Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines
 BUILDING,  CONSTRUCTION,
 AND PAPER
 Segment of the Asbestos
 Manufacturing

 Point Source Category
               FEBRUARY 1974
           U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
\ ^1/ ?          Washington, D.C. 20460

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                   DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT

                             for

              EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES

                            . and

             NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

                           for the



BUILDING,  CONSTRUCTION AND  PAPER SEGMENT OF  THE ASBESTOS

            MANUFACTURING  POINT SOURCE CATEGORY

                       Russell Train
                       Admi ni strator

                       Roger Strelow
 Acting Assistant Administrator for Air & Water Programs
                        Allen  Cywin
         Director, Effluent Guidelines Division

                     Robert J.  Carton
                      Project  Officer
                       February 1974
               Effluent Guidelines Division
            Office of Air and  Water Programs
          U.  S.  Environmental  Protection Agency
                 Washington, D.  C.  20460
   For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.70

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                            ABSTRACT

This document presents the findings of an extensive  study  of  a
segment   of   the   asbestos   manufacturing   industry  by  the
Environmental Protection Agency for  the  purpose  of  developing
effluent   limitations   guidelines   and  Federal  standards  of
performance for the industry to implement Sections 304,  306  and
307 of the "Act."

Effluent  limitations  guidelines  contained herein set forth the
degree of effluent reduction attainable through  the  application
of  the  best  practicable control technology currently available
and the degree  of  effluent  reduction  attainable  through  the
application   of   the  best  available  technology  economically
achievable which must be achieved by existing  point  sources  by
July  1,  1977  and  July 1, 1983 respectively.  The standards of
performance for new sources contained herein set forth the degree
of effluent reduction which is achievable through the application
of the best available demonstrated control technology, processes,
operating methods, or other alternatives.


The development of  data  and  recommendations  in  the  document
relate  to a portion of the asbestos manufacturing category which
contains the major water users in this  industry.   This  segment
was  subdivided  by  process  into  seven  subcategories Separate
effluent limitations were developed for each subcategory  on  the
basis  of  the  level of raw waste loads as well as the degree of
treatment achievable by suggested model systems.   These  systems
include coagulation, sedimentation, skimming, neutralization, and
certain in-plant modifications.

Supportive  data  and  rationale for developments of the proposed
effluent limitations guidelines and standards of performance  are
contained in this report.
                                ill

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                        TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION

     I   Conclusions

    II   Recommendations

   III   Introduction

              Purpose and Authority
              Summary of Methods
              Sources of Data
              General Description of Industry
              Manufacturing Locations
              Manufacturing Processes
              Asbestos-Cement Products
              Asbestos Paper
              Asbestos Millboard
              Asbestos Roofing
              Floor Tile
              Current Status of Industry

    IV   Industry categorization

              Introduction and Conclusions
              Factors Considered

     V   Water Use and Waste Characterization

              Introduction
              Asbestos-Cement Pipe
              Asbestos-Cement Sheet
              Asbestos Paper
              Asbestos Millboard
              Asbes-tos Roofing
              Asbestos Floor Tile

    VI   Selection of Pollutant Parameters

              selected Parameters
              Major Pollutants
              Other Pollutants

   VII   Control and Treatment Technology

              Introduction
              In-Plant Control Measures
              Treatment Technology
PAgE

  1
  5
  6
  7
 13
 14
 19
 19
 26
 30
 33
 35
 37

 39

 39
 39

 43

 43
 45
 47
 49
 51
 52
 54

 57

57
58
 60

67

67
68
72

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VIII   Cost, Energy, and Non-Water Quality Aspects
        77
            Representative Plants
            cost information
            Treatment or Control Technologies
            Energy Requirements
            Non-Water Quality Aspects

  IX   Best Practicable Technology  Currently Available
         Effluent Limitations Guidelines

            Introduction
            Effluent Reduction Attainable
            Identification of Control  Technology
            Rationale for selection

   X   Best Available Technology Economically  Achievable
         Effluent Limitations Guidelines
            Introduction
            Effluent Reduction Attainable
            Identification of Control Technology
            Rationale  for Selection

  XI   New Source Performance Standards

            Introduction
            Identification of standards
            Effluent Reduction Attainable
            Rationale  for Selection

 XII   Acknowledgments

 XIII  References

 XIV   Glossary

       CONVERSION TABLE
84
        77
        78
        80
        96
        99
        101

        101
        102
        103
        105
113

113
114
114
114

123

123
123
124
124

129

131

133

135
                                Vi

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                             FIGURES
NUMBER

1


2


3
Asbestos-Cement Sheet Manufacturing Operations,
  Dry Process

Asbestos-Cement Sheet Manufacturing Operations,
  Wet Process

Asbestos-Cement Sheet Manufacturing Operations,
  Wet Mechanical Process

Asbestos-Cement Pipe Manufacturing Operations,
  Viet Mechanical Process

Asbestos Paper Manufacturing Operations

Asbestos Millboard Manufacturing Operations

Asbestos Roofing Manufacturing Operations

Asbestos Floor Tile Manufacturing Operations

Water Balance Diagram for a Typical
  Asbestos-Cement Pipe Plant


Cost Curve for Typical Plants
PAGE


  21


  22


  23


  25

  28

  32

  34

  36


  44
10

11

12

13

14

15
Asbestos-Cement Pipe

Asbestos-Cement Sheet

Asbestos Paper

Asbestos Millboard

Asbestos Roofing

Asbestos Floor Tile
  83

  86

  89

  92

  95

  98
                                Vii

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Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
                    TABLES

Manufacturing Facilities by Subcategory
Locations of Asbestos Plants
Representative Plants

Water Effluent Treatment Costs
Asbestos-Cement Pipe
Asbestos-Cement Sheet
Asbestos Paper
Asbestos Millboard
Asbestos Roofing
Asbestos Floor Tile
Conversion Table
Page
  8
 15
 79
 82
 85
 88
 91
 94
 97
135
                                viii

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                            SECTION I
                           CONCLUSIONS

That  part of the asbestos manufacturing industry covered in this
document is  classified  into  seven  subcategories.   The  major
factors  in subcategorizing the asbestos products industry on the
basis of product lines were raw waste loads and volumes of  waste
waters.   Other  factors further supported this decision, such as
differences   in   in-plant   processes,   end-of-pipe    control
technologies,  and  the  speed with which zero discharge could be
realized for each subcategory.

The  subcategories  are as follows:

               1.  Asbestos-cement pipe,
               2.  Asbestos-cement sheet,
               3.  Asbestos paper  (starch binder),
               U.  Asbestos paper  (elastomeric binder),
               5.  Asbestos millboard,
               6,  Asbestos roofing products, and
               7.  Asbestos floor tile.

Recommended effluent limitations and waste  control  technologies
to  be achieved by July 1, 1977, and July 1, 1983, are summarized
in Section II.  It is  estimated  that  the  investment  cost  of
achieving the 1977 limitations and standards by all plants in the
industry  is  less than $3 million, excluding costs of additional
land acquisition.  The  cost  of  achieving  the  1983  level  is
estimated  to  be  about  $6  million  for the industry, i.e., an
additional $3 million over the 1977 level.

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                           SECTION II

                         R ECOMMENDATIONS
The recommended effluent limitations for the parameters of  major
significance  are summarized below for the categories of asbestos
products included in this document.  Using the  best  practicable
control   technology  currently  available,  the  limits  are  as
follows:
                                        Suspended
                                          solids
                                         ~~kg/kkg*
           COD
           kg/kkg*
Asbestos-cement pipe
Asbestos-cement sheet
Asbestos paper (starch binder)
Asbestos paper (elastomeric binder)
Asbestos millboard
Asbestos roofing
Asbestos floor tile
0.19
0.23
0.35
0.35
      zero discharge
0.006      0.008
0.04**     0.09**
pH between the limits of 6.0 to 9.0 for all subcategories

*kg of pollutant/kkg of product

**Units:  kilogram per 1,000 pieces (12"x12flx3/32")

Using  the  best  available   control   technology   economically
achievable,  no  discharge  of waste waters to navigable water is
recommended as the effluent limitation guideline and standard  of
performance for all of the above categories of asbestos products.
With  the  exception  of  asbestos-cement pipe and asbestos paper
containing elastomeric binders, this limitation and  standard  of
performance  is recommended for all new point sources.  These two
excepted products should meet the limitations  outlined  as  best
practicable control technology currently available.
A  more detailed explanation of these limitations including daily
maximum limitations are contained in Section IX.

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                           SECTION III

                          INTRODUCTION
                      PURPOSE AND AUTHORITY

Section 301 (b) of the Act requires the achievement by  not   later
than  July  1,  1977,  of effluent limitations for point sources,
other than publicly owned treatment works, which are based on the
application of the best practicable control technology  currently
available  as  defined  by  the Administrator pursuant to Section
304 (b) of the Act.  Section 301 (b) also requires the  achievement
by not later than July 1, 1983, of effluent limitations for  point
sources,  other  than  publicly  owned treatment works, which are
based  on  the  application  of  the  best  available  technology
economically  achievable  which will result in reasonable further
progress toward the national goal of eliminating the discharge of
all pollutants, as  determined  in  accordance  with  regulations
issued  by  the  Administrator  pursuant to Section 304(b) to the
Act.  Section 306 of the Act  requires  the  achievement  by new
sources  of  a  Federal standard of performance providing for the
control of the discharge of pollutants which reflects the  great-
est   degree   of  effluent  reduction  which  the  Administrator
determines to be achievable through the application of  the  best
available  demonstrated  control technology, processes, operating
methods, or other alternatives, including, where  practicable,  a
standard permitting no discharge of pollutants.

Section  304(b)  of the Act requires the Administrator to publish,
within one year of enactment of the  Act,  regulations  providing
guidelines  for  effluent limitations setting forth the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the best
practicable control technology currently available and the degree
of effluent reduction attainable through the application  of  the
best   control   measures   and  practices  achievable  including
treatment  techniques,   process   and   procedure   innovations,
operating   methods  and  other  alternatives.   The  regulations
proposed  herein  set  forth  effluent   limitations   guidelines
pursuant   to   Section  304 (b)   of  the  Act  for  the  asbestos
manufacturing source category.

Section 306 of the Act requires  the  Administrator,  within  one
year  after a category of sources is included in a list published
pursuant  to  Section  306 (b) (1) (A)   of  the  Act,   to   propose
regulations  establishing  Federal  standards of performances for
new sources within such categories.   The Administrator  published
in  the  Federal  Register of January 16, 1973 (38 F. R.  1624), a
list  of  27  source  categories.    Publication   of   the   list
constituted  announcement  of  the  Administrator's  intention of
establishing,   under  Section  306,   standards   of   performance
applicable  to  new  sources  within  the  asbestos manufacturing
source category, which was included  within  the  list  published
January 16, 1973.

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SUMMARY   OF   METHODS  USED  FOR  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE
LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE
EFFLUENT
The effluent limitations guidelines and standards of  performance
proposed  herein  were  developed  in  the following manner.  The
point source category was first categorized for  the  purpose  of
determining   whether  separate  limitations  and  standards  are
appropriate  for  different  segments  within  a   point   source
category.   Such  subcategorization  was  based upon raw material
used, product produced, manufacturing process employed, and other
factors.  The raw waste characteristics for each subcategory were
then identified.  This included an analyses of (1)  the source and
volume of water used in the process employed and the  sources  of
waste  and  waste  waters  in the plant; and (2)  the constituents
(including  thermal)  of  all  waste   waters   including   toxic
constituents  and other constituents which result in taste, odor,
and color in water or aquatic  organisms.   The  constituents  of
waste  waters  which  should  be  subject to effluent limitations
guidelines and standards of performance were identified.

The full range of control  and  treatment  technologies  existing
within   each  subcategory  was  identified.   This  included  an
identification of each distinct control and treatment technology,
including both in-plant and  end-of-process  technologies,  which
are  existent  or capable of being designed for each subcategory.
It also included an identification in  terms  of  the  amount  of
constituents  (including thermal) and the chemical, physical, and
biological characteristics of pollutants, of the  effluent  level
resulting  from  the  application  of  each  of the treatment and
control technologies.  The problems, limitations and  reliability
of  each  treatment  and  control  technology  and  the  required
implementation time were also identified.  In addition, the  non-
water  quality  environmental  impact, such as the effects of the
application of such technologies upon other  pollution  problems,
including  air,   solid  waste,  noise  and  radiation  were  also
identified.  The energy requirements of each of the  control  and
treatment  technologies was identified as well as the cost of the
application of such technologies.

The information, as outlined above, was then evaluated  in  order
to  determine  what  levels  of  technology constituted the "best
practicable  control  technology  currently   available,"   "best
available  technology  economically  achievable"  and  the  "best
available demonstrated control technology,  processes,  operating
methods,   or   other   alternatives."    In   identifying   such
technologies, various factors were  considered.   These  included
the  total  cost  of application of technology in relation to the
effluent reduction benefits to be achieved from such application,
the  age  of  equipment  and  facilities  involved,  the  process
employed,  the  engineering aspects of the application of various
types of control techniques process  changes,  non-water  quality
environmental  impact  (including  energy requirements)  and other
factors.

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Sources of Data

Unlike some  industries,  the  waste  waters  from  the  asbestos
manufacturing  industry  have received almost no attention in the
engineering and pollution control literature.   Very  few  plants
have  any information more extensive than the results of analyses
of one or a few grab samples of the  final  effluent.   The  data
used  in  this  document  were  necessarily very limited and were
derived from a number of sources.  Some of the  sources  included
published  literature  on  manufacturing processes, EPA technical
publications on the industry,  and  consultation  with  qualified
personnel.   Most  of  the information on waste water volumes and
characteristics, however, was obtained from RAPP applications and
from  an  on-site  sampling  program  carried  out   during   the
preparation  of  this document.  Some additionnal information was
derived from a questionnaire  distributed  through  the  Asbestos
Information Association, North America.

Twelve   corporations  at  51  locations  in  the  United  states
manufacture products which are  covered  by  this  document.   At
thirteen locations, two or more products are made, resulting in a
total of 68 manufacturing facilities having one or two production
lines  each.  RAPP applications were available and used for 37 of
these facilities.  Except for two locations,  these  applications
covered  all  of  the plants in the industry that discharge waste
waters to navigable streams.  The applications provided  data  on
the  characteristics of intake and effluent waters, water usuage,
waste  water  treatment  provided,  daily  production,  and   raw
materials used.

The   program   of   visiting   and   sampling  at  ten  selected
manufacturing plants was designed to verify the available data on
waste water characteristics, develop flow diagrams, observe water
conservation practices, and define existing treatment  techniques
and  associated cost.  All of the information about untreated and
partially treated waste waters was  obtained  from  the  sampling
program.

The  number  of  known  manufacturing  facilities in each product
subcategory and the means of waste water disposal  are  presented
in Table 1.   Also shown are the number visited and sampled by the
contractor.    It should be noted that five of the facilities that
achieve zero discharge by comple recycle are at one location  and
are served by a common treatment unit.

A  voluntary  questionnaire  was distributed to its membership by
the Asbestos Information Association, North America.   It. outlined
the types of information desired, if available.    Since  most  of
the  companies in the industry were contacted directly by the EPA
contractor,  the purpose of distributing the questionnaire was  to
provide the remaining plants an opportunity to participate in the
study.  A copy of the questionnaire is presented on the following
pages.

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00
                                               TABLE 1

                                   MANUFACTURING FACILITIES IN THE
                                   ASBESTOS MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Asbestos-Cement
Pipe Sheet
Discharge :
to steam
to municipal
system
non-recycle
non-evap'n.
Total
RAPP Application
Visted
Sampled

11
1
1
1
14
11
4
3

7
4
2
0
13
7
3
2
Asbestos
Paper
7
4
1
0
12
5
3
2
Asbestos
Millboard

3
2
2
0
7
3
4
2
Asbestos
Roofing

5
3
1
0
9
5
1
1
Asbestos
Floor Tile

6
7
0
0
13
6
2
1

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                       QUESTIONNAIRE FORM

I   GENERAL

    A.   Company name

    B.   Address

    C.   Contact - company personnel

    D.   Telephone number

    E.   Contact-plant personnel

    F.   Address of plant reporting

    G.   Plant telephone number

II  MANUFACTURING PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION  (Separate sheet for
    each product)

    A.   Product

    B.   Manufacturing process

    C.   Major ingredients and general formulation

    D.   Production rate

    E.   Operating Schedule

    F.   Number of employees

III PROCESS WASTE WATERS

    A.   Volumes and sources

         How and why water is used in the process?
B.


C.


D.



E.
         Does the source, volume, or character of waste water vary
         depending on the type or quality of product?
         How do waste water characteristics change during start-up
         and shutdown as compared to normal operation?

         Quantity and point of application of acid, pigment, or
         other special chemicals used that might enter the waste
         water stream.

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F.   Information, if available, on untreated waste water;
     1.
PH
     2.   Alkalinity

     3.   Total solids

     U.   Suspended solids

     5.   Dissolved solids

     6.   Temperature

     7.   BOD5

     8.   COD

     9.   Phosphorus



G.   Waste water treatment

     1.   Waste water sources and volumes to treatment facility

     2.   Reason for treatment

     3.   Describe treatment system and operation

     1.   Type and quantity of chemicals used, if any

     5.   Available information on treated waste water quality
          {same items as Section III F, above)

H.   Waste water recycle

     1.   Is any waste water recycled presently?

     2.   Can waste water be recycled?
                               10

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    I    In-plant methods of water conservation and/or waste reduction

    j.   Identify any air pollution, noise or solid wastes resulting
         from treatment or other control methods.  How is the solid
         waste disposed of?

    K.   Cost information (Related to water pollution control)

         1.   Treatment plant and/or equipment

         2.   Operation (Personnel, maintenance,etc.)

         3.   Power

         4.   Estimated equipment life

    L.   Water pollution control methods being considered for future
         application

IV  Other waste water, e.g., boiler blowdown, spent cooling water,
    water treatment residues, etc., same informtion as in Section
    III above

V   Water requirements

         1.   Volume and sources

         2.   Uses (including volume)

              a.    Process

              b.    Cooling

              c.    Washing

              d.    Dust suppression

              e.    Plant cleanup

              f.    Sanitary  (if available)

              g.    Boilers

              h.    Other

         3.    Available information on raw water quality

         4.    Pretreatment provided

              a.    Volume  treated

              b.    Reason  for treatment

              c.    Describe  treatment  system and operation
                                  11

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d.   Type and quantity of chemicals used
e.   Available information on treated water quality
                      12

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GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE INDUSTRY

Although  known as a curiosity since biblical times, asbestos was
not used in,manufacturing until  the,  latter , ha}J;s of  the  19th
century.    By  the  early years of the 20th century, much of the
basic technology had been developed, and the industry  has  grown
in  this  country  since  about that time.  Canada is the world's
largest producer of asbestos, with the USSR  and  a  few  African
countries  as  major  suppliers.  Mines in four states,  Arizona,
California, North Carolina,  and  Vermont  provide  a  relatively
small proportion of the world's supply.

Asbestos   is   normally   combined   with   other  materials  in
manufactured products, and consequently, it loses  its  identity.
It  is  a natural mineral fiber which is very strong and flexible
and resistant to breakdown under adverse  conditions;  especially
high temperatures.  One or more of these properties are exploited
in the various manufactured products that contain asbestos.

Asbestos  is  actually  a  group  name  that  refers  to  several
serpentine minerals having different  chemical  compositions  but
similar   characteristics.   The  most  widely  used  variety  is
chrysotile.  Asbestos fibers are graded on the basis  of  length,
with  the  longest  grade  priced  10 to 20 times higher than the
short grades.  The  shorter  grades  are  normally  used  in  the
products covered in this document.

On  a  world-wide  basis,  asbestos-cement products materials and
pipe currently consume about 70 percent of  the  asbestos  mined.
In  the  United  States  in  1971,  the  consumption  pattern was
reported to be:
             Asbestos-cement products
             Floor tile
             Paper and felts
             Friction products
             Textiles
             Packing and gaskets
             Sprayed insulation
             Miscellaneous uses
25%
18
14
10
 3
 3
 2
25
These figures do not accurately reflect the production levels  of
these  products because the asbestos content varies from about 10
to almost 100 percent among the different manufactured products.

This document covers the first three groups in  the  above  list.
These groups were selected because they represent a major segment
of the industry; water is an ingredient in the manufacturing pro-
cess, with two exceptions; and they were regarded as the most im-
portant sources of water pollutants in this industrial category.
                                13

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Asbestos-Cement Products  (A/C Pipe and A/C Sheet)	

Asbestos  fibers  in asbestos-cement products serve the same role
as steel rods in reinforced concrete, i.e.,  they  add  strength.
Portland  cement  and  silica are also major ingredients of these
products.

Asbestos-cement pipe is manufactured for use in high pressure and
low pressure applications in diameters from 7.6 to 91.5 cm  (3  to
36  inches)   and in lengths up to 4 meters (13 feet).  It is used
to carry waste waters, water supplies, and other  fluids  and  in
venting  and  duct  systems.  Asbestos-cement flat and corrugated
sheets are used  for  exterior  sheathing,  siding  and  roofing,
interior  partitions, packing in cooling towers, laboratory bench
tops, and many other specialty applications.

Asbestos Floor Tile

The shortest grades of asbestos fibers  are  used  in  vinyl  and
asphalt  floor  tile manufacture.  The fibers are used to provide
dimensional stability.  Today, vinyl asbestos floor tile accounts
for most of the asbestos used in this category, with asphalt tile
serving some special applications and  where  darker  shades  are
permissible.

Asbestos Papers and Millboard

Asbestos  papers  have  a high fiber content and are manufactured
with  a  variety  of  binders  and  other  additives   for   many
applications.   These  include  pipe  coverings, gaskets, thermal
linings in heaters and ovens,  and  wicks.   Heavier  papers  are
commonly used for roofing materials and shingles.  Millboard is a
heavier,  stiffer  form  of paper that includes clays, cement, or
other additives.  It is used for stove lining, filament  supports
in toasters, and several other high temperature applications.
MANUFACTURING LOCATIONS

The locations of the plants that manufacture the products covered
in  this  document  are listed in Table 2.  This listing includes
all the plants as reported by the major  manufacturers.   All  of
the   available  known  information  from  the  plants  at  these
locations was collected  for  use  in  this  study.   At  several
plants,    no    informati on   about   waste-water   volumes   or
characteristics was known.

At most of the plants, only one asbestos product is manufactured.
There are three reported locations that manufacture more than one
category of asbestos products in the same plant in a manner  that
results  in  a combined waste water flow.  Since the waste waters
from all the asbestos products  categories,  except  roofing  and
floor  tile, have many common characteristics, they are generally
treatable by the same types of control technology,  consequently,
                                   14

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                                                       TABLE  2

                                     LOCATIONS OF ASBESTOS MANUFACTURING PLANTS
           State
        Arkansas

        California
Ui
        Florida

        Georgia

        Illinois
    Location
Van Buren

La Mirada
South Gate
Riverside
Santa Clara
Los Angeles
Long Beach
Long Beach
Los Angeles
Pittsburg

Stockton

Green Cove Springs

Savannah

Kankakee
Chicago
Joliet
             Company
Cement Asbestos Products Co,

American Biltrite Rubber
Armstrong Cork Company
Certain-Teed Products Corp.
Certain-Teed Products Corp.
The Flintkote Company
G-AF Corporation
Johns-Manville
Johns-Manville
Johns-Manville

Johns-Manville

Johns-Manville

Johns-Manville

Armstrong Cork Company
The Flintkote Company
GAF Corporation
Products
Alabama
Ragland
Mobile
Cement Asbestos Products Co.
GAF Corporation
A-C Pipe
A-C Sheet
A-C Pipe

Floor Tile
Floor Tile
A-C Pipe
A-C Pipe
Floor Tile
Floor Tile
A-C Pipe
Roofing
A-C Sheet,
  Paper
A-C Pipe

A-C. Pipe

Roofing

Floor Tile
Floor Tile
Floor Tile

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                                           TABLE 2 (contd)

                             LOCATIONS OF ASBESTOS MANUFACTURING PLANTS
   State
    Location
             Company
Products
Illinois (contd)
Waukegan
Johns-Manville
Louisiana
Mas s achus etts


Mississippi

Missouri


New Hampshire



New Jersey
New Orleans
Marrero

New Orleans

Milis
Billerica

Jackson

St. Louis
St. Louis

Nashua
Tilton
                       Linden
                       South Bound Brook
The Flintfcote Company
Johns -Manville

National Gypsum Company

GAF Corporation
Johns-Manville

Armstrong Cork Company

Certain-Teed Products Corp.
GAF Corporation

Johns -Manville
John s -Manville
                           Celotex Corporation
                           GAF Corporation
A-C Pipe,
A-C Sheet,
Paper,
Millboard,
Roofing

Floor Tile
A-C Sheet,
  Roofing
A-C Sheet

Roofing
Millboard

Floor Tile

A-C Pipe
A-C Sheet

A-C Sheet
Paper,
  Millboard

Paper
A-C Sheet,
  Roofing

-------
              TABUS 2  icontd)




LOCATIONS OF ASBESTOS MANUFACTURING PLANTS
State
Hew Jersey { contd)




New York


Ohio




Pennsylvania









Location
Manville



Millington
Fulton
Vails Gate
Brooklyn
Cincinnati


Ravenna
Hamilton
Lancaster
Ambler
Erie

Erie
Vhitehall
Arabler

Norristown

Company
Johns -Manville



National Gypsum Company
Armstrong Cork Company
GAF Corporation
Kentile Floors, Inc.
Celotex Corporation


The Flintkote Company
Nicolet Industries, Inc.
Armstrong Cork Company
Certain-Teed Products Corp.
GAF Corporation

GAF Corporation
GAF Corporation
Nicolet Industries, Inc.

Nicolet Industries, Inc.

Products
A-C Pipe,
A-C Sheet,
Paper ,
Roofing
A-C Sheet
Paper
Floor Tile
Floor Tile
A-C Sheet,
Paper ,
Millboard
A-C Pipe
Paper
Floor Tile
A-C Pipe
Paper ,
Millboard
Roofing
Paper
A-C Sheet,
Millboard
Paper ,
Millboard

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        Puerto Rico
                                                   TABLE 2  (contd)




                                     LOCATIONS OF. ASBESTOS MANUFACTURING PLANTS
State
Texas




Location
Hillsboro
Houston
Denison
Fort Worth

Company
Certain-Teed Products Corp.
GAP Corporation
Johns -MamriHe
Johns-Manville

Products
A-C Pipe
Floor Tile
A-C Pipe
Paper ,
Roofing
Ponce
Boringuen Asbestos Cement Corp,
A-C Sheet
OO

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the combined  waste  waters   from  the   manufacture  of   multiple
asbestos   products do not  present significant additional  problems
in control.

Of more significance from  a water pollution control point of  view
is the manufacture of non-asbestos products with confluent waste
streams  at  some of the locations.  The most common combinations
are the manufacture  of  plastic  pipe   at  asbestos-cement   pipe
plants  and  the manufacture  of "organic"  (cellulose fiber) paper
at asbestos paper plants.  Plastic pipe manufacture is not likely
to result  in the discharge of significant  pollution  other   than
waste  heat.   Organic paper manufacturing waste waters,  however,
are significantly stronger and of different character than those
from  asbestos  paper  production.   The  raw materials are often
paperstock (salvaged paper) as well as virgin pulp and the wastes
are highly colored, turbid, and high in oxygen demand.


MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

With the exception of roofing and floor tile  manufacture,  there
is  a  basic  similarity  in the methods of producing the  various
asbestos products.  The asbestos fibers and other  raw  materials
are  first  slurried  with  water  and then formed into single or
multi-layered sheets as  most  of  the  water  is  removed.   The
manufacturing  process  always  incorporates the use of save-alls
(settling tanks of various shapes)  through  which  process  waste
waters  are  usually  routed.  Water and solids are recovered and
reused from the  save-all,  and  excess  overflow  and  underflow
constitute  the  process  waste streams.  In all of these  product
categories, water serves both as an ingredient  and  a  means of
conveying the raw materials tc and through the forming steps.


