Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines
and Standards of Performance for New Sources

BEET SUGAR  PROCESSING
Subcategory of the
Sugar Processing Point
Source Category
                JANUARY 1974
  \
        U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
              Washington, D.G. 20460

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               DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT

                         for

          EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES

                         and

    STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE FOR NEW  SOURCES
        BEET SUGAR PROCESSING SUBCATEGORY
  QF THE SUGAR PROCESSING  POINT SOURCE CATEGORY

                 Russell  E.  Train
                   Administrator

                   Robert L. Sansom
   Assistant Administrator for  Air and  Water Programs
                    Allen  Cywin
     Director,  Effluent Guidelines Division

                Richard V. Watkins
                  Project  Officer
                   January,  197U
          Effluent Guidelines Division
        Office  of Air and Water Programs
      U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
             Washington, D.c.   20460
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 2M02 - Price $2

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                            ABSTRACT
This document presents the findings of an extensive study of  the
beet  sugar  processing  industry by the Environmental Protection
Agency  for  the  purpose  of  developing  effluent   limitations
guidelines  of  performance  and  pretreatment  standards for the
industry to implement Sections 304(b)  and 306 of the "Act".

Effluent limitations guidelines contained herein  set  forth  the
degree  of  effluent reduction attainable through the application
of the best practicable control  technology  currently  available
and  the  degree  of  effluent  reduction  attainable through the
application  of  the  best  available   technology   economically
achievable  which  must  be achieved by existing point sources by
July 1, 1977, and July 1, 1983, respectively.  The  standards  of
performance for new sources contained herein set forth the degree
of effluent reduction which is achievable through the application
of the best available demonstrated control technology, processes,
operating  methods,  or  other alternatives-  The regulations set
forth the effluent limitations for  discharge  of  process  waste
water  pollutants  to  be  met  by  July  1,  1977, by controlled
discharge of  barometric  condenser  water  only  or  alternative
attainment  through  discharge of composite beet sugar processing
waste waters.  The regulations for the remaining  two  levels  of
technology  establish  the requirement of no discharge of process
waste water pollutants to navigable waters in all  instances  for
new  sources  and  as  the best available technology economically
achievable for existing sources except where plant size and  soil
filtration  rate  present  practical  economic restraints.  Where
plant size is less than 2090 kkg  (2300 tons)  per  day  of  beets
sliced,  or  soil  filtration rate at the plant site is less than
0.159 cm (1/16 in) per day, effluent limitations for discharge of
process waste water pollutants to be met by  July  1,  1983,  are
given  to  be  attained  by  controlled  discharge  of barometric
condenser water only or alternative attainment through  discharge
of composite beet sugar processing waste waters.


Supportive  data  and  rationale  for development of the effluent
limitations guidelines and standards of performance are contained
in this report.
                              11

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                             CONTENTS
.Section

I-1

II

III
IV
V
VI
VII
Conclusions

Rec ommend at i on s

Introduction
  Purpose and Authority
  Summary of Methods Used for Development
     of the Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
     Standards of Performance
  General Description of the Beet Sugar
    Processing Subcategory
  Processing and Refining Operations
  Production Classification
  Regulations and Future Growth

Industry Categorization
  Profile of Production Processes
  Categorization of the Beet Sugar
     Processing Industry

Water Use and Waste characterization
  Specific Water Uses
  Factors Affecting the Quantity and
    Quality of Waste Waters
  Typical Process Waste characterization
  Raw Waste Characteristics of specific
    Operations
  Process Flow Diagrams

Pollutant Parameters
  Pollutant and Pollutant Parameters
  Properties of the Pollutant
     Parameters

Control and Treatment Technology
  Introduction
  In-Plant control Measures and Techniques
  Water Use and Waste Water Management
  Treatment and Control Technology
  Mass Water Balance in a Beet Sugar Processing
     Plant
  Identification of Water Pollution Related
    Operation and Maintenance Problems at Beet
    Sugar Processing Plants
  soil as a Waste Water Disposal Medium
14
16
16

19
19
21
27
27
31

32
33

41

49
49
51
61
61
62
67
68
91

101
                                                                   103
VIII
Cost, Energy, and Non-Water Quality Aspects
  Cost and Reduction Benefits of Alternative
107
107
                              iii

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IX
XI
XII

XIII

XIV
    Treatment and Control Technologies
  Basis of Assumptions Employed in Cost Estimation
  Related Energy Requirements of Alternative
    Treatment and Control Technologies
  Non-Water Quality Aspects of Alternative
    Treatment and Control Technologies

Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the
  Application of the Best Practicable
  Control Technology currently Available
    Introduction
    Effluent Reduction Attainable
    Identification
    Rationale for Selection

Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the
  Application of the Best Available Technology
  Economically Achievable
    Introduction
    Effluent Reduction Attainable
    Identification
    Rationale for Selection

New Source Performance Standards

Introduction

Effluent Reduction, Identification, and
  Rationale

Acknowledgments                            - -

References

Glossary
                                                                  Paige
                                                                   116
                                                                   118
123
                                                                   123
                                                                   124
                                                                   125
                                                                   126

                                                                   133
133
133
1 35
135

139
139


1 41

H3

153
                              1v

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                             TABLES

Number                         Title

1        operating Beet Sugar Processing Plants in the
         United states

II       Consumption and Processing for the Beet Sugar
         Processing Industry

III      Present and Projected Processing Capacity of Beet
         Sugar Processing Plants by States

IV       Product Classification by SIC Code for the Beet
         Sugar Processing Industry

V        Size Distribution of Beet Sugar Processing Plants
         in the United States, Daily Slicing Capacities

VI       Representative Waste Characteristics and Total
         Waste water Flow Data for a Typical Beet Sugar
         Processing Plant

VII      Characteristics of Beet Sugar Processing
         Plant Wastes

VIII     summary of selected Pollution control Practices
         at Beet Sugar Processing Plants
Page

 n


 12


 13


 17


 25


 28



 34


 70

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                              FIGURES
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
XI
XII
                    Title

Location of Beet Sugar  Processing  Plants
Within the U.S., 197U

Materials Flow in a Beet sugar  Processing
Plant With No Recirculation or  Treatment
of Waste Waters — Steffen Process

Materials Flow in Beet  Sugar  Processing
Plant With Commonly-Used Water  utilization and
Waste Disposal Pattern

Water Flow Diagram for  a Beet Sugar
Processing Plant With Minimum Recycle or
Reuse

water Flow Diagram for  a Beet Sugar
Processing Plant With Substantial  In-Process
Recycle and Re-use

Water Flow Diagram for  a Beet Sugar
Processing Plant With Maximum In-Process and
Discharge Controls

Water Balance Diagram for a Beet
Sugar Processing Plant, Net Gains  and Losses
for Flume Water System

Water Balance Diagram for a Beet
Sugar Processing Plant, Net Gains  and
Losses for condenser Water System

Water Balance Diagram for Beet  Sugar
Processing Plant, Net Gains and Losses From
Total Processing Operation

Total Cost Effectiveness Relationship for Complete
Land Disposal With Suitable Land Located Adjacent
to Plant Site

Unit Cost Effectiveness Relationship with
Land for Waste Water Disposal Located
Adjacent to Plant Site  and Presently
Under Plant Ownership

Unit Cost Effectiveness Relationship with
Land for Waste Water Disposal Located Adjacent
to Plant Site Not Presently Under  Plant
42
44
45
46
47
                                                                   92
                                                                   93
                                                                   94
                                                                   109
110
111

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         Ownership but Available for Purchase at a
         Reasonable Cost

XIII     Unit Cost Effectiveness Relationship with
         Suitable Land Not Physically Available Adjacent
         to the Plant Site; Suitable Land Located at a
         Reasonable Distance under Plant Ownership

XIV      Unit Cost Effectiveness Relationship with
         Suitable Land for Waste water Disposal Not
         Physically Available Adjacent to the Plant
         Site; suitable Land Located at a Reasonable
         Distance Not Under Plant Ownership but
         Available for Purchase at a Reasonable Cost
                                                        112
                                                        113
XV
Minimum Total Land Area Requirements for Waste
Water Disposal by Capacity of Plant and Length of
Production Campaign
114
                               vii

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                               SECTION I

                              CONCLUSIONS
In one sense, the beet sugar processing subcategory of the  sugar
processing point source category is a logical coherent industrial
classification as evidenced by similarities in waste loads, waste
water  characteristics, and available waste treatment and control
measures.  Even though all plants, partially  or  fully,  utilize
land  for  disposal and/or control of beet sugar processing waste
waters,  individual  conditions  are   acknowledged   to   affect
application  of  a complete land- based technology.  Factors such
as climate, age, and size of plant may affect segmentation of the
subcategory  for  purposes  of  effluent  limitations  guidelines
development.   The  effluent  limitation  guidelines  for July 1,
1983, reflect segmentation of  the  subcategory  based  on  plant
size,  and  soil  filtration characteristics which are judged the
most  determinable,  important,  and  influencing   factors   for
segmentation.   The  segmentation  is  justified principally upon
economic rather than technological considerations.

Presently, 11 of the  52  operating  plants  are  achieving  zero
discharge  of  waste waters to navigable waters.  A total of five
beet sugar processing plants  discharge  flume  and/or  condenser
water  to  municipal  sewage  systems.   It is concluded that the
remainder of the beet sugar processing subcategory of  the  sugar
processing  point source category can achieve the requirements as
set forth herein by July 1,  1983.   It  is  estimated  that  the
capital  costs of achieving such limitations and standards by all
plants within the segment is less than $36 million.  This  figure
assumes that no pollution control measures presently exist within
the  industry.  In consideration of existing facilities estimates
of total capital cost for achieving zero discharge  to  navigable
waters  range from $9 million to $16 million with availability of
suitable  land.   with  consideration  of  these  plants  without
present  availability of suitable land for controlled waste water
disposal, cost might  be  expected  to  approximate  $16  to  $20
million.   This  would  represent  an  increase  in total capital
invested in the industry under conditions of land availability of
1,0 to 1.7 percent.  Overall cost increases for the production of
sugar would vary from 0.2 percent to  2.2  percent  depending  on
plant  size,  campaign  length,  soil  conditions,  and levels of
control currently in place.  The average cost  increase  for  the
industry would be approximately 0.3 percent.

A   thorough   analysis  of  the  effects  of  pollution  control
requirements on the industry  in  terms  of  capital  investment,
marketing, employment, and plants likely to be adversely impacted
economically  is contained within the document entitled "Economic

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Analysis of Proposed Effluent Guidelines,  Beet  Sugar  Industry,
U.S.  Environmental  Protection  Agency,  office  of Planning and
Evaluation, Washington, D.C., August, 1973." That  document  sets
forth  the  full  economic  impact  of  the established pollution
control requirements.

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                          SECTION II

                       RECOMMENDATIONS
Effluent limitation guidelines recommended to be met by  July  lr
1977,  for  the  beet  sugar processing subcategory provide for a
maximum discharge of process waste water pollutants to  navigable
waters  as  designated  below.   These  effluent  limitations are
permitted to be met either by  controlled  discharge  of  process
waste water derived from barometric condensing operations only or
through  discharge  of  composite  process  waste  waters.   This
represents  the  degree  of  effluent  reduction  attainable   by
existing  point  sources  through  the  application  of  the best
practicable control technology currently available.  No discharge
of  process  waste  water  pollutants  to  navigable  waters   is
recommended   as   the  best  available  technology  economically
achievable, with exception for small plants or where  unfavorable
soil  filtration  rates are experienced.  Where exceptions apply,
effluent limitations are  established  for  permitted  controlled
discharge   of   process  waste  water  derived  from  barometric
condensing operations only, or  through  discharge  of  composite
process  waste  waters.   No  discharge  of  process  waste water
pollutants represents, for new sources, a standard of performance
providing for the control of the discharge  of  pollutants  which
reflects  the  greatest  degree  of effluent reduction achievable
through application of the best  available  demonstrated  control
technology,  processes, operating methods, or other alternatives.
The technologies for achieving the limitations and  standards  as
set  forth  are based on maximum water reuse and recycling within
the process to minimize net waste water production and controlled
land disposal of excess waste water  without  discharge  of  such
waste  waters  to  navigable waters.  Allowances for reaching the
recommended effluent limitations through a  controlled  composite
process   waste   water   discharge  permit  appropriate  use  of
demonstrated  alternative   pollutant   reduction   technologies.
Disposal  of  waste water by controlled filtration on land or use
for crop irrigation or other beneficial purposes  is  in  confor-
mance with no discharge of waste waters to navigable waters.

The  following  limitations  establish  the  degree  of  effluent
reduction attainable by the application of the  best  practicable
control technology currently available:

The  following  limitations  establish the quantity or quality of
pollutants  or   pollutant   properties,   controlled   by   this
regulation,  which may be discharged by a point source subject to
the provisions of this subpart  after  application  of  the  best
practicable  control  technology  currently  available;  provided
however, that a discharge by  a  point  source  may  be  made  in
accordance  with the limitations set forth in either subparagraph
(a) exclusively or subparagraph (b)  exclusively below:
    (a)   The  following   limitations   establish   the   maximum
permissible  discharge of process waste water pollutants when the

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process waste water discharge results from barometric
operations only.
                                                       condensing
Effluent
Characteristic
                                     Effluent
                                     Limitations
                             Maximum for
                             any one day
                                             Average of daily
                                             values for thirty
                                             consecutive days
                                             shall not exceed
      (Metric units)
BOD 5
PH
Temperature
      (English units)
                                       kcr/kkg of product

                                '3.3               2.2
                                 Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
                                 Temperature not to exceed the
                                 temperature of cooled water
                                 acceptable for return to the
                                 heat producing process and in
                                 no event greater than 32°C.

                                       Ib/j. COQ T Ib of product

                                 3.3               2.2
                                 Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
                                 Temperature not to exceed the
                                 temperature of cooled water
                                 acceptable for return to the
                                 heat producing process and in
                                 no event greater than 90°F.

    (b)   The  following   limitations   establish   the   maximum
permissible  discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
process waste water discharge results, in whole or in  part  from
barometric   condensing  operations  and  any  other  beet  sugar
processing operation.
BODS
pH
Temperature
Effluent
                                    Effluent
                                    Limitation
                            Maximum for
                            any one day
      (Metric units)
                                            Average of daily
                                            values for thirty
                                            consecutive days
                                            shalj. not exceed

                                             of product
BOD5
TSS~
pH
Fecal Coliform

Temperature
                                3.3              2,2
                                3.3              2.2
                                Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
                                Not to exceed MPN of a00/100 ml
                                at any one time.
                                Not to exceed 32°C.

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       (English units)
         lb/lC_CO Ib of product
BODS
TSS~
pH
Fecal Coliform

Temperature
  3.3               2.2
  3.3               2.2
  Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
  Not to exceed MPN of UOO/100 ml
  at any one time.
  Not to exceed 90°F.
The following limitations establish the quantity  or  quality  of
pollutants  or pollutant properties controlled by this regulation
which may  be  discharged  by  a  point  source  subject  to  the
provisions   of  this  subpart  after  application  of  the  best
available technology economically achievable.
  •' (a)   The following  limitations  establish  the  quantity  or
quality  of  pollutants  or  pollutant  properties  which  may be
discharged by a point source  where  the  sugar  beet  processing
capacity of the point source does not exceed 2090 kkg (2300 tons)
per  day  of  beets sliced and/or the soil filtration rate in the
vicinity of the point source is less than or equal  to  0.159  cm
-(1/16  in) per day; provided however, that a discharge by a point
source may be made in accordance with the limitations  set  forth
in  either  subparagraph  (1)  exclusively  or  subparagraph   (2)
exclusively below:
    (1)   The  following   limitations   establish   the   maximum
permissible  discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
process waste water discharge results from barometric  condensing
operations only.
Effluent
Characteristic
       Effluent
       Limitations
                          Maximum for
                          any one day
         (Metric units)
              Average of daily
              values for thirty
              consecutive days
              shall not exceed

             of product
BODS
pH "
Temperature
2,0               1,3
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0
Temperature not to exceed the
temperature of cooled water
acceptable for return to the
heat producing process and in
no event greater than 32°c.

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      (English units)
    j.b/1 C C C_ lb of product
BODJ5                           2.0               1.3
pH ~"                           Within the range of 6.0 to 9,0.
Temperature                    Temperature not to exceed the
                               temperature of cooled water
                               acceptable for return to the
                               heat producing pocess and in
                               no event greater than 90°F.

    (2)   The  following   limitations   establish   the   maximum
permissible  discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
process waste water discharge results in whole or  in  part  from
barometric   condensing  operations  and  any  other  beet  sugar
processing operation.
Effluent
Characteristic
   Effluent
   Limitations
                              Maximum for
                              any one day
           Average of daily
           values for thirty
           consecutive days
           shall not exceed
            (Metric units)
BOD5
TSs"
pH
Fecal coliform
Temperature
            (English units)
BOD5
TSS"
PH
Fecal Coliform
Temperature
     &q/kkq of product

2.0             1.3
2.0             1.3
Within the range 6,0 to 9.0
Not to exceed MPN of 400/100 ml
at any time.
Not to exceed 32°C,

     lb/1000lbof

2.0             1.3
2.0             1.3
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
Not to exceed MPN of 400/100 MPN
at any one time.   (Not typically
expressed in English units.)
Not to exceed 90°F,
    (b)   The following  limitations  establish  the  quantity  or
quality  of pollutants or pollutant properties controlled by this
regulation which may be discharged  by  a  point  source  in  all
instances  not specified under the provisions of a) above:  There
shall be no  discharge  of  process  waste  water  pollutants  to
navigable waters.

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                              SECTION III
                              INTRODUCTION
sources  other
based  on  the
than  publicly
application  of
Purpose and Authority

Section  301 (b)  of the Act requires the achievement by not later
than July 1, 1977, of effluent  limitations  for  point  sources,
other than publicly owned treatment works, which are based on the
application  of the best practicable control technology currently
available as defined by the  Administrator  pursuant  to  Section
304 (b)  of the Act.  Section 301 (b) also requires the achievement
by not later than July 1, 1983, of effluent limitations for point
                                owned  treatment works, which are
                                 the  best  available  technology
economically  achievable  which will result in reasonable further
progress toward the national goal of eliminating the discharge of
all pollutants, as  determined  in  accordance  with  regulations
issued  by  the  Administrator  pursuant to Section 304(b) of the
Act.  Section 306 of the Act  requires  the  achievement  by  new
sources  of  a  Federal standard of performance providing for the
control  of  the  discharge  of  pollutants  which  reflects  the
greatest  degree  of  effluent  reduction which the Administrator
determines to be achievable through the application of  the  best
available  demonstrated  control technology, processes, operating
methods, or other alternatives,  including  where  practicable  a
standard   permitting   no   discharge  of  waste  water  process
pollutants to navigable waters.

Section 304 (b)  of the Act requires the Administrator  to  publish
within  one  year  of enactment of the Act, regulations providing
guidelines for effluent limitations setting forth the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the best
practicable control technology currently available and the degree
of  effluent  reduction attainable through the application of the
best  control  measures  and   practices   achievable   including
treatment   techniques,   proces s   and   procedure  innovations,
operation  methods,  and  other  alternatives.   The  regulations
proposed   herein   set  forth  effluent  limitations  guidelines
pursuant to  Section  304(b)   of  the  Act  for  the  beet  sugar
processing  subcategory  pf  the  sugar  processing  point source
category.

Section 306 of the Act requires  the  Administrator,  within  one
year  after a category of sources is included in a list published
pursuant to Section  306(b)   (1)  (A)   of  the  Act,  to  propose
regulations  establishing  Federal  standards of performances for
new sources within such categories.  The Administrator  published
in  the  Federal  Register  of January 16, 1973 (38 F.R. 1624), a
list  of  27  source  categories.    Publication   of   the   list
constituted  announcement  of  the  Administrator's  intention of
establishing  under  Section   306   standards   of   performance
applicable  to  new  sources  within  the  beet  sugar processing

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subcategory of the sugar processing point source category,
was included in the list published January 16, 1973.
which
          _        used for Development of the Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and standards of Performance

The  effluent limitations guidelines and standards of performance
proposed herein were developed in the following manner.  The beet
sugar processing subcategory was first studied for the purpose of
determining  whether  separate  limitations  and  standards   are
appropriate  for different segments within the subcategory.  This
analysis included a determination of whether differences  in  raw
material  used, product produced, manufacturing process employed,
as well as other factors which may exist, require the development
of separate effluent  limitations  and  standards  for  different
segments.   Raw  waste  characteristics for each subcategory were
then identified and quantified.  This included  analyses  of   (1)
.the  source  and volume of water used in the process employed and
the sources of waste and waste waters in various plants; and   (2)
the constituents (including possibly thermal) of all waste waters
including  other  constituents  which  result in taste, odor, and
color in water.   The constituents of waste waters which  should
be  subject  to  effluent limitations guidelines and standards of
performance were identified.

The full range of control  and  treatment  technologies  existing
within   the   subcategory  was  identified.   This  included  an
identification of each distinct control and treatment technology,
including both inplant and end-of-process technologies, which are
existent or capable of being designed for each  subcategory.   It
also  included  an  identification  in  terms  of  the  amount of
constituents  (including thermal) and the chemical, physical,  and
biological characteristics of pollutants associated with effluent
levels achievable by the application of each of the treatment and
control technologies.  The problems, limitations, and reliability
of  each  treatment  and  control  technology  and  the  required
implementation time were also identified.  In addition, the  non-
water  quality  environmental  impact, such as the effects of the
application of such technologies upon other  pollution  problems,
including  airr  solid  waste,  noise,  and  radiation  were also
identified and evaluated.  The energy requirements of each of the
control and treatment technologies were identified as well as the
cost of the application of these technologies.

The information, as outlined above, was then evaluated  in  order
to  determine  the  levels  of  technology constituting the "best
practicable  control  technology  currently   available,"   "best
available  technology  economically  achievable,"  and  the "best
available demonstrated control technology,  processes,  operating
methods,   or   other   alternatives."    In   identifying   such
technologies, various factors were considered.  They included the
total cost of  application  of  technology  in  relation  to  the
effluent  reduction benefits to be achieved from its application.

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the  age  of  equipment  and  facilities  involved,  the  process
employed,  the  engineering aspects of the application of various
types of control techniques, required process changes,  non-water
quality environmental impact (including energy requirements), and
other factors.

The  data  for  identification  and  analysis were derived from a
number  of  sources.   These  sources   included   EPA   research
information,  published  literature,  a  voluntary  questionnaire
survey  of  the  industry  conducted  by  the  u. s.  Beet   sugar
Association,  previous  EPA  technical  guidance  for  beet sugar
processing, qualified technical consultation, and on-site  visits
and  interviews at better beet sugar processing plants throughout
the United  states.   Each  of  these  general  sources  provided
information  relating  to the evaluation factors (cost, non-water
quality  impact  effluent   reduction   benefits,   etc.).    All
references   used  in  developing  the  guidelines  for  effluent
limitations and standards of performance for new sources reported
herein are included in section XIII of this document.

General Description of the Beet Sugar Processing Subcatecrory

Although the culture of sugar beets is reported in early history,
extraction of sugar from the beet was first begun on a commercial
scale in Germany and France in the early nineteenth century.  The
earliest  beet  sugar  enterprises  in  the  United  States  were
established  in  the  1830's in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and
Michigan, but these plants and many others that  followed  failed
in  a  few  years  because  of  low  sugar  yield from then known
processing methods.  In  1879,  the  Alvarado,  California,  beet
sugar  processing  plant became the first successful operation in
the  U.S.  because  of  higher  sugar   yields   and   production
efficiency.   The  basic sugar extraction process for sugar beets
has  not  changed  since  1880.   However,  improved   production
equipment  and  increased  processing  rates,  have progressively
increased production efficiency particularly over the last twenty
years.

There are a total of 52 beet sugar processing plants owned by  11
companies in the United States (see Figure I and Table I), with a
combined  daily processing capacity of 164,000 kkgs  (181,000t) of
beets.  Capacity of these plants ranges from 1270  to  8200  kkgs
(1400  to 9000t)  of sugar beets per day with annual production of
3 million kkgs (3.3 million tons)  of refined sugar (Tables II and
III).  A plant of average size handles  approximately  3265  kkgs
(3600t)  of sliced beets per day during "campaign."

For  a  plant  of  average  size,   the waste waters if discharged
without  treatment  would  be  equivalent  in  terms  of  organic
polluting  effect  to  the  sewage  load  to  be  expected from a
population of about 823,000 people,  with  consideration  of  in-
place  pollution  control measures which have been constructed or
installed by  the  beet  sugar  processing  industry,  the  total
potential  pollution  load  from the average sized plant has been

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                             Figure I



LOCATION OF BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANTS WITHIN  THE  U.S.,1974

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                             TABLE I

         Operating Beet Sugar Processing Plants in the
                        United States  (35)
   Company
Plants
Amalgamated Sugar Company, ogden, Utah              tt
American Crystal Sugar Company, Fargo, North Dakota 6
Buckeye Sugar, Inc., Ottawa, Ohio                   1
Holly Sugar Corp., Colorado Springs, Colorado       9
Michigan Sugar Company, Saginaw, Michigan           4
Monitor Sugar Company, Bay City, Michigan           1
The Great Western Sugar company, Denver, Colorado  15
Northern Ohio Sugar Company, a wholly-owned
subsidiary of The Great Western Sugar company       2
Spreckels Sugar Division, Amstar corporation        5
San Francisco, California
Union sugar Division, consolidated Foods            1
Corporation, San Francisco, California
Utah-Idaho Sugar Company, Salt Lake City, Utah      H
                                      TOTAL
 52
                                     11

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                                     TABLE II

                   Consumption and Processing for the Beet Sugar
                                Processing Industry
Production of Sugar Beets

  Domestic production (1970)
             25.9 million kkg  (28.6 million tons)

             12.59
  Percent sucrose of beets  (1969)
  Sugar yield per harvested land area (1970)   5.21 kkg/ha  (2.33 ton/ac)
  Number of beet sugar farms (1969)
  Domestic land area harvested (1969)
  Planted land area harvested (1969)
  Average land area harvested (1969)
  Sugar beet yield per unit land area
             18,424
             624,100 ha (1,542,000 ac)
             35.7 ha (88.2 ac)
             33.9 ha (82.5 ac)
             41.5 kkg/ha  (18.5 ton/ac)
Raw Sugar Production (1969)

  Total continental sugar production 4.17 million kkg  (4.6 million tons)
        Cane sugar production
        Beet sugar production
1.17 million kkg  (1.3 million tons)
3.00 million kkg  (3.3 million tons)
  Other U.S. cane sugar production  (Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands)
                                  1.45 million kkg  (1.6 million tons)

        Total U.S. sugar production  5.62 million kkg  (6.2 million tons)
        Total world sugar production 71.1 million kkg  (78.4 million tons)

Sugar Beets Processed (1969)

  Total sliced                    24.6 million kkg  (27.1 million tons)
  Sucrose in cossettes, percent                      14.36

Domestic (U.S.) Refined Beet Sugar Production (1969)

  Refined sugar per unit weight of beets received  113 kg/kkg         (226 Ib/ton)
  Refined sugar per unit weight of beets sliced    116 kg/kkg         (231 Ib/ton)
  Extraction rate based on weight of beets sliced         80.43 percent

Sugar Consumption (1969) - Raw Value

  Total U.S. sugar consumption         9.61 million kkg. (10.6 million tons)
  Per capita U.S. consumption (refined value)     44.7 kg  (98.6 Ib)

Miscellaneous Information (based on weight of beets sliced)
  Typical sugar content of beets
  Typical sugar recovery, non-Steffen plant
  Typical sugar recovery, Steffen plant
  Typical dried pulp production
  Typical molasses production, non-steffen plant
                     15%
                     70 - 85%
                     80 - 95%
                     4.5%
                     4.5%
                                        12

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                                    TABLE III

              Present and  Projected Processing Capacity of Beet Sugar
                            Processing Plants by States
   StAte

California
Colorado
Michigan
Idaho
Minnesota
Nebraska
Montana
Ohio
Utah
Wyoming
Washington
Arizona
Kansas
North Dakota
Oregon
Texas
Number of
 Plants

   10
   10
    5
    4
    3
    4
    2
    3
    1
    3
    2
    1
    1
    1
    1
    1
                   52
Rated 1973 Capacity
Wt. of Bertts Sliced/Day,
        kkg   (tons)
28,400
24,500
10,200
22,600
10,400
9,000
7,000
6,000
2,200
6,500
11,200
3,800
2,900
4,700
6,000
6,000
( 1,300)
(27,000)
(11,250)
(24,920)
(11,500)
( 9,900)
( 7,700)
( 6,650)
( 2,430)
( 7,200)
(12,325)
( 4,200)
( 3,200)
( 5,200)
( 6,600)
( 6,600)
Projected Capacity  1980
Wt. of Beets Sliced/Day
     Meg (ton)
36,300
26,600
10,700
22,600
13,500
9,100
10,400
5,000
5,800
6,800
12,500
3,800
3,300
4,500
6,500
5,900
(40,000)
(29,300)
(11,800)
(24,950)
(14,750)
(10,000)
(11,450)
( 5,130)
( 6,350)
« ( 7,500)
(13,800)
( 4,200)
( 3,600)
( 5,000)
( 7,200)
( 6,500)
                161,400  (188,400)
                                                           183,300  (202,100)
                                             13

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substantially reduced to approximate an equivalent pollution load
of  a  population  of  15,000  to  110,000.   Pollution  load  is
estimated  in  terms of present waste water discharged to surface
waters as BOD5_.

within the U.S., beet sugar processing plants  are  located  from
the  warmer  areas of Southern California and Ari^pna to the cool
temperature regions of  Montana,  Minnesota,  and  North  Dakota.
Sugar  beets are also processed in modern plants in Canada, Great
Britain, Western Europe, Poland,  the  Soviet  Union,  and  other
countries.  There are some 800 beet sugar plants in Europe and in
North  America  and  all  use  the same basic technology for pro-
cessing.  About 15* of U.S. beet sugar processing is carried  out
individually  by  each  of  the  states  of California, Idaho and
Colorado.  Minnesota, Michigan and Washington each process  about
six percent while the remaining 37 percent of the sugar beets are
about equally distributed among eleven other states.


Processing and Refining operations

General

The  raw  materials entering beet sugar processing operations are
sugar beets, limestone, small quantities  of  sulfur,  fuel,  and
water.   The  products  are  refined  sugar, dried beet pulp, and
molasses.  The average raw material requirements and end products
produced per unit weight of clean beets processed are given below
for non-Steffen and Steffen processes  (30) .

                       NON-STEFFEN PLANTS

      Raw Material or End-Product    Per Unit Weight of Sliced Beets
      Limestone
      Fuel, gas or coal

      Avg. water intake
      Dry Beet pulp
      Sugar product
      Molasses produced
      Avg. waste water flow
40.0 kg/kkg (80 Ib/ton)
6.9 x 10» kg cal/kkg
   (2.5 x 106 BTU/ton)
9150 1/kkg (2200 gal/ton)
50.1 kg/kkg (100 ib/ton)
130 kg/kkg (260 Ib/ton)
50.0 kg/kkg (100 Ib/ton)
8780 1/kkg (2100 gal/ton)
                         STEFFEN PLANTS
      Molasses worked
      Additional limestone
      Additional sugar produced
      Steffen filtrate
50.1 kg/kkg (100 Ib/ton)
20.0 kg/kkg (UO Ib/ton)
15.0 kg/kkg (30 Ib/ton)
376 1/kkg (90 gal/ton)
The various unit operations required for converting  sugar  beets
into   refined   sugar  are  many  and  complex,  but   they  are
essentially the same in all plants in this  country.   The  basic
                                14

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processes  consist  of  slicing,  diffusion,  juice purification,
evaporation, crystallization, and recovery of sugar.

The sugar beet harvesting, piling and processing periods vary  in
different  sections  of  the  country.   The processing season or
"campaign" extends from early September to late February or early
March in Ohio, Michigan, North Dakota, Minnesota, and  the  Rocky
Mountain Region.  However, the length of the processing season is
variable  and sometimes intermittent, being highly dependent upon
climatic conditions.  In the warmer areas,  the  beet  processing
season  may  extend  from April to late December.  The sugar beet
processing campaign is a seasonal activity operating on a 24-hour
a day basis, 7 days a week during the "campaign." From 40 to more
than 400 seasonal workers are employed at a  single  plant.   The
smaller  work force of 40 persons is representative of the inter-
campaign period.

Incoming sugar beets contain between 10  and  16  percent  sugar,
about  5  percent  non-soluble  matter (called "marc") and water.
The initial process for the extraction of purified sugar and  the
formation   of  byproduct  molasses   (the  "straight  house")  is
identical throughout the industry.   Some  plants  also  have  an
additional  operation,  the "Steffen process," for the extraction
of  additional  sugar  from  molasses.   Whether  a  plant  is  a
11 straight  house"  or  a  "Steffen  process"  operation,  the end
product of the beet sugar processing plant is refined sugar.   In
the  straight house or non-steffen process the byproduct molasses
containing approximately 85 percent solids and 15  percent  water
results.   The total molasses produced accounts for approximately
4,5 percent of the weight  of  beets  sliced.   Sugar  extraction
efficiency  in  the  straight  house  or  non-Steffen  process is
approximately 75 percent.  The Steffens process operation enables
the plant to extract additional sugar from the molasses  produced
in  a  straight  house  operation  and,  with  this addition, the
production may be 85 percent efficient in total extraction of the
sugar from raw beets.  Of the 52 beet sugar processing plants  in
the U.S. at present, 20 utilize the Steffen process.

In  recent  years, there has been a trend toward a lower "purity"
beet, i.e. lower sugar content.  The lower  purity  of  beets  is
attributed  to  their  harvest  prior  to  maturity  in  order to
maintain  uniform  processing  rates  and  therefore   a   longer
processing  season  (e.g.  California),  nitrogen  use during the
growing season, and  pile  storage  deterioration  during  longer
campaigns  (in  northern  climates),   Higher nitrogen content of
soils through wide spread fertilizer use, and increased  emphasis
on sugar beet breeding for disease resistence also may be factors
in  reduced  beet  purity.  With lower purity of beets, the sugar
extraction efficiency in a  straight  house  operation  decreases
substantially,  approaching  70  percent, with the sugar which is
not extracted being retained in the byproduct molasses.
                                 15

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         WATER
 STRAIGHT
  HOUSE
      SUGAR          4
      BEETS   WATER!   T PULP
                                                    WATER
                      LIME
                   f PRODUCT
                     SUGAR
Preparation
  Sugar
Extraction
Purification
     STEFFEN
     PROCESS
                       Calcium
                       Saccharate

                     STEFFEN „	
                     FILTRATE
Crystallize
Evaporation
                                                  Lime
                               Molasses
                    Additional

                    Extraction
Production Classification

The U. s. Bureau of  the  census of  Manufacturers  classifies  the
beet  sugar  processing  subcategory of the sugar processing point
source category as standard Industrial Classification  (SIC) Group
Code Number 2063 under the more general  category  of  Sugar  and
Confectionery  Products,  Food  and Kindred Products  (Major Group
10).  The four-digit classification code (2063) comprises  indus-
trial establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing  sugar and
sugar  products  from sugar  beets.   A detailed list of product
codes  within  the    broad   beet   sugar   processing   industry
classification code  (2063)  is included in Table IV.

Regulations and.Future.Grgwth

Federal Sugar Act

until  the  late  1940's  the economic stability of both the beet
sugar and the cane sugar processing industry  fluctuated widely*
Tariff  reductions   on   imported  sugar  seriously  depressed the
domestic sugar economy throughout its growth.  The sugar industry
is now protected and operates on a quota  system  established  by
the  Federal  Sugar   Act of 1948 which was amended in July, 1962.
Quotas are established on both domestic and foreign sugar.  Under
the Federal Sugar Actr the price of sugar is  controlled by  the
secretary  of  Agriculture.   Annually  the  total national sugar
requirement is projected and sales quotas to  domestic   producers
are adjusted accordingly.
                                  16

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                                   TABLE  IV

             Product Classification by SIC Code.for  the Beet Sugar
                            Dv*n/*aceInn TnHnctt*\/l -3
          SIC Product Code
                                 Product
20630
     20630-21
     20630-81
     20630-83
     20630-85
     20630-87
20630-09
20630-11

20630-13

20630-15


20630-31

20630-35
                20630-51
                20630-55
                20630-71
                20630-79
Refined beet supar and byproducts
  Granulated beet sugar:
    Shipped 1n individual  services  (small  packets)
    Shinned in consumer units  (cartons  & sacks
       of 25 Ibs, or less)
    Shioped in commercial  units (bags & other
     containers more than  25  Ibs.)
    Shipped in bulk (railcars, trucks,  or bins)
  Cube and tablet sugar:
  Confectioners nowdered sugar:
    Shlnped in consumer units  (containers  of
    10 Ibs. or less)
    Shipped in commercial  units (containers  of
    more than 10 Ibs.)

  Liauid sugar or sugar syrup:
    Sucrose type
    Inert and partially Inert  type
  Other beet sugar factory products and byproducts
  Whole or straight house  molasses:
    Shipped for desugarlzatlon
    Shipped for other uses
  Discard molasses
  Molasses beet pulp
  Dried beet pulp, plain
  Wet beet pulp (estimated dry weight basis)
                                      17

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Anticipated Industry Growth

Under  the  present  Federal Sugar Act, the beet sugar processing
industry is permitted to increase its production at a rate  of  3
percent  annually.  The growth and development of beet production
areas and processing facilities may be in new areas as well as in
present beet-growing areas.  Some companies anticipate very large
increases at certain plants and little or no  growth  at  others.
Additional  beet  sugar  processing  plants  are  presently being
considered for construction in the United states.  One such plant
is being considered at Renville, Minnesota, to replace  a  former
plant at Chaska, Minnesota, which was closed in 1970.  This plant
reportedly  may  employ  an  ion  exchange process for extracting
sugar from molasses rather than the conventional steffen process.
A plant is also proposed  a1?  Wahpeton,  North  Dakota.   Another
plant  at  Hillsboro,  North  Dakota  is  under construction with
completion scheduled for 1974.

Large  population  growth,  urban  encroachment   due   to   land
development,  and  increased  land values are likely to result in
decreased  growth  of  the  beet  sugar  processing  industry  in
Colorado.   Industry  experts  predict  that  the areas of future
growth of the beet sugar processing  industry  will  be  the  Red
River of the North (Minnesota and North Dakota), and the Columbia
River Basin.  Expansion of the industry may be expected in Kansas
and Nebraska because of proximity to sugar beet growing areas and
land  availability  for  future beet sugar processing plant sites
with opportunity for land disposal of waste waters.
                                 18

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                           SECTION IV


                    INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
Profile of Production Processes

Beginning with arrival of sugar beets at a  given  plant  to  the
production  of  refined  sugar*  the  production  processes, beet
handling  methods,  and  associated  plant   management  are  all
considered  part  of  the total plant system.  Detailed narrative
descriptions of processes and methods associated with beet  sugar
processing  are  given  below.   The  description  serves  as  an
introduction to the rationale for  segmentation  the  beet  sugar
processing  subcategory  of  the  sugar  processing  point source
category.

Delivery and Storage of Beets

Beets are delivered to the plant by trucks or railroad  cars  and
stored  in  large  piles  or  dumped  directly  into  flumes  for
transport into the processing plant.   Beets  must  generally  be
stored for periods ranging from 20 to 100 days or more, since the
processing period takes considerably longer than the harvest.  In
areas  benefited by low ambient temperatures, beets can be stored
in large piles until  processing  begins.   However,  during  the
storage  period,  considerable  deterioration of beets may occur.
Loss of recoverable sugar from beets through inversion in storage
occurs even under the best  of  storage  conditions.   Therefore,
great effort is made to reduce the time in storage by maintaining
maximum  slicing  rates  in the processing plants to the possible
detriment of sugar extraction efficiency.  Storage  of  beets  in
piles  is  not  practiced in California and other areas where the
prevailing warmer winter temperatures would encourage rapid  beet
deterioration.   The  harvest  is  carefully  regulated  in these
regions so that beets may be processed soon  after  removal  from
the  field.   If  harvesting  is interrupted by winter rains, the
plants are closed until harvesting can resume.

Transporting, Washing, Slicing and Weighing

Sugar beets are transported from the delivery  point  or  storage
piles  to the process by water flumes.  The beet transport flumes
are provided with rock catchers which trap and remove stones  and
other  heavy  foreign  material  from flume flow.  Trash catchers
remove light material including weeds and loose beet  tops.   The
sugar  beets are lifted from the flume to a beet washer by a beet
wheel and are discharged from the washer  to  a  roller  conveyor
where  they  receive  a  final washing by high pressure sprays of
clean water.   Water from the beet washer and sprays is discharged
into the flume system.  The washed beets  are  sliced  into  thin
ribbon-like  strips called "cossettes," and fed into a continuous
diffuser.  A scale is usually installed in a section of the  belt
                                19

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feeding  the  diffuser  to  weigh  the sliced beets entering this
portion of the process.


Sugar Extraction by Diffusers

The diffuser extracts sugar and other soluble substances from the
cossettes under a counter-current flow of water.  The  liquor  or
"raw  juice" containing the sugar and other soluble substances is
pumped to purification stations.  This raw juice contains between
10 and 15 percent sugar.

Disposal of Exhausted Cossettes

The exhausted beet pulp or cossettes are conveyed to pulp presses
where the water content is  reduced  from  about  95  percent  to
approximately 80 percent before the pulp is fed into a pulp drier
where  the pressed pulp is further dried to a moisture content of
5 to 10 percent.  The pulp press water is usually returned to the
diffuser as part of the  diffuser  supply.   The  dried  pulp  is
utilized  as  a  base  for livestock feed.  Only one plant in the
industry now stores wet beet  pulp  in  a  silo.   This  silo  is
scheduled for replacement with a pulp drier by October, 1973.

Carbonation  of  Raw  Juice,  Clarification,  Concentration,  and
Separation

The raw juice from the diffuser containing most of the sugar from
the beets as well as soluble and colloidal impurities  is  pumped
to  the  first carbonation station.  Lime  (calcium oxide), slaked
lime, or calcium saccharate (from the steffen process)  is  added
to  the  raw  juice  and  the juice is then saturated with carbon
dioxide  gas  to  precipitate  calcium  carbonate.   The  calcium
carbonate sludge thus formed carries with it suspended impurities
in the juice and is separated from the mixture by vacuum filters.
The  "thin  juice,"  after further treatment with carbon dioxide,
filtration, and sulfur dioxide to reduce the pH to  about  8,  is
concentrated  in  multiple-effect  evaporators to a "thick juice"
(65 percent solids) and then boiled in a vacuum pan  crystallizer
to  obtain  the  crystallized  sugar.   The sugar is separated by
centrifugation from the adhering syrup and dried.  The  remaining
syrup  is  further  concentrated  to yield additional crystalline
sugar and molasses.  The molasses may be added to  the  exhausted
beet  pulp and sold for animal feed or may be further desugarized
by the Steffen process.

The Steffen Process

In this process the molasses produced  from  the  straight  house
operation  is  diluted,  cooled and treated with calcium oxide to
precipitate the sugar as a saccharate.  The  calcium  saccharate,
after  separation  by  filtration  from the remaining solution of
impurities  (Steffen  filtrate),  is  returned   to   the   first
carbonation  station  in the straight house process.  The Steffen
                                20

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filtrate may be discharged as a waste, or after precipitation and
removal of  calcium  carbonate  by  addition  of  carbon  dioxide
(carbonation),   be   evaporated   to   a   thick  liquor  called
concentrated Steffen filtrate.  This filtrate  may  be  dried  in
combination with beet pulp or used as a source for the production
of  such byproducts as mbnosodium glutamate and potash fertilizer
salts.

Categorization,of_the Beet Sugar Processing Industry

The beet sugar processing subcategory  of  the  sugar  processing
point  source  category  is  defined as the production of refined
sugar utilizing sugar beets as a raw material.

Factors considered

With respect to identifying any relevant, discrete  segments  for
the  beet  sugar  processing  subcategory of the sugar processing
point source category the  following  factors  or  elements  were
considered in determining whether the industry subcategory should
be subdivided into segments for the purpose of the application of
effluent limitations guidelines and standards of performance:

   1.  Waste water constituents
   2.  Treatability of wastes
   3.  Raw materials
   U.  Products produced
   5.  Production processes and methods
   6.  Size and age of production facilities
   7.  Land availability, climate, and soil conditions

After considering all these factors it is concluded that the beet
sugar processing subcategory of the sugar processing point source
category  comprises  a  single and coherent industry subcategory.
Accordingly, categorization is  based  on  the  entire  industry,
encompassing  all  plants,  processes,  wastes,  and  descriptive
elements in a single subcategory as defined  above.   Plant  size
and  soil  factors  are  determined to be of significant economic
importance in achievement of pollution control levels,  and  have
been  appropriately considered in segmentation of the subcategory
for purposes of the July 1, 1983, effluent limitation guidelines.

Raw Waste Water Constituents and Treatability

The nature and characteristics of raw waste  components  released
for treatment or control from any beet sugar processing plant are
similar.  Moreover, all effluents respond to, and are treated by,
the  same  or  similar  waste  treatment  systems.  As with other
factors  considered,  wastes  and  treatment  systems  show  some
variations  (e.g.,   increases  in  total waste loads as lime mud
slurry from  Steffen plants).   However, the  variations  are  not
sufficient  in magnitude to warrant segmenting the subcategory on
this basis.  Typical waste water constituents, waste  loads,  and

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flow  data for the beet sugar processing subcategory of the sugar
processing point source category are included in Table VI.

The difference in waste load by comparison of a Steffen to a non-
Steffen  beet  sugar  processing  plant  of  comparable  capacity
results  from  additional  lime  use  in  clarification  of sugar
solutions,  the  generation  of   Steffen   filtrate,   and   the
possibility  of  additional  organic  entrainment  of  barometric
condenser water  through  the  additional  concentration  in  the
Steffen  process.   In  practical  terms,  these additional waste
sources present little impact  on  the  total  plant  pollutional
waste  load  volumes  and  effects  under  present waste disposal
practices..  A Steffen house operation may contribute a lime  mud
slurry volume of 680 1 and BOD^ of 9.5 kg/kkg (180 gal and 19 lb/
ton)  of  beets  sliced in comparison to 340 1 and 3.2 kg/kkg (90
gal and 6.5 Ib/ton) of beets sliced for  a  non-Steffen  process.
Under  present  plant practices, the relatively small lime slurry
volume generated at beet sugar processing plants  (Steffen or non-
Steffen)  is disposed of on land without  discharge  to  navigable
waters.   Steffen  filtrate,  resulting  from extraction of sugar
from molasses in the Steffen process, is universally concentrated
for byproduct recovery or disposed of on land  without  discharge
to  navigable  waters.   The  Steffen  filtrate  is a small waste
volume of 510  1/kkg  (120  gal/ton)   of  beets  sliced  of  high
pollutional  load  of  5.2  Kg  BODjj/kkg  (10.4 Ibs/ton) of beets
sliced.  Additional sugar  entrainment  in  the  evaporation  and
crystallization  process  can  result  in  an increase of 0.05 kg
BOD5/kkg  (0.1 Ib/ton)  of beets sliced in  a  Steffen  process  as
compared  to  0.25  kg  BOD*>/kkg  (0.5  Ibs/ton)   of beets sliced
commonly expected for  a  non-Steffen  process.    The  additional
waste  load  is  not  significant  as compared to the total plant
waste load and may be reduced  or  eliminated  by  the  identical
technology judged applicable to a non-Steffen process.

Raw Materials and Final Products

Raw materials (e.g., sugar beets, water, limestone, and fuel)  and
final  products  do  not  provide  a  basis  for  segmenting  the
industry, as the essential characteristics of these materials are
consistent throughout the industry.    Unimportant  variations  in
the  composition  of  these materials may exist as exemplified by
sugar beets themselves.  The beets will vary slightly in  quality
and  characteristics  primarily in terms of the sugar content and
amount  of  associated  incoming  "tare"   and   debris.    These
variations   are  not  unique,  are  experienced  throughout  the
industry, and are  influenced  by  cultural  practices,  care  in
harvesting   of   the   beets,   climatic   conditions,  handling
procedures, and beet storage practices.

Water use is determined by the needs of the individual plant, and
under  existing  practices  is  primarily   influenced   by   the
temperature and quality of available water supply sources and the
degree   of  inplant  water  reuse.    Water  use  by  beet  sugar
processing plants varies markedly due to these variables.
                                22

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The quality of product  (refined sugar) is uniform throughout  the
industry.   Differences  arise  in the various uses for which the
final product is made or the method of packaging for  the  buyer.
The latter factors are not environmental quality related in their
relationship  to beet sugar processing.  Lime used in the process
for precipitation of impurities and pH  control  is  disposed  of
essentially by the same technique throughout the industry,

Energy  requirements  in a beet sugar processing plant are fairly
uniform at 1.2 kw of electrical energy  per  kkg  (1.3  hp/t)  of
beets  sliced  per  day.   Small  variations can be attributed to
ancillary  activities  such  as  pollution  abatement  equipment.
Sugar,  molasses,  and  beet  pulp  are  the three major products
produced in all plants and industry-wide product quality  control
effectively   eliminates  any  significant  differences  in  unit
quantity of production or product characteristics.

Production Processes and Methods

As  discussed. in  the  previous  section,  there  is  little  to
differentiate  in  the  essential  operations  conducted for beet
sugar  processing  at  all  plants.   Improved   sugar   recovery
processes  ,(e.g«,  Steffen  Process)   lead  to enhanced inprocess
recycle efficiencies but show no  material  effect  upon  overall
production  methods.   Other  unit  processes  such  as  slicing,
extraction,   pulp   pressing,   and   carbonation   for    juice
clarification  are  uniform  in  all  plants.  The quality of the
juice resulting from the diffusion process  may  vary  with  beet
storage and growing conditions.

Some  plants  within  the  beet sugar processing industry operate
what is referred to as  an  "extended  use"  campaign.   In  such
operations,    the   "thick   juice"   after   purification   and
concentration is stored in part for processing through the  sugar
end  of  the  plant during the intercampaign.  The effect of such
operations on raw waste loads from the plant  is  to  extend  the
period  of waste water generation over the thick juice processing
period.  The total waste load remains the  same.    However,  the
waste generated as a problem source in the processing of beets to
thick  juice  is  of primary consideration (flume, condenser, and
lime  mud  wastes).   The  processing  of  thick  juice  in   the
intercampaign  in  the sugar end of the process adds only a small
waste load attributed primarily  to  contaminants  in  barometric
condenser  waters  of  the  crystallization tank without adequate
entrainment control devices.

In consideration of the relatively small  waste  load  attributed
only  to  barometric  condenser water resulting from the extended
use  campaign,  such  procedures  are   not   justification   for
segmentation  of  the  beet  sugar processing subcategory.  Waste
disposal facilities designed and operated to  adequately  dispose
of waste waters resulting during the beet processing season serve
adequately  during  the "extended use" campaign operations, since
these two activities are not conducted concurrently.
                                23

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Land Availability, Climate and Soil Conditions

Land availability and climatic and soil conditions are  principal
factors  that  must be considered in the handling and disposal of
beet sugar processing waste waters.

Climate, soil conditions, and land availability vary  in  various
regions of the country and at individual plant sites.  Very tight
soil  in  terms  of  percolation  characteristics  exists in some
geographical regions (e.g,, glacial till soils of Michigan, Ohio,
and the Red River of the North in  North  Dakota  and  Minnesota)
which   necessitates   greater   reliance  upon  evaporation  and
increased land requirements  as  a  mechanism  for  obtaining  no
discharge  of process waste water pollutants to navigable waters.
Land availability  is  particularly  an  important  factor  where
because of climate and soil conditions increased reliance on pond
surface  evaporation  is  required.   Based on mass water balance
relationships developed in this document, land for  no  discharge
of  process  waste,  water  pollutants  to  navigable  waters with
extensive recycling and controlled land disposal of waste  waters
(0.635   cm   or  1/U  in  per  day  allowable  filtration  rate)
requirements  are  approximately  50.6  ha  (100  ac)   for   the
average-sized  plant.  Greater land requirements may result under
adverse land disposal conditions.  Present practice  in  much  of
the  industry  is  the  construction  and use of much larger land
disposal areas for waste disposal than actually required for this
purpose.   Necessary  land  i s  generally  available  under   the
prevailing  climate  and  soil conditions throughout the industry
for controlled land disposal of waste  waters.   Controlled  land
disposal  of  waste  water  by reliance on maximum allowable soil
filtration rates alone effectively eliminates  variable  climatic
factors  such  as  rainfall  and  evaporation  as concerns in the
recommended  land  based  waste  water   disposal   and   control
technology.   With the exception of the Michigan-Ohio area (where
lake  evaporation  nearly  compensates   for   annual   rainfall)
additional   waste  water  losses  may  be  attributable  to  net
evaporation as well  as  filtration.   Factors  related  to  land
availability and soil characteristics need to be fully considered
in  application of effluent guidelines and limitations for a land
based waste water control technology.   Adverse  soil  filtration
rates such as experienced in the Michigan-Ohio area substantially
increase  land  area  requirements  for  land  disposal  of waste
waters, thus affecting the technological and economic feasibility
of land disposal  under  these  circumstances.   Inadequate  soil
filtration  is  judged  to  present an economic justification for
segmentation  of  the  subcategory  in  development  of  effluent
limitations guidelines applicable to July 1, 1983.

Size and Age of Production Facilities

As  can  be determined from Table V, over seventy percent of both
the number of plants and production capacity are in the range  of
1800-4700  kkgs (2000 - 5200 tons) a day; with the balance of the
plants characterized by the same  order  of  magnitude.   Age  of
                                24

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                           TABLE V

    SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANTS IN THE
         UNITED STATES, DAILY SLICING CAPACITIES
Slicing Capacity in kkg/day  (ton/dav^

1270  (1400) or less
1450 -
2200 -
2181 -
2631 -
3081 -
3451 -
3991 -
1810
2180
2630
3080
3450
3990
4710
(1600 -
(2001 -
(2401 -
(2901 -
(3401 -
(3801 -
(4401 -
2000)
2400)
2900)
3400)
3800)
4400)
5200)
5890 - 6350  (6500 - 7000)

6351 - 8610  (7000 - 9500)

More than 8610 (9500)
 Number of Plants

         1

         7
        11
         4
         7
         6
         6
         3

         5

         1


TOTAL  ~52
                              25

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equipment  and facilities proves unimportant because the industry
has been continually modernizing operations to enhance production
efficiency.  Size of plant bears a general relationship  to  land
available  —  the smaller plants being generally located in more
urbanized areas with climatic and soil conditions less  favorable
than  other areas for controlled land disposal.  The relationship
is only general in context; there are notable exceptions  to  the
generalization.   Of  great  importance is the increased economic
impact  on  the  smaller  plant  as  compared  to  larger   plant
operations.    This   economic   factor  serves  as  the  primary
justification of segmentation of the subcategory  in  development
of  effluent  limitations  guidelines applicable to July 1, 1983.
Raw waste load characteristics and quantities for  various  waste
water  components  are reliably related to unit production rates,
thereby eliminating size as a possible factor  in  generation  of
disproportionate waste loads by capacity of plant.
                                26

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                            SECTION V

              WATER USE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
Specific Water Uses

Water  is  commonly used in a beet sugar processing plant for six
principal  purposes:  Transporting   (fluming)  of  beets  to  the
processing  operation,  washing  beets, processing  (extraction of
sugar from the beets), transporting beet pulp and lime  mud  cake
waste,  condensing  vapors  from  evaporators and crystallization
pans, and cooling.

The quantity of fresh water intake to plants ranges between 1,250
and 25,000 1/kkg  (200 and 6,000 gal/ton) of beets sliced.   Fresh
water  use  is highly contingent upon in-plant water conservation
practices  and  reuse  techniques.   Average  water  use  in  the
industry   approximates   9200  1/kkg   (2200  gal/ton)  of  beets
processed.  Total water used, including reused water, varies much
less and totals approximately  20,900   1/kkg  (5000  gal/ton)   of
beets  sliced.   Most  of the water used in beet sugar processing
plants is employed for condensing vapors  from  evaporators,  and
for  the  conveying  and  washing of beets  (see Table VI)*  Since
many  process  uses  do  not  require  water  of   high   purity,
considerable   recirculation   is   possible   without  extensive
treatment.  The nature and  amounts  of  these  water  reuses  as
influenced  by in-plant controls and operational practices have a
substantial  effect  on  resulting  waste  water  quantities  and
characteristics.  Reduction in water use with minimum waste water
volumes   promises  fewer  difficulties  in  waste  handling  and
disposal, and greater  economy  of  treatment.   Water  uses  for
various  operations  in a beet sugar processing plant are further
described below.

Flume or Beet Transport Water

As previously mentioned, transport of beets from  piles,  trucks,
or  railroad  cars  into  the plant is invariably accomplished by
means of water flowing in a narrow channel  (flume)  which provides
for handling and conveyance of the  beets  and  removal  of  much
adhered  soil.   Beets  are lifted from the flume to a washer and
subjected to a final wash by sprays.   The combined  flume,  wash,
and  spray water constitutes the largest single use of water in a
beet sugar processing plant, and ranges between 5,000 and  17,000
1/kkg  (1,200 and 4,000 gal/ton)  of beets, averaging about 11,000
1/kkg (2,600 gal/ton.)  In most plants, flume water  is  recycled
after  separation  of  much  of  the suspended soil.  Flume water
generally accounts for approximately  50  percent  of  the  total
plant  water use.  Water used for fluming in many plants is drawn
in part from barometric condenser seal tanks.   In  some  plants,
fresh water is used, either alone or as a supplement to condenser
water.   The use of warm condenser seal tank water for fluming is
                                27

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                                                 TABLE VI
                      REPRESENTATIVE WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS AND TOTAL FLOW DATA
                              FOR A TYPICAL BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT (*)
                         Flow  1/kkg  of
                               BOD,  kg/kkg of
                                   Suspended Solids
Waste Source
Flume Water
Process Water
Screen (Pulp Trans-
port) Water
Press Water
Silo Water
Lime Mud Slurry**
Condenser Water
Steffen Filtrate
beets sliced
(gal/ton)
10,842 (2600)

1668 (400)
751 (180)
876 (210)
375 (90)
8340 (2000)
500 (120)
BOD^(mg/l)
210

910
1,700
7,000
8,600
40
10,500
beets sliced
(Ib/ton)
2,25 (4.5)

1.50 (3.0)
1.30 (2.6)
6.15 (12.3)
3.25 (6.5)
0.35 (0.7)
5.20 (10.4)
Suspended
Solids (mg/1)
800-4,300

1,020-
420
270
120,000
-
100-700
kg/kkg of beets sliced
(Ib/ton)
8.5-41.5 (17-93)

1.7 (3.4)
0.3 (0.6)
0.25 (0.5)
45 (90)

0.05-0.35 (0.1-0.7)
     Totals
23,352 (5600)
20.0 (40.0)
55.8-94.1 (111.6-188.2)
(*)   All values are based upon no recirculation or treatment of waste waters (24,25,26,48).

(**)   Relates to non-Steffen or straight house process.

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often found to be advantageous in cold climates  to  thaw/ frozen
incoming beets.

Process Water

Process  water is associated with the operations of extraction of
sugar from the beet.  About 920 liters/kkg   (220  gal  of  makeup
water/ton)   of  beets  are used for this purpose.  Available data
indicate considerably more water use in some instances, but these
instances apparently include some pulp transport  water.   Nearly
all  plants  practice  complete  process  reuse of pulp transport
water and return pulp press water  to  the  diffuser.   Dry  pulp
handling  with  elimination  of  pulp transport water is a common
practice.  The weight of raw juice drawn  from  the  diffuser  is
approximately  125 percent of the weight of sliced beets entering
the diffuser.  This ratio, called "draft," varies between 100 and
150 percent.  The  discharged  pulp  contains  about  95  percent
moisture  when  it leaves the diffuser and is reduced to about 80
percent moisture by pressing.  Any necessary makeup water in  the
diffuser  may  be  obtained from fresh water supplies, condensate
water  from  the  heaters,  barometric  condenser  water,  or   a
combination  of these sources.  Barometric condenser water is not
the most desirable source  of  makeup  water  since  it  contains
undesirable  dissolved  solids  after  cooling and reuse.  Heater
condensate is preferred and generally considered to be  far  more
suitable for use in the diffuser.

Lime Mud System

Raw juice impurities contained in the calcium carbonate sludge in
the  clarification  process  are removed from clarification tanks
and conveyed to a  rotary  vacuum  filter  for  dewatering.   The
resultant  lime mud cake contains approximately 50 percent solids
which are normally slurried with fresh water or  condenser  water
to about 40 percent solids and pumped to a lime mud pond.  A high
quality  water  for slurrying is not required.  Lime use within a
beet sugar processing plant generally  amounts  to  approximately
2.4  to  4.0 percent by weight of the beets processed.  Water for
slurrying and pumping lime mud to land disposal facilities is not
normally metered but may be estimated on the basis  of  the  lime
dosage  used.  At one plant, water use for slurrying is estimated
at 170 1/min (45 gal/min)  or  40  1/kkg  (10  gal/ton)  of  beets
processed  on  the  basis  of 22,6 percent calcium content of the
lime mud cake and 12,0 percent  in  the  lime  mud  slurry.   The
quantities  actually  used  vary  from  less  than 41.7 1/kkg (10
gal/ton)  of beets processed to more than 417 1/kkg (100 gal/ton).
Many plants use between 83.5 and 251 1/kkg (20 and 60 gal/ton)  of
beets sliced averaging about  208  1/kkg  (50  gal/ton).   Recent
trends  are  toward  reduced use of water in the lime mud slurry.
The lime mud slurry, though relatively small in volume,   is  very
high  in  BODS and suspended solids.  With careful control, water
use for lime mud slurrying can be limited to less than 41.7 1/kkg
(10 gal/ton) of beets processed for a  straight-house  operation.
Semi-dry lime mud handling techniques as practiced at some plants
                                29

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are  effective  in  limiting  water  use  for  lime mud slurrying
purposes.  Because of additional sugar extraction  from  straight
house  molasses  in the Steffen operation through additional lime
precipitation, the Steffen process results in increased lime  mud
volumes  for  disposal.   Reduced  water  volume  techniques  for
handling lime mud from  straight  house  operations  are  equally
applicable to lime mud produced from the Steffen process.

Barometric Condenser Water

Barometric  condensers  are commonly employed in the operation of
pan evaporators and crystallizers in the  beet  sugar  processing
industry.   Water  in  large  quantities  is  required  for  this
purpose.  The quality of the water is not of critical importance,
but since the most readily available  source  of  cold  water  is
generally  the  fresh  water  from wells or streams it is usually
relatively pure.  In 27 of the 52 plants  in  the  United  States
condenser  water  is  cooled  by  some type of cooling device and
recycled in varying degrees for reuse in the plant.  In 35 of the
beet sugar processing plants  within  the  United  States,  spent
condenser  water  frequently  is  reused, principally for fluming
beets.  The amount of  barometric  condenser  water  used  varies
between  5400  and  18,800 1/kkg (1300 and 4500 gal/ton)  of beets
processed.  The average use is approximately  8250  1/kkg  (2,000
gal/ton) of beets sliced.

Steffen Dilution Water (Steffen Process Only)

The  Steffen  process  is  employed  by  20 beet sugar processing
plants.  In this process, molasses containing  about  50  percent
sucrose  is diluted with cold fresh water to produce a "solution-
for-cooler" containing 5 to 6 percent sucrose.

In the south Platte River  Basin  Steffen  house  process  plants
account  for  higher water use than non-steffen plants because of
lower temperature and greater cooling water requirements  in  the
processing  of the molasses solution.  The use of heat exchangers
in these plants such  as  presently  employed  in  other  regions
(e.g., California)  for cooling the molasses solution could reduce
this  high  fresh  water use for cooling and support the economic
use of cooling towers.

Miscellaneous Water Uses

condensate water from steam or vapors in heating and  evaporation
of  raw juice produces high-quality water ranging between 150 and
200 percent of the weight of beets sliced.  The purest  of  these
condensates  is  collected and used as boiler feed.  Normally, no
other water is used for this purpose.  Condensate waters are used
for many other purposes:  Diffuser supply (in part); press  wash,
i.e., washing of lime mud cake precipitate; centrifugal wash; and
house   hot   water    (cleaning   evaporators,   floors,   etc.).
Miscellaneous  water  uses  vary   widely   among   plants   with
housekeeping  practices.   Floor  drainage water may vary between
                                 30

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38,000 and 1,500,000 1  (10,000  and  400,000  gal)  per  day  for
plants  ranging  from   1360 to 6000 kkgs  (1500 to 6600t) of beets
sliced  a  day,  respectively.   The  floor  drainage  waste  may
typically  contain  approximately  2400  mg/1  BOD5 and 3000 mg/1
sugar as sucrose.  Gas washer water also varies considerably from
30,300 to,1,326,000 1  (8,000 to 350,000 gal) a day at  plants  in
the industry.

Factors Affecting.the. Quantity and Quality_pf_Wa_ste Waters

Even  though all beet sugar processing plants in this country and
abroad use essentially the same basic processes for production of
refined sugar, facilities for handling waste waters vary markedly
from plant to plant.

Two relatively recent and important equipment changes  have  been
made  in  United  states  beet sugar processing plants which have
affected water use and corresponding quantities of wastes.  These
are the installation of continuous diffusers and  widespread  use
of  pulp driers.  Replacement of the Roberts (cell-type) diffuser
with the continuous  diffuser  was  completed  in  1967  for  all
plants.   The  new  diffuser showed important reductions in water
required in the process by permitting reuse of pulp press  water.
With  the  cell-type  diffuser,  pulp screen water and pulp press
water were  discharged  as  waste.   The  first  pulp  drier  was
installed in an American plant over 50 years ago, and by October,
1973,  it  is  anticipated  that all plants will be equipped with
modern driers.  One  plant  uses  a  silo  for  disposal  of  wet
exhausted beet pulp.

Concentration  of  the  Steffen waste produced at §teffen process
plants  by  evaporation  is  also  commonly  practiced.    Before
evaporation  of  Steffen  waste was generally practiced, the BOD£
discharge was 5.0 kg/kkg (10 Ibs/ton)  of beets from this  source.
Concentration   of   Steffen   wastes   now  permits  substantial
reductions  in  waste  volume  which  permits  easier   handling,
disposal and by-product use.

The  amount  of  water  reuse  varies  greatly  among  beet sugar
processing plants.  At one plant in 1968  the  total  water  use,
including  reuse,  exceeded  the  fresh  water  intake by only 24
percent;  while at another plant the  total  use  exceeded  intake
water  by  1,300  percent  as  water shortages engendered maximum
conservation.  At most plants fresh water intake constitutes one-
third  to  one-half  of  the  total  use;  although  fresh  water
constituted  less  than  20 percent of. the total water use ,in six
plants in 1968.

The greatest reduction in fresh water use  within  the  past  two
decades has been accomplished by the recirculation of flume water
and by the reuse, after cooling, of condenser water.  In a number
of  plants,  considerable  reliance  has  been  placed  upon  the
mechanical settling unit as  an  integral  part  of  flume  water
recirculation   systems.    Use   of   mechanical  clarifiers  is
                                31

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widespread, as are earthen ponds to provide  settling  for  flume
water  recycle  systems.   The  British Columbia Research council
although reporting favorable results  with  mechanical  and  pond
settling devices concluded that tare recovery and disposal are an
ever-continuing problem.  The Council suggested that soil buildup
within  the  plant could be eliminated only by physical transport
of the soil in the opposite direction  to  the  fields.   In  the
future it is possible that the sugar beet producing farmer may be
required  to  retrieve  sludge  solids  from the processing plant
system  equivalent  to  his  incoming   tare.    Elimination   or
minimization  of soil loads on incoming beets is an integral part
of best technology for overall pollution  control  for  the  beet
sugar processing subcategory of the sugar processing point source
category.

Typical Process Waste characterization

The  most  widely  recognized  and  representative  data of waste
characterization for the beet sugar processing subcategory of the
sugar  processing  point  source  category  is  included  in  "An
Industrial  Waste  Guide to the Beet Sugar Industry" published by
the U.S, Public Health Service.  These waste data are included in
Table VI.  The waste loads  are  representative  of  once-through
water  use  without  recycling  or  treatment.  The data given in
Table VI serve as a reliable base for determining the total waste
load potential of a beet sugar processing plant.  Because of  the
wide  diversity  of  in-plant  control,  recycling, and treatment
practices at present beet sugar processing  plants  the  data  in
Table VI do not reflect the combination of conditions existing at
any  single plant within the industry today.  The data do reflect
total waste load and waste water flow values associated with  the
individual  waste  source  components,  which • may  be predicably
amended by various methods  of  controlling  and  handling  these
individual  waste  water  sources within the industry.  The total
potential waste load and water requirement attributed to each  of
the   waste   producing   production   processes  has  particular
significance and constancy throughout the industry.  In  addition
to  providing  a baseline of total pollutional load attributed to
individual waste components the data  also  serve  to  provide  a
basis  for  comparison  between former and current waste handling
techniques.

The  former  practice  of  beet  sugar   processing   plants   of
discharging  wastes  containing between 15 and 20 kg BOD5/kkg (30
and 40 Ibs/ton) of beets sliced had been reduced to an average of
less than 2.5 kg (5 Ibs) by 1968.  A further  reduction  in  BO05
load has taken place in most recent years with all plants soon to
accomplish  a  discharge  from  zero to less than 1.0 kg BOD£/kkg
(2.0 Ibs/ton)  of beets sliced  to  surface  streams.   The  total
waste  discharge to streams from the entire beet sugar processing
industry in the United States in 1968 was estimated at about  215
billion  1  (57  billion gal) which contained a total of about 37
million kg (82 million Ib) of BOD5.  However, the 24 million  kkg
(26  million  ton)   crop  in  1968  was unusually large — a more
                                 32

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normal crop would have been about  20  million  kkgs   (22  million
tons)  of  beets processed.  A number of plants currently recycle
much of the flume and condenser waters and   some  plants  do  not
discharge any waste water to navigable waters at all.

The  waste water flow data and waste load information in Table VI
 (and supported by data from other  sources) are  adopted  as  base
total  flow  data  and total waste load data associated with beet
sugar processing for  purposes  of this  document.   information
generally  supporting  these  data and  supplemental information
regarding characteristics of beet  sugar processing  plant  wastes
are summarized in Table VII.  The  effects of current practices of
in-plant  control,  recycling,  and  reuse of waste waters within
beet sugar processing plants  on   waste  water  contribution  and
characteristics  are  discussed in the following section.  Values
for  waste  water  constituents  are  given  to  illustrate   the
variability  of  waste water qualities and quantities experienced
in practice  as  dependent  upon   in-process  control  practices *
Every  beet  sugar  processing plant today employs some degree of
waste water recycling or reuse.

Under present practices, process waters (pulp screen water,  pulp
press water, and pulp silo drainage), Steffen waste, and lime mud
slurry  have  essentially  been  eliminated  as  polluting  waste
sources in terms  of  discharge  to  navigable  waters.   Process
waters  are universally recycled within the plant,  Steffen waste
is disposed of with byproduct use or land disposal, and lime mud
slurry  receives  land  disposal.   Flume  water  and  barometric
condenser  water  are  presently   the two primary polluting waste
water sources.

Raw Waste Characteristics of Specific Operations

Flume water

Flume water consists of beet transport water as well  as  various
miscellaneous  small  waste  streams  generated within the plant.
These  include  excess  cooling  water,   pump   gland   leakage,
accidental spills, beet washings and spray table overflows.  This
mixture  when  discharged  from  the flume water system is called
spent flume water and is  generally  considered  the  main  plant
waste stream.

The  industrial Waste Guide (49)  describes waste values for flume
water of 9,800 liters (2,600  gal)   and  2.25  kg  BOD5/kkg  (U.5
Ib/ton)   of  beets  processed  in the United States.  The British
Columbia Research  Council  investigated  flume  waters  of  many
plants  both in the United States and Canada.  Plants with a high
degree of  recirculation  as  well  as  those  with  once-through
systems  were  included.    The BOD5 levels of these waters ranged
between 115 and 1525 mg/1 and averaged 565  mg/1;   the  suspended
solids  content  ranged  from a low of 127 mg/1 to a high of 4500
mg/1;  the average was 210 mg/1.  In Europe the value was  2.5  kg
BOD5/kkg (5.0  Ibs BOD^/ton)  of beets sliced.
                                 33

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                                                                     TABLE  VII

                                               CHARACTERISIICS  OF BEET_SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT  WASTES
Characteristic
                      Flume
                      Water
              Barometric    Pulp       Pulp
              Condenser     Screen,    Press
                 Water      Water"    Water
Pulp        local                       Lime-Cake
Silo        Process        Lime-Cake    Lsgoort       Steffen      General Water
Drainage    Waste Water     Slurry      Effluent      Waste         Analysis
Volume, gal/ton
Beet a
BOD, ug/1
Suspended solids
 ng/1
                      2600(5
                       210(5


                       800(3
                       800-4300(5
Total solids, mg/1    15BO(3
Volatile solids, %

COD, ng/1

Protein-N, ng/1


NHj-N, mg/1

KJeldahl Nitrogen
 mg/1

Nitrite Nitrogen
 mg/1

Nitrate Nitrogen
 mg/1

Total PhospnoruB

 ng/1
                770
               6.8C
                .2<7
                                                                                      325"
                                                                                     1600f2
                                                              2220<3
                                                              3800^2
               65(2

               15(2
                          120,000(5
                             3310(3
 10,500(5
 10,000(3


    7 00 <3
100-700(S
   ,600<3
Turbidity

Sultate, mg/1

Chloride, rag/1

Sucrose, mg/1
Dissolved solids
pH

Alkalinity, mg/1

Temperature, "C
Total coliform
Fecal coliform
 MPN/lOOol.

Fecel atrep,
 MPN/lOOwl.
ioo(J
                                      16"
               33"
 (1   Represents typical characteristic values of beet sugar wastes prior  to  treatment
 (2   As  reported by Pearson,  E., and C.  N.  Sauyer
                                                    "Recent Developments  in  Chlorination  in  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry,"  Proceedings  of  5th  Industrial
      Waste  Conference,  Purdue  University  {November  1949',   p. 110.

 (3    As  reported  by Elridge,  E.F.,  Indufltrial  Waste Treatment  Practice,  New York - McGraw-Hill BooV Co.,  Inc.,  19W,  p.  8*..

 [4    AH  reported  by Rodgers,  H.G.,  and L.  Smith,  "Beet  Sugar Waste Lagoonlng," Proceedings of  8th Industrial Wast* Conference,  Puraue University
      May 1953,  p.  136.

 (5    As  reported  by U.S.  Public  Health Service,

 (6    Water  - transported  pulp  in lieu  of mechanical conveyor.

 (7    As  reported  by Brenton,  fi.W.,  Condenser Water  Survey, 1971  -  1972  campaign for beet  sugar processing plants  of The  Great Western Sugar Co
                          "An  Industrial  Waste  Guide  to  the  Beet:Sugar  Industry," 1950  (48)
      March 1972   (47)
      Use of continuous - type dirrusers Is asaune
                                                                         34

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Investigations  have  shown  an  increase in BODJ5 values of flume
waters  during  the  campaign.   These   increases   are   mainly
attributed  to  the release of soluble organic matter from frozen
beets  or  those  deteriorating  as  a  result  of  poor  storage
conditions  in  northern  regions.   The leaching losses of sugar
into the flume water are also associated to some degree with  the
temperature  of  the  flume water.  To minimize this effect, cold
fresh water is used  for  makeup  in  some  plants*   In  others,
barometric  condenser water is first discharged through a cooling
tower before being used for makeup in the flume system.  However,
when frozen beets are to be sliced they are usually  thawed  with
the  hot barometric condenser water,  studies in Minnesota showed
that the average BOD5/unit weight of beets processed varied  from
1.0  to  2.2  kg/kkg" (2.0 to U.4 Ib/ton) at the beginning of the
campaign to 4.6 to 5.14 kg/kkg (9.2 - 10.3 Ib/ton) near its  end.
The "leveling off" of the BOD5 in recycled flume water systems at
many  plants  within  the  6,000 - 7,000 mg/1 range has been well
established through estensive studies.  It has  been  shown  that
for  BOD5 concentrations greater than 25 mg/1 in flume water, the
COD may be predicted at 150 percent of  the  BOD5  concentration.
COD  concentrations  in  recirculated  flume  water systems range
between 9,000 and 10,000 mg/1.

Flume waters vary considerably in their content of soil,  stones,
beet  leaves,  roots,  and dissolved solids between locations and
harvesting conditions and from season to season.  During  fluming
large  quantities  of detritus are removed from the beets.   Under
certain conditions when incoming beets have great  quantities  of
adhering soil, the flume water consistency may approach that of a
slurry  because  of  its  solid  content.   In more favorable dry
harvesting seasons, particularly in areas of  light  sandy  soil,
the  adhering  soil may only be 3 or 4 percent by weight when the
beets are received  at  the  plant,  but  during  wet  harvesting
seasons,  soil may range up to 20 percent by weight.  The average
soil tare ranges from 5 to 6 percent.  As  a  result,  a  typical
plant may receive about 19,900 kkg (22,000 tons) of incoming tare
over the average campaign.

The  basic flume water recycling system was first in operation at
Brighton, Colorado, and was  later  firmly  demonstrated  at  the
Longmont,  Colorado,  plant  of  the  Great Western Sugar Company
under  a  project  sponsored  by  the  Beet   Sugar   Development
Foundation   and  the  Federal  Water  Pollution  Control  Admin-
istration.    After  overcoming  initial  mechanical   operational
problems   in   handling   water   surges,   the  system  operated
successfully,   Recirculation of  flume  water  is  now  a  common
practice  within  the beet sugar processing industry and involves
lime addition for  pH  control,  screening,  settling  to  remove
settleable  solids, and discharge of solids to control buildup in
the recirculation system.   Large  organic  particles  removed  by
screening are recovered for byproducts such as cattle feed.
                               35

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Dissolved  solids  content of the flume water generally increases
through the first 6 weeks of  operation  of  the  closed  system,
reaching    the   observed   maximum   total   dissolved   solids
concentration of approximately 9,000 to  10,000  mg/1.   As  also
previously  noted,  the  BOD5 level tends to reach an equilibrium
concentration in the range of 6,000  to  7,000  mg/1  during  the
campaign.

A  number  of  studies have related bacterial densities that have
been found on the outer surfaces of beets, and  associated  dirt,
trash, and fertilizers at beet sugar processing plants in the Red
River  of  the  North.   Total  coliform  bacteria determinations
indicate that the dirt  from  freshly  unloaded  beets  contained
490,000  organisms  per  gram of solid material.  Very high total
coliforms were found on the surfaces of the sliced beets  and  on
the  beet  trash removed from the flume water.  These levels were
13,000,000 and 17,200,000 total coliforms per gram  of  material,
respectively.

The  bacterial loads varied from 0 to 68 Bacterial Quantity Units
(BQU) of total coliform bacteria discharged per 110 kkg (100 ton)
of beets sliced, and fecal coliform bacteria from 0  to  8.4  BQU
discharged per 93 kkg  (100 ton)  of beets sliced.  For comparative
purposes,  the  raw  sewage  discharged  by a human population of
1,000 persons would be expected to contain around  15-30  BQU  of
total  coliform  bacteria  and  5-20  BQU  of  fecal  coliforms  .
Relatively low bacterial  loads  have  been  attributed  to  some
plants  because  of  lime  addition, contributing to very high pH
levels in the total plant wastes.  The field surveys  have  shown
that  pH  levels  exceeding  9.0  are particularly destructive to
organisms of the coliform group.

studies of fecal coliform to fecal streptococci ratios of sampled
final  waste  discharges  indicate  bacterial  pollution  to   be
primarily  and  originally  derived  from  the  fecal  excreta of
animals rather than humans.  The source of such  pollution  would
be  from  livestock  animals  such  as found on farm feedlots and
stockyards or from storm water runoff.  Sugar  beet  wastes  have
been  found  to  contain  Streptococci  boyis, a species strongly
associated with the feces of cattle and other  domestic  animals.
Within  the  plant,  river  water  used  for  fluming and washing
purposes may represent another source of fecal coliforms.   These
bacteria   were  found  to  originate  generally  from  up-stream
domestic wastewater discharges.  The bacterial  population  found
in  beet  sugar processing plants and in associated waste streams
are introduced largely into the plant  through  the  flume  water
system.   From  the  flume water they are transferred through the
beet washer, spray table, and beet slicer to the diffuser.

An extremely favorable environment  is  created  in  the  fluming
system  for  sustaining  and  enhancing  bacteria  growth  by  an
abundance of nutrients, favorable temperatures,  stagnant  zones,
and  the  availability  of  fixed  surfaces.   Control  is easily
achieved  in  the  diffuser  with  formalin  or   other   biocide
                                36

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treatment.   Total  bacterial  destruction is accomplished by the
subsequent heat effects in the evaporation process.

In the continuously recycled flume water  system,  the  underflow
volume   (approximately  20%)  has been demonstrated to compensate
for the buildup of dissolved and suspended solids and BOD5 in the
recycled flume water.  As a result  the  buildup  to  equilibrium
concentrations  presents  no problem in the beet sugar processing
and sugar production operation.  However, to avoid contamination,
the flume water must not enter the diffusion unit  operation  and
fresh  water  is  used  on a final spray wash of the beets before
processing to assure no contamination.

The practice of discharging approximately 20% blowdown for solids
control in recirculating flume water systems is widely  supported
by  experience  in  the  beet  sugar  and  cane  sugar processing
industries  as  well  as  recirculating  process  water   systems
employed  by  other  similar industries.  This figure serves as a
generally industry accepted value for needed blowdown  to  effect
satisfactory  solids control with fresh water makeup in this type
of system,

Lime Mud Slurry

Hydrated lime is added to the raw juice as a purifying agent  and
then  precipitated  by carbon dioxide in the carbonation process.
The resulting calcium carbonate sludge, with  impurities  removed
from the juice, is vacuum filtered and slurried with water.  This
mixture  is  known  as  lime mud waste, lime-cake, or lime slurry
residue,  steffen  house  plants  use  two  to  three  times  the
quantity  of  lime employed in straight-house operations, and the
lime-cake slurry is reported by  studies  of  the  Federal  Water
Pollution control Administration to be about 50 percent higher in
BOD5  strength.   Sludges  from the concentrated Steffen filtrate
process and boilouts from the cleaning of evaporators and  vacuum
pans may also be added to the lime mud for disposal.

Lime mud slurry or sludge is alkaline with extremely high organic
and  suspended  solids  content.   Besides calcium carbonate, the
sludge  includes  pectins,  albuminoids,   amino   acids,   other
nitrogenous and proteinaceous compounds, and a significant amount
of  impure  sugars.   A study of 59 plants in the U.S. and Canada
showed lime mud slurries to have an average BOD5  of  6,370  mg/1
with  a  range  of  1,060  to  27,800 mg/1.  The suspended solids
content of these slurries averaged 229,000 mg/1 with a range from
143,000 to 357,000 mg/1.  Amounts of water added  to  the  filter
cake  from  the  vacuum  filter  varied  greatly  and were mainly
responsible for the wide range demonstrated  in  BOD5  and  total
suspended solids values,


Lime  mud slurry may be expected to have unit waste values of 340
liter's (90 gal)  and 3.3 kg BOD5/kkg (6.5 Ibs BOD5/ton)   of  beets
sliced  (49).    From experiences in Europe and Great Britain both
                                37

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lower and higher  BOD5  values  have  been  reported.   A  survey
conducted  by  The Federal water Pollution Control Administration
on beet sugar processing plants in the South Platte  River  Basin
in  Colorado  showed  that  lime mud wasting from a Steffen house
plant could add about 2.5 kg (5 Ibs) BOD5, 3.5 kg (7 Ibs) COD, 45
kg (90 Ibs) total suspended solids  (TSS) , and 22.5 kg (45 Ibs) of
alkalinity per 1.1 kkg (ton) of  beets  processed  to  the  basic
plant  loads.  A straight-house plant would result in one-half to
three-fourths of these respective levels.

Lime cake generated from juice purification operations amounts to
about 5.0 percent of the weight of beets processed  in  U.S.  and
European  practice.   A plant handling 136,000 kkg (150,000 tons)
of beets over the season could produce 2000-4100  kkg  (2200-4500
tons)   of lime-cake.  The weight of slurry would be considerably#
greater.  The pollutional strength  of  lime  mud  slurries  vary
widely  among  beet  sugar  processing plants, depending in large
part on the amount of water used in diluting the filter cake.

Steffen Filtrate

Steffen waste results from  the  extraction  of  sugar  from  the
straighthouse  molasses by the Steffen process.  Steffen filtrate
(the  source  of  wastes)  originates  from  the   filtering   of
saccharate  cake  in the precipitation of diluted molasses in the
Steffen house.

The Steffen filtrate through  the  1940's  represented  the  most
damaging waste product from the beet sugar processing plant.  The
filtrates  are highly alkaline with a pH level near 11, with 3 to
5 percent  organic  solids.   The  Industrial  Waste  Guide   (49)
describes Steffen filtrate as containing around 10,500 mg/1 BOD5,
25,000  to  40,000  mg/1  total solids, and 100 to 700 mg/1 total
suspended solids.

The South Platte River Basin studies  conducted  by  the  Federal
water Pollution Control Administration showed that elimination of
Steffen  waste from the effluent by concentration and disposal as
a cattle feed supplement reduced the pollution  load  of  Steffen
operations  by  about  115 kg of BOD5/kkg  (230 Ib of BOD_/ton) of
molasses worked.

Condenser water

Barometric  condenser  water  is  employed  in  multiple   effect
evaporators  and  across the vacuum pans to create vacuum for low
temperature boiling of sugar solutions in  the  sugar  production
process.   Steam and vapors from the fifth-effect of the multiple
effect evaporator and from  the  vacuum  pans  are  condensed  by
direct  contact  with  the  water  passing through the barometric
condenser.  The  condenser  water  remains  relatively  unchanged
except  for  an  increase  in  temperature to 50-65°C (122-149°F)
(65).   However,  condenser  waters  generally  accumulate   some
entrained  solids and absorb ammonia from the evaporating juices.
                                38

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They are always alkaline, with a pH
usually are less than 9.
range  from  8  to  10,  but
The  principal  waste  constituents in barometric condenser water
include BOD5, ammonia nitrogen,  and  sometimes  phosphates  from
water  treatment.  Total solids are of importance in a "recycled"
condenser water system.  Ammonia, organics,  and  phosphorus  are
important  in  the  eutrophication  process  and have a potential
degrading influence on streams and lakes.

Data regarding  the  BOD£  content  of  condenser  water  confirm
previous findings, namely, that sugar lost by entrainment amounts
to  about  820  kg (1800 Ibs) per day in a plant of 2300-2700 kkg
(2500-3000 ton)  capacity.   Suspended  solids  in  the  condenser
water  which  leaves the seal tank are low.  The British Columbia
Research Council study on various plants reported an average BOD5
for condenser waters of 43 mg/1 with a range of 25  to  130  mg/T
BOD5.   Another  study  found  an  average BOD5 of 50 ppm or less
(65);  a  third  reported  30  mg/1   (74).    Ammonia   nitrogen
concentration   approached   3-15  mg/1  as  nitrogen  with  good
operation.  Suspended solids averaged 67 mg/1 with a range from 0
to 100 mg/1.

The concentration of organics in condenser  water  with  complete
recirculation  has  reached  an equilibrium concentration near 25
mg/1 BODji in present recirculation systems and has  not  been  an
operational  problem.  Degradation of biodegradable organics will
occur in various cooling devices such as cooling towers, aeration
ponds, or open cooling ponds designed primarily for cooling.

Experience indicates that accidents,  shock  loads,  etc.,  cause
heavy   vapor   entrainment  into  condenser  waters,  and  these
conditions are reflected in the waste  loads.   when  overloading
occurs,  pan condensers receive intermittent quantities of liquor
that boil over during the various stages of  the  boiling  cycle.
More  carryover  of  organics  into  condenser water is generally
experienced in the fall in the North  and  North  Central  United
States  as  a  result of beet deterioration.  Based upon U.S. and
European  practices,   good  control  procedures  will  lower  the
condenser   BOD5   concentration  to  15-30  mg/1  (13).   Better
operation with entrainment control devices can limit  the  degree
of entrainment to 10-15 mg/1.

The source of fecal coliforms if present in condenser water would
originate  from the water supply source and generally would be of
concern only  where  surface  waters  containing  bacteriological
contamination  are  used  as  the source of condenser water.  The
elevated temperatures with small entrainment of organics from the
barometric condensers present favorable conditions for the growth
of bacteria in the condenser  water.   However,  because  of  its
relative  purity in comparison with other waste waters,  condenser
water is frequently used for both diffuser supply and flume water
makeup.  The latter practice  is  especially  necessary  in  cold
climates when processing frozen beets.  The elevated temperatures
                                39

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resulting  from use of water for barometric condensing eliminates
serious concern as to the presence of pathoganic organisms in the
waste water after use.

The practice of reuse of condenser water has increased in  recent
years.   In  1968, 38 of the 58 beet sugar processing plants used
condenser water for fluming and other in-plant  uses;  20  cooled
and recycled this water to condensers.  Many plants made some in-
plant  use  of  condenser  water  and discharged the remainder to
surface waters.  At present, 35 of 52 plants employ  complete  or
partial  recycling or reuse of condenser water; 32 plants utilize
cooling devices of which 16 also  employ  maximum  recycling  for
condenser water for condensing purposes.

In  most  plants  the condenser and cooling water systems are the
principal sources of makeup water supply for the beet flumes  and
for  beet washing,  when not reused for fluming and beet washing,
condenser water becomes another  waste  source.   Its  volume  is
substantially reduced by recycling.

Extensive  recycling  of  condenser  water requires some additive
control measures in areas where the water is of poor or  marginal
quality.   As  recycling is increased, the scaling properties are
increased by the concentration of solids through evaporation  and
by  increased  pH  from the absorption of ammonia.  Although most
plants use some type  of  polyphosphate  threshold  treatment  to
prevent  scaling,  it may also be necessary to reduce the pH with
acid.

The problem of dissolved solids accumulation  may  be  controlled
(and  is generally accomplished in the industry) through periodic
bleed-off (approximately 10 percent)  of water from the system  in
order  to  maintain  acceptable  total  dissolved  solids  levels
(approximately 10,000 mg/1 or less) for scaling  control.   Fresh
or clean water make up is necessary.

Various  means of cooling are employed, such as spray ponds, open
ponds, and natural draft and induced draft cooling  towers.   The
latter are generally necessary in warmer and more humid climates.
In most cases, it is not possible to provide recycled water at as
low  a  temperature  as  the  normal  primary  cold water source.
Because of  this,  the  recycle  system  generally  requires  the
addition of low temperature make-up water.

The  use  of cooling towers for condenser water recycling usually
presents a potential problem in  the  growth  of  slime-producing
organisms in the tower packing.  In the presence of small amounts
of  sugar  and  other  nutrients  and  with warm temperatures the
growths  are  difficult  to  control.   Under  the  most  adverse
conditions of processing extremely deteriorated beets the foaming
tendency of beet liquors may likely be increased substantially so
as   to   complicate   the  control  and  minimization  of  vapor
entrainment into barometric  condenser  waters.   At  such  times
conventional  entrainment  separators  may  become less effective
                                40

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with increased carryover of organics in the barometric  condenser
water  system.   The  tendency  of sugar liquors to foam requires
efficient vapor entrainment separators in order to  preclude  the
loss  of  significant  quantities of sugar to the condenser water
 (28) *  The entrainment produced  by  boil-over  and  foamir.g  can
produce  substantial  shock  loading  of  BOD5  in  the  effluent
condenser water.   These  two  hazards  necessitate  careful  and
frequent  analysis  of  condenser  water  for  sugar  in order to
obviate the problem.  Superior entrainment  separators  and  mist
eliminators  will  aid  materially  in the reduction of condenser
water contamination  by  sugar.   The  additional  use  of  level
controllers  on some equipment will assist materially in reducing
contamination that originates from human error.

Miscellaneous

Various  sources  of  wastewater  other  than  those   previously
described  are generated in a beet sugar processing plant.  These
waste sources are of less importance  in  load  and  volume  than
those  previously described and result from gas scrubber washing,
miscellaneous cooling waters, flyash, juice  water,  waste  water
from cleaning of boilers, and floor washing.

Potable  quality  water  is  not necessary for gas washing, but a
sizeable volume of water is used,  crane  of  the  British  Sugar
Corporation reports the reuse of clarified flume water in the gas
washer, after which it is returned to the unclarified flume water
portion of the system.

crane  also notes that selected cooling waters such as those used
for cooling turbine oil can be recirculated  through  a  separate
cooling  tower.   Many  of the other cooling water streams may be
recycled to the main cooling tower and reused.  Where furnace ash
(flyash)  is conveyed with water, a complete recirculatory  system
is  reported.   A  separate  settling  pond is provided where the
water is decanted and recycled.

Periodic (weekly or biweekly)   cleaning  of  pan  evaporators  to
eliminate accumulated scale is accomplished by using caustic soda
followed  by  acid  treatment  in  the  cleaning process with the
discharge of "boil-outs" generally being sent to the flume system
or lime mud slurry pond.

The primary source of water for miscellaneous use  is  condensate
and excess condenser waters.

Process Flow Diagrams

A  schematic  diagram  of  the beet sugar processing operation is
given in Figure II.  The flow diagram  reflects  a  situation  in
which  no  recirculation  or  treatment of individual waste water
streams is practiced and corresponds with the waste  loads  given
in  Table  VI,    The  hypothetical  plant  includes  the  Steffen
process.   The three pulp waters (pulp screen  water,  pulp  press
                                41

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                                          Figure  II
       MATERIALS FLOW IN A BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT WITH NO REC1RCULATION
                    OR TREATMENT OF WASTE WATERS-- STEFFEN PROCESS A
                         	I PRINCIPAL SUGAR BEARING STREAM
                         • •• MINOR SUGAR BEARING STREAM
                         =3HAWWATER FLOW
                         •j»u BY-PRODUCT STREAM
                         ••WASTE WATER FLOW
                                                      o
                                                            RAW MATERIAL
INTERMEDIATE PRODUCT
FINAL PRODUCT
-UAs taken from Beet-Sugar Technology, Second Edition. Edited by R.A. McGinnis,
   Beet-Sugar Development Foundation,  Fort Collins, Colorado (1971) (65)

-------
water,  and  pulp  silo  drainage)  are  commonly  referred to as
process water.   since  the  stipulated  conditions  are  without
recirculation,  maximum conditions of water requirement and waste
water disposal are indicated.

A schematic of materials flow in a common recirculation system of
a beet  sugar  processing  plant  is  indicated  in  Figure  III.
Variations in this scheme of recycling waters as practiced within
present  plants  are  indicated  in  Figures  IV through VI.  The
diagrams are presented with emphasis on  direct  process  related
uses  of  water  within  the  beet sugar processing plant.  Other
water uses (e.g. boiler supply water, hot  water  for  floor  and
evaporator cleaning, gas washer water, etc.) are not indicated on
the  diagrams  for  sake  of  simplicity.   Boiler  supply water,
diffuser  make-up,  and  hot  water  for  cleaning  purposes  are
supplied  through  in-plant  water  reuse  or fresh water sources
(primarily the purer condensate waters from  juice  evaporation).
A  more  detailed  description of other water uses is included in
Mass Water Balance in a Beet Sugar Processing Plant, Section  VII
of this document.

Figure  IV  represents  a  water flow scheme in the industry.  In
this type of flow scheme, all the fresh  water  is  used  in  the
barometric  condensers of evaporators and pans, for miscellaneous
cooling, and at steffen plants for dilution of  molasses.   Spent
condenser water is used for fluming and washing beets, for makeup
in  the  diffuser, and for other purposes.  Plants employing this
sequence of water use are  equipped  with  continuous  diffusers,
pulp screens, pulp presses, and pulp driers.  Pulp press water is
returned  to the diffuser.  Settling ponds for removing soil from
spent flume water and ponds for collecting lime mud are provided.
The overflow from ponds and any excess  condenser  water  may  be
discharged to streams.

Figure V represents a flow pattern involving more nearly complete
reuse  of  water.   Fresh  water  is  used only in evaporator and
crystallization pan condensing, for some  miscellaneous  cooling,
and  at  steffen  plants  for  dilution  of molasses.   During the
campaign, flume water after screening is pumped to settling ponds
and after more or less complete removal of settleable  solids  is
returned  to  the  flume.   Water  from  the  evaporator  and pan
barometric condensers is used as makeup water in the diffuser, in
the beet washers, and in sprays.  Pulp water and pulp press water
are returned to the diffuser.  Lime mud is pumped to  a  separate
lime  pond.   Most  of  the  condenser water is cooled by cooling
tower or spray pond and recycled to condensers.  Steffen waste is
evaporated to concentrated steffen filtrate.

Figure VI represents an extensive recirculation pattern of  flow,
except  that  at  the  end of the operating campaign ponds may be
drained to municipal sewage treatment plants or land disposal.
                                43

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                                        Figure III

             MATERIALS  FLOW IN BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT WITH
           TYPICAL WATER UTILIZATION AND WASTE  DISPOSAL PATTERN
                       FLUME  I^IUM»IJ[«"'"»»IIII	•"	IUMHI*	«•
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                                       44

-------
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                         45

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                    47

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                           SECTION VI

                      POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
Pollutant and Pollutant Parameters

Upon review of available EPA and industry  data  and  information
gathered  during  on-site  plant  surveys  by  EPA  personnel the
following  chemical,  physical,  and  biological  properties   or
constituents  have been found to exist in significant, quantity in
process waste water from the beet sugar processing subcategory:

BOD5 (5-day, 2C°C Biochemical Oxygen Demand)
COD~(Chemical Oxygen Demand)
Total Coliforms
Fecal Coliforms
PH
Temperature
Alkalinity
Ammonia Nitrogen and Other Nitrogen Forms
Total Phosphorus
Total Dissolved Solids
Total Suspended Solids

On the basis of all evidence reviewed, there  do  not  exist  any
other  pollutants  (e.g.,  heavy  metals,  pesticides)  in wastes
discharged from beet sugar processing plants.

The equilibrium concentration of BODJ5 in  a.  completely  recycled
flume  water system is generally found to be quite high (6,000 to
7,000 mg/1).  The BOD5 concentration does not build up materially
in the recirculating barometer  condenser  system,  and  evidence
indicates an equilibrum level near the organic entrainment level.
Associated  biological  activity in cooling devices is apparently
effective in BOD5 reduction in the recycled condenser system.  It
has been shown that for BOD5  concentrations greater  than  25mg/l
in  flume  water  the  COD may be predicted at 150 percent of the
BOD5 concentration.  COD  concentrations  in  recirculated  flume
water systems range between 9,000 and 10,OCO mg/1.

The  South  Platte River Basin study confirmed that the source of
coliform organisms in flume waters is animal  manures  spread  on
fields where sugar beets are grown.

Bacteriological   characteristics   of  flume  water  present  no
sanitary problems in the production process.  In production, high
pH conditions maintained in  the  recycled  flume  water  system,
final  fresh water wash of incoming beets, use of biocides in the
diffuser for  pH  control,  and  subsequent  destruction  of  all
bacteria  in  the  evaporation  process  satisfactorily limit and
control bacterial  growth  for  production  purposes.  . If  fecal
coliform  bacteria  are  present in surface waters which serve as
the water supply for condensers, prolific bacterial  growth  will
                                49

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occur in the heated condenser water with the normal concentration
of organics through vapor entrainment.  Bacteriological qualities
of  waste  waters  are  not  normally  a  pollution problem where
inplant  recycling,  waste  retention  and  land   disposal   are
practices.    More   detailed   discussion   of   bacteriological
characteristics  of  beet  sugar  process   waste   waters   with
quantitative  evaluation  is  included  in' Section  VII  of this
document.

The parameter pH is  a  very  important  criterion  for  frequent
measurement in providing in-process quality control (pH between 8
and  11)   for  efficacious  recycling  of  flume  water.  High pH
conditions help to control odors arid inhibit bacterial growth.

The temperature of condenser waters leaving the  pan  evaporation
and crystallization process may approach 65°C (149°F).

Alkalinity is a measure of the presence of bicarbonate, carbonate
and  hydroxide  ions  in  waste  Water.  Alkalinity of beet sugar
processing waste results from the addition of lime in flume water
systems and from  ammonia  entrainment  in  barometric  condenser
waters.

Ammonia  nitrogen is present in barometric condenser waters (3 to
15  mg/1)  as  nitrogen  under  best  operation)  due  to   vapor
entrainment.  With progressive oxidation, ammonia is converted t,o
nitrate nitrogen.

Phosphorus  is  found in flume waters as associated with incoming
soil on beets, and in  barometric  condenser  waters  because  of
addition  of  de-scaling chemicals and entrainment of vapors from
barometric condensers.   Surveys  by  Brenton  indicate  a  total
phosphorus concentration in condenser waters of 0.06 mg/1.

Total  dissolved  solids  in  recycled flume and condenser waters
reach a high  equilibrium  level  of  approximately  9,000-11,000
mg/1.    Periodic  withdrawal  of  recirculated  waste  water  is
required to maintain the equilibrium concentration.

The total dissolved solids contained in the underflow  "blowdown"
volume  of  an  extensive  recycle flume water system have a high
concentration of sodium and potassium salts.

Suspended solids as a  parameter  in  completely  recycled  waste
water  systems serve most importantly in measuring the efficiency
of solid separation devices  such  as  mechanical  clarifiers  or
earthen  holding ponds for flume water.  The performance of these
settling measures is reasonably  reliable  and  dependable.   The
suspended  solids  criterion  has  less importance in determining
efficiency of settling, but more importance for use as a  control
measure in determining the quantity of soil conveyed to the plant
on incoming beets and subsequently transferred to the flume (beet
transport) water.
                                50

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Properties of the Pollutants and Pollutant Parameters

The  following  paragraphs  describe  the  chemical, physical and
biological properties of the pollutants and pollutant  parameters
that  exist  for  the  beet  sugar  processing  subcategory.  The
undesirable characteristics  that  these  parameters  exhibit  or
indicate are stated giving reason as to why they were selected.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (5-day, 20°C BOD)  - This parameter is a
measure  of  the oxygen consuming capabilities of organic matter.
The BOD5. does not in itself cause direct harm to a water  system,
but  it" does  exert  an indirect effect by depressing the oxygen
content of the water,  sewage and other organic effluents  during
their  processes  of decomposition exert a BOD5, which can have a
catastrophic effect on the  ecosystem  by  depleting  the  oxygen
supply.   conditions  are  reached  frequently  where  all of the
oxygen is used  and  the  continuing  decay  process  causes  the
production of noxious gases such as hydrogen sulfide and methane.
Water  with  a  high  BOD5  indicates the presence of decomposing
organic matter and subsequent high bacterial counts that  degrade
its quality and potential uses.

Dissolved  oxygen  (DO)   is  a water quality constituent that, in
appropriate  concentrations  is  essential  not  only   to   keep
organisms  living  but  also  to sustain species reproduction and
vigor and the  development  of  populations.   Organisms  undergo
stress   at   reduced  DO  concentrations  that  make  them  less
competitive and able to sustain their species within the  aquatic
environment.   For  example,  reduced DO concentrations have been
shown to interfere with fish population through delayed  hatching
of  eggs,  reduced  size  and  vigor  of  embryos,  production of
deformities  in  young,    interference   with   food   digestion,
acceleration  of  blood  clotting, decreased tolerance to certain
toxicants, reduced food efficiency and growth rate,  and  reduced
maximum  sustained  swimming  speed.   Fish  food  organisms  are
likewise affected adversely in  conditions  with  suppressed  DO.
Since  all  aerobic  aquatic  organisms  need a certain amount of
oxygen, the consequences of total lack of dissolved oxygen due to
a high BOD5 can kill all inhabitants of the affected area.

If a high BODji is present the quality of  the  water  is  usually
visually  degraded  by  the presence of decomposing materials and
algae blooms because of the uptake  of  degraded  materials  that
form the foodstuffs of the algal populations.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) - This parameter is a measure of the
quantity of chemically oxidizable materials present in water,  in
some  instances,  a rough correlation between COD and BQD5 can be
established.  Since an oxygen demand is indicated to exists  this
parameter exhibits the same adverse conditions that may result by
BOD5.

Bacteriological  characteristics  (Total  and  Fecal Coliforms)  -
Fecal coliforms are used as an  indicator  since  they  originate
                                51

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from   the  intestinal  tract  of  warm-blooded  animals.   Their
presence in water indicates the potential presence of  pathogenic
bacteria and viruses.

The  presence of coliforms, more specifically fecal coliforms, in
water is indicative of fecal pollution.  In general, the presence
of  fecal  coliform  organisms  indicates  recent  and   possibly
dangerous  fecal  contamination*   When  the fecal coliform count
exceeds 2,000 per  100  ml  there  is  a  high  correlation  with
increased numbers of both pathogenic viruses and bacteria.

Many  microorganisms  pathogenic  to  humans  and  animals may be
carried in surface water, particularly that derived from effluent
sources which find their way into surface  water  from  municipal
and  industrial  wastes.   The  diseases associated with bacteria
include   bacillary    and    amoebic    dysentery.    Salmonella
gastroenteritis,  typhoid  and paratyphoid fevers, leptospirosis,
chlorea, vibriosis and infectious hepatitis.  Recent studies have
emphasized the value of fecal coliform density in  assessing  the
occurrence  of salmonella, a common bacterial pathogen in surface
water.  Field studies involving irrigation water, field crops and
soils indicate that when the fecal  coliform  density  in  stream
waters  exceeded  1,000  per 100 ml, the occurrence of Salmonella
was 53.5 percent.  Salmonella organisms  have  been  isolated  in
flume  (beet transport) wastes.

A   problem   of  pollutional  concern  in  ground  waters  could
conceivably arise in the absence  of  necessary  controlled  soil
filtration procedures with land disposal of process waste waters.
However,  no  ground water pollution problems are presently known
to  exist  as  directly  attributed  to  land   disposal   and/or
application  of beet sugar processing wastes.  At present a large
portion of the  process  waste  waters  of  the  subcategory  are
disposed  of  on  land  in  the  absence of controlled filtration
procedures.

pH,  Acidity,  and  Alkalinity  -  Acidity  and  alkalinity   are
reciprocal  terms.   Acidity is produced by substances that yield
hydrogen ions upon  hydrolysis  and  alkalinity  is  produced  by
substances  that  yield hydroxyl ions.  The terms "total acidity"
and "total alkalinity" are often used to  express  the  buffering
capacity  of  a solution.  Acidity in natural waters is caused by
carbon dioxide, mineral acids, weakly dissociated acids, and  the
salts  of  strong  acids and weak bases.  Alkalinity is caused by
strong bases and the salts of strong alkalies and weak acids.

The term pH is a logarithmic expression of the  concentration  of
hydrogen  ions.   At  a  pH  of  7, the hydrogen and hydroxyl ion
concentrations are essentially equal and the  water  is  neutral.
Lower  pH  values  indicate  acidity while higher values indicate
alkalinity.   The  relationship  between  pH   and   acidity   or
alkalinity is not necessarily linear or direct.
                                52

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Waters  with  a  pH  below  6.0  are  corrosive  to  water  works
structures, distribution lines, and household  plumbing  fixtures
and  can  thus  add  such constituents to drinking water as iron,
copper, zinc, cadmium and lead.  The hydrogen  ion  concentration
can  affect  the  "taste" of the water.  At a low pH water tastes
"sour".  The bactericidal effect of chlorine is weakened  as  the
pH  increases,  and it is advantageous to keep the pH close to 7.
This is very significant for providing safe drinking water.

Extremes of pH or rapid pH changes can exert stress conditions or
kill aquatic life outright.  Dead fish, associated algal  blooms,
and  foul  stenches  are  aesthetic  liabilities of any waterway.
Even moderate changes from "acceptable" criteria limits of pH are
deleterious to some species.  The relative  toxicity  to  aquatic
life  of  many materials is increased by changes in the water pH.
Metalocyanide complexes can increase a thousand-fold in  toxicity
with  a  drop of 1.5 pH units.  The availability of many nutrient
substances varies with the alkalinity and  acidity.   Ammonia  is
more lethal under a higher condition of pH.

The lacrimal fluid of the human eye has a pH of approximately 7.0
and  a  deviation  of 0.1 pH unit from the norm may result in eye
irritation for the swimmer.  Appreciable  irritation  will  cause
severe pain,

Temperature  -  Temperature  is  one  of  the  most important and
influential   water   quality    characteristics.     Temperature
determines  those  species  that may be present; it activates the
hatching of young, regulates their activity,  and  stimulates  or
suppresses  their  growth  and  development; it attracts, and may
kill when the water  becomes  too  hot  or  becomes  chilled  too
suddenly.   Colder  water generally suppresses development; while
warmer water generally accelerates activity and may be a  primary
cause of aquatic plant nuisances when other environmental factors
are suitable.

Temperature  is a prime regulator of natural processes within the
water  environment.   It  governs  physiological   functions   in
organisms  and, acting directly or indirectly in combination with
other water quality constituents, it affects  aquatic  life  with
each  change.   These  effects  include  chemical reaction rates,
enzymatic functions, molecular movements, and molecular exchanges
between membranes within and between  the  physiological  systems
and the organs of an animal.

Chemical  reaction  rates  vary  with  temperature  and generally
increase as the temperature  is  increased.   The  solubility  of
gases  in  water  varies  with  temperature.  Dissolved oxygen is
decreased by the decay  or  decomposition  of  dissolved  organic
substances and the decay rate increases as the temperature of the
water  increases  reaching  a  maximum at about 30°c (86°F)„  The
temperature of stream water, even during  summer,  is  below  the
optimum  for pollution-associated bacteria.  Increasing the water
                                53

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temperature increases the bacterial multiplication rate when
environment is favorable and the food supply is abundant.
the
Reproduction  cycles  may  be  changed significantly by increased
temperature because this function takes  place  under  restricted
temperature  ranges.   Spawning  may  not  occur  at  all because
temperatures are too high.  Thus, a fish population may exist  in
a  heated  area  only by continued immigration.  Disregarding the
decreased reproductive potential,  water  temperatures  need  not
reach  lethal  levels  to  decimate a species.  Temperatures that
favor competitors, predators, parasites, and disease can  destroy
a species at levels far below those that are lethal.

Fish  food  organisms  are  altered  severely  when  temperatures
approach or  exceed  90°P.   Predominant  algal  species  change,
primary  production is decreased, and bottom associated organisms
may  be  depleted  or  altered   drastically   in   numbers   and
distribution.   Increased  water  temperatures  may cause aquatic
plant nuisances when other environmental factors are favorable.

Synergistic actions of pollutants are more severe at higher water
temperatures.  Given amounts of domestic sewage, refinery wastes,
oils,  tars,  insecticides,  detergents,  and  fertilizers   more
rapidly  deplete  oxygen in water at higher temperatures, and the
respective toxicities are likewise increased.

When water temperatures increase, the predominant  algal  species
may  change  from  diatoms  to  green  algae, and finally at high
temperatures to blue-green algae, because of species  temperature
preferentials.  Blue-green algae can cause serious odor problems.
The  number  and  distribution  of benthic organisms decreases as
water temperatures increase above 90°F, which  is  close  to  the
tolerance  limit for the population.  This could seriously affect
certain fish that depend on benthic organisms as a food source.

The cost attributable to fish being attracted to heated water  in
winter  months  may be considerable, due to fish mortalities that
may result when the fish return to the cooler water.

Rising  temperatures  stimulate  the  decomposition  of   sludge,
formation  of  sludge gas, multiplication of saprophytic bacteria
and fungi (particularly in the presence of organic  wastes),  and
the   consumption  of  oxygen  by  putrefactive  processes,   thus
affecting the esthetic value of a watercourse.

In general, marine water temperatures do not change as rapidly or
range as widely as those of freshwaters.   Marine  and  estuarine
fishes,  therefore,  are  less tolerant of temperature variation*
Although this limited tolerance is greater in estuarine  than  in
open water marine species, temperature changes are more important
to  those  fishes  in  estuaries  and  bays than to those in open
marine areas, because of the nursery and replenishment  functions
of  the  estuary  that  can  be  adversely  affected  by  extreme
temperature changes.
                                 54

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In summary, heated waste discharges to surface  waters  create  a
variety   of   thermal   pollution   effects   including  adverse
modification of the aquatic flora and fauna environment with  the
accompanying  increase  in  the rate of biological reactions, and
possible  permanent  temperature  elevations  over   considerable
stream  areas  with  continued  added  thermal  loading.  Thermal
conditions have considerable  effects  on  the  concentration  of
dissolved  oxygen,  the  biochemical  reaction  rate, pH, and the
physical activity of aquatic animals.

Cooling  of  barometric  condenser  waters  is  necessary  before
discharge  to  navigable  waters.  Where adequate cooling devices
are  provided  for  the  heated  condenser  water    (often   with
additional  cooling provided by fresh water addition through well
or surface water supplies)  extensive recycling without surface or
ground water pollution can result.  However,  if  greatly  heated
waste  water  does  reach  surface  or  ground  water formations,
potentially serious imbalances in micro-ecosystems can occur with
upsets of chemical equilibrium.

Ammonia Nitrogen and Other Nitrogen Forms - Ammonia is  a  common
product  of  the  decomposition  of  organic  matter.   Dead  and
decaying animals and plants along  with  human  and  animal  body
wastes  account  for  much  of  the  ammonia entering the aquatic
ecosystem.  Ammonia exists in its non-ionized form only at higher
pH levels and is most toxic in this state.  The lower the pH, the
more ionized ammonia  is  formed,  and  its  toxicity  decreases.
Ammonia,  in  the  presence  of dissolved oxygen, is converted to
nitrate (N03)  by nitrifying bacteria.  Nitrite (N0_2) , which is an
intermediate  product  between  ammonia  and  nitrate,  sometimes
occurs  in  quantity  when  depressed  oxygen  conditions permit.
Ammonia  can  exist  in  several  other   chemical   combinations
including ammonium chloride and other salts.

Nitrates  are considered to be among the poisonous ingredients of
mineralized waters, with potassium nitrate being  more  poisonous
than  sodium  nitrate.    Excess  nitrates cause irritation of the
mucous linings of the gastrointestinal tract and the bladder; the
symptoms are diarrhea and diuresis, and  drinking  one  liter  of
water containing 500 mg/1 of nitrate can cause such symptoms.

Infant  methemoglobinemia,   a  disease  characterized  by certain
specific blood changes  and  cyanosis,  may  be  caused  by  high
nitrate  concentrations  in  the water used for preparing feeding
formulae.    While  it  is  still  impossible  to  state   precise
concentration  limits,   it has been widely recommended that water
containing more than 10 mg/1 of nitrate nitrogen  (N0.3-N)   should
not   be   used  for  infants.   Nitrates  are  also  harmful  in
fermentation processes and can cause disagreeable tastes in beer.
In most natural water the pH range is  such  that  ammonium  ions
(NH4+)    predominate.    In   alkaline   waters,    however,  high
concentrations of un-ionized ammonia  in  undissociated  ammonium
hydroxide increase the toxicity of ammonia solutions.  In streams
polluted  with  sewage,  up  to  one  half of the nitrogen in the
                                55

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sewage may be in the form of free ammonia, and sewage  may  carry
up  to  35  mg/1  of total nitrogen.  It has been shown that at a
level of 1.0 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia, the ability  of  hemoglobin
to  combine  with  oxygen  is  impaired  and  fish may suffocate,
Evidence indicates  that  ammonia  exerts  a  considerable  toxic
effect  on  all aquatic life within a range of less than 1.0 mg/1
to 25 mg/1, depending  on  the  pH  and  dissolved  oxygen  level
present.

Ammonia  can  add  to  the problem of eutrophication by supplying
nitrogen through its breakdown products.  Some  lakes  in  warmer
climates, and others that are aging quickly are sometimes limited
by  the nitrogen available.  Any increase will speed up the plant
growth and decay process.
Ammonia nitrogen in waste water effluent has several
features:
                                             undesirable
    (1)
water;
Ammonia  consumes  dissolved  oxygen  in  the  receiving
    (2)   Ammonia reacts with chlorine to form  chloramines  which
are less effective disinfectants than free chlorine;

    (3)   Ammonia has possible deleterious effects on fish life;

    (4)   Ammonia is corrosive to copper fittings;

    (5)   Ammonia increases the chlorine demand  of  waste  waters
for subsequent treatment.

Ammonia  may  be  reduced in waste waters by physical methods and
converted to  nitrates  by  biological  oxidation.   A  nitrified
effluent,  free  of substantial concentrations of ammonia, offers
several advantages:

    (1)   Nitrates will provide oxygen to sludge beds and  prevent
the formation of septic odors;

    (2)   Nitrified effluents are more effectively and efficiently
disinfected by chlorine treatment;

    (3)   A  nitrified  effluent  contains  less  soluble  organic
matter than the same effluent before nitrification.

Ammonia and nitrate are interchangeable nitrogenous nutrients for
green plants and alage as well as bacteria.  At the present time,
predictive  generalizations  cannot  be  made for the response of
algae  to  nutrients  for  all   receiving   waters.    Different
geophysical systems appear to be responsive to different limiting
nutrients.   The nitrogen content of natural unpolluted waters is
normally less than 1 mg/1, and during the growing season  soluble
nitrogen  compounds  are virtually completely depleted by growing
plants and algae.  Ammonia is rapidly adsorbed by soil  minerals.
                                 56

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and  particulate  matter  containing nitrogen is also effectively
removed in the soil.  However, if there is not  sufficient  plant
growth in the soil to use the bound ammonia, it will be converted
to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria.

Total  Phosphorus  -  During the past 30 years, a formidable case
has developed for the belief that increasing  standing  crops  of
aquatic  plant growths, which often interfere with water uses and
are  nuisances  to  man,  frequently  are  caused  by  increasing
supplies  of  phosphorus.   Such  phenomena are associated with a
condition of accelerated eutrophication or aging of  waters.   It
is  generally recognized that phosphorus is not the sole cause of
eutrophication, but there is evidence to substantiate that it  is
frequently  the  key  element  of all of the elements required by
fresh water plants and is generally present in the  least  amount
relative  to  need.   Therefore, an increase in phosphorus allows
use of  other,  already  present,  nutrients  for  plant  growth.
Phosphorus   is  usually  described,  for  these  reasons,  as  a
"limiting factor."

When a plant population is stimulated in production and attains a
nuisance status, a large number  of  associated  liabilities  are
immediately  apparent.   Dense  populations  of  pond  weeds make
swimming dangerous.   Boating  and  water  skiing  and  sometimes
fishing  may be eliminated because of the mass of vegetation that
serves as  a  physical  impediment  to  such  activities.   Plant
populations  have  been  associated with stunted fish populations
and with poor  fishing.   Plant  nuisances  emit  vile  stenches,
impart  tastes and odors to water supplies, reduce the efficiency
of industrial and municipal  water  treatment,  impair  aesthetic
factors,  reduce  or  restrict  resort  trade,  lower  waterfront
property values, cause skin rashes to man during  water  contact,
and serve as a desired substrate and breeding ground for flies.

Phosphorus  in  the  elemental  form  is  particularly toxic, and
subject to bio-accumulation in much  the  same  way  as  mercury.
Colloidal  elemental  phosphorus will poison marine fish  (causing
skin tissue breakdown and discoloration).   Also,  phosphorus  is
capable  of  being concentrated and will accumulate in organs and
soft tissues.  Experiments  have  shown  that  marine  fish  will
concentrate  phosphorus from water containing as little as 1 ug/1
(one microgram per liter).

Even though phosphorus is readily adsorbed  tenaciously  on  soil
particles,  once in sediment or benthos the phosphorus may desorb
to become an available nutrient*

Total Dissolved Solids - In natural waters, the  total  dissolved
solids   consist   mainly  of  carbonates,  chlorides,  sulfates,
phosphates, and possibly nitrates of calcium, magnesium,  sodium,
and   potassium,   with  traces  of  iron,  manganese  and  other
substances.
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Many communities in the United States and in other countries  use
water  supplies  containing 2000 to 4000 mg/1 of dissolved salts,
when no more suitable water is available.  Such  waters,  are  not
palatable,  may not quench thirst, and may have a laxative action
on new users.  Waters containing more than  4000  mg/1  of  total
salts  are  generally considered unfit for human use, although in
hot climates such higher salt  concentrations  can  be  tolerated
whereas   they  could  not  be  in  temperate  climates.   Waters
containing 5000 mg/1 or more are reported to be bitter and act as
bladder and intestinal irritants.  It is  generally  agreed  that
the salt concentration of good, palatable water should not exceed
500 mg/1.

Limiting  concentrations of dissolved solids for fresh-water fish
may range from 5,000 to 10,000 mg/1,  according  to  species  and
prior  acclimatization.   Some fish are adapted to living in more
saline waters, and a few species of fresh-water forms  have  been
found  in  natural  waters with a salt concentration of 15,000 to
20,000 mg/1.  Fish  can  slowly  become  acclimatized  to  higher
salinities,  but  fish  in  waters of low salinity cannot survive
sudden exposure to high salinities, such as those resulting  from
discharges  of  oil-well  brines.  Dissolved solids may influence
the toxicity of heavy metals and organic compounds  to  fish  and
other  aquatic life, primarily because of the antagonistic effect
of hardness on metals.

Waters with total dissolved solids over 500 mg/1 have  decreasing
utility  as  irrigation water.  At 5,000 mg/1 water has little or
no value for irrigation.

Dissolved solids  in  industrial  waters  can  cause  foaming  in
boilers and cause interference with cleanness, color, or taste of
many  finished  products.  High contents of dissolved solids also
tend to accelerate corrosion.

Specific conductance is a measure of the  capacity  of  water  to
convey  an  electric  current.   This  property is related to the
total concentration of ionized  substances  in  water  and  water
temperature.   This  property  is frequently used as a substitute
method of quickly estimating the dissolved solids concentration.

Total Suspended Solids -  Total  suspended  solids  include  both
organic   and  inorganic  materials.   The  inorganic  components
include sand, silt, and clay.  The organic fraction includes such
materials as grease, oil, tar, animal and vegetable fats, various
fibers, sawdust, hair, and various materials from sewers.   These
solids  may  settle  out  rapidly and bottom deposits are often a
mixture of both organic and  inorganic  solids.   They  adversely
affect  fisheries  by  covering  the bottom of the stream or lake
with a blanket of material that  destroys  the  fish-food  bottom
fauna  or  the  spawning  ground  of  fish.   Deposits containing
organic materials may deplete bottom oxygen supplies and  produce
hydrogen  sulfide,  carbon  dioxide,  methane,  and Other noxious
gases.
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 In  raw  water  sources   for  domestic  use,   state   and  regiona1
 agencies generally  specify that suspended solids in  streams shall
 not be present in sufficient concentration to be objectionable or
 to  interfere  with normal treatment processes.  Suspended solids
 in  water may interfere with many industrial processes, and  cause
 roaming  in  boilers,  or  encrustations  on  equipment exposed to
 water, especially as the temperature rises.   Suspended solids are
 undesirable in water for  textile  industries;  paper  and  pulp;
 beverages;   dairy   products;  laundries;  dyeing;  photography;
 cooling systems, and  power  plants.   Suspended  particles  also
 serve   as   a  transport  mechanism  for  pesticides  and  other
 substances which are readily sorbed into or onto clay particles.

 Solids may be suspended in water for a time,  and then  settle  to
 the  bed  of  the  stream  or  lake.   These settleable  solids
 discharged with man's wastes may be inert, slowly  biodegradable,
 or  rapidly  decomposable  substances.  While in suspension, they
 increase the turbidity of the water, reduce light penetration and
 impair the photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants.

 Solids in suspension are aesthetically  displeasing.   When  they
 settle  to  form  sludge deposits on the stream or lake bed, they
 are often much more damaging to aquatic life, and they retain the
 capacity to displease the senses.  Solids,  when  transformed  to
 sludge  deposits,  may do a variety of damaging things, including
 blanketing the stream or lake  bed  and  thereby  destroying  the
 living  spaces  for  those benthic organisms  that would otherwise
 occupy  the  habitat.   when  of   an   organic   and   therefore
 decomposable nature, solids use a portion or  all of  the dissolved
 oxygen  available in the area,  organic materials also serve as a
 seemingly  inexhaustible  food  source  for   sludge   worms   and
 associated organisms.

 Turbidity  is  principally  a  measure  of  the  light  absorbing
 properties of suspended solids.   It  is  frequently  used  as  a
 substitute  parameter  of  quickly estimating the total suspended
 solids when the concentration is relatively low.

 In  establishing limits, only certain primary  parameters have been
 chosen which include:

    BOD 5
    pH "
    Temperature
    Fecal Coliforms
    Total Suspended Solids

 The last two parameters  are  applicable  to  limit  the  maximum
 permissible  discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
 process waste water discharge results from total composite  waste
waters  including  barometric condensing operations and any other
beet  sugar  processing  operation.   The  parameters  of   fecal
 coliforms  and total suspended solids were not chosen to apply to
beet sugar processing operations discharging process waste  water
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from  barometric  condensing operations only, as these parameters
are shown either to not be of known importance as  attributed  to
barometric  condensing  operations (e.g. fecal coliforms), or are
effectively controlled by use of other primary parameters  (e.g.,
use of BOD5 for control of related TSS).

Other  parameters (COD, Total coliforms, and Alkalinity)  were not
chosen because they represent  alternate  methods  of  estimating
other  general  and  more primary waste water parameters, as BOD5>
fecal coliforms and pH.

The parameter of ammonia and  other  nitrogen  compounds  is  not
selected  as  this waste water component will receive substantial
and  adequate  reduction  through  barometric   condenser   water
entrainment control and biological activity.

Total  phosphorus and total dissolved solids (TDS)  are not judged
primary parameters for control at  current  concentration  levels
normally   experienced   at    beet   sugar   processing  plants.
Furthermore,  the   cost   factors   and   associated   technical
difficulties  of further reduction of these constituents in large
volumes of process waste water as experienced in the  beet  sugar
processing  industry  preclude  feasible application of available
methods.  The addition of lime within  a  recycling  flume  water
system  may be expected to reliably result in attendant reduction
of phosphorus in the flume water through precipitation.   Further
phosphorus reduction would be unwarranted.
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                          SECTION VII

               CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
Introduction

Current  technology  for  the treatment and control of beet sugar
processing wastes does  not  provide  a  single  scheme  that  is
completely   applicable   under  all  circumstances.   The  major
treatment  and  disposal  methods  applicable   to   beet   sugar
processing  wastes  include  reuse  of wastes, coagulation, waste
retention ponds or lagooning, and irrigation.  The meaning of the
above  statement  i s  that  there  is  no  known  one   treatment
(biological,  chemical, or physical)  process which is universally
applicable  for  complete  pollution  abatement  for  beet  sugar
processing   wastes.   Individual  factors  must  be  taken  into
consideration in adapting  any  one  single  plant  to  generally
established guidelines.

In arid climates (California and Arizona)  climatic conditions are
favorable  to  permit  no  discharge of Waste waters to navigable
waters through land  disposal.   The  waste  waters  are  usually
treated  in waste stabilization lagoons for subsequent irrigation
purposes or are contained in open earthen holding ponds where the
waste water is eliminated by evaporation and soil filtration.

Detailed studies and previous efforts at various  plants  in  the
South  Platte  River Basin for treatment of beet sugar processing
wastes (primarily through land spreading,   aeration  fields,  and
waste  holding  ponds)  have generally proved to be ineffective in
obtaining waste water effluents of suitable quality for discharge
without detrimental effects on receiving streams.   The  problems
resulted   from  the  unadaptability  to  the  regional  climatic
conditions, physical design limitations of installed  units,  and
poor operating and maintenance practices.

Pollution  loads of wastes have been reduced by better control of
inplant  practices;  reuse  of  some  wastes  as  process  water;
recirculation   of  flume,  condenser  and  other  waste  waters;
screening; settling; waste water retention; and  waste  treatment
in waste stabilization ponds.

The  proper  design,  operation,  and  maintenance  of  all waste
treatment  processes  and  pollution   control   facilities   are
considered  essential  to  an effective waste management program.
Awareness of the problem and priority recognition  are  necessary
ingredients  in an effective pollution control program.  The 1971
Federal Water Pollution control Administration's  report  of  the
beet  sugar  processing  industry in the South Platte River Basin
includes a discussion of recommended staffing patterns  requisite
to adequate waste water control and process management.
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In-Plant Control Measures and Techniques

In-plant  control measures are extremely important in the overall
scheme for pollution control of  beet  sugar  processing  wastes.
These  measures include the proper handling of sugar beets before
reaching the plant, design of beet flume  systems  to  facilitate
dry-handling  techniques,  process  water  reuse, dry methods for
handling lime mud cake, conversion of Steffen filtrate to  usable
end-products,  and the reuse and recovery of various flows in the
beet sugar processing plant.

Handling of Sugar Beets

Although handling of the beets in the field and en route  to  the
plant  are  not  strictly  part  of  in»plant  operations,  these
procedures are directly related to the waste disposal problems at
the plant and  therefore  warrant  special  attention.   A  major
concern in handling of beets at the plant is the large quantities
of  soil  brought  into  the  plant with the incoming beets.  The
sugar processors, however, generally consider production factors,
beet condition, and sugar content to be of greatest concern.

The soil and associated trash become part of the plant waste  and
may   without  proper  control  eventually  enter  the  receiving
watercourse.  Increased mechanization  on  the  farm,  mechanical
harvesting   of   the  beets,  and  harvesting  during  wet  soil
conditions have led to increases in amounts of  tare  accumulated
at  plants.   Some  solid waste or tare is removed by shaking and
screening before processing, and is returned to the beet delivery
source.  However, the large majority  of  delivered  soil  enters
directly into the plant through the flume system.

To  aid  in waste abatement, a change in the method of harvesting
and delivery of sugar beets  to  the  plant  is  suggested.   The
removal of soil, leaves, and trash in the field would provide the
plant  with  the  cleanest possible raw product and tend to solve
many present problems.  Without adequate control  measures,  late
season   irrigation,   and  wet-field  harvesting  contribute  to
increased waste treatment needs and cost of settling  devices  in
complete  recycle  flume  water  systems.  Many, if not all, beet
sugar processors possess sufficient  influence  to  require  that
proper  measures be taken to reduce soil in the fields.  Dry tare
removal techniques are highly desirable but may  result  in  some
undetermined increase in harvesting costs.  However, if extensive
plant  waste  treatment  or retention facilities are to be relied
upon  for  removing  these  solid  materials,  the  results  will
undoubtedly be even more costly and less efficient,

Whereas  storage  of  beets  in  northern  climates  is necessary
because of the short growing  season,  storage  of  beets  before
processing  is generally not practiced in California and southern
climates of the U. S.  There the  beets  are  processed  directly
after  shipment  from  the  field.  Storage of the beets in these
areas for any length of time  (days) results in a  loss  of  sugar
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content  of  about 1 kg of sugar/kkg of beets sliced  (2 Ib/ton of
beets sliced) ,

Deterioration of the sugar beets within storage can be  minimized
by  maintaining  proper conditions in the stockpiles and reducing
storage:time as much as possible.  More care should be  given  to
preventing damage and breakage of the beets.  In this -regard, the
mechanical  equipment  and  handling  procedures  for loading and
unloading appear to suggest improvement  needs.   These  measures
are  highly  important  for  reducing pollution loads in the beet
flume water.

A satisfactory method for storing beets for long periods has  not
yet  become  available  for  general  use.   The operation of the
plants is therefore intermittent,  and  the  sugar  is  extracted
during a seasonal "campaign" of about 100 days duration mainly in
the months of November through January in the greatest portion of
the United States.

The Beet Fluming System

In  recent  years  many  plants have reduced their available beet
storage  facilities,  shortened   their   fluming   system,   and
integrated  a  truck  delivery and a truck hopper installation on
the processing line.  Other plants have provided  belt  conveyors
for  transporting beets at least part way into the plant.  Either
minimum contact time between the sugar beets and the flume  water
or  dry  handling  procedures  serve  to  reduce  the waste loads
imposed upon the beet flume system.  At  least  two  plants  have
significantly reduced waste loads by this process (1).

From  the  standpoint  of  production,  hydraulic  fluming  is an
effective and expedient means of transporting  and  cleaning  the
beets  and  of  thawing  frozen  beets  in  the  extreme northern
climates.  One disadvantage of this  technique  is  the  loss  of
sugar  to  the  flume  waters.   An  additional pollution control
measure is the complete dry handling of beets  until  they, reach
the  washer.   Beets  may receive mechanical shaking or scrubbing
for removing most  of  the  dirt  and  solids  followed  by  high
pressure spray jets at the washing table.  Dry handling, however,
can  be  a  serious  disadvantage  in colder climates where flume
waters promote necessary warming and thawing of sugar beets.   If
hot exhaust gases and steam are generally available at the plant,
they  may  possibly  be  adaptable  for unthawing of beets before
processing.

The typical flume water recycling  system  as  is  commonly  used
within the beet sugar processing industry, is judged a relatively
inexpensive  means of providing treatment for reuse and retention
of  flume  water.   Plants  that   recycle   flume   water   have
demonstrated that the suspended solids concentration of the waste
is  very amenable to gravity clarification, especially if lime is
added.  Land is required for the  settling  device  and  for  the
disposal  of  sludge  removed  from the clarification facilities.
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Mechanical clarifiers are preferred to earthen holding ponds  for
the  settling and clarification of flume water because of reduced
land area requirements, increased efficiency of  solids  removal,
and  better  control of the chemical and physical characteristics
of the recycled flume water.  Odors can generally  be  controlled
to  acceptable  levels  with  the  addition  of  lime to maintain
alkaline conditions (pH above 10).

Reuse of Process Water

The reuse  of  process  waste  waters  (pulp  press  water,  pulp
transport  water,  wet  pulp  screen  waters)  has been one of the
better  areas  of  waste  source  elimination  by  the  industry.
Process  waters  are  reused  for  a  variety  of in-plant needs,
although the general practice is to return them to the  diffuser.
The  favorable economics in producing dry exhausted beet pulp for
an established animal feed market and additional  sugar  recovery
obtainable  through  reuse  of process waters have contributed in
large part to this change.

The continuous diffuser has replaced multiple diffusion cells and
created flexibility  in  process  water  reuse  by  significantly
reducing  the volume of waste waters generated as a result of the
diffuser system.  A continuous diffuser consists of  an  inclined
cylinder  in which hot water flows downwards by gravity while the
beet cossettes are moved in the opposite direction  by  means  of
paddles.   These  spent  cossettes are discharged continuously at
the upper end of the  diffuser.   Process  water  return  to  the
continuous  diffuser  requires  careful control and in some cases
treatment.  In addition to generally improving  processing  rate,
use  of  continuous  diffusers  is  also accompanied by increased
sugar recovery gains.

Pulp transport water has been eliminated in many plants by a  dry
conveyor  system  which  moves  exhausted  pulp  to  the presses.
Return of pulp press water  to  the  diffuser  is  a  universally
accepted  practice  today.   The quantity of press water obtained
varies with the efficiency of the pressing operation.   The  pulp
press is effective in reducing the water content of the exhausted
beet  pulp  from 95 percent as the pulp leaves the diffuser to 80
percent moisture from the presses.

Virtually the entire industry is now equippped with  pulp  drying
facilities.   The one remaining plant employing wet pulp disposal
through use of a pulp silo {Torrington, Wyoming) is scheduled for
replacement of the silo with a pulp drier by October, 1973.  With
installation of a pulp drier at this plant,  pulp  silo  drainage
water as a polluting source will have been completely eliminated.
In  addition  to  reducing  a substantial waste disposal problem,
pulp drying equipment  can  usually  be  justified  economically.
Dried pulp yields from a beet sugar plant average about 60 kg/kkg
(120  Ibs/ton)  of  beets processed.  With molasses addition, the
yield is about 75 kg/kkg (150 Ib/ton).  This  pulp  is  generally
sold  as a source of livestock feed.  The price of pulp varies on
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the competitive market with grains  but  was  selling  for  about
$66/kkg  ($60/ton) for use as livestock feed in early 1973.

Handling of Lime Muds

Handling  of lime mud wastes has been associated with problems of
fermentation and noxious  odors  at  many  plants.   The  calcium
carbonate  sludges  are  generated  from "juice" purification and
other operations within the beet sugar  processing  plant.   Lime
mud  cake  is  recovered  from vacuum filters at approximately 50
percent moisture content.  The usual practice consists of  adding
water  to  the lime mud cake, thereby producing a slurry which is
easily transported by pumping to disposal locations.

Various techniques are presently in existence  for  the  handling
and reuse of lime mud slurry wastes.  The general procedure is to
dispose  of  the  slurry through complete retention in an earthen
holding pond.  At the Manteca, California,  plant  the  deposited
lime  mud  cake  is  recovered from the pond and recalcinated for
reuse within the process,  A similar procedure is employed at the
Mendota, California, plant, in which a portion of  the  lime  mud
slurry  is dewatered and recovered through a centrifuge operation
while the remaining lime mud slurry is  contained  in  a  holding
pond.   At  the Arizona plant, lime mud is handled by a low water
dilution/air pump conveyance for movement to  holding  facilities
rather  than  by  the  conventional  method  of slurrying.  Other
plants project the use of similar conveyance  facilities  in  the
near future.  A number of plants in Europe and Canada also employ
dry means of conveyance and disposal.

All plants presently impound waste lime mud generally in separate
holding  ponds.  The lime mud pond must be sufficiently large and
the lime mud as concentrated as possible so that pond size,  with
normal evaporation and seepage, will permit complete containment.
Lime  mud  pond  discharge  is  an  extremely  strong  waste, and
discharge to receiving water bodies can  not  be  permitted.   In
some  plants  excess  lime  mud pond water is recirculated to the
fluming system.  The industry commonly uses a single storage pond
for lime mud, whereas European practice  is  to  employ  separate
ponding of the settled solids and the supernatant.

Problems  of  fermentation and noxious odors have been associated
with the long-term holding of lime mud wastes, but these  can  be
minimized  through  utilization  of  shallow  pond  depths and/or
aeration.  Allowing accumulated lime mud to dry by containment in
holding  ponds  is  commonplace.   The  industry   is   presently
experimenting   with  lime  reclamation  and  reuse  systems  for
recovery of  the  solid  lime  product.   The  lime  mud  may  be
recovered  for  use  as  a sweetener on acid soils.  Studies have
also been directed to the reuse of burnt lime residue within  the
plant and in the manufacture of cement and related products.  The
cost  of  these  methods  must be balanced against those of waste
abatement and  treatment  costs  that  can  be  expected  at  the
individual plant.
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At  one  plant  lime  cake is dried in a kiln and pulverized, and
optimum moisture content for  land  spreading  is  maintained  at
about  17 percent.  A ton of lime mud filter cake may contain 3.2
kg (7 Ib)  organic nitrogen, 5.9 kg (13 Ib)  phosphoric acids, 0.91
kg (2 Ib)  potassium, and 200 kg (440 Ib)  organic matter (13).

steffen Filtrate Conversion

Steffen filtrate generated in the Steffen  process  is  generally
converted  to  concentrated  Steffen  filtrate (CSF)  and added to
dried pulp as a component in animal feeds.   An exception  in  one
operation  is  that  the steffen waste is spread under controlled
conditions  within  a  8.1  hectare  (20  ac)   holding  pond  for
disposal.

Beet pulp with the addition of concentrated steffen waste at most
plants  is  presently  sold  for  livestock feed at approximately
$54/kkg ($60/ton) of pulp.  However, the amount  of  concentrated
Steffen  filtrate  which  can be added to beet pulp for livestock
feed is limited by the high ash content of the filtrate waste.

Barometric Condenser Waters

The beet sugar processing industry has  demonstrated  that  waste
water  associated with the barometric condensing operation can be
reused in the sugar manufacturing process.   These waters  may  be
used  for   diffuser  makeup  water, raw water supply, beet flume
recirculation system makeup, lime mud slurrying, gas washing, and
miscellaneous uses.  Many such uses for condenser water are found
at  plants  exhibiting  extensive  recycling  and  land  disposal
technology.

Entrainment of organic matter in condenser water requires careful
control  of  the  specific  unit operation.  However, entrainment
separators on  evaporators  and  vacuum  pans  are  effective  in
greatly  eliminating  entrainment  into  condenser  water.   Most
plants  within  the  industry  presently  employ  some  type   of
entrainment  control device.  Condenser waters may be detrimental
to the receiving water because of  temperature reaching  as  high
as  65°c   (149°F)  and  the  almost complete absence of dissolved
oxygen.


Where adequate water supply is available,  the  condenser  waters
are  seldom  recycled.  In some areas the waters are first passed
through cooling devices and the pH  level  is  controlled  before
subsequent  disposition*   Under normal operating conditions, the
BOD5 content of condenser waters may be as  low  as  15-30  mg/1.
Under  best operation, BOD5 levels in barometric condenser waters
may be controlled within the range of 10-15 mg/1.  However,  BOD5
levels  actually discharged to receiving waterbodies in excess of
100 mg/1 have been documented-  This was generally  a  result  of
careless operation and inadequate control procedures.
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Treatment  of  condenser  waters on a one-time use basis  (without
recycling) is not judged  technically  or  economically   feasible
because   of  the  large  volume  and  relatively  low  pollutant
concentrations.  Cooling towers,-open earthern  ponds,  or  spray
ponds  may  be  used  to permit recycling of condenser waters and
minimize total plant water use.  The highest degree of control is
represented by recycling  the  condenser  waters  in  a   separate
system.   A  dual closed-loop condenser water system was  recently
installed at one plant.  One system is employed to supply heated
water  for  fluming purposes; the other system serves to  cool the
condenser water for recycle for condensing purposes  with makeup
from fresh water sources.

In open recirculating systems the evaporation of water in cooling
ponds  or  towers  increases  its dissolved solids concentration,
while windage loss  removes  dissolved  solids  from  the system
(108),   Evaporation  loss generally accounts for about 1 percent
for each drop in temperature of  5.6°C (10°F) through the pond or
tower, windage losses are 1.0 to 5.0 percent for spray ponds, 0.3
to 1.0 percent for atmospheric towers, and 0.1 to 0.3 percent for
mechanical draft cooling towers.   The mineral concentration  can
be  held  within  desired  limits by bleeding recirculating water
from the system or by softening  or  demineralizing  the  make-up
water.  Slime and algal growths in condensers and heat exchangers
may  seriously impair their effective operation,  control of such
growths is generally accomplished  by  the  addition  of  cooling
water  chemicals  such  as  chlorine that will either prevent the
formation of growths or destroy existing growths.   Chlorine  may
be  added  intermittently  to  the  system in an amount that will
produce an  excess  of  several  milligrams  per  liter   of  free
available  chlorine  for a short period to prevent slime  growths.
The free chlorine is readily removed from the recirculated  water
through   the   evaporative   cooling   process  for  temperature
reduction.

Water Use and.Waste Water Management

Experience within the industry has shown that proper  management,
design,   construction,   operation,  and  maintenance  of  waste
treatment and disposal facilities all contribute  to  an  overall
efficiency in plant operation.

A  broad  spectrum  of  water  reuse and waste disposal practices
exists in the beet sugar industry throughout individual plants in
the U. S.    and  abroad,   In-plant  measures  have  proven  more
effective  than end-of-process waste treatment in contributing to
a successful waste management program.

In recent years the industry has recognized its  responsibilities
for  pollution  control  and  has begun programs to substantially
reduce the pollution impact through  improved  waste  management,
design  of  facilities,  reuse  of  waste  water,  flow reduction
measures,  and other pollution control devices.
                                  67

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Proper planning and design of treatment and control measures  are
a necessity.  Structures which bypass treatment or disposal sites
should be eliminated.  Similar structures for bypassing treatment
to  land  disposal  or  standby  storage  should be designed with
positive reliable controls  to  serve  only  in  emergency.   The
facilities  must  provide  for  intercepting  various  spills and
unintentional waste discharges and returning these to  the  waste
treatment or disposal system.  Proper compaction and construction
of  waste  treatment  lagoons  and holding ponds are necessary to
afford  satisfactory  treatment  and  to  properly  control  land
disposal of process waste waters.


Once the  waste control and treatment facilities are established,
operation and maintenance of these facilities are most important.
All devices and procedures intended for waste abatement should be
considered as important as the process operations.

The  importance  of good administrative control and plant records
must also be emphasized in relation to the  waste  water  control
program.   Without  proper  administration, a program will suffer
serious shortcomings.  A logical division of  responsibility  and
organized  apprpach are necessary.  A successful program requires
that lines of authority and responsibility  be  fully  delineated
and   that   each   person   clearly   understand   his  explicit
responsibilities.  A prescribed  format  of  data  gathering  and
recording is considered essential to a well-functioning pollution
control program,

Treatment and qontrol Technology

Current Treatment and control Practices Within the Industry

Classification  of waste treatment and disposal techniques at the
various beet sugar processing plants  is  difficult,  since  such
practices  range  from little treatment to treatment, storage and
land disposal of all wastes.  Procedures for  reduction  of  BOD5
differ  in  principle.   Some companies rely chiefly on anaerobic
fermentation  in  deep  holding  ponds  others  on  aerobic  bio*
degradation in shallow ponds with or without mechanical aeration.
Presently,  a total of 11 beet sugar processing plants handle all
waste waters through extensive in-plant recycling and  reuse  and
complete   land   disposal   of  waste   through  holding  ponds,
stabilization lagoons, or by irrigation.  In California,  use  is
made  of  lagoon  contents in many cases for irrigation of crops.
No  adverse  effects  on  water  quality  are   identifiable   or
attributable  to  this  land application practice as the waste is
completely disposed of on the land without  ill  effect.   Plants
presently accomplishing the level of technology resulting in zero
discharge  of  waste  water  pollutants  to  navigable waters are
located at Moses Lake,  Washington;  Hereford,  Texas;  spreckels
 (Salinas),  Betteravia,  Manteca,  Mendota,  Tracy,  Woodland and
Hamilton  City,  California;  Chandler,  Arizona;  and  Goodland,
Kansas.
                                68

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 In  general,  plants  in  the North central portion of the United
 States  (Montana, Wyoming, Nebraska, and Colorado) and in Michigan
 and Ohio have reported relatively higher amounts of BOD5 per  unit
 weight  of beets sliced as discharged to streams.  This  generally
 is  attributable  to  less favorable soil and climatic conditions
 for land disposal,  location  of  plants  near  developed  areas,
 and/or  smaller  and  older  plants  generally  located  in these
 regions.  Notable exceptions are the plants at  Longmont,  Eaton,
 and  Brighton, Colorado.  Present treatment and control practices
 characteristic of the  industry  are  summarized  in  Table   VIII
 entitled "Summary of Selected Pollution Control Practices at  Beet
 Sugar Processing Plants."  The practices summarized in Table  VIII
 are  applicable  to  individual  beet sugar processing plants for
 handling  and  disposal  of  flume  (beet  transport)  water  and
 condenser  water.  These two waste sources are presently those of
 primary importance within the  industry.   Process  waters   (pulp
 press,   beet  transport,  and  pulp  silo  drainage)  have   been
 eliminated as a waste source by in-plant recycling  or  dry   pulp
 transport.   One  plant  still employs a silo for drainage of wet
 beet pulp.  However, the silo is  scheduled  for  replacement  by
 October,  1973.  All other plants employ pulp dryers for handling
 exhausted beet pulp.   Lime  mud  is  universally  discharged  to
 holding ponds without discharge to surface waters,  steffen waste
 (Steffen process only)  is concentrated for addition to dried beet
 pulp  or  disposed of on land in isolated cases without discharge
 to surface waters.  Miscellaneous waste waters  (floor  drainage,
 gas  washer  water,  chemical wastes from cleaning of evaporators
 and crystallizers, etc.)  are discharged to flume (beet transport)
 systems or disposed  of  by  separate  land  disposal  facilities
 without discharge to surface waters.

 Treatment  and-  control  technologies applicable to various waste
 water components of the beet sugar processing plant are discussed
 below,

 Flume Water - A preventive measure that can be developed  at  all
 plants  for  the reduction of the flume water waste volume is dry
 handling and transport of beets after they reach the plant.   One
 plant  presently  has dry beet handling facilities for conveyance
of  beets  into  the  plant.    The  water   fluming   system   is
 substantially  reduced  to  approximately  15  meters  (50 ft) in
 length and the beets are washed under high-pressure sprays,

 If dry fluming is not employed, the initial step in the treatment
of flume water is the screening process to remove suspended solid
organic material (beet fragments,  etc.)   which  would  otherwise
 settle  in holding ponds as slowly decaying organic material.  In
a  recirculating  flume  water  system,   clarification   of   the
recirculated  waste water flow is accomplished through the use of
earthern holding ponds  or  mechanical  clarifiers.    The  sludge
removed from the settling facilities is generally discharged to a
 separate earthen holding pond for complete retention.
                                69

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                                  Table VIII
Summary of Selected Pollution Control  Practices  at  Beet  Sugar  Processing Plants

Beet Sugar
Processing Plant
Nampa, