Parking Alternatives:
king Way for Urban infi
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throughout the country, sprawl development is consuming open
space in outlying metropolitan areas and increasing automobile
dependency. This trend is resulting in destruction of natural habi-
tat, air and water pollution, excessive public and private expenditures on
infrastructure expansion, increased transportation and travel costs, and shifts
in jobs out of cities. Simultaneously, abandoned properties in once thriving
urban areas are left behind with an underutilized public infrastructure, thus
feeding the cycle of disinvestment in urban areas. There are many interre-
lated factors influencing this trend, not the least of which are the cost and
ease of development. As the populace becomes increasingly dependent on
automobiles, providing parking in urban areas has become a significant
expense and deterrent to infill and brownfield redevelopment—develop-
ment intended to reduce suburban sprawl and protect the environment by
encouraging developers to invest within existing urban infrastructures.
Providing parking in outlying greenfield areas is less burdensome because
of the availability of land for low cost parking facilities.
In many instances, efforts to accommodate parking for motor vehicles
have overextended actual need. An important case in point, and a focus of
this guide, is the approach used by many cities to establish vehicular park-
ing requirements—typically a generic formula based on satisfying maxi-
mum demand for free parking. Although this practice may allow city plan-
ners to err on the side of caution, it has some serious drawbacks.
In practical terms, this practice increases the cost of development and
creates disincentives with respect to infill and brownfields redevelopment.
In addition, generic parking requirements create excess parking spaces that
consume land and resources, encourage automobile use and associated pol-
lution, and degrade water quality. The oversupply of parking is of particu-
lar concern for infill and brownfields redevelopment because these sites
are often located in urban areas where the existing parking infrastructure
can be better utilized and parking alternatives, such as increased use of
transit and pedestrian modes, can be more readily implemented.
With urban revitalization efforts underway in many cities, the timing is
opportune for instituting changes in parking requirements and transporta-
tion behavior. An important way to reduce the demand for parking and
the need to supply parking to meet maximum demand is to shift transpor-
tation behaviors in the direction of nonauto modes. This can be achieved
by reducing the availability of parking in areas where alternative modes of
transportation exist and by providing incentives for using alternative modes.
Such changes will encourage infill redevelopment and reduce vehicle miles
traveled, mobile source emissions and congestion. They will also increase
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ridership for public transit and, in turn, provide the additional revenues
needed to support public transit improvements.
There are, of course, potential drawbacks to reducing the supply of park-
ing. Lenders, for example, may be unwilling to approve loans because plans
do not meet their minimum parking requirements; developers may be con-
cerned about the long-term marketability of their property; and residents
may fear that parking will spill over into surrounding residential neighbor-
hoods. Such concerns can be more readily addressed if: the factors that
affect parking demand are understood; walkable, pedestrian-oriented de-
velopment design is implemented; and viable nonauto transit alternatives
exist where needed. Concerns are also alleviated when developers, em-
ployers, and employees are aware of public programs that promote the use
of nonauto transit through financial incentives. The Transportation Equity
Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), for example, allows businesses to give
their employees up to $65 per month in tax free transit subsidies. TEA-21
also allows employees who commute by public transit or vanpool to de-
duct the cost of commuting from their taxable income if they do not receive
a subsidy.
This guide is intended to further the readers knowledge and understand-
ing of these issues. It was developed to accomplish the following objec-
tives:
• Alert readers to the significance of the urban parking issue, ad-
dressing the perspectives of both city planners and developers;
• Illustrate the environmental, financial, and social implications of
providing an over-supply of parking; and
• Describe cost-effective, environmentally sensitive alternatives to
generic parking requirements, providing case study examples of
successful commercial real estate development in areas that have
implemented parking alternatives.
The focus of this guide is on commercial parking, and the audience is
primarily local government officials and city planners, as well as develop-
ers, any of whom can initiate changes to generic parking requirements. It is
What is urban infill?
Urban infill is the practice of developing vacant or underutilized proper-
ties within an urban area rather than undeveloped land in more rural areas
(greenfields). Infill helps to prevent sprawl and can aid in economic revital-
ization.
What is a brownfieid?
A brownfieid is an abandoned, idled, or underused industrial or commer-
cial site where redevelopment or expansion is complicated by real or per-
ceived environmental contamination.
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.i Making'Way'for Urban I nfM
essential, however, that these groups work together to implement such
changes.
Intrinsic to this guide is the concern that generic parking requirements
can be a disincentive to infill and brownfields redevelopment and associ-
ated urban economic development. With this issue as its focus, the guide is
intended to stimulate consideration of parking alternatives, and provide
the information needed to explore the viability and effectiveness of alterna-
tives.
The guide is organized into five main sections:
• Establishing parking requirements. Explains how generic park-
ing requirements are typically established and highlights the key
issues city planners face in tailoring parking requirements.
• Cost of providing parking. Explores the factors that influence the
cost of constructing, operating, and maintaining parking facilities
of all types, from surface lots to structured garages.
• Parking requirements and development decisions. Describes the
relationship between parking requirements and development de-
cisions, focusing on the development costs and returns.
• Innovative parking alternatives. Describes alter-
natives to generic parking requirements, includ-
ing:
• alternatives that enable redevelopment projects
to better utilize existing parking (e.g., in-lieu
parking fees to cover costs of city garages,
shared parking arrangements when users park
at different times of the day, shuttle buses from
centralized parking facilities); and
• alternatives designed to reduce the demand for
parking by providing incentives for nonauto
modes of transportation (e.g., public transit sub-
sidies, "cash-out" programs, trip reduction pro-
grams, bicycle amenities).
• Case studies of innovative parking requirements.
Presents three case studies of development projects
located in metropolitan areas that have benefited
from innovative parking alternatives. These case
studies present the cost savings associated with
parking alternatives, as well as the broader eco-
nomic, environmental, and social effects of these
changes.
In addition, an appendix provides examples of innova-
tive parking ordinances and programs.
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"Most planners surveyed
relied on neighboring
cities and national
handbooks to determine
parking requirements.
This practice may result
in inappropriate
requirements if local
conditions or policy
approaches differ."
— Michael Kodama,
Michael R. Kodama Planning
Associates
n setting parking requirements, planners typically use generic stan-
dards that apply to general land use categories (e.g., residential, office,
retail). Such standards are provided in publications of the Institute of
Transportation Engineers (ITE), or they are based on other cities' ordinances
(Shoup 1998). One of the shortcomings of generic parking requirements is
that they often do not take into account the mix of community-specific vari-
ables—density, demographics, availability of nonauto transit, or the sur-
rounding land-use mix —all of which influence demand for parking and
should be reflected in parking requirements. Instead, requirements are based
on maximum demand for parking, when parking is provided at no charge
to users. This formula yields a surplus of parking area that is costly for
developers to provide, and it subsidizes personal automobile use and en-
courages auto use even in areas where convenient alternative modes of
transportation exist.
Because of the way in which they are typically established, parking re-
quirements are remarkably consistent across different cities, despite vary-
ing levels of economic vitality, population size, and development density.
The sampling of data in the table on page 5 also shows that the require-
ments assume that every household has two cars, every employee drives to
work, and every party visiting a restaurant travels by car.
Alternatively, parking requirements can be established using methods
that are better tailored to specific development projects. This approach en-
tails careful consideration of the following land use characteristics that re-
late to parking demand:
• Buildin^development type and size. Takes into account the spe-
cific characteristics of the project. Parking demand is influenced
by the size of the development (typically measured by total build-
ing square footage), as well as the type of land use (e.g., retail,
industrial). Generic parking formulas address these factors to some
extent.
• Population and development density. Considers the density and
demographic characteristics of the people using the building, in-
cluding employees, customers, residents, and visitors. Informa-
tion on income, car ownership, and age distribution also helps in
projecting total parking demand.
• Availability of nonauto modes of transportation. Takes into ac-
count the modes of transportation available to employees, visi-
tors, and residents. Proximity of public transportation to a par-
ticular development, for example, will reduce parking demand.
Walkable neighborhoods and bicycle amenities will also reduce
parking demand.
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
Examples of Minimum Parking Requirements1
Residential
Office
Retail
Restaurant
Location
Single
family
Sp
per
sq
aces
1,000
. ft.2
Number of
Spaces per
Employee3
Spaces per
1,000 sq. ft.4
With tables,
no drive-
thru
Bellevue, Washington 2 spaces per
Population (1996): 104,000 residential
Area: 31 square miles unit
(Off-Street Parking
Requirements)
4 spaces
(net)
1 space (net)
(for retail space
< 1 5,000 sq. ft.)
14 spaces /
1,000 sq . ft.
(net)
Saint Louis County,
Missouri
Population (1996):
1 ,005,094
Area: 506 square miles
1 space per 3.3 spaces
residential (gross)
unit - urban
district
5.5 spaces (gross) 1 space /
3 seats +
2 spaces /
3 employees
(Off-
Re q u
Street
i r
e m e
Bozeman,
P o p u
Area
s q u a
la
t i o n
P
n t
a
s
r k i n g
)
Montana
(1
: Appro
r e
m i 1
e s
996): 26,760
X
i m a t e I y 11.5
2
r
u
u
d
2
r
sp
esi
n i t
a
d
c e
s per
e n t i a I
n
o n -
r b a n
istri
sp
e s i
a
d
u n i t (
s
t re
e
ct
c e
s
sper 4spaces 1.33 4spaces
ential (gross)
if
t
o n -
20 spaces /
1,000 sq . ft.
(net)
Jozeman Planning Office) parking
available)
3 spaces per
residential
unit (if no
on-street
parking
available)
Fairfax County, Virginia 2 spaces per 3.6 spaces
Population (1996): 880,771 residential (gross)
Area: 399 square miles unit
(Fairfax County
Department of Planning
and Zoning)
1.2 5spaces(net)
(for retail space
<1,000 sq. ft)
6 spaces (net)
(for retai I
between 1,000
and 5,000 sq. ft)
1 space/
4 seats +
1 space/
2 employees
Houston, Texas
Population (1996):
1 ,629,902
Area: 556 square miles
(Houston City Planning
Department)
2spacesper 2.5spaces
residential (gross)
unit
4spaces(gross)
8 spaces /
1,000 sq. ft.
(gross)
"Gross" values represent number of spaces per total area, whereas "net" excludes "unusable" space
such as elevators, exterior walls and corridors. Where gross values are not available, we have
presented net values.
Parking requirements for office space less than 50,000 sq. ft.
The number of spaces per 1,000 square feet was converted into spaces per employee using an
average number of 3 employees per 1 ,000 square feet of office space (Burchell et a!. 1994).
Parking requirements for retail space less than 5,000 sq. ft.
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; Making Way for
"In the process of
establishing parking
requirements, local
communities are
sometimes engaged in a
balancing act. They must
consider access, mobility,
and traffic safety, but they
also must encourage
appropriate land use and
traffic management,
environmental protection,
and energy and resource
conservation."
— Thomas P. Smith
• Surrounding land use mix. Considers the surrounding land uses
and density to better understand parking needs, and evaluates
whether overall peak demand is lower than the sum of peak de-
mands for different uses. This concept takes the timing of parking
demand into account in determining the aggregate demand of
multiple uses. The type of community in which a development is
located will also affect parking demand. For example, if a devel-
opment project is located in a city's central business district, the
availability of general use parking will reduce on-site parking de-
mand. On the other hand, if the development is located in a resi-
dential area, on-street parking may be unacceptable to local resi-
dents, increasing the need for off-street parking at the develop-
ment.
Land use and demographic information are important tools for estab-
lishing project-specific parking requirements that create a better match of
supply and demand for parking than do many generic requirements. More-
over, adjusting parking requirements downward to reflect realistic demand
helps reduce the total cost of development, particularly in urban areas. By
reducing cost, a potential deterrent to urban infill and brownfields redevel-
opment can be removed.
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^he cost of providing parking is driven by three key factors: the num-
ber of parking spaces required, the opportunity cost of the land used
for parking, and the cost per parking space. The more parking spaces
required, the higher the cost of parking. Generic parking standards tend to
require a greater number of spaces and, thereby, increase total develop-
ment costs. The opportunity cost of land used for parking is also linked
directly to the number of required spaces —land that might otherwise be
used to generate revenue is consigned to parking use.
The cost per space, on the other hand, depends on engineering and de-
sign considerations. Although cost per space is not directly influenced by
local government policies and practices, it will vary for urban, suburban,
and rural areas based on factors such as design constraints and land costs.
Cost per parking space includes land, construction, maintenance, utilities/
insurance, administrative, and operation costs (Siegman 1993).
Land and construction costs, which account for most of the costs of park-
ing, vary considerably across cities and parking designs. For example, the
reported average land and construction cost for ten parking facilities in
northeastern Illinois (three garages and seven surface lots) is $4,450 per
space (Fish & Associates, Inc., 1998); the cost reported for surface parking
in Lake Forest, Illinois is $18,000 per space (Shoup 1998). Construction costs
are typically higher for parking structures than for surface parking lots.
For example, Shoup (1998) reports construction costs of $21,831 per space
for a structured garage in Walnut Creek, California.
Willson (1995) expresses parking costs in terms of a monthly amount
that would pay for the land, construction, and operating costs of providing
a parking space.1 The reported average monthly cost calculated for six
surface parking sites in Southern California was $48 per space; among the
six sites, the monthly cost ranged from $28 to $61. The average cost for two
sites in Southern California with aboveground structured parking was $97
per space per month.
In general, the following factors affect the cost of parking:
• Structured versus surface parking. Structured parking is more
costly to construct, operate, and maintain than surface parking.
Underground parking structures are more costly to construct than
aboveground structures because of the added expense of excava-
tion, fireproofing, ventilation, and dewatering (Shoup 1997b). In
"Ignoring both the cost of
providing parking spaces
and the price charged for
parking in them, urban
planners thus set
minimum parking
requirements to satisfy
maximum parking
demand."
— Donald Shoup,
Institute of Transportation
Studies, University of California,
Los Angeles
1 The fee includes land and construction costs, amortized using a 7.5% interest rate over
a 30-year period, and annual operating costs. Costs are in 1992 dollars.
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; Making Way for
a study of UCLA's parking facilities, the cost per space
in an aboveground structure was approximately
$10,000 and for a comparable space in an underground
structure, $25,000 (Shoup 1998). Because of the rela-
tive scarcity of land in urban areas, parking require-
ments that assume maximum demand may necessi-
tate structured parking facilities for urban infill and
brownfields redevelopment, increasing the cost of
brownfields redevelopment in comparison to
greenfields development.
• Land cost. Land costs vary widely across settings (ur-
ban/suburban), geographic areas, and location within
a particular city. Land costs in urban centers are gen-
erally much higher than in suburban areas. For ex-
ample, the cost per square foot of land in downtown
Charlotte, North Carolina is $121, while in the sub-
urbs, the cost per square foot is $21 (ULI1997). Since
most brownfields are located in urban areas, with
higher land costs, the cost per parking space in
brownfield areas is generally higher than in greenfield
areas.
• Configuration and size of parking facility. Parking
structures and lots are more expensive to build and
operate on smaller lots and complex land configura-
tions, due in part to economies of scale. For example, smaller ga-
rages have higher costs per parking space because of the fixed capi-
tal costs (e.g., stairwells, ramps, and elevators) and fixed operat-
ing costs. These characteristics — smaller lots and more complex
land configurations — are typical of urban infill and brownfield
areas, making parking more expensive at these locations than at
greenfield sites.
Geologic conditions. Parking structures on land with more sen-
sitive seismic conditions or land with difficult terrain also cost more
per parking space because they require more complex engineer-
ing and construction design. While geologic conditions vary across
the country, developers have a greater choice of land options when
considering development in suburban and rural areas. On the other
hand, land options in urban areas are more limited, and terrain
with geologic constraints may be more difficult to avoid.
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________^
All of the cost factors discussed above will have an important bearing
on the financial feasibility of development options and, as such, will influ-
ence development decisions. On the whole, these factors suggest that the
cost per parking space will be more expensive at urban brownfield sites
than at greenfield sites. The next section explores in greater detail how the
costs of parking— both the absolute costs and opportunity costs—factor
into development decisions.
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"Parking requirements
hide the cost of parking
by bundling it into higher
housing prices, higher
consumer prices, lower
urban density, and lower
land values. Everyone
but the motorist pays for
parking."
— Donald Shoup,
Institute of Transportation
Studies, University of California,
Los Angeles
he connections between parking requirements and development
decisions are somewhat complex, but can be boiled down to two
basic components:
• Costs of providing parking, and
• Expected financial returns associated with availability of park-
ing or other uses of the land.
Both of these components influence the financial feasibility of development
options and, therefore, development decisions.
The cost component relates directly to the total cost of development—
the lower the number of required parking spaces and the cost of those spaces,
the lower the project development costs. The cost elements listed in the
previous section suggest that the cost per parking space is more expensive
at small sites with complex land configurations (which may necessitate
building expensive structured garages) and at sites with high land costs.
Another condition that may influence the cost of redevelopment is the need
to demolish existing buildings to free up land to accommodate parking.
Since many urban infill and brownfield sites have these characteristics,
parking costs can influence development decisions associated with these
sites.
The financial returns related to parking are more complex than the cost
component. As shown in the flow chart on the next page, financial returns
are a product of the amount of marketable space, the occupancy rate, and
the selling price/rental rate for that space. Because parking consumes land,
if less parking is required, more land is available for alternative uses. If that
available land is used to expand the marketable space and the market for
the space is strong, then revenues generated by the sales of the property
and/or tenant rent will increase. If the land is used to provide other ameni-
ties, such as landscaped open space, its value will increase (i.e., the devel-
opment will be more desirable and command higher sales or rental rates).
On the other hand, to the extent that extra parking is viewed as an amenity
that will influence occupancy rates and sales or rental income, reduced park-
ing may negatively affect project returns. The availability of reliable and
convenient nonauto modes of transport reduces, and may eliminate, this
potential negative effect.
As shown in the flowchart, municipal and lender requirements are key
determinants of the number of parking spaces provided at a given location;
however, the number of spaces provided also depends on developer pref-
erences, land costs, tenant preferences, and the practices of competing de-
10
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
velopment. Strong municipal leadership is especially important with re-
gard to promoting parking alternatives at the local level; high marketabil-
ity and financial returns are more likely when municipal leaders demon-
strate a serious commitment to enabling worthwhile infill and brownfield
projects. From the lender perspective, parking requirements can improve
lenders' ability to sell the mortgage in the secondary market should the
project fail, as secondary mortgage buyers can fear unfamiliar property man-
agement requirements associated with "atypical" development.
Fearing that properties will not be marketable without ample parking,
lenders often establish their own minimum parking requirements as part
of their loan approval processes. Developers and planners need to work
with lending institutions to demonstrate that innovative parking alterna-
tives can be employed to reduce the need for parking while maintaining
high marketability and projected revenues. Also, developers should search
out local banks that have a good understanding of the city and its alterna-
tive transportation modes. Such lending establishments are more receptive
to financing projects that employ creative alternatives to stringent parking
requirements.
11
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Making Way for
(averages for Olympia, Washington)
Source: City of Olympia Public Works Department, and the Washington State
Department of Ecology, 1995.
Reductions in parking requirements can decrease development costs and
potentially increase returns, particularly for infill and brownfields redevel-
opment. Innovative alternatives that allow for reductions in parking re-
quirements can improve the financial feasibility of development and may
also provide incentives for alternative, less polluting, modes of transporta-
tion and nonauto dependent development designs. The next section de-
scribes cost-effective, environmentally sensitive alternatives to generic park-
ing requirements that have been successfully implemented at cities in vari-
ous parts of the country.
12
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ome local governments have implemented alternatives to generic
parking requirements that increase utilization of existing parking
facilities, reduce the demand for parking, and/or create more cost-
effective and environmentally sensitive park-
ing structures that preserve pervious surfaces.2 impiementedAiternatives
By lowering total development costs, some of
Parking Alternative Location
these parking alternatives have consequently
r O i J In-Lieu Fees Berkeley, California
encouraged urban infill and brownfields rede- c 0 c 0 n u t G r 0 v e _ F, 0 r, d a
velopment. Lake Forest] llllnolg
n-,1 . ,. , ,-,, -,, Long Beach, California
This section presents some of these alterna-
tives and includes a discussion of how and why
J Pa lo Alto, California
planners establish these alternatives, the advan-
£ SharedParking Indianapolis, Indiana
tages of the innovations, potential concerns of M 0 n t g 0 m „ r y c 0 u n t y _ M a r y, a n d
developers and planners, and examples of how -^1777^77^7^ ST^T^TTT^Tr^
the various alternatives have been imple- West Palm Beach, Florida
Maximum Limits Portland, Oregon
Redmond, Washington
In-LJeu Parking Fees Sa_" F^ncisc°. canforma
ParkingFreezes Boston, Massachusetts
In-lieu parking fees are established by mu-
SubsidiesforTransit Boulder, Colorado
mcipalities as an alternative to requmng on-site
r 1 ° SanBernardinoCounty.Cal
parking spaces. With in-lieu fees, developers
1 oi i CashOutPrograms Los Angeles, California
are able to circumvent constructing parking on-
or ° Santa Monica, California
site by paying the city a fee. The city, in return, ~- ~~ —•——
J L J o J J ' Transitlmprovements Portland, Oregon
provides centralized, off-site parking that is c h a 11 a n 0 0 g a _ T „ n n „ s s „ „
available for use by the development's tenants ~~~-—r~ ~~" ; r~~ " TT—:
J -T PedestrianandBicycle Schaumburg, Illinois
and visitors. The fees are determined by the Amenities Kendaii, Florida
city and are generally based on the cost of pro- vehicle Trip Reduction Cambridge, Massachusetts
Viding parking. Seattle, Washington
Montgomery County, Maryland
Cities set fees in one of two ways, either by assssss^^
calculating a flat fee for parking spaces not pro-
vided by a developer on-site or by establishing development-specific fees
on a case-by-case basis. Shoup (1998) reports that in-lieu fees in the United
States range from $5,850 to $20,180 per parking space. These fees can be
imposed as a property tax surcharge.
In-lieu parking fees provide advantages to both planners and develop-
ers. Allowing developers to pay fees in-lieu of constructing parking has
the following benefits:
2 Preserving pervious surfaces helps to control nonpoint source runoff from developed
sites. The pervious surfaces absorb rainfall and prevent polluted runoff.
13
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; Making Way for
in-Liey Parking Fees
Coconut Grove — Miami, Florida
Coconut Grove is a pedestrian-oriented, entertain-
ment, dining, and shopping village in southern Mi-
ami. In an effort to maintain Coconut Grove's con-
tinuous street frontage, city planners established
flexible parking requirements. Developers or prop-
erty owners have three choices for satisfying mini-
mum parking requirements: they can provide off
street parking, contract spaces elsewhere, or pay
in-lieu fees. With little space left to develop and
high land costs, most property owners choose to
pay the $50 per space per month fee to the city
and use the land for more productive, revenue-
generating purposes. This in-lieu alternative allows
the city to preserve a continuous storefront that
maintains the aesthetic character of the area and
improves walkability.
Source: Coconut Grove Chamber of Commerce.
• Overall construction costs may be reduced;
• Construction of awkward, unattractive on-site
parking is avoided;
• Redevelopment projects involving historic build-
ings can avoid constructing parking that would
compromise the character of the buildings;
• Planners can ensure that existing parking facili-
ties will be more fully utilized; and
• Planners can encourage better urban design with
continuous storefronts that are uninterrupted by
parking lots.
In establishing in-lieu parking fees, planners must
be cognizant of potential developers' concerns about
the impact of a lack of on-site parking on the attrac-
tiveness of developments to tenants and visitors. This
can be an issue if available public parking is insuffi-
cient, inconveniently located, or inefficiently operated. Planners must care-
fully consider the parking demand for each participating property and pro-
vide enough parking to meet this demand in order to avoid creating a per-
ceived or real parking shortage. Planners must also work to ensure that
public parking facilities are centrally located and operated efficiently.
Different types of land uses attract customers, workers, and visitors dur-
ing different times of the day. Shared parking is another alternative that
city planners can employ when setting parking requirements in mixed-use
areas. An office that has peak parking demand during the daytime hours,
for example, can share the same pool of parking spaces with a restaurant
whose demand peaks in the evening. This alternative also reduces overall
development costs.
By allowing for and encouraging shared parking, planners can decrease
the total number of spaces required for mixed-use developments or single-
use developments in mixed-use areas. Developers benefit, not only from
the decreased cost of development, but also from the "captive markets"
stemming from mixed-use development. For example, office employees
are a captive market for business lunches at restaurants in mixed-use de-
velopments.
Shared parking encourages use of large centralized parking facilities and
discourages the development of many small facilities. This results in more
efficient traffic flow because there are fewer curb cuts, and turning oppor-
tunities on main thoroughfares. This has the added benefits of reducing
accidents and reducing emissions from idling vehicles stuck in traffic.
14
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
Establishing shared parking requirements in-
volves site-specific assessment or use of time-of-
day parking utilization curves.3 Planners need to
consider the following factors when developing
shared parking requirements:
• Physical layout of the development;
• Number of spaces for each of the indi-
vidual land uses;
• Types of parking users (e.g., employees,
residents, or hotel guests who park all
day or customers and visitors who park
for short periods of time); and
• Hourly accumulation of parking for each
land use.
Montgomery County, Maryland allows for
shared parking to meet minimum parking require-
ments when any land or building under the same
ownership or under a joint use agreement is used
for two or more purposes. The county uses the
following method to determine shared require-
ments for mixed-use developments:
• Determine the minimum amount of
parking required for each land use as
though it were a separate use, by time
period, considering proximity to transit.4
• Calculate the total parking required
across uses for each time period.
• Set the requirement at the maximum to-
tal across time periods.
3 Time-of-day parking utilization curves developed for
weekdays and weekends are provided in the 1983 ULI pub-
lication Shared Parking for office, regional retail, restaurant/
lounge, cinema, hotel, and residential uses. Calthorpe Asso-
ciates, an urban design, planning and architecture firm, re-
ports that when sizing parking areas for mixed-use develop-
ments, they use these ULI figures and their developer clients
accept the analyses (Rood, 1999).
4 The minimum parking requirements in Montgomery
County can be reduced for buildings located in close prox-
imity to transit or within a central business district. Parking
reductions are also possible at developments with owners
who participate in transportation demand management pro-
grams. More information on Montgomery County's park-
ing ordinance is provided in the Appendix.
Shared Parking:
Planner and DeveSoper Concerns
Planner Concerns
Q: What if the land uses change within the mixed-use de-
velopment?
A: Any change in land uses within a mixed-use develop-
ment requires a revised assessment of parking demand.
It is possible for peak demand to increase with a change
in land use. Thus, planners need to be receptive to im-
proving transit or providing other incentives to encour-
age nonauto transport modes. Responding in this way
avoids the need for developers to provide additional park-
ing in the event of more intense land use changes. Of
course, transit solutions are not always available and cre-
ating incentives for other alternatives will only capture a
limited number of commuters. In such cases, contingen-
cies for additional parking may be necessary to accom-
modate development mix changes. One alternative is to
"land bank" a percentage of land for parking use, if needed
at a later time. (Schaumburg, Illinois incorporates a land
banking provision in its 1998 Parking Ordinance; see the
Appendix to this guide for relevant excerpts from its or-
dinance.)
Developer Concerns
Q: Will a development with fewer parking spaces be iess
attractive lo tenants or patrons?
A: If parking requirements based on sharing have been
established correctly, available supply should accommo-
date parking demands, and marketability will not be af-
fected.
Q: How can unauthorized use of spaces be prevented?
A: Shared parking facilities are more susceptible to en-
croachment of unauthorized vehicles than single-use park-
ing facilities. To inhibit such encroachment, owners or
operators of the parking facility may want to restrict ac-
cess and/or use by charging fees, gating the parking area,
or using vehicle stickers/permits or electronic access cards.
Q: How are maintenance costs shared?
A: There are various options for sharing maintenance
costs, and they will depend on the particular development
project. One approach might be to share maintenance
costs by prorating the costs depending on parking use.
For example, in the Montgomery County, Maryland ex-
ample (see table on page 16), using peak parking demands
for different uses, we calculate maintenance costs for each
use: the office user would pay 44 percent; the retail user
would pay 41 percent; and the entertainment user would
pay 15 percent of the maintenance costs. If there is single
ownership of mixed-use development, this issue is avoided
entirely.
15
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; Making Way for
Circle Centre — Indianapolis, Indiana
Opened in September of 1995, Circle Centre is In-
dianapolis' newest example of an Urban Retail/En-
tertainment (URE) development. Located in the
central business district, this mixed-use develop-
ment contains 630,600 square feet gross lease area
(GLA) of retail space, 78,000 square feet GLA of res-
taurant space, a 2,700-seat cinema complex, and an-
other 28,000 square feet GLA of specialty and en-
tertainment space. The total cost of the develop-
ment was $300 million, funded by the city, a con-
sortium of 19 local corporations, and two interna-
tional banks. One of the factors that led to a finan-
cially successful project was the conceptualization
and implementation of a shared parking scheme
that allowed for significant cost savings and a pe-
destrian-friendly urban design.
With generic minimum parking requirements, Circle
Centre would have needed about 6,000 parking
spaces. With shared parking taken into account,
the project was built with only 2,815 spaces. Shared
parking for Circle Centre includes two components.
First, the mixed-use nature of the development
project allows for customers to use a single park-
ing space for multiple destinations. Second, be-
cause the project is located in the downtown area,
employees can use nearby off-site parking, particu-
larly in evenings and on weekends when more than
12,000 nearby off-site spaces become available to
Circle Centre parkers. Taking these two shared park-
ing components into account decreases the esti-
mated demand for on-site parking by more than
50 percent.
This parking demand reduction translates into con-
siderable cost savings. At parking costs of about
$10,000 per space for aboveground structured park-
ing, development costs were reduced by about $30
million. In addition, operating costs were reduced
by approximately $1 million per year.
Source: Smith, 1996.
The table below illustrates how peak demand oc-
curs at different times of the day and week for different
land uses when the shared parking method is applied
to a mixed-use development. While maximum park-
ing demand for the office component of the project oc-
curs during the daytime on weekdays, maximum de-
mand for retail occurs during the daytime on week-
ends, and for entertainment during the evening.
For this example, setting parking requirements us-
ing maximum demand would have resulted in requir-
ing 680 spaces (300 spaces for office, 280 spaces for re-
tail, and 100 spaces for entertainment). By recognizing
the shared parking potential, a reduction of almost 200
parking spaces (about 25 percent) was achieved—rep-
resenting a considerable cost savings for the developer.
In addition, shared parking also allows for more effi-
cient use of land and better urban design.
An American Planning Association report, Flexible
Parking Requirements, highlights factors that facilitate
shared parking. The report suggests that for shared
parking to function effectively, parking requirements
for individual land uses must reflect peak demand land
use and common parking facilities must be in close
proximity to one another. Parking spaces should not
be reserved for individuals or groups.
Calculating Parking for Mixed-Use Developments
(Montgomery County, Maryland)
Weekday
Office
Retail
Entertainment
TOTAL
Daytime
(9 a.m. -
4 p.m.)
300*
1 68
40
508
Evening
(6 p.m. -
12 a.m.)
30
252
1 00*
382
Weekend
Daytime
(9 a.m. -
4 p.m.)
30
280*
80
390
Evening
(6 p.m. -
12 a.m.)
15
1 96
1 00*
3 1 1
Nighttime
(12 a.m. -
6 a.m.)
15
14
10
39
* Peak demand by use.
Source: Smith 1983, page 7.
16
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
Centralized parking facilities can reduce the costs of
parking because large facilities are less expensive on a
per space basis to build and maintain than small facili-
ties. Centralized parking, as an alternative to on-site
parking, also improves urban design and preserves the
historic nature of communities. Some cities mandate
centralized parking facilities and finance them through
development impact fees or negotiated contributions es-
tablished during the environmental review process.
While the concept of centralized parking facilities
makes sense from economic, environmental, and urban
design perspectives, developers' concerns relate to in-
conveniences to building occupants, such as lack of
parking proximity. These concerns can be addressed in
part by providing reliable and frequent shuttle services
to and from the centralized parking facilities. Success-
ful centralized parking has been accomplished in Chat-
tanooga, Tennessee. In this case, centralized facilities
are located at the periphery of the city, reducing traffic
and mobile source emissions in the downtown area and
freeing up land in the center city for redevelopment.
In contrast to generic minimum parking require-
ments, maximum limits restrict the total number of
spaces that can be constructed rather than establish a
minimum number that must be provided. Planners set
maximum limits much like they set minimum require-
ments. Typically, a maximum number of spaces is based
on square footage of a specific land use. For example,
the City of Portland, Oregon restricts offices in the cen-
tral business district to 0.7 parking spaces per 1,000
square feet, and retail to 1.0 space per 1,000 square feet
of net building area. Contrary to what might be ex-
pected, the maximum limits in Portland have not led to
a parking shortage because of the abundance of transit
alternatives in the area.
Planners establish maximum limits instead of minimum requirements
for various reasons. By managing the supply of off-street parking and re-
ducing automobile use, Portland's planners hope to ".. .improve mobility,
promote the use of alternative modes, support existing and new economic
development, maintain air quality, and enhance the urban form of the Cen-
Centraiized, Peripheral! Parking
Chattanooga, Tennessee
The downsizing of the American steel industry took
its toll on Chattanooga, Tennessee, and by the 1960s
Chattanooga was an economically depressed and
polluted city. In the 1980s, the Chattanooga Area
Regional Transit Authority (CARTA) board of direc-
tors began looking for ways to revitalize the down-
town. To encourage urban development while lim-
iting congestion and air pollution, CARTA developed
a strategy that included periphery parking and a
free shuttle service. The strategy maintained that
with a linear shaped central business district, work-
ers and visitors could drive to the city, park in one
of the two periphery garages, and use the shuttles
to travel up and down the 15 block business corri-
dor. By constructing parking at either end of the
city, CARTA hoped to intercept commuters and visi-
tors before they drove into the city center.
The two structures, Shuttle Park South and Shuttle
Park North are owned by CARTA and operated pri-
vately. The CARTA's shuttle service commenced in
1992. The Shuttle Park South garage opened in Au-
gust 1994 with 550 parking spaces, while the Shuttle
Park North garage opened two years later, with
parking for 650 cars. The free shuttle buses, fi-
nanced through the garages' parking revenues,
depart from both garages every five minutes all
day every day and pass within walking distance of
most downtown destinations.
The peripheral parking garages and the shuttle ser-
vice offer a popular alternative to downtown park-
ing. The electric-powered shuttles transport ap-
proximately one million riders each year, making
shuttle-proximate property attractive to busi-
nesses. Since 1992, over $400 million has been
spent on development in Chattanooga. This in-
cludes a $45 million aquarium, a $28 million park,
over 100 retail shops, and over 60 restaurants.
CARTA's initiatives won commendation from EPA,
receiving a "Way to Go" award in 1996 for innova-
tive transportation solutions that support urban
development. The parking-shuttle strategy has
encouraged urban development while limiting the
city's traffic and congestion.
Sources: EPA, 1998; Chattanooga News Bureau,
1999.
17
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; Making Way for
Link Between Maximum Limits and
Portland, Oregon
In Portland, Oregon, maximum parking limits vary
according to distance from light rail stations. For
example, new office space on the light rail transit
mall is allowed 0.8 spaces per 1,000 square feet,
while office space located in Goose Hollow, located
several blocks from the transit mall, is allowed 2.0
spaces per 1,000 square feet.
These maximum limits have not been problematic
to developers. In fact, property values and cus-
tomer volume in the parking restricted areas near
transit stations are higher than in other areas. In a
1987 survey of 54 businesses located near light rail
transit, 66 percent of business owners said that their
businesses had been helped because they were lo-
cated near public transit; 54 percent reported in-
creased sales volumes as a result of being located
near transit
Source: Tri-County Metropolitan Transportation Dis-
trict of Oregon, 1999.
tral City" (Title 33: Planning and Zoning Code for the City of Portland,
1999). Both planners and developers benefit from restricting the number of
parking spaces allowed.
From the city planner's perspective, maximum limits accomplish the
following:
• Improve the urban environment by preserving open space and
limiting impervious surfaces;
• Reduce congestion;
• Encourage attractive, pedestrian-friendly urban design; and
• Promote nonautomobile modes of transportation.
From the developer's perspective, maximum limits accomplish the fol-
lowing:
• Minimize costs for parking construction, operations and mainte-
nance;
• Reduce traffic and traffic related costs; and
• Operate with a greater floor-to-area ratio, increasing leasable space.
There are, however, challenges to setting and maintaining maximum
limits. When limiting the supply of parking, planners must consider pos-
sible spillover parking in surrounding residential neighborhoods. To avoid
such spillover, developers must understand the factors that affect parking
demand and ensure that viable nonauto transit alternatives exist where
needed. Changes in frequency or routing of transit,
increases or decreases in development densities, or
changes in land use can all influence the demand for
parking. By understanding the various factors that af-
fect the demand for parking, however, planners can
build flexibility into zoning codes and be receptive to
modifying requirements to fit the needs of the chang-
ing environment. Another useful policy for prevent-
ing parking spillover into residential areas is to imple-
ment residential parking permit programs.
With restrictive maximum limits on the number of
parking spaces, developers may worry about the long-
term marketability of a property. Marketability should
not be a concern for competing developments in the
same locale since all developments must adhere to the
maximum limits. With regard to competing develop-
ments outside the region with maximum limits, ameni-
ties other than parking such as convenient access to
services and places of employment, aesthetically attrac-
18
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..;Making'Way'for Urban I nfM
tive streetscapes, or pedestrian-friendly neighborhoods, can have a strong
influence on tenant preferences. City governments and developers should
incorporate these elements to attract businesses and residents.
Maximum requirements are not ideal for all locations. It is crucial for
municipalities that employ maximum requirements to have accompanying
accessible and frequent public transportation. It is also important for the
area to be sufficiently stable economically to attract tenants without need-
ing to provide a surplus of parking. A number of cities have implemented
maximum parking requirements, including San Francisco, California; Port-
land, Oregon; and Seattle, Washington. The appendix provides an example
of maximum limits as written in Portland's Title 33 Planning and Zoning
Code.
The amount of parking required can be directly reduced through park-
ing freezes that cap the total number of parking spaces in a particular met-
Parking Freeze
Boston, Massachusetts
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts capped the total number of commercial spaces
in Boston's downtown district in the 1970s, in response to nonattainment with carbon
monoxide and ozone requirements specified in the Clean Air Act. Since Boston's zon-
ing code mandates minimum parking requirements for some areas affected by the
parking freeze, developers negotiate with both the local zoning board and the Air
Pollution Control Commission (APCC), which administers the parking freeze, for approval
of development proposals. Rather than setting parking plans or definitive standards
for tenant parking, the APCC negotiates with each new development or redevelop-
ment project, taking into account demographics and density. The APCC's goal is to
limit parking to an overall ratio of 0.4 spaces per 1,000 square feet of floor space for
office/commercial properties in Boston's downtown district. This parking goal repre-
sents a reduction of almost 90 percent from typical maximum demand parking re-
quirements and is achievable because of Boston's extensive mass transit system. Par-
tially as a result of its parking freeze, Boston now attains the carbon monoxide stan-
dards.
The cap on parking affects the way Boston workers commute to work, shifting trans-
portation behavior to nonauto modes. As shown below, over 60 percent of commut-
ers use modes of transportation other than single occupancy vehicles.
Boston Jo urney- to- Wo rk Transportation Modes
Transport Mode
Number and Percentage
of Commuters3
Public Transportation1
112,681 (43.4%)
Single Occupancy Vehicle2
96,1 94 (37.1 %)
C a r p o o I
27,833 (10.7%)
Walk
Bicycl e
1 ,448 (O.e
Work at Home
1,394 (0.5%)
NOTES:
1 . Public transportation includes those workers who commute via subway,
bus/trolley, railroad, or ferry.
2. Single occupancy vehicle (SOV) include personal automobile, taxi, or
motorcycle.
3. Data are for Boston's 1.5 square mile CBD, with 50 million square feet of office
space and six million square feet of retail space.
Source: Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 1992.
"The generous parking
capacity required by
planners often goes
unused. Studying office
buildings in ten
California cities, Richard
Willson (1995) found that
the peak parking demand
averaged only 56 percent
of capacity."
— Donald Shoup,
Institute of Transportation
Studies, University of California,
Los Angeles
19
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; Making Way for
The Transportation Equity Act
for the 21st Century: TEA-21
The Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century
(TEA-21) was enacted June 9, 1998 as Public Law 105-
178. TEA-21 authorizes the federal surface transpor-
tation programs for highways, highway safety, and
transit for the six-year period of 1998-2003. TEA-21
provides significant funding and other assistance
to support transit and other nonauto transport
modes. Benefits of TEA-21 include the following
provisions:
• Transit and vanpool benefits may be offered in lieu
of compensation payable to an employee for tax-
able years beginning January 1998. This gives tran-
sit and vanpool benefits the same tax treatment that
parking benefits receive under the Taxpayer Relief
Act of 1997.
• The limit on nontaxable transit and vanpool benefits
is increased from $65 to $100 per month for taxable
years beginning January 2002.
• Employers can offer employees several options for
qualified transportation fringe benefits. These ben-
efits can be provided to employees either in addi-
tion to present compensation or in lieu of compen-
sation, tax free.
• Employers can offer a parking cash out program
whereby employees may choose to forego employer
provided parking and receive the taxable cash value
of the parking, or receive a tax-free transit or
vanpool benefit of up to $65 per month ($100 per
month beginning January 2002).
ropolitan district. Such freezes have been implemented
in various areas of the country in response to
nonattainment of environmental standards, traffic con-
gestion, or other urban planning considerations. Simi-
lar to the issues associated with maximum limits, park-
ing freezes need to be implemented in conjunction with
viable public transportation options. Cities with suc-
cessful parking freezes generally have strong economies
and are attractive to tenants, customers, and visitors.
Such cities can attract businesses because the benefits
of the urban location outweigh the potential drawback
of limited parking, and because public transit offers a
viable alternative to auto use.
Many of the alternatives to minimum parking re-
quirements discussed above, such as in-lieu fees, cen-
tralized parking, shared parking, and maximum park-
ing limits, provide ways to reduce excess parking sup-
ply. It is also possible to reduce the need for parking
and the associated costs by influencing the demand for
parking. Demand reduction can be achieved by increas-
ing the price of parking or through instituting nonauto
transport incentives. Charging users for parking is a
market-based approach by which the true cost of park-
ing can be passed through to parking users. If the fee charged to users of
parking facilities is sufficient to cover construction, operation and mainte-
nance costs, it will likely cause some users to seek alternative transport
modes.
Demand reduction can also be achieved through a variety of programs
and policies described further below that attempt to reduce the demand for
parking, and thus reduce the needed supply. While these programs are
typically developed by local governments, their success often depends on
the commitment of businesses to implement them effectively. Demand re-
duction programs include: subsidies for transit, cash-out programs, transit
improvements, pedestrian and bicycle amenities, and vehicle trip reduc-
tion programs. When employers allow telecommuting and/or flexible work
schedules that reduce commuting, demand is also reduced.
Subsidies for Transit
Transit subsidies can be provided by cities or by employers. In the case
of employer-paid transit pass schemes, the employer pays the cost of em-
ployees' transit, converting the fixed cost for parking spaces into a variable
cost for the public transportation subsidy. This fringe benefit for employ-
ees reduces the demand for parking at the workplace, which in turn re-
duces traffic, air pollution, and energy consumption. It also reduces the
20
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.iMaking Way for
cost associated with providing parking, as transit subsidies are generally
less expensive than providing parking. A transit pass in Los Angeles, Cali-
fornia, for example, costs $42 per month, whereas the average cost for a
parking space is $91 per month (Shoup 1997b). To promote transit subsi-
dies, the 1998 Transportation Equity Act for the 21st century eliminates the
tax burden for both employers and employees; these subsidies are not taxed
as payroll or as income.
In some cases, city planners respond to employer paid transit subsidies
by lowering minimum parking requirements. For example, included in
Montgomery County, Maryland, office zoning requirements is a 15 percent
reduction in minimum parking requirements if businesses offer reimbursed
transit passes (Smith 1983). By offering subsidies for public transportation
use, employers enable the reduction of parking space requirements, thus
decreasing total development costs and making urban development op-
portunities more inviting.
Subsidies for Transit
Boulder, Colorado
Boulder's downtown district comprises some 700 businesses and over 7,500 em-
ployees. Faced with a shortage of parking for customers, Boulder developed a
program to encourage nonautomobile commuting for its downtown employees.
In 1993, Boulder's City Council mandated restricted downtown parking and ap-
pealed for parking demand management for the city's commuters.
The Central Area General Improvement District (CAGID), made up of downtown
businesses, responded to the Boulder City Council's demands by providing free
bus passes for all of the district's employees. The pass program, which costs
$500,000 annually and is funded through downtown meter revenues, has success-
fully altered transportation modes, freeing up valuable customer parking spaces,
in the following ways:
• Multiple occupancy vehicle commuting increased from 35 percent in 1993
to 47 percent in 1997.
• The district's employees require 850 fewer parking spaces as a result of the
free bus pass program.
• The increase in available parking has encouraged more retail customers to
shop in downtown Boulder.
• By taking public transportation, bicycling, carpooling, and walking, Boulder
employees avoid 212,500 single occupancy vehicle trips per year. With an
average commute trip in Boulder of 10.8 miles, over two million miles of
pollution- and congestion-causing automobile use is prevented each year.
While this program has produced beneficial results, the ideal balance of down-
town parking and nonauto transport modes has yet to be achieved. Downtown
Boulder, Inc., an organization representing the downtown businesses, maintains
that while the bus pass program provided more spaces for customers, there con-
tinues to be a shortage of parking for employees and visitors.
Source : Boulder Community Network, 1999.
21
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; Making Way for
Cash-Out Program
Santa Monica, California
In 1992, California instituted a mandatory cash-out
program. The California Health and Safety Code
Section 43834 reads, "'Parking cash-out program'
means an employer-funded program under which
an employer offers to provide a cash allowance to
an employee equivalent to the parking subsidy that
the employer would otherwise pay to provide the
employee with a parking space."
The effects of the cash-out program on transporta-
tion use in Santa Monica, California have been sig-
nificant. A study conducted by Donald Shoup of the
UCLA Institute of Transportation Studies found that
for two Santa Monica employers, the share of solo
commuters decreased by between seven and eight
percent once the cash-out program was in place.
This reduction in solo commuters is responsible for
a decrease in annual commuting vehicle miles trav-
eled (VMT) of 858 miles (Shoup, 1997a).
Transit improvements
Portland, Oregon
Tri-Met, Portland's transit agency, recently added
an 18-mile extension to the MAX light rail system.
This $944 million project includes 20 new MAX sta-
tions and connects Portland's eastern suburbs to
its western suburbs. One of the benefactors of MAX
improvements is the Lloyd District. Located just 1.25
miles east of Portland's downtown, the Lloyd Dis-
trict has seen more than $790 million worth of de-
velopment adjacent to its four MAX stations. MAX
moderates the pressure of this wave of develop-
ment on the Lloyd District's parking supply by pro-
viding an alternative to automobile use. Included
in this development is Oregon's $85 million Conven-
tion Center, a $200 million renovation and expan-
sion of the Lloyd Center Shopping Mall, and a $262
million sports arena that hosts the Portland Trail-
blazer basketball team. Recognizing the benefits
of MAX, the Convention Center paid for one of the
district's new MAX stations.
The Lloyd District's development is not limited to
large scale projects. Ashford Pacific, a developer
new to the Portland area, saw opportunity in this
region of the city and purchased 70 acres of land,
all within close proximity to MAX stations. In con-
junction with Liberty Mutual Northwest, Ashford
Pacific developed Liberty Centre, a $40 million of-
fice building located across the street from the Sev-
enth Avenue MAX station. This 350,000 square foot
building is home to Liberty Mutual Northwest, the
headquarters of KinderCare as well as a number of
local firms.
Source: Tri-County Metropolitan Transportation Dis-
trict of Oregon, 1999.
Cash-Out Programs
Cashing out is another demand reduction practice
in which cash is provided to employees who do not
drive to work. These cash payments can be set at the
equivalent of the full cost of parking or some portion
thereof. Full cash equivalents typically range between
$36 and $165 per month (Shoup 1997a). The cost sav-
ings associated with cash-out programs depends on the
amount of the cash payments. If the full cash equiva-
lent is provided, this demand reduction program does
not reduce the total costs of providing parking. How-
ever, employees may accept cash payments lower than
the full cash equivalent in exchange for not having on-
site parking. If partial cash payments are used, em-
ployers face lower cash-out costs and employees still
benefit.
In any case, cash-out programs provide significant
environmental, social, and broader economic benefits.
For example, in response to California's 1992 manda-
tory cash-out requirement, eight firms reported an av-
erage 17 percent reduction in the total number of solo
drivers (Shoup 1997a). Another benefit of cash-out pro-
grams is a reduction in traffic congestion, and associ-
ated pollution.
Transit Improvements
Local government officials can also improve public
transit to decrease auto dependence and associated
parking needs. Improvements to consider include new
transit modes, such as light rail, expanded transit ser-
vice hours, increased bus lines, and revitalized transit
stations. Portland, Oregon's MAX light rail system ex-
emplifies the widespread benefits of transit improve-
ments. The light rail system encourages transit-oriented
development, decreases automobile commuting, and
eases demand for parking. In fact, the light rail im-
provements eliminated the need for six downtown
parking towers (U.S. EPA 1998). These improvements
are also partially responsible for $1.3 billion in new
development in Portland over the last 10 years.
Pedestrian and Bicycle Amenities
Demand for parking can be reduced by providing
pedestrian and bicycle amenities that make it easier and
22
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
more pleasant for people to walk or bicycle rather than
drive. These amenities and design changes can alleviate
traffic congestion. In particular, improving the
walkability and pedestrian orientation of employment
centers can address the increasingly common "drive to
lunch" syndrome. For example, the auto-orientation of
Tyson's Corner, Virginia has resulted in terrible traffic at
lunch time because people cannot walk to eating estab-
lishments or to do errands.
These low cost amenities can be as simple as provid-
ing bicycle racks and walkways. For example, officials
in Schaumburg, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago, have in-
corporated provisions for bicycle use directly into their
zoning ordinance to encourage use of nonauto transport
modes. The ordinance requires all retail centers to have
a minimum of 10 bicycle spaces located at each main
building entrance. To increase awareness, the ordinance
requires that bike racks be located in a place where they
are highly visible; to promote safe bicycle use, the ordi-
nance requires bicycle parking areas to be separated from
automobile parking. Excerpts from this zoning ordi-
nance are included in the Appendix. (See Section 154.125
"Bicycle Parking Requirements.") Providing shower and locker facilities
also encourages bicycling, roller blading, and walking to work.
Promoting bicycle and pedestrian transport modes can also be accom-
plished through simple design changes, some of which can be implemented
at no cost. Instead of locating parking between the street and the buildings,
requiring pedestrians and bicyclists to navigate through parking lots, park-
ing should be set back behind buildings. The Downtown Master Plan for
Kendall, Florida (Miami-Dade County), discusses several design concepts
to improve pedestrian and bicycle access. Some of the key elements pro-
moted, but not required, by this program are listed in the text box above.
Pedestrian and BicycSs Amenities
Kendall, Florida
• Bicycle/pedestrian access via new sidewalks
and pathways.
• Trees and shrubs along edges facing streets
and sidewalks.
• Parking hidden in the rear or in parking ga-
rages.
• Shade and rain protection, such as colon-
nades, arcades, marquees, second floor bal-
conies, wide awnings, or tree canopies, for pe-
destrians.
• Buildings positioned along the sidewalks at a
deliberate alignment, giving a designed shape
to the public space.
• Doors and windows spaced at close intervals
to generate activity, direct views to merchan-
dise, and make the walk sufficiently interest-
ing.
• Minimal number of vehicular entries to park-
ing areas that can diminish pedestrian mobil-
ity and erode space.
Source: Downtown Master Plan for Kendall,
Florida, 1998.
Vehicle Trip Reduction Programs
Another direct form of demand reduction involves instituting vehicle
trip reduction programs. Vehicle trip reduction programs combine several
types of demand reduction components to meet explicit vehicle trip reduc-
tion goals. Thus, instead of capping the number of parking spaces, local
officials limit the number of vehicle miles traveled in a particular region.
These types of programs attempt to decrease the number of trips by single
occupancy vehicles (SOVs) and increase the use of a variety of commuting
alternatives, including transit, carpooling, walking, and bicycling.
23
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To increase the effectiveness of vehicle trip reduction programs, cities or em-
ployers can incorporate an assortment of complementary program elements to
encourage nonauto and non-SOV transport. The following are some examples:
• "Guaranteed ride home" services that allow employees who use public
transit to get a free ride home (e.g., via taxi) if they miss their bus or if
they need to stay at work late.
• Company fleet cars that can be used for running errands during the
workday (e.g., doctor appointments).
• Preferential and/or reserved parking for vanpools/carpools.
• Carpooling and/or vanpooling with ride matching service. Ride match-
ing can facilitate the identification of people who live close to one an-
other. This service can be accomplished by providing "ride boards" or
by using an employee transportation coordinator.
• Cellular phones for car and vanpooling to facilitate timing of pick-ups.
Vehieie Trip Reduction At Genetics institute
In order to meet the goals of the Massachusetts' State Implementation Plan, Cambridge, Massachusetts instituted a
Vehicle Trip Reduction Ordinance in 1992 to reduce vehicle miles traveled in the city and to control automobile-related
air pollution. Cambridge also implemented a Transportation Demand Management (TDM) ordinance to complement
state legislation. The goal of the TDM ordinance is to improve mobility and increase accessibility, while reducing con-
gestion and air pollution. The TDM ordinance requires that proposals for building permits include a TDM plan. The TDM
plan is reviewed by the city in conjunction with other components of the development plan. In planning a TDM,
developers must consider the impact of their development on transportation patterns.
To ensure that TDM plans are effective, employers must set goals to reduce the number of employees commuting in
single-occupancy vehicles (SOV) relative to a baseline for the local area, and measure progress toward these goals using
annual, employer-managed surveys. The City of Cambridge also makes employers aware of 1998 Transportation Effi-
ciency Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21) which allows employees who commute by public transit or vanpool to deduct
the cost of their commute from their taxable income. This legislation also allows businesses to provide tax-free transit
subsidies.
Founded in 1980, Genetics Institute (Gl) occupies two Massachusetts offices, one in Andover and one in Cambridge. As
a corporate policy, Gl independently designs TDM plans for its properties and was one of the founding members of the
Alewife Transportation Management Association, an organization committed to improving access to, and ease of,
public transit and encouraging alternative modes of commuter transportation. As part of its Cambridge TDM, Gl has a
goal of keeping single occupancy vehicle use to less than 59 percent.
Located within walking distance of a subway station and in close proximity to a paved bicycle path, Gl provides fully
subsidized public transit passes for all of its employees; enclosed, locked bicycle storage; and shower facilities. The
company also offers a cafeteria, grocery service, exercise facilities, guaranteed ride home program, and an hourly
shuttle between the two Massachusetts sites. These amenities afford all 704 of Gl's Cambridge employees the opportu-
nity to shop, eat, and exercise at work. The total annual cost for these transportation management programs is
approximately $184,000. The company's transportation management has been effective, boasting a low 56 percent
SOV mode split, with over one quarter of Gl's Cambridge employees commuting by public transportation.
In 1986, Gl acquired additional land for its Cambridge site. With this land, the company plans to add a 246,000 square
feet research and development facility to its existing 500,000 square feet office and laboratory space. Gl expects to
employ about 430 people at the new facility. In its parking transportation demand management agreement, Gl agreed
to construct no less than one space per 800 square feet of occupancy (307 spaces) and no more than one space per 400
square feet (615 spaces). Gl ultimately constructed only 350 parking spaces, resulting in a parking ratio of 1.42 spaces
per 1,000 square feet of space or 0.81 spaces per employee. The total cost for the additional structured and surface
parking will be approximately $1.2 million in construction costs, $1,000 to $2,000 for each of the 290 surface spaces, and
$10,000 to $14,000 for each of the 60 structured spaces. By constructing 265 fewer spaces than their maximum require-
ment would permit, and assuming a weighted average cost per space of $3,429, Gl saved approximately $900,000 in
parking construction costs.
24
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his final section of the guide presents three case studies of develop-
ment projects located in metropolitan areas that have benefited from
innovative parking alternatives:
• Reduced parking requirements at The Shoppes of Wilton Manors,
Wilton Manors, Florida;
• Transportation management measures at SAFECO Insurance Com-
pany Expansion, Redmond, Washington; and
• Shared parking and in-lieu fees at The D'Orsay Hotel, Long Beach,
California.
In the case studies, parking alternatives are evaluated in terms of their
impacts on parking costs and development decisions; the environmental
impacts of resulting transportation mode shifts; the economic, fiscal, and
social benefits of the alternatives; and the opportunity cost of providing
parking.
While some of the innovative alternatives described in the cases are de-
signed to address an entire municipality, others are tar-
geted at specific developments. Often, the goal of these
alternatives is environmental—reducing automobile use
and improving air quality. Other times, the alternative is
economically motivated—lowering project costs and en-
couraging urban development.
In these case studies, both the planners and develop-
ers recognized the advantages of alternative parking re-
quirements, and the alternative parking requirements low-
ered the total cost of the development. For the Wilton
Manors and D'Orsay Hotel cases, the lowered cost associ-
ated with parking alternatives was a key element of project
feasibility. In all cases, parking alternatives also provided
environmental benefits. SAFECO's transportation man-
agement measures and development design limit air emis-
sions associated with automobile commuting and protect
water quality by preserving permeable surfaces that ab-
sorb rainfall and prevent polluted runoff. Parking alter-
natives used for The Shoppes of Wilton Manors and
D'Orsay Hotel developments facilitated these infill
projects, thus preventing additional sprawl and the asso-
ciated air and water quality impacts.
25
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Making Way for U^
Southeast Florida, comprising Palm Beach, Broward, and Dade Coun-
ties, is one of the fastest growing regions of the United States. In 1960, the
population of the region was 1.5 million people; in 1990, the population
reached 4.1 million. Projections for 2015 suggest that the population will
reach 6.2 million people, an increase of over 50 percent from 1990.
With the growing population and increasing development, fragile eco-
systems are being lost and water supplies threatened. This area epitomizes
the negative aspects of sprawl, and there is a desire to reverse the trend by
revitalizing the inner core areas and promoting "smart growth" develop-
ment which is environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable. Re-
ducing parking requirements to reduce the amount of impervious surface
and encourage urban infill and brownfields redevelopment is one element
of southeast Florida's move toward smart growth and development.
In the City of Wilton Manors, located in Broward County, parking re-
ductions were partly responsible for enabling a financially deteriorating
neighborhood shopping center to be redeveloped into a successful mixed-
use development, featuring restaurants, art galleries, and other entertain-
ment uses, as well as professional offices. At its peak in the 1960s, the shop-
ping center housed a Grand Union Supermarket, a bank, a fast food restau-
rant, and many other stores. In the 1990s, the shopping center lost several
businesses, reducing the tenant occupancy rate to 30 percent.
To accommodate redevelopment of the property and revitalize the area,
the city teamed with a private development company, Redevco, creating a
public-private partnership to transform the shopping center. Because a host
of "big box" retail stores had recently located in nearby outlying areas, this
property could not support additional retail stores. Instead, the city and
Redevco identified an untapped market niche—entertainment, cultural at-
tractions, and restaurants. To enable these uses, the city created a new zon-
ing overlay district that not only changed zoning requirements to allow for
arts and entertainment uses, but also exempted the developer from stan-
dard parking requirements by allowing for shared parking in planned off-
site public parking structures. The new zoning district also allowed for
outside cafes and seating to make the restaurants more inviting and attrac-
tive.
Under the city's generic parking requirements, art and entertainment
uses would have required 390 new parking spaces, in addition to the exist-
ing spaces at the site required for previous retail use. Construction of the
additional 390 parking spaces would have cost approximately $1.9 million
26
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________^
and would have also necessitated demolition of existing buildings, further
increasing redevelopment costs (by approximately $30,000) and reducing
rental income.5 Reducing the parking requirements and allowing for shared
parking reduced development costs enough to make the redevelopment
financially feasible for the developer.
The Shoppes of Wilton Manors now boast full occupancy, and rental
rates of $32 per square foot (up from $8 per square foot). These two comple-
mentary factors—increased occupancy and increased rental rates — account
for an increase in total annual rental income of $26 million, from $2 mil-
lion to $28 million, 12 times its former rental income.
Environmental Benefits
While this redevelopment with parking reductions has not caused a
change in transport mode splits (more people are driving to the Shoppes of
Wilton Manor because of its increased attractiveness and desirable restau-
rants and arts and entertainment facilities), the project provides other envi-
ronmental benefits. By revitalizing an existing development and spurring
additional redevelopment in the area (see below), the parking reductions
played a part in preventing further sprawl and greenfields development.
In Southeast Florida, curbing sprawl is especially important because of the
sensitive ecosystem west of the area—the Florida Everglades. As noted in
a December 1998 report prepared by the South Florida Regional Planning
Council, most of the current developments in the region are located on land
that was once part of the Everglades system. In addition, as part of the
development agreement, 80 percent of the trees along Wilton Drive were
preserved; without the new zoning overlay district, this street would have
been widened, requiring that trees be razed.
In addition to the financial success of the project and the related envi-
ronmental benefits, the revitalization of the Shoppes of Wilton Manors has
provided economic, fiscal, and social benefits to the community.
• Economic benefits. The project has stimulated adjacent economic
development. An office building next door that was vacant for 18
months now houses a law firm with 100 employees, many of whom
frequent the restaurants and entertainment facilities at the Shoppes
of Wilton Manors. Property values in the surrounding area are
also improving; rental rates have almost doubled, increasing from
$6 per square foot to rates of between $11 and $14 per square foot
of leased space.
5 The building demolition would have also slightly reduced the additional parking re-
quirements, but not by enough to make the development financially feasible.
27
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Making Way for U^
Fiscal benefits. The increased property value of the Shoppes of
Wilton Manors—increasing by more than 10 times the initial value,
from $226,000 to over $3.3 million-will add an estimated $80,000
to the city in property tax revenues. In addition, the other private
investments along Wilton Drive have resulted in a 10 percent in-
crease in city-wide property tax revenues.
Other social benefits. The project has contributed aesthetic im-
provements and a safer, more pedestrian-friendly community en-
vironment. Storefront and landscaping improvements make the
area more attractive. There has been a reduction in criminal activ-
ity due to the increased activity and vibrancy of the area. The
pedestrian flavor of the town center is enhanced as a result of im-
proved site access. All of these benefits contribute to an improved
quality of life for local residents and business people.
Some of the key elements related to the success of the Wilton Manors
revitalization effort include the following:
• The developer's and the city's willingness and commitment to
work together. According to Redevco Executive Vice President,
Debra Sinkle, the project was successful because of the public/
private partnership between the city and Redevco. The city's flex-
ibility with regard to zoning requirements and its commitment to
the project created the confidence necessary for the investment of
private dollars into the project.
• The city's flexibility in reducing parking requirements to support
different redevelopment uses that would otherwise require more
parking than the original use.
• Substantial cost savings resulting from parking reductions, mak-
ing the redevelopment financially feasible.
-------
.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
Excerpts From Ordinance Z-195; EstabSishrsfeni of an Arts and
Entertainment Special Overlay District
Wilton Manors, Florida
Purpose and Intent
The purpose of the Wilton Drive Arts and Entertainment Overlay District is
to create the opportunity for, and to encourage the development of, new
mixed-use development providing entertainment, cultural facilities, res-
taurants, shopping and professional offices within the Wilton Drive Central
Business District.
The parking regulations are intended to promote the location of restau-
rants, entertainment facilities and other intense uses by exempting the
properties within the district from the off-street parking requirements ...
and providing standards for parking within the district [shared parking
provision].
Exemptions from Parking Requirements:
A. Exemptions from Parking Requirements
1. Restaurant or other establishment for consumption of food or bev-
erages on the premises: One space per two hundred (200) square
feet of floor area in rooms or spaces for customer service.
2. Auditorium, theater, gymnasium, stadium, area, or convention hall:
One space per three hundred (300) square feet of floor area.
3. Amusement place, dance hall, skating rink, or exhibition hall with-
out fixed seats: One space per two hundred (200) square feet of
floor area.
4. Retail store, personal service establishment and banks: One space
per three hundred (300) square feet of floor area.
B. On-Street parking to count toward parking requirements
On-street parking immediately adjacent to a lot on which the business
is located shall count toward fulfilling the parking requirement of that
lot.
C. Valet Parking
Valet parking and the stacking of vehicles shall be permitted...
D. Joint use and off-site facilities to count toward parking requirements
Joint use and off-site facilities [for parking] shall be permitted ...
Source: City of Wilton Manors, Ordinance No. Z-195.
29
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; Making Way for
Maximum Parking Limits
Redmond, Washington
The City of Redmond instituted maximum parking
limits in the early 1990s to manage growth and traf-
fic. These requirements limit the total number of
parking spaces that can be developed by land use.
For example, general commercial land uses are lim-
ited to five spaces per 1,000 square feet of gross
floor area (GFA), and business parks are confined
to three spaces per 1,000 square feet GFA.
The State of Washington's Commute Trip Reduction Law (CTR) was
passed in 1991 with goals of improving air quality and mitigating traffic
congestion. This transportation demand management measure targets the
state's largest counties (those with populations greater than 150,000 people),
requiring employers with more than 100 employees to implement programs
to reduce single occupancy vehicle (SOV) trips to and from work. Through
the state's CTR, employers monitor commuter mode splits by administer-
ing employee surveys, which are written and processed by Washington
state. The CTR established a goal of a 35 percent reduction in trips by 2005
compared to 1993 levels.
SAFECO Insurance Company of America, Redmond
Campus, located in King County, one of the nine Wash-
ington counties affected by the CTR, has responded to
the CTR by implementing transportation management
measures as part of its Transportation Management
Plan (TMP). These measures consist of employee tran-
sit passes, special reserve parking for high occupancy
vehicles (HOV), ride matching, vanpooling, and guar-
anteed ride home services. Provision of these services
has allowed SAFECO to reduce its parking require-
ments for its recent expansion project below the City
of Redmond's maximum levels.
SAFECO is currently undertaking a large-scale construction project to
accommodate anticipated growth at its corporate headquarters in Redmond,
adding three additional buildings (385,000 square feet of office space) and
three parking structures (843 parking spaces) for the new office space. To
preserve the attractive park-like setting of the 48-acre campus and to main-
tain a pedestrian-friendly environment, SAFECO chose to construct all three
parking structures underground. These subterranean spaces, while expen-
sive to construct at $18,000 per parking space, will preserve greenspace
and make it easier to walk around the business park campus. The City of
Redmond has maximum parking limits that would allow SAFECO to con-
struct 1,155 spaces. Instead, SAFECO built 843 spaces, resulting in a park-
ing ratio of 2.2 spaces per 1,000 square feet for the new office space. This
amounts to a savings, relative to the maximum limits, of 312 parking spaces.
Reducing the total number of spaces allowed SAFECO to mitigate the high
cost of underground parking.
Financial
While these parking reductions were not implemented as cost-cutting
measures, the gross cost savings associated with the parking reductions
-------
.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
(relative to the maximum limits) amount to $5.6 million
in parking construction costs, or about $491,000 annu-
ally.6 SAFECO's exemplary transportation management
program (TMP) reduced parking demand and allowed
the company to build fewer parking spaces. Thus, a
portion of SAFECO's expenditures on its TMP repre-
sents the indirect cost of the parking reductions and re-
sulting savings. The total cost of SAFECO's TMP at its
Redmond campus is approximately $261,000 per year,
including $75,400 for transit subsidies.
When both the full cost of transportation demand
management at the Redmond campus and the savings
from parking reductions are considered, SAFECO's net
savings from parking reductions are $230,000 annually. Given that SAFECO
would have incurred some of the costs of transportation demand manage-
ment at its Redmond campus regardless of the parking reductions, the net
savings actually exceed $230,000. SAFECO's decision to increase the den-
sity of its existing property, rather than move to another (likely ex-urban)
location, also avoided the cost of procuring additional land.
King County, Washington
King County is Washington's most populous county
(almost 2 million residents) and includes the cities
of Seattle, Kirkland, Bellevue, and Redmond. The
county's transit agency, King Country Metro (Metro),
serves a total of 75 million riders annually. The
agency operates bus service throughout the county
and runs the largest vanpool in the United States,
transporting 5,000 commuters each day. Metro also
works closely with employers, cities, and institu-
tions to provide supportive services that encour-
age alternatives to automobile transport including
transit passes, guaranteed ride home, ride match-
ing, and commuter bonus programs.
Under their TMP, SAFECO agrees to maintain an SOV rate at or below
60 percent. Since 1997, SAFECO has kept its total number of SOV trips to
between 57 and 59 percent of total commute trips relative to the overall
transport mode split for East King County of 81.4 percent SOV commuting
and 13.4 percent carpooling.7 Rather than drive alone, 15 percent of SAFECO
employees carpool, 12.5 percent use vanpool services, 8 percent use public
transit, and the remaining 7 percent bicycle, walk, or telecommute. The
company also maintains information on commuter vehicle miles traveled
(VMT). On average, SAFECO employees travel between 6.5 and 7 miles
one way. Thus, by maintaining an average 58 percent SOV rate for its 1,700
employees, SAFECO averts as many as 4,635 VMT each day, or about 1.2
million miles each year. These VMT figures assume two people per carpool
and four people per vanpool. Thus, if the carpools or vanpools transport a
greater number of passengers, this reduction in VMT would be greater.
• Air Quality Benefits: The environmental benefits associated with
this reduction in automobile commute miles are significant. By
avoiding almost 1.2 million miles of automobile travel, approxi-
mately 27.56 tons of carbon monoxide, 3.85 tons of nitrogen ox-
6 This annual amount is only associated with construction costs. Annual amount as-
sumes constant payments, an interest rate of 7.25 percent, and a 25-year payment period
(per discussion with SAFECO transportation manager).
7 Washington State Department of Transportation, 1993.
31
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ides, and 2.20 tons of hydrocarbons associated with commuting
are averted each year.8
Water Quality Benefits: Another significant, yet less quantifiable,
environmental benefit of reduced parking is the preservation of
pervious surfaces to absorb rainfall and prevent polluted runoff.
Increasing the amount of impervious areas through paving can
alter the area's hydrologic system and cause runoff mixed with oil
and other contaminants to pollute receiving streams, rivers, lakes
and estuaries. With approximately 40 inches of precipitation each
year and many fishable streams, the King County ecosystem is
especially susceptible to polluted runoff. An additional 312 park-
ing spaces in aboveground lots account for approximately 100,000
square feet of impervious surfaces.
Several key factors contributed to the success of SAFECO's Vehicle Trip
Reduction Program. These include:
• The City of Redmond's flexibility and cooperation in allowing
SAFECO to increase density on the existing property.
• SAFECO's environmentally responsible corporate ethic of reduc-
ing parking below the maximum limits and maintaining its loca-
tion in Redmond, thus preventing additional sprawl in the area.
• Available bus service to the area. Frequent and reliable public tran-
sit through King County Metro enables SAFECO employees to use
alternative modes of transportation even when commuting from
other towns in the county.
• SAFECO did not require outside financing. SAFECO's transpor-
tation management director believes that had they required out-
side funding, lenders might have resisted making loans unless
more parking was provided in the development plan.
8 We use average emissions factors from EPA's Office of Mobile Sources' Compilation of
Air Pollution Emissions Factors, Volume II: Mobile Sources: (AP-42). The AP-42 provides the
following emissions factors: 21.05 grams of carbon monoxide emitted per VMT, 2.97 grams
of nitrogen oxides emitted per VMT, and 1.71 grams of hydrocarbons emitted per VMT.
32
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
The City of Long Beach, California recognizes that parking is expensive
and consumes valuable land. In its Downtown Parking Management Plan,
the city's redevelopment agency promotes small- and large-scale urban
development by allowing for shared parking and in-lieu parking fees. The
types of development projects eligible for these parking alternatives cover
non-residential new construction on lots less than 22,500 square feet, addi-
tions or rehabilitation to existing buildings, and renewal of historic land-
mark buildings.
Long Beach's Downtown Management Plan has proven effective in en-
couraging redevelopment. The four-star D'Orsay Hotel, which was pro-
posed to the city in 1998, provides an example of how cities can facilitate
redevelopment with parking reductions. The proposed D'Orsay Hotel in-
cludes a 162-room boutique hotel with 35,000 square feet of retail space.
The property, located on a three block pedestrian walkway in downtown
Long Beach, was used for office space until the late 1980s when the build-
ings were deemed unsafe and demolished. In recent years, the property
was used as a surface parking lot. Other development proposals for this
property had been made to the city, but fell through in part due to the fi-
nancial burden imposed by the city's minimum parking requirements.
For the D'Orsay Hotel proposal, Long Beach's minimum parking require-
ments would have required the developer to construct one parking space
per hotel room, and four spaces per 1,000 square feet of gross floor area
(GFA) of retail space, totaling 302 spaces. With construction costs of $16,000
per parking space, the parking costs would have totaled $4.83 million, mak-
ing the project financially infeasible.
After conducting a traffic study to assess parking demand at other Long
Beach downtown hotels, the city's planning department determined that
this mixed-use hotel/retail development did not
require the minimum number of parking spaces
and modified the requirements to three spaces per
1,000 square feet of retail space, and 113 spaces for
the 162 hotel rooms. The Downtown Management
Plan allowed for the reduction of the parking re-
quirements for the retail space and the hotel's va-
let parking system allowed for the reduction of
parking requirements for the hotel space. Thus, the
revised total number of spaces required was 218
spaces, 84 fewer than would otherwise be required.
Even with the reduction of 84 parking spaces,
the developer determined that the project was fi-
nancially infeasible given the high cost of under-
33
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ground parking. At about $16,000 per space in construction costs, parking
for this project, even with the revised requirements, totaled $3.49 million.
Upholding its mission to encourage urban revitalization, the City of Long
Beach Redevelopment Bureau agreed to adjust the parking requirements
for this mixed-use project in the form of in-lieu fees for parking. The city
allowed the developer to pay in-lieu fees for 56 of the 218 required parking
spaces. The in-lieu fee was $3,000 per parking space plus an additional $50
per space per month to cover parking operating and maintenance expendi-
tures.
Cost Savings and Financial Feasibility
As shown in the table below, the revised parking requirements decreased
the developer's parking construction costs by $1.34 million relative to the
generic requirements. With additional savings of $730,000 from the in-lieu
fee arrangement included, the total parking cost savings to the developer
totaled over $2 million, enough to make the project financially feasible.
These cost savings significantly improved the projected financial net re-
turns for the proposed project, and facilitated revitalization of the surround-
ing area. The Long Beach Redevelopment Bureau reports that ground should
be broken by the end of 1999 for an opening date in the beginning of 2001.
Environmentai !
The hotel development is expected to encourage pedestrian traffic in the
area, rather than cause additional automobile travel. In addition, the infill
redevelopment of the D'Orsay Hotel property may have averted a greenfield
development. These types of urban infill projects reduce additional sprawl
in California, a state already plagued with an overload of cars, highways,
and sprawl development.
Mod if i
Generic Requirements
Retail
Hotel
Total
Revised Requirements
Retail
Hotel
Total
Revised Requirements
Retail & Hotel On-S ite
Retai 1 & Hotel Off-S ite
Total
(With In-Lieu Fees)
ed Parking Re
Req u i rement
4 spaces/1 ,000
square feet GFA
1 space/room
-
3 spaces/1 ,000
square feet GFA
0.70 spaces/room
-
and In-Lieu Fees
N/A
N/A
--
quirements
Gross Floor
Area
(GFA)
35,000
square feet
162 rooms
-
35,000
square feet
162 rooms
-
N/A
N/A
--
for the D '
# of
Spaces
Requ ired
1 40
1 62
302
1 05
1 1 3
21 8
1 62
56
218
Orsay Hotel
Cost per
Space
$1 6,000
$1 6,000
$1 6,000
$16,000
$1 6,000
$3,000
Total
Cost
(millions)
$2.24
$2.59
$4.83
$1 .68
$1.81
$3.49
$2.59
$0.1 68
$2.76
34
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.i Making Way for ^^
Economic Benefits. The D'Orsay Hotel promises to provide eco-
nomic benefits to downtown Long Beach by attracting additional
pedestrian traffic. Specifically, the D'Orsay will help existing busi-
nesses that are struggling to stay in the area, and will likely pro-
mote additional redevelopment projects.
Fiscal Benefits. The D'Orsay Hotel is expected to generate approxi-
mately $300,000 annually in additional property tax revenues for
the city.9 Because this property is located in an economically
troubled area qualified to receive special assistance as a "Califor-
nia Redevelopment Project Area," the property tax revenue gener-
ated from the project will be directed back into the area for further
redevelopment and infrastructure improvements. In addition, the
state will receive revenues from California's 8.25 percent sales tax
and the city will receive revenues from the 10 percent hotel tax.
Other social benefits. The D'Orsay Hotel will provide social ben-
efits to the residents of Long Beach by promoting an active and
pedestrian friendly downtown with multiple amenities. By re-
ducing the minimum parking requirements, the Long Beach Re-
development Bureau reduced the development's need for sur-
rounding land. In addition, historic buildings were preserved that
may otherwise have been demolished to provide space for con-
structing parking at the city's minimum levels.
This successful redevelopment was made possible for several reasons:
• The City of Long Beach's flexibility and recognition that parking
is expensive and consumes valuable land. This enabled the devel-
oper to negotiate reduced parking requirements and in-lieu fees
that made the project feasible.
• Combining two different types of innovative parking requirements
(shared parking and in-lieu fees). This was necessary to make the
development project financially feasible.
• Conducting a development-specific traffic study to estimate the
number of parking spaces needed for development. The study of
other downtown Long Beach hotels showed that applying the city's
parking standards would have resulted in an excess supply of park-
ing at the D'Orsay Hotel.
9 At the property tax rate of one percent on the project's incremental value of $30 million.
35
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Barton-Aschman Associates. 1983. Shared Parking. Washington, DC: the
Urban Land Institute.
Bergman, David, editor. 1991. Off-Street Parking Requirements: ANational
Review of Standards. Washington, D.C.: American Planning Associa-
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Boulder Community Network. July 16,1999. "CAGID Transportation Sur-
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cagidsurvey.html.
Boulder Community Network. July 16,1999. "Downtown Boulder Em-
ployees' Transportation Discount Card." http://bcn.boulder.co.us
/ gettingthere/ discount/ index.html.
Burchell, Robert W., Listokin, David, Dolphin, William R., et. al. 1994. De-
velopment Impact Assessment Handbook. Washington, D.C.: The Ur-
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Center for Livable Communities. 1998. Policymaker's Guide to Transit-Ori-
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Chattanooga News Bureau. July 16,1999. "Chattanooga's Electric Bus Ini-
tiative." http://virtual.chattanooga.net/etvi/bus.html.
City of Boulder, Colorado, Public Works Department. July 13,1999. "Go
Boulder General Programs." http://go.boulder.co.us/pubs/
publications_menu.html.
City of Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1999. Cambridge Municipal Code,
Chapter 10.
City of Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1992. Vehicle Trip Reduction Ordinance.
City of Coral Gables. 1998. Coral Gables Zoning Code, Article 13: Off-
Street Parking and Loading.
City of Long Beach, Long Beach Redevelopment Agency. December 16,
1993. Downtown Parking Management Plan.
City of Portland, Bureau of Planning. May 1999. Title 33: Planning and
Zoning Code, Chapter 33.510, Part Two.
City of Olympia Public Works Department and the Washington State De-
partment of Ecology. May 1995. Impervious Surface Reduction Study:
Final Report.
City of West Palm Beach and West Palm Beach Community Redevelop-
ment Agency. December 4,1995. Downtown Master Plan for the
City of West Palm Beach.
36
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
City of Wilton Manors. February 1997. Ordinance No. Z-195.
Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Executive Office of Transportation and
Construction. July 25,1992. "Boston and Cambridge Parking Freeze
Estimates of "Effects of Change." Memorandum prepared by Daniel
Beagan and Sonia Hamel.
Commuter Challenge. April 29,1999. "SAFECO Insurance Companies,
Redmond Campus." http://www.commuterchallenge.org/cc/
profiles.html.
Commuter Challenge. April 4,1999. "Managing Transportation Demand:
Benefits for Business." http://www.commuterchallenge.org/cc/
benefits.html.
Comsis Corporation. January 1994. Overview of Travel Demand Management
Measures: Final Report. Washington, D.C.: Federal Highway Ad-
ministration and the Federal Transit Administration.
Downtown Circulation Advisory Group, Seattle, Washington. November
1998. Downtown Circulation Study. Recommendation to SEATRAN.
Edwards, John. 1994. The Parking Handbook for Small Communities. Wash-
ington, D.C.: The National Trust for Historic Preservation and The
Institute of Transportation Engineers.
Fish & Associates, Inc., K.T. Analytics, Inc., and Vlecides-Schroeder Associ-
ates, Inc. April 1998. Opportunity Costs of Municipal Parking Require-
ments: Final Report. Prepared for the Regional Transportation Au-
thority.
Highland, Randy. March 1993. "The Cost Per Car of a Parking Garage:
Seven Points an Owner Should Know When Building a Parking
Structure." Skylines.
Institute of Transportation Engineers. 1987. Parking Generation, 2d ed. Wash-
ington D.C.: Institute of Transportation Engineers.
Keeling, Rod. March 1998. "The State of Downtown Parking Today." Park-
ing Today.
Kodama, Michael R., Richard Willson, William Francis & Associates. June
1996. Using Demand-Based Parking Strategies to Meet Community Goals.
Prepared for the Mobile Source Air Pollution Reduction Commit-
tee.
Knight, Deborah. November/December 1998. "Looking Backward: The
New Urbanism Movement is Seeking to Restore the Center." Sanc-
tuary: The Journal of the Massachusetts Audubon Society.
Local Government Commission. November 12,1998. "Transportation Part-
ners." http://www.epa.gov/oppetptr/wtplgc.htm.
37
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Montgomery County, Maryland. November 1997. Montgomery County
Code Zoning Ordinance, Chapter 59, Article 59-E.
National Parking Association & Parking Consultants Council. 1992. "Rec-
ommended Zoning Ordinance Provisions for Parking and Off-Street
Loading Spaces." National Parking Association Number 0502-92.
Northwest Environment Watch. December 9,1998. "The Car and the City:
Comparison of Portland, Seattle and Vancouver." http://
www.northwestwatch.org/ ccex.html.
Renew America. February 2,1999. "EPA's Transportation Partners: 1998
Way to GO Awards!" http://solstice.crest.org/sustainable/
renew_america/wtgo98.html.
Timothy Rood, Calthorpe Associates. August 27,1999. "'Parking Alterna-
tives' Draft." Memorandum Prepared for Christina McAlpin, In-
dustrial Economics.
Shoup, Donald. 1998. "In-Lieu Parking Fees." Journal of Planning Educa-
tion and Research.
Shoup, Donald. 1997a. "Evaluating the Effects of Cashing Out Employer-
Paid Parking: Eight Case Studies." Transport Policy 4(4): 201-216.
Shoup, Donald. 1997b. "The High Cost of Free Parking." Journal of Plan-
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Shoup, Donald. Winter 1995. "An Opportunity to Reduce Minimum Park-
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Smith, T.P. 1983. "Flexible Parking Requirements." Planning Advisory
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Smith, T.P. 1988. The Aesthetics of Parking. Planning Advisory Service Re-
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Smith, Mary S. September 1996. "Circle Centre: How Parking Helped Make
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South Florida Regional Planning Council. December 1998. Building on Suc-
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
Tracy, Joseph L. October 1996. "What's Your Cost?" The Parking Profes-
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154.
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Surface Reduction Study: Final Report.
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
s appendix provides examples of municipal zoning ordinances,
urban master plans, and transportation programs that employ inno-
vative alternatives to generic parking requirements. These examples
offer "real world" illustrations for some of the alternatives described in this
guidebook. Below, we list the cities with ordinances, plans, or programs
included in this appendix, along with the key elements of their approaches
to parking issues. For each city, we only include excerpts from the ordi-
nances, plans, or programs that apply specifically to these key elements.
Coral Gables, Florida
Coral Gables Zoning Code (1998)
• Parking requirement reductions in the central business district
• Shared parking
Schaumburg, Illinois
Parking Ordinance (1998)
• Transportation demand management
• Bicycle amenities
• Reduced parking requirements if landbanking occurs
West Palm Beach, Florida
Downtown Master Plan (1995)
• Shared parking
• Centralized parking
• Improvements in pedestrian amenities
• Parking re-design
Montgomery County, Maryland
Montgomery County Code Zoning Ordinance (1997)
• Shared parking for mixed-use development
• Parking reductions for transit-oriented or central business district
development
• Reduced parking requirements for owners that participate in
ridesharing efforts
Long Beach, California
Downtown Parking Management Plan (1993)
• In-lieu parking fees to fund off-site, public parking
Portland, Oregon
Title 33: Planning and Zoning Code (1999)
• Maximum parking limits
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Section 13-5.
Commercial and Industrial Classification of Uses
and the Central Business District
(d) Central Business District
1. The central business district shall consist of all commercially zoned prop-
erty bordered by Lejeune Road on the west, Douglas Road on the east,
Navarre Avenue on the north, and Almeria Avenue on the south.
2. Any building used for other than residential purposes and located in the
City of Coral Gables central business district, as herein defined, shall be
exempted from the off-street parking requirements of Article XV of this
code, provided, however, that the Floor Area Ratio (F.A.R.) of such build-
ings shall not exceed 1.25.
3. New buildings containing a Floor Area Ratio (F.A.R.) of more than 1.25 and
existing buildings being enlarged to contain a Floor Area Ratio (F.A.R.) of
more than 1.25 shall provide off-street parking in accordance with the re-
quirements of Article XIII of this code.
Source: Coral Gables Zoning Code (1998)
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.i Making
Section 13-6.
Minimum Parking Requirements - By Use
Coral Gables Minimum Off-Street Parking Requirements - By Use
Commercial Uses
One p
arking space required per square feet of gros
s building area shown below:
100 sq. ft. 200 sq. ft. 250 sq. ft
300 sq. ft.
350 sq. ft.
400 sq. ft.
Business
Schools;
Trade
Schools;
Vocational
Schools
Beauty Shops;
Clinics; Medical
& Dental
outside the
Central
Business
District; Post
Office
Animal
Hospitals; Cat
Beauty Shops;
Civic Clubs;
Clinics; Medical
& Dental in the
Central
Business
District;
Community
Centers; Dog
Beauty Shops;
Fraternal
Buildings;
Libraries; Lodge
Buildings;
Museums;
Private Clubs;
Union Halls;
Veterinary
Clinics
Banks; Business
& Profession
Offices outside
the Central
Business
District;Dry
Cleaners;
laundries;
Savings
Institutions;
S e If-se rv ice
Laundries
Art Galleries;
Artist Studios;
Barber Shops;
Business and
Professional
Offices in the
Central
Business
District;Credit
Unions; Finance
Companies;
Finance
Institutions;
Photographers;
Photo Galleries;
Retail Shops;
Sales Shops;
Travel
Ag encies; Trust
Companies
Blueprinting;
Cleaning
Plants; Dyeing
Plants;
Engraving
Plants;
Newspaper
Plants; Picture
Framing;
Photocopy;
Photostatic
Copying;
Photo
Developing &
Printing;
Printing
Plants; Repair
Shops (shoes,
clothing,
appliances,
etc.)
One and one-half (1 1/2) parking spaces required
below:
per square feet of gross building floor area shown
100 sq. ft.
200 sq. ft.
Outside Central Business District
In the Central Business District
Bars; Delicatessens; Beer Gardens; Lunch Counters;
Cafes; Restaurants; Cafeterias; Taverns; Cocktail
Lounges
Bars; Delicatessens; Beer Gardens; Lunch Counters;
Cafes; Restaurants; Cafeterias; Taverns; Cocktail
Lounges
Mixed-Uses: Off-street parking for mixed-uses shall be provided in accordance with Section 13-7 C.
Central Business District:
a) For delineation of the Central Business District refer to Section 13-5 (d) 1.
b) Buildings not exceeding a F.A.R. of 1.25 located within the Central Business District and used for
other than residential purposes are not required to provide off-street parking (Section 13-5).
Off Street Loading: Off-street loading spaces shall be provided in accordance with Section 13-9.
Source: Coral Gables Zoning Code (1998)
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Section 13-14.
Shared Municipal Off-Street Parking
Shared off-street parking shall be permitted to serve two or more individual
land uses at municipally owned or operated parking facilities for parking spaces
required under this Code for private uses in any C, M or S-Use District subject to
the following conditions and restrictions: (3316)
A) A maximum of fifty (50) percent of the required number of parking spaces for
one or more off-peak, nighttime or Sunday /holiday uses (activities) may be
provided, up to a maximum percent of the municipal facility's available day-
time parking capacity as determined in the application process.
B) Unlimited additional parking for one or more off-peak, nighttime or Sunday/
holiday uses (activities), in excess of that required by this Code, shall be per-
mitted up to a maximum percent of the municipal facility's available daytime
parking capacity as determined in the application process.
C) A recordable agreement for such shared use, in the form of a reciprocal ease-
ment acceptable to the Office of the City Attorney shall be filed with the Zoning
Administrator and recorded with the City Clerk. The City shall be named in
that agreement as one of the parties with right of enforcement.
D) An insurance policy must be obtained and furnished to the City to the satisfac-
tion of the City Manager and City Attorney and such policy shall hold the City
harmless from any and all claims or causes of action which may accrue as a
result of use of premises or due to an incident or occurrence on the premises.
E) A municipal off-street parking facility required for the purpose of complying
with the provisions of this Code shall not include off-street parking similarly
required for another private use, unless the Parking, Planning, Public Works
and Building and Zoning Directors have reviewed the application and deter-
mined that the periods of peak usage of such uses will not be simultaneous or
in conflict with each other.
F) A site plan, landscape plan, lighting plan, circulation and traffic plan, peak use
analysis and written description of the proposed use of shared facility shall be
submitted by the applicant with each request for shared use approval for prop-
erties operated but not owned by the City. Only a peak use analysis and writ-
ten description of the proposed use shall be required for parking facilities owned
by the City.
G) Shared required parking must commence within 1/4 mile of the building site.
Additional parking, in excess of code requirements, shall not be subject to this
distance requirement.
H) All development orders or permits covering such approval shall include the
requirement that the order or permit shall be valid only so long as the condi-
tions described in the application or the permit exist.
Source: Coral Gables Zoning Code (1998)
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
I) Nothing in this section shall be construed to prevent the joint use of municipal
off-street parking for two or more uses if the total of such spaces, when used
together, will not be less than seventy-five (75) percent of the sum of the re-
quirements of the various individual uses computed separately in accordance
with the requirements of this Code.
J) Shared use parking approval described in this section shall not be transferable
in any manner.
K) An agreement shall be executed by the parties as to the minimum maintenance
requirements which shall be the sole responsibility of applicant and which fail-
ure to maintain shall result in immediate revocation of the permit herein granted.
Source: Coral Gables Zoning Code (1998)
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§ 154.126 Adjustments to Required Parking
A) Incentives for Development of Transportation Demand Management Programs.
(1) Purpose. Transportation demand management is a means of modifying
travel and encouraging use of alternative modes of transportation in order
to increase the efficiency of the transportation system. In the following
cases, the Village Board may grant relief to the parking regulations through
the variation procedure in specific cases without meeting the hardship re-
quirements of § 154.45.
(2) Shared Ride Programs. These programs decrease parking demand by in-
creasing passengers per vehicle. Examples are employer sponsored
vanpooling, carpooling and subscription bus service. For buildings or com-
plexes of a minimum of 30,000 square feet gross floor area, a reduction of
up to 20% of required parking may be allowed based on substantial projec-
tions of reduction in demand. However, in order to qualify, the petitioner
must submit evidence to the satisfaction of the Zoning Board that meets
the minimum requirements as stipulated within the following programs.
(3) Vanpooling or Subscription Bus Service.
(a) The petitioner is participating or shall participate in an approved
carpooling program established under the provisions of § 154.126(A)(4)
below and either;
(i) Petitioner will obtain or lease to qualified employees vans, buses
or other high passenger capacity vehicles, for the purpose of pro-
viding transportation of additional passengers (vanpooling); and/
or
(ii) Petitioner will operate or hire vans, buses or other high passenger
capacity vehicles to provide exclusive or non-exclusive commuter
transportation of employees from residential areas, train stations,
and/or other transit terminals.
(b) In furtherance of the petition, the petitioner may show any other ac-
tivities that will ease the creation of vanpools and carpools. For ex-
ample:
Source: Schaumburg Parking Ordinance (1998)
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
(i) Petitioner will develop an alternative work schedule program that
shall include staggered work starts and stops, flextime and/or com-
pressed work weeks.
(ii) Petitioner will provide adequate lunch facilities on the site.
(iii) Petitioner will provide preferential parking.
As part of his request for a variation, the petitioner shall show to
the satisfaction of the Zoning Board that the actions proposed by
the petitioner shall reduce the parking demand by the amount re-
quested.
(4) Carpooling Programs. A variation of up to 10% of required parking based on
substantiated projections of reduction in demand may be granted for any build-
ing or complex of 30,000 square feet of gross floor area which institutes or pro-
poses to institute a carpooling program which meets the following minimum
requirements:
(a) Carpooling program must be a specific responsibility of a designated indi-
vidual or department.
(b) Program must provide an active matching service using manual or auto-
mated matching of addresses and providing employees with potential
carpools (passive matching alone such as bulletin boards is not acceptable).
(c) Program must endeavor to register all existing and all new employees.
(d) Program must actively promote carpooling to employees through newslet-
ter, posters and other materials.
(5) Public Transportation Programs. A reduction of required parking may be
granted for any complex within one-quarter mile of any regularly scheduled
bus route or commuter train station, with service available during commuting
hours, equal to the substantiated projection of use of public transportation by
employees of such complex.
(6) Enforcement of Carpooling and Shared Ride Programs. Development plans,
wherein parking is reduced for shared ride or carpooling programs, shall have
an area designated where parking could be constructed equal to the number
being reduced. If the programs are not being conducted as testified to the Zon-
ing Board, the owner must construct the parking required to meet the regula-
tions of the village, during the next construction season. The petitioner, in ac-
cepting a parking reduction, agrees to construct such additional parking as
would otherwise be required under the provisions of the Zoning Ordinance, if
the Village Board shall determine after hearing by the Zoning Board that the
reasons for granting said reduction no longer exists.
Source: Schaumburg Parking Ordinance (1998)
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Making Way for Ur^
Prior to the issuance of any occupancy permit, the employer(s) must verify that
such ridesharing plans, shown at the time the variation was granted, is being imple-
mented. Such verification must include copies of any contracts, lease agreements,
purchase agreements and other documentation to show that such transportation
demand management has taken or is about to take place.
Prior to the issuance of an annual business permit, the employer(s) shall sub-
mit a report evaluating its ridesharing program. Such report shall include the number
of participants involved, the percentage of participants to total work force, number
and types of vehicles used, and the percentage of parking spaces normally used by
employees.
The commitments agreed to by the petitioner and recommended by the Zoning
Board and approved by the Village Board shall be applicable to all successors in
title and to all tenants. The petitioner shall record a covenant, the content and form
of which must be approved by the Director of Planning or his/her authorized des-
ignee, acting in the capacity of Zoning Administrator, which binds all successors in
title to the commitments approved and the petitioner shall include in all leases a
clause, the content and form of which must be approved by the Director of Plan-
ning or his/her authorized designee, acting in capacity of Zoning Administrator,
which binds all tenants to this commitment made by the petitioner. (Ord. 163, passed
12-5-61; Am. Ord. 2124, passed 5-25-82; Am. Ord. 92-112, passed 10-13-92; Am. Ord.
95-62, passed 6-13-95; Am. Ord. 97-152, passed 12-9-97).
Source: Schaumburg Parking Ordinance (1998)
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
§ 154.125 Bicycle Parking Requirements
(A) Required number of spaces. The following uses are required to install bicycle
parking:
(1) Retail Centers.
Minimum of ten spaces to be located at each main building entrance(s).
(2) Office and Professional Uses (sq. ft. gross floor area).
0 - 49,999 One rack or five spaces
50,000 - 99,999 Two racks or ten spaces
100,000 or more Four racks or 20 spaces
(3) Restaurants.
Type A (full service) One rack or five spaces
Type B (carry out) One rack or five spaces
Type C (full/carry out) Two racks or ten spaces
(4) Cultural, Recreational and Entertainment Uses.
Health clubs; racquetball; handball and tennis clubs; swim clubs and pools;
community centers; and similar uses as determined by the Director of Plan-
ning.
Minimum of 30 spaces.
(5) Bowling alleys; skating rinks; movie theaters; similar uses as determined
by the Director of Planning or his/her authorized designee.
To be determined on a case by case basis by the Director of Planning or his/
her authorized designee, acting in the capacity of Zoning Administrator.
(B) Location. Bike racks shall be located such that they are highly visible from the
street and/or building entrance from where bicyclists approach. Bicycle park-
ing areas shall be separated from motor vehicle parking areas.
(C) Design Criteria and Dimensions.
(1) Bicycle racks must be capable of locking the bicycle and of supporting the
bicycle in an upright position.
(2) A hard surfaced parking area is required. Racks must be securely anchored
to supporting surface.
(3) Installation of bike racks shall conform with the requirements set forth by
the bike rack manufacturer with a rectangular space no less than two and
one-half feet wide by six feet long per bicycle unless a locker or permanent
device to stand the bicycle on end is provided.
Source: Schaumburg Parking Ordinance (1998)
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Making Way for U^
(4) Bicycle rack shall be installed with adequate space beside the parked bi-
cycle so that a bicyclist will be able to reach and operate the locking mecha-
nism.
(D) Collective Provisions. Off-street bicycle rack facilities for separate uses may
be provided collectively if the total number of spaces provided collectively is
not less than the sum of the separate requirements for each such use and pro-
vided that all regulations governing location of accessory parking spaces in
relation to the use served are adhered to. (Ord. 163, passed 12-5-61; Am. Ord.
1992, passed 5-26-81; Am. Ord. 92-112, passed 10-13-92; Am. Ord. 95-62, passed
6-13-95).
Source: Schaumburg Parking Ordinance (1998)
50
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
§ 154.123 Schedule of Parking Requirements
Use Required Spaces
(C) Retail Uses. 5.0 per 1,000 sq. ft. NFA for 0-1,000,000 sq. ft. NFA
4.5 per 1,000 sq. ft. NFA for 1,000,001 1,500,000 sq. ft
NFA
4.0 per 1,000 sq. ft. NFA for 1,500,001 or more sq. ft.
NFA per building
(D) Service Uses.
5.0 per 1,000 sq. ft. NFA for 0-1,000,000 sq. ft. NFA per
building
4.5 per 1,000 sq. ft. NFA for 1,000,001 1,500,000 sq. ft
NFA per building
4.0 per 1,000 sq. ft. NFA for 1,500,001 or more sq. ft.
NFA per building
Reductions in parking requirements may be granted for retail and service uses if
the difference between the above rate and the reduced rate is landbanked.10
Source: Schaumburg Parking Ordinance (1998)
10 Landbanking allows reductions in minimum parking requirements for owners or de-
velopers who: 1) show that the minimum requirements exceed parking demand, 2) substi-
tute "green space" (i.e., land left undeveloped) for the avoided parking spaces, and 3) de-
velop the property so that additional parking could be constructed in the event of a parking
shortage.
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Making Way for Ur^
2. Transportation Strategy
Parking
A large portion of land area in Downtown West Palm Beach is devoted to park-
ing facilities, both surface lots and garages. When facing the street as they often do,
these interrupt the continuity of building frontage which makes a street pedestrian
friendly.
Street-front parking lots and garages contribute in large measure to the percep-
tion that walking in the downtown area is unpleasant. During the charrette, sev-
eral participants expressed surprise that distances between destinations were short,
and they mentioned that they often drive between Downtown destinations. Im-
proving pedestrian continuity on Downtown streets would decrease short trip au-
tomobile use and iterative parking, increase transit viability, and ultimately require
less parking.
The ultimate goal for parking in Downtown is a centrally managed system of
strategically located multiple parking facilities concealed behind habitable build-
ing facades facing streets. The Master Plan recommends the following:
1. Institute a single system to manage parking Downtown as described be-
low;
2. Modify off-street parking requirements to encourage shared parking in a
managed system, reducing ratios as follows:
• 2 spaces per 1,000 square feet of commercial space;
• 1 space per multi-family residential unit;
• 2 spaces per single-family residential unit;
• none required for residential development on lots less than 55 feet wide;
• allow on-street parking to be included in parking requirements of resi-
dential units;
3. Allow substitution of off-street parking requirements with a one-time pay-
ment to a central system parking fund as per existing ordinance;
4. Institute a plan for strategically located parking garages to replace surface
lots as the need evolves;
Source: West Palm Beach Downtown Master Plan (1995)
52
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
5. Require all existing surface parking lots to be landscaped within a year
with a street-front hedge 3' 6" in height at the sidewalk and shade trees at
every third parking space;
6. Discourage replacement of buildings with surface parking lots.
Overall in Downtown West Palm Beach, there is currently an oversupply of
parking spaces. There are about 12,000 spaces, and 200 - 300 will be added with the
restoration of on-street parking to Dixie Highway and Olive Avenue.
Much of the parking supply in Downtown West Palm Beach is in public lots
that are shared by a variety of users, including Downtown employees, shoppers
and office visitors. These lots are scattered throughout Downtown, usually close to
major travel attractions (for example, City Hall). This pattern of numerous, smaller
public lots and garages is highly desirable for two reasons: 1) Downtown vitality,
and 2) traffic access.
Small, scattered public parking lots promote Downtown vitality by encourag-
ing a "park once" travel pattern on the part of motorists. With numerous scattered
lots, drivers don't expect to drive directly to their final destination and park in an
attached garage or lot (as in a suburban office park) and repeat the process for
every trip throughout the day (for example, for lunch, shopping, bank, and so forth).
Rather, with scattered public parking, drivers expect to "park once" for the entire
duration of their stay Downtown, and access multiple destinations during the day
as a pedestrian. Combining multiple trip purposes in a "park once" environment is
further encouraged when the walking experience between parking and ultimate
destination is safe, comfortable and interesting. The small-scale grid of Downtown
streets present, a large number of possible routings between parking lot and ulti-
mate destination, and pedestrians can continually vary their routes.
Numerous scattered lots are also preferable for traffic operations. Traffic gen-
erated by multiple small lots tends to have a gradual rate of entry/discharge, and is
rapidly dispersed to the surrounding street network. This diffusion of traffic con-
trasts sharply with the traffic "hot spots" that are created at the access points of
major attached parking structures. At such concentration of parking, the number
of spaces and the high entry/exit rate (due to single purpose occupants) often cre-
ates problem intersections, frequently requiring street widening and signalization
to accommodate garage operations.
Existing parking and future parking additions to Downtown should be treated
as a single system. To do so, it is not necessary to combine operation or ownership
of the parking supply into a single entity. Rather, what is required is to assess park-
ing distribution for all of Downtown as a single system, considering all sources of
supply and need. Additional parking (whether privately or publicly supplied)
should be directed in a manner that yields the most benefit to Downtown as a whole.
A longer term parking policy should therefore focus on several major directions:
Source: West Palm Beach Downtown Master Plan (1995)
53
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Making Way for U^
1. Better use of the existing supply of off-street parking, through directional
signs, public information, leasing and other organizational measures;
2. Strategically expanding existing parking locations;
3. Meeting needs of new Downtown tenants (for example, the County Judi-
cial Building) through a combined use of existing parking facilities, care-
fully targeted expansion of existing lots and construction of new public
lots.
A major objective of the parking program should be to encourage visitors to
circulate as pedestrians through Downtown commercial streets, such as Clematis
Street, on their way to and from parking.
Source: West Palm Beach Downtown Master Plan (1995)
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
Sec. 59-E-3.1. Mixed Uses.
(a) When any land or building is under the same ownership or under a joint use
agreement and is used for 2 or more purposes, the number of parking spaces is
computed by multiplying the minimum amount of parking normally required
for each land use by the 5 time periods shown. The number of parking spaces
required is determined by totaling the resulting number in each column; the
column total that generates the highest number of parking spaces then becomes
the parking requirement.
Office/I ndustri
Weekday
Weekend
Daytime
(6 am-6pm)
1 0 0 %
Evening
(6pm-
midnight)
Evening
Daytime (6am-
(6am-6pm) midnight)
1 0%
5%
Nighttime
(Midnight-
6am)
5%
General Retai
6 0 %
90%
1 0 0 %
70 %
5%
Hotel, Motel , In n
All Other Uses
75%
1 0 0 %
1 0 0 %
75%
1 0 0 %
1 0 0 %
1 0 0 %
1 0 0 %
75%
Restaurant 5 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 %
I n d o o r o r 4 0 % 1 0 0 % 8 0 %
Legitimate
Theatre,
Commercial
Recreational
Establishment
M e e t i n g C e n t e r 5 0 % 1 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 %
Multi-family 50% 100% 100%
dwellings in
Commercial
Districts
P e r s o n a I L i v i n g 5 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 %
Quarters
1 0 0 % 10 %
1 0 0 % 10 %
1 0 0 % 10 %
1 0 0 % 1 0 0 %
1 0 0 % 1 0 0 %
1 0 0 %
Source: Montgomery County Code Zoning Ordinance (1997)
55
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; Making Way for
Sec. 59-E-3.2. Computing Parking Requirements for Office Development.
Base parking requirements for offices shall be determined in accordance with a
property's Office Parking Policy Area designation and the proximity of the prop-
erty to a Metrorail station. The Office parking Policy Areas are identified on the
Adopted Office Parking Policy Area Map which was approved by the District Coun-
cil on June 28,1984, and is maintained by the Planning Board. A copy of this map is
reproduced at the end of this section. The base parking requirements within indi-
vidual Office Parking Policy Areas vary according to the proximity of a property to
a Metrorail station which is defined in subsection 59-E-3.21 which follows. The
following table establishes the base office parking requirements for each policy area:
Base Requirements for Office Parking
Minimum Parking Requirements (Spaces/1000 GSF)
South
Northern
Proximity to Metro Station Southern Area
Central Area
Central Area
Northern Area
Less than 800'
800'-1 600'
N/A
More than 1600'
2.4
2.7
3.0
N/A = Not Applicable
69-E-3.21. Proximity to a Metrorail Station.
Proximity to the METRO station is defined as the straight-line distance between
a main pedestrian entrance of a building for which the parking reduction is to be
granted and a station entrance controlled by the W.M.A.T.A. This station entrance
is defined further as the street-level entrance of any escalator or the gate or similar
barrier of any station entrance which has no escalator.
An existing or planned metrorail station may be used as a basis for the office
requirement if:
(a) It is currently in use as part of an operating transit line; or
(b) the director/planning board has received a certified letter from the
W.M.A.T.A. stating that a construction contract has been signed for any
portion of the construction phase which is located on the same transit line
immediately south of the phase of construction in which the proposed build-
ing or buildings will be located.
(Legislative History: Ord. No. 10-32, ' 11; Ord. No. 12-1, ' 1.)
Source: Montgomery County Code Zoning Ordinance (1997)
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
59-E-3.32. Credits for Specified Commercial Uses.
(a) For general retail uses, regional shopping centers, restaurants, theatres, fur-
niture stores and auxiliary retail uses, the director may approve a 15 per-
cent reduction in the standard parking requirements provided in section
59-E-3.7. This reduction is allowed if the entrance of the proposed use is
located within 1,600 feet of a metrorail station entrance as defined in sec-
tion 59-E-3.21.
(b) For regional shopping centers, off-site parking spaces may be allowed un-
der the following circumstances:
(1) The off-site parking facility shall be used only by employees of the re-
gional shopping center during seasonal peak periods to help satisfy
peak parking requirements;
(2) The off-site parking facility will contain no more than 20 percent of the
total parking spaces provided for the regional shopping center; and
(3) The director/planning board finds that there are appropriate contrac-
tual or lease agreements guaranteeing the continued availability, for
specified peak shopping periods, of such off-site parking spaces for
the regional shopping center. In addition, the director/planning board
must find that appropriate administrative mechanisms exist to ensure
that employees will be required to use the off-site parking facility dur-
ing specified peak shopping periods.
59-E-3.33. Credits for Specified Residential Uses.
(a) For multiple-family dwelling units, townhouses, fourplex units, and indi-
vidual living units in personal living quarters, the director/planning board
may approve a 10 percent reduction in the standard parking requirement
provided in section 59-E-3.7, if such units are located within a central busi-
ness district or transit station development area. A 5 percent reduction is
also allowed where such units are located within 1,600 feet of a metrorail
station entrance as defined in section 59-E-3.21. This credit does not apply
to parking for housing for elderly or handicapped persons or a life care
facility that is constructed in accordance with the credit provisions enu-
merated in Paragraph (b), below.
(b) For housing and related facilities for elderly or handicapped persons, the
Director/Planning Board may approve reductions in the standard parking
requirements contained in Section 59-E-3.7. Any reductions granted must
be in accordance with the following parking credit schedule, which must
be applied sequentially, with succeeding percentages applying to the bal-
ance:
Source: Montgomery County Code Zoning Ordinance (1997)
57
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/! Baking Way f^
(1) Located within 1,000 feet of Metrorail station entrance: 5%
(2) Provision of private shuttle bus service for a minimum of 7 years, with a schedule 10%
assured by a special exception granted in accordance with Section 59-G-2.35 or 59-G-
2.35.1, a site plan enforcement agreement in accordance with Section 59-D-3.3 or other
long-term agreement. Continued shuttle bus service after that period is subject t o * i-. ~
parking needs of the specific project, as determined by the Board of Appeals, Planning
Board of Director;
(3) Provision of units that are required to be at or below the price levels for moderately up to
priced dwelling units specified in accordance with Chapter25A ofthis Code: 20 % 1
(4) Facilities or programs for assisted living, including a dining facility large enough to 20%
serve meals to at least 50 percent of the residents, that are assured by a special
exception granted in accordance with Section 59-G-2.35 or 59-G-2.35.1 or by a similar
long-term agreement:
1 The percentage reduction must be no greater than the percentage of price-controlled dwelling units
in the facility.
Any credit granted for a life care facility approved in accordance with Section 59-G-
2.35.1 applies to the computation of the requirement for the dwelling units only
and not to the requirement for the nursing home.
(Legislative History: Ord No. 10-32, ' 11; Ord. No. 10-63, ' 1; Ord. No. 11-72, ' 10;
Ord. No. 11-73,' 11; Ord. No. 12-49,' 1; Ord. No. 13-46, ' 7.)
Source: Montgomery County Code Zoning Ordinance (1997)
58
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___^
Sec. 59-E-3.3. Credits for Specific Uses.
Percentage reductions in the required number of parking spaces, as specified in
this article, may be approved by the directory/planning board and must be en-
forced by the director. Where multiple credits are granted, each credit allowance is
applied only on the marginal parking requirements. After an initial percentage
reduction is approved for one credit, an additional percentage reduction for each
successive credit applies to the balance of the parking supply required.
59-e-3.31. Credits for General Office Building
Parking credits are allowed for office developments that actively participate in
the county share-a-ride program and/or provide private incentives for ride-shar-
ing. A schedule of parking credits for offices, based on specific criteria for reduc-
tions and penalties for noncompliance, is presented in the following schedule:
(a) Sites within share-a-ride districts. Share-a-ride districts are defined in chap-
ter 42A of the Montgomery County Code.
(1) A 15 percent reduction for participation in share-a-ride's continuous,
personalized ridesharing assistance program may be approved if the
owner of the development submits a written agreement, with the park-
ing facility plan, that stipulates the following conditions:
a. The owner or lessees with more than 25 employees designate a
person who shall promote the program to employees in accordance
with established county procedures for the share-a-ride program.
b. The owner or lessees shall reserve a sufficient number of conve-
niently located parking spaces to accommodate all employee
carpools and vanpools.
c. The owner shall make an annual payment to the ridesharing ac-
count of the mass transit facilities fund for basic share-a-ride ser-
vices in accordance with the payment schedule of chapter 42A of
the Montgomery County Code.
d. The owner shall certify semi-annually to the director that the above
requirements are being satisfied.
e. In the event of noncompliance, the director shall require the owner
to pay an annual penalty payment to the ridesharing account for
supplementary share-a-ride services, in accordance with the pay-
ment schedule of chapter 42A of the Montgomery County Code.
(2) A percentage reduction between one and 15 percent may be approved
for private incentives (e.g., in-house carpool promotion/matching sys-
tem, private shuttle bus, van lease or purchase, reserved carpool spaces,
and transit pass discount programs) if the owner of the development
submits a written agreement, with the parking facility plan, that stipu-
lates the following conditions:
Source: Montgomery County Code Zoning Ordinance (1997)
59
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Making Way for U^
a. The owner shall, as a contingency, set aside land for a parking fa-
cility or allow for future construction or expansion of a structured
parking facility, sufficient to provide additional parking spaces
equal in number to the reduction granted.
b. The owner shall make an annual payment to the ridesharing fund
for monitoring and enforcement, in accordance with the payment
schedule of chapter 42A of the Montgomery County Code.
c. The owner shall certify to the director semi-annually that the above
requirements are satisfied.
d. In the event of noncompliance, the director shall require the owner
to satisfy at least one of the following penalties:
1. Construction of additional parking spaces, equal in number to
the spaces originally reduced.
2. Pay an annual penalty payment to the ridesharing account for
basic or supplementary share-a-ride services, in accordance
with the payment schedule of chapter 42A of the Montgomery
County Code.
3. Suspension of occupancy permit.
The requirements and penalties of Section (a)(2)a., (a)(2)d.l., and (a)(2)d.3, above
are not applicable to mixed use projects in the TS-M zone located within 1000 feet
of a Metrorail station where such requirements and penalties may preclude fulfill-
ment of master or sector plan objectives for the provision of affordable housing as
determined by the Montgomery County Planning Board.
(b) Sites within a share-a-ride outreach area, share-a-ride outreach areas are de-
fined in chapter 42A of the Montgomery County Code.
(1) A 15 percent reduction for participation in share-a-ride's continuous, per-
sonalized ridesharing assistance program may be approved if the owner of
the development submits a written agreement, with the parking facility
plan, that stipulates the following conditions:
a. The owner of lessees with more than 25 employees designate a person
who shall promote the program with employees in accordance with
established county procedures for the share-a-ride program.
b. The owner or lessees shall reserve a sufficient number of conveniently
located parking spaces to accommodate all employee carpools and
vanpools.
c. The owner shall make an annual payment to the ridesharing account
for basic share-a-ride services in accordance with the payment sched-
ule of chapter 42A of the Montgomery County Code.
Source: Montgomery County Code Zoning Ordinance (1997)
60
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.i Making'Way'for Urban I nfM
d. The owner shall certify semi-annually to the director that the above
requirements are being satisfied.
e. In the event on noncompliance, the director shall require the owner to
pay an annual penalty payment to the ridesharing account for supple-
mentary share-a-ride services, in accordance with the payment sched-
ule of chapter 42A of the Montgomery County Code.
(2) A percentage reduction between one and 15 percent may be approved for
private incentives (e.g., in-house carpool promotion/matching system, pri-
vate shuttle bus, van lease or purchase, reserved carpool spaces, and tran-
sit pass discount programs) if the owner of the development submits a
written agreement, with the parking facility plan, that stipulates the fol-
lowing conditions:
a. The owner shall, as a contingency, set aside land for a parking facility
or allow for future construction or expansion of an structures parking
facility, large enough to provide additional parking spaces equal in
number to the reduction granted.
b. The owner shall make an annual payment to the ridesharing account
for monitoring and enforcement, in accordance with the payment sched-
ule of chapter 42A of the Montgomery County Code.
c. The owner shall certify to the director semi-annually that the above
requirements are satisfied.
d. In the event of noncompliance, the director shall require the owner to
satisfy at least one of the following penalties:
1. Construction of additional parking spaces, equal in number to the
spaces originally reduced.
2. Pay an annual penalty payment to the ridesharing account for ba-
sic or supplementary share-a-ride services, in accordance with the
payment schedule of chapter 42A of the Montgomery County Code.
3. Suspension of occupancy permit.
(c) Sites in remaining areas (locations where share-a-ride services are unavailable):
(1) A percentage reduction between one and 15 percent may be approved for
private incentives (e.g., in-house carpool promotion/matching system, pri-
vate shuttle bus, van lease or purchase, reserved carpool spaces, and tran-
sit pass discount programs) if the owner of the development submits a
written agreement with the parking facility plan that stipulates the follow-
ing conditions:
Source: Montgomery County Code Zoning Ordinance (1997)
61
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Making Way for Ur^
a. The owner, shall, as a contingency, set aside land for a parking facility
or allow for future construction or expansion of a structured parking
facility, large enough to provide additional parking spaces equal in
number to the reduction granted.
b. The owner shall make an annual payment to the ridesharing account
for monitoring and enforcement, in accordance with the payment sched-
ule of chapter 42A of the Montgomery County Code.
c. The owner shall certify to the director semi-annually that the above
requirements are satisfied.
d. In the event of noncompliance, the director shall require the owner to
satisfy at least one of the following penalties:
1. Construction of additional parking spaces, equal in number to the
spaces originally reduced.
2. If located within a parking lot district, satisfy condition (1) above
or pay the annual ad valorem tax as specified in chapter 60 of the
Montgomery County Code.
3. Suspension of occupancy permit.
(d) For any office development eligible for parking reductions under this section,
the percent reductions are applied to the development's base parking require-
ment, as described in section 59-E-3.2 which is concerned with computing the
parking requirements for office development.
Source: Montgomery County Code Zoning Ordinance (1997)
62
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
Policy 4
In-Lieu Parking Fees
Limited availability of land, small lot sizes and existing buildings make pro-
viding required on- or off-site parking very difficult for small-scale new construc-
tion or rehabilitation of existing buildings. In addition, financial feasibility often
prohibits individual businesses from developing their own parking.
To assist small-scale new developments and rehabilitation of existing buildings
within the District, the Agency shall not require parking be provided by the project
on-site. In exchange for the payment of an in-lieu fee, the Agency will provide
required off-site parking on behalf of eligible developments seeking shared-use
parking.
The following types of developments are eligible for Agency provided, off-site
parking to meet shared-use parking requirements upon payment of in-lieu fees:
• Non-residential new construction on lots of less than 22,500 square feet in
size.
• Additions to existing buildings, rehabilitation of existing buildings, or
changes in use or occupancy in existing buildings.
• Designated City Historic Landmark buildings.
• Existing buildings desiring access to additional parking resources but not
required to provide those resources by the Zoning Code.
All off-site parking provided by the Agency will be non-exclusive, shared-use
parking from the pool of publicly available parking within the District. Partici-
pants using such parking will not be assigned or guaranteed use of specific spaces
or facilities. The Agency will, however, be responsible to insure that sufficient park-
ing exists within the District to accommodate the demand generated by partici-
pants paying in-lieu fees to the Agency for use of off-site parking.
Each development using shared-use parking in-lieu of constructing parking
creates a demand for spaces that must be satisfied from the pool of available public
parking. Since the availability of public parking is limited, and the Agency will be
responsible for insuring that sufficient parking exists, the Agency shall require that
each project that uses Agency-provided public parking help pay a portion of capi-
tal cost and operational costs needed to develop and operate public parking re-
sources.
Source: Downtown Parking Management Plan (1993)
63
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Making Way for U^
Eligible projects desiring the Agency to provide shared-use parking off-site in-
lieu of providing on-site parking, shall pay to the Agency an in-lieu fee for each
space required but not provided. The fee shall be due at the time a building permit
or business license is issued. This payment shall be deposited in an Agency ac-
count to be used to cover capital costs of providing additional shared-use public
parking resources. The in-lieu fee shall be set by the Redevelopment Agency on an
annual basis and may be paid either in a lump sum or on an installment payment
basis. To encourage the rehabilitation of City Historic Landmark structures, the
Agency may postpone or waive in-lieu fees if it can be demonstrated that such fees
would impair the feasibility of the rehabilitation.
Along with the payment of an in-lieu fee to cover a portion of capital costs,
participants using Agency provided, off-site parking facilities shall pay a share of
the operational costs. These costs may include the user's payment of full-market
rates for the use of parking, charges to participating businesses for the privilege of
validating short-term parking, and monthly parking rates for the use of long-term
or employee parking.
Projects eligible for Agency-provided off-site parking are not required to choose
to use Agency provided off-site parking to meet their parking requirements; they
may instead choose to provide their own private-parking or provide shared-use
parking to meet the parking requirements.
Source: Downtown Parking Management Plan (1993)
64
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.iMaking'Way'for_Urban Infill and
§ 33.510.263 Parking in the Core Area
6. Maximum Ratios
Parking is limited to the maximum ratios in Table 510-2. Where there is more
than one use, the amount of parking allowed is calculated based on the net building
area of each use.
Table 510-2
IN THE CORE AREA GROWTH PARKING: MAXIMUM NUMBER OF
PARKING SPACES PER 1,000 SQUARE FEET OF NET BUILDING AREA
District/Sector (See Map 510-8):
Use
Downtown
2, 3
Downtown
4
Downtown 1, 5:
University District
River
District 5
River
District 3, 4;
Downtown 6
Office
0.7
1.0
1.5
2.0
Retail Sales and
Service, except
theaters, hotels,
motels
Medical Centers
Schools,
Colleges
Manufacturing
and Production,
Warehouse and
Freight
Movement,
Wholesale Sales,
Industrial
Service
0.7
Community
Service,
Religious
Institutions,
Theaters, Other
Uses
Source: Title 33: Planning and Zoning Code (1999)
65
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f his guidebook was compiled using information from existing stud-
ies, current bibliographical research, and input from experts. Robin
Snyder of EPA's Urban and Economic Development Division di-
rected the work of Industrial Economics, Incorporated, the contractor sup-
porting the effort under EPA Contract Number 68-W4-0041. Dr. Richard
Wilson, Professor of Urban and Regional Planning at California State Poly-
technic University, and Michael R. Kodama, of Michael R. Kodama Plan-
ning Consultants, provided valuable input and expert review of the docu-
ment. Harold Horn, of the City of Wilton Manors Community Services
Department, John Resha, of SAFECO Parking and Transportation Services,
and Kristin Asbra, of the City of Long Beach Department of Community
Development Redevelopment Bureau, provided detailed information for
the case studies, as well as critical review. We are grateful for the contribu-
tions of these participants.
In addition, we would like to thank the following people for their com-
ments on drafts of the document:
Robert Dumphy, Urban Land Institute
Kenneth Fritz, Village of Schamburg, Illinois
Christopher Hudson, Congress for New Urbanism
Todd Juhasz, Westchester County Department of Planning
Thomas Robertson, Montgomery County Department of Park
and Planning
Timothy Rood, Calthorpe Associates
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Introduction 1
Beyond Generic Parking Requirements 4
The Costs of Parking 7
Parking Requirements and Development Decisions 10
Relationship Between Parking Requirements
and Development Decisions 11
Innovative Parking Alternatives 13
In-Lieu Parking Fees 13
Shared Parking 14
Centralized Parking 17
Maximum Limits 17
Parking Freezes 19
Demand Reduction 20
Case Studies 25
Reduced Parking Requirements:
The Shoppes of Wilton Manors 26
A Vehicle Trip Reduction Program:
SAFECO Insurance Company Expansion 30
Shared Parking and In-Lieu Fees:
D'Orsay Hotel 33
References 36
Appendix 40
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