ASBESTOS-CEMENT PRODUCTS (A/C Pipe and A/C Sheet)

The  largest single use category of asbestos fibers in the United
States is the manufacture of asbestos-cement products.  The   pipe
segment is the largest component of this product category.

Raw Materials

Asbestos-cement  products  contain from 10 to 70 percent asbestos
by weight, usually of the chrysotile  variety.    Crocidolite  and
other  types  are  used  to  a  limited extent depending upon the
properties required in  the  product.   Portland  cement  content
varies  from 25 to 70 percent.  Consistent cement quality  is very
important since variations in the chemical content or fineness of
the grind can affect  production  techniques  and  final  product
strength.    The  remaining raw material, from 5 to 35 percent, is
finely ground silica.    Some  asbestos-cement  pipe  plants  have
facilities  for  grinding  silica  as  an  integral part of their
operations.  Finely ground solids  from  damaged  pipe  or  sheet
trimmings  are used by some plants as filler material.   A maximum
                                19

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of 6 percent filler can be used in some products before  strength
is affected.

The  interwoven  structure  formed  by  the  asbestos  fibers  in
asbestos-cement products functions as  a  reinforcing  medium  by
imparting increased tensile strength to the cement.  As a result,
there is a 70 to 80 percent decrease in the weight of the product
required  to attain a given structural strength.  It is important
that the asbestos be embedded in  the  product  in  a  completely
fiberized  or willowed form, and the necessary fiber conditioning
is frequently carried out prior to  mixing  the  fiber  with  the
cement and silica.  In some cases, however, this fiber opening is
accomplished  while the wet mixture is agitated by a pulp beater,
or hollander.

Manufacture

Asbestos-cement  sheet  products  are  manufactured  by  the  dry
process, the wet process, or the wet mechanical process.  Figures
1  through  3  illustrate  the sequence of steps in each of these
manufacturing processes with the  sources  of  wastes  indicated.
Products  having irregular shapes are formed by molding processes
which  account  for  only  a  very  limited   production   today.
Extrusion processes are not widely used in the United states.

Dry Procegs-

In the dry process (Figure 1), which is suited to the manufacture
of  shingles and other sheet products, a uniform thickness of the
mixture of dry materials is distributed  onto  a  conveyor  belt,
sprayed  with  water,  and  then  compressed against rolls to the
desired thickness and density.  Rotary cutters divide the  moving
sheet into shingles or sheets which are subsequently removed from
the conveyor for curing.  The major source of process waste water
in  this  process is the water used to spray clean the empty belt
as it returns.

Wet Process-

The wet process (Figure 2)  produces dense sheets, flat or  corru-
gated,  by introducing a slurry into a mold chamber and then com-
pressing the mixture to force out the excess  water.   A  setting
and  hardening  period  of   24  to  48 hours precedes the curing
operation.   The  large,  thick  monolithic   sheets   used   for
laboratory  bench  tops  are  manufactured  by this process.  The
grinding operations used to finish the sheet surfaces  produce  a
large  quantity  of dust which may be discharged with the process
waste waters.  This affords a means of reducing  and  controlling
air emissions.

Wet Mechanical Process-

The   wet   mechanical  process,  which  is  also  used  for  the
manufacture of asbestos-cement pipe (Figure  4),  is  similar  in
                               20

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    WATER
    STEAM
              RAW MATERIALS
                 STORAGE
              PROPORTIONING
                 DRY MIX
                 ROLLING
                 CUTTING
                  CURING
                FINISHING
                 STORAGE
                 CONSUMER
WASTEWATER


SOLIDS
CONDENSATE
Figure 1 - Asbestos-Cement Sheet Manufacturing Operations,
            Dry Process
                    21

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         RAW MATERIALS
            STORAGE
         PROPORTIONING
            DRY MIX
WATER
            WET MIX
           HARDENING
STEAM
             CURING
            FINISHING
            STORAGE
                                     WASTE WATER
                                     CONDENSATE
SOLIDS
           CONSUMER
    Figure 2  - Asbestos-Cement Sheet Manufacturing Operations,
                Wet Process
                      22

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WATER
STEAM
         RAW MATERIALS
           STORAGE
         PROPORTIONING
           DRY  MIX
            WET MIX
            FORMING
            CURING
         AIR/AUTOCLAVE
                             RECYCLED SOLIDS
                           RECYCLED WATER
                  ~1
                                                    WASTEWATER
CLARIFICATION
 (SAVE-ALL)
                       SLUDGE
            CUTTING
                      	
         CONDENSATE
         SOLIDS
            FINISHING
            STORAGE
            CONSUMER
     Figure 3 - Aab«stc3-C«ment Sheet Manufacturing Operations,
                Vet Me«hanical Process
                          23

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principle  to  some papermaking processes.  The willowed asbestos
fiber is conveyed to a dry mixer where it  is  blended  with  the
cement,  silica,  and  filler solids.  After thorough blending of
the raw materials, the mixture is transferred to a wet  mixer  or
beater.   Underflow  solids and water from the save-all are added
to form a  slurry  containing  about  97  percent  water.   After
thorough  mixing,  the  slurry is pumped to the cylinder vats for
deposition onto one or more  horizontal  screen  cylinders.   The
circumferential  surface  of  each  cylinder  is a fine wire mesh
screen that allows water to be removed from the underside of  the
slurry  layer  picked up by the cylinder.  The resulting layer of
asbestos-cement material is usually from 0.02  to  0.10  inch  in
thickness.   The  layer  from  each cylinder is transferred to an
endless felt conveyor to  build  up  a  single  mat  for  further
processing.   A  vacuum box removes additional water from the mat
prior to its transfer to mandrel or accumulator roll.  This winds
the mat into sheet  or  pipe  stock  of  the  desired  thickness.
Pressure  rollers  bond the mat to the stock already deposited on
the mandrel or roll and remove excess water.  Pipe  sections  are
removed from the mandrel, air cured, steam cured in an autoclave,
and then machined on each end.
In  the  manufacture  of  sheet  products  by  the wet mechanical
process, the layer of asbestos-cement on the accumulator roll  is
periodically cut across the roll and peeled away to form a sheet.
The  sheet  is  either  passed through a pair of press rollers to
shape the surface and cut the sheet into  shingles,  formed  into
corrugated sheet, or placed onto a flat surface for curing.
The  asbestos-containing
recycled to the process.
manufacturing process.
water removed from the slurry or mat is
Very little asbestos is lost  from  the
The  cylinder  screen  and  felt  conveyor  must be kept clean to
insure proper operation.  Cylinder showers  spray  water  on  the
wire  surface  after  the  mat has been removed by the felt.  Any
cement or fiber particles are washed out  of  the  holes  in  the
screen to prevent "blinding."

The  cylinders,  mandrels, and accumulator rolls are occasionally
washed in acetic or hydrochloric acid to remove cement  deposits.
This  cleaning  may  be  carried  out  while  the  machine  is in
operation or the component, especially cylinder screens,  may  be
removed to a separate acid washing facility.

The felt washing showers are a row of high-pressure nozzles that,
with the aid of a "whipper," wash fiber out of the felt after the
mat  of  fiber  has  been picked up by the mandrel or accumulator
roll.  Fiber build-up in the felt can prevent vacuum  boxes  from
removing excess water from the mat.
                                24

-------
        RAW MATERIALS
           STORAGE
        PROPORTIONING
           DRY  MIX
WATER
STEAM
WATER
                4£
	RECYCLED SOLIDS

RECYCLED WATER
           WET MIX
"I
WASTEWATER
        CLARIFICATION
         (SAVE-ALL)
            FORMING
                                   "
           CURING
          (AUTOCLAVE)
          PIPE  END
          FINISHING
                       RECYCLED
          HYDROSTATIC
            TESTING
           FINISHING
           STORAGE
                              SLUDGE
                 CONDENSATE
                 SOLIDS
                 WASTEWATER
           CONSUMER
   Figure 4 - Asbestos-Cement Pipe Manufacturing Operations,
               Wet Mechanical Process
                         25

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In-Plant_RecYCling

Asbestos-cement  product  plants  recycle  the  majority of their
water as a means of recovering  all  usable  solids.   All  water
serving  as  the carrying agent, 80 to 90 percent of the water in
the process, passes through a save-all after leaving the  machine
vat.   Solids  that settle out and concentrate near the bottom of
the save-all are pumped to the wet mixer to become part of a  new
slurry.   Much of the clarified overflow from the save-all ca.n be
used for showers, dilution, and various other uses depending upon
the efficiency of the save-all.


The save-all overflow may be discharged from the plant or may  be
treated  and  returned to the plant for whatever uses its quality
justifies.  This may include water  for  wet  saws,  vacuum  pump
seals,  cooling, hydrotesting, or makeup water for plant startup.
If any of these uses cannot be served  by  treated  water,  fresh
water  must be used since the quality and temperature of save-all
overflow  water   is   rarely   acceptable   without   additional
clarification.

At most asbestos-cement product plants, part of the products that
are damaged or unacceptable for other reason are crushed, ground,
and used as filler in new products.  The remainder is crushed and
added to a refuse pile or landfill.

Asbestos-cement  sheet plants trim the edges of the wet sheets as
they  come  off  the  accumulator  roll.    The   trimmings   are
immediately returned to the wet mixer.  At this stage, the cement
has not begun to react and the trimmings can be an active part of
the new slurry.

Operating Schedule

Asbestos-cement  pipe plants typically operate 24 hours a day and
five or six days a week.  Sheet plants may operate two  shifts  a
day rather than three depending upon market demand.


ASBESTOS PAPER

Asbestos  paper  has  a  great  variety  of  uses  and ingredient
formulas vary widely depending  upon  the  intended  use  of  the
paper.   The  purchaser frequently specifies the exact formula to
insure that the paper has the desired qualities.

Raw Materials

Asbestos paper usually contains from 70 to  90  percent  asbestos
fiber  by  weight,  usually  the  short grades.  A mixture of the
various varieties of asbestos fiber is used  with  chrysotile  as
the  principal  type.    The  binder  content  of  asbestos  paper
accounts for 3 to 15 percent of its weight.  The content and type
                               26

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varies with the desired properties and intended  applications  of
the paper.  Typical binders are starch, glue, cement, gypsum, and
several natural and synthetic elastomers.

Asbestos  paper  used  for  roofing  paper,  pipe  wrapping,  and
insulation usually contains between 5 and 10 percent kraft  fiber.
Mineral  wool,  fiberglass,  and  a   wide   variety   of   other
constituents  are  included to provide special properties and may
represent as much as 15 percent of the weight.

Manufacture

Asbestos paper is manufactured on machines of the Fourdrinier and
cylinder types that are similar to those which produce  cellulose
(organic) paper.  The cylinder machine is more widely employed in
the  industry  today.  The overall manufacturing process is shown
in Figure 5 with waste sources indicated.

The mixing  operation  combines  the  asbestos  fibers  with  the
binders  and  any  other  minor  ingredients.   A  pulp beater or
hollander mixes the fibers and binder with  water  into  a  stock
which typically contains about three percent fiber.  Upon leaving
the  stock  chest,  the stock is diluted to as little as one-half
percent fiber in the discharge chest.   The  amount  of  dilution
depends upon the quality of the paper to be produced.

The  discharge  chest  of  a Fourdrinier paper machine deposits a
thin and uniform layer of  stock  onto  an  endless  moving  wire
screen  through  which  a  major portion of the water is drawn by
suction boxes or rolls adjacent to the sheet of paper.  The sheet
is then transferred onto  an  endless  moving  felt  and  pressed
between  pairs  of  rolls  to bring the paper to approximately 60
percent dryness.  Subsequently, the  continuous  sheet  of  paper
passes  over  heated  rolls, while supported on a second felt, to
effect further drying.   This  is  followed  by
produce  a  smooth  surface,  and  winding  of
spindle.
 calendering,  to
the  paper onto a
The operation of  a  cylinder  paper-making  machine  includes  a
mixing  operation  for  stock  as  indicated  for the Fourdrinier
machine.  Cylinder-type paper machines usually have four to eight
cylinders  instead  of  two  as  in  most  asbestos-cement   pipe
machines.

The  stock  is  pumped to the cylinder vats of the machine.  Each
vat contains a large screen-surfaced cylinder extending the  full
length  of  the  vat.   The stock slurry flows through the screen
depositing a thin layer of fiber on the surface of  the  rotating
cylinder  before  flowing  out  through the ends of the cylinder.
The layer of fiber is then transferred to a carrier  felt  moving
across  the  top of the rotating cylinders.  The layers picked up
from  the  cylinders  are  pressed  together  becoming  a  single
homogeneous  sheet  as  the  felt  passes  over  each  successive
cylinder.
                              27

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WATER
WATER
STEAM
        RAW MATERIALS
           STORAGE
        PROPORTIONING
COOLING
WATER
r
            MIXING
          STOCK CHEST
            METERING
             PAPER
            MACHINE
            DRYING
__ RECYCLED SOLIDS

RECYCLED WATER _
                                  CLARIFICATION
                                    (SAVE-ALL)
                                 COOLING WATER
                                 CONDENSATE
                                                   WASTEWATER
                                 L.J
                                                        SLUDGE
            STORAGE
           CONSUMER
              OR
         ROOFING PLANT
        Figure 5 - AsUe*to» Paper-Manufaeturing Operationa
                           28

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Vacuum boxes draw water out and pressure rolls squeeze water  out
of the sheet and felt until the sheet is dry enough to be removed
from  the  felt.   After  leaving the felt, the sheet is dried on
steam rolls and in  ovens.   The  paper  is  then  calendered  to
produce a smooth surface and wound onto a spindle.

The  width  of the paper sheet is regulated by the deckles, a row
of nozzles located at each end  of  the  cylinder  screens.   The
deckles  spray  water  on the screen at the edge of the sheet and
wash off excess fiber.
The cylinder showers are a row of nozzles that spray water on the
surface of the cylinder screens after the  paper  stock  mat  has
been  removed  by  the  felt.   They wash any remaining fiber and
binder out of the holes in the screens to prevent a  build-up  of
fiber  from  "blinding" the screen and stopping the flow of water
required to deposit a layer  of  fiber  on  the  surface  of  the
cylinder.

The  felt  washing operations are carried out using high pressure
nozzles as in asbestos-cement pipe manufacture.

The asbestos-containing water, or "white water," which is removed
from the stock prior to passage across the heated drying rolls is
recycled to the process..

Water Usage

Water  serves  three  basic  purposes  in  the   asbestos   paper
manufacturing process:   ingredient carrier, binder wetting agent,
and  heat  transfer fluid,   other uses include water for showers,
deckles, pump seals, plant make-up, boiler make-up, and cooling.

Fresh water enters the system as boiler make-up, process make-up,
pump seal water, and shower water.  Boiler make-up water provides
steam for heating the paper stock and drying the finished  paper.
The  steam  used  to  heat the stock slurry becomes a part of the
slurry and must be replaced.   Condensate from the drying rolls is
recovered and returned to the boiler.  Fresh water must  be  used
to  cool  the  dried  paper  unless a cooling tower is available.
Save-all overflow and other plant water is usually  too  hot  for
such  purposes.   Large  quantities  of  fresh water are required
during  plant  start-up  to .fill  the   system.    This   occurs
infrequently,  however.   Small  quantities of water are required
continuously to replace that which evaporates during  drying  and
that   which   becomes  a  permanent  part  of  the  paper.   The
characteristics of some paper products are such that fresh  water
must be used for part,  or all, of the beater make-up water.

Cylinder and felt washing showers usually require fresh water be-
cause  save-all  overflow water is rarely clean enough to be used
in the high pressure shower  nozzles  without  causing  plugging.
                                29

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Fresh  water  is  used  for the pump shaft seal water because the
presence of dirt in the seal water will cause  plugging  and  can
cause  scoring of the shaft.  Although the cooling water and part
of the pump seal water may be discharged from the plant  after  a
single  use,  most  of  the fresh water introduced into the plant
enters the ingredient carrying system, and, therefore, the  paper
machine save-all loop.
The  majority  of  the  water  in  a  paper  plant  serves  as an
ingredient carrier and continually circulates in a  loop  through
the paper machine and the save-all.  All water flowing out of the
cylinder  screen  and  that  drawn by vacuum out of the wet paper
sheet is pumped to the save-all.  The solids settle to the bottom
of the save-all and are pumped to the stock chest of the  beater.
Occasionally,  the  solids  from  the save-all must be discharged
from the plant due to  a  product  change,  rapid  setup  of  the
binder, or a plant shutdown.  Save-all overflow water is used for
beater  makeup,  dilution,  deckle water, and occasionally shower
water.

Excess overflow water must be discharged from the plant  or  sent
to  a  waste  water  treatment  facility for additional treatment
before it can be reused.

Trimmings from the edge of the paper, defective paper, and  other
waste  paper  can  usually be returned to the beater and repulped
for recycling.
Asbestos paper manufacturing plants typically operate 24 hours
day and 7 days a week.
MILLBOARD

Asbestos millboard is considered by some to be a very heavy paper
and  is  in  fact  very  much like thick cardboard in texture and
structural qualities.  It can easily be cut or drilled and can be
nailed or screwed to a supporting structure.

Baw Materials

Millboard formulas vary widely depending upon the intended use of
the product.  Purchasers frequently specify the  ingredients  and
composition  of  the  millboard  to insure that the product meets
their particular requirements.  Asbestos content  ranges  between
60  and 95 percent with the higher content for products that will
be in close or direct contact with  high  temperature  materials.
Portland  cement  and starch are the most common binders used and
represent 5 to 40 percent of the product.   Clay,  lime,  mineral
wool,  and  several  other  materials are frequently used as fill
                                30

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material  or to provide   special  qualities.
important ingredient in  millboard.

Manufacture
Water  is  also  an
The  manufacturing  steps  in  asbestos millboard production with
waste sources indicated are shown  in  Figure  6.   Millboard  is
produced  on  small  cylinder-type machines similar to those used
for making asbestos-cement pipe.  The machines are equipped  with
one  or two cylinder screens, conveying felt, pressure rolls, and
a cylinder mold.  After the ingredients are mixed  in  a  beater,
the  slurry  is transferred to a stirring vat or stock chest from
which it is diluted and  pumped  to  the  cylinder  vats  of  the
millboard  machines.   Each  cylinder vat contains a large screen
surfaced cylinder extending the full  length  of  the  vat.   The
slurry  flows through the screen depositing a mat of fiber on the
surface of the rotating cylinder before flowing out  through  the
ends  of the cylinder.  The mat of fiber is then transferred to a
carrier felt moving across the top of the rotating cylinder.   On
two-cylinder  machines,  the  mats  from  the  first  and  second
cylinders are pressed  together  becoming  a  single  homogeneous
sheet  as  the  felt  picks  up  the mat of fiber from the second
cylinder.  Pressure rolls above the felt squeeze water  from  the
mat  as  it  is  picked  up  from  the cylinders.  Some millboard
machines have vacuum boxes adjacent to the felt that  draw  water
out  of the mat of fibers.  Additional pressure rolls remove more
water from the mat as it is wound onto the cylinder mold.

The cylinder mold is a drum about  four  feet  wide  and  usually
about  four  feet  in  diameter.   As the carrier felt passes the
cylinder mold, the mat is transferred to the cylinder because the
adhesion to the wet cylinder surface is greater than the adhesion
to the felt.  The cylinder mold  rotates,  collecting  successive
layers  of  fiber  until  the desired thickness is obtained.  The
cylinder is then momentarily stopped and the  mat  of  fiber  cut
along  a  notch  on  the  surface of the cylinder parallel to the
cylinder axis.  The sheet of millboard is removed as the cylinder
starts rotating to build up another sheet.   The  wet  millboard,
containing  about 50 percent water, is air dried or moved into an
autoclave or oven for rapid curing.  Finished  millboard  usually
contains 5 to 6 percent water.
The  operation of the deckles, cylinder showers, and felt washing
showers  is  basically  the  same  as  described  previously  for
asbestos paper.

Water_U^age

The  uses  and  flow patterns of water .in millboard manufacturing
operations are very similar to those in asbestos paper making.

In-Plant Recycling
                                  31

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      RAW MATERIALS
         STORAGE
      PROPORTIONING
WATER
r
_ RECYCLED SOLIDS

RECYCLED WATER
          MIXING
         FORMING
          DRYING
         TRIMMING


FINISHING
STORAGE
                                CLARIFICATION
                                  (SAVE-ALL)
                      SOLIDS
                                                 WASTEWATER
                                                      SLUDGE
         C0NWMER
          6 - A*b**tM. Uillbeard Manufacturing Operation*
                          32

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As with the asbestos products covered  previously,  most  of   the
water  in  the  millboard  manufacturing  process   serves  as  an
ingredient carrier and continually circulates in a  loop  through
the millboard machine and the save-all.  All water  flowing out of
the  cylinder  screen  and  that  drawn  by vacuum  out of the  wet
millboard is pumped to the save-all.  Solids that settle  in   the
save-all  are  pumped to the stock chest or the beater.  Save-all
overflow water is  used  for  beater  make-up,  dilution,  deckle
water, and occasionally shower water.  Excess overflow water must
be  discharged from the plant or sent to a treatment facility  for
additional treatment before it can be reused.

When possible, trimmings from millboard sheets  are returned  to
the   beater  and  repulped  for  use  in  new  millboard.   Most
millboards can accept from 5 to 10 percent reclaimed material.
Operating Schedule

A typical asbestos millboard plant operates two or
per day and five or six days a week.
three  shifts
ASBESTOS ROOFING

Asbestos  roofing  is made by saturating heavy grades of asbestos
paper with asphalt or coal tar with the subsequent application of
various surface treatments.  The stock paper  may  be  single  or
multiple layered and usually contains mineral wool, kraft fibers,
and  starch as well as asbestos.  Fiberglass filaments or strands
of wire may be embedded between layers for reinforcement.

Manufacture

Figure 7 shows the major steps in  the  manufacture  of  asbestos
roofing.  Asbestos paper is pulled through a bath of hot coal tar
or  asphalt.   After it is thoroughly saturated, the paper passes
over a series of hot rollers to set the coal tar  or  asphalt  in
the  paper.   The  paper  then  passes  over cooling rollers that
reduce the temperature of the paper and give it a smooth  surface
finish.  At some plants, cooling water is sprayed directly on the
surface of the saturated paper.

Roll roofing is coated with various materials to prevent adhesion
between  layers  and  then  passed over a final series of cooling
rollers.  The roofing  is  then  air  dried  and  rolled  up  and
packaged   for  marketing.    The  manufacture  of  asbestos  roof
shingles is similar from a waste water point o£ view.

Water_Usage

Water is used in two ways in the production of  roofing.   It  is
converted  to  steam to heat the saturating baths and hot rollers
and for cooling the  hot  paper  after  it  has  been  saturated.
Condensate  from the saturating bath coils and the hot rollers is
                                 33

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                ASBESTOS  PAPER
                    STORAGE
        HOT COAL TAR
        OR ASPHALT^r
                  SATURATION
        STEAM
        COOLING
        WATER
                        FUMES
                HEAT TREATMENT
UNCOATED
ROOFING
        COOLING
        WATER
COATING
                    COOLING
                    CUTTING
                    ROLLING
                   PACKAGING
                    STORAGE
                        COOLING
                        WATER
                        COOLING
                        WATER

                        WASTEWATER
                   CONSUMER
     Flfor* 7 - A«b«rt+i R»efIng )tatt£*etuiing Qpwrati

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collected and returned to the boilers.  Fresh  make-up  water  in
small  quantities  is  required to replace boiler blowdown water,
steam, and condensate that escapes through leaks.  Cooling  water
is  used once and discharged unless cooling towers or other means
of cooling the water are available.  The only process waste water
associated with roofing manufacture is that  originating  in  the
spray  cooling  step.   In  many cases, this contaminated contact
cooling water is discharged with the  clean  non-contact  cooling
water.

Operating schedule

A  typical roll roofing plant operates one or two shifts a day on
a five-day per week schedule.
FLOOR TILE

Most floor tile manufactured today uses a vinyl  resin,  although
some  asphalt  tile  is  still being produced.  The manufacturing
processes are  very  similar  and  the  water  pollution  control
aspects are almost identical for the two forms of tile.

Raw Materials

Ingredient  formulas  vary  with the manufacturer and the type of
tile being produced.  The asbestos content ranges from  8  to  30
percent  by  weight  and  usually  comprises  very  short fibers.
Asbestos is included for its structural properties and it  serves
to  maintain  the  dimensional  stability of the tile.  PVC resin
serves as the binder and makes up 15 to 25 percent of  the  tile.
Chemical   stabilizers   usually   represent   about  1  percent.
Limestone and other fillers represent 55 to  70  percent  of  the
weight.   Pigment  content  usually averages about 5 percent, but
may vary widely depending upon the materials required to  produce
the desired color.

Manufacture

The  tile  manufacturing  process,  shown  in  Figure 8, involves
several steps; ingredient weighing, mixing, heating,  decoration,
calendering,   cooling,   waxing,   stamping,   inspecting,   and
packaging.  The ingredients are weighed and  mixed  dry.   Liquid
constituents,  if required, are then added and thoroughly blended
into the batch.  After mixing,  the batch is heated to  about  150
degrees  C  and  fed  into  a . mill  where  it is joined with the
remainder of a previous batch for continuous  processing  through
the rest of the manufacturing operation.

The  mill  consists  of  a series of hot rollers that squeeze the
mass of raw tile material down to the desired thickness.   During
the  milling  operation,  surface decoration in the form of small
colored chips of tile (mottle)  are sprinkled onto the surface  of
the  raw tile sheet and pressed in to become a part of the sheet.
                               35

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        RAW MATERIALS
            STORAGE
        PROPORTIONING
STEAM
COOLING
WATER
    Q.
    Q
    Ul
    o
    UJ
    oc
            MIXING
                      CONDENSATE
             FORMING
             ROLLING
            COOLING
                      COOLING
                      WATER

                      WASTEWATER
FINISHING
 CUTTING
PACKAGING
 STORAGE
            CONSUMER
 Figure 8 - AaberUs Jl»er Tile llumf*eturiiig Op«ratlona
                    36

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 Some  tile  has a  surface decoration embossed and  inked  into   the
 tile   surface  during  the  rolling  operation.  This may be done
 before or  after  cooling.  After milling, the tile passes  through
 calenders  until it  reaches the required thickness and is ready
 for cooling.  Tile cooling is accomplished in  many  ways  and a
 given tile  plant may use one or several methods.  Water contact
 cooling in which the tile passes  through  a  water  bath  or  is
 sprayed  with  water  is  used  by  some plants.  Others use non-
 contact cooling  in which the rollers are filled with  water.   In
 some   plants,  the  sheet  of tile passes through a refrigeration
 unit  where cold  air is blown onto the tile surface.  After  cool-
 ing,   the  file  is  waxed,  stamped into squares, inspected,  and
 packaged.  Trimmings and rejected tile squares are chopped up  and
 reused.

 Water Usage

 Water serves only as a heat transfer fluid.  It is  used  in   the
 form   of   steam  to  heat the batches and the hot rollers.  Fresh
 water is required for boiler  make-up,  but  only  in  quantities
 large enough to replace leakage and boiler blowdown water.  Non-
 contact cooling  water remains clean and can be reused continually
 if cooling towers or water chillers are available to  remove   the
 heat  picked up from the hot tile.

 Make-up  water   is required only to replace water that leaks from
 the system.  Direct contact cooling water from the cooling  baths
 or  sprays  does not become contaminated from direct contact with
 the tile but may pick up dust or other materials.  This water  may
 be reused  if facilities are available  to  clean  the  water   and
 remove  the heat.  Fresh water is required to replace leakage  and
 water that evaporates.  Leakage from all sources  collects  dirt,
 oil,  grease,  wax,  ink,  glue,  and  other  contaminants.  This
 represents a serious potential for pollution if discharged  to  a
 receiving water.
Floor  tile  plants typically operate 24 hours a day on a five or
six day per week schedule.
CURRENT STATUS OF THE INDUSTRY

There has long been concern about the industrial hygiene  aspects
of  the  dust and fiber emitted to the air in mining, processing,
transportation, and manufacturing operations.  This  concern  has
recently  been  expanded to include the general public.  Asbestos
is among the first materials  to  be  declared  a  hazardous  air
pollutant  under the Clean Air Act amendments of 1970.  Stringent
regulations have also been promulgated  to  control  exposure  to
workers in the industry.
                                37

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The  increased concern with the health effects of asbestos fibers
in the air has produced changes that affect, to some degree,  the
water  pollution  control aspects of the industry.  The principal
change has been conversion of dry processes  into  wet  processes
and  the use of water sprays to allay dust from mining operations
and slag piles.  This shifting is expected  to  continue  in  the
future.

While  there  has been considerable interest and much research on
the health effects of asbestps in  air,  there  has  been  little
study  of  the  effects  of  fibers  in  water.   The first major
investigations of this possible problem are now being  initiated,
The  impetus  for  these  studies  was supplied by the finding of
asbestos-like  material  in  the  drinking   water   of   Duluth,
Minnesota.

The  asbestos  manufacturing  industry  grew rapidly in the first
two-thirds of the  20th  century.   Many  observers  expect  that
growth  will  be  less  rapid  in  the future.  Environmental and
health considerations, plus competition from fiberglass, siliccne
products, aluminum sheet, and  other  materials,  are  among  the
factors  contributing  to  the  slowdown  in growth.  Many of the
plants visited in this study were not operating at full capacity.
New uses and markets  for  asbestos  may  be  more  difficult  to
develop  in  the  future.   Despite  the  decline  in the rate of
growth, asbestos has  unique  characteristics,  and  its  use  in
manufacturing can be expected to continue to a significant degree
in the foreseeable future.
                               38

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                           SECTION IV

                     INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION

INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSIONS

In  developing  effluent  limitations guidelines and standards of
performance for new sources for a given industry, a judgment  was
made  by  EPA  as  to  whether different effluent limitations and
standards were appropriate for different segments  (subcategories)
within the  industry.   The  factors  considered  in  determining
whether   such   categories   were   justified  in  the  asbestos
manufacturing industry were:

              1.  Product,
              2.  Raw Materials,
              3.  Manufacturing Process,
              4.  Treatability of Waste Waters,
              5.  Plant Size,
              6.  Plant Age, and
              7.  Geographic Location.

Based on review of the literature, plant visits  and  interviews,
and consultation with industry representatives, the above factors
were   evaluated   and   it   was  concluded  that  the  asbestos
manufacturing   industry   should   be   divided    into    seven
subcategories:
              1.  Asbestos-cement pipe,
              2.  Asbestos-cement sheet,
              3.  Asbestos-cement (starch binder),
              4.  Asbestos paper (elastomeric binder),
              5.  Asbestos millboard,
              6.  Asbestos roofing products, and
              7.  Asbestos roofing products.
FACTORS CONSIDERED

All of the factors listed above are briefly discussed below, even
though most of them did not serve as bases for categorization.

Product

Despite  some  basic  similarities in the manufacturing processes
used to make the products in the first  three  categories  above,
the  final  products  are  distinct  and  are  well  defined  and
recognized within the industry.  In most cases, only one asbestos
product  i s  made   in   a   given   plant.    Thi s   basi s   for
subcategorization is further supported by other factors mentioned
below, but mainly by differences in raw waste loads and volumes.
                                  39

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Raw Materials

Many  of  the raw materials used in asbestos products are natural
materials such as clay, portland cement, and starch.  It is  sus-
pected   that   variations  in  these  raw  materials  result  in
operational differences that influence the waste water volume and
strength.  There is no quantitative information in  the  industry
about  these  influences.   Moreover,  changes  within  a product
subcategory at a given plant may occur regularly and the  amounts
and   types   of  raw  materials  may  also  be  changed.   These
uncertainties did  not  permit  subcategorization  based  on  raw
materials.

Manufacturing Process

Except  for  roofing  and  floor  tile,  the  basic manufacturing
processes are similar for the other asbestos products covered  in
this  report.   within  a  given  product  subcategory, the basic
manufacturing processes are very similar.  Any  differences  that
do  exist do not greatly influence the quantity or quality of the
effluent.   However,  differences  in  the  number  and  size  of
auxiliary  manufacturing  units,  such  as save-alls, can greatly
affect the waste water effluent, both  in
Th erefore,  the  manuf acturing  proce sses
basis for subcategorization.

             of Waste water
                                           volume  and  strength*
                                           could not be used as a
while seemingly similar when described by the  common  collective
parameters  (suspended  solids,  oxygen  demand, etc.), the waste
waters  from  the  different  product  categories  exhibit   some
important  differences.   The  differences relate both to the in-
plant and end-of-pipe control measures  and  to  the  speed  with
which  the  category can be brought to the point where pollutants
are not discharged.  In general the raw waste  load  and  volumes
differed  for  each  product  subcategory.   No great differences
existed between  the  asbestos-cement  pipe  and  asbestos-cement
sheet   subcategor ies ,   nor   between  the  two  asbe stos  paper
subcategories .  However, the evidence described  in  this  report
shows  that  asbestos-cement sheet plants will be able to achieve
zero discharge sometime before asbestos-cement pipe plants.   The
same  is true for asbestos paper (starch  binder)  versus asbestos
paper (elastomeric binder) .

Treatability of waste  water  is,  therefore,  the  major  factor
supporting subcategorization based on products.
Plant  size  was  not  found  to  be a factor in categorizing the
asbestos manufacturing industry.  All of the plants  visited  had
either  one or two "machines.1*  The machines are roughly of about
the same capacity; and, consequently, all  of  the  plants  in  a
given category, or subcategory, do not range widely in size.  The

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operational    efficiency,   quality   of   housekeeping,   lator
availability, and waste water characteristics of  the  plants  do
not  differ  because  of size differences.  The largest plants in
the industry  are  actually  multi-product  plants  and  are,  in
reality, assemblages of individual product category manufacturing
units.

Plant  size  does  not affect the type or performance of effluent
control measures.  As described in Section VII, the  basic  waste
treatment  operation  for this industry is sedimentation.  Design
is  based  on  hydraulic  flow  rate  and  plants  with   smaller
discharges  can  use  smaller  and somewhat less costly treatment
units.

There are a few specialty plants with reported production  levels
that   are  very  low.   From  the  data  provided,  however,  no
significant differences  in  effluent  characteristics  of  these
plants  could be detected.  Not including these small plants, the
approximate reported daily  production  ranges  for  the  product
categories are as follows:
Asbestos-cement pipe
Asbestos-cement sheet
Asbestos paper
Asbestos millboard
Asbestos roofing
Asbestos floor tile
  135  to  329  kkg    (150  to  350  tons)
   90  to  230  kkg    (100  to  250  tons)
   45  to  90   kkg    (  50  to  100  tons)
    6  to  14   kkg    (   7  to   15  tons)
(9360  to  450kkg)*   (400  to  500  tons)*
  300,000 to  650,00 pieces
*The  limited  data from roofing plants do not permit an accurate
estimate of the full range of production.

Plant_Age

The ages of the plants in  the  asbestos  manufacturing  industry
range  from  a  few  to  50  or  more  years.   The manufacturing
equipment is often younger than the building housing  the  plant,
although  in  some cases used machines have been installed in new
plants.  Plant age  could  not  be  correlated  with  operational
efficiency,    quality    of   housekeeping,   or   waste   water
characteristics.  Plant age  is  not  an  appropriate  basis  for
categorization of the industry.

Geographic Location

Asbestos manufacturing plants are primarily in the east and south
and  in  California.   There are reportedly no differences in the
processes  used  throughout  the   country.    Plants   in   some
southwestern locations are able to reduce the volume of discharge
because  of  high  evaporation  losses  from  lagoons.  There are
insufficient data upon which to base standards for these  plants.
This  form  of  treatment is not available throughout most of the
nation.
                                 41

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                             SECTION V

              WATER USE AND  WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
INTRODUCTION

Water  is  commonly  used  in  asbestos   manufacturing    as    an
ingredient,  a  carrying  medium,  for  cooling,  and for  various
auxiliary purposes such as in  pump   seals,  wet  saws,  pressure
testing  of pipe, and others.  These  uses are described in detail
in following parts of this  section.   Water  is  used  only  for
cooling  in  the  manufacture  of asbestos roofing and floor tile
products.  In the discussion below, these two categories are  not
included   unless   specifically  mentioned.   In  most  asbestos
manufacturing plants  the  waste  waters  from  all  sources  are
combined and discharged in a single sewer.

As  described in detail in Section IV, asbestos manufacturing,  in
almost all cases, involves forming  the  product  from  a  dilute
water  slurry  of  the  mixed  raw  ingredients.   The product  is
brought to the desired size, thickness, or shape by  accumulating
the solid materials and removing most of the carriage water.  The
water  is  removed  at  several  places  in  the  machine  and it,
together with any excess slurry, is piped to the save-all  system.

The mixing operations are  carried  out  on  a  batch,  or  semi-
continuous  basis.   Water  and  materials  are returned from the
save-alls as needed during mixing.  Excess  water  and,  in  some
cases,  materials are discharged from the save^all system.  Fresh
water and additional raw materials are added during mixing.   The
fresh  water is often used first as vacuum pump seal water before
going into the mixing operations.

The major source of process waste water in asbestos manufacturing
is the "machine" that converts the slurry  into  the  formed  wet
product.   It  is  not practical to; isolate individual sources  of
waste water within the machine system.   The  water  is  commonly
transported  from  the machine to the save-all system and  back  to
the machine in a closed system.  To measure the quantity of water
flowing in the machine-save-all recycle system involves a  rather
elaborate  monitoring  program  that was beyond the scope  of this
study.  Only one manufacturing plant provided  data  on  in-plant
water   flows   that   were  more  than  rough  estimates.   This
information is presented below under asbestos-cement pipe  (Figure
9) .  The relative amount of internaj. recycling  in  all  asbestos
manufacturing  plants  is  significant  and  of  roughly the same
relative proportion as detailed for this pipe plant.

An important factor influencing both the volume and  strength   of
the  raw  waste  waters  is  the  save-all capacity in the plant.
Save-alls are basically  settling  tanks  in  which  solid-liquid
separation is accomplished by gravity.  Their purpose is first  to
                              43

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             FRESH OR
             TREATED
             WATER
         24 L/SEC
         (380 GPM)
           39 °/o
                     MAKE-UP, SAWS
                     HYDROTESTING
                     COOLING ,  ETC
TO TREATMENT
OR DISCHARGED
FROM PLANT
                                       14 L/SEC
                                      (225 GPM)
                                         23°/o
                                    PIPE
                                  MACHINE
                      10 L/SEC
                      (155 GPM)
                        16%
                52 L/SEC
                (820 GPM)
                  83.5%
                                  SAVE-ALL
                                     REMAINS
                                     IN PIPE
0.3 L/SEC
 (5GPM)
  .5%
                                                      38 L/SEC
                                                      (600 GPM)
                                                        61 °/o
                                    14 L/SEC
                                   (220 GPM)
                                     22.5 %
24 L/SEC
(375 GPM)
 38.5%
                Figure 9~- Water Balance Diagram for a Typical
                            Asbestos-Cement Pipe Plant

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recover   raw   materials    (solids)  and,   second,  water.   The
efficiency  of  separation  is  primarily  dependent   upon   the
hydraulic  loading  on  the  save all.  Plants with greater  save-
capacity  have  greater  flexibility  in  operation,  more   water
storage  volume,  and  a  cleaner  raw  waste  water  leaving the
manufacturing process.  In many  asbestos  manufacturing  plants,
the  solids in the save-alls are dumped when the product is  to be
changed or when it is necessary to remove the  accumulated   waste
solids at the bottom.  It may also be necessary to dump the  save-
alls when the manufacturing process is shut down.
ASBESTOS^CEMENT PIPE

Water Usage

The  water balance at one asbestos-cement pipe plant was provided
by the plant personnel.  The values were verified in  this  study
as  far as possible.  The balance is outlined diagrammatically in
Figure 9.  The fresh water  going  into  the  pipe  manufacturing
machine is only about one-quarter of the total used.  The rest is
water  recycled  from  the  save-all.   The percentage figures in
Figure  9  are  in  terms  of  the  total  water   entering   the
manufacturing  system,  i.e.,  the  fresh water and that returned
from the save-all.

Fresh water is used for wet saws, hydrotesting, cooling,  sealing
vacuum pumps, and making steam for the autoclave as well as make-
up  in  the  mixing unit.  Water is used with the saws to control
dust and fiber emissions to the air.  This is in contrast to  the
normally dry lath operations that finish the pipe ends.

Hydrotesting  is a routine procedure in which the strength of the
pipe is tested while full  of  water  under  pressure.   At  some
plants, the hydrotest water is reused.

A  pipe plant must remove solids from the bottom of the save-alls
to prevent their hardening into  concretions.   At  some  plants,
this  dumping  and clean up is carried out when the manufacturing
operations are shut down  for  the  weekend.   At  other  plants,
dumping occurs more frequently.

The  reported  waste  water discharge from 10 of the 14 asbestos---
cement pipe plants ranges from 76 to 2,080 cubic meters  per  day
(0.02  to  .55  MGD).   The  plants with minimal effluent volumes
discharge about 5.0 to 6.3 cu m per metric ton (1200 to 1500  gal
per  ton)  of product.  The accuracy of these values is not known.
At a  few  locations,  there  is  reduced  discharge  because  of
evaporative  losses from lagoons.  Discharge records for a period
of a year or more were available at  two  pipe  plants.   At  one
plant  the  minimum  flow  was  65 percent of the average and the
maximum was 145 percent.  The flow figures included cooling water
from the manufacture  of  plastic  pipe,  however.    The  maximum
discharge at the other plant, which produced only asbestos-cement
                              45

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pipe,  was 670 percent of the average.  The standard deviation in
403 values at this plant was of the same magnitude as the average
flow.

waste Characteristics

The characteristics of raw waste waters from asbestos-cement pipe
manufacturing were developed from sampling data from three plants
and  reported  values  from  one  plant  that  provides   minimal
treatment.   Two  of  the  plants  recirculated  water  from  the
external treatment system back  into  the  plant.   These  plants
tended  to  use  relatively  much  more  water  and the dissolved
(filterable) solids levels were much higher in the  waste  waters
from these plants.
The  manufacture  of  asbestos-cement  pipe  in  a  typical plant
increases the levels of the major constituents in  the  water  by
the following approximate amounts:
Total solids
Suspended solids
BOD5 (5-day)
Alkalinity
1,500
  500
    2
  700
kg/kkq

9
3.1
0.01
4.4
(Ib/ton)

18
 6.3
 0.02
 8.8
The  dissolved  salts  are  reported  to be primarily calcium and
potassium sulfates with lesser amounts of sodium  chloride.   The
magnesium  levels  are  not  known to be high.  The alkalinity is
primarily  caused   by   hydroxide   with   a   small   carbonate
contribution.   The  pH  ranges as high as 12.9, but is generally
close to 12.0, or slightly lower.

Temperature—The temperature fluctuations at a  given  plant  are
smaller  than  the  differences  between plants.  The maximum raw
waste temperature measured in this study was 40 degrees C.   This
plant  recirculated  some water from its treatment facility.  The
average temperature at two  other  pipe  plants  were  10  to  15
degrees C hotter than the intake water.

Oil  and  grease—The oil and grease content of raw waste samples
taken at pipe plants was below detectable levels.  Reported  data
indicate  that at some plants there are measurable oil and grease
levels in the final plant effluent.  This is believed to be  from
the equipment rather than the process.

Organic matter—The organic content of pipe plant waste waters is
normally  low.   Some  plants use organic acids  (acetic)  to clean
the mandrels and to  remove  scale  in  the  plant.   This  could
contribute   BOD 5  to  the  waste  stream.   The  waste  acid  is
neutralized when~mixed with the  highly  alkaline  process  waste
                             46

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 stream.
 forms.
The  high  pH  precludes the presence of any biological
Plant nutrients—The measured and reported average  levels of   the
plant  nutrients  nitrogen and phosphorus in pipe plant effluents
were below 2.5 mg/1  and  0.05  mg/1,  respectively.   There   are
unconfirmed peak values at individual plants of Kjeldahl nitrogen
values  as  high  as  12  mg/1 and total phosphorus levels of  0.4
mg/1.

Other  chemicals—The  information  on  other  constituents    was
derived  from  reported  data from a few individual plants.  Most
plants did  not  have  data  on  every  constituent.   Among   the
constituents  reportedly  measured  in  the  effluents  from some
asbestos-cement  pipe  plants  are  chromium,  cyanide,  mercury,
phenols,  and  zinc.   Based  on  the limited data available,  the
levels were not judged to be significant.

Color and turbidity—The raw waste waters from  pipe  manufacture
are  very  turbid and of a gray-white color.  When the solids  are
removed, the water has no color.

Fluctuations—The variations in raw waste loadings from a typical
plant are not known.  No plant measures or records the character-
istics of the  raw  waste  waters.   The  waste  water  treatment
systems   are   designed   on   hydraulic  principles  and  their
operational efficiency is largely independent of the strength  of
the influent waste water.
The  changes in waste characteristics associated with start-up of
a pipe plant are minor and  less  than  the  normal  fluctuations
associated  with  operation.   When a pipe plant is shut down and
the save-alls  dumped,  there  is  released  a  heavy  charge  of
suspended  solids  in  a  short period of time.  Other parameters
remain the same or decrease slightly because of dilution  by  the
flush-  water.   Grab  samples  of raw pipe waste waters collected
during clean-up at  one  plant  gave  results  in  the  following
ranges:
Total solids
Suspended solids
Alkalinity
             1,400     to 3,100  mg/1
               300     to 2,900  mg/1
               540     to 2,000  mg/1
Fluctuations  in raw waste water quality should not cause serious
problems in the physical  treatment  facilities  appropriate  for
pipe plant wastes.
ASBESTOS-CEMENT SHEET

Water Usage
                             47

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No  information is known to be available about the internal water
balance in an asbestos-cement sheet plant.  It is  expected  that
the percent recycle from the save-alls is roughly the same as for
asbestos-cement pipe  (Figure 9) .

The  reported  waste water discharge from 4 of the 13 known sheet
plants ranges from 280 to 2,040 cubic meters per day  (0.07 to .54
MGD) .  The raw waste flows from the three  sheet  plants  sampled
during this study were 570, 650, and 920 cu m/day (0.15, .17, and
.24  MGD).  The largest of the three values was from a plant that
discharges no effluent and, consequently, may use relatively more
water.  The minimal effluent volume from a plant was 7,5 cu m Fer
metric ton (1800 gal per ton)  of production.

There are no known monitoring records of discharge from  asbestos
-  cement  sheet  plants and no estimate of the minimum, maximum,
and variability of the flow from a plant can be made.

Wast e Char act eri sties

The characteristics of  raw  waste  waters  from  asbestos-cement
sheet  manufacturing  were  developed from sampling data from two
plants.  No other data were available except that reported by one
plant using the wet press forming technique to make  high-density
sheet.   Since  this  product  may  include  pigments  and  other
additives and since it is produced at only two  known  locations,
neither  of which have adequate data, it is not properly included
in this category,
The manufacture of asbestos-cement sheet products  in  a  typical
plant  increases  the  level  of constituents in the water by the
following approximate amounts:
Total solids
Suspended solids
BOD5 (5-day)
Alkalinity
mg/l

2,000
  850
    2
1,000
kg/kkg_

  15
   6.5
   0.015
   7.5
30
13
 0.03
15
Little information is available on the dissolved salts  in  sheet
wastewaters,  but  they should be similar to those from asbestos-
cement pipe manufacture.  The alkalinity is caused  primarily  by
hydroxide  with a pH averaging 11.7 and ranging from 11,4 to 12.4
in all reporting plants.

Temperature—Meaningful temperature data was available from  only
one  sheet  plant.   With  a flow of 920 cu m/day (0.24 MGD), the
temperature was increased 13 degrees C in the sheet manufacturing
process.  The reported peak summer temperatures of  waste  waters
discharged from asbestos-cement sheet plants was 50 degrees C.
                              48

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Oil  and  grease—The  presence of oil and grease in waste waters
from sheet plants has not been reported.  No measurable  oil  and
grease was found in the samples analyzed in this study.

Other  constituents—The  discussion  regarding  organic content,
plant  nutrients,  other  chemicals,  turbidity  and  color,  and
fluctuations of the characteristics of asbestos-cement pipe waste
waters applies to those from asbestos-cement sheet.
ASBESTOS PAPER

Water Usage

The  reported  total  waste  water  discharges  from  5 of the 12
asbestos paper manufacturing plants range from 490 to 4,900 cubic
meters per day (0.13 to 1.3 MGD) .  The accuracy of  these  values
is  not  known.  The volumes of raw waste water discharged to the
treatment facility at two plants visited in connection with  this
study  were  1,700  and 2,700 cu m/day (0.45 and 0.72 MGD).  Many
plants  recirculate  water  and  solids  from  the  waste   water
treatment  facility  to the paper making process and the effluent
volume is considerably less than the raw waste water discharge.

An effluent flow of 13.8 cu m per metric ton (3,300 gal. per ton)
was reported at the exemplary plants.

Information about variability of flow is available from one plant
only.  This is the monitoring record of the treated effluent over
a recent eight-month period.  The average flow was 490  cu  m/day
(0.13  MGD)   with  minimum  and  maximum values of 430 and 755 cu
m/day (0.14 and .20 MGD), respectively.  The  standard  deviation
of  the  113  readings  taken  during  the period was 53 cu m/day
(0.014 MGD).  The exact quantities of  water  recycled  from  the
save-all  system  and  from  the waste treatment facility at this
plant are not known.

Waste Characteristics

The  raw  waste  water  characteristics   from   asbestos   paper
manufacturing  were  developed  from sampling data at two plants.
Both plants provide high levels of waste water treatment with low
volumes of effluent discharge.  Consequently, the  use  of  water
within  these two plants may be higher than in plants that do not
recycle treated waste water.

Constituent--

The manufacture of asbestos paper in a  typical  plant  increases
the  levels  of  the  constituents  in the water by the following
approximate amounts:
                            49

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                         ma/I
                      kg/kkg
Total solids
Suspended Solids
BOD5  (5-day)
COD*
           1,900
             680
             110
             160
26
 9,5
 1*5
 2.2
The pH of raw waste waters from asbestos  paper
8.0 or lower.
    52
    19
     3
     4.4

manufacturing  is
Temperature—The  highest  reported   summer temperature  value for
treated effluent is 32 degrees C.  it  is  believed   that  heated
water  is  used  in  mixing  the  raw  materials   at most plants,
although at least one uses cold water.  Recycled  water  tends  to
have a higher temperature.

Oil  and  grease—Oil  and grease was detected  in only one of the
samples collected at the two  paper  manufacturing  plants.    The
level  was  low,  1.2  mg/lr  and  was  believed  to  be from plant
equipment.  This type of material is  not  part  of   the  product
ingredients.

Organic  matter—The  oxygen demand is believed to be largely due
to the organic binders, i.e.,  starch  or  synthetic  elastomers.
These  latter  innliirt**  K£>vf*r;i1  ma-t-^i-ial «  n-f  Ai f ff>rt*r\+- r?hA*  U W 11 I**** **•» fc* «b^«*  *— «k *-**»J t^ ^H*«M t— .k. •_* m

include  several  materials  of different chemical
Nutrients—The total nitrogen levels reported  in effluents  from a
few paper plants averaged 16 mg/1,  with  the  Kjeldahl   fraction
about 11 mg/1.  Phosphorus levels ranged from  0.25  to  1.0 mg/1.

Other  chemicals—Trace amounts of copper, mercury,  and  zinc were
reported to be in  the  wastes  from  individual  asbestos   paper
plants.  The levels were judged not to be significant.

Color—The  clarified  waste waters are known  to have  some  color.
The levels at two plants were 10 and 15 units.

Fluctuations—There was greater variability among the  data  from
the  two  paper  plants  than  observed  in  most   other asbestos
manufacturing operations.  There are no data on the variations in
quality of  raw  asbestos  paper  waste  waters  other  than  the
sampling results and these were from too limited a  period of time
to be of value.  Results from the monitoring program at  one paper
plant were cited above under Water usage.  Although they refer to
treated effluent, they provide some indication of the  variability
of the waste water characteristics, as follows:
                Minimum

Total Solids     500 mg/1
Suspended Solids  32
BOD5  (5-day)      22
               685 mg/1
                64
                57
    Maximum     Std_Devt'.n

     870 mg/1     260 mg/1
      95           44
      91           48
                             50

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 Unlike   asbestos-cement  products  plants,  asbestos  paper  plants  do
 not  use  portland  cement  and the solids  in the   save-alls do  not
 tend to  form  concretions.   Shut-down   is less  regular and the
 plants   tend  to  operate  around the  clock.   Shut-downs   are
 sometimes   necessary    when   changing   products.    since  the
 elastomeric binders  are not  always   compatible,  the  save-all
 solids may be dumped at  these times.  There were no routine shut-
 down or  start-up  operations  while the paper plants were being
 sampled  in this  study  and  there  is  no  information on  the
 characteristics of the raw waste  waters during  these  periods.

 ASBESTOS MILLEOARD

 There  are seven  known locations  where  asbestos  millboard  is
 manufactured.  At all of these locations, the   waste  waters  are
 either   discharged to municipal sewers  or are combined with other
 asbestos manufacturing   waste  waters.    Consequently,   there   is
 almost   no information  from the industry about the  quantity and
 quality  of millboard waste waters.  The results presented  below
 are  based primarily  upon  the  sampling program carried out for
 this study at two plants.

 Water Usage

 The water  leaving the save-all systems  at the two plants amounted
 to Ul and  136 cubic meters per  metric  ton  (12,000  and  39,500
 gallons  per  ton).   One  plant  discharges its waste waters to a
 large lagoon system and  recycles  all of the lagoon effluent  into
 the  plant.   This  is   a  multi-product  plant.  The other plant
 normally recycles all of its save-all effluent.   Surges  due  to
 upsets  or shut-down  are  released to a municipal sewer.  Since
 neither  plant has any measurable  effluent on a  regular basis, the
 amounts of water used in the manufacturing  process   may  not  be
 representative of the amounts discharged  by a plant that does not
 recycle  its waste water.

 Waste Characteristics

 Constituents-

 At  the  plant  that  discharges  its  waste waters to the lagoon
 system, the constituents added to  the  water   were   measured  as
 follows:
Suspended Solids
BOD5 (5-day)
JB2/I
 35
  5
kg/kkq
  1.8
  0.25
3.5
0.5
The  total  solids  and  COD  levels  in  the  water  leaving the
millboard save-alls were the same as those of the make-up  water.
The  pH  of  the  raw  waste  water ranged from 8.3 to 9.2.  Some
millboard is manufactured with portland cement and the  pH  would
be higher in such cases.

-------
The effluent from the save-all system at the millboard plant that
operates with a completely closed water system had the character-
istics listed below.  In such a plant, the waste constituents ac-
cumulate until a steady-state level is reached.  The contribution
of  each  manufacturing  cycle cannot be determined directly and,
consequently, raw waste loadings expressed in terms of production
units are meaningless.
Total solids
Suspended solids
BOD5 (5-day)
COD
Average

6,100 mg/1
5,100
    2
   62
 Range

3,950 to 7,800 mg/1
3,060 to 6,270

10 to 145
The pH ranged from 11.8 to 12.1 and the alkalinity from 2,000
2,700 mg/1, mostly in the hydroxide form.
                                        to
Temperature—The  temperatures of the raw waste waters at the two
sampled millboard plants were 12  and  26  degrees  C,  with  the
higher temperature measured at the completely closed system.  The
highest reported summer temperature of the effluents at two other
millboard plants was 31 degrees C.

Other  constituents—Small  amounts  of oil and grease, nitrogen,
and phosphorus were detected in some of the samples collected  in
this study.

No  information  is  available from the millboard industry on the
presence of plant nutrients,  toxic  constituent,  or  about  the
nature  of  the  additive  materials  that  are  used in the many
varieties of millboard.

Fluctuations—No information is available by which to  accurately
estimate  the  degree  of  fluctuation  in  millboard waste water
characteristics.  Judging from the differences in the two  plants
that  were  sampled  and  from  the relatively broad range of raw
materials used, the variability of waste  waters  from  millboard
manufacture is high.
ASBESTOS ROOFING

Unlike  the asbestos products covered previously, water is not an
integral part of roofing products,  it is used, however, to  cool
the roofing after saturation.  All plants use non-contact cooling
and  some use spray contact cooling.  The roofing is largely, but
not completely, inert to water  and  the  contact  cooling  water
becomes  a  process waste water.  This contaminated cooling water
is discharged with the non-contact cooling water in some  plants,
resulting in a large volume,of dilute process waste water.

Water Usage
                              52

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 The   discharge  volumes   vary widely among the few roofing plants
 that reported  information on  flows,  ranging  from  145  to  2,100
 liters   per metric   ton  (35  to over  500   gallons per ton)  of
 product.   The  original temperature of the cooling water,   whether
 it is once-through or recirculated,  and whether non-contact water
 is   included are factors influencing the reported amount  of water
 discharged.  The fluctuations in  flow rate should be  minimal at a
 given location.

 Waste Characteristics

 The   characteristics  of  spent  cooling   water    from   roofing
 manufacture are developed from sampling data taken at one plant.
 This plant employs surface sprays and discharges  the  contact  and
 non- contact cooling  water  into a  common  sewer.   The  combined
 waste water was  sampled.   At  the  time of  sampling,   the   roofing
 was   being made from   organic  (non-asbestos) paper.  Since the
 water spray contacts  only the outer  bituminous surface  and  not
 the   base  paper,   it   is  believed  that the  samples  are
 representative of wastes from contact cooling  of  asbestos-based
 roofing,

 The  added  quantities  of  the major constituents were as  follows:
Suspended solids
BOD5 (5-day)
COD
                         150
                          20
    kq/kkq

     0.06
      0.003
     0.008
     0.13
      0.005
     0.016
The pH of the waste water averaged 8.2.

Temperature—The  temperature  of  the spent cooling water was  13
degrees c, a 7-degree increase over the temperature of the intake
water at a flow rate of about 1,420 cubic meters per  day   (0.375
MGD) .

Supplemental data—Information about  the effluents from- one other
asbestos  roofing  plant  was  reported by the manufacturer.  The
waste water is treated by settling,   oil  skimming,  and  passage
through  an  adsorbant filter.  The added quantities of materials
are reported to be:
Suspended solids
BOD5  (5-day)
COD
                       37
                       37
                       91
kq/kkg

0.06
0.07
0.15
0.12
0.13
0.30
The average pH of the effluent is reported to be 6.8.

Other constituents of interest  were  measured  in  this  treated
effluent  with  the  following  average results in terms of added
quantities:
                             53

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Total Solids
Total Organic Carbon
Cyanide
Copper
Iron
Lead
Nickel
Zinc
Oil and Grease
Phenols
                         93
                          1
                      0.00003
                      0.019
                      0.031
                      0.001
                      0.003
                      0.071
                      1.6
                      0.003
g/kkcj
 O.T6~
 0*00015
 0.00005
 0.03
 0.05
 0.0015
 0.005
 0.12
 0.0025
 0.005
Total nitrogen and phosphorus levels in the  cooling  water  were
each  increased  about  0.5  mg/1  by  passage through the plant.
Arsenic,  cadmium,  and  chromium  were  analyzed  for,  but  not
detected in, the effluent.

The   above  information  on  treated  roofing  waste  waters  is
presented as supplemental data.  It has not been verified, but it
does provide an insight into the strength and  character  of  the
waste waters from asbestos roofing manufacture.

Fluctuations--There   is  insufficient  information  to  describe
variations in the characteristics within a plant or among  plants
in  this category.  Since the waste water is spent cooling water,
its characteristics should be unaffected by  start-up  and  shut-
down operations.
ASBESTOS FLOOR TILE

From  a water use and waste water characterization point of view,
vinyl and  asphalt  tile  manufacturing  both  produce  the  same
result.   Like  roofing, water is used only for cooling purposes.
Both contact and non-contact cooling are usually employed.  Water
does not come into contact with the tile until it has been heated
and rolled into its final form.  In this stage it  is  completely
inert to water.

Hater,U^age

Cooling water usage information was available from six floor tile
plants  with an average daily production of about 400,000 pieces.
The reported discharges ranged from about 80 to 1,700 liters  (21
to  450 gallons)  per 1,000 pieces with an average of 1,130 liters
(300 gallons).

The wide range reflects differences in intake water temperatures,
whether or not  the  water  is  recirculated,  and  whether  both
contact  and  non-contact  waters  are  included  in the figures.
Because the water is used  for  cooling,  fluctuations  within  a
given  plant  should  not  be  large  and should primarily be the
                              54

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result of changes  in production  levels  or   seasonal  temperature
changes, or both.

Waste Characteristics

Despite  the  facte that floor tile itself is inert in water, the
contact cooling water becomes contaminated with a diverse variety
of materials including wax, inks, oil,  glue,  and  miscellaneous
dirt  and  debris.   The  material  has  a   high  organic content
although the limited data  available  indicate  that  it  is  not
readily biodegradable.

Constituents-

The added waste constituents in a typical floor tile plant are as
follows:
Suspended Solids
BOD5  (5-day)
COD
    150
     15
    300
0.18
0.02
0.36
(Ib/lQQQ^pc*)^

   0.40
   0.04
   0.80
* pc- pieces of tile, 12"x12"x3/32"
The  reported  pH  of,
8.'3, averaging 7.3.
tile plant waste waters ranges from 6.9 to
Temperature—The reported temperature data are inconsistent among
the few plants reporting.  Some plants with large per  unit  flow
volumes  show a larger temperature increase than plants with much
smaller flows per 1,000 pieces.

Oil and grease—Oil and grease are  reportedly  present  in  tile
plant effluents, with an average concentrations of 5.5 mg/1 after
treatment,

Organic matter—The COD is believed to be largely associated with
the suspended solids with much of it being wax.

Plant  nutrients—The  limited  data  on plant nutrients indicate
that the increased total nitrogen and phosphorus levels should be
less than 5.0 and 1.5 mg/1, respectively.

Other chemicals—Trace amounts of phenols and chromimum were each
reported by  one  plant.   The  levels  were  judged  not  to  be
significant.

Color  and  turbidity—Data  on  the color and turbidity of waste
waters from floor tile manufacture are not available.  The wastes
do have measurable levels of both parameters, however.
                              55

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Fluctuations—There are no known data  by  which  to  assess  the
variations  in  constituent  concentrations  in waste waters from
floor tile plants.
                                56

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                           SECTION VI

                SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
SELECTED PARAMETERS

The chemical, physical, and biological parameters that define the
pollutant  constituents  in  waste  waters  from   the   asbestos
manufacturing industry are the following:

         Total suspended solids
         BODS
         COD" (or TOC)
         pH
         Temperature
         Dissolved solids
         Nitrogen
         Phosphorus
         Phenols
         Heavy metals

The  last four listed parameters are not normally present in high
concentrations.   Individual  plants  have  reported  significant
levels  of  one or more in their effluents, however, and they are
therefore included.

Asbestos itself is not included in the list for several  reasons.
The  suspended  solids present in the waste waters are to a large
extent  asbestos  fibers.   Removal  of   suspended   solids   by
sedimentation  will  also remove asbestos fibers but there exists
no data at the present time on which to  determine  a  definitive
relationship.

The  agency  is particularly concerned over the potential effects
of the discharge of asbestos fibers.  It is  therefore  suggested
that  the industry assess the extent of asbestos fiber discharges
in the effluent stream, after treatment  and  control,  and  take
appropriate additional measures to reduce such discharge.

Pollutants  in  non-process waste waters, such as discharges from
noncontact cooling systems,  boiler  blowdown,  and  wastes  from
water treatment facilities are not included in this document.

The  rationale  for  selection  of the listed parameters is given
below.  In the following paragraphs, the terms used  to  describe
the  levels  of  the  various parameters are relative within this
industrial category.   For example, a BOD5 level of  100  mg/1  is
high for asbestos manufacturing waste waters, but is low compared
to many industrial wastes.
                               57

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MAJOR POLLUTANTS
The reasons for including the above listed parameters are briefly
presented  below.   The  reader  is  referred  to  other  sources
(Section XIII)   for further descriptions of  the  parameters  and
procedures for measuring them.

Total Suspended Solids

Suspended  solids  include  both organic and inorganic materials.
The inorganic components  include  sand,  silt,  and  clay.    The
organic  fraction  includes  such  materials as grease, oil, tar,
animal and vegetable fats, various  fibers,  sawdust,  hair,  and
various  materials  from  sewers.   These  solids  may settle out
rapidly and bottom deposits are often a mixture of  both  organic
and   inorganic  solids.   They  adversely  affect  fisheries  by
covering the bottom of the stream  or  lake  with  a  blanket  of
material that destroys the fish-food bottom fauna or the spawning
ground  of  fish.   Deposits  containing  organic  materials  may
deplete bottom oxygen  supplies  and  produce  hydrogen  sulfide,
carbon dioxide, methane, and other noxious gases.

In  raw  water  sources  for  domestic  use,  state  and regional
agencies generally specify that suspended solids in streams shall
not be present in sufficient concentration to be objectionable or
to interfere with normal treatment processes.   Suspended  solids
in  water may interfere with many industrial processes, and cause
foaming in boilers, or  encrustations  on  equipment  exposed  to
water, especially as the temperature rises.  Suspended solids are
undesirable  in  water  for  textile  industries; paper and pulp;
beverages;  dairy  products;  laundries;   dyeing;   photography;
cooling  systems,  and  power  plants.   Suspended particles also
serve  as  a  transport  mechanism  for  pesticides   and   other
substances which are readily sorbed into or onto clay particles.

Solids  may  be suspended in water for a time, and then settle to
the  bed  of  the  stream  or  lake.   These  settleable   solids
discharged  with  man's wastes may be inert, slowly biodegradable
materials,  or  rapidly  decomposable   substances.    while   in
suspension,  they  increase  the  turbidity  of the water, reduce
light penetration  and  impair  the  photosynthetic  activity  of
aquatic plants.

Solids  in  suspension  are aesthetically displeasing.  When they
settle to form sludge deposits on the stream or  lake  bed,   they
are  often  much  more  damaging  to  the life in water, and they
retain the  capacity  to  displease  the  senses.   Solids,   when
transformed  to  sludge  deposits,  may  do a variety of damaging
things, including blanketing the stream or lake bed  and  thereby
destroying  the  living  spaces  for those benthic organisms that
would otherwise occupy the  habitat.   When  of  an  organic  and
therefore decomposable nature, solids use a portion or all of the
                               58

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 dissolved  oxygen  available in the area.  Organic materials  also
 serve as a seemingly inexhaustible food   source  for  sludgeworms
 and associated organisms.

 Turbidity  is  principally  a  measure  of  the  light  absorbing
 properties of suspended  solids.   It  is  frequently  used  as  a
 substitute  method  of   quickly  estimating  the  total suspended
 solids when the concentration is relatively low.


 The suspended solids levels in raw asbestos manufacturing waste
 waters  are  often  high with levels commonly in the 500 to 1,000
 mg/1 range.  The solids  are heavy and settle quickly.  They would
 produce sludge deposits  on the bottom of receiving  water  bodies
 if  discharged.   The  solids could also contribute turbidity and
 possibly harm aquatic life if suspended in receiving waters.  The
 asbestos fiber content of the solids is reported to be relatively
 low, with the bulk of the solids originating as  cement,  silica,
 clay, and other raw materials.

 Chemical_Qxygen Demand (COD)

 Moderately  high  COD  values  are  typically associated with raw
 waste  waters  from  asbestos  paper,  roofing,  and  floor  tile
 manufacturing.   The binders used in paper are believed to be the
 major source of COD.  The elastomeric binders result in high  COD
 results,  but  contribute  little BOD5.  In other words, they are
 not readily biodegradable.  The COD in roofing  waste  waters  is
 caused   by  soluble  bitumens,  phenols,  oil  and  grease  from
 bearings,  and  other  materials  that  contaminate  the  contact
 cooling  water.   It  is  believed that wax contributes the major
 portion of COD in raw waste waters from floor tile production.

 EH, Acidity and Alkalinity

 Acidity and alkalinity are reciprocal terms.  Acidity is produced
 by substances  that  yield  hydrogen  ions  upon  hydrolysis  and
 alkalinity  is  produced  by substances that yield hydroxyl ions.
 The terms "total acidity" and "total alkalinity" are  often  used
 to  express  the  buffering  capacity  of a solution.  Acidity in
 natural waters is caused by carbon dioxide, mineral acids, weakly
 dissociated acids, and the salts of strong acids and weak  bases.
 Alkalinity  is  caused  by  strong  bases and the salts of strong
 alkalies and weak acids.

The term pH is a logarithmic expression of the  concentration  of
 hydrogen  ions.   At  a  pH  of  7, the hydrogen and hydroxyl ion
 concentrations are essentially equal and the  water  is  neutral.
Lower  pH  values  indicate  acidity while higher values indicate
 alkalinity.    The  relationship  between  pH   and   acidity   or
alkalinity is not necessarily linear or direct.

Waters  with  a  pH  below  6.0  are  corrosive  to  water  works
 structures,  distribution lines, and household  plumbing  fixtures
and  can  thus  add  such constituents to drinking water as iron.
                                59

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copper, zinc, cadmium and lead.  The hydrogen  ion  concentration
can  affect  the  "taste" of the water.  At a low pH water tastes
"sour." The bactericidal effect of chlorine is weakened as the pH
increases, and it is advantageous to keep  the  pH  close  to  7.
This is very significant for providing safe drinking water.

Extremes of pH or rapid pH changes can exert stress conditions or
kill  aquatic life outright.  Dead fish, associated algal blooms,
and foul stenches are  aesthetic  liabilities  of  any  waterway.
Even moderate changes from "acceptable" criteria limits of pH are
deleterious  to  some  species.  The relative toxicity to aquatic
life of many materials is increased by changes in the  water  pH.
Metalocyanide  complexes can increase a thousand-fold in toxicity
with a drop of 1.5 pH units.  The availability of  many  nutrient
substances  varies  with  the alkalinity and acidity.  Ammonia is
more lethal with a higher pH.

The lacrimal fluid of the human eye has a pH of approximately 7.0
and a deviation of 0.1 pH unit from the norm may  result  in  eye
irritation  for  the  swimmer.  Appreciable irritation will cause
severe pain.

Raw waste waters  from  products  that  contain  portland  cement
normally  have  an  elevated pH value.  The pH of asbestos-cement
wastes is close to  12  or  higher.   This  indicates  a  caustic
(hydroxide)    alkalinity   that   should  be  neutralized  before
discharge  to  receiving  waters  or  municipal  sewers.   Highly
caustic waters are harmful to aquatic life.
OTHER POLLUTANTS

The  following  parameters  were considered in the course of this
study.  They were not included in  the  effluent  guidelines  and
standards  for  one or more of the following reasons: the amounts
found in the waste waters  were  insignificant,  or  insufficient
data   was  available  upon  which  to  base  a  limitation.   In
particular, treatment to reduce dissolved solids levels is judged
to be beyond the scope of "best practicable" treatment  based  on
cost  availability of the technology.  Since the "best available"
treatment recommended is no discharge of  process  waste  waters,
this  constituent  will be completely removed by 1983.  Rationale
for  establishing  temperature  limitations  are  presently   not
available.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Biochemical  oxygen  demand   (BOD)   is  a  measure  of the oxygen
consuming capabilities of organic matter.  The BOD  does  not  in
itself  cause direct harm to a water system, but it does exert an
indirect effect by depressing the oxygen content  of  the  water.
Sewage  and  other  organic  effluents  during their processes of
decomposition exert a BOD, which can have a  catastrophic  effect
on  the ecosystem by depleting the oxygen supply.  Conditions are
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reached frequently where all  of  the  oxygen   is   used  and   the
continuing  decay  process causes the production of noxious gases
such as hydrogen sulfide and methane.   Water   with  a   high   BOD
indicates   the   presence  of  decomposing  organic  matter   and
subsequent high bacterial counts that  degrade  its  quality   and
potential uses.

Dissolved  oxygen  (DO)  is  a water quality constituent that, in
appropriate  concentrations,  is  essential  not  only  to   keep
organisms living but also to sustain species reproduction, vigor,
and  the development of populations.  Organisms undergo  stress at
reduced D.O. concentrations that make them less competitive   and
able  to  sustain  their  species within the aquatic environment^
For  example,  reduced  DO  concentrations  have  been   shown  to
interfere  with fish population through delayed hatching of eggs,
reduced size and vigor of embryos, production of  deformities  in
young,  interference  with  food digestion, acceleration of blood
clotting, decreased tolerance to certain toxicants, reduced  fcod
efficiency   and  growth . rate,  and  reduced   maximum  sustained
swimming  speed.   Fish  food  organisms  are   likewise  affected
adversely  in  conditions  with suppressed DO.  Since all aerobic
aquatic  organisms  need  a  certain  amount    of   oxygen,   the
consequences  of total lack of dissolved oxygen due to a high BOD
can kill all inhabitants of the affected area.

If a high BOD is present, the quality of  the   water  is  usually
visually  degraded  by "the presence of decomposing materials and
algae blooms due to the uptake of degraded  materials  that  form
the foodstuffs of the algal populations.

The  BOD5  levels  in  wastes  from asbestos-cement, roofing, and
floor tile product manufacture are usually very low.   Important
BOD5  contributions  originate  with  the natural organic binders
used in some asbestos papers and millboards.  The typical maximum
levels are about 100 mg/1.
Temperature is one of the most important  and  influential  water
quality  characteristics.   Temperature  determines those species
that  may  be  present;  it  activates  the  hatching  of  young,
regulates  their  activity,  and  stimulates  or suppresses their
growth and development; it attracts, and may kill when the  water
becomes  too  hot  or becomes chilled too suddenly.  Colder water
generally  suppresses  development.    Warmer   water   generally
accelerates  activity and may be a primary cause of aquatic plant
nuisances when other environmental factors are suitable.

Temperature is a prime regulator of natural processes within  the
water   environment.    It  governs  physiological  functions  in
organisms and, acting directly or indirectly in combination  with
other  water  quality  constituents, it affects aquatic life with
each change.  These  effects  include  chemical  reaction  rates,
enzymatic functions, molecular movements, and molecular exchanges
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between  membranes  within  and between the physiological systems
and the organs of an animal.

Chemical reaction  rates  vary  with  temperature  and  generally
increase  as  the  temperature  is  increased.  The solubility of
gases in water varies  with  temperature.   Dissolved  oxygen  is
decreased  by  the  decay  or  decomposition of dissolved organic
substances and the decay rate increases as the temperature of the
water increases reaching a maximum at  about  30°C  (86°F).   The
temperature  of  stream  water,  even during summer, is below the
optimum for pollution-associated bacteria.  Increasing the  water
temperature  increases the bacterial multiplication rate when the
environment is favorable and the food supply is abundant.

Reproduction cycles may be  changed  significantly  by  increased
temperature  because  this  function takes place under restricted
temperature ranges.   Spawning  may  not  occur  at  all  because
temperatures  are too high.  Thus, a fish population may exist in
a heated area only by continued  immigration.   Disregarding  the
decreased  reproductive  potential,  water  temperatures need not
reach lethal levels to decimate  a  species.   Temperatures  that
favor  competitors, predators, parasites, and disease can destroy
a species at levels far below those that are lethal.

Fish  food  organisms  are  altered  severely  when  temperatures
approach  or  exceed  90°F.   Predominant  algal  species change,
primary production is decreased, and bottom associated  organisms
may   be   depleted   or   altered  drastically  in  numbers  and
distribution.  Increased water  temperatures  may  cause  aquatic
plant nuisances when other environmental factors are favorable.

Synergistic actions of pollutants are more severe at higher water
temperatures.  Given amounts of domestic sewage, refinery wastes,
oils,   tars,  insecticides,  detergents,  and  fertilizers  more
rapidly deplete oxygen in water at higher temperatures,  and  the
respective toxicities are likewise increased.

When  water  temperatures increase, the predominant algal species
may change from diatoms to  green  algae,  and  finally  at  high
temperatures  to blue-green algae, because of species temperature
preferentials.  Blue-green algae can cause serious odor problems.
The number and distribution of  benthic  organisms  decreases  as
water  temperatures  increase  above  90°F» which is close to the
tolerance limit for the population.  This could seriously  affect
certain fish that depend on benthinc organisms as a food source.

The cost of fish being attracted to heated water in winter months
may be considerable, due to fish mortalities that may result when
the fish return to the cooler water.

Rising   temperatures  stimulate  the  decomposition  of  sludge,
formation of sludge gas, multiplication of  saprophytic  bacteria
and  fungi  (particularly in the presence of organic wastes), and
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the  consumption  of  oxygen  by  putrefactive  processes,
affecting the esthetic value of a water course.
thus
In general, marine water temperatures do not change as rapidly or
range  as  widely  as those of freshwaters.  Marine and estuarine
fishes, therefore, are less tolerant  of  temperature  variation.
Although  this  limited tolerance is greater in estuarine than in
open water marine species, temperature changes are more important
to those fishes in estuaries and  bays  than  to  those  in  open
marine  areas  because of the nursery and replenishment functions
of  the  estuary  that  can  be  adversely  affected  by  extreme
temperature changes.

Thermal  increases are caused by chemical reactions, heating, and
contact  cooling  in  various  parts  of  the  asbestos  products
industry.   Reported  temperatures  for  effluents  reach maximum
levels of 38 degrees c (100 degrees F).   Recirculated  water  is
relatively hotter than that which is used once and discharged.

Dissolved Solids

In   natural  waters  the  dissolved  solids  consist  mainly  of
carbonates,  chlorides,  sulfates,   phosphates,   and   possibly
nitrates  of  calcium,  magnesium,  sodium,  and  potassium, with
traces of iron, manganese and other substances,

Many communities in the United States and in other countries  use
water  supplies  containing 2000 to 4000 mg/1 of dissolved salts,
when  no  tetter  water  is  available.   Such  waters  are   not
palatable,  may not quench thirst, and may have a laxative action
on new users.  Waters containing more than  4000  mg/1  of  total
salts  are  generally considered unfit for human use, although in
hot climates such higher salt  concentrations  can  be  tolerated
whereas   they  could  not  be  in  temperate  climates.   Waters
containing 5000 mg/1 or more are reported to be bitter and act as
bladder and intestinal irritants.  It is  generally  agreed  that
the salt concentration of good, palatable water should not exceed
500 mg/1.

Limiting  concentrations of;dissolved solids for fresh-water fish
may range from 5,000 to 10,000 mg/1,  according  to  species  and
prior  acclimatization.   Some fish are adapted to living in more
saline waters, and a few species of fresh-water forms  have  been
found  in  natural  waters with a salt concentration of 15,000 to
20,000 mg/1.  Fish  can  slowly  become  acclimatized  to  higher
salinities,  but  fish  in  waters of low salinity cannot survive
sudden exposure to high salinities such as those  resulting  from
discharges  of  oil-well   brines.  Dissolved solids may influence
the toxicity of heavy metals  and organic compounds  to  fish  and
other  aquatic life,  primarily because of the antagonistic effect
of hardness on metals.
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Waters with total dissolved solids over 500 mg/1 have  decreasing
utility  as  irrigation water.  At 5,000 mg/1 water has little or
no value for irrigation.

Dissolved solids  in  industrial  waters  can  cause  foaming  in
boilers  and cause interference with cleaness, color, or taste of
many finished products.  High contents of dissolved  solids  also
tend to accelerate corrosion.

Specific  conductance  is  a  measure of the capacity of water to
convey an electric current.  This  property  is  related  to  the
total  concentration  of  ionized  substances  in water and water
temperature.  This property is frequently used  as  a  substitute
method of quickly estimating the dissolved solids concentration.

In addition to the high suspended solids levels in most raw waste
waters  from  asbestos  manufacture,  the  dissolved (filterable)
solids are often of equal or greater magnitude.  These  originate
primarily with the major raw materials, i.e., cement, clays, etc.
Sulfates are reported to be one of the major dissolved components
in  the  case  of  asbestos-cement  products.  The levels in seme
plant effluents are high enough to be of concern in public  water
supplies if not adequately diluted by the receiving water.

Nitrogen and Phosphorus

During the past 30 years, a formidable case has developed for the
belief  that  increasing standing crops of aquatic plant growths,
which often interfere with water uses and are nuisances  to  man,
frequently are caused by increasing supplies of phosphorus.  Such
phenomena   are   associated  with  a  condition  of  accelerated
eutrophication or aging of waters.  It  is  generally  recognized
that  phosphorus  is  not  the  sole cause of eutrophication, but
there is evidence to substantiate that it is frequently  the  key
element in all of the elements required by fresh water plants and
is  generally  present  in  the  least  amount  relative to need.
Therefore, an increase in phosphorus allows use of other, already
present, nutrients for  plant  growths.   Phosphorus  is  usually
described, for this reasons, as a "limiting factor."

When a plant population is stimulated in production and attains a
nuisance  status,  a  large  number of associated liabilities are
immediately apparent.   Dense  populations  of  pond  weeds  make
swimming  dangerous.   Boating  and  water  skiing  and sometimes
fishing may be eliminated because of the mass of vegetation  that
serves  as  an  physical  impediment  to  such activities.  Plant
populations have been associated with  stunted  fish  populations
and  with  poor  fishing.   Plant  nuisances  emit vile stenches,
impart tastes and odors to water supplies, reduce the  efficiency
of  industrial  and  municipal  water treatment, impair aesthetic
beauty,  reduce  or  restrict  resort  trade,  lower   waterfront
property  values,  cause skin rashes to man during water contact,
and serve as a desired substrate and breeding ground for flies,
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 Phosphorus  in the   elemental   form  is   particularly  toxic,   and
 subject   to bioaccumulation   in  much   the   same  way  as mercury.
 Colloidal elemental phosphorus will poison marine   fish   (causing
 skin   tissue  breakdown   and  discoloration).  Also,  phosphorus is
 capable of  being concentrated and will  accumulate  in  organs   and
 soft   tissues.   Experiments   have  shown  that  marine fish  will
 concentrate phosphorus from water containing  as little as 1 ug/1.

 Nitrogen  levels in  raw waste  waters from asbestos   manufacturing
 are normally not high, with reported maxima for total  nitrogen of
 about  15  ing/I.    It  is  included here because nitrogen at  this
 level  could influence eutrophication rates in some water bodies.

 In some cases, the  sources of nitrogen  are the minor  ingredients
 and additives in the product,  rather than the principal raw mate-
 rials.  These secondary ingredients are subject to change and the
 nitrogen  levels in the waste water should be monitored to insure
 that excessive levels are absent.
Maximum phosphorus levels in asbestos waste waters are  typically
in  the  1  to  2  mg/1  range.   Like nitrogen, this element  can
influence eutrophication and should be monitored to  insure  that
levels are acceptably low.

Phenols

Phenols and phenolic wastes are derived from petroleum, coke,  and
chemical  industries;  wood distillation; and domestic and animal
wastes.  Many phenolic compounds are more toxic than pure phenol;
their toxicity varies with the combinations and general nature of
total wastes,  xhe effect of combinations of  different  phenolic
compounds is cumulative.

Phenols  and  phenolic compounds are both acutely and chronically
toxic to fish and other  aquatic  animals.   Also,  chlorophenols
produce  an  unpleasant  taste  in fish flesh that destroys their
recreational and commercial value.

It is necessary to limit phenolic compounds in raw water used  for
drinking water supplies, as conventional treatment  methods  used
by  water supply facilities do not remove phenols.  The ingestion
of concentrated solutions of phenols will result in severe  pain,
renal irritation, shock and possibly death.

Phenols  also  reduce the utility of water for certain industrial
uses, notably food and  beverage  processing,  where  it  creates
unpleasant tastes and odors in the product.

The  presence  of  measurable phenol levels have been reported in
wastes from roofing manufacture.  These chemicals  cause  serious
taste  and  odors  in water supplies and their entry to the waste
stream and  should  be  maintained  to  insure  that  levels   are
acceptably low.
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Heavy. Metals
Individual plants have reported that one or more of the following
metals  were   present  in  trace  quantities in their effluents;
barium, cadmium, chromium, copper,  mercury,  nickel,  and  zinc.
Two  pipe  plants  reported  that  cyanides were present in their
wastes.   These  materials  were  at  levels  well  below   those
specified  as  safe  for drinking water.  There was no consistent
pattern  detected  among  the  limited  data  available.    These
materials  may  originate  in  the  major raw materials or in the
minor ingredients and additives.  Excessive effluent levels could
probably  be  most  economically  controlled   by   changing   or
elimination of the source.
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                            SECTION VII
                CONTROL AND  TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
 INTRODUCTION
 Those  parts   of  the  asbestos manufacturing industry  covered  in
 this document  fall  into two groups:   (1)  asbestos-cement  products
 and asbestos paper  and millboard, and  (2) roofing and floor  tile,
 The waste waters from the  second group  are   contaminated   contact
 cooling  waters  and are relatively smaller  in volume.  The  level
 and type of control and treatment measures for roofing  and  floor
 tile  plants   are different than those  for the product  categories
 in the first group.  Most  of the general  material  below   applies
 to the plants  in the first group.
      Char act eristics
The  process waste waters from the manufacture of asbestos-cement
pipe , asbestos-cement sheet paper, and  millboard  represent  the
major   sources   of   pollutant  constituents  in  the  asbestos
manufacturing industry.  The wastes originate from several points
in the manufacturing processes and they are usually combined into
a single discharge from the plant.  The wastes from all of  these
categories  are  similar  in  many  characteristics  and they are
amenable  to   treatment   by   the   same   operation,   namely,
sedimentation.    Because   of   similarities   in  manufacturing
processes, many in- plant control measures apply at all locations.

Treatment

Sedimentation,  with  various  auxiliary  operations,  yields  an
effluent  of  low  pollution  potential  when properly applied to
asbestos manufacturing waste  waters.   The  settled  solids  are
inert,  dense, and appropriate for landfill disposal as described
in Section VIII.  While present practices within the industry are
not achieving the best possible results in all cases, they can be
upgraded without major technical problems.

Treatment beyond sedimentation and pH control is not  appropriate
for  wastes  from  the  major  product categories in the asbestos
manufacturing industry.  The only pollutant constituent remaining
at significant  levels,  other  than  temperature,  is  dissolved
solids.  While these levels may be at undesirably high levels for
certain  industrial  water  uses,  they  do  not  present serious
hazards to human health  or  to  aquatic  life.    To  remove  the
dissolved  solids  burden  in  these  waste  waters would require
advanced treatment operations techniques,  e.g.,  reverse  osmosis,
electrodialysis,  or  distillation.   The initial and annual costs
associated with these advanced treatment operations are  so  high
that  alternative  solutions,  namely,  complete recycle of waste
waters, will be implemented by the industry  instead  of  further
treatment .
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During  the course of the study carried out to prepare this docu-
ment, representatives of at least six of the companies listed  in
Section  III volunteered the information that complete recircula-
tion of process waste waters was presently  under  consideration,
being developed, or actively being implemented.

Implementation

The   in-plant   control   measures   and  end-of~pipe  treatment
technology  outlined  below  can  be  implemented  as   necessary
throughout the asbestos manufacturing industry.  Factors relating
to  plant  and equipment age, manufacturing process and capacity,
and  land  availability  do  not  play  a  significant  role   in
determining  whether  or  not a given plant can make the changes.
Implementation of a particular control or treatment measure  will
involve  approximately the same degree of engineering and process
design skill and will have the same effects on plant  operations,
product quality, and process flexibility at all locations.
IN-PLANT CONTROL MEASURES

Many  asbestos  manufacturing  plants  incorporate  some in-plant
practices that reduce  the  release  of  pollutant  constituents.
These practices have resulted in economic benefits, e.g., reduced
water  supply  or  waste  disposal  costs,  or  both.   Few plants
include all of the control measures that are possible, however.

Raw Materiaj, storage

Raw materials are normally stored indoors and  kept  dry.   There
are  no  widespread  water pollution problems related to improper
raw materials storage practices.

Waste Water Segregation

In all cases, sanitary sewage should be  disposed  of  separately
from  process waste waters.  Public health considerations as well
as economic factors dictate that sanitary wastes not be  combined
with asbestos process wastes.

Other   non-process   waste   waters   are  often  combined  with
manufacturing wastes in asbestos plants.   A  careful  evaluation
should be made in each plant to determine if some or all of these
wastes  could  be segregated and recirculated.  Such reduction in
waste volumes might result  in  smaller,  more  economical  waste
treatment facilities.

Housekeeping.Practices

Except  for roofing and floor tile plants, housekeeping practices
do not greatly influence the waste  water  characteristics.   The
use  of  wet  clean-up techniques are common to control fiber and
dust air emissions.  In view of the alternative, continuation  of
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 the  proper  use  of   such   wet  methods  should  not  impair the
 efficiency of end-of-pipe treatment facilities.

 Water Usage_

 Fresh  water   should   be  used   first   for  pump   seals,    steam
 generation,   showers,   and  similar  uses that cannot tolerate high
 contaminant levels.  The  discharges from these uses  should  then
 go   into  the  manufacturing  process  as  make-up water and elsewhere
 where water quality is less critical.

 Water conservation equipment  and practices should  be installed to
 prevent overflows, spills,  and  leaks.   Plumbing  arrangements that
 discourage the   unnecessary  use  of   fresh water   should   be
 incorporated.

 Plans  should be made  for  complete recirculation of all waste
 waters.   This will permit the installation of new   equipment  and
 the  making   of   the   plant alterations as part  of an integrated,
 long-range program.  In some  cases,  it may be more economical  for
 a given plant  to   move directly toward  complete  recirculation
 rather than install extensive treatment facilities.

 In   line   with water use  practices,  evaluation of  the benefits  of
 increased  save-all capacity should  be  made at some plants.   This
 would  provide   more   in-plant   water  storage,   permit  greater
 operating  flexibility,   and  reduce  the   level    of  pollutant
 constituents  in the raw waste waters discharged  from the plant.

 Product Categories

 In-plant  control  measures applicable to specific asbestos product
 manufacturing  operations  are  given  below.

 Asbestos^cement Pipe-

 Some   pipe  plants  completely   recirculate the water used  in the
 hydrotest  operation.    Some  plants reuse  part  of   the  autoclave
 condensate  directly.    Consideration   should  be  given to  piping
 waste  waters from wet  saws  to the save-all  system.

 At  least one pipe plant recycles a major fraction  of  the effluent
 from  its waste treatment facility  back  into  the   manufacturing
 process.

 No  plant  making  only  asbestos-cement   pipe  has   accomplished
 complete recirculation.  A  reported experimental attempt to  do  so
 by  one company was not  successful.

 The raw waste water flow from asbestos-cement pipe manufacture  is
 typically in the range of U.I to 5.2 cubic meters per metric  ton
 (1200 to 1500  gallons  per ton) of product.

Asbestos-cement Sheet  Products-
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Many  of  the  in-plant control measures described above for pipe
plants could be incorporated in  sheet  plants.   The  raw  waste
water  flow  from  sheet manufacture is typically in the range of
5.2 to 6.2 cu m/kkg (1500 to 1800 gal/ton).

One asbestos-cement sheet plant achieves  complete  recirculation
most  of the time.  The manufacturing process is so balanced that
the fresh water intake equals the amount of water in the wet pro-
duct.  Fresh water enters the system only for boiler make-up  and
as  part  of the vacuum pump seal water.  This plant is connected
to a municipal sewer  and  excess  flows  caused  by  upsets  and
process   shut-downs   are   discharged   intermittently.    With
sufficient  holding  capacity  to   accommodate   these   surges,
discharge to the sewer could be eliminated.

The  benefits  of  complete recycle at this plant include reduced
water cost and sewer service charges, minimal asbestos loss  and,
reportedly, a somewhat stronger product.

The  major  problem encountered in complete water recycle at this
plant is scaling.  Spray nozzles require  occasional  unplugging,
the water lines are scoured regularly with a pneumatically driven
cleaner,  and fine sand is introduced into the pumps to eliminate
deposits.

While one sheet plant has accomplished almost complete recircula-
tion, this is not  regarded  as  fully  demonstrated  technology.
This  plant makes only a few asbestos-cement sheet products.  The
intermittent discharge to the sewer does  provide  some  blowdown
relief  to the system.  Whether such complete recirculation could
be applied to plants making sheet products  with  more  stringent
quality  specifications is not known.  The progress at this plant
does indicate that complete recirculation is a realistic goal for
the future.

Asbestos Paper-

The in-plant control measures outlined above for  asbestos-cement
pipe can be applied in part in asbestos paper making plants.  One
paper  plant  has  been able to close up its process water system
when making paper with a starch binder.  Such  operation  is  not
possible  when  elastomeric  binders are used and excess water is
then discharged to the municipal sewer.

An asbestos paper plant that practices partial recycle  of  water
from its waste treatment unit typically discharges within 30 per-
cent of 11 cu m/kkg (3,300 gal/ton).

Partial  recycle  of  water  and  underflow solids from the waste
water treatment facility is not uncommon in  the  asbestos  paper
industry.  Complete recirculation and zero discharge has not been
demonstrated  on  a  continuing  basis  at  any plant making only
paper.  It is likely that paper could  be  manufactured  using  a
closed  system  if  only  starch  binders  were  used.  Total and
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 continuous  recycle of  water  and   solids  when  using   elastomeric
 binders  cannot  be  accomplished today.   Since  some paper  plants
 use both types of binders, a guideline  based   on  the  type  of
 binder used would be impractical.

 That  significant  recycle   of  waste water has  been accomplished
 indicates that complete recirculation is a possible goal for  the
 future.

 Asbestos Millboard-

 One plant that produces a wide variety of  millboard products with
 a  relatively  small   save-all  system  presently achieves  almost
 complete recycle of the process   water.    The  stimulus  at this
 location  was,  at  least in part, high costs for water and sewer
 services.   The plant releases save-all overflow  to the  municipal
 sewer  when upsets or product changes occur.  With greater save-
 all capacity or a holding tank, this plant could accomplish zero
 discharge on a continuous basis.

 In  connection with this study, four of the seven known millboard
 plants in the country were visited.  Since almost complete  recir-
 culation has been demonstrated in a typical plant, it is believed
 that  zero  discharge  can   be    achieved   soon  by   millboard
 manufacturing plants.

 Asbe stos Ropf ing-

 The  plants  that  practice  contact  cooling should evaluate the
 possibility of eliminating this source of  process  waste   water,
 If  this  were  done,  and   leaks and other losses o'f non-contact
 cooling were closed and dry  cleaning  practices  instituted,  the
 asbestos  roofing  industry  would be able to operate without the
 discharge of process waste waters.

 In any case, non-contact cooling water and condensate should  not
 be  mixed   with  contact  cooling  water.   This practice greatly
 increases the volume of process waste water to be treated.

Asbestos Floor Tile-

There are several in-plant measures that should  be used in  floor
tile  plants  to  control  the release of pollutant constituents.
Raw materials should be stored, measured,  and mixed  in  an  area
completely  isolated  from the cooling water systems.  Only after
the ingredients are made into tile are they insoluble  in  water.
Toxic materials should be eliminated from the tile ingredients.

If   possible,   contact   water  cooling  operations  should  be
eliminated.   If this is not  feasible, the contact  cooling  water
should  be protected from contamination.   Bearing leaks should be
controlled and escaping water protected from  contact  with  wax,
oils,  glue,  and other dirt.
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If  the  contact  cooling water and the non-contact cooling water
that escapes were prevented from becoming contaminated, it  would
be  much  easier to treat.  This contamination is unnecessary and
-the resulting process waste water is costly to treat.
TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY

Most asbestos manufacturing plants currently provide some form of
treatment of the raw waste waters before discharge  to  receiving
waters.  In virtually all cases, this treatment is sedimentation.
At  several  plants,  the  treatment  facilities are small and of
simple design.  Fortunately the waste solids are dense and almost
any period of detention will  accomplish  major  removal  of  the
pollutant load.

Technic^ considerations

sedimentation  is  the oldest of all treatment unit operations in
sanitary engineering practice.  It is  well  understood  and' its
costs,  ease  of  operation,  efficiency, and reliability make it
ideally suited for industrial application.

Application-

Sedimentation is an appropriate form of  treatment  for  asbestos
manufacturing plant waste waters regardless of the plant size and
capacity,  manufacturing  process,  or  plant  and equipment age.
Design is based  on  the  hydraulic  discharge  and  plants  with
smaller  effluent  volumes  can use smaller units.  The treatment
system  can  be  sized  to  accommodate  surges  and  peak  flows
efficiently.    Because   waste   asbestos   solids   are   inert
biologically, overdesign does not  result  in  solids  management
problems.

 •
land ftequirements-

If  necessary, complete settling facilities large enough to treat
the waste flows from any  asbestos  manufacturing  plant  can  be
placed  on  an  area of 0.1 hectare (0.25 acre)  or less.  If more
land is available, larger units that provide solids  storage  may
be  constructed.   Such  units  would  result  in lower operating
costs.  This design is especially appropriate  for  waste  waters
from asbestos- cement products manufacture because the solids are
inert.   Solids  with  significant  BOD5  levels may require more
prompt reuse or dewatering and disposal.

The land requirements for asbestos solids disposal are not exces-
sively  high.   Some  plants  have  disposed  of  solids   within
relatively  limited  boundaries for decades.  While this practice
results in problems it does serve to indicate that land disposal,
if properly carried out as  discussed  in  Section  VIII,  is  an
                                 72

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appropriate  means  of  disposing  of  waste solids from asbestos
manufacturing.

Compatibility of Control, Measures-

The  recommended  end-of-pipe  technology  for  the  industry  is
sedimentation,  with  ancillary  operations  as  necessary.   The
subsequent   control   technology   recommended    is    complete
recirculation  of all process waste waters from all categories of
asbestos manufacturing covered by this document-  in most  cases,
complete  recycle  will  require  that  the  save-all  system  be
expanded or supplemented to provide higher quality water for some
in-plant uses.  The waste water  treatment  facility  could  very
readily serve this function.


Consequently,  the  recommended  end-of-pipe  control  technology
would represent part of an overall long-term control  program  to
achieve   zero   discharge  of  pollutant  constituents  at  most
locations.

Product Categories

Control  and  treatment  technologies  that  are  applicable   to
specific   product   categories  of  the  asbestos  manufacturing
industry are described below.

Asbestos-Cement Products (A/C Pipe_ and A/C Sheet!

The applicable end-of-pipe technology for waste waters  from  the
manufacture  of asbestos-cement products, both pipe and sheet, is
sedimentation  and  neutralization.   Designs  based   on   total
detention  periods  of 6 to 8 hours or loading levels of 24 cubic
meters per day per square meter (600 gallons per day  per  square
foot)  of  surface area yield effluent suspended solids levels of
30 mg/1 or lower.

Neutralization to a pH level of 9.0 or below has been achieved at
two locations in the industry by adding sulfuric acid or  on-site
generated   carbon   dioxide.    At   both  of  these  locations,
sedimentation precedes and follows neutralization.

The solids removed by the settling units are  best  dewatered  by
gravity  thickening.   They are dense and biochemically inert and
are suitable for disposal by proper landfill disposal techniques.

To achieve complete recirculation of process waste waters,   surge
capacity   will  have  to  be  added  to  the  water  system.   A
sedimentation unit cannot function in  this  capacity.    A  water
storage  tank or reservoir would be required in the system.  With
complete  recycle,  the  neutralization  operation  will  not  be
required.    Its function is to protect the receiving water.  High
pH levels are not a problem in the manufacture of  asbestos-cement
products.   As noted  in  a  previous  section,   additional  scale
                               73

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control   measures
implemented.
are   necessary  when  complete  recycle  is
As noted above, complete recirculation of  asbestos-cement  sheet
process  water  has  been  demonstrated partially.  Problems with
product strength have been reported in one effort  to  completely
recycle   waste  water  from  asbestos-cement  pipe  manufacture.
Additional research is needed to achieve this level of control.

Asbestos Paper—


The applicable end-of-pipe technology for waste waters  from  the
manufacture  of  asbestos  paper  is  sedimentation  preceded, as
necessary, by grit removal and coagulation with polyelectrolytes.
This treatment has been demonstrated at three or more  locations.
Units  designed  for  a  loading  of  24 cubic meters per day per
square meter (600 gallons per day per square foot) have  achieved
suspended solids and BOD5 reductions to 25 mg/1 or less.

Most of the settled solids as well as part of the clarified water
should  be  recycled  from the settling unit to the manufacturing
process at paper plants.  The waste solids,  which  are  normally
kept  to  a minimum, may be stored for later use or dewatered for
land disposal with the grit.  Waste solids result, in part,  from
the incompatibility of certain synthetic binders.

To  achieve  complete  recycle  of  all  process  waste waters at
asbestos paper plants, surge capacity will be required.  A  water
storage  tank  will  be  required  because the sedimentation unit
cannot provide this function.

As noted above, complete recirculation of asbestos paper  process
water  has been demonstrated partially when starch is used as the
binder.  Additional research is needed to achieve this  level  of
control when using elastomeric binders.

Asbestos Millboard—

As  discussed  above  under  In-Plant  controls,  the  applicable
control measure for asbestos millboard plants is complete recycle
of all  process  waste  waters.   No  end-of-pipe  technology  is
specifically   required  if  the  plant"s  save-all  capacity  is
adequate.  Unlike settling tanks,  save-alls  can  provide  surge
capacity.

Waste  solids  will  normally be generated only when the plant is
shut down.  These will require dewatering and transportation to a
land  disposal  site.   Since  asbestos  millboard  manufacturing
operations  are  located  in  plants  that  make  other  asbestos
products, the best means of solids handling and disposal will  be
dependent  on  the methods used for solids from the other product
lines.
                              74

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Asbestos Roofing—7

The applicable end-of-pipe technology for asbestos roofing  waste
waters  is  sedimentation  with  skimming or filtration to remove
insoluble materials.  Properly designed and  operated  facilities
should  reduce  the suspended solids levels to 15 mg/1 and COD to
20 mg/1 or less.  If the organic  materials  are  not  adequately
removed,   further   treatment,   possibly  by  activated  carbon
adsorption, will be required.  There is, at present, no  informa-
tion  available  by which to assess the suitability or efficiency
of such treatment for these wastes.  Information  is  lacking  on
the  nature  of  the  dissolved  organics  in  waste  waters from
asbestos roofing manufacture.

To completely eliminate the discharge of  pollutant  constituents
will require that the contaminated cooling water that constitutes
the process waste water be treated, cooled, and reused.  As noted
above,  the  precise type and extent of treatment required is not
known due to lack of information.

An alternative solution  would  be  the  elimination  of  contact
cooling  and  confinement  of  leaks  so  that  the water remains
uncontaminated.

Asbestos FloorTile-

The   applicable   end-of-pipe   technology   for   floor    tile
manufacturing  waste waters is sedimentation with coagulation and
skimming to remove suspended solids.  It  is  believed  that  the
high COD levels associated with some tile plant wastes are caused
by   insoluble   materials.    Properly   designed  and  operated
facilities should reduce suspended solids levels to 30  mg/1  and
COD to 75 mg/1 or less.

The  wastes from different tile plants are somewhat different and
the precise technology required to achieve these levels cannot be
predicted.   At present, treatment beyond plain sedimentation  and
skimming is not practiced by the industry.   Sorption on activated
carbon   following   filtration  should  remove  soluble  organic
materials tc an acceptable level.

Complete  elimination  of  the  discharge  of   pollutants   will
necessitate  either  cooling and reuse, or the use of non-contact
cooling water systems.   No information is available by  which  to
determine  the nature of the treatment best suited for the former
method.
                            75

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                          SECTION VIII
           COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
An analysis  of  the  estimated  costs  and  pollution  reduction
benefits of alternative treatment and control technologies appli-
cable  to  the  asbestos  manufacturing industry is given in this
section.

The  cost  estimates  were  developed  using  data  from  various
sources,  including  that available from individual manufacturing
plants,  contractor's  files,  and  the  general  information  in
Reference  13,17,19,and  20.   The data supplied by industry were
limited in scope and applicability.  Some of the costs  were  for
treatment   systems   or   designs   that   were   inadequate  or
inappropriate for achieving the recommended effluent limitations.
At a few plants, the treatment facilities were either so  old  or
of such simple design that the cost information had little value.
REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS

The   representative   plants  used  to  develop  treatment  cost
information were selected because of the relatively high  quality
of   the  treatment  facilities,  the  quantity  of  waste  water
discharged, the availability of cost data, and  the  adequacy  of
verified  information  about  the  effectiveness of the treatment
facility.   The  plants  used  typical,  standard   manufacturing
processes   and   incorporated  some  of  the  in-plant  controls
described in Section VII.  The waste flows were selected as being
typical for the larger plants in the category or subcategory.  In
this regard, the flows used for sizing the  treatment  facilities
upon which the cost estimates were based were not necessarily the
average flows at the representative plants.

The  end-of-pipe  control  technologies  were  designed, for cost
purposes, to require minimal space and land area.  It is believed
that, at most plants, no additional land would be  required.   At
locations  with  more  land  available,  larger,  more economical
facilities of somewhat different design,  but  equal  efficiency,
could be used.

In  summary,  the  cost  information is intended to apply to most
plants in the category of subcategory.   Differences  in  age  or
size  of  production  facilities,  level of implementation of in-
plant  controls,  manufacturing  process,  and  local   non-water
quality  environmental  aspects all reduce to one basic variable,
the volume of waste water discharged.
                             77

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The  representative  asbestos  manufacturing  plants   used   for
developing   cost   estimates  for  the  product  categories  and
subcategories are described in Table 3.  As noted above, age  and
size factors do not significantly influence costs.

COST INFORMATION

The  investment  and annual costs associated with the alternative
control technologies for the product categories, as well  as  the
effluent quality associated with each alternative, are summarized
in  Table  H  through 9.  All costs are reported in August, 1971,
dollars.

Investment Costs

Investment costs are defined as the capital expenditures required
to bring the treatment  or  control  technology  into  operation.
Included,  as appropriate, are the costs of excavation, concrete,
mechanical and electrical equipment installed,  and  piping.   An
amount  equal  to from  15 to 25 percent of the total of the above
was added to  cover  engineering  design  services,  construction
supervision,  and  related  costs.  The lower figure was used for
larger facilities.  Because  most  of  the  control  technologies
involved external, end-of-plant systems, no cost was included for
lost   time  due  to  installation.   it  is  believed  that  the
interruptions required  for installation of  control  technologies
can  be  coordinated  with  normal  plant  shut-down and vacation
periods in most cases.  As noted above,  the  control  facilities
were  estimated  on  the  basis  of  minimal  space requirements.
Therefore, no additional land,  and,  hence  no  cost,  would  be
involved for this item.

Capital Costs

The  capital  costs are calcualted, in all cases, as 8 percent of
the total investment costs.  Consultations with representative of
industry and the financial community led to the conclusion  that,
with the limited data available, this estimate was reasonable for
this industry.
Depreciation

Straight-line  depreciation  for  20  years,
total investment cost, is used in all cases,
        ri and Maintenance Cog-fes
or 5 percent of the
Operation and maintenance costs include labor,  materials,  solid
waste   disposal,   effluent   monitoring,  added  administrative
expenses, taxes, and  insurance*   When  the  control  technology
involved  water recycling, a credit of $0.30 per 1000 gallons was
applied to reduce the operation and maintenance costs.   Manpower
requirements   were   based  upon  information  supplied  by  the
representative plants as far as possible.  A total salary cost of
                              78

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                                         TABLE 3
                        REPRESENTATIVE MANUFACTURING PLANTS USED IN
                               DEVELOPING COST INFORMATION
Product



Asbestos-Cement Pipe

Asbestos-Cement Sheet

Asbestos Paper

Asbestos Millboard

Asbestos Roofing

Asbestos Floor Tile
Dally Production
kkg
145
109
64
13.5
650
700,000
(Tons)
160
(120)
(70)
(15)
(720)
pc
Wastewater
Actual
cu m/day (mgd)
2,100 0.56
650 (0.17)
2,700 (0.72)
680 (0.18)
1,400 (0.37)
1,600 (0.43)
Flow
Design
cu m/day
1,990
470
1,990
380
1,500
1,500
(mgd)
(0.50)
(0.125)
(0.50)
(0.10)
(0.40)
(0.40)
 *Design flow used  in developing  cost  estimates

-------
$10 per man-hour was used in all cases.  The costs  of  chemicals
used  in  treatment were added to the costs of materials used for
maintenance and operation.

The costs  of  solid  waste  handling  and  disposal  were  based
primarily upon information supplied by the representative plants.
No  useful information was available for the costs of solid waste
disposal for millboard and roofing manufacture.
       and Power Costs

Power costs were estimated on the basis of $0.025
hour.
per  kilowatt-
TREATMENT OR CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES WITH COSTS

Asbestos-Cement Pipe

Alternative.A - No Waste Treatment or Control

Effluent waste load is estimated to be 3.1 kg/kkg  (6.3 Ib/ton) of
suspended  solids, 4.4 kg/kkg  (8.8 Ib/ton) of caustic  (hydroxide)
alkalinity, and 6.3 kg/kkg (12.6 Ib/ton)  of dissolved solids  for
the selected typical plant at this minimal control level.  The pH
of  the  untreated  waste  is 12.0.  In-plant use of save-alls is
assumed, as this is universally practiced in the industry.

         Costs.  None.

         Reduction Benefits.   None.

Alternative B - Sedimentation of Process Wastes

This alternative includes settling of all process  waste  waters.
some form of sedimentation is applied at almost all plants in the
industry.   Costs  include  land  disposal  of  dewatered sludge.
Effluent suspended solids load estimated to be 0.19 kg/kkg  (0.38
Ib/ton).  Alkalinity,
pH, and dissolved solids remain high.

         costs.  Investment costs are approximately $124,000.

         Reduction Benefits.   Effluent suspended solids reduction
           of approximately 94 percent*

Alternative _C  -  Sedimentation  and  Neutralization  of Process
Wastes

This alternative includes settling of all  -process  waste  waters
before  and  after  neutralization  to  pH  9.0  or  below.  This
alternative is practiced presently by about  30  percent  of  the
pipe  plants.   Effluent  suspended solids load of less than 0.19
                                80

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kg/kkg  (0.38 Ib/ton), caustic alkalinity removed,
solids  reduced somewhat.
and  dissolved
         Costs.  Incremental costs are approximately  $77,000  over
           Alternative B; total costs are  $201,000.

         Reduction Benefits.  Reduction of effluent suspended
           solids of at least 95 percent, caustic alkalinity  of
           almost 100 percent, and an indeterminate reduction in
           dissolved solids.

<ernative_p - Complete Recycle of Process Water

This  alternative  includes complete recycle of all process power
wastewaters back into the manufacturing processes and other   in-
plant uses.  Fresh water taken into plant equals quantity leaving
in wet product and other evaporative losses,  complete control of
pollutant  constituents without discharge is effected.  No  plant
making only pipe presently recycles all of the process wastes.

         Costs.  Incremental costs are approximately  $104,000 over
           Alternative C; total costs are $305,000.

         Reduction Benefits.  Reduction of all pollutant constitu-
           ents, including suspended and dissolved solids and
           alkalinity, of 100 percent.

The annual costs and resulting effluent quality for each  of   the
four   treatment   alternatives   for  asbestos-cement  pipe   are
summarized in Table U.  The cost-effectiveness  relationship   for
suspended solids removal is illustrated in Figure 10.

Asbestos-Cement Sheet Products

Alternative^ - No waste Treatment or Control

Effluent  waste load is estimated to be 6.5 kg/kkg (13 Ib/ton) of
suspended solids, 7.5 kg/kkg (15 Ib/ton)  of  caustic  (hydroxide)
alkalinity,  and  8.5  kg/kkg (17 Ib/ton)  of dissolved solids  for
the selected typical plant at this minimal control level.  The pH
of the untreated waste is 11.7 or higher.   In-plant use of  save-
alls  is  assumed,   as  this  is  universally  practiced  in  the
industry.

         costs.  None.  Reduction Benefits.  None.

Alternatiye_B - Sedimentation of Process Wastes

This alternative includes settling of all process  waste  waters.
Some  form  of  sedimentation  is  applied  at most plants in the
industry.  Costs include land disposal of the  dewatered  sludge.
Effluent  suspended solids load estimated to be 0.23 kg/kkg (O.U5
Ib/ton) .   Alkalinity, pH, and dissolved solids remain high.
                                 81

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                                  Table  4
                                 TYPICAL PLANT

                        WATER EFFLUENT TREATMENT COSTS

                            ASBESTOS MANUFACTURING
                             Asbestos-Cement Pipe
Treatment or Control Technologies
Alternatives
1
\t
Investment
Annual Costs:
Capital Costs
Depreciation
Operating and Maintenance Costs
(excluding energy and power costs)
Energy and Power Costs
*
Total Annual Cost
Costs in thousands of dollars
Effluent Quality:
Raw
Effluent Constituents Waste
Parameters (Units') Load
Suspended Solids - kg/MT 3.1
Caustic Alkalinity - kg/MT 4.4
pH 12
Dissolved Solids - kg/MT 6.3
Suspended Solids - mg/1 500
Caustic Alkalinity - mg/1 700
Dissolved Solids - mg/1 1000
A B C
$124 . $201

;.r -9.9 16.1
6.2 10.1
63.8 87.8
2.8 7.0
82.7 121

Resulting Effluent
Levels
do 0.19 0.19
do 4.4 0
do 12 9.0
do 6.3 6.3-
d'o 30 30
do 700 0
do 1000 1000-
D
$305

24.4
15.3
98.3
11.9
149.9


0
0
0
0
0
0
-
                                 82

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   i


I

S
u.
O
O  o
   I
                   ASBESTOS-CEMENT

                         PIPE
..J
I
I
I
I
                  20        40         60         80

             REMOVAL  OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS - PERCENT
  100
                        Figure 10
                             83

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         Costs.  Investment costs'are approximately $56,000.

         Reduction Benefits.  Effluent suspended solids reduction
           of approximately 96 percent.  •. -

Alternative C - Sedimentation ..anc3. Neutralization of Process Water

This alternative includes settling of all  process  waste  waters
before  and  after  neutralization  to  pH  9.0  or  below.  This
alternative is used by 10 percent or less of  the  sheet  plants.
Effluent  suspended  solids  load  of less than 0.23 kg/kkg  (0.45
Ib/ton), caustic alkalinity removed, and dissolved solids reduced
somewhat.

         Costs.  Incremental costs are approximately $36,000 over
           Alternative B; total costs are $92,000.

         Reduction Benefits.  Reduction of effluent suspended
           solids of at least 96 percent, caustic alkalinity of
           almost 100 percent, and an indeterminate reduction in
           dissolved solids.
                                       .'i!'.
Alternative D - Complete Recycle of Process Water

This alternative includes complete recycle of .all  process  waste
waters  back  into  the manufacturing processes or other in-plant
uses.  Fresh water taken into plant equals .quantity  leaving  in
wet  product  and  other evaporative losses.   Complete control of
pollutant constituents without discharge is effected.  One  sheet
plant  is  known  to  accomplish  complete recycle during routine
operation.

         Costs.,  Incremental costs are approximately $59,000 over
           Alternative C; total costs are $151,000.

         Reduction Benefits.  Reduction of all pollutant constitu-
           ents, including suspended and dissolved solids and
           alkalinity, of 100 percent.

The annual costs and resulting effluent quality for each  of  the
four technology or control alternatives for asbestos-cement sheet
products  are  presented  in  Table  5.   The  cost-effectiveness
relationship for  suspended  solids  removal  is  illustrated  in
Figure 11,                                    .•..<••

Asl3e_stos_Pa£er  (starch and Elastomeric)

Alternatiye_A - No;Waste Treatment or Control

Effluent  waste load is estimated to be 9.5 kg/kkg (19 Ib/ton) of
suspended solids, 1.5 kg/kkg  (3 Ib/ton)!of BOD5, and 16.5  kg/kkg
(33  lb/  ton) of dissolved solids for the selected typical plant
at this minimal control level.   In-plant  use  of  save-alls  is
assumed, as this is universally practiced in the industry.
                              84

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                                  Table  5
                                 TYPICAL PLANT

                        WATER EFFLUENT TREATMENT GC6TS

                           ' ASBESTOS MANUFACTURING
                             Asbestos-Cement Sheet
Treatment or Control Technologies
Alternatives

Investment
Annual Costs:
Capital Costs
Depreciation
Operating and Maintenance Costs
( excluding energy and power costs)
Energy and Power Costs
Total Annual Cost
Effluent Quality;
Raw
Effluent Constituents Waste
Parameters (Units} Load
Suspended Solids - kg/MT 6.5
Caustic Alkalinity - kg/MT 7.5
pH . 11.7
Dissolved Solids - kg/MT 8.5
Suspended Solids - mg/1 850
Caustic Alkalinity - mg/1 1000
Dissolved Solids - mg/1 1150
4 1
$56

4.5
2.8
41.4
2.8
51.5
£
$92

7.3
4.6
53.3
4.2
69.4
£
' $151

12.1
7.5
92.4
7.0
119.0
Resulting Effluent
Levels
do 0.23
do 7.5
do 11,7
do 8.5
do 30
do 1000
do 1150
0.23
0
9.0
8.5-
30
0
1150-
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
'Costs  in  thousands of dollars
                               85

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O
   i
      150t-
h
S  *
   (0
   O  50
   I
                   ASBESTOS - CEMENT

                          SHEET
                  20         40         60          80

              REMOVAL OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS - PERCENT
r
I
I
I
  I
  I
  I
  I
  I
  I
  I
  J
 100
                         Figure 11
                               86

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         Costs.  None.

         Reduction Benefits.  None.

Alternatiye_B - Sedimentation of Process Wastes

This  alternative  includes settling of all process waste waters.
Some form of sedimentation is applied at approximately 70 percent
of plants in  the  industry.   Costs  include  land  disposal  of
dewatered sludge.  Effluent load estimated to be 0.35 kg/kkg  (0.7
Ib/ton)  of  suspended  solids  and  of  BOD5 and 16.5 kg/kkg  (33
Ib/ton) of dissolved solids.

         Costs.  Investment costs are approximately $237,000.

         Reduction Benefits.  Estimated reduction of effluent
           solids of 96 percent and BOD5 of 75 percent.  Dissolved
           solids remain unchanged.

Alternative C - Complete Recycle of Process Water

This alternative includes complete recycle of all  process  waste
waters  back  into the manufacturing processes and other in-plant
uses.  Fresh water taken into plant equals  quantity  leaving  in
wet  product  and  other evaporative losses.  Complete control of
pollutant constituents without discharge is effected.  One  paper
plant  is  known  to  achieve  complete recycle when using starch
binder under routine conditions.

         Costs.  Incremental costs are approximately $57,000 over
           Alternative B; total costs are $294,000.

         Reduction Benefits.  Reduction of all pollutant constitu-
           ents, including suspended and dissolved solids and
           BOD5, of 100 percent.

The estimated annual costs and effluent quality for each  of  the
alternatives  for  asbestos  paper manufacturing waste waters are
given in Table 6.  The  cost-effectiveness  curve  for  suspended
solids  removal  from  asbestos  paper  waste  waters is given in
Figure 12.


Asbestos Millboard

Alternative.A - No Waste Treatment or Control

Effluent waste load is estimated to be 1.8 kg/kkg (3.6 Ib/ton) of
suspended solids and 0.25 kg/kkg (0.5 Ib/ton)   of  BOD5  for  the
selected  typical  plant at this minimal control level.  In-plant
use of save-alls is assumed, as this is universally practiced  in
the industry.

         Costs.  None.   Reduction Benefits.   None.

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                                  Table  6
                                 TYPICAL PIANT

                        WATER EFFLUENT TREATMENT COSTS

                            ASBESTOS MANUFACTURING
                                Asbestos Paper
Treatment or Control Technologies
Alternatives

it
Investment
*
Annual Costs:
Capital Costs
Depreciation
Operating and Maintenance Costs
( excluding energy and power costs)
Energy and Power Costs
•X-
Total Annual Cost
Costs in thousands of dollars
Effluent Quality:
Raw
Effluent Constituents Waste
Parameters (Units) Load
Suspended Solids - kg/MT 9.5
BOD (5-day) - kg/MT 1.5
Dissolved Solids - kg/MT 16.5
Suspended Solids - mg/1 700
BOD ( 5-day) - mg/1 110
Dissolved Solids - mg/1 1200
A I
$237

19
12
16
16
63

C
$294

24
15
44
16
99

Resulting Effluent
Levels
do 0.35
do 0.35
do 16.5
do 25
do 25
do 1200
0
0
0
0
0
0
                                 88

-------
  300+-
g 200-
                  ASBESTOS-PAPER
 I
 I
 J
8 100 -
               20         40         60          SO
          REMOVAL OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS - PERCENT
100
                       Figure 12

-------
Aj,teypative B - Sedimentation of Process Wastes

This  alternative  includes settling of all process waste waters.
Some form of sedimentation is applied to at least 40  percent  of
the  plants.   Costs  include  disposal of sludge.  Effluent load
estimated to be 0.8 kg/kkg (1.6 Ib/ton) of suspended  solids  and
0.2 kg/kkg  (0.4 Ib/ton) of BOD5.

         Costs.  Investment costs are approximately $40,000.

         Reduction Benefits.   Estimated reduction of effluent sus-
           pended solids of 55 percent and BOD5 of 20 percent.

Alternative C - Complete Recycle of Process Water

This  alternative  includes complete recycle of all process waste
waters back into the manufacturing  process  and  other  in-plant
uses.   Fresh  water  taken into plant equals the quantity in wet
product.  Complete  control  of  pollutant  constituents  without
discharge  is  effected.  One millboard plant is known to achieve
complete recycle most of the time.

         Costs.  Incremental costs are approximately $12,000 over
           Alternative B; total costs are $52,000.

         Reduction Benefits.   Reduction of suspended solids, BOD5,
           and all other pollutant constituents of 100 percent.

The annual costs and resulting effluent quality for the treatment
or control technology alternatives  for  asbestos  millboard  are
summarized  in  Table 7.  The cost-effectiveness relationship for
suspended solids removal is illustrated in Figure 13.

Asbestos Roofing

Alternative A - No waste Treatment or Control

Effluent waste load is estimated to be 0.06 kg/kkg (0.12  Ib/ton)
of  suspended  solids,  0.003  kg/kkg  (0.006 Ib/ton)  of BOD5, and
0.008 kg/kkg (0.016 Ib/ton) of COD for the selected typical'plant
at this minimal control level.

         Costs.  None.

         Reduction Benefits.   None.

Alternative B - Sedimentation of Process Wastes
               (Contaminated Cooling Water)

This alternative includes settling of all  process  waste  waters
(contaminated  cooling  water)  with  skimming  or  filtration as
necessary to remove suspended matter.  Effluent load estimated to
be 0.006 kg/kkg (0.012 Ib/ton) of suspended solids.   BOD5 and COD
waste loads remain the same as Alternative A.
                              90

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                                   Table 7
                                 TYPICAL PLAOT

                        WATER EFFLUENT TREATMENT COSTS

                            ASBESTOS MANUFACTURING
                              Asbestos Millboard
Treatment or Control Technologies


Investment

Annual Costs:

  Capital Costs

  Depreciation

  Operating and Maintenance Costs
    (excluding energy and power costs)

  Energy and Power Costs
                                                 Alternatives
                                             A       B         C
                                                   $40
                                                            $52
3.2
2.0
31.0
5.0
4.2
2.6
24.3
7.0
        Total Annual Costs

Costs in thousands of dollars
                                                    41.2
Effluent Quality:
Effluent Constituents
Parameters (Units)
Suspended Solids - kg/to
BOD (5-day) - Isg/MT
Suspended Solids - mg/1
BOD (5-day) - mg/1
Raw
Waste
Load
l.S
0.25
35
5
Resulting Effluent
Levels
do
do
do
do
O.S
0.2
15
4
0
0
0
0
                             91

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                                                 COSTS FOR TYPICAL PLANT

                                               THOUSANDS OF AUG. 1971 DOLLARS
                                                      M
                                                      cn
                        8
K>
                                H-
                               OQ
                                C
                                fl
                                (D
                                OJ
                                        31
                                        m

                                        i*
CO
c
(0
                                        s
Ill

m
H
                                                            I
                                                            I
                                                            I
                                                            I
                                                            I
                                                            I
                                                            I
                                          8

-------
         Costs.  Investment costs are approximately  $24,000,

         Reduction Benefits.  Estimated reduction of effluent  sus-
           pended solids of 90 percent.

Alternative^ - Complete Recycle of Process Water


This  alternative  includes  treatment,  cooling,  and  reuse  of
process  waste  water   (contaminated  cooling water).  No process
waste waters are discharged and  complete  control   of  pollutant
constituents is effected.

         Costs.  Incremental costs are approximately $24,000 over
           Alternative B; total costs are $48,000,


         Reduction Benefits.  Reduction of suspended solids, BOD5,
           and COD and all other pollutant constituents of 100
           percent.

The annual costs and effluent quality associated with each of  the
treatment  or control alternatives for asbestos roofing are given
in Table 8.  The cost-effectiveness curve  for  suspended  solids
removal for asbestos roofing is shown in Figure 14.


Asbestos Floor Tile

Alternative^A - No Waste Treatment or Control

Effluent  waste  load  is  estimated  to  be 0.18 kg (0.38 Ib) of
suspended solids, 0.017 kg (0.04 Ib)  of BOD5, and 0.34  kg   (0.75
Ib)  of COD per 1,000 pieces of tile manufactured at the selected
typical plant at this minimal control level.

         Costs.  None.
         Reduction Benefits.  None.

Alternatiye B - Coagulation and Sedimentation of
        ~     (Contaminated Cooling Water)
Process  Wastes
This   alternative   includes   polyelectrolyte  coagulation  and
sedimentation with skimming  as  necessary  to  remove  suspended
matter.   The percentage of tile plants applying this alternative
is not known, but is expected to be less than  25  percent.   The
effluent  load  is estimated to be 0.04 kg (0.08 Ib)  of suspended
solids and 0.09 kg  (0.19)   of  COD  per  1,000  pieces  of  tile
manufactured.  The BOD5 load may be reduced somewhat.

         Costs.  Investment costs are approximately $52,000.
                                 93

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                                   Table  8
                                  TYP-ICAL PLA.NT

                         WATER EFFLUENT TREATMENT COSTS

                             ASBESTOS MANUFACTURING
                                Asbestos Roofing
Treatment or Control  Technologies

          .j(.
Investment                    ..   ....

Annual Costs:                ;-

  Capital Costs              ..-• ..;:.'•,.; ,-  '•

  Depreciation

  Operating and Maintenance  Costs
    (excluding energy and  power costs)

  Energy and Power Costs
                                                  Alternatives
                                              A       B         C
                                                    .$24
2,0
1,2
6.0
1.3
4.0
2.4
0
2.0
         Total Annual Costs

'Costs  in thousands of .dollars
                                                     10.0
                                                                3.4
Effluent Quality:
Effluent Constituents
Parameters (Units)
Suspended Solids - kg/MT
BOD ( 5-day) - 3cg/MT
COD - kg/MT
Suspended Solids - mg/1
BOD ( 5-day) - mg/1
COD - mg/1
Raw
Waste
Load
0.06
0.003
O.OOS
150
6
20
Resulting Effluent
Levels
do
do
do
do
do
do
0.006
0.003
0.008
15
6
20
0
0
0
0
0
0
                                 94

-------
s!
H.  ^
   £ 50
a  °
E  3
s  s
«-  w
gi
8|
     25 -
                  ASBESTOS - ROOFING
     I
     I
     I
     I
— J

I
I
                 20         40        60        80
            REMOVAL OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS - PERCENT
    100
                        Figure 14
                          95

-------
         Reduction  Benefits.   Estimated  reduction  of effluent
         suspended solids of 80 percent and COD of 75 percent.

Alternative C - complete Recycle of Process  water  (Contaminated
              Cooling Water)

This  alternative  includes  additional  treatment by filtration,
cooling, and reuse of process waste waters (contaminated  cooling
water).  No process wastes are discharged and complete control of
pollutant constituents is effected.

         Costs.  Incremental costs are approximately $58,000 over
         Alternative B; total costs are $110,000.

         Reduction  Benefits.   Reduction  of  suspended  solids,
         BOD5, and COD and all other  pollutant  constituents  of
         100"percent.
The  annual  costs and resulting effluent quality for each of the
three treatment or control technology alternatives , for  asbestos
floor tile are summarized in Table 9.

The  cost-effectiveness  curve  for suspended solids removal from
waste waters from floor  tile  manufacturing  is  illustrated  in
Figure 15.
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF TREATMENT AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES

The  energy  required to implement in-plant control measures at a
typical asbestos manufacturing plant is 20 kw (25  Hp)   or  less.
The  energy  requirement  is primarily for pumping to recycle and
reuse water.

The energy requirements of the end-of-pipe  treatment  technology
are  not  high  for  a  typical  plant.   No  aeration or heating
operations are involved.  The single largest energy use would  be
a  centrifuge  for  dewatering  waste  solids  from  a  paper  or
millboard plant.  This would  be  used  only  intermittently  and
would  require no more than 30 to 40 kw when running.  The motors
for the sludge mechanisms in clarifiers are normally small, 5  kw
or  less, and the pumping energy requirements would be similar in
magnitude to those for in-plant controls.

It is estimated that the total energy requirements  for  in-plant
control   and  end-of-pipe  treatment  technology  at  a  typical
asbestos  manufacturing  plant  would  not  exceed  50  kw  on  a
sustained basis.

No  information  was  provided  by  the  industry relative to the
energy requirements of  individual  manufacturing  plants.   Most
                                 96

-------
                                  Table  9
                                 TYPICAL PIANT

                        WATER EFFLUENT TREATMENT COSTS

                            ASBESTOS MANUFACTURING '
                              Asbestos Floor Tile
Treatment or Control Technologies
Alternatives

Investment
Annual Costs:
Capital Costs
Depreciation
Operating and Maintenance Costs
( excluding energy and power costs)
Energy and Power Costs
it
Total Annual Cost
Costs in thousands of dollars
Effluent Quality:
Raw
Effluent Constituents Waste
Parameters ( Units') Load
Suspended Solids - kg/1000 pc 0.13
BOD (5-day) - kg/1000 pc 0.017
COD - kg/1000 pc 0.34
Suspended Solids - mg/1 150
BOD ( 5-day) - mg/1 15
COD - mg/1 230
A B
$52

4.2
2.6
11.0
1.8
19.6

C
$110

8.3
5.5
10.8
3.0
28.1

Resulting Effluent
Levels
do 0.04
do 0.017-
do 0.09
do 30
do 15-
do 75
0
0
0
0
0
0
                                97

-------
I


S> tOO
g  *
il50^
o  52
o  5
                  ASBESTOS
                 FLDOU TILB
                                                   I
                                                   I

                                                  J
                                        I
                                        I
                                        I
             20        40        60         80
         REMOVAL OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS - PERCENT
                                                     100
                    Figure 15
                         98

-------
 involve   steam  generation   for   heating,  for  autoclaves,  and  for
 product drying.  The  additional energy required to  implement   the
 control   and  treatment technologies is  estimated to be  less than
 10   percent   of  the   requirements  of   the    manufacturing    and
 associated operations.


 NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS OF TREATMENT AND CONTROL  TECHNOLOGIES

 Air  Pollution

 The  only significant potential  air pollution problem associated
 with the application  of  waste  water  treatment  and   control
 technologies  at  a   typical  asbestos manufacturing plant is  the
 release of asbestos fibers and other particulates from improperly
 managed solid residues.  Exposed  accumulations of  dried  solids
 may  serve as sources  of air emissions upon weathering.

 The  biodegradable  organic  matter content of asbestos solids is
 low  or non-existent.   The  solids  do  not!  undergo  appreciable
 microbial breakdown  and  there  are no odor  problems associated
 with asbestos wastes.

 There  are  no  unusual  or  uncontrollable  sources   of   noise
 associated   with   application   of  the  treatment  and  control
 technologies.

 Solid Waste Disposal

 Solid waste control must be considered.   The  waterborne  wastes
 from  the  asbestos industry may contain a considerable volume of
 asbestos  particles as a part of the  suspended  solids  pollutant
 except  for  the  roofing  and  floor  tile  subcategories.  Best
 practicable  control  technology  and  best    available   control
 technology  as  they  are  known  today  require  disposal of the
 pollutants removed from waste waters in this industry in the form
 of solid  wastes and liquid concentrates.   In some cases these are
 non-hazardous substances requiring only minimal  custodial  care.
 However,  some  constituents  may  be  hazardous  and may require
 special consideration.  In order to ensure long  term  protection
 of  the enviornment from these hazardous or harmful constituents,
 special consideration  of  disposal  sites  must  be  made.   All
 landfill  sites where  such hazardous wastes are disposed should be
 selected  so  as  to prevent horizontal and vertical migration of
 these contaminants to ground or surface waters,  in  cases  where
 geologic  conditions  may  not  reasonably  ensure this,  adequate
 legal and mechanical precautions  (e.g.  impervious liners)  should
be  taken  to ensure long term protection to the environment from
hazardous materials.   Where appropriate  the  location  of  solid
hazardous materials disposal sites should be permanently recorded
in the appropriate office of legal jurisdiction.

Consideration  should  also  be  given  to the manner in which the
 solid waste is transferred to a industries waste  disposal  area.
                                99

-------
solids  collected in clarifiers, save-alls or other sedimentation
basins  should  first  be  dewatered   to   sludge   consistency.
Transportation  of this asbestos containing sludge should be in a
close container or truck in the damp state so as to minimize  air
dispersal  due  to  blowing.  Precautions should also be taken to
minimize air dispersal when the sludge is deposited at the  waste
disposal areas.


The quantities of solids associated with treatment and control of
waste waters from paper, millboard, roofing, and floor tile manu-
facturing  are extremely small.  For example, the reported volume
of dewatered waste solids from a paper plant is 1.5 cu  m  (2  cu
yd)   per  month.  Solids are wasted only when elastomeric binders
are being used, which is 25 to 35 percent of the  time.   Another
example  is  that provided by one of the larger floor tile plants
in the country.  The sludge and skimmings from the  sedimentation
unit  amount  to about 625 liters  (165 gallons)  per week.  Unlike
other asbestos manufacturing  wastes,  this  material  is  highly
organic  and is disposed of by a commercial firm that incinerates
it.    The  treatment  facility  at  this  plant  is  not   highly
efficient,  but is believed to capture at least 50 percent of the
waste solids.

Contrary to the above categories,  the  waste  solids  associated
with  asbestos-tcement  product  manufacture  are  significant  in
volume.  The reported losses at one pipe plant are in  the  order
of  5  to  10  percent  of  the weight of the raw materials.   The
losses of asbestos fibers are kept to a minimum in this industry,
to 1 percent or less, and the fiber content of the  waste  solids
is low.  The solids have no salvage or recovery value.

In  summary,  the  solid  wastes  disposal  associated  with  the
application of treatment and control technologies in the asbestos
manufacturing industry does not  present  any  serious  technical
problems.   The  wastes are amenable to proper landfill disposal.
Full application of control  measures  and  treatment  technology
will  not  result  in  major  increases  at most plants.  In many
cases, complete recycle will result in lower losses of solids.
                                 100

-------
                           SECTION IX
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF THE BEST
PRACTICABLE  CONTROL  TECHNOLOGY  CURRENTLY  AVAILABLE   EFFLUENT
LIMITATIONS GUIDELNES
INTRODUCTION

The  effluent limitations which must be achieved July 1, 1977 are
to specify the degree of effluent  reduction  attainable  through
the  application  of  the  Best  Practicable  Control  Technology
Currently  Available.   Best   Practicable   Control   Technology
Currently  Available  is  generally based upon the average of the
best existing performance by plants of various sizes,  ages,  and
unit  processes  within  the  industrial category or subcategory.
This average is not based upon a broad range of plants within the
asbestos  manufacturing  industry,  but  based  upon  performance
levels achieved by exemplary plants.

Consideration must also be given to:

    a.   The total costs of application of technology in
         relation to the effluent reduction benefits to be
         achieved from such application;

    b.   energy requirements;

    c.   non-water quality environmental impact;

    d,   the size and age of equipment and facilities involved;

    e.   the processes employed;

    f.   processes changes; and,

    g.   the engineering aspects of the application of various
         types of control techniques.

Also, Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available em-
phasizes  treatment  facilities  at  the  end  of a manufacturing
process, but also includes the control  technologies  within  the
process  itself  when  the  latter  are  considered  to be normal
practice within an industry.

A further consideration is the degree of economic and engineering
reliability which must be established for the  technology  to  be
"currently  available."   As   a result of demonstration projects,
pilot plants and general use, there must exist a high  degree  of
confidence  in the engineering and economic practicability of the
technology at the time of commencement of construction or instal-
lation of the control facilities.
                               101

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EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH  THE  APPLICATION
PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
OF  EEST
Based  on  the information contained in Sections III through VIII
of this document, a determination has been made of the degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the Best
Pollution Control Technology Currently Available for the asbestos
manufacturing  industry.   The effluent reductions are summarized
here.

Suspended solids

The principal pollutant constituent  in  waste  waters  from  the
manufacture  of  asbestos-cement  products and asbestos paper and
millboard is  suspended  solids.   Application  of  this  control
technology  will  reduce  suspended  solids levels by at least 95
percent.

The relatively lesser suspended solids from asbestos roofing  and
floor  tile manufacture will be reduced by 90 and 80 percent, re-
spectively, by the application of this control technology.

Caustic Alkalinity

Waste waters from asbestos-cement product manufacture are  highly
caustic.   Application of this control technology will reduce the
caustic alkalinity by 100 percent.  The pH will be 9.0 or below.

Oxygen Demanding Materials

Waste waters from asbestos paper and floor tile  manufacture  may
contain organic constituents that exert an oxygen demand; BOD5 or
COD  in  the  case  of paper wastes and COD in floor tile wastes.
Application of this control technology  will  reduce  the  oxygen
demand by 75 percent.

Pissolved Solids

Asbestos  manufacturing  may  raise the dissolved solids level in
water significantly, especially in the  case  of  asbestos-cement
products.


Application  of this control technology will reduce the dissolved
solids by an indeterminate amount.  The dissolved solids  in  the
treated effluent will still be relatively high.
Asbestos  manufacturing operations increase the water temperature
to maximum levels of UO degrees C.  Application of  this  control
technology will not result in significant temperature reduction.
                               102

-------
IDENTIFICATION
AVAILABLE
OF  BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY
In-plant control measures available to the asbestos manufacturing
industry will not significantly reduce  the  level  of  pollutant
constituents  in  the effluent.  Application of such measures may
result in economic benefits  and  reduced  end-of-pipe  treatment
costs.

The  Best  practicable Control Technology Currently Available for
the  categories  of  the  asbestos  manufacturing   industry   is
summarized  below.  There are no limitations on BOD5 and only two
subcategories have COD limitations.  Treatment  in  the  asbestos
industry  is mainly sedimentation, the efficiency of which can be
adequately monitored using the total suspended solids parameter.

Also,  since  these  limitations  are  absolute  restrictions  on
pollutants  no  credit is given for pollutants in waters entering
the  processes.   The  BOD5  load  in  incoming  water   can   be
substantial when compared to the BOD5 contributed by the process.
This  is  an  additional  reason  for  not  including BOD5 in the
limitations.
However in the roofing and floor tile  subcategories,  the  major
pollutants are organic and must be limited.  This is accomplished
through  sedimentation and skimming.  Effluent concentration will
be low.  Therefore, to allow in these specific cares  for  a  COD
credit  in  incoming  waters  COD  is defined as COD added to the
process waste waters.   Monitoring  will  thus  obviously  entail
sampling  of water entering the process and exiting the treatment
system.

Asbestos-Cement Pipe

The control technology is sedimentation and neutralization of all
process waste  waters  with  land  disposal  of  dewatered  waste
solids.  The recommended effluent limitations are as follows:
Suspended Solids

PH
                        Monthly._ Aver age
                                  lii/ton
(0.38)
                                 D aily Maximum
                                          fib/ton}
        0.19

        6.0-9.0
0.57

6.0-9.0
The control technology is sedimentation and neutralization of all
process  waste  waters  with  land  disposal  of  dewatered waste
solids.  The recommended effluent limitations are as follows:
                              103

-------
 Monthly Average
ki/kkg"  ~ Jib/ton
                                                 Daily Maximum
                                                kg/kkgTlb/tonj
Suspended Solids        0.23

pH                      6.0-9,0

Asbestos Paper (Starch Binder)
                                   (0.45)
                                                 0.68

                                                 6.0-9.0
                                    (1.35)
The control technology  is  sedimentation,  with  coagulation  if
necessary,  of  all  process  waste  waters with land disposal of
dewatered waste solids.  The recommended effluent limitations are
as follows:
                        Monthly Average
                                  lib/ton.
                                   (0.70)
                          Daily Maximum
                         kg/kkg ~  Jib/ton)
Suspended Solids        0.35

pH                      6.0-9.0

Asbestos^Paper (Elastomeric Binder)
                          0.55

                          6.0-9.0
                                                           (1.10)
The control technology  is  sedimentation,  with  coagulation  if
necessary,  of  all  process  waste  waters with land disposal of
dewatered waste solids.  The recommended effluent limitation  are
as follows:
                        Mont^y Average
                       kq/kkq     lib/ton.
                          Dai^y Maximum
Suspended solids

pH
 0.35

 6.0-9.0
                                   (0.70)
                                                 0.55

                                                 6.0-9.0
(1.10)
Asbestos Mij.3,board
The control technology is no discharge of process waste waters to
navigable  waters.   In  a  plant that manufactures millboard and
other asbestos products, no increase in the limitations should be
allowed for the millboard in combined waste streams.

Asbestos Roofincr

The  control  technology  is  sedimentation,  with  skimming  and
ancillary  physical  treatment  operations  if  necessary, of all
process  waste  waters   (contaminated   cooling   water).    The
recommended effluent limitations are as follows:
                               104

-------
                                                     Daily Maximum
                                                            Jib/ton]
                        Monthly Average
                       ]$S/kk3       " Jib/ton)

Suspended Solids

COD

PH

Asbestos Floor Tile
The   control  technology  is  sedimentation,  with  skimming  if
necessary, or other  physical  treatment  of  all  process  waste
waters  (contaminated  cooling  water).  The recommended effluent
limitations are as follows:
0.006
0.008
6.0-9.0
(0.012)
(0.016)

0.010
0.015
6.0-9.0
(0.020)
(0. 029;

                          Monthly Average
                                  Ilb/Mpc*).
 Suspended  Solids            0.04     (0.08)"

 COD                         0.09     (0.18)

 pH                          6.0-9.0

 *Mpc *  1,000 pieces  (12" x  12" x 3/32")
                                                   Daily Maximum
                                                 kg/Mp.c* ~ilb/ME£*
                                                  0.06       (0.13)
                                                  0.14

                                                  6.0-9.0
(0.30)
RATIONALE FOR THE SELECTION OF BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL  TECHNOLOGY
CURRENTLY AVAILABLE

Asbestos-cement Pipe

Sedimentation of process waste waters from  asbestos-cement   pipe
manufacture  has  been  demonstrated  to be effective in reducing
suspended solids concentrations to acceptable levels.  No  cheaper
alternative technology is  available  that  is  as  effective  as
sedimentation.   The addition of either acid or carbon dioxide  is
the most direct and least costly menthod of reducing  the  pH  of
the waste waters to acceptable levels.

Costs and^Energy Beguirements-

The  investment  costs  of  implementing  this  level  of  control
technology are estimated to be  $860,000  for  all  manufacturing
facilities  in  this  subcategory.   The  added  annual  costs are
estimated to be $470,000.  The additional energy requirements are
estimated to be 37 kw  (50 hp)  or  less  for  the  typical  plant.
This  power  requirement represents only a small increment of the
total required for manufacturing.

Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact—

There is no evidence that application of this control  technology
will  result in any unusual air pollution or solid waste disposal
                               105

-------
problems, either in king or magnitude.   The
problems in these areas are not excessive.

Size and Age of Eauipment^and Facilities—
costs  of  avoiding
As noted in section IV, the size range among asbestos-cement pipe
manufacturing  facilities  is  relatively narrow.  Differences in
size are insufficient  to  substantiate  differences  in  control
technology.    This   level  of  control  technology  is  readily
applicable to  all  facilities  regardless  of  the  age  of  the
equipment or the structure.

Processes Employed and Process Changes—

All  facilities  use  similar manufacturing processes and produce
similar waste  water  discharges.   There  is  no  evidence  that
operation  of  any  process  currently  in use will substantially
affect capabilities to implement this  control  technology.   The
implementation  of  this  control technology does not require in*-
plant  changes   or   modifications.    Major   developments   in
manufacturing  processes  in  the  future are not expected.  This
control technology can  be  applied  so  that  upsets  and  other
fluctuations  in  process  operations  can be accomodated without
exceeding the effluent limitations.

Engineering Aspects of_Application;—

It is estimated that approximately 30 percent  of  the  asbestos-
cement pipe manufacturing plants are currently using this ccntrol
technology.   There are no plants making only pipe that achieve a
higher level of control.  This was judged to be  the  average  of
the  best technology currently available in this subcategory.  It
was determined to be an adequate level of control.   Most  plants
in  this  product subcategory provide some form of sedimentation,
without pH adjustment.  Most of  the  treatment  facilities  will
have to upgrade in operations or capacity in order to achieve the
eflfuent limitations recommended in this document.

Asbesl:os-Cement sheet

Sedimentation  of  process  waste  waters from the manufacture of
asbestos-cement  sheet  products  has  been  demonstrated  to  be
effective   in   reducing   suspended  solids  concentrations  to
acceptable levels.  No cheaper alternative control technology  is
more  effective  than sedimentation.  The addition of either acid
or  carbon  dioxide  is  widely  practiced  in  other  industrial
categories  to  lower  the  pH  of  alkaline wastes to acceptable
levels.  This operation can  be  applied  to  wastes  from  sheet
manufacture.

Costs and^Engerqy Requirements—

The  investment  costs  of  implementing  this  level  of control
technology are estimated to be  $640,000  for  all  manufacturing
                                106

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facilities  in  this subcategory.  The annual costs are estimated
to be approximately $440,000.  The additional energy requirements
are estimted to be 22 kw  (30 hp) or less for the  typical  plant.
This   power  requirement  represents  only  a  small  additional
increment of the total required for manufacturing.

Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact—

There is no evidence that application of this control  technology
will  result in any unusual air pollution or solid waste disposal
problems either in kind or  magnitude.   The  costs  of  avoiding
problems in these areas are not excessive.

Size and Age of Equipment and Facilites—•

As  noted  in  Section  IV,  the size range among asbestos-cement
sheet manufacturing facilities is relatively narrow.  Differences
in size are insufficient to substantiate differences  in  control
technology.    This   level  of  control  technology  is  readily
applicable to  all  facilities  regardless  of  the  age  of  the
equipment or the structure.

Processes Employed and Process Changes—

All  facilities use similar manufacturing processes and produce a
similar  waste  water  discharge.   There  is  no  evidence  that
operation  of  any  process  currently  in use will substantially
affect capabilities to implement this  control  technology.   The
implmentation  of  this  control  technology does not require in-
plant  changes   or   modifications.     Major   developments   in
manufacturing  processes  in  the  future are not expected.  This
control technology can  be  applied  so  that  upsets  and  other
fluctuations  in  process  operations can be accommodated without
exceeding the effluent limitations.

Engineering Aspects, of Application—

Approximatley 10 percent or less  of   the  asbestos-cement  sheet
products  plants  currently  use  this  control technology fully.
Most  plants  in  this   subcategory    provide   some   form   of
sedimentation,  but  without  pH  adjustment  to  remove  caustic
alkalinity.  Such control is judged to be inadequate.   Attainment
of the recommended suspended solids and BOD5 effluent limitations
has  been  demonstrated  by  plants  within   this   subcategory.
Neutralization  of  alkaline waste is a treatment technology that
has  been  used   successfully   in   many   related   industrial
applications  and can readily be applied in asbestos-cement sheet
manufacturing.

Asbestos Paper {Starch and Elastomeric)

Sedimentation, with the use of coagulants in some cases, has been
demonstrated to be effective in  reducing  suspended  solids  and
                              107

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BOD5 concentrations to acceptable levels.  No cheaper alternative
technology is available that is as effective as sedimentation.

Cost, and Energy Requirements—

The  investment costs of implementing this control technology are
estimated to be $470,000 for all manufacturing facilities in this
product sufccategory.  The added annual costs are estimated to  fce
approximately  $125,000.   The additional energy requirements are
estimated to be 75 kw (100 hp) or less for the  typical  asbestos
paper plant.  This represents only a small increment of the total
power required for manufacturing.

Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact—

There  is no evidence that application of this control technology
will result in any unusual air pollution or solid waste  disposal
problems,  either  in  kind  or magnitude.  The costs of avoiding
problems in these areas are not excessive.

Size and Age of Equipment and Facilities—

As noted in Section IV,  the  size  range  among  asbestos  paper
manufacturing  facilities  is  relatively narrow.  Differences in
size are insufficient  to  substantiate  differences  in  control
technology.    This   level  of  control  technology  is  readily
applicable to  all  facilities  regardless  of  the  age  of  the
equipment or the structure.

Process Employed and Process .Changes--

All  facilities  use  similar manufacturing processes and produce
similar waste  water  discharges.   There  is  no  evidence  that
operation  of  any  process  currently  in use will substantially
affect capabilities to implement this  control  technology.   The
implementation  of  this  control technology does not require in-
plant  change s   or   modi f ication s.    Ma j or   development s   in
manufacturing  processes  in  the  future are not expected.  This
control technology can  be  applied  so  that  upsets  and  other
fluctuations  in  process  operations can be accommodated without
exceeding the effluent limitations.

Engineering .Aspects of Application—

It  is  estimated  that  70  percent  of   the   asbestos   paper
manufacturing  plants in the country use sedimentation facilities
in addition to in-plant save-alls.  Some of the  treatment  units
will  have  to  be  upgraded  in operation or capacity or both in
order to achieve the effluent  limitations  recommended  in  this
document.   This level of control is judged to be adequate and is
the average of the best in the industry.  Only one plant is known
to manufacture only asbestos paper and achieve a higher level  of
control.
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 Asbestos Millfcgard_

 No   discharge  of process waste waters has  been achieved by  two  of
 the  seven know millboard manufacturing facilities  in the country,
 This level of  control technology is  judged to  be  applicable   to
 all  millboard  plants that discharge  to navigable waters.

 Costs and Energy Requirements—

 The  investment  costs  of  implementing   this  level  of control
 technology are estimated to be  $260,000   for  all  manufacturing
 facilities  in this  subcategory.   The   added  annual costs are
 estimated to be $191,000.  The additional  energy requirements are
 estimated to be 37 kw  (50 hp) or  less  for  the  typical   plant.
 This  represents  only  a small additional increment of the total
 power required for manufacturing.

 Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact—

 There is no evidence that application of this control  technology
 will  result in any unusual air pollution  or solid waste disposal
 problems, either in kind or  magnitude.    The  cost  of  avoiding
 problems in these areas is not excessive.

 Size and^Age of Equipment and Facilities—

 As   noted  in  Section IV, the size range among asbestos millboard
 manufacturing  facilities is relatively  narrow.   Differences   in
 size  are  insufficient  to  substantiate  differences in control
 technology.    This  level  of  control  technology   is   readily
 applicable  to  all  facilities  regardless  of  the  age  of the
 equipment or the structure.

 Processes Employed and Process Changes—

 All facilities use similar manufacturing   processes  and  produce
 similar  waste  water  discharges.    There  is  no  evidence that
 operation of any process  currently  in  use  will  substantially
 affect  capabilities  to  implement this control technology.  The
 implementation of this control technology does  not  require  in-
 plant   changes   or   modifications.    Major   developments   in
 manufacturing  processes in the future  are  not  expected.    This
 control  technology  can  be  applied
 fluctuations in process operations can
exceeding the effluent limitations.
so  that  upsets and other
 be  accommodated  without
Engineering Aspects of Application—

As   noted  above,  two  of  the  seven  millboard  manufacturing
facilities in the country achieve complete recirculation  of  all
process  waste1  waters.   One  plant uses a large lagoon, but the
other uses only save-all units.  This level of control technology
is judged to be the average of the best  and  attainable  by  all
plants in this product subcategory.
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Asbestos Roofing

Sedimentation  of  process  waste  waters  (contaminated  cooling
water) from the  manufacture  of  asbestos  roofing  products  is
commonly  practiced.  Skimming and absorptive filtration is often
included to remove oils and other organic materials to acceptable
levels.  This control technology is the least costly  alternative
known to be effective with these wastes.

Costs and Energy Requirements—

The   total   investment   costs  of  implementing  this  control
technology are estimated to be  $120,000  for  all  manufacturing
facilities  in  this product subcategory.  The added annual costs
are estimated to be $50,000.  The additional energy  requirements
are  estimated to be 11 kw  (15 hp)  or less for the typical plant.
This power requirement represents only a small increment  of  the
total plant's energy needs.

Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact—

There  is no evidence that application of this control technology
will result in any unusual air pollution or solid waste  disposal
problems,  either  in  kind  or magnitude.  The costs of avoiding
problems in these areas are not excessive.

Size and Age of Equipment and Facilities—

As noted in Section IV, the size  range  among  asbestos  roofing
manufacturing  facilities  is  relatively narrow.  Differences in
size are insufficient  to  substantiate  differences  in  control
technology.    This   level  of  control  technology  is  readily
applicable to  all  facilities  regardless  of  the  age  of  the
equipment or the structure.

Processes Employed and Process Changes—

All  facilities  use  similar manufacturing processes and produce
similar waste  water  discharges.   There  is  no  evidence  that
operation  of  any  process  currently  in use will substantially
affect capabilities to implement this  control  technology.   The
implementation  of  this  control technology does not require in-
plant  changes   or   modifications.    Major   developments   in
manufacturing  processes  in  the  future are not expected.  This
control technology can  be  applied  so  that  upsets  and  other
fluctuations  in  process  operations can be accommodated without
exceeding the effluent limitations.

Engineering Aspects of Application-^

It is estimated that approximately 35  percent  of  the  asbestos
roofing  manufacturing  plants  (saturation  facilities)  use this
control technology or the equivalent.  This is the highest  level
of  control  known  to  be  used in treating waste waters in this
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product subcategory.   This  technology  was  judged  to  be  the
average of the best and to be an adequate level of control.  This
control  technology  is  well  understood and no unusual problems
should arise in applying it at all facilities in this subcategory
that discharge to navigable waters.  Although the nature  of  the
waste  are  known imprecisely, the technology should be generally
effective in reducing the pollutant constituents  to  the  levels
recommended in the effluent limitations.

Asbestos Flopr^Tile

The  relatively limited data available on waste waters from floor
tile manufacturing indicate that most of  the  oxygen  demand  is
caused   by   insoluble   materials   that   are   removable   by
sedimentation, aided perhaps by the use  of  coagulants.   Within
this  industrial  category,  there  is  no  generally  recognized
treatment technology that is normally applied.  The  plants  that
do  treat  their  wastes  provide  some  form  of  sedimentation,
skimming, filtration, or chemical treatment or  some  combination
of  these operations.  Since the characteristics of the raw waste
waters is not well defined and may vary widely among plants,  the
effectiveness  of  a  given  treatment technology at a particular
location cannot be predicted as accurately as  is  possible  with
many industrial wastes.

Costs and Energy Requirements^

The  total investment costs of implementing this level of control
technology are estimated to be  $520,000  for  all  manufacturing
facilities  in  this  subcategory.    The  added  annual costs are
estimated to be $195,000.    The  additional  energy  required  is
estimated  to  be  15  kw  (20 hp)  or less for the typical plant.
This represents  only  a  small  increment  of  the  total  power
requirement of a plant.

Non-Water Quality Environmental impact—

There  is no evidence that application of this control technology
will result in any unusual air pollution or solid waste  disposal
problems,   either  in  kind  or magnitude.  The costs of avoiding
problems in these areas are not excessive.

Size and Acre of Equipment..and Facilities—

As noted in Section IV, the size range among asbestos floor  tile
manufacturing  facilities   is  relatively narrow.   Differences in
size are insufficient  to   substantiate  differences  in  control
technology.    This   level  of  control  technology  is  readily
applicable to  all  facilities  regardless  of  the  age  of  the
equipment or the structure.

Processes  Employed and Process Changes—
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All  facilities  use similar manufacturing processes and produce
similar waste  water  discharges.   There  is  no  evidence  that
operation  of  any  process  currently  in use will substantially
affect capabilities to implement this  control  technology.   The
implementation  of  this  control technology does not require in-
plant  changes,  or   modifications.    Major   developments   in
manufacturing  processes  in  the  future are not expected.  This
control technology can  be  applied  so  that  upsets  and  other
fluctuations  in  process  operations can be accommodated without
exceeding the effluent limitations.

Engineering Aspects of Application—

It is estimated that about half of the asbestos floor tile plants
do not discharge to public sewerage systems are  currently  using
this  level  of  control  technology.   From   the  limited  data
available, this was judged to be an adequate  level  of  control.
It was also judged to be the average of the best currently in use
fay this subcategory of the asbestos manufacturing industry.
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                            SECTION X
    EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF
      THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
                 EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES

INTRODUCTION

The  effluent limitations that must be achieved July 1, 1983, are
to specify the degree of effluent  reduction  attainable  through
the  application  of  the  Best Available Technology Economically
Achievable.  This control technology is not based upon an average
of the best performance within an  industrial  category,  but  is
determined  by  identifying  the  very best control and treatment
technology employed by a specific  plant  within  the  industrial
category or subcategory, or where it is readily transferable from
one industry process to another.

Consideration must also be given to:

a.  The total cost of application of this control technology in
    relation to the effluent reduction benefits to be achieved
    from such application;

b,  energy requirements;

c.  non-water quality environmental impact;

d.  the size and age of equipment and facilities involved;

e.  the processes employed;

f.  process changes;

g.  the engineering aspects of the application of this control


The   Best  Available  Technology  Economically  Achievable  also
considers the availability of  in-process  controls  as  well  as
control  or  additional  end-of-pipe  treatment techniques.  This
control technology is the highest degree that has  been  achieved
or  has  been  demonstrated  to  be capable of being designed for
plant scale operation up  to  and  including  "no  discharge"  of
pollutants.

Although economic factors are considered in this development, the
cost  for this level of control is  intended to be the top-of-the
line of current technology  subject  to  limitations  imposed  by
economic  and  engineering  feasibility.    However,  this control
technology may be  characterized  by  some  technical  risk  with
respect  to  performance  and with respect to certainty of costs.
Therefore,  this  control   technology   may   necessitate   seme
industrially sponsored development work prior to its application.
                                113

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EFFLUENT  REDUCTION  ATTAINABLE  THROUGH  THE APPLICATION OF BEST
AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE

Based upon the information contained in Section III through  VIII
of  this  document, a determination has been made that the degree
of effluent reduction attainable through the application  of  the
Best Available Technology Economically Achievable is no discharge
of process waste waters to navigable waters.
IDENTIFICATION
ACHIEVABLE
OF   BEST   AVAILABLE   TECHNOLOGY  ECONOMICALLY
This control technology for all  subcategories  of  the  asbestos
manufacturing industry is recycle and reuse of all process waters
and  all  cooling water that contacts the product or otherwise is
exposed to contamination fey pollutant constituents.

To implement this control technology requires that  the  quantity
of  fresh  water supplied to the plant for manufacturing purposes
equals the quantity leaving the plant with the  product  or  that
lost  through  evaporation.   A  combination  of in-plant control
measures to  conserve  water  usage  and  end-of-pipe   treatment
technology  will be required at mpst plants to apply this control
technology;1


RATIONALE  FpR  THE  SELECTION  OF  BEST   AVAILABLE   TECHNOLOGY
ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE

AsbestQS~Ceme.nt_Pipe

No  discharge  of  process  waste  waters represents the ultimate
level  of  control  technology.   All  alternative   technologies
whereby  no discharge of pollutant constituents could be achieved
would be much more costly to implement.

Costs and Energy Requirements—

The total investment costs of implementing this level of  control
technology  lare  estimated to be $1,900,000 for all manufacturing
facilities in this subcateogry, or $1,040,000 more than the  Best
Practicable  Control  Technology Currently Available.  The annual
costs are  estimated  to  be  approximately  $760,000,  an  added
increment  of $290,000.  The energy requirements are estimated to
be 56 kw (75hp)  or less for the typical plant.   This  represents
only   a   small  increment  of  the  total  power  required  for
manufacturing.

Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact—

There is no evidence that application of this control  technology
will  result in any unusual air pollution or solid waste disposal
                               114

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 problems,  either  in kind or magnitude.   The
 problems in -these areas-are not excessive.

 Size  and Aqen of Equipment  and Facilities—
costs  of  avoiding
As   noted   in   Section   IV,  the   size  range  among manufacturing
facilities  in this  product subcategory  is  not  large   and   this
control   technology    is    equally  applicable  to  all plants,
regardless  of differences in size.  The age of the equipment   and
facilities  also does not play a role in the applicability of  this
level of control  technology.

Processes Employed  and  Process Changes—

All   facilities  in  this   category  use  similar  manufacturing
processes.   There  is   no   evidence  that  the   minor   process
variations   that   do   exist   will  substantially  affect   the
applicability of this control technology.  Some degree of  change
of   process  operation   will  be   involved  in  implementing  this
technology  and  in-plant  control measures will be required at  most
facilities.  Major  new  developments in manufacturing processes in
the  future  are  not  expected.   This  control  technology  can be
applied  so  that   upsets  and  other  changes  in  manufacturing
operations that  result  in  fluctuations  in  waste  volumes or
characteristics   can "  be   accoraodated  without  exceeding   the
recommended effluent limitations.

Engineering Aspects of Appligations—

The  implementation  of this control technology  implies  that   the
quantity  of  fresh water taken into the manufacturing process be
balanced by that leaving with the  product.  The capacity  of   the
in-plant   and   end-of-pipe   sedimentation   units  (save-allsr
clarifiers, etc.)  must be adequate to accommodate all  surges in
flow or  additional  holding tank volume will be required.   This
presents  no  unus,ual  engineering  problems.    Additional  scale
control measures may be  required.

There  are two asbestos-cement pipe manufacturing facilities  that
are  know to recircualte treated process waste water  through   the
production  line.    Neither  of these accomplish total recycle in
the  strictest sense of the term,  however.   One  is  part  of  a
multi-product  plant  where  all  waste  waters  are  treated and
recirculated without discharge of effluent.   The  other  facility
recirculates  much,  but  not  all,  of  the treated waste water.
There is  no  plant  making  only  pipe  that  accomplishes   zero
discharge.    Some problems relating to product quality were noted
in  one  experimental  trial  of  total   recycle   at   a    pipe
manufacturing  facility,  and  there  is  some  element  of   risk
involved  in  establishing  this  level  of  control  technology.
Additional research on the part of the industry will be necessary
to implement this  technology.

Asbestos-Cement Sheet
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No  discharge  of  process  waste  waters represents the ultimate
level  of  control  technology.   All  alternative   technologies
whereby  no discharge of pollutant constituents could be achieved
would be much more costly to implement.

Costs and Energy Requirements--

The total investment costs of implementing this level of  control
technology  are  estimated to be $1,290,000 for all manufacturing
facilities in this subcategory, or $650,000 more  than  the  Best
Practicable  Control Technology Currently Achievable.  The annual
costs are  estimated  to  be  approximately  $980,000,  an  added
increment  of $540,000.  The energy requirements are estimated to
be 37 kw (50 hp)  or less for the typical plant.  This  represents
only   a   small  increment  of  the  total  power  required  for
manufacturing.

Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact	

There is no evidence that application of this control  technology
will  result in any unusual air pollution or solid waste disposal
problems, either in kind or magnitude.   The  costs  of  avoiding
problems in these areas are not excessive.

Size and Age of Equipment and Facilities—

As  noted  in  Section  IV,  the  size  range among manufacturing
facilities in this product subcategory  is  not  large  and  this
control   technology   is   equally  applicable  to  all  plants,
regardless of differences in size.  The age of the equipment  and
facilities also does not play a role in the applicability of this
level of control technology.

Processes Employed and Process Changes—

All  facilities  in  this  subcategory  use similar manufacturing
processes.    There  is  no  evidence  that  the   minor   process
variations   that   do   exist   will  substantially  affect  the
applicability of this control technology.  Some degree of  change
of  process  operation  will  be  involved  in  implementing this
technology and in-plant control measures will be required at most
facilities.  Major new developments in manufacturing processes in
the future are not expected.   This  control  technology  can  be
applied  so  that  upsets  and  other  changes  in  manufacturing
operations that  result  in  fluctuations  in  waste  volumes  or
characteristics   can   be  accommodated  without  exceeding  the
recommended effluent limitations.

Engineering Aspects of Application—

The implementation of this control technology  implies  that  the
quantity   of fresh water taken into the manufacturing process be
balanced by that leaving with the product.  The capacity  of  the
in-plant   and   end-of-pipe   sedimentation   units  (save-alls.
                                116

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clarifiers, etc.) must be adequate to accomodate  all  surges  in
flow  or  additional  holding tank volume will be required.  This
represents no unusual  engineering  problems.   Additional  scale
control measures may be required.

In  addition  to  a  sheet  facility  at  the multi-product plant
mentioned in the previous  discussion  of  asbestos-cement  pipe,
there  is  one  known  asbestos-cement  sheet products plant that
accomplishes zero discharge of process waste waters most  of  the
time.    There  are  occasional  periods  when  treated  effluent
overflow  to  the  municipal   sewerage   system.    This   plant
manufactures  only a few of the many sheet products on the market
today using the wet mechanical process.  To what extent  complete
recirculation  can  be  accomplished  by all sheet plants  making
other products and using other processes is not known.  That  one
plant   has   almost   achieved   zero   discharge  of  pollutant
constituents serves as the basis for recommending this  level  of
control technology for this product subcategory.

Asbestos Paper

No  discharge  of  process  waste  waters represents the ultimate
level  of  control  technology.   All  alternative   technologies
whereby  no discharge of pollutant constituents could be achieved
would be much more costly to implement.

costs and Energy Requirements—

The total investment costs of implementing this level of  control
technology  are  estimated to be $1,040,000 for all manufacturing
facilities in these subcategories, or $570,000 more than the Best
Practicable Control Technology Currently Achievable.  The  annual
costs  are  estimated  to  be  approximately  $400,000,  an added
increment of $275,000.   The energy requirements are estimated  to
be 75 kw (100 hp)  or less for the typical plant.  This represents
only   a   small  increment  of  the  total  power  required  for
manufacturing.

Non~Water Quality .Environmental Impact—

There is no evidence that application of this control  technology
will  result in any unusual air pollution or solid waste disposal
problems, either in kind or magnitude.    The  costs  of  avoiding
problems in these areas are not excessive.

Size and Age of Equipment and Facilities—

As  noted  in  Section  IV,  the  size  range among manufacturing
facilities in these product subcategories is not large  and  this
control   technology   is   equally  applicable  to  all  plants,
regardless of differences in size.  The age of the equipment  and
facilities also does not play a role in the applicability of this
level of control technology.
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Processes Employed and Process Changes—

All  facilities  in these subcategories use similar manufacturing
processes.   There  is  no  evidence  that  the   minor   process
variations   that   do   exist   will  substantially  affect  the
applicability of this control technology.  Some degree of  change
of  process  operation  will  be  involved  in  implementing this
technology and in-plant control measures will be required at most
facilities.  Major new developments in manufacturing processes in
the future are not expected.   This  control  technology  can  be
applied  so  that  upsets  and  other  changes  in  manufacturing
operations that  result  in  fluctuations  in  waste  volumes  or
characteristics   can   be  accommodated  without  exceeding  the
recommended effluent limitations.

Engineering Aspects of Application—

The implementation of this control technology  implies  that  the
quantity  of  fresh water taken into the manufacturing process be
balanced by that leaving with the products.  The capacity of  the
in-plant   and   end-of-pipe   sedimentation   units  (save-alls,
clarifiers, etc.) must be adequate to accommodate all  surges  in
flow  or  additional  holding tank volume will be required.  This
presents  no  unusual  engineering  problems.   Additional  scale
control" measures may be required.

There  are two known asbestos paper manufacturing facilities that
essentially achieve zero discharge.  One is part  of  the  multi-
product plant mentioned above and the other is a plant that makes
only paper.  The former plant has no discharge and the latter has
no  discharge  under certain conditions.  This plant is connected
to a public sewer and relief is available when  necessary.   Both
facilities  use a starch binder.  The second one also makes paper
with an elastomeric binder,  when  making  this  kind  of  paper*
treated  waste  water  is  discharged.   Whether  a  plant  using
elastomeric binders can achieve  complete  recirculation  of  all
waste  water  is unknown today.  Research on the part of industry
will be necessary to detemine this.   That  complete  recycle  of
water  has  been  demonstrated  on a sustained basis in one major
segment of the asbestos paper manufacturing  industry  serves  as
the basis for recommending this level of control technology.

Asbestos Millboard

The  recommended  technology is the same as that in Section IX of
the Document for Best Practicable  control  Technology  Currently
Available.   The  rationale  for  this  recommendation  is  fully
discussed there.

Asbestos Roofjng_

No discharge of process waste waters (contaminated cooling water)
represents the ultimate level of control technology.  This can be
accomplished by treating and cooling the waste water and re-using
                                118

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it or by  use  of  a  totally  non-contact  cooling  system  with
containment  of  all  leaks.   The  feasibility  and costs of the
second alternative depend upon individual  plant  characteristics
and   cannot   be   estimated.   The  discussion  below  applies,
therefore, to the first alternative.

Costs and Energy Requirements—

The total investment costs of implementing this level of  control
technology  are  estimated  to  be $310,000 for all manufacturing
facilities in this subcategory, or $190,000 more  than  the  Best
Practicable  Control Technology Currently Achievable.  The annual
costs are estimated to be approximately $37,000.   This  is  less
than  for the best practicable technology due to savings in fresh
water costs.  The energy requirements are estimated to be  18  kw
(25  hp)   or  less for the typical plant.  This represents only a
small increment of the total power required for manufacturing.

Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact--

There is no evidence that application of this control  technology
will  result in any unusual air pollution or solid waste disposal
problems, either in kind or magnitude.   The  costs  of  avoiding
problems in these areas are not excessive.

Size and Age of Equipment and Facilities—

As  noted  in  Section  IV,  the  size  range among manufacturing
facilities in this product subcategory  is  not  large  and  this
control   technology   is   equally  applicable  to  all  plants,
regardless of differences in size.  The age of the equipment  and
facilities also does not play a role in the applicability of this
level of control technology.

Processes Employed and Process Changes-

All  facilities  in  this  subcategory  use similar manufacturing
processes.   There  is  no  evidence  that  the   minor   process
variations   that   do   exist   will  substantially  affect  the
applicability of this control technology.  Some degree of  change
of  process  operation  will  be  involved  and  in-plant control
measures  will  be  required  at  most  facilities.   Major   new
developments  in  manufacturing  processes  in the future are not
expected.  This control technology can be applied so that  upsets
and  other  changes  in  manufacturing  operations that result in
fluctuation  in  waste  volumes   or   characteristics   can   be
accomodated    without   exceeding   the   recommended   effluent
limitations.

Engineering Aspects.of Application—

There are no know asbestos roofing facilities (saturation plants)
that  reuse  the  contaminated  contact   cooling   water   after
treatment.   The  full  extents  of the problems involved are not
                               119

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known, but technology is available from other industrial areas to
accomplish this level of control.  Some  facilities  do  not  use
contact cooling systems.  The feasibility of converting a contact
cooling system into a non-contact system is also not known.

Asbestos_Flfoqr Tile

No discharge of process waste waters (contaminated cooling water)
represents the ultimate level of control technology.  This can be
accomplished  by treating and cooling the waste water and reusing
it  or  by  use  of  a  total  non-contact  cooling  system  with
containment  of  all  leaks.   The  feasibility  and costs of the
second alternative depend upon individual  plant  characteristics
and   cannot   be   estimated.   The  discussion  below  applies,
therefore, to the first alternative.

Costs, and Energy Requirements—

The total investment costs of implementing this level of  control
technology  are  estimated to be $1,270,000 for all manufacturing
facilities in this subcategory, or $750,000 more  than  the  Best
Practicable  Control Technology Currently Achievable.  The annual
costs are  estimated  to  be  approximately  $310,000,  an  added
increment  of $115,000.  The energy requirements are estimated to
be 26 kw  (35 hp)  or less for the typical plant.  This  represents
only   a   small  increment  of  the  total  power  required  for
manufacturing.

Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact—

There is no evidence that application of this control  technology
will  result in any unusual air pollution or solid waste disposal
problems, either in kind or magnitude.    The  costs  of  avoiding
problems in these areas are not excessive.

Size and Age of Equipment and Facilities—

As  noted  in  Section  IV,  the  size  range among manufacturing
facilities in this products subcategory is  not  large  and  this
control   technology   is   equally  applicable  to  all  plants,
regardless of differences in size.  The age of the equipment  and
facilities also does not play a role in the applicability of this
level of control technology.

Processes Employed and Process Changes—

All  facilities  in  this  subcategory use similar  manufacturing
processes.   There  is  no  evidence  that  the   minor   process
variations   that   do   exist   will  substantially  affect  the
applicability of this control technology.  Some degree of  change
of  process  operation  will  be  involved  in  implementing this
technology and in-plant control measures will be required at most
facilities.  Major new developments in manufacturing processes in
the futre are not  expected.   This  control  technology  can  be
                               120

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applied  so  that  upsets  and  other  changes  in  manufacturing
operations that  result  in  fluctuations  in  waste  volumes  or
characteristics   can   be   accomodated  without  exceeding  the
recommended effluent limitations.

Engineering Aspects of Application—

There are no known asbestos floor tile  manufacturing  facilities
that   reuse   the   contaminated  contact  cooling  water  after
treatment.  This process waste water contains a wide  variety  of
materials  and  the  precise  treatment requirements are unknown.
The quantity of contact cooling water varies among facilities and
some reportedly do not use contact cooling.  The  feasibility  of
converting  a contact cooling system into a non-contact system is
undetermined.
                               121

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                           SECTION XI

                NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
INTRODUCTION
Defined standards of  performance  are  to  be  achieved  by  new
sources  of  waste  waters.   The term "new source" is defined to
mean "any source, the construction of which  is  commenced  after
the publication of proposed regulations prescribing a standard of
performance."

In  defining performance standards for new sources, consideration
must be given to:

    a.  Costs and energy requirements;

    b.  Non-water quality environmental impact;

    c.  Process changes including changes in raw material
        operating methods, and recovery of materials; and,

    d.  Engineering aspects of application


IDENTIFICATION OF NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

In the design and operation of new manufacturing facilitiees, in-
plant controls, and end-of-pipe technology will  be  required  to
meet  the  recommended  standards*   In  the  summary below. Best
Practicable Technology Currently Available is identified  as  the
1977 level and Best Available Technology Economically Achievable,
as  the 1983 level.  The technologies are described in Section IX
and X for each product subcategory.
Asbestos-cement pipe

Asbestos cement sheet

Asbestos paper (starch binder)

Asbestos paper (elastomeric binder)

Asbestos millboard

Asbestos roofing

Asbestos floor tile
1977

1983

1983

1977

1977

1983

1983
                             123

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EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH APPLICATION OF
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
NEW  SOURCE
Based on the information contained in Section III through VIII of
this  document,  a  determination  has been made of the degree of
effluent reduction attainable  through  application  of  the  New
Source  Performance  Standards.   These are fully outlined in the
appropriate parts of Section IX and X.

RATIONALE FOR THE SELECTION OF NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

Asbestos-cement Pipe

The  factors  considered  in  selecting  the  standard  for   new
asbestos-cement   pipe  manufacturing  facilities  are  discussed
below.

Costs and Energy Requirements—

The costs of incorporating the  necessary  in-plant  control  and
end-of-pipe technologies into the design of a new facility should
be  less  than  those  for adding them in an existing plant.  The
energy requirements should be the same or less.

Non-Water Quality Environmental.Impact—

There is no evidence  that  application  of  this  standard  will
result  in  any  unusual  air  pollution  or solid waste disposal
problems, either in kind or magnitude.

Process. Changes—

There are no changes in the basic manufacturing process available
that would achieve greater effluent  reductions  than  attainable
through  application  of  this  standard.   In-plant  measures to
conserve water and materials  should  be  incorporated  into  new
facilities.  There are no significant benefits to be derived from
the use of batch operations or by the use of other raw materials.
There  is  currently a high degree of materials recovery from the
waste streams in  facilities  in  this  subcategory.   The  final
wastes  have  no  known  economic  value  and disposal on land by
appropriate methods will be necessary.


Engineering Aspects of Application—

It  has  not  yet  been  demonstrated   that   an   asbestos-pipe
manufacturing  facility  can accomplish complete recircualtion of
waste waters, or zero discharge of pollutants.  For this  reason,
the  New  source Performance Standard is Best Practicable Control
Technology Currently Available.  As future developments  dictate,
this standard may be revised.
                               124

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Asbestos-Cement Sheet

The   factors  considered  in  selecting  the  standard  for  new
asbestos- cement  sheet  manufacturing  facilities  are  discussed
below.

Costs and Energy Requirements —

The  costs  of  incorporating  the necessary in-plant control and
end-of-pipe technologies into the design of a new facility should
be less than those for adding them in  an  existing  plant.   The
energy requirements should be the same or less,

Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact —

There  is  no  evidence  that  application  of this standard will
result in any unusual  air  pollution  or  solid  waste  disposal
problems, either in kind or magnitude.
There are no changes in the basic manufacturing process available
that  would  achieve  greater effluent reduction than  attainable
through application of  this  standards.   In-plant  measures  to
conserve  water  and  materials  should  be incorporated into new
facilities.  There are no significant benefits to be derived from
the use of batch operations or by the use of other raw materials.
There is currently a high degree of materials recovery  from  the
waste  streams  in  facilities  in  this  subc&tegory.  The final
wastes have nc known economic  value  and  disposal  on  land  by
appropriate methods will be necessary.

Engineering Aspects of Application —

One   facility   manufacturing   asbestos-cement  sheet  products
essentially accomplishes zero  discharge  of  pollutants.   While
this is judged to be insufficient demonstration that all existing
sheet  facilities can completely recycle all process waste waters
today, it is believed that new  facilities  can  be  designed  to
achieve  this  level  of  control.   Therefore,  the  New  Source
Performance Standard is Best  Available  Technology  Economically
Achievable.

Asbestos Paper (Starch and, Elastomeric)

The  factors  considered  in  selecting  the  standards  for  new
asbestos paper manufacturing facilities are discussed below.

Costs and Energy Requirements —

The  costs  of  incorporating  the  necessary  in-plant   control
measures  and  end-of-pipe  technologies  to  the  design  of new
facilities should be less than those for adding them in  existing
plants.  The energy requirements should be the same or less.
                              125

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Non-Water Quality Environmental_Impact —

There  is  no  evidence  that application of these standards will
result in any unusual  air  pollution  or  solid  waste  disposal
problems, either in kind or magnitude.

Process Changes- -

The  different  standards  recommended  for  each of the asbestos
paper  subcategori'es  is  necessitated  by  differences  in   raw
materials.   When using elastomeric materials as binder, complete
recycle of waste waters has not been demonstrated.  There  is  no
information  available  about  possible  changes in raw materials
that would permit complete recycle in elastomeric binder systems.

There are no changes in the basic manufacturing process available
that would achieve greater  effluent  reduction  than  attainable
through  application  of  these  standards.  In-plant measures to
conserve water and materials should be incorporated into all  new
facilities.  There are no significant benefits to be derived from
the use of batch operations.  There is currently a high degree of
materials  recovery from the waste streams in facilities in these
subcategories .

Engineering Aspects imof Application —

No discharge of pollutants has been demonstrated at at least  one
asbestos starch paper manufacturing facility.  This serves as the
basis  for  recommending that the New Source Performance Standard
be Best Available Technology  Economically  Achievable  for  this
subcategory.   Complete  recycle  has  not been demonstrated by a
facility when making asbestos paper with an  elastomeric  binder,
Therefore,   the  New  Source  Performance  Standards  for  these
facilities  is  Best  Practicable  Control  Technology  Currently
Available .

Asbestos Millboard

The factors considered in selecting the standard for new asbestos
millboard manufacturing facilities are discussed below.

cost and Energy Requirements —

The  costs  of  incorporating  the necessary in-plant control and
end-of-pipe technologies into the design of a new facility should
be less than those for adding them in  an  existing  plant.   The
energy requirements should be the same or less.

          2u3j4tv Environmental jmpact —
There  is  no  evidence  that  application  of this standard will
result in any unusual  air  pollution  or  solid  waste  disposal
problems, either in kind or magnitude.
                             126

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Process Changes —

There are no changes in the basic manufacturing process available
that  would  achieve  greater  effluent reduction than attainable
through application  of  this  standard.   In-plant  measures  to
conserve  water  and  materials  should  be incorporated into new
facilities.  There are no significant benefits to be derived from
the use of batch operations or by the use of other raw materials.
There is currently a high degree of materials recovery  from  the
waste  streams  in  facilities  in  this  subcategory.  The final
wastes have nc known economic  value  and  disposal  on  land  by
appropriate methods will be necessary.

gfogipee£J-n.cL^£e9ts of Application —

Complete recycle of process waste waters has been demonstrated by
facilites in the asbestos millboard category.  Therefore, the New
Source   Performance   Standard   is   Best  Practicable  Control
Technology Currently Available,  which  is  identical  with  Best
Available Technology Economically Achievable.

Asbestos Roof ing

The factors considered in selecting the standard for new asbestos
roofing manufacturing facilities are discussed below.

Costs andm Energy Requirements —

The  costs  of  incorporating  the necessary in-plant control and
end-of-pipe technologies into the design of a new facility should
be less than those for adding them in  an  existing  plant.   The
energy requirements should be the same or less.

          Quality Environmental Impact —
There  is  no  evidence  that  application  of this standard will
result in any unusual  air  pollution  or  solid  waste  disposal
problems, either in kind or magitude.
There  is  some limited information available that indicates that
new asbestos roofing  facilites  could  be  designed  to  operate
without  contact  cooling water systems.  No major changes in the
basic manufacturing process should be required to operate in this
manner.  There are no significant benefits to be derived from the
use of batch manufacturing operations.  Changes in raw  materials
might  be  beneficial  if treatment and reuse of the contaminated
cooling waters are determined to be the most feasible  method  of
meeting  this  standard.  There is no information, however, about
raw materials that could be substituted.  The  materials  in  the
waste  stream  are  present  in low levels and contaminated form.
They have no significant economic value if recovered.
                             127

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Engineering Aspects of Application —

Complete recycle of  contaminated  cooling  water  has  not  teen
demonstrated   by   f acilites   manufacturing   asbestos  roofing
products.  It is believed that through either the use of  control
technologies   available  in  other  industrial  segments  or  by
elimination of contact  cooling  water  systems,  this  level  of
control  can  be  achieved in new facilities.  Therefore, the New
Source  performance  Standard  is   Best   Available   Technology
Economically Achievable.
The factors considered in selecting the standard for new asbestos
floor tile manufacturing facilities are discussed below,

Costs and Energy Requirements —

The  costs  of  incorporating  the necessary in-plant control and
end-of-pipe technologies into the design of a new facility should
be less than those for adding them in  an  existing  plant.   The
energy requirements should be the same or less.

Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact —

There  is  no  evidence  that  application  of this standard will
result in any unusual  air  pollution  or  solid  waste  disposal
problems, either in kind or magitude.
Several  floor  tile  manufacturing  facilities currently operate
with non-contact cooling water systems entirely.  It is  believed
that   new   facilities  can  incorporate  such  systems  without
significant changes in process being necessary.  Even  with  non-
contact  cooling,  in-plant control measures will be necessary to
reduce leakage to an  acceptable  level.    Dry  cleaning  methods
should be used to reduce water usage.

Changes  in  raw  materials  would  not  affect  any  appreciable
effluent reduction.  Materials recovered from  the  waste  stream
have no known economic value.

Engineering Aspects of Application —

Complete  recycle  of  contaminated  cooling  water  has not been
demonstrated by  facilities  manufacturing  asbestos  floor  tile
products.   It is believed that through either the use of control
technologies  available  in  other  industrial  segments  or   by
elimination  of  contact  cooling  water  systems,  this level of
control can be achieved in new facilities.   Therefore,  the  New
Source   Performance   Standard   is  Best  Available  Technology
Economically Achievable.
                             128

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                           SECTION XII

                        ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Environmental Protection Agency  wishes  to  acknowledge   the
contributions   to   this   project  by  Sverdrup  5  Parcel   and
Associates, Inc., St, Louis, Missouri.  The work  at  Sverdrup  6
Parcel  was  performed  under the direction of Dr. H.G.  Schwartz,
Jr., Project  Executive;  Dr.  James  E.  Buzzell,  Jr.,  Project
Manager; and assisted by J.Winfred Robinson.

Appreciation  is  extended  to  the  many  people in the asbestos
manufacturing industry who cooperated  in  providing  information
and   data.    The   assistance    of  the  Asbestos  Information
Association-North America is appreciated.

Special mention is made of the following company  representatives
who  gave  of  their  time in developing the information for this
document:

Mr. Edmund M. Fenner and  Mr.  Lucine  D.  Mutaw  of  the  Johns-
Manville Corporation,

Mr.  S.E. Monoky, Mr. Fred L. Bickel, and Mr. John P. McGinley of
the Certain-Teed Products Corporation,

Mr. W.C. Harper, Mr. Aubrey A. Serratt, Mr. A.W.  Smith  and  Mr.
R.S.  Miller of the Celotex Corporation,

Mr.  E.A. Opila, Mr. Herbert A. Dalik, Mr. William Carl, Mr. Paul
Masek, and Mr. Ed Potkay of the Flintkote Company,

Mr. R.K. Wilson, Mr. W. H. Wolfinger, and Mr. M.A. Arvieta of the
Armstrong Cork Company,

Mr. Jack Holloway and Mr.  Stan Stempien of the  GAF  Corporation,
and

Mr. J.J. Finnegan and Mr.  H.L. Becker of Nicolet Industries, Inc.

Appreciation   is   expressed   to  those  in  the  Environmental
Protection  Agency  who  assisted  in  the  performance  of  this
project: Acguanetta McNeal,  John Riley, George Webster,  c.  Ronald
McSwinney,  Ernst Hall,  Arthur Mallon, and Edward Berg.
                               129

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 2.


 3.


 4.


 5.
7.


8.
10
                       SECTION  XIII
                        REFERENCES

 Asbestos, Stover  Publishing Company,  Willow Grove,  Pa.

 Bowles, O., Tjie_Asbe stos_Industry ,  U.S.  Bureau  of Mines,
 Bulletin  552.

 Clifton,  Robert A., "Asbestos," Bureau of  Mines Minerals
 Yearbook,  U.S. Department of  the Interior,
11
1 2
13

14


15
DuBois, Arthur B. , Air bor ne_Asbes tos ,  U.S.  Department  of
Commerce,  1971.

Impact of  Proposed QSHA Standard for Asbestos,  report  to
U.S. Department of Labor by Arthur D.  Little,  Inc.  1972.

Industrial Waste  Study Report: Flat Glass,  Cement,  Limef
QyP§um* and Asbestos industries,  report to Environmental
Protection Agency by Sverdrup 6 Parcel and  Associates,  Inc.,
1971.

Knapp, Carol E.,  "Asbestos, Friend or  Foe?11, Environmental
Science and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 9, 1970.

May, Timothy C., and Lewis, Richard W. , "Asbestos," Bureau
of Mines Bulletin 650. Mineral Facts and Problems ,
U.S. Department of the Interior, 1970.

McDermott, James H., "Asbestos in Water" Memorandum to __
Regional water Supply Representatives , U.S.  Environment a 1
Protection Agency, April 24, 1973.

McDonald,  J. Corbett, McDonald, Alison D. ,  Giffs, Graham W.,
Siemiatycki, Jack and Rossiter, M.A. ,  "Mortality in the Crysotile
Asbestos Mines and Mills of Quebec." Archieve of Environmental
Health, Vol. 22,  1971.

Methods for Chemical Analysis _of Water and  Wastes,  Environmental
Protection Agency, National Environmental Research  Center,
Analytical Quality Control Laboratory, Cincinnati,  Ohio, 1971.

National Inventory of Sources and Emissions; Cadmium, Nickel
and Asbestos, report to National  Air  Pollution Control
Administration, Department of Health,  Education and
Welfare, by W.E. Davis & Associates, 1970.

Patterson, W. L. and Banker, R, F.,  Estimating Costs

Rosato, D. V., Asbestos:  Its Industrial Applications,
Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York,  N.Y, 1959.

Selikoff,   Irving J., Hammond, E. Cuyler and Seidman, Herbert,
Cancer Risk of Insulation Workers in the United States ,
                          131

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    International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1972.

16. Selikoff, Irving J., Nicholson, William J., and Langer,
    Arthur M, , "Asbestos Air Pollution."
     Archies of Environmental Health, Volume 25, American
    Medical Association, 1972.

17. Sewage Treatment Plant and Sewer Construction Cost _In_dexes,
    Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Programs
    Operations Municiapl Waste wa,ter Systems Division,
    Evaluation and Resource Control Branch.

18. Sinclair, W. E., Asbestos,_Its Qriginf Production and utilization,
    London, Mining Publications Ltd., 1955.

19. Smith, Robert, Cost of Conventional and Advanced Treatment
    of Waste waters. Federal Water Pollution Control
    Administration, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1968.

20. Smith, Robert and McMichael, Walter F., Cost and Performance
    lStimate£__for_Tertiary_ Waste water Treating_prpcesses,
    Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, U.S.
    Department of the Interior, 1969.

21- Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste_water,
    13th Edition, American Public Health Association,
    Washington, D.C. 1971.

22. Sullivan, Ralph J., Air Pollution Aspects of _Asbestos. U.S.
    Department of Commerce, 1969.

23. Tabershaw, I. R., "Asbestos as an Environmental Hazard,"
    Journal of Occupational Medicine,1968.

2U. The Asbestos Factbook, Asbestos, Willow Grove, Pa., 1970

25. Villecro, M., "Technology, Danger of Asbestos," Architectural
    Forumx 1970.

2^• Welcome.to the Johns-Manville Transite Pipe_Plant at Manyille,
    ii£iI~J°hns-Manville Co77~New York7~N.Y.7 ^9697

27. Wright, G. W., "Asbestos and Health in 1969," American Review
    of Respiratory Diseases, 1969.
                               132

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                           SECTION XIV

                            GLOSSARY
    Beater
A wet mixer used to separate the fibers, mix the ingredients,  and
provide a homogeneous  slurry.

    Binder

A chemical substance mixed with asbestos and other ingredients to
bond them together,

    Blinding

The  plugging  by fibers and binder of the pores in carrier felts
and holes in cylinder  screens thereby reducing or preventing   the
flow of water through  the felt or screen.

    Calender

A  machine  designed to give paper a smooth surface by passing it
between a series of pressure rollers.

    Elastomeric Paper

Paper made with a synthetic or natural rubber binder.

6-  Felt

An endless belt of heavy porous cloth.

    Mottle

Solid color granulated tile chips that are made and fed into tile
production lines to provide color and pattern.

    Vacuum Box

A box with a long, narrow opening positioned just below or  above
the  felt  in  a paper machine.  The vacuum maintained in the  box
draws water out of the sheet of fiber through the felt  and  into
the box.
A  rotating paddle designed to release fiber or other particulate
matter from a paper, pipe, or millboard machine carrier  felt  by
beating the felt as it moves through the machine.
                             133

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                                               TABLE 10
                                              METRIC UNITS
                                            CONVERSION TABLE
U)
Ui
MULTIPLY (ENGLISH UNITS)

  ENGLISH UNIT       ABBREVIATION

acre                   ac
acre - feet            ac ft
British Thermal        BTU
  Unit
British Thermal        BTU/lb
  Unit/pound
cubic feet/minute      cfm
cubic feet/second      cfs
cubic feet             cu ft
cubic feet             cu ft
cubic inches           cu in
degree Fahrenheit      °F
feet                   ft
gallon                 gal
gallon/minute          gpm
horsepower             hp
inches                 in
inches of mercury      in Hg
pounds                 lb
million gallons/day    mgd
mile                   mi
pound/square inch      psig
  (gauge)
square feet            sq ft
square inches          sq in
tons (short)           ton

yard                   yd
        by

    CONVERSION

      0.405
   1233.5
      0.252

      0.555

      0.028
      1.7
      0.028
     28.32
     16.39
      0.555  (°F-32)*
      0.3048
      3.785
      0.0631
      0.7457
      2.54
      0.03342
      0.454
       3,785
      1.609
(0.06805 psig +1)*

      0.0929
      6.452
      0.907

      0.9144
     TO OBTAIN (METRIC UNITS)

ABBREVIATION      METRIC UNIT

   ha           hectares
   cu m         cubic meters
   kg cal       kilogram-calories

   kg cal/kg    kilogram calories/
                 kilogram
   cu m/min     cubic meters/minute
   cu m/min     cubic meters/minute
   cu m         cubic meters
   1            liters
   cu cm        cubic centimeters
   °C           degree Centigrade
   m            meters
   1            liters
   I/sec        liters/second
   kw           kilowatts
   cm           centimeters
   atm          atmospheres
   kg           kilograms
   cu m/day     cubic meters/day
   km           kilometer
   atm          atmospheres
                 (absolute)
   sq m         square meters
   sq cm        square centimeters
   kkg          metric tons
                 (1000 kilograms)
   m            meters
      *Actual conversion,  not a multiplier

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