Corporation
(Radiant Heaters)
PO Box 44
1250 William St.
Buffalo, NY 14240
(716) 852-4400

Air Compressors:

Ingersoll Rand Company
5510 77 Center Dr.
PO Box 241154
Charlotte, NC 28224

Gardner-Denver Company

Motors:

GE Company
Motor Business Group
1 River Rd.
Schenectady, NY  12345
Variable Speed Drives:

York International
Applied Systems
POBoxl592-361P
York, PA 17405-1592
(717)771-7890

ABB Industrial Systems, Inc.
Standard Drives Division
88 Marsh Hill Rd.
Orange, CT 06477

Allen Bradley
Drives Division
Ceadarburg, WI 53012-0005

Enercon Data Corporation
7464 W. 78th St.
Minneapolis, MN 55435
(612) 829-1900

Belts:

The Gates Rubber Company
990 S. Broadway
PO box 5887
Denver, CO 80217
(303)744-1911
                         Additional Resources
                 1.   Thumann, Albert, Handbook of Energy Audits, Association of Energy Engineers, Atlanta, GA (several
                     editions).


                 2.   Industrial Market and Energy Management Guide, American Consulting Engineering Council, Research
                     and Management Foundation, 1987.


                 3.   Energy Conservation Program Guide for Industry and Commerce, NBS Handbook 115 and Supplement,
                     U. S. Department of Commerce and Federal Administration, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1975.


                 4.   Mark's Handbook of Mechanical Engineering, Baumeister (Ed.), McGraw-Hill, Eight Edition, 1978.


                 5.   ASHRAE Handbooks, Fundamentals,  Systems,  Equipment,  Application,  HVAC and  Refrigeration
                     Volumes, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers.
               C-4
                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                              Appendix D: Definitions
Abrasive Blasting:
Air/Fuel Ratio:
Aleophilic:
Assessment:

Barrels:

Baseline Year:
Block:

BOD:
Boiler:

Broaching:
Brownstock
Washing:
British Thermal Unit
(BTU or Therm):
Capacitance (Farad):

CCF:
Cellulose Fiber:
Celsius:
Chilled water:

Climate:
Coefficient of
Performance:
Cogeneration:

Collector:
Combustion:
Commingled:
Condensate:
Condenser:
                 APPENDIX D
                  DEFINITIONS
Refers to any paint stripping technique that utilizes grit and other abrasives.
The Ratio of combustion air to fuel supplied to the burner.
A term that refers to mediums that attract oil.
Industrial assessments are an in-depth review of existing operations to increase
efficiency  of  the  operation  through  pollution  prevention  and  energy
conservation.
The portion of an injection molding machine through which the molten plastic
is forced by the piston.
The year that pollution prevention gains are measured from.
A division of billing based on usage. The total block amount of use is divided
into blocks of different price perunit of use.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand.
A device where energy extracted from some type of fuel is converted into heat
which is distributed to needed places to do useful work
A process in which internal surfaces are finished.
A cleaning stage applied to the brown pulp produced by the pulping stage.

British thermal unit. It is the amount of energy to increase or lower one pound
of water one degree Fahrenheit.
The farad is the electrostatic capacitance that will hold a charge at a pressure of
one volt.
One hundred cubic feet of gas. (Typically 1 Therm =1.02 CCF)
The desired pulp content after the pulping process.
A metric unit for temperature measurement.
Water in the evaporator that is  cooled when heat is removed to  vaporize the
refrigerant.
All climates
The ratio between thermal energy out of and electrical energy into the system.

The simultaneous production of electric power and use of thermal energy from
a common fuel source.
Panels for collecting sun's radiation and transforming it into electricity.
A release of heat energy through the process of oxidation
Describes materials that are mixed (i.e. not separated by composition).
The hot water condensed from cooled steam.
The unit on the chiller in which heat is transferred out of the refrigerant.  Cool
condensing water flows over the tubes containing a vaporized refrigerant in a
tube-and-shell heat exchanger.  As the refrigerant cools, it condenses into a
liquid and releases heat to the condensing water.
                                                                                                       Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                           D-l

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               Appendix D: Definitions
Notes
Condensing Water:

Constant:
Convey orized:
Cooling tower:

Current (Ampere):
CVD:
Degree Day:

Degree Heating:

DEHP:
Delignification:
Demand:
                 Demand-side
                 Management
                 Strategy:
                 Dewatering:
                 Digestion Liquor:
                 Dioxins:

                 Drag-out:
                 Duty Cycle:

                 Economizer:
                 Electrodeposited
                 Materials:
                 Energy (Joule):

                 Energy Conservation:

                 Enthalpy:

                 Evaporator:
Water that has  been cooled in a cooling tower  that is used to condense
vaporized refrigerant in the condenser.
Multiplier used in computing electric meter reading.
Describes equipment that is continuous.
A device to  dissipate heat by evaporation of water which is trickling from
different levels of the tower.
The ampere, the rate of flow of a unvarying electric current.
Chemical Vapor Deposition
Mean  daily temperature subtracted  from  65 used  to  realistically  measure
heating requirements from one month to another
A measure relating ambient temperature to heating energy required.  If the
outside temperature is  1 degree below the base temperature in the plant for 1
hour then that represents 1 degree heating hour.
Diethylhexylphthalate
An extended pulping process that can lower contamination in the pulp.
Highest amount  of electricity  used in  15-30  minute  periods during any one-
month.  Power companies  must have  the  generating  capacity  to meet the
demands of their customers  during these peak  period, otherwise the result
would be blackouts.
Strategic energy  conservation.
                      Refers to any process designed to remove water from the waste sludge.
                      The liquid that the pulp is processed in.
                      Are environmentally detrimental chemical compounds  composed  of identical
                      carbon-oxygen framework.
                      The fluid unintentionally removed from a bath while removing a part.
                      Controlled interruption of a piece  of equipment's operation that is within its
                      operating band.
                      Air-to-liquid heat exchangers
                      Materials deposited by the electroplating process.

                      The joule is the energy conveyed by one watt  during one second;  the kilowatt
                      hour (kWh) is one kilowatt flowing for one hour.
                      The use of any reasonable mechanism to successfully reduce consumption in a
                      facility.
                      A measure  of the heat content of a media, reflecting moisture content and
                      temperature.
                      The unit on the chiller in which heat is transferred to the refrigerant.  Warm
                      water flows over tubes containing  a liquid refrigerant in a tube-and-shell heat
                      exchanger.  Heat is extracted from the water as  the refrigerant vaporizes and the
                      temperature of the water is reduced to the desired chilled water temperature.
               D-2
                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                               Appendix D:  Definitions
Firing Rate:

Flash Rusting:

Flashing:

Fossil Fuel:

Fuel to Steam
Efficiency:
Gloss Retention:
HAP:
HCFC:
Heat Exchanger:

Heat Pipe:
Heat transfer
coefficient:
HM:
HMCC:
Hogged-fuel Boilers:
Hot gas:

Humidity:
HVAC:
HVLP:
Infiltration:
Insulation:

Interruptible:

Kappa Factor:
Kilowatt (kW):
Kilowatt Hour:
Knots:

Lathe:

Lingnin Molecules:
As the load on a boiler varies, the amount of fuel supplied to the boiler varies in
order to match the load.
Occurs on some  materials if water  is  allowed to sit  on  them,  and  can
contaminate coatings.
Pressurized condensate will change phase into steam if the pressure is suddenly
reduced.
Fuel (natural  gas, coal,  oil etc.) coming from the earth that was formed as a
result of decomposition of vegetation or animal matter.
A measure of the overall efficiency of a boiler.  It accounts for radiation and
convection losses.
A measure of the amount of shine a paint maintains after time.
Hazardous Air Pollutant
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
A device used to recover heat from one source and transfer this heat to another
source without mixing the two sources.
A counterflow air-to-air heat exchanger.
A parameter used in determining heat loss.

Hazardous Material
Hazardous Material Control Center.
A Boiler that burns waste materials for energy recovery.
The refrigerant vapor discharged by the compressor. This vapor is superheated;
the temperature of the vapor has been raised above that which normally occurs
at a particular pressure.
Water vapor within a given space.
Heating, ventilation and  air conditioning.
High Volume, Low Pressure
Air flowing inward through a wall, window, door or a crack.
A material having  a relatively  high resistance to heat flow, principally used to
retard the flow of heat.  This ability is measured as "R" factor. The higher the
factor the higher the ability to insulate.
Large users of electricity or gas who are able to turn off a portion of their use
during peak periods are rewarded by lower  rates. The users interrupt their
service, thus the name interruptible service.
Is designated  by the amount of chlorine in the first bleaching stage.
1000 Watts, unit of power.
Unit of electrical power consumption. It is one kilowatt used for one hour.
Undesired wood that where not properly pulped,  including uncooked chips,
over thick chips, and irregularly sized pieces.
A piece of metal working equipment that holds a rapidly spinning work piece
for processing.
The waste produced throughout the pulping process.
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                            D-3

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               Appendix D: Definitions
Notes
Load Shedding:
LP Gas:

Load Scheduling:

Lumen:
Makeready:

Make-up Air:
Mar Resistance:
Masking:
Material Balance:
MEK:
MLBK:
MSDS:
ODC:
ODS:
Optimum Start:

Paint Booth:
Photoprocessing
Chemicals
PMB:
POL:
Pollution Prevention:
                 Power (Watt):

                 Power Factor:
                 Presensitized Plates

                 Pressure (Volt):

                 Primer:
                 PVD:
                 Quantity (Coulomb):
A scheduled shutdown of equipment to conserve energy and reduce demand.
Liquid petroleum gas. This fuel is distributed in pressurized cylinders in liquid
state and by releasing it is converted into gas in which form it is burnt.
An internal clock programmed by the user to start and stop electric loads on
selected days at particular times.
A unit for quantitative measure of light.
The stage in printing operations when  the  plates  are  prepared and all
adjustments are made.
Air forced into the area equal to the air lost through exhaust vents.
A measure of the ability of a paint to withstand abrasions.
The covering of areas that are not to be subject to painting or paint removal.
Shows all the materials that enter and leave a process.
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
Material Safety Data Sheets
Ozone Depleting Compound
Ozone Depleting Substances
The load scheduling program,  when applied to heating or cooling  loads, is
modified to follow temperature changes outside the building.
A specialized vented area set aside for painting.
Includes developer,  fixer,  and rinse water that are essential to  developing
photos.
Plastic Media Blasting
Petroleum, Oil, Lubricant
Pollution prevention means "source reduction," as defined under the Pollution
Prevention Act,  and other  practices that reduce or eliminate the  creation of
pollutants through:
•   increased efficiency in the use of raw materials, energy, water, or other
    resources, or
•   protection of natural resources by conservation.
The watt is the power generated by a steady current of one ampere at a pressure
of one volt. The kilowatt (kW) = 1,000 watts.  One horsepower = 746 watts.
Ratio between usable power supplied and usable power with inductive loads.
A type of plate used in printing and producing much less waste than typical
etched plates.
The volt, the pressure or potential difference required to produce one ampere in
a resistance of one ohm. 1 kilovolt (kV) = 1,000 volts.
Is a coating applied to prepare the substrate before the application of paint.
Physical Vapor Deposition
The quantity of  electricity conveyed by one ampere flowing for one second.
Ampere hour, one ampere for one hour.
               D-4
                           Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                Appendix D: Definitions
Rancidity:

Ratchet:

Recuperator:
Recycling:
Regenerative Unit:
Residence Time:
R-value:
Savealls:

SCF:

Secondary Fiber:

Service Charge:
Sheet-fed Press:
Shell and Tube Heat
Exchanger:
Shop:

SOP:
Source Reduction:
Stack Gases:
Straight Oil:
Stratification:

Substrate:
Tails:
TCLP:
Is the odor produced by contaminated metal working fluids due to bacterial
growth.
The  peak demand ratchet  during  a billing period is  kept as the peak billing
demand for succeeding billing periods until either the ratchet is reset to zero or
a higher peak demand sets the ratchet to a higher peak value.
An air-to-air heat exchanger.
Recycling means the diversion of materials from the solid waste stream and the
beneficial use of such materials.  Recycling is further defined as the process by
which materials otherwise  destined for disposal are collected, reprocessed or
remanufactured, and reused.
A rotary air-to-air heat exchanger also known as a heat wheel.
The amount of time a part stays in a particular bath.
Measure of resistance to heat transfer in Btu/hr-ft -°F
A system used to recover  fiber from  the water used in pulp drying and paper
making operations.
Supercritical  fluids undergo a phase transition from a gas or liquid phase to
become supercritical fluids.
Is fiber produced from recycled paper or paperboard that is combined with the
wood chips before pulping.
A fixed fee for providing service from a utility company.
A press that prints on single sheets of paper.
A liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger.

Area of operation, process  line,  and/or area which conducts the same type of
operation.
Standard Operation Procedures
Pollution Prevention Act defines "source reduction" to mean any practice that:
•   reduces the amount of any hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant
    entering  any waste stream  or otherwise  released into the environment
    (including fugitive emissions) prior to recycling, treatment, or disposal; and
•   reduces the hazards to public  health and the  environment associated with
    the release of such substances, pollutants, or contaminants
Under the Pollution Prevention Act, recycling, energy recovery, treatment and
disposal are not included within the definition of pollution prevention. Some
practices  commonly  described  as "in-process  recycling"  may  qualify as
pollution prevention.
Combustion gases that heat the water and are then exhausted out the stack.
A category of oil that includes all oils that are not water based.
An increasing air temperature  gradient between the floor and the ceiling in an
enclosed area.
The material to be coated by any of the plating methods.
Streaks that appear in the extremities of paint.
Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure.
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
                                                                            D-5

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               Appendix D: Definitions
Notes
Terpenes:

Therm:

Thermal Efficiency:


Tramp Oils:

Treatment:



VOC:

Volt-Ampere:


Water Curtains:


Web-fed Press:

Wet-bulb
Temperature:
                  Wrap:
A categorization of semi-aqueous cleaners.

A measurement of heat, equivalent to 100,000 Btu.

A measure of effectiveness of the heat exchanger.  It does not account for
radiation and convection losses.

Include all oils that contaminate an area or another fluid.

The processing of materials to concentrate pollutants, reduce toxicity, or reduce
the  volume  of waste materials.   The  most  common  example  of this  is
wastewater treatment.

Volatile Organic Compounds

The product  of the rated load amperes and the rated range of regulation in
kilovolts (kVA).

Are utilized to minimize overspray  and fumes in a thermal spray technology
process.

A press that prints on rolls of paper that are later cut to the appropriate size.

The temperature indicated by a thermometer for which the bulb is covered by a
film of water.  As the film of water evaporates, the bulb is cooled.  High wet-
bulb temperatures correspond to higher air saturation conditions. For example,
dry air has the ability to absorb more moisture than humid air resulting in a
lower, wet-bulb temperature.

The paint that coats the non-facing surfaces.
               D-6
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                                              Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
                                      APPENDIX E

     ENERGY CONSERVATION OPPORTUNITY CASE STUDIES

               Information in this appendix discusses specific energy conservation opportunities in detail.
This is done to illustrate how to calculate energy savings and cost savings for various opportunities.  The
assessment team should evaluate  carefully, the specifics of the facility or operation being assessed to
determine if the measures presented here can be implemented. The team should also evaluate the opportunity
using facility specific information.  The following case  studies present only a few of the available energy
conservation opportunities.

    1.   Implement Periodic Inspection and Adjustment of Combustion in a Natural Gas Fired Boiler

    2.   Implement Periodic Inspection and Adjustment of Combustion in an Oil Fired Boiler

    3.   Energy Savings from Installation of Ceiling Fans

    4.   Install Infrared Radiant Heaters

    5.   Repair Compressed Air Leaks

    6.   Install Low Pressure Blowers to Reduce Compressed Air Use
Notes
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             Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
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                                               Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
  CASE STUDY #1: IMPLEMENT PERIODIC INSPECTION AND ADJUSTMENT
               OF COMBUSTION IN A NATURAL GAS FIRED BOILER


Current Practice and Observations

        During the audit, the exhaust from the boilers was analyzed.  This analysis revealed excess oxygen
levels which results in unnecessary energy consumption.


Recommended Action

        Many factors including environmental considerations, cleanliness, quality of fuel, etc.  contribute to
the efficient combustion of fuels in boilers. It  is therefore necessary to carefully monitor the performance of
boilers and tune the air/fuel ratio quite often. Best performance is obtained by the installation of an automatic
oxygen trim system that will automatically adjust the combustion to changing conditions. With  the relatively
modest amounts spent last year on fuel for these boilers, the expense of a trim system on each boiler could not
be justified.  However, it  is recommended that the portable flue gas analyzer be used in a rigorous program of
weekly boiler inspection and adjustment for the two boilers used in this plant.


Anticipated Savings

        The optimum amount of O2 in the flue gas of a natural gas-fired boiler is 2.0%, which corresponds to
10% excess air as shown in Exhibit E.I.  Measurements taken  from the stack on the 300 HP boiler gave a
temperature of 400°F  and a percentage of oxygen at 6.2%. By controlling combustion the lean mixture could
be brought to 10% excess air or an excess O2 level of 2%. This could provide a possible fuel savings of 3%.

        The 300 HP natural gas boiler is used both for production and heating. It is  estimated  that  100% of
the natural gas is consumed in the boiler.

        Therefore the total savings would be:

        Savings in Fuel (therms/yr.) = (% burned in boiler) x (annual therms/yr.) x (% possible fuel savings)

                       =  1.0 x (56,787 therms/yr) x (0.02)

                       =  1,136 therms/yr

        Savings in Dollars ($/yr):  = (therms Saved/yr) x (cost/therm)

                       =  1,136 therms/yr x $0.644/therm

                       = $732/yr


Implementation

        It is recommended that the  facility purchase a portable flue gas analyzer and institute  a program of
monthly boiler inspection and adjustment of the boilers used in the plant.  The cost of such an analyzer is
about $500 and the inspection and the current maintenance personnel could perform the burner adjustment.
The simple payback is:

                                       $500 cost / $732 = 8.2 months
Notes
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              Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
Notes
                   on

28

26

24

22

20

18

is
|0

M

12
10

 8

 6

 4

 2

 0
                                               Exhibit E.I: Natural Gas Fuel Savings1
                                                      % EXCESS A1H


                                                                                        z

7
                                                                                             1 200
                                                                                           /
  1 000
                                                                                             800
                                                                                             600
                                                                                                      0
                                                                                                      20
                in
                X
           40   m
                t/>
                in
                                                                                                      60
                                                                                                      80
                                                  4           6           8

                                                  OXYGEN IN FLUE GAS - %
                                                                                                      100
                                                                           12
                        Note: Fuel  savings determined by  these  curves  reflect the following approximation.   The
                 improvement in efficiency of radiant and combination radiant and convective heaters or boilers without air
                 pre-heaters that can be realized by reducing excess air is 1.5 times the apparent efficiency improvement from
                 air reduction alone due to the accompanying decrease in flue gas temperature.

                        As an example, for a stack temperature of 600°F and C>2 in flue gas of 6%, the fuel saving would be
                 3%.  If desired, excess air may be determined as being 36%.
               E-4
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                                               Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
  CASE STUDY #2: IMPLEMENT PERIODIC INSPECTION AND ADJUSTMENT
                     OF COMBUSTION IN AN OIL FIRED BOILER


Current Practice and Observations

        During an audit, flue gas samples were taken from the boiler.  The boiler was operating with too
much excess air resulting in unnecessary fuel consumption.

Recommended Action

        Many factors including environmental considerations, cleanliness, quality of fuel, etc. contribute to
the efficient combustion of fuels in boilers. It is therefore necessary to carefully monitor the performance of
boilers and tune the air/fuel ratio quite often.  Best performance is obtained by the installation of an automatic
oxygen trim system that will automatically adjust the combustion to changing conditions. With the relatively
modest amounts spent last year on fuel for these boilers, the expense of a trim system on each boiler could not
be justified. However, it is recommended that the portable flue gas analyzer be used in a rigorous program of
weekly boiler inspection and adjustment for the two boilers used in this plant.

Anticipated Savings

        The optimum amount of O2 in the flue gas of an fuel oil-fired boiler is 3.7%, which corresponds to
20% excess  air.   The boiler measured had  an Q level of 8.5 % and a stack temperature of 400°F.  From
Exhibit E.2, using the measured stack temperature and excess oxygen for the boiler indicates a possible fuel
saving  of nearly 4.0% for the oil fired boiler.

        It is assumed that the boiler uses all  of the fuel oil consumed during the year.  The possible savings
are then the sum of the products of amount used and percent saved.

                Energy Savings = (10,339 gallons/yr.) x (0.04 savings.) = 414 gallons/yr.

                Therefore the total cost savings would be:

                Cost Savings = (414 gallons/yr.) x ($1.03/gallon) = $426/yr

                                       Total Annual Savings = $426


Implementation

        It is recommended that you purchase a portable flue gas analyzer and institute a program of monthly
boiler inspection and  adjustment of the boilers used in the plant.  The cost of such an analyzer is about $500
and the inspection and the current maintenance personnel could perform the burner adjustment. The simple
payback period will then be:

                             $500 implementation cost / $426 savings/yr. = 1.2 years

                                         Simple payback=1.2 yrs.
Notes
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              Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
Notes
                      s
                          30

                          2%

                          2fj

                          24
                          20
                      t/3
                      C
                      Si  12
                          10

                           8

                           fi

                           4
                                             Exhibit E.2: Liquid Petroleum Fuel Savings1

v>
                                                                X

                                                                         I
                                                                                           / 1200
                                                                                            /1
                                                                             1 000
                                                                                           /
                                                                             800
                                                                          XftOO
                                                                                          \
                                                                                     40  n
                                                                                     60
                                   80
                                                                                     10
                                                    4           6           S           1
                                                              IN        GAS - %
                        Note:   Fuel savings  determined  by these  curves  reflect  the  following approximation.   The
                 improvement in efficiency of radiant and combination radiant and convective heaters or boilers without air
                 pre -heaters that can be realized by reducing excess air is 1.5 times the apparent efficiency improvement from
                 air reduction. This is due to the decrease in flue gas temperature that must follow increased air input.
        As an example, for a stack temperature of 800°F and
3%. If desired, excess air may be determined as being 36%.
                                                                         in flue gas of 6%, the fuel savings would be
                                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                               Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
     CASE STUDY #3: ENERGY SAVING FROM INSTALLATION OF CEILING
                                             FANS

        In calculating the energy and cost savings of this implementation it is first necessary to calculate the
Energy Savings of the fans (E S,F).
                                                                   }/EFF
        where
                U = heat transfer coefficient
                A = area
                DHAT = annual heating degree hours at current average temperature
                DHcT = annual heating degree hours at ceiling temperature
                DHpi = annual heating degree hours at proposed mixed temperature
                EFF = efficiency of the heating system
        subscripts
                W = of the walls, windows, and doors
                I = of the infiltration
                C = of ceiling/roof
        The amount of additional energy consumed by the destratification fans is given by
                                      EDF = Number of Fans x W x OH
        where
                W= wattage of each fan
                OH = operating hours during the heating season
        The total annual energy savings (ES) can now be found by
                                              ES =ES,F - EDF
        Using this information, it is simple to calculate the annual cost savings (CS) of this implementation.
                                 CS = (Es,px Fuel Cost) - (Erip x Fuel Cost)
        Finally a simple payback can be found using

                         Payback = Number of Fans (Cost per Fan Installation Cost)
                                                   CS
        A case study for one plant yielded a potential energy savings of 307.59 MMBtu/yr with cost savings
of $1,643.20.   This measure, which involved 19 fans, had an implementation cost of $3,420.  The suggested
fan type was the 60" model, estimated to cover about 2,150 ft2, with a price of approximately $90 per unit and
an installation cost of $90, resulting in a total of $180 per fan.   The simple payback period was  2.08 years.
The typical payback period for the installation of destratification fans is approximately 2 years.
                                                                                                    Notes
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                                                Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
            CASE STUDY #4:  INSTALL INFRARED RADIANT HEATERS

        In calculating the energy and cost savings for using infrared radiant heaters the method differs
according to the application of the system.

Comfort Heating

        For the radiant comfort heating system, the rrethod is quite simple.  First calculate the amount of
energy (ERH) consumed by the infrared units.

                                    ERH = HL x Number of Units x PR x OH

Where
                HL = average heating load

                PR = total power rating of each unit

                OH = operating hours per year

        Next, an estimate of the current energy usage for the convective heaters (Ecn) must be made.  Then
taking the difference in these two values, the total annual energy savings can be determined.

                                              ES = ECH - ERH
        Multiplying this number by the cost of fuel yields the total cost savings for the year.

                                            CS = ES x Fuel Cost

        Or an alternate method for computing these savings is simply

                                                         Effc
                                                         EffR
                          ES = Current Us age x | 1 •


and
                                            CS = ES x Fuel Cost

        where

                EFFc = efficiency of the convective system

                EFFR = efficiency of the radiant system

        Note that although this evaluation is generally valid, these savings are based on the efficiency of the
systems, where in most cases the savings are determined by the cost of the fuel. This is especially true in the
case where different energy sources are being considered, i.e. natural gas or electricity.

        One study estimated a current energy use of 5,000 x 10 6 Btu/yr.  Installation of 18 radiant heaters
yielded an energy savings of 2,786 x 10  6 Btu/yr. and a cost savings of $10,406/yr.  The implementation cost
including piping and labor came to a total of $28,960 resulting in a payback period of 2.8 years.


Process heating

        To find the savings for replacing a process unit with  an infrared system, many more factors must be
taken into account.  For example, one case study involved replacing process ovens with infrared burners.  The
ovens were used to heat molds that in turn, baked cones.  The first step in this savings estimation was to
calculate the efficiency of the current ovens.  This was accomplished by estimating the amount of energy (Ec)
used to heat the product per year.
                                                                                             Notes
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               Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies

Notes                                            Ec=BSxBxOHxpv + Cpx(Tf-TI)]
                         where
                                 BS = average batch size
                                 B = # of batches per hour
                                 OH = operating hours per year
                                 Hv = heat of vaporization of water (assuming batch is 100% water)
                                 Cp = specific heat of water
                                 Tf = final temperature of cone
                                 Tj = initial temperature of batter
                         Once the total amount of energy  consumed by the ovens (Eo) is obtained, the overall oven efficiency
                 can be determined by
                                                                        E
                                                                EFFC =—-

                                 The heat  transfer rates for the new and the old system were then found and compared.  The
                 convective heat transfer rate in the blue flame mode was approximated to be around 1.0 Btu/hr-ft2 -deg. F
                 based on the characteristics of the current ovens.  The radiant heat transfer rate (UR) was found by using the
                 following equation.
                                                   __    „         T*-T\ _. ,  BBtu
                                                                        	1.3-
                                                                   Tg-Tm      hrft2°F
                         where
                                 F = radiation shape factor
                                 a = absorptivity of the mold
                                 a = Boltzmann's constant
                                 TI = radiant heater surface temperature
                                 T2 = mold surface temperature
                                 Tg = gas temperature in the oven
                                 Tm = mold temperature
                         Comparing these rates, UR was found to be 30% larger than Uc, the convective coefficient.  If there
                 are 30% savings, the energy savings would be

                                                ES = Total Gas used by Ovens x Percent Savings
                         and the cost savings

                                                         CS = ES x Cost of Natural Gas

                 Calculating the payback is simply
                                                     Payback = Implementation Costs / CS

                         where the implementation costs include equipment and installation.

               H. 10                       Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
        The results of this study showed that there was a total energy savings of 5,440 MMBtu/yr and a total
cost savings  of $31,280/yr.  For estimation purposes, it was assumed that 65% of the total gas use was
consumed in order to obtain these approximations.  The cost of implementation for each oven was $10,500.
For all nine ovens the total implementation cost was $94,500. This data yields a payback period of 3.0 years.
Notes
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             Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
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                                               Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
                CASE STUDY #5: REPAIR COMPRESSED AIR LEAKS
Background
        The cost of compressed air leaks is the  energy  cost to compress the volume of lost air from
atmospheric pressure to the compressor operating  pressure.  The amount of lost air depends on the line
pressure, the compressed air temperature at the point of the leak, the air temperature at the compressor inlet,
and the estimated area of the leak. The leak area is based mainly upon sound and feeling the airflow from the
leak. The detailed equations are given in Chapter 8.  An alternative method to determine total losses due to air
leaks is to measure the time between compressor cycles when all air operated equipment is shut off.

        The plant utilizes one 75 hp compressor that operates 8,520 hrs/yr.  Measurements taken during the
site visit showed the compressor to continuously draw 77.7 hp.  Approximately 24% of this load is lost to air
leaks in the plant.   The majority of the air leaks  are due to  open, unused lines. There are several plant
locations where pneumatic machinery could be connected to the primary air line, but at the time of the  site
visit, no machines were connected. These open lines were typically found on or near I-beams. The terms "I--
beam #1, #2, and #3" are used in the Exhibits of this opportunity to label the leaks. In order to allow for
correct location of these open lines, a list of the terms and their approximate locations are given below:

        Terms           Description

        I-Beam #1        Leak located on I-beam near rotary automatic #2.

        I-Beam #2       Leak located on I-beam near catalogue machine.

        I-Beam #3        Leak located on hose attached to I-beam near Machine 6700.


Recommended Action
        Leaks in compressed air lines should be repaired on a regular basis.


Anticipated  Savings

        Values for all factors affecting the cost of compressed air leaks were determined during the site visit,
and are listed in Exhibits E.3. Because of long piping runs to the equipment, the compressed air temperature
is estimated to be the same as room temperature.

                    Exhibit E.3: Condition of Pneumatic System at Time of Site Visit
Variable
Air temperature at compressor inlet, F
Atmospheric pressure, psia
Compressor operating pressure, psig
Air temperature at the leak, F
Line pressure at the leak, psig
Compressor motor size, hp
Compressor motor efficiency
Compressor type
Number of stages
Compressor operating hours, per year
Electric cost, per MMBtu

92
14.7
115
72
115
75
91.5%
Screw
1
8,520
$14.05
                                                                                                    Notes
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               Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
Notes
        Using these values, the volumetric flow rate, power lost due to leaks, energy lost and cost for leaks
of various sizes were calculated specifically for the conditions at this plant. The results are shown in Exhibit
E.4.

        As Exhibit E.4 shows, the cost of compressed air leaks increases exponentially as the size of the leak
increases.  As  part  of a continuing program to  fnd and repair compressed air leaks, the Exhibit can be
referenced to estimate the cost of any leaks that might be found.

                       Exhibit E.4:  Cost of Compressed Air Leaks At This Plant
Hole
Diameter
1/64
1/32
1/16
1/8
3/16
1/4
3/8
Flow
Rate
cfm
0.5
1.8
7.2
29.0
65.2
115.8
260.6
Power
Loss
hp
0.1
0.4
1.7
6.9
15.4
27.4
61.7
Energy
Lost
MMBty/yr
0.2
8.7
36.9
149.7
334.1
594.4
1,334.8
Energy
Cost per
year
$31
$122
$518
$2,103
$4,694
$8,351
$18,805
                          The estimated energy savings and corresponding cost savings for the air leaks found during the site
                  visit are listed in Exhibit E.5 below:

                                                    Exhibit E.5: Summary of Savings
Machine
Cardboard Boxes Area
Cardboard Boxes Area
Hand Dye
Straight Knife
Web
I-beam#l
I-beam#2
I-beam#3
TOTALS
Leak
Diameter
in
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/8
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16

Power
Loss
hp
1.7
1.7
1.7
6.9
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
18.8
Energy Savings
MMBtu/yr
36.9
36.9
36.9
149.7
36.9
36.9
36.9
36.9
408.0
Cost Savings
peryear
$518
$518
$518
$2,103
$518
$518
$518
$518
$5,729
                          From Exhibit E.5 above,  lie total estimated energy savings from repairing the air leaks are 408.0
                  MMBtu./yr. and the total cost savings are $5,730/yr.
               E-14
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                                                Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
Implementation Costs
        In general, implementation of this opportunity involves any or all of the following:
    1.   Replacement of couplings and/or hoses;
    2.   Replacement of seals around filters;
    3.   Shutting off air flow during lunch or break periods; and
    4.   Repairing breaks in lines, etc.
        Specific repairs and implementation  costs for the leaks found during the  site visit  are given in
Exhibit E.6 below.
                                  Exhibit E.6: Implementation Costs
Machine
Cardboard Box Area
Cardboard Box Area
Hand Dye
Straight Knife
Web
I-beam#l
I-beam#2
I-beam #3
TOTALS
Repair Needed
Install shut-off valve
Install shut-off valve
Install shut-off valve
Replace coupling
Change 0.5"tube
Install shut-off valve
Install shut-off valve
Replace coupling

Parts
$50
$50
$50
$2
$9
$50
$50
$2
$263
Labor
$25
$25
$25
$25
$25
$25
$25
$25
$200
Total Cost
$75
$75
$75
$27
$34
$75
$75
$25
$463
        Assuming that facility maintenance personnel can do this work, these leaks can be eliminated for
approximately  $460.  Thus, the cost savings of $5,730 would pay for the implementation cost of $460 in
about 1 month.
                                                                                                      Notes
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             Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
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                                               Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
      CASE STUDY #6: INSTALL A LOW PRESSURE BLOWER TO REDUCE
                                 COMPRESSED AIR USE
        Estimated Energy Savings = 428.7 MMBtu/y.r
        Estimated Cost Savings = $5, 720/yr.
        Estimated Implementation Cost = $8,500
        Simple Payback = 18 months

Recommended Action
        A low-pressure blower should be installed to provide agitation air for 3 plating tanks. Use of low-
pressure air from a blower, as compared to use of compressed air, would reduce electrical consumption by
eliminating the current practice of compressing air and the expanding it back to the lower pressure.

Background
        A 100  hp compressor  is currently in use at this facility, and  a significant amount of the power
consumed by the compressor (31%) is used to provide air to agitate 3 plating tanks.  This compressor
produces compressed air at 1 17 psig, but less pressure is actually needed to provide effective agitation. The
pressure and flow rate requirements for effective agitation are calculated from the following equations:
                                              Q=AFxA
        and
                                       Pa = (0.45 xS£>xSG) + 0.75
        where
                Q = flow rate required for agitation, cfm
                AF = agitation factor
                A = surface area of agitation tanks, 63.5 sq. ft.
                Pa= pressure required for agitation, psig
                SD = depth of solution, 3 ft.
                SG = specific gravity of water, 1.0
        For agitation tanks containing water, the agitation factor is 1.0 cfm/sq. ft.  The effective surface
area of the tanks is 63.5 sq. ft. Thus, the flow rate required for agitation is calculated as follows:
                                         g = 1.0x63.5 = 63.5c/7H
        The pressure required for effective tank agitation is calculated as follows:
                                     JP = 0.43x3.0xl.Ox0.75 =
        Because of the difference between the pressure delivered by the compressor and the pressure
required for effective tank agitation, the compressor is doing a large amount of unnecessary work.  By
implementing a blower that has  a pressure output more closely matched to the agitation requirement,
significant energy savings can be realized.
Notes
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               Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
Notes
                 Anticipated Savings
                          Energy savings due to use of air at reduced pressure, ES, are estimated as follows1:
                                                        ES = (PC-PB)xHxCl
                          where
                                  PC = power consumed by compressor to agitate tank, hp
                                  PB = power consumed by blower to agitate tank, hp
                                  H = operating hours, 5,746 h/yr
                                  GI= conversion factor, 0.756 kW/hp
                          The volume of free air used for agitation V f at this plant as obtained from the plant personnel is 130
                 cfm.   The power PC that is required to compress  the  volume  of free air  Y needed for agitation from
                 atmospheric pressure to the compressor discharge pressure can be calculated as follows  :
                                            PC =
k
1 2 J k-\ j
k-\
( P '\kxN
\ ° \ 1
UJ
                                                                 E  xE
                          where
                                  P = inlet (atmospheric pressure), 14.7 psia
                                  C2= conversion constant, 144 in 2 /ft
                                  Vf= volumetric flow rate of free air, 130 cfm
                                  k = specific heat ration of air, 1.4 (no units)
                                  N = number of stages, 1 stage
                                  GS = conversion constant, 3.03 x 10-5 hp-min/ft-lb
                                  P0 = pressure at the compressor outlet, 131.7 psia (117 psig)
                                  EaC = air compressor isentropic (adiabatic) efficiency, 82%
                                  EaC = 0.88 for single stage reciprocating compressors
                                  EaC = 0.75 for multi-stage reciprocating compressors
                                  EaC = 0.82 for rotary screw compressors
                                  Eac = 0.72 for sliding vane compressors
                                  EjC = 0.80 for single stage centrifugal compressors
                                  EjC = 0.70 for multi-stage centrifugal compressors
                                  Emc = compressor motor efficiency,  92% for a 100 hp motor
                          Thus, the power that is currently consumed by the compressor to provide air for tank agitation is
                  calculated as follows:
               E-18
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                                                Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
                         14.7 x!44 x 130 x—x 1 x (s.03 x 1(T5)>
                                         0.4
                   PC=-
                                                                       0.4
                                  14.7
                                            -1
                                               0.82 x 0.92

        Similarly the power required by the blower to provide the same amount of air for agitation, PB, can
be calculated as follows:
                                Pt x C9 x O x	x TV x Co x
                                            k-\
                           PB=-
        where

                Pb = pressure at the blower outlet,  17.7 psia (3 psig).   This value accounts for Pa plus
                     losses in the air lines.

                Eab = blower isentropic (adiabatic) efficiency, 60%

                Ejb = 0.70 for turbo blowers

                Eab= 0.62 for Roots blowers1

                Emb = compressor motor efficiency, 92% for a 100 hp motor

Thus, the power that would be consumed by the  blower to provide air for tank agitation is estimated as
follows:
                                                                          0.4

                              14.7 x 144 x 130 x —— x 1 x (3.03 x 10~5 )x
                                              0.4     V          7
                        PB = -
                                                   0.60x0.80
        For this facility, the energy savings,  ES, that can be realized by installing a blower to provide
agitation air for the three tanks are estimated as follows:

                        S = (33.7-1.6)x5746x0.746 =137,59
                                                               yr

        The annual cost savings, CS, can be estimated as follows:

                                       CS = ES x unit cost of elecricity
„„  (.,QnMMBtu\  ( $13.34 ^   ,.„<:«,
CS =\ 469.7	 x  	 = 6,265 $ /
     ^        yr   )  \MMBtu)
                                                                         yr
Implementation Cost

        Implementation of this opportunity involves purchase and installation of a low pressure blower and
corresponding controls.  The purchase price for a blower that will provide 3 psig air at a flow of 63.5 cfm,
including  controls,  is  estimated  as  $7,500.   The installation cost is estimated as $1,000, including
                                                                                                      Notes
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               Appendix E: Energy Conservation Opportunity Case Studies
Notes
modifications to tanks described below, giving a total implementation cost of $8,500. Thus, the cost savings
of $5,720/yr. would have a simple payback of about 18 months.
        In order for a 3  psig blower to deliver 63.5  cfm of air, the size of the air outlets in the tanks may
have to be modified.  Assuming that there are 12 total outlets (4 outlets per tank), the required outlet diameter
is calculated from the equation for unchoked flow (less than the speed of sound) as follows:
                                 D =
                                                              4 x Q x fti + 460
                          where
                                       NLxC5 xC6 xC7 xCdb X7rx(r/  +460)x1||-2-'   *     '  '
                                                                                 -* j
                                  T = average line temperature, °F
                                  NL = number of outlets used for agitation, 12
                                  C5 = conversion constant, 60 sec/min
                                  C6 = conversion constant, 1/144 in 2 /ft 2
                                  C7= isentropic subsonic volumetric flow constant, 109.61 ft/sec-°R0.5
                                  Cdb = coefficient of discharge for subsonic flow through a square edged orifice, 0.6
                                  p = Pythagorean constant, 3 . 1 4 1 592
                                  Tj = temperature of the air at the compressor inlet, 101°F
                                  PI = line pressure at the agitation tanks, 17.7 psia
                          Thus, the required diameter of the air outlets is calculated as follows:
                               D =
                                                             4x63.5xV75+460
                  enlarged.
                                     12x60x —x 109.61x0.6 X7rx(l01 +460)
                                             144                   V        '
                          Therefore, if the current diameter of the air outlets is not equal to 0.20 inches, the outlets should be
                                                                                       2x0.4
                                                                                  17.71 1.4
                                                                                   0.4
                                                                             17.711-4
                  1.   From Serfilco'91-'92 Catalog "U" p.  118.
                  2.   Compressed Air and Gas Handbook, 1961.
                  3.   Chapters 10 and 11, Compressed Air and Gas Handbook, Fifth Edition, Compressed Air and Gas
                      Institute, New Jersey, 1989.
               E-20
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                                              Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
                                      APPENDIX F
            POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITY CASE STUDIES
        Information in this appendix discusses specific pollution prevention opportunities.  This is done to
illustrate how to calculate waste reduction and cost savings for various opportunities.  The assessment team
should evaluate carefully, the specifics of the facility or operation being assessed to determine if the measures
presented here can be implemented.  The team should also evaluate the opportunity  using facility specific
information. The following case studies present a few of the available pollution prevention opportunities.
    1.   Construction and Demolition Waste Recycling
    2.   Packaging Reuse
    3.   Oil Analysis Program
    4.   Maintenance Fluid Recycling
    5.   Metal Working Fluid Substitution
    6.   Use of Automated Aqueous Cleaner
    7.   Recycling of Cleaner Through Filtration
    8.   Proper Rinsing Set-Up for Chemical Etching
    9.   Waste Reduction in the Chromate Conversion Process
    10.  Plating Process Bath Maintenance
    11.  Closed-Loop Plating Bath Recycling Process
    12.  Water-Borne Paint as a Substitute for Solvent-Based Coatings
    13.  High Velocity Low Pressure (HVLP) Paint System
    14.  Replacing Chemical Stripping with Plastic Media Blasting
    15.  White Water and Fiber Reuse in Pulp and Paper Manufacturing
    16.  Chemical Substitution in Pulp and Paper Manufacturing
    17.  On - Site Ink Recy cling
    18.  Solvent Reduction in Commercial Printing Industry
Notes
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                                               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
  CASE STUDY #1: CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE RECYCLING


Current Practice and Observations

        An operator in California owns a one-story fenced off wood frame building with floor dimensions of
approximately 60' x 135' that is slated for demolition.  It was constructed in 1942 as a "temporary" structure.
The building served as a warehouse with office space added to a portion of the interior at a later date.  The
building was constructed almost entirely of wood, with wood siding, wood flooring on concrete supports, and
wood slat roofing boards covered with a recent re-roof of asphalt shingles.


Recommended Action

        Utilize a deconstruction and salvaging company to dismantle the building to salvage and sell the
wood and other construction materials. Separate materials by type, size and quality within the premise of the
fence, and utilize the area as an ad-hoc lumberyard.  Advertise the lumber as old growth, in order to receive
the most money for it.


Anticipated Savings

        Exhibit F.I presents the economic analysis of the recommended action.

                Exhibit F. 1: Cost Analysis for a Demolition Waste Recycling Program
Item
Equipment and Hauling
On-Site Labor
Administrative
TOTAL
Items
On-Site Wood Sale
National Park Service Grant
Lumber Sold Off-Site
Greater Demolition Contract Give -Back
TOTAL
Net Profit ($75,455 - $57,640)
Costs
$11,983
$33,053
$12,604
$57,640
Savings
$30,155
$15,000*
$13,500
$16,800**
$75,455
$17,815
*   Grant was provided by the National Parks Service to foster the hand deconstruction project and help
    develop future projects of this kind.

**  This was the savings estimated by the contractor for not having to demolish the building.


Implementation

        The deconstruction and salvaging company was able to recover approximately  87 percent of the
wood contained within the building. The other 13 percent of the wood was found to be unusable or degraded
to recycling quality during the dismantling of the building.  The surrounding fenced-off area served as a
lumberyard, which enabled the crew to sort and stack materials according to size and type. This fostered the
on-site sale of over half the lumber recovered from the building. Beyond generating immediate revenues and
allowing the community to purchase desirable materials, it reduced  shipping costs.  The  price of the wood
ranged between $0.25 per board foot for roof planking to $1.50 per  board foot  for the douglas fir flooring.
     Notes
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               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies


JT ,              The majority of the wood sold for around $1.00 per board foot.  The entire deconstruction took four weeks,
                 and left a cleaned vacant lot.

                          This case study was adapted from:  "Presidio of San Francisco, Building 901. " Construction and
                     Demolition Recycling Program,  http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/mrt/cnstdemo/casestud/presido/case2.htm.
               F-4                          Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
                          CASE STUDY #2: PACKAGING REUSE


Current Practice and Observations

        Before early 1990, most of a Michigan based retailers 17 facilities used polystyrene "peanuts" as
packaging material to ship merchandise to its customers.  Although the "peanuts" effectively protected many
fragile items during shipping, some customers viewed the poly styrene packaging material as environmental
unsound.

Recommended Action

        Purchase a large durable paper shedder for each of the 17 facilities.  Shred office paper waste at each
facility for packaging.
        Exhibit F.2 below presents the economic comparison of the current operation to the recommended
action.
    Exhibit F.2: Monthly Operating Cost Comparison for Polystyrene Packaging Peanuts and Shredded
                                         Paper Packaging
Purchased Packaging Costs:
Equipment and Supplies
Amortized Costs:
Labor Costs:
Utility Costs:
Total Costs:
Polystyrene Peanuts
$3,340
$0
$0
$23
$3,363
Shredded Paper
$0
$0
$1,694
$27
$1,901
Total Savings: $1,462 per month
Implementation

        The retailer implemented a plan in which the paper is collected from all stores, shredded, and is sent
to a central warehouse where it is redistributed to individual facilities.   Shredding dramatically  lowered
packaging costs by approximately 43 percent, and has saved the retailer approximately $17,500 each year.  In
an effort to generate additional revenue, plans are to shred and sell approximately 27 percent more office
paper than is needed. The excess shredded material, if sold at a price equivalent to what was previously paid
for shredded packaging material, could generate as much as $10,900 more.
This case study was adapted from: "Case Study: Hudson 's Department Stores Outfit Themselves with Waste
Reduction. " Enviro$ense.  http://es.epa.gov/techinfo/case/michigan/mich-cs3.html.
     Notes
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                                               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
                      CASE STUDY #3: OIL ANALYSIS PROGRAM

Current Practice and Observations
        At a facility in New Jersey various shops,  including the main garage, change the oil in equipment
and fleet vehicles. Oil changes are preformed according to strict maintenance schedules rather than on an as
needed basis. Many machines and vehicles have the oil changed four times a year.

Recommended Action
        Purchase and install oil  analysis equipment at the main garage.  Evaluate oil quality  including
viscosity, total base number (a measure of the oil's ability to neutralize acids), and the concentration of some
metal ions (e.g., calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sodium, and zinc).  Only change oil when tests indicate
that it is needed.  Other facility shops should send their oil samples to the main garage for testing before
performing routine service work.

Anticipated Savings
        Changing the oil is a time, labor, and costly process, therefore reducing the number of times oil is
changed can drastically reduce costs as well as environmental impact. The following economic comparison is
made on a conservative set of assumptions. These assumptions are listed below.
    •   20 drums of oil a year are used with the old system.
    •   Oil is $200 per drum.
    •   Oil analysis equipment will reduce oil change frequency by 50 percent.
    •   1 PC-based unit will be purchased to analyze the oil.
    •   65 filters are changed per year with the old system.
    •   Oil disposal costs $0.22 per pound.
    •   Filter disposal costs $0.58 per pound.
        Exhibit F.3 presents an economic comparison of the current operations to the recommended action.
       Exhibit F.3:  Economic Comparison of Maintenance Schedule versus Oil Analysis Programs
Annual Cost of Current
Practice:
Materials:
Oil:
Filters:
$4,000
$1,560
Disposal:
Oil Disposal:
Filter Disposal:
TOTAL:
$2,057
$151
$7,768
Capital Project Costs:
Materials:
Equipment: $8,795




TOTAL: $8,795
Annual Project
Costs:
Materials:
Oil:
Filters:
$2,000
$780
Disposal:
Oil Disposal:
Filter Disposal:
TOTAL:
$1,029
$75
$3,884
     Notes
        Expected Annual Savings: $3,884
        Estimated Payback Period: 2.2 years
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               Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies


Notes            Implementation

                         The oil analysis equipment saved the facility thousands of dollars, and paid for itself in under two
                 and a half years.  The equipment significantly decreased the volume of oil and number of filters purchased,
                 oil waste,  oil filter waste, and their related costs.


                         This case study was  adapted from: "Pollution Prevention Plan."   U.S.  Coast Guard Training
                 Center, Cape May, New Jersey, 1997.
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                                               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
                CASE STUDY #4: MAINTENANCE FLUID RECYCLING


Current Practice and Observation

        A maintenance garage at a  facility scheduled and performed all regular maintenance  on facility
machines  and vehicles.  The garage  produced large quantities of lacquer thinners, degreasers,  carburetor
cleaners, gasoline, and waste oil. The majority of the wastes entered the waste stream and was disposed of in
landfills or as hazardous waste.


Recommended Action

        Contact an outside contractor to pick-up and recycle waste solvents. The waste solvents should be
recycled using distillation, filtration, and blending to produce reusable products


Anticipated Savings

        Exhibit F.4 presents an economic comparison of the current operation to the recommended action.

      Exhibit F.4: Annual Operating Cost Comparison for Waste Solvent Disposal and Waste Solvent
                                            Recycling

Disposal Charge
Program Fee
Chemical Re -sale
TOTAL
Disposal
$4,200/year
	
	
$4,200/year
Recycling
	
$2,450/year
-$l,050/year
$l,400/year
Total Estimated Annual Savings ($4,200 - $1,400): $2,800 per year
    Notes
Implementation

        With the implementation of a waste solvent recycling program the maintenance garage realized a
reduction in cost and environmental impact.  The program recycled 88,000 gallons of solvent/sludge material
and 265,000 gallons of waste oil in the first year.  In addition, the garage met all federal and state regulations
with the program. This program would not have been possible with out a local waste solvent recycler already
in place.
This case study was adapted from: "Auto Dealers Cooperate in Solvent and Waste Oil Recycling Program "
Enviro$ense.  http://es.epa.gov/studies/htll0011.html.
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                                               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
            CASE STUDY #5: METAL WORKING FLUID SUBSTITUTION


Current Practice and Observations

        A  Swedish fixture  manufacture  utilized  a  mineral  oil-based  cutting  oil for metalworking, a
trichloroethylene solvent for degreasing, and a solvent-based paint for finishing parts.  The metalworker
produced 400,000 pieces per year, and was concerned about complying with air pollution standards in the
future.  The manufacturer was also looking for ways to reduce costs.


Recommended Action

        Substitute a vegetable oil based metalworking fluid for the mineral-based oil.


Anticipated Savings

        A reduction in metalworking fluid costs of $5,000 per year was estimated.  Since no extra equipment
is  necessary for the substitution, there should not be any capital costs  and the  payback should begin
immediate.


Implementation

        The manufacturer found that the substitution of the vegetable oil-based cutting lubricant decreased
mineral solvent vapor by 30 tons.  The substitution also allowed changes to be made in the degreasing and
finishing of the product.  The environmentally detrimental degreaser was replaced  with an alkaline detergent
solution, and a powder-coating system was implemented for finishing.  These additional changes significantly
decreased emissions and saved $415,800 per year with a capital investment of $383,00.
        This case study was adapted from:  "Substitution of metalworking Fluid Promotes Less Need for
Organic Solvent. " Enviro$ense.  http://es.epa.gov/studies/cs457.html.
Notes
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                                              Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
        CASE STUDY #6: INSTALL AN AUTOMATED AQUEOUS CLEANER


Current Practices and Observations

        A medium-sized metal finishing company in Connecticut used vapor degreasing, alkaline tumbling,
and hand-aqueous washing methods to prepare its products for the plating process.  The plant wanted to
expand capacity without increasing solvent consumption.

Recommended Action

        Install an automated aqueous cleaner to accommodate the growth in production, but leave the vapor
degreasing, alkaline tumbling,  and hand-aqueous washing equipment in place.  Treat the small increase in
wastewater generated by the automated cleaner with the existing wastewater treatment plant.

Anticipated Savings

        Exhibit F.5 shows the anticipated reduction in waste generation for the metal finishing company.
            Exhibit F.5: Waste Volume Reduction by Using the Automated Aqueous Washer
Conventional Cleaning Waste
Stream
Vapor Degreasing3
Wastewater in separator
Still bottom in sludge
Alkaline Tumbling b
Wastewater

Hand-Aqueous Washing c
Wastewater

Volume
Generated
(gal/yr.)

200
1,400
1,010,880


296,400

Automated Washing
Stream
Automated Washing3
Wastewater
Oily Liquid
Automated Washing b
Wastewater
Oily Liquid
Automated Washing0
Wastewater
Oily Liquid
Waste Volume
Generated
(gal/yr.)

143,000
962
85,800
577

57,200
385
        "Based on 5,200 barrels/yr. run on automated -washer instead of vapor degreaser.
        bBased on 3,120 barrels/yr. run on automated washer instead of alkaline tumbler.
        °Basedon 2,080 barrels/yr. run on automated-washer instead of had-aqueous-washer.


Implementation

        The automated cleaner is utilized for most of the new work, and has been found to use 90 percent
less water compared with alkaline tumbling, and 80 percent less when compared to hand aqueous washing.
Because the cleaning solutions are recovered and reused in the automated washer, consumption of cleaning
chemicals (and their losses through wastewater) were 40 percent lower than the alkaline soaking process and
95 percent lower than hand-aqueous washing.  Some special jobs are still run through the old process.  For
example, delicate parts and hard to clean pieces are run through the old  system.  By installing an automated
aqueous washer instead of a vapor degreaser or a traditional aqueous process an annual savings of $60,000
was realized.  With a capital  cost of $200,000, the initial investment was recovered in under three and a half
years.
Notes
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               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies


JT ,                      This case study was adapted from:  "Guide to Cleaner Technologies: Cleaning and De greasing
                                                 ental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development,  1994.
                 EPA/625/R-93/017.
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                                               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
      CASE STUDY #7: RECYCLING OF CLEANER THROUGH FILTRATION


Current Practice and Observations

        In  1984, a chassis designer and manufacturer was producing 470,000  automotive frames, 90,000
axle housings and 250,000 van extensions.  The die-cut and stamped metal chassis were produced for the
automotive  industry.  Prior to  stamping, the parts were coated with an oil-based forming compound.  Once
the stamping was completed, the parts were washed in hot (70°C) alkaline cleaner (pH 12) to remove the oil
and grease.  With prolonged use, oil contamination deteriorated the efficiency of the alkaline cleaner. Every
two weeks the manufacturer was dumping 28 cubic meters of wash, but wanted to reduce disposal costs, raw
material costs, and environmental damage.


Recommended Action

        Install an ultrafiltration system to recycle the cleaner and recover waste oil.


Anticipated Savings

        Exhibit F.6 presents the economic comparison of the current operation to the recommended action.

        Exhibit F.6:  Annual Operating Cost Comparison for Single Use Rinse and Recycling Rinse
Savings
Raw Materials
Alkaline Cleaner
Oil-forming Compound
Waste Oil Hauling
Estimated Annual Net Savings
Current

$100,000
$350,000
$2,600,000

Percent Saved

50%
20%
90%

Recommended

$50,000
$70,000
$260,000
$380,000
Estimated Total Capital Cost: $282,000
Payback Period: >1 year
Implementation

        The manufacture installed two Romicon UF modules to separate the oil waste from the cleaner. The
permeate (water, cleaner,  surfactants, emulsifier)  are returned to the wash tank for reuse.  The waste oil
retentate is routed back to the process tank for concentration. Once thew waste oil in the process tank reached
a maximum of 15%, the tank contents  are sent for recycling or disposal.  The UF membranes in the main
process  unit are  cleaned monthly.   With the ultrafiltration set-up, the manufacture is recovering 30 cubic
meters of permeate daily with 4.5  cubic meters of oil-forming compound per day available for reuse.  A
payback period of under a year justified the fairly large capital expenditure for the manufacturer.
This case study was adapted from: "Metal Stamping Plant Recycles Alkaline cleaner and Recovers Waste
Oil. "  Enviro$ense. http://es.epa.gov/studies/htmll0320.html.
     Notes
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                                               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
    CASE STUDY #8: EFFICIENT RINSING SET-UP FOR CHEMICAL ETCHING


Current Practice and Observations

        A multi-line Pennsylvania plater chemically etched all of the substrates before plating.  The plater
used a single bath-dip rinse to remove the etchant from the substrate. This bath dip required large quantifies
of water and raw chemicals and produced high costs and amounts of wastewater.


Recommended Action

        Install a countercurrent cascading rinse to minimize the  volume of water used.  Use restrictors to
control the water on the rinse lines for better control and increased efficiency.  Slightly increase dwell times
between baths.


Anticipated Savings

        A  countercurrent cascading  rinse provides improved rinsing quality with less water,  thereby
reducing wastewater treatment costs, raw chemical  usage, and freshwater usage. The primary modifications
necessary for this improvement  are the installation of baffling and  some piping changes, therefore capital
costs  are low.  The restrictors manage and  control the amount of water used at each location, while still
proving sufficient water quantities to maintain product quality.  Increasing the dwell time over the previous
tank after the parts are removed minimizes the mass of contaminated drag-out entering the next bath.  Even a
small  change in dwell time can reduce the water quantity needed for rinsing and increases the lifespan of the
baths.


Implementation

        The Pennsylvanian plater installed  a 2-tank counterflow  rinse system, flow restrictors, and slightly
increased the dwell times.  Exhibit F.7  illustrates the benefits realized by the plater with the implementation
of a 2-tank couterflow system.

        Through experimentation  the  plater optimized its dwell  times  while  still allowing  for maximum
productivity and through-put on each of its  lines.  It is estimated that the hazardous waste production has
decreased from  240,000 pounds per year in 1994  to  130,000 pounds per year in  1997.  In addition, the
company has decreased  its chemical costs from wastewater treatment from $35,000 to $21,000  over the same
timeframe.   These cost benefits were realized with minimal capital costs, therefore cost  recovery  began
almost immediately.
Notes
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                Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
Notes
                                   Exhibit F.7: Drag-Out Recovery as a Function of Recycle Rinse Ratio
                                           100
                                            40
                                            20
                                                      20
                                                              40
                                                                      60
                                                                              80
                                                                                     100
                                                             RECYCLE RINSE RATIO
                                        Notes:
                                        Recyle rinse ratio = recycle rinse flow / drag-out flow rate.
                                        Recycle rinse flow rate = surface evaporation from bath
                         This   case   study  was   adapted  from:      "The   Navy  Best   Management   Practices."
                 Http://www.bmpcoe.org, 1997.; and Environmental Regulation and Technology: The Electroplating Industry.
                 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1985. EPA/625/10-85/001.
               F-18
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                                              Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
   CASE STUDY #9: WASTE REDUCTION IN THE CHROMATE CONVERSION
                                         PROCESS


Current Practice and Observations

        A  manufacturer utilized captive plating, ammonium chloride zinc barrel  plating,  and  chromate
conversion coatings in the production of door and window hardware. The operation produced 160 drums of
hazardous metal hydroxide sludge a year.  The manufacturer wanted to reduce the volume of hazardous waste
needing disposal.


Recommended Action

        Install a sludge dryer to dewater the waste material, thus reducing the volume of hazardous waste
needing disposal.


Anticipated Savings

        Exhibit F.8 presents an economic  comparison of the current operation to the recommended action.
         Exhibit F.8:  Economic Comparison of Wet Sludge Disposal versus Dried Sludge Disposal

Waste Disposal
Capital Cost
Wet Sludge Disposal
$29,760/year
	
Dried Sludge Disposal
$ll,560/year*
$29,950**
Anticipated Total Annual Savings: $18,200 per year
Payback Period: 3.5 years
*   Includes utilities, amortization, labor, maintenance, taxes, insurance, overhead, and supplies

**  Includes dryer, shipping, and installation


Implementation

        With the installation of the sludge drier the manufacturer realized a reduction in waste from 160
drums of sludge to 78 drums of sludge annually.  While the technology did reduce the volume of hazardous
waste needing disposal, the amount of metal present in the wastestream remained constant.  A complete
drying cycle for this plant takes 4 to 5 hours, including loading, drying, and unloading, depending on the
percent solids of the sludge. The system has been operational since 1985.
        This case study was adapted from:  "Sludge Drier Employed at Electroplating Plant. " Enviro$ense.
http://es. epa.gov/studies/cs629. html.
     Notes
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                                               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
           CASE STUDY #10: PLATING PROCESS BATH MAINTENANCE


Current Practice and Observations

        A  Canadian based plater used a continuous  "bleeding" process to discard contaminants of the
pickling liquor. The acidic "bleed" was than neutralized with lime.


Recommended Action

        Install a cartridge filter, ion exchanger, a feed pump, a sand filter, and a 400-gallon water supply
tank.  Pump the pickle acid from the reservoir tank through a media filter to remove dirt and oil particles, then
a second smaller filter to remove very fine particles.  Pass the pickled acid on to the water displacement
phase, which allows the pickled acid into the resin bed of the ion exchange unit. Reuse the water from the ion
exchanger by sending it  back to the water supply tank.  Drain the iron from the ion exchanger, and use a
counterflow of water to return the trapped sulfate ions to the sulfuric acid tank.


Anticipated Savings

        Exhibit F.9 presents an economic analysis of the proposed operation.
           Exhibit F.9: Operating Cost Analysis for Recommended Bath Maintenance Practices

Capital Costs
Design and Supply of Equipment
Equipment Installation
Start-up, Supplies, Etc.
TOTAL

Feedstock
Sulfuric Acid
Lime
TOTAL Anticipated Annual Savings
Payback Period:
Anticipated Start-Up Costs

$84,000
$10,000
$2,500
$96,500
Anticipated Annual Savings

$25,942
$17,995
$43,937
2.33 years
Implementation

        The plater realized  almost immediate benefits with the installation of the maintenance equipment.
Chemical (feedstock) use dropped almost immediately. Sulfuric acid use dropped by 561,531 pounds in the
first year and lime use decreased by 224 tons in the  same time period for a total  chemical reduction of 89
percent.  In addition to the predicted amount of economic savings, another $8,000 was saved annually on
sludge hauling. Using the new maintenance process resulted in the reduction of iron content of the acid
solution from an initial 7.7 percent to a steady  2-3 percent.   Since pickling uniformity is a product  quality
improvement, product quality was at least as good as before the equipment was installed.
        This case study was adapted from:  "Use of Acid Purification Unit on Pickling Liquor Reduces Iron
Concentration. " Enviro$ense, Case Study: CS464.  http://es.epa.gov/studies/cs464.html.
      Notes
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             Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
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                                               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
    CASE STUDY #11: CLOSED-LOOP PLATING BATH RECYCLING PROCESS


Current Practices and Observations

        A plating operation based in Wisconsin uses an anhydrous chromic acid in its plating bath and an
insoluble sulfide treatment system for cleaning.  The company's typical disposal consists of 25 percent solids
by weight at a cost of $0.19 per gallon of sludge. The operator wants to reduce chemical consumption and
waste disposal costs.


Recommended Action

        Install 75-gallon per hour closed-loop recycling system that concentrates the chromium plating bath
drag-out in the rinse  stream and removes it  so that the plating solution bath can be returned to the main
processing tank.


Anticipated Savings

        The total cost to install the recovery  system was estimated at approximately $60,000.  If the savings
in plating chemicals alone are considered, the investment would have a net cost of approximately $9,000 per
year.  However, if the analysis also includes the savings in treatment  chemicals and in solid waste disposal
charges, totaling $28,400 per year, there would be a net savings before taxes of nearly $20,000 per year and
the system would pay for itself in just under four years.


Implementation

        The plating company installed the 75-gallon per hour recycling system.  Installation of the closed-
loop recovery system reduced the need for replacing  chromic acid (CrOs) to  the  plating solution by
approximately 4 pounds per hour.  The total costs and savings of the evaporator are displayed in Exhibit F. 10.

        The plating company further reduced the payback period by taking  advantage of the investment tax
credit and accelerated deprecation allowances. The investment payback was reduced to less than three years,
a most acceptable investment rate of return.
Notes
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                Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
Notes
                                        Exhibit F. 10:  Economic Evaluation of Evaporator Installation
                              Installed Cost for 75-gal/hr evaporator
                              Annual Costs
                              Depreciation (10-yr life)
                              Taxes and insurance
                              Maintenance
                              Labor (1/2 hr/shrft at $6.00/hr)
                              Utilities:
                                  Steam (at $3.507 106Btu)
                                  Electricity
                              General plant overhead
                              Total Annual Cost
                              Annual Savings
                              Replacement chromic acid
                              Waste treatment reagents
                              Sludge disposal
                              Total Annual Savings
                                            $60,000

                                             $6,000
                                             $3,600
                                             $2,250

                                            $16,000
                                             $2,600
                                            $31,650

                                            $21,600
                                            $23,000
                                             $5.400
                                            $50,000
                             Net savings before tax ($/yr.)
                             Net savings after tax, 48% tax rate
                                            $18,350
                                            $10,060
                             Payback after year (yr)
                             Payback with investment tax credit and accelerated
                             depreciation (yr.)
                                                  3.8
                                                  2.6
                          This case studywas adapted from: Environmental regulations and Technology: The Electroplating
                  Industry.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1985.  EPA/10-85/001.
                F-24
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                                              Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
  CASE STUDY #12: WATER-BORNE PAINT AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR SOLVENT-
                                    BASED COATINGS

Current Practices and Observations
        A Washington State based aerospace corporation used a multi-line solvent-based paint application
system for coating aircraft interiors. The manufacturer coated the walls, ceilings, floors, and removable parts
for the aircrafts with this system.  The solvent-based system was costly and barely met VOC and health and
safety standards.

Recommend Action
        Retrofit a portion of the solvent-based paint gun lines with ionizing electrode tips and water-borne
painting equipment.  Isolate all equipment from potential electric grounds to ensure proper adhesion of the
electrostatic water-borne paints.

Anticipated Savings
        The following economic  comparison is made on a conservative  set  of  assumptions.   These
assumptions are listed below.
    •   Waterborne paint procurement cost: $20 per gallon
    •   Solvent based paint procurement cost: $40 per gallon
    •   Solvent procurement cost: $5 per gallon
    •   Water usage cost: $ 1.94 per 1000 gallons
    •   Industrial wastewater disposal cost: $0.2 per gallon
    •   Waste paint/solvent disposal cost: $1.25 per gallon
    •   Paint usage: 1,560 gallons per year
    •   Solvent usage (solvent based painting equipment cleaning): 156 gallons per year
    •   Water usage: (water based paining equipment cleaning): 260 gallons per year
    •   Waste paint/solvent generated: 1000 pounds per year
    •   Wastewater generated: 260 gallons per year
        Exhibit F. 11 presents the economic comparison of the current operation to the recommended action.
Notes
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                Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
Notes
Exhibit F. 11:  Annual Operating Cost Comparison for Water-Borne Paint Application and Solvent
                                  Based Paint Application

Operational Costs
Paint
Solvent
Process Water
Wastewater Disposal
Waste Paint/Solvent
Disposal
Total Operational
Costs:
Anticipated Annual
Savings:
Payback Period
Annual Cost of
Solvent-Based
Painting

$62,400
$780
$0
$0
$1,250
$64,430
($64,430 -$31,451) =

Projected Costs for
Electrostatic Water-
Borne Painting

$31,200
$0
$1
$50
$200
$31,451
$32,979
0.20 years
                          The anticipated annual cost savings for the water-borne paint application system was $32,979. Since
                 the capital costs for equipment was assumed to be $6500 the payback period would be under a year.


                 Implementation

                          The actual cost saving was not as high as anticipated because equipment installation and operator
                 retraining were initially not considered in the cost analysis.  The floors and some removable parts were the
                 only parts that could not be efficiently water-borne painted.  The manufacturer noticed reduced VOCs, clean-
                 up costs, disposal costs, and hazardous waste generation, along with a quick capital cost turnaround.
                          This  case  study  was  adapted from:    "Waterborne  Paint."   Navy  and  Marine  Corps.
                 http://enviro.nfesc.navy.mil/p21ibrary/4-07_896.html  and  "Electrostatic Paint Spray System. "  Navy and
                 Marine Corps. http://enviro.nfesc.navy.mil/p21ibrary/4-02_896.html.
               F-26
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                                               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
   CASE STUDY #13: HIGH VOLUME LOW PRESSURE (HVLP) PAINT SYSTEM


Current Practice and Observations

        A manufacturer operates a small painting operation that utilizes high pressure air-assisted paint guns.
The paint guns are used for painting equipment and touchup painting on a weekly basis inside a paint booth.
The manufacturer disposes of 7,600  pounds of paint-related wastes on an annual basis.  Three thousand
pounds of the waste were directly attributed to the spray gun operations.


Recommended Action

        Replace the current high-pressure air-assisted paint guns with High-Volume Low-Pressure (HVLP)
sprayers. Operate the HVLP sprayers at 10 psi.


Anticipated Savings

        The following economic comparison is based on  a  conservative set of  assumptions.  These
assumptions are listed below.

•   250 gallons of paint are used annually with conventional high pressure spray painting.

•   Cost of paint is $ 120 per gallon.

•   55 gallons of paint thinner are used per year with the conventional system.

•   Paint thinner costs  $9.09

•   3,000 pounds of paint related wastes are generated with a conventional system.

•   Disposal costs are $0.33 per pound.

•   HVLP sprayers operate 50 percent more efficiently than the conventional high pressure system.

        Exhibit F. 12 presents an economic comparison of the current operation to the recommended action.

    Exhibit F.12: Economic Comparison of Air-Assisted Paint Guns versus High Velocity Low Pressure
                                        Paint Application
Annual Cost of Current Practice:
Paint: $30,000
Thinner: $500
Waste: $1,000
TOTAL: $31,500
Capital Project Costs:
Equipment: $1,000


TOTAL: $1,000
Annual Project Costs:
Paint: $15,000
Thinner: $250
Waste: $500
TOTAL: $5,750
        Expected Annual Savings: $15.750

        Payback Period: Immediate


Implementation

        The HVLP paint guns increased the percent of sprayed paint actually being applied the substrate.
The quality of the paint job resulting from the HVLP spray painting exceeded that of the conventional high-
pressure spray painting equipment.  The reduction in paint usage led to a decrease in exposure to hazardous
chemicals.  A side benefit of HVLP was the decrease in clogged paint filters and contaminated paper floor
coverings, both  of which are handled  as hazardous waste.  In addition, the HVLP equipment allowed the
     Notes
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F-27

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                Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies







M .              operators to reduce the ventilation in the paint booths, which saves heat energy and clogging of the paint
1V Oi& S

                 booth filters.







                 This case study was adapted from:  "Pollution Prevention Plan. " U.S. Coast Guard Training Center, Cape


                 May, New Jersey, 1997.
               F-28                         Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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http://es. epa.gov/program/regional/stateAvi/gehl. html.

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             Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
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                                               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
   CASE STUDY #15: WHITE WATER AND FIBER REUSE IN PULP AND PAPER
                                    MANUFACTURING


Current Practice and Observations

        A coated/fine paper mill manufactured intermediate products, later used in consumer goods.  The
mill did not reuse the white water from the paper making process, and disposed of waste fiber and chips
separated through screening, deknotting, and general purification stages. The mill was using high quantities
of chemicals and was encountering large wastewater treatment, fresh water, energy, and disposal costs.


Recommended Action

        Install white water and fiber recovery and reuse equipment.  Return white water as filler in the paper
production process and reprocess captured fibers through chippers and digesters.


Anticipated Savings

        The direct savings associated with the reuse of water and pulp include reduced water use, waste
generation,  and energy use for fresh and waste water pumping and freshwater heating.  The less tangible
benefits of water and pulp reuse often include increased revenue from enhanced product quality, better
company or product image, and reduced maintenance costs. Since the mill manufactures intermediate, rather
than consumer products,  it cannot directly market its products on the basis of environmental performance in
the way that a consumer products company does. The estimated financial savings of implementing water and
fiber reuse are listed in Exhibit F. 14.

               Exhibit F. 14:  Summary of Financial Data for White Water and Fiber Reuse

Total Capital Costs
Financial Indicators
Net Present Value - years 1-10
Net Present Value - years 1-15
Internal Rate of Return - years 1-10
Internal Rate of Return -years 1-15
Annual Savings*
Estimated Annual Payback Period
Water and Fiber Reuse
$1,469,404

$2,073,607
$2,851,834
46%
48%
$911,240
1.6 years
                     * Annual operating cash flow before interest and taxes.
Implementation
        The mill realized both monetary and environmental savings with the implementation of the white
water and fiber reuse equipment.  The initial capital investment was paid back well within the mill's 2-year
payback rule of thumb.
        This case study was adapted from:   "Accelerating  Industrial  Pollution Prevention through
Innovative  Project  Financial  Analysis;  With Application  to  the  Paper  and Pulp  Industry."   U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy Planning and Evaluation, 1993. EPA/7 42/R-9 3/004.
     Notes
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                                               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
        CASE STUDY #16: CHEMICAL SUBSTITUION IN PULP AND PAPER
                                    MANUFACTURING


Current Practice and Observations

        A pulp and paper manufacturer produced products for book publishers and other intermediate
product manufactures.  The paper was coated with a solvent/heavy metal coating to increase the durability
and visual appearance.  The solvent based coating process was producing high levels of VOC emissions and
hazardous waste, and using large quantities of heavy metals.


Recommended Action

        Replace the solvent/heavy metal paper coating with an aqueous/heavy metal-free coating. Construct
a steam heated coating storage shed to gain the longest shelf life from aqueous coatings.


Anticipated Savings

        Both environmental and financial savings were anticipated with the proposed chemical substitution.
Environmentally, the chemical substitution was expected to  reduce the levels of fugitive emissions and the
amount of solid waste  going to the landfill.  Monetary savings associated with the proposed chemical
substitution include a decrease in solvent recovery, management, future liability, and regulatory compliance
costs.  Less tangible financial benefits expected of the pollution prevention investment  included increased
revenue from enhanced product quality, company and product image, and worker health maintenance costs.
Although the company expected  some quality improvements using aqueous coatings it did not anticipate an
increase in market value. Therefore, it expected no increase in domestic sales  as a result of the conversion to
the aqueous/heavy metal-free coating. The company hoped to improve its competitive advantage in the
European market if the  European Economic  Community  implements lead-free packaging standards (which
would apply to books) as expected. A reduction in solvent use was expected to reduce worker exposure to
fugitive solvent emissions, and eliminate nitrocellulose from  the coating mixture to reduce flammability and
explosive hazards. The reduced solvent exposure was expected to result in lower incidence of worker illness
over the long-term and  lower company health care costs.  The  estimated financial savings of implementing
the proposed chemical substitution are listed in Exhibit F. 15.

             Exhibit F. 15: Summary of Financial Data for Aqueous/Heavy Metal Conversion

Total Capital Cost
Financial Indicator
Net Present Value - Years 1-10
Net Present Value - Years 1-15
Internal Rate of Return- Years 1-10
Internal Rate of Return- Years 1-15
Estimate Annual Savings (BIT)*
Payback Period
Aqueous Coating
$893,449

$314,719
$203,719
6 percent
1 1 percent
$118,112
7. 6 years
        * Annual operating cash flow before interest and taxes


Implementation

        The  pulp  and paper  manufacturer found that while  heavy-metal usage, VOC emissions,  and
hazardous waste generation decreased, there was an increase in water, steam, and electricity usage.
     Notes
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F-33

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               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
Notes
                         This case study was adapted from:   "Accelerating  Industrial Pollution Prevention  through
                 Innovative  Project Financial Analysis;  With Application  to  the  Paper  and Pulp Industry."    U.S.
                 Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy Planning and Evaluation, 1993. EPA/742/R-93/004.
               F-34                        Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
                        CASE STUDY #17: ON-SITE RECYCLING


Current Practices and Observations

        A medium-sized printer located in Los Angeles, CA produces a wide range of commercial printing
products including advertising inserts, business forms, brochures and pamphlets, and circulars.  The printer
uses non-heat set inks exclusively.  Approximately 1,500 pounds of ink in 17  different colors are used per
month.  The inks are ordered in 30-pound kits.  Black inks cost from $1.50 to $3.50 per pound; colored inks
from $3.50 to $7.50 per pound.  The plant has an arrangement with its ink suppliers in which all of the waste
inks are returned to the supplier to be reformulated into black ink.  The supplier mixes fresh black ink into the
waste ink to obtain an acceptable black color. Typically 50 to 100 pounds of fresh ink is added to each 100
pounds  of waste  ink.  Approximately 200 to 300 pounds  of waste ink are  returned each month to the
manufacturer.  After blending with the fresh black ink, the plant buys back 300 to 500  pounds per month of
black  ink  at a cost of $3.00 per pound.  The price for the reformulated ink is relatively high based on the
relatively low quality of the ink.  Fresh ink of comparable quality typically costs $1.55 per pound.


Recommended Action

        The plant can obtain a potentially  quick payback on its investment by purchasing an ink recycler.  A
small  on-site ink recycler is available which blends 60 pounds of waste ink with 120 pounds of fresh ink to
produce a 180-pound batch of reformulated black ink.  The complete batch is then filtered and is ready for
use. One batch can be processed in one hour.


Anticipated Savings

        The  following  economic comparison is  made  on a conservative  set  of assumptions.   These
assumptions are listed below.

•   200 pounds of waste ink are produced per month.

•   Labor and utility costs are negligible.

•   Both cases produce a total quantity of black ink of 600 pounds per month

Case A: The plant buys a small on-site ink recycler.

    •    The recycler blends in 400 pounds of fresh ink to produce 600 pounds of reformed ink.

    •    The fresh ink costs $1.55 per pound.

    •    The ink recycler costs $5,900.

Case B: Keep the existing arrangement with the ink manufacturer.

    •    The ink manufacturer blends in 100 pounds of fresh ink to produce 300 pounds of reformulated ink
        per month. The costs of this reformulated ink  is $3.00 per pound

    •    The printer buys an additional 300 pounds of fresh ink at $ 1.55 per pound.

        Exhibit F. 16 presents an economic comparison of the current operation to the recommended action.
Notes
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                Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies

JT ,                            Exhibit F. 16:  Economic Comparison of On-Site versus Off-Site Ink Recycling
                                                                                Case A          CaseB
                            Material Balance, (Pounds per Month)
                            Waste ink                                            200             200
                            Fresh ink for blending                                 400             100
                            Reformulated ink                                     600             300
                            Additional fresh ink                                     0             300
                            Total available ink                                    600             600
                            Operating Cost, (dollars per month')
                            Waste ink                                             $0              $0
                            Fresh ink for blending (@ $ 1.55/lb)                      $620              $0
                            Buy back reformulated ink (@ $3.00/lb                    $0            $900
                            Buy additional fresh ink (@ $ 1.55/lb)                     $0            $465
                            Total Operating Costs to Recycle Ink                    $620           $1,365
                            Anticipated Annual Savings per Month                 $745
                            Payback Period                                   7.92 months

                 Implementation
                         With a cost savings in operating costs of $745 per month the $5,900 initial capital investment for the
                 on-site ink recycler can be recovered in just less than 8 months.  The time and labor costs of preparing waste
                 ink for off-site recycling are comparable to that required to prepare and operate the on-site ink recycler.
                         This case study was adapted from:  Guides to Pollution Prevention, The Commercial Printing
                 Industry.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development,  1990.  EPA/625/7-
                 90/008.
               F-36                         Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                               Appendix F: Pollution Prevention Opportunity Case Studies
    CASE STUDY #18: SOLVENT REDUCTION IN COMMERCIAL PRINTING
                                         INDUSTRY


Current Practice and Observations

        A commercial screen printing firm produces a wide variety of products including decals, banners,
point-of-purchase displays, and original equipment manufacture. Over the 40 years of its operation, this
company has  experienced toughening environmental and health regulations on local,  state, and federal
levels. Many regulations have required expensive changes or threats of high fines for noncompliance. About
60 percent  of the company's printing is  done with traditional solvent-based inks and 40 percent  with
ultraviolet (UV) curable inks. Open tanks of solvent-based cleaning product allowed large amounts of VOCs
to evaporate directly into the shop.


Recommended Action

        Install an in-process 5-gallon recycling still to recover solvents for reuse within a closed system.


Anticipated Savings

        The  following economic  comparison is based on a  conservative set  of assumptions. These
assumptions are listed below.

•   The current operation uses 40 gallons of solvent per day.

•   With a solvent recovery still, one 55-gallon drum of solvent is used every four weeks.

        Exhibit F. 17 presents an economic analysis of the recommended action.
               Exhibit F.17:  Cost Analysis for a 5-Gallon In-Process Solvent Recycling
Costs
Capital Cost:
Anticipated Daily Savings Over
Open Tank System:
Anticipated Annual Savings
Over Open Tank System:
Payback Period
5- Gallon In-Process Solvent Recycling Still
$2,900
$83 per day
$20,750 per year
7 weeks
Implementation

        The company recognized almost immediate results with the installation of the in-process solvent
recycling still.  The amount of solvent used daily dropped by almost 38 gallons, which led to savings of
nearly $85 per day.  Along with cost benefits the new system severely reduced VOC releases.  The VOC
reduction improved working  conditions,  and placed  the  company's emissions below environmental
regulatory limits.
This case study was adapted from: "Small Business Waste Reduction Guide, Screen Printing Case Study
#1. " Enviro$ense. http://es.epa.gov/new/business/sbdc/sbdcll8.htm.
      Notes
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                                                                                                        Index
                                               INDEX
                                                    Notes
Absorption refrigeration • 258, 287,289,290
   capacity • 62, 66, 72, 73, 246, 259, 281, 285, 288, 289,
     291,292,294,295
   operation •  17, 57
Affirmative procurement • 94
Affirmative Procurement • 14
Air • 8, 18, 63, 72, 74, 77, 78, 272, 274, 275, 277, 278,
   279, 280
   boiling curve • 3
   components of • 2
   conditioning • 6. See Air condtioning
   cooling of moist air • 8. See also Air conditioning
   distribution system • 7
   energy content • 3
   heat addition to moist air • 6. See also Air conditioning
   heat gain calculations • 12
   heat loss calculations • 10. See also Air conditioning
   humidity • 3
   properties of • 2
   real (moist) • 2
   relative humidity • 4
   specific volume • 4
   water vapor • 2
   water vapor, amount in • 3
Air compressor • 7, 272, 277
   air leaks • 7, 274, 275, 276,280
   case study
     install a low pressure blower to reduce compressed
       air use • 17
     repair compressed air leaks • 13
   controls • 63,  83, 272, 277
   intake • 68, 272, 278
   low pressure blower • 279, 280
   low pressure blowers • 280
   power • 7, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72,
     73,  74, 264, 271, 272, 275, 277, 278, 279
   pressure • 7, 72, 73, 262, 263, 264, 269, 271, 272, 274,
     275, 276, 277, 278, 279
   screw • 7, 272, 276, 277, 278
   types • 7
   waste heat-61,272, 277
Air conditioning • 8, 45, 46, 63, 68, 303, 304, 305, 306,
   307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 314, 318, 332
   air cleaners • 304
   air washer • 304, 324
   coils •  8, 303, 304, 308, 332
   controls • 63,  83, 305, 308
   distribution system • 62, 65, 66, 303, 305
   economizer cycle • 310, 311, 312, 313
   energy conservation • 3, 4, 8,46
   enthalpy switchover method • 310, 313
   fans-6, 68, 315, 327, 329
   filters  • 80, 304, 305
   outdoor temperature method • 312, 313
   processes•6
Air emission • 4, 20,40, 44, 47, 52, 61, 74, 75, 78,
   84, 116, 124, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 144, 146,
   149, 156, 172, 174, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184,
   185,197,202
   control costs • 44
   costs-20, 40, 41, 43, 51,57
   fees • 44, 108
   labor • 3, 12, 44, 48, 91, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102,
     103, 106, 114, 116, 137, 140, 143, 192, 195,
     208, 241
   monitoring • 44, 62, 75, 150, 167, 168, 193, 194,
     204, 205, 234, 239
   sources • 61, 67, 73, 74, 103, 122, 123, 156, 210,
     212,234,244,247,248,249
Air emissions • 44
   management • 44
Annubar  • 43
Assessment • 1, 2, 3,11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17,18,
   20,21,39
   analysis • 3, 4, 18, 19, 21, 24, 25, 39, 40, 45, 47,
     48, 49, 52, 53, 67, 105, 109, 123, 130, 131
   assessment • 1, 2, 3, 11, 12,13,  14,  15, 16, 17,18,
     39,61,63,76
   assessment team • 2, 3, 5, 8, 36, 40, 43, 44, 45, 46,
     76
   benefits -1,3,11,12, 22, 26, 45, 50, 52, 62, 68,
     93,  101, 104, 107, 117, 124, 126, 127, 128,
     135, 137, 140, 141, 154, 161, 167, 172, 173,
     180, 186, 189, 192, 194, 196,204,208,212
   block diagram • 19
   data • 3, 14,18, 19, 21, 22,23, 24, 35, 64, 67
     collection • 3, 18, 19, 20, 23, 35, 40, 41, 45, 55,
       100, 130, 191, 193
     energy graphs • 32
     energy usage • 2, 3, 20, 21, 31, 32, 36, 45, 46,
       69,278,315
     equipment • 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 18, 19,
       20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 43, 45, 46,47, 48, 51, 52,
       54, 55, 57, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 71, 72, 74,
       77, 79, 80, 83, 87, 88, 89, 96,  101, 105, 106,
       110, 112, 116, 117, 120, 122,  123, 127, 129,
       130, 132, 133, 142, 143, 144,  145, 146, 147,
       148, 156, 164, 165, 169, 172,  176, 177, 179,
       184, 188, 190, 191, 193, 196,206,207,209,
       212, 234, 239, 241, 244, 245, 247, 249, 250,
       252, 253, 254, 257, 262, 265, 269, 272, 279,
       281, 292, 294, 296, 299, 300,  303, 304, 305,
       306, 307, 316, 317, 327, 329,  331, 332
     facility description • 3, 18, 26
     information- 1,3, 12, 14, 17, 18, 19,20,21,
       22, 25, 35, 39, 40, 43, 45, 57, 58, 67, 71, 74,
       87, 99, 101, 104, 105, 147, 149, 150, 154,
       172,186,281
     operations • 3, 4, 6,  12,  17, 19,21, 22, 23, 25,
       26, 28, 29, 39, 40, 43, 61, 63, 67, 68, 72, 73,
       74, 75, 76, 79, 87, 93, 95,  100,102,103,
       104, 105, 107, 110, 111, 112,  116, 117, 118,
       121, 128, 130, 144, 145, 148,  149, 150, 151,
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                Index
Notes
     154, 155, 156, 158, 161, 172, 173, 174, 184,
     185, 186, 188, 189, 190, 196, 197, 198, 199,
     202,204,205,206,210,212
  pre-assessment collection •  18
  process description • 3, 18,  19,20, 28, 29
  process flow diagram • 3, 18, 19, 23, 35
  raw materials • 2, 15, 19, 20, 47, 52, 78, 81, 84,
     156,165, 199,208
  utilities • 20
  utilities (See energy usage) • 13, 19, 21, 47, 48,
     61,63,66,70
  utility information • 20
  waste generation data • 18,  22
  waste streams • 19, 20, 22, 24, 74, 92, 104, 107,
     149,156,164, 167,188,211
economic • 3, 12, 24, 25, 39, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54,
  57, 66, 254, 294, 300
energy • 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 21,
  26, 36, 40, 43, 45,46, 52, 61, 62, 63, 67, 68, 69,
  70, 71, 72, 73, 234, 238, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245,
  246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 252, 253, 254, 256, 257,
  258, 259, 262, 263, 264, 265, 269, 272, 274, 275,
  276, 277, 278, 279, 281, 285, 286, 287, 290, 291,
  292, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 303,
  305, 306, 308, 310, 315,  316, 317, 318, 327, 329,
  331
energy graphs • 21
evaluation • 3, 4, 11, 12, 22, 24,  25, 39,44, 45, 47,
  48, 54, 57, 254, 255, 258,259,298, 330, 331
evaluation • 39. See also Evaluation
example • 5, 8, 15, 17, 36, 40, 53, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67,
  68, 74, 91, 98, 122, 124,  130, 137, 139, 150, 189,
  195, 202, 203, 206, 212, 234, 241, 242, 243, 244,
  245, 247, 248, 249, 252, 258, 259, 281, 285, 286,
  287, 293, 294, 295, 297, 298, 299, 301, 307, 309,
  312, 313, 318, 319, 320,  328, 329, 331
facility description • 3, 18, 26
facility layout • 19
feasibility analysis • 3, 24, 39
implementation • 1, 3, 4, 11, 13, 14, 24, 25, 26, 39,
  45,47
industrial • 1, 2, 4, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,  17,26,
  39
industrial assessment • 12
instrumentation for • C-l
management support -2, 13, 26
methodology • 11, 15, 16, 24
objectives •  14, 17
opportunity (See Opportunity) •  1, 3, 4, 5, 12, 14,
  19, 22, 23, 24, 25, 39, 44, 45, 46, 47, 51, 57, 66,
  67, 294, 299
phases-2, 16,24
planning and organization •  3, 12, 17
pollution prevention •  1, 2, 3, 5,  11, 14, 15, 18, 20,
  22, 24, 25, 26, 37, 45, 48, 49, 53, 62, 73, 75
prioritization of opportunities  • 24
procedures • 3, 16, 23, 24, 39, 45, 48
process description • 3, 18, 19,20, 28, 29
process flow diagram  • 3, 18, 19, 23,  35
raw materials • 2, 15, 19, 20, 47, 52, 78, 81, 84,
  156,165,199,208
report • 25
SIC • 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 280
strategy • 17
structure • 57, 128
team • 17
technical • 3, 4, 24, 25, 39, 45, 53
types-  1,17,18,63,74
utility
  information • 25
waste • 1, 3, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 24, 25,26, 36,
  43, 44, 52, 55, 56, 57, 61, 62, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77,
  79, 80, 81, 82, 83
waste generation • 1, 2, 3, 11,12, 14, 17, 18,  19, 22,
  35,40,45,55,56,73,81
                                                                                    B
                                                                           Ballast-231
                                                                           Belt-220,221,222
                                                                           Boiler • 36, 53, 224, 234, 235, 236, 238, 239, 240, 241,
                                                                             242, 243, 245, 254, 256, 257, 258
                                                                             air fuel ratio • 39, 235
                                                                             air/fuel • 6
                                                                             blowdown • 6, 235, 236, 238
                                                                             case studies
                                                                                Implement periodic inspection and adjustment of
                                                                                  combustion in an oil fired boiler • 3
                                                                             case study
                                                                                implement periodic inspection and adjustment of
                                                                                  combustion in an oil fired boiler • 5
                                                                             combustion • 6, 53, 54, 72, 234, 236, 238, 239, 240,
                                                                                241, 242, 243, 244, 246, 247, 250, 252, 253, 254
                                                                             distribution system • 6
                                                                             economizers • 235,245
                                                                             efficiency • 6, 24, 73, 80, 83, 234, 235, 236, 238, 240,
                                                                                241, 242, 244, 248, 251, 252, 253, 257, 258, 282,
                                                                                285, 292, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299
                                                                             feed water preheat • 244
                                                                             fire tube • 234
                                                                             flue gas • 53
                                                                             forced draft • 234
                                                                             high pressure • 77, 234
                                                                             hot water • 8, 73, 234, 243, 246, 247, 255, 287, 288,
                                                                                295, 296, 297
                                                                             natural draft • 234
                                                                             natural gas •  15, 21, 54, 61, 71, 241, 248, 249, 250,
                                                                                251,254,257
                                                                             operation • 6, 17, 57
                                                                             performance improvements • 241
                                                                             return  system • 6, 234, 243,244
                                                                             steam  • 6, 8,  15, 20, 24, 39,45, 46, 61, 67, 72, 73, 82,
                                                                                234, 235, 236, 242, 243, 244, 247, 248, 254, 255,
                                                                                256, 257, 258, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 295, 296,
                                                                                297
                                                                             steam leaks • 72, 242
                                                                             steam traps • 6, 243, 244
                                                                             tips • 234
                                                                             water tube • 234, 235
                                                                           Boilers • 46
                                                                           Burner -21, 240, 241, 250, 251
                                                                             combustion efficiency • 6, 240, 250
                                                                             excess air • 53, 235, 241, 245, 252
                                                       Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                                       Index
         c
CAA (See Clean Air Act) • 4, 74
Ceiling fan • 247, 248
Ceiling fans
  case study
     energy saving from installation of ceiling fans • 7
Centrifugal pump • 7, 262, 263, 264, 265
  curve • 67,263,265, 266, 267,271,294
Chiller • 288
  absorption • 8, 73, 287, 288, 289, 290, 300
Chlorination-83,212
Clean Air Act-4, 54, 173
Cleaning • 31, 37, 63, 76, 87,110,112,116,117,119,
  120, 121, 127, 131, 132, 134, 135, 138, 139, 140, 141,
  142, 143, 149, 150, 154, 155, 172, 185, 198,203,213
Coal • 46, 235
Coefficients • 323
  convection heat transfer • 323
Cogeneration • 6, 61, 253, 254, 255
  cycles • 252, 254, 259
  high spot evaluation -258
Combustion • 72, 234, 238, 239,240,241,242,244,245,
  250
  air preheat • 244, 245, 247
  efficiency • 6, 73, 80, 83, 234, 235, 236, 238, 240,
     241, 242, 244, 248, 251, 252, 253, 257, 258
  incomplete •  250
Compressed air • 4, 7, 22, 24, 57, 80,  262, 272, 274, 278,
  280
Cooling • 7, 281, 282, 283, 284, 286, 289, 304, 308, 309,
  318,324,325
  direct evaporative -281
Cooling tower-7, 281,286
  atmospheric  • 79, 281
  hot gas defrost • 8
  hyperbolic • 282
  induced draft • 282
  performance • 57, 63, 286, 294, 295, 296, 298
Cost • 32, 35, 43, 51, 53, 55, 56, 97, 135, 161, 214, 233,
  241, 242, 243, 244, 249, 259, 272, 274, 277, 278, 279,
  280, 285, 286, 287, 290, 297, 298, 299, 300, 307, 313,
  314, 328
  equipment • 47
  installation •  48, 55, 57, 66, 68, 96, 110, 151, 189,
     215, 221, 230, 231, 242, 244, 252, 253, 254, 255,
     264, 269, 294, 296, 300, 305, 306, 330
  labor • 3, 12, 40, 43, 44, 48, 57, 91, 96, 97, 98, 100,
     101, 102,  103, 106, 114, 116, 137, 140, 143, 192,
     195,208,227,241
  modifications • 47
  project • 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 57, 58, 59, 195, 254
  software • 61
  waste • 11, 12, 13, 14, 20, 40, 43, 44, 55, 56, 57, 61,
     62, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 87, 90,
     91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102,103,104,
     105, 106,  107, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 115,
     116, 117,  123, 130, 140, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147,
     148, 149,  150, 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 158, 164,
     165, 167,  168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 179, 180, 181,
     182, 183,  184, 185, 188, 189, 190, 193, 195, 196,
     197, 198, 202, 203, 204, 206, 207, 208, 209,
     210, 211, 212, 245, 247, 250, 252, 253, 254,
     257, 272, 277, 287, 290, 330
  waste management • 13, 20, 74, 87, 93, 100, 105,
     112,117,147,172,185,204,212
Cost savings • 4, 25, 26, 52
  industrial processes • 210, 234
  methods  • 4, 7, 37, 49, 51, 52, 54, 57, 77, 79, 81,
     84, 89, 103, 122, 124, 131, 135, 143, 144, 155,
     156, 158, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 167, 168,
     172, 174, 178, 180, 185, 186, 193, 198,202,
     209, 212, 238, 250, 252, 258, 263, 264, 270,
     271,307,310,314,315,330
Cost savings (See also electricity cost reduction) •
  36, 47, 75, 90, 97, 140, 149, 156, 167, 206, 208,
  241, 242, 243, 244, 255, 272, 274, 275, 276, 277,
  278, 279, 285, 286, 287, 297, 298, 299, 301, 317
Cost savings calculations
  methods  • 48
        D
Decision matrix •  3, 24, 25, 37
Decomposition • 15, 146, 163
DEFINITIONS • D-l
Degreasing •  74, 81, 116, 117, 120, 127, 134, 138,
   139, 140, 146,  149, 150, 152, 153, 156, 158, 174,
   196
Demand • 41
   controls • 63, 83, 234, 235, 241, 243, 250, 251,
     257, 272, 277, 305, 308
   peak demand •  21, 36
   peak demand •  31
   reduction • 62,  63, 66, 67, 68, 75, 79, 235, 242,
     243, 245, 247, 258, 263, 264, 267, 270, 271,
     272, 312, 313, 314, 316, 328, 329, 332
   shifting • 63
Demand  (See also load) • 17, 21, 40, 41, 61, 63, 65,
   66, 67, 68, 69,  70, 71, 72, 253, 254, 256,257,258,
   259,264,272,277,313,329
Destratification • 6, 247, 248
Destratification fan • 247
Detoxification • 15
Disposal (See Waste) • 12, 15, 20,40, 43, 44, 47, 48,
   52, 53, 55, 56,  57, 62, 73, 74, 75, 90, 91, 92, 96,
   97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103,  106, 108,109,110,
   114, 116, 119,  123, 124, 131, 132, 139, 141, 143,
   147, 154, 156,  169, 170, 171, 172, 176, 178, 186,
   188, 190, 191,  193, 194, 196, 203, 204, 208, 209
Documents •  5, 14
Dragout- 124,136,139
Drive • 61, 63, 242, 246, 265, 271, 291, 294
   variable frequency • 6, 234, 264, 265
Economic feasibility • 3, 4, 24, 25
  internal rate of return • 54, 58, 59
  net present value • 50, 54, 57, 58
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                Index
Notes
  payback period • 25, 49, 55, 57
  total cost accounting • 52, 53, 54
Economizer • 281, 292, 310, 311, 312, 313
Efficiency • 1, 2, 6, 7, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 24, 26, 43,
  45, 73, 80, 83, 214, 215, 216, 217, 220, 222, 223,
  229, 230, 231, 234, 235, 236, 238, 240, 241, 242,
  244, 248, 251, 252, 253, 257, 258, 262, 263, 264,
  269, 271, 275, 276, 278, 282, 285, 292, 295, 296,
  297, 298, 299, 303, 304, 305, 306, 315, 316, 327,
  328, 329, 331
  thermal • 8, 61, 73, 241, 246, 252, 253,257,258,
     259,281,299
Electric bill • 40, 65,  66, 69, 71
  charge • 40
  components • 62, 63, 74
  customer charge •  40
  customer charge •  41
  demand charge • 17, 40, 66, 67, 68,  70, 71, 72
  demand charge • 41
  energy charge  • 68, 69, 70
  example • 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 74
  gross bill • 70
  industrial use • 72
  peak demand • 66, 67, 68, 72
  power factor • 41,  63, 64, 65, 66,  68, 70
  reactive demand charge • 41
  sales tax • 42
  service charge • 69
  structure • 40
  voltage • 41, 62, 63, 65, 66, 68, 70, 71
Electric motor • 5, 7,  214, 262,271,291
  efficiency • 73, 80, 83,214, 215, 216, 217, 220,
     222, 223, 229, 230, 231, 262, 263, 264, 269, 271,
     275, 276, 278, 282, 285, 292, 295, 296, 297, 298,
     299, 303, 304, 305, 306, 315, 316, 327, 328, 329,
     331
  high efficiency -216, 228, 263
  idling-5, 214
  load reduction • 292
  mechanical drives • 221
  speed control • 220, 221
  speed reduction • 221
  torque-214, 220,221,222
Electric rate • 227
Electrical power
  components • 62, 63, 74, 228, 303, 315, 317
Electricity • 34, 46, 62, 63, 73, 214,  216, 221
  controllers-67, 68,218,241
  distribution system • 41, 62, 65, 66,  269, 303, 305
  electric bill (See Electric Bill) • 40, 65, 66, 69, 71
  industrial use • 72
  lamp maintenance • 227
  lamp replacement  • 227,230
  lights • 62,225, 226, 227
  transformers • 62
Electricity costs • 34
Electronic ballast • 228, 229, 232
Emission reduction •  133
  aqueous cleaning • 81,117,132, 134, 139,140,145
  substitution • 57, 58, 61, 132, 173
Encapsulation • 15
Energy • 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20,
  21, 31, 32, 40, 41, 43, 45, 46, 52, 60, 61, 62, 63, 67,
  68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 39, 214, 218, 219,220,221,
  222, 223, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234,
  238, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250,
  252, 253, 254, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 262, 263, 264,
  265, 269, 272, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281,
  285, 286, 287, 290, 291, 292, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298,
  299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 305, 306, 308, 310, 315, 316,
  317,318,327,329,331,332
  alternative • 78, 79, 83, 231, 243, 248, 263, 271
  charge • 67, 68,  69, 70, 71, 258, 287
  coal-61, 72, 73,235,254,258
  conservation • 4, 5, 6, 11, 12,15, 25, 43, 45, 61, 62,
     223,262,276,303,318
  consumption • 18, 20, 31, 45,  46
  cooling • 6, 7, 8, 45, 244, 246, 248, 252, 259, 269,
     272, 277, 279, 281, 282, 285, 286, 287, 288, 291,
     292, 293, 294, 295, 297, 300, 304, 307, 308, 310,
     312,313,317,324
  cooling season • 21
  cost • 1, 6, 7, 11, 13, 21, 31, 32, 41, 49, 54, 57, 61, 62,
     67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 75, 216, 218, 220,221,222,
     223, 226, 227, 228, 230, 232, 241, 242, 243, 244,
     248, 249, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 263,
     264, 265, 271, 272, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279,
     285, 286, 287, 289, 290, 295, 297, 298, 299, 300,
     301, 303, 305, 308, 309, 310, 312, 313, 314, 317,
     328, 331
  costs- 18,20,33,39
  electric • 4, 6, 21, 40, 42, 61, 62, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71,
     72, 78, 214, 215, 218, 220, 227, 230, 238, 248, 249,
     250, 253, 257, 258, 262, 264, 271, 287, 291
  fossil fuel • 4, 72, 254
  generation • 4, 47, 61, 63, 67, 72, 73, 74, 75, 78, 228,
     235, 236, 240, 253, 257, 258, 320
  heating • 6, 8, 40, 45, 54, 61, 63, 72, 73, 218, 231,
     236, 239, 241, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249,
     250, 252, 255, 257, 259, 272, 292, 295, 297, 299,
     303, 304, 307, 308, 309, 310, 313, 317, 324, 327,
     328, 331
  heating season • 21
  hydroelectric • 4, 73
  management • 43
  nuclear • 61,258
  reduction • 25
  solar • 73, 258
  solid waste • 14, 72, 73, 74, 75
  sources • 4, 6, 21, 45, 61, 67, 73, 74, 221, 231, 234,
     244,247,248,249,290,331
  terminology • 40
  thermodynamic analysis • 1
  unit of measure • 3, 21, 45, 47
  usage • 13, 21, 32, 61, 71, 72, 74, 80, 230, 257, 263,
     272,278,287,299,331
  wind • 73
energy conservation • 1, 3, 4
Energy conservation • 1, 2, 3,4,  5, 8, 9, 11, 12,  14, 15,
  17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 36, 37, 39, 40, 45, 46,
  47, 48, 51, 53, 60, 62, 72, 39, 214, 220, 226, 234, 242,
  243, 247, 254, 258, 260, 262, 263, 265, 272, 276, 281,
  303, 305, 306, 315, 317, 318, 329, 332
                                                       Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                                        Index
Energy conservation opportunities • 1
  energy saving from installation of ceiling fans • E-7
  implement periodic inspection and adjustment of
     combustion in an oil fired boiler •  E-5
  implement periodic inspection and adjustment of
     combustion in an oil fired boiler •  E-3
  install a low pressure blower to reduce compressed air
     use • E-17
  install infrared radiant heaters • E-9
  repair compressed air leaks • E-13
Energy Conservation Opportunities
  Implement periodic inspection and adjustment of
     combustion in a natural gas fired boiler • E-3
Energy conservation opportunity • 5, 11, 12, 22, 37, 40,
  46, 72, 247
  Repair compressed air leaks • 36
Energy consumption
  reduction • 46
Energy source • 22
  information  • 40
Energy usage •  33, 47
Environmental Protection Agency (See  EPA) • 60, 39,
  213
EPA • 1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 14, 15, 18, 60, 74, 39, 94, 120, 121,
  181,182,213
  17 Industrial Toxics • 14
  Regional offices • A-l
Equipment • 5,  20,22, 24, 25, 36, 53, 77, 82, 214, 220,
  245, 257, 260, 279, 296, 300, 303, 315, 316
  absorption •  8, 73, 244, 258, 287, 288, 289, 290, 300
  air compressors • 5, 7, 63, 225, 272, 274, 278
  air conditioning • 8,45, 68, 244, 258, 290,291,292,
     294, 300, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 310, 311,
     312,314
  boilers • 5, 11, 45, 53, 72, 73, 74, 234, 235, 241, 242
  cogeneration • 6,  61, 253, 254, 255, 257, 258, 290
  cooling towers • 7, 281, 282, 286, 292
  drying (See heating) • 6, 73, 83, 247, 250, 290, 329,
     332
  fans • 6, 8, 68, 216, 218, 225, 243, 247, 248, 265, 269,
     271,281,282,315,327,329
  furnaces  -11,72, 74, 78, 225, 244, 250, 251, 252
  heating •  6, 8, 40, 45, 54, 61, 63, 72,  73, 218, 231,
     236, 239, 241, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249,
     250, 252, 255, 257, 259, 272, 292, 295, 297, 299,
     303, 304, 307, 308, 309, 310, 313, 317, 324, 327,
     328, 331
  HVAC • 8, 11, 292, 303, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319
  HVAC•1
  insulation • 6, 8, 222, 245, 250, 252,  253, 281, 292,
     296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 321
  list • 3, 22, 23, 67, 68, 74, 75, 76, 240
  mechanical • 5, 8, 81, 214, 220, 221, 225, 229, 281,
     282, 287, 290, 292, 295, 296, 303, 310, 327
  modifications • 15, 45, 47, 57, 75
  motors • 5, 6, 8, 45, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 214, 215, 216,
     217, 218, 220, 221, 222, 224, 225, 262, 264, 271,
     280,281,286,316,317
  pumps • 7, 57, 61, 77, 83, 218, 225, 226,236,262,
     263, 264, 265, 267, 281, 292, 307
  refrigeration • 7, 8, 258, 259, 264, 281, 287, 290, 291,
     292, 293, 294, 295, 298, 304, 307, 310
  thermal storage • 61, 258, 259
  ventilation •  8, 222, 247, 303, 313, 327, 329, 330,
     332
Equipment list  • 22
Evaluation • 25, 39, 44, 48, 255, 258, 259
  assumptions • 39, 40, 45,46, 55, 56, 57
  benefits • 39
  costs
     energy • 39
     raw material • 39
  costs
     waste management • 39
  current practices • 39
  describe opportunity • 39
  determining  feasibility • 39
  economic benefits • 39
  energy conservation calculations • 47
  energy costs • 12, 40, 52, 61, 227, 247, 248, 262,
     290
  equipment •  39
  example • 47
  impacts • 4, 20, 25, 26, 39, 40
  Internal Rate of Return • 48
  Net Present Value • 48
  operations • 3, 12,19, 23, 25, 26, 39, 40,43, 61,
     63, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 79, 230, 234,
     247, 250,  252, 254, 258, 298
  Payback period • 48
  pollution prevention calculations • 47
  pollution prevention calculations • 46
  procedures •  39
  raw material
     consumption • 47
  raw materials • 2, 15, 19, 20, 47, 78, 81, 84
  technical • 47
  technical evaluation • 47
  technical feasibility • 39
Evaluation economic • 48
Evalution
  energy conservation calculations • 45
Fan • 7, 8, 218, 219, 220, 224, 247, 248, 269, 270,
  271, 282, 286, 303, 305, 306, 307, 313, 314, 315,
  316,317,329
  ducting-248, 317
  efficiency • 7, 73, 80, 83, 214, 215, 216, 217, 220,
     222, 223, 229, 230, 231, 234, 235, 236, 238,
     240, 241, 242, 244, 248, 251, 252, 253, 257,
     258, 262, 263, 264, 269, 271, 275, 276, 278,
     282, 285, 292, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 303,
     304, 305, 306, 315, 316, 327, 328, 329, 331
  horsepower • 214, 216, 218, 219, 220, 262, 264,
     266, 267, 269, 270, 271, 272, 277, 278, 292,
     294, 303, 305, 313, 314, 317, 329
  inlet vane control • 270
  reduced speed -218,220, 265
  variable speed • 7, 219, 220, 221, 243, 263, 264,
     267,271,286
  volume control • 7, 270,271
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                Index
Notes
flue gas •  54, 74, 235, 241, 245, 246, 250, 252
Fossil fuel • 4, 72, 254
Fuel oil-  12,14,21,32,43
  bill • 43
  consumption • 43
  cost • 43
  energy conservation • 3, 46, 62, 72, 234, 242, 243,
     247, 254, 258
  example • 43
  rates-71, 244, 253, 254, 258
  types • 18, 21, 43, 63, 74, 245, 247, 253, 254
Fuel Oil • 22, 32
Furnace • 6, 21, 43, 72, 78, 240, 245, 246, 250, 251,
  252, 253
  covers-6, 77, 82,241,253
  efficiency • 73, 80, 83,234, 235, 236, 238, 240,
     241, 242, 244, 248, 251, 252, 253, 257, 258, 303,
     304, 305, 306, 315, 316, 327, 328, 329, 331
  pressure controls • 252
                           G

                  Garment insulation values • 322
                  Gas bill
                    metering • 252
                    rate schedule • 42, 66, 69, 70, 71
                           H
                  Hazardous waste •  14, 18, 20, 22, 24, 43, 44, 47, 54,
                     75, 95, 96, 99, 106, 108, 109, 110, 112, 140, 148,
                     150, 154,  158, 163, 164, 165, 173, 174, 176, 178,
                     186, 188,  189, 190, 192, 193, 194, 195, 197,205,
                     206
                     containers • 40, 44, 47, 79, 80, 81, 84, 91, 92, 94,
                       96, 97,  98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 107, 122, 130, 172,
                       177,203,208
                     disposal fee •  44
                     labor • 3, 12, 44, 48, 91, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102,
                       103, 106, 114, 116, 137, 140, 143, 192, 195,208
                     transportation •  12, 44, 61, 73, 102, 103, 108, 147,
                       155
                  Heat • 6, 7, 8, 36, 61, 72, 73, 75, 78, 234, 235, 236,
                     237, 238, 239, 240, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247,
                     248, 249, 250, 252, 253, 254, 256, 257, 260, 272,
                     275, 277, 279, 280, 281, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290,
                     291, 292, 293, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 303,
                     306, 307,  308, 310, 314, 315, 319, 320, 321, 323,
                     328,329,330,331,332
                     case study
                       install infrared radiant heaters • 9
                  Heat exchanger  • 239, 240, 245, 246, 277, 281, 288,
                     293,315,331,332
                     plate • 79
                     rotary • 246, 276
                     tube • 235, 245,  246,248,293, 331
                  Heat gain • 297,  298
                  Heat loss • 8, 243, 247, 297, 299, 300, 328, 329
                  Heat pipe-245,  246, 331
Heat recovery system • 244, 245, 330, 331
Heat recovery systems • 244,245
Heat transfer • 235, 244, 246, 247,249,286,293,297,
  298, 300, 303, 331
Heat wheel • 246
Heating • 6, 8, 21, 40, 45, 46, 54, 61, 63, 72, 73, 236,
  239, 241, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 252,
  255, 257, 259, 260, 272, 292, 295, 297, 299, 302, 303,
  304, 307, 308, 309, 310, 313, 317, 318, 324, 327, 328,
  330,331,332
  applications • 6, 8, 68, 83, 244, 246, 248, 249, 250,
     251, 253, 254, 262, 281, 287, 290, 291, 296, 298,
     299, 300, 305
  comfort • 6, 68, 246, 247, 249, 303, 304, 305, 307,
     310, 313, 315, 317, 319, 320, 321, 323
  electric • 61, 62, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71, 72, 78, 238, 248,
     249, 250, 253, 257, 258, 262, 264, 271, 287, 291
  process • 6, 8,45, 57
  radiant • 6, 247, 249, 250, 323
  types • 18, 63, 74, 245, 247, 253, 254, 262, 264, 267,
     269, 272, 278, 281, 282, 290, 299, 303, 304, 319,
     324, 331
Heating systems • 6, 247, 249
Humidity • 3
  relative • 4
HVAC • 8, 11, 303, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319
  comfort • 8
  components • 8
  controls • 8
  distribution system • 8
  filters • 8
  humidifiers • 8
  HVAC systems • 8, 315, 316, 317, 318
                                                        Incineration • 15, 35
                                                           catalytic • 204
                                                           thermal- 114, 123, 130, 131, 138, 144, 146,165,186,
                                                             194,196,204
                                                        Industrial assessment (See Assessment) • 1,2, 11, 12, 75
                                                        Industrial assessment (See Assessment) • 1, 12, 14, 17
                                                        Industrial operations • 4, 5, 87
                                                           chemical etching • 79, 148, 149, 150, 152, 153, 154,
                                                             172
                                                           cleaning and degreasing • 74,116,117,129,132,172,
                                                             185
                                                           housekeeping • 15, 24, 47, 75, 93, 113, 327
                                                           materials management • 93, 94, 103
                                                           metal working • 78, 110, 112, 114, 115, 116
                                                           office • 5, 74, 87, 88, 89, 90, 94, 177, 210, 226, 227,
                                                             230,231,248,258,307
                                                           paint application • 172, 173, 179, 184
                                                           paint removal • 74,173,184,185,186,188,193,194,
                                                             198
                                                           plating • 79, 80, 81, 104, 155, 156, 158, 159, 161, 164,
                                                             167, 168, 169, 170, 190, 205, 206, 279
                                                           printing • 29, 47, 54, 56, 74, 79, 90, 121, 128,  198,
                                                             199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208,
                                                             209
                                                           waste water treatment • 81, 83
                                                       Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                                        Index
Installation
  costs • 47
Insulation • 8, 15, 21, 72, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 302
  building • 8, 41, 71, 89, 92, 94, 95, 136, 246, 247, 248,
     249, 254, 296, 307, 308, 324, 327, 328, 331
  calcium silicate • 300
  cold water •  296
  dock doors • 299
  glass fiber •  300
  hot water • 8, 73, 89, 139, 177, 234, 243,246,247,
     255, 287, 288, 295, 296, 297, 303
  injection mold barrels • 301
  low cost • 290
  performance • 57, 63, 94, 104, 113, 115, 117, 119,
     124, 131, 137, 144, 145, 153, 173, 174, 177, 186,
     187, 198, 240, 241, 249, 257, 286, 294, 295, 296,
     298
  polyisocyanurate • 300
  process equipment • 117, 120, 121, 124, 129, 185,
     197,246,300
  refrigeration • 8
  standards • 74, 95, 98, 193, 212, 305, 306, 308, 310,
     318,330
  steam • 8, 20,24, 46, 61, 67, 72, 73, 82, 89, 107,  144,
     146, 234, 235, 236, 242, 243, 244, 247, 248, 254,
     255, 256, 257, 258, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 295,
     296, 297, 303, 305, 328
  tanks • 8, 77, 80, 81, 82, 83, 97, 116, 124,  132, 139,
     141; 143, 145= 151, 156, 167, 168, 169, 170, 177,
     185, 205, 206, 211, 243, 296, 298, 300
  thickness- 165,296,297
Internal Rate of Return (IRR) • 25, 50, 51, 52, 54, 58, 59
         K

Kerosene • 46
Lamp • 63, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232
  fluorescent • 63, 64, 226, 227, 228, 229, 231, 232
  high energy discharge • 232
  incandescent • 227,231
Liability • 1, 12, 45, 52, 53, 75, 107, 146, 147, 148, 170,
  171
Life Cycle Analysis • 4, 48, 51
Life Cycle Costing • 4, 48, 51, 52
  raw materials • 52
Lighting • 46, 63, 223, 227, 230,231,233
  light meter audit • 226
  standards • 74, 223, 226, 229
  technologies • 74, 79, 80, 223
Load • 6, 22, 41, 61, 62,  64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72,
  214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 220, 221, 222, 227, 242, 254,
  257, 258, 259, 263, 272, 277, 278, 284, 285, 292, 293,
  294, 295, 298, 300, 307, 308, 309, 310, 312, 313, 314,
  316,327,328,329
  essential • 68, 262, 296, 300
                                   287, 290,
                                   ,307,310

                                   ,217,218,
                                   228, 229,
                                   248, 252,
                                   267, 270,
                                   285, 286,
                                   299,301,
                                   314, 328,
  refrigeration • 7, 258, 259, 264, 281,
     291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 298, 304
Load factor • 66, 67, 72, 272, 278
  savings • 61, 62, 64, 66, 68, 214, 215
     219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 226, 227
     230, 231, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245
     253, 257, 258, 262, 263, 264, 265
     271, 272, 274, 275, 277, 278, 279
     287, 291, 293, 294, 295, 297, 298
     307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313
     331
  system analysis • 265
         M

Maintenance • 48
   costs • 48
Material substitution
   case study
     chemical substitution in pulp and paper
        manufacturing • 33
   case study
     install an automated aqueous cleaner • 13
     metal working fluid substitution • 11
     replacing chemical stripping with plastic media
        blasting • 29
     water-borne paint as a substitute for solvent-
        based coatings • 25
Mechanical refrigeration • 8, 281, 287, 290, 295
   compression • 234,290,295
   condensing pressure • 292, 294
   condensing temperature • 292
   efficient use • 8, 72, 247
   evaporator temperature • 8, 291, 294
   heat recovery • 244, 245, 246, 254, 257, 295
   hot gas bypass • 8
   multiple compressors • 8, 291
   pressure • 8
Metalworking • 111, 113
   process flow diagram • 18
Motor • 5, 6, 8, 45, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 84, 214, 215,
   216, 217, 218, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 262,
   264, 265, 271, 276, 280, 281, 282, 286, 302, 316,
   317
   synchronous • 65, 66, 221
   variable frequency AC • 6, 220
Motors • 46
         N
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System • 4,
   74
Natural gas • 6, 12, 14, 21, 32, 40, 46, 54, 61, 71, 72,
   241, 245, 248, 249, 250, 251, 254, 257
   consumption •  42, 43, 61, 62, 67, 70, 72, 239, 243,
     245,251,254,259,305,329
   industrial use • 42
   service period • 42
Natural Gas • 32
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                Index
Notes
Natural gas bill • 42, 43
   example • 42
   industrial use • 42
   rates • 42
   sample • 42
Natural Resources • 52
Net present value • 25, 50
Net Present Value • 49, 57
Nonhazardous waste
   containers • 40, 44, 47, 79, 80, 81, 84, 91, 92, 94,
     96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 107, 122, 130, 172,
     177,203,208
   disposal fee • 75
   labor • 3, 12, 44, 48, 91, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102,
     103, 106, 114, 116, 137, 140, 143, 192, 195,208,
     241
   transportation • 12, 44, 61, 73, 102, 103, 108, 147,
     155
NPDES (See National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
   System) • 4, 74
                           o
                  Opportunity • 45
                     analysis • 4, 18, 19, 21, 24, 25, 39, 40, 45, 47, 48,
                       49, 52, 53, 67, 105, 109,  123, 130, 131, 220, 235,
                       241, 244, 250, 252, 255,  257, 259, 263, 285, 299,
                       305
                     benefits -1,3,11,12, 22, 26, 45, 50, 52, 62, 68, 93,
                       101, 104, 107, 117, 124,  126, 127, 128, 135, 137,
                       140, 141, 154, 161, 167,  172, 173, 180, 186, 189,
                       192, 194, 196, 204, 208,  212, 216, 247, 252, 254
                     economic • 49
                       Internal Rate of Return (IRR) • 4, 25, 48, 50, 52,
                          57,58
                     economic • 3, 12, 24, 25, 39, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54,
                       57, 66, 89, 93, 189, 208,  210, 254, 294, 300
                       Life Cycle Cost (LCC) •  4, 48, 51, 52
                       Net Present Value • 48
                       Payback period • 48
                       Total Cost Accounting • 4, 48, 51, 52
                     evaluations • 3, 4, 11, 12, 22, 24, 25, 39, 44, 45, 47,
                       48, 54, 57, 95, 254, 255,  258, 259, 298, 330, 331
                     examples (See Energy Conservation Opportunities
                       and Pollution Prevention Opportunities) -218,
                       234,311,329
                     identification •  75, 215
                     payback • 25, 49, 53, 54, 55, 57, 172, 186, 216, 228,
                       229, 231, 259, 264, 272,  274, 277, 278, 286, 299,
                       301,330
                     pollution prevention calculations • 47
                  Paint application • 74, 80, 81, 144, 148, 172, 173, 176,
                     179, 184
                     transfer efficiency • 172, 179, 180, 181, 182, 184
                  Payback period • 25, 48, 49, 55, 56, 57, 172, 186
                  peak demand • 66, 67, 68, 72
Peak demand •  67
pesticide management •  14
Plant survey
  pumps • 7, 61, 77, 83, 236, 262, 263, 264, 265, 267
  techniques •  217, 220, 222, 254, 263
pollution prevention • 1, 2, 3, 5
Pollution prevention • 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
  17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 37, 39, 45, 46, 47, 48,
  49, 51, 53, 62, 73, 75, 87, 93, 101,  104, 105, 110, 112,
  116, 117, 118, 124, 126, 127, 135,  138, 139, 147, 148,
  149, 150, 155, 172, 173, 174, 176,  179, 184, 185, 192,
  198,204,212
  goals-2, 13, 14,23, 52, 99, 155
  hierarchy • 87, 93,  100, 105, 112, 117, 172, 185, 204,
     212
  methods • 7, 37, 54, 57, 77, 79, 81, 84, 89, 103, 122,
     124, 131, 135, 143, 144, 155, 156, 158, 161, 162,
     163, 164, 165, 167, 168, 172, 174, 178, 180, 185,
     186,193,198,202,209,212
  policy-2, 13, 95, 101,104
  program • 2, 4, 12, 13, 14, 66, 71, 74, 78, 82, 84, 89,
     90, 92, 93, 94, 95,  101, 104, 105, 107, 108,  109,
     113,194
  regulation • 74
  review •  3, 11, 20, 22, 47, 67, 68, 172, 186, 212
  tool • 1, 3, 11, 12,14, 15,  24,48, 51, 52, 75, 111, 112,
     200
Pollution Prevention Act • 2, 15, 60, 39
Pollution prevention opportunities • 1
  case study
     chemical  substitution in pulp and paper
        manufacturing • F-33
     closed-loop plating bath recycling process • F-23
     construction and demolition waste recycling • F-3
     efficient rinsing set-up for chemical etching • F-17
     high volume low pressure (hvlp) paint system • F-
        27
     install an  automated aqueous cleaner • F-13
     maintenance fluid recycling • F-9
     metal working fluid substitution • F-ll
     oil analysis program • F-7
     on-site recycling • F-3 5
     packaging reuse • F-5
     plating process bath maintenance • F-21
     recycling  of cleaner through filtration • F-15
     replacing  chemical stripping with plastic media
        blasting • F-29
     waste reduction in the chromate conversion process
        •F-19
     water-borne paint as a substitute for solvent-based
        coatings • F-25
     white water and fiber reuse in pulp and paper
        manufacturing • F-31
  housekeeping • 15, 24, 47, 75, 93, 113
  inventory control •  15, 106
  material substitution • 57, 105, 173
  training • 2,  13,15, 23, 47, 48, 55, 57, 80, 82, 96, 101,
     104, 105, 113, 146, 161, 165, 167, 172, 181, 184,
     191
Pollution Prevention opportunities
  equipment modifications  • 133
                                                        Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                                          Index
Pollution Prevention Opportunities • 36, 37, 38, 87, 93,
   105, 112, 117, 149, 156, 172, 185,204,212
POTW • 210
Power demand control • 71
Power factor • 41, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 70
   correction • 63, 65
   improvements • 66
Propane • 46
Psychrometrics •  1
Psychrometry • 305
Pump • 262, 263, 264, 265,266,267,268,282
   affinity laws • 264,265,266
   centrifugal • 7, 262, 263, 264, 265, 269, 271, 276, 281,
     290,291,293,294
   curve • 67,263,265, 266, 267,271,294
   energy savings • 7, 262, 272, 274, 276, 277, 279, 286,
     290, 296, 297, 298, 299, 301
   energy usage • 69, 278
   installation • 66, 68, 264, 269, 294, 296, 300
   power requirements • 65, 285, 286, 293, 294
   throttling valve • 277
         R
Raw material • 35
  usage • 35
Raw materials • 22, 29, 40, 53
RCRA-75, 186, 189
Recycling • 15, 52, 75, 77, 82, 87, 91, 92, 93, 94, 98, 99,
  100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112, 114,
  115, 116, 117, 119, 126, 132, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147,
  149, 154, 155, 169, 170, 171, 172, 184, 185, 186, 190,
  191, 192, 198, 204, 207, 208, 209, 210, 212
  case study
     closed-loop plating bath recycling process • 23
     construction and demolition waste recycling • 3
     maintenance fluid recycling • 9
     on-site recycling • 35
     packaging reuse • 5
     recycling of cleaner through filtration • 15
     solvent reduction in commercial printing • 38
     white water and fiber reuse in pulp and paper
        manufacturing • 31
References • 9
  aqueous cleaning • 81
  chemical etching  • 79
  machining  • 81
  painting • 74, 80,  81
  plating • 79, 80, 81
  printing • 74, 79
  solvent cleaning • 80, 81
  surface coating • 79
Refrigeration  (See absorption or mechanical
  refrigeration) • 46, 259, 287, 289, 290, 291, 293, 295
Regulations •  4, 74
Resources • A-9
  energy conservation • A-3, A-9, A-46
  Energy conservation • A-2
  EPA regional offices • A-l
  Pollution prevetnion publications • A-3
  state • A-9
  technology transfer information
     nonprofit
        state • A-9
     state • A-9
  technology transfer information sources
     government
        national • A-9
        regional • A-11
        state • A-12
     non-profit
        national • A-3 8
        state • A-38
     private company
        international • A-40
     professional association
        state • A-42
     professional association
        international • A-40
        national • A-41
     trade association
        international • A-42
     trade association
        national • A-43
        state • A-51
     university
        national • A-5 5
        state • A-56
  technology transfer information sources • A-9
  university • A-9
  university state • A-9
  websites
        federal government sites -A-64
        technology transfer • A-65
     academic resource centers • A-64
     affirmative procurement -A- 67
     cleaner production • A- 67
     compliance assistance • A- 67
     energy conservation • 3, 9, A- 46
     energy conservation • A- 65
     environment, health, and safety • A- 65
     ISO 14000 • A- 66
     life cycle • A- 49
     life cycle analysis • A- 67
     plating/finishing • A- 66
     pollution prevention • 3, 9
        material substitution • A-  59
        recycling • A- 59
        technical associations, technolgy transfer,
          and industry • A- 60
     pollution prevention • A- 57
     printing • A- 66
     state • A- 9
     state internet programs • A- 62
reuse •  15, 29
Reuse •  15, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 91, 100, 101,
  102, 107, 115, 126, 139, 141, 144, 154, 156,209,
  212
Reuse (See Recycling) • 24, 78, 79, 83, 84, 90, 93,
  100, 102
Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                Index
Notes
                  Sanitary and storm sewer • 44, 83, 202, 203,210, 212
                     discharge fee • 44
                     labor • 3, 12, 44, 48, 91, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102,
                       103, 106, 114, 116,  137, 140, 143, 192, 195,208
                     treatment • 43, 44, 72, 74, 75, 78, 80, 83, 88, 104,
                       124, 126, 134, 135,  154, 156, 168, 169, 170, 171,
                       205,210,211,212
                  SIC • 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 280
                  Solid waste • 4, 18,44, 190
                     labor • 44
                     tipping fees • 44
                     transportation • 12, 44, 61, 73, 102, 103, 108, 147,
                       155
                     transportation costs • 44
                  solidification • 15
                  Solvent- 35, 37, 55, 56, 81, 112, 116, 122, 126, 127,
                     138, 140, 145, 158, 177, 186, 188,203,213
                     boiling points • 126, 128
                     distillation •  15, 51, 109, 110, 120, 124, 126, 127,
                       138, 144, 145, 146,  156, 186, 187, 198
                     halogenated • 116, 124, 144, 145, 146, 203
                     recycling • 75, 77, 82, 87, 91, 92, 93, 94, 98, 99,
                       100, 102, 103, 105,  107, 108, 109, 110, 112, 114,
                       115, 116, 117, 119,  126, 132, 144, 145, 146, 147,
                       149, 154, 170, 172,  184, 185, 186, 190, 191, 192,
                       198,204,207,208,209,212
                  Source reduction • 2, 15, 87, 93, 105, 204
                     case study
                       efficient rinsing  set-up for chemical  etching •  17
                       high volume low pressure (hvlp) paint system •
                         27
                       oil analysis program • 7
                       plating process bath maintenance • 21
                  Source Reduction • 75, 87, 88, 93, 94, 105, 112, 113,
                     117, 149, 150, 172, 173, 179, 185, 198,204,212
                  Space heating • 244
                  Stabilization • 15
                  Stratification • 6, 247, 248
                  Temperature • 20, 21, 236, 250, 284, 285, 287, 289,
                    292,294,296,312,330
                  thermal-6, 8,61,73
                  Thermodynamics • 280
                  Thermoenergy storage systems • 7
                    high spot evaluation -258
                  Total Cost Accounting • 48, 51, 52, 53, 54
                  Toxic Release Inventory • 14
                  Treatment • 87, 158, 169, 210
                  TRI (See Toxic Release Inventory) • 14
                           V

                  Variable speed drive -218
                  Ventilation • 47, 63, 244, 313, 318, 327
                      design • 236, 240, 248, 252, 254, 282, 285, 286, 292,
                        293, 294, 295, 296, 303, 305, 307, 308, 309, 310,
                        313, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 329, 330
                      heat recovery • 244, 245, 246, 254, 257, 295, 330, 331
                      losses • 7, 62, 63, 66, 70, 83, 84,240,241,243,252,
                        281,282,292,304,329
                        air-water mixture • 328
                        exhaust • 7, 8, 68, 235, 244, 245, 246, 247, 254,
                           255, 257, 258, 290, 313, 315, 327, 328, 329,
                           330,331,332
                        room air • 327, 330
                    VOC • 79, 80, 81, 84, 119, 129,  173, 174, 176,  177, 178,
                      179, 204
                            w
                   Waste • 3, 11, 13, 20, 22, 24, 43,44, 53, 55, 56, 72, 73,
                      74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 87, 88, 91,
                      92, 93, 98, 99, 100, 104, 106, 112, 115, 116, 149, 156,
                      158, 159, 161, 162, 172, 185, 189, 190, 191, 192, 196,
                      202, 203, 205, 208, 209, 210, 212, 213, 244, 256, 272,
                      277
                      aqueous • 45,77, 81,  117, 118, 119,  124,126,132,
                         134, 135, 139,  140, 141, 143,  144, 145, 148,  155,
                         169, 175, 185,  186, 188
                      assembly • 63, 84, 96, 186, 253
                      coolant- 78,100,109,112,114, 115
                      cutting fluid-81, 112, 129
                      disposal • 12, 15, 20,  40, 43, 44, 47,48, 52, 53, 55,  56,
                         57, 62, 73, 74, 75, 90, 91, 92,  96,  97, 98, 99,  100,
                         101, 102, 103,  106, 108, 109,  110, 114, 116,  119,
                         123, 124, 131,  132, 139, 141,  143, 147, 154,  156,
                         169, 170, 171,  172, 176, 178,  186, 188, 190,  191,
                         193, 194, 196, 203, 204, 208,  209
                      fastening • 84
                      food processing • 243,244
                      generation • 12, 13, 35, 45,47, 55, 61, 63, 67, 72, 73,
                         74, 75, 78, 88, 90, 95, 96, 99,  100, 101, 104,  105,
                         107, 109, 114,  115, 147, 148,  150, 156, 166,  180,
                         181, 182, 183,  186, 192, 197,  228, 235, 236, 240,
                         253, 257, 258, 320
                      generator • 92, 99, 142, 146, 147, 170, 171, 222, 254,
                         257,258,289
                      hazardous • 1, 14, 15, 17, 20, 22, 24, 43, 44, 47, 54,
                         55, 62, 75, 77, 78, 91, 95, 96,  98,  99, 100, 104, 106,
                         108, 109, 110,  112, 113, 116,  117, 118, 124,  131,
                         140, 148, 150,  153, 154, 155,  156, 163, 164,  165,
                         172, 173, 174,  176, 177, 179,  185, 186, 188,  189,
                         190, 191, 192,  193, 194, 195,  197,203,204,205,
                         206,209,212
                      industries- 111, 116, 154, 155, 156, 182, 197,218,
                         250, 253
                      inks • 29, 54, 57, 79,  121, 128, 129,198,199,202,
                         203, 204, 207, 208
                      joining • 84
                      management • 20, 40, 43, 44, 61, 62, 70, 74, 75, 95,
                         101, 103, 104,  107, 112, 158,223,226,227,254
                      management costs • 39, 43
                      material handling • 84, 279
                      metalworking • 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 129
                      minimization • 75, 95, 101, 104,149,150, 156
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Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency

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                                                                                                       Index
  nonhazardous • 117, 118, 206
  oils • 77,78,79, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116,
     119, 121, 123, 128, 129, 131, 132, 135, 143, 144,
     145, 150, 153, 155, 169, 192, 203, 204, 207, 209,
     210
  operations • 3
  paint • 74, 76, 77, 80, 81, 99, 107, 111, 119, 124, 128,
     129, 148, 151, 159, 172, 173, 176, 179, 181, 182,
     184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193,
     194, 195, 196, 197, 198
  paint stripping • 185,186,187,188,189,190,193,
     194, 195, 196
  painting • 74, 80, 81, 144, 148,173,176,184, 223
  printing • 29, 54, 56, 74, 79, 90, 121, 128, 198, 199,
     200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209
  process • 45, 57
  process description • 3, 18,  19,20, 28, 87, 93, 104,
     110, 116, 148, 155, 172, 179, 184, 198
  processes • 43, 61, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 111, 114, 116,
     119, 139, 140, 141, 142, 148, 150, 155, 156, 158,
     159, 163, 164, 167, 169, 170, 172, 173, 185, 193,
     197, 199, 202, 205, 206, 210, 212, 234, 246, 250,
     253, 276, 278, 281, 287, 303, 305, 307
  quantities • 74, 87, 95, 104, 115, 128, 181,196,210,
     234
  record keeping • 4, 147
  reduction • 12, 14, 25, 52, 55, 62, 63, 66, 67, 68, 75,
     79, 90, 93, 98, 99, 109, 121, 136, 137, 150, 156,
     161, 165, 167, 168, 172, 185, 194, 197,206,221,
     227, 228, 229, 230, 235, 242, 243, 245, 247, 258,
     263, 264, 267, 270, 271, 272, 292, 294, 312, 313,
     314,316,328,329,332
  regulations • 1, 4, 12, 25, 73, 74, 75, 99, 101, 104,
     108, 174, 188
  screen printing • 26, 29, 54, 198,199,201,202, 207
  solid • 14, 44, 47, 72, 73, 74, 75, 87, 90, 91, 92, 98,
     106, 107, 108, 109, 113, 115, 144, 145, 149, 163,
     177, 179, 185, 193, 196, 197, 202, 203, 208, 220,
     257
  solvents • 15, 29, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82,116,117, 119,
     120, 121, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131, 132,
     140, 141, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 156, 158, 164,
     170, 172, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 185, 186,
     188, 190, 198, 199, 202, 203, 206, 207, 332
   streams • 18, 107, 167, 170, 188, 192, 246, 251,
     281,295,310,331
   surface cleaning -155
   surface coating • 79, 194
   surface preparation • 173, 195, 196
   thinners • 144, 172
   transportation costs • 44
   treatment • 1, 15, 43, 44, 72, 74, 75, 78, 80, 83, 88,
     104, 124, 126, 134, 135, 154, 156, 168, 169,
     170, 171, 205, 210, 211, 212, 235, 242, 243,
     258, 293
   types • 5, 18, 63, 74, 87, 96, 105, 108, 119, 124,
     126, 140, 142, 144, 146, 148, 149, 170, 173,
     179, 180, 181, 185, 189, 190, 191, 194, 197,
     198, 200, 202, 210, 211, 216, 218, 228, 229,
     231, 232, 245, 247, 253, 254, 262, 264, 267,
     269, 272, 278, 281, 282, 290, 299, 303, 304,
     319,324,331
   wastewater • 20, 74, 88, 95,104,110,120,122,
     123, 126, 127, 131, 140, 141, 143, 149, 152,
     153, 154, 156, 162, 166, 167, 170, 185, 186,
     192, 193, 194, 197, 203, 204, 205, 206, 209,
     210,211,212,330
   wastewater treatment • 88, 95, 104, 110, 141, 152,
     156, 162, 170, 193, 194,203,211,212
Waste minimization • 192
   case study
     waste reduction in the chromate conversion
       process • 19
Wastewater- 110, 134, 135, 140, 141, 143, 156, 190,
   192,193, 194,210
   activated sludge -212
   oxidation • 111, 114, 165,168,209,211,238
   treatment • 43, 44, 72, 74, 75, 78, 80, 83, 88, 104,
     124, 126, 134, 135, 154, 156, 168, 169, 170,
     171, 205, 210, 211, 212, 235, 242, 243, 258,
     293
Water
   usage • 14
Water conservation • 88
Water vapor • 2
   amount in air • 3
    Notes
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency
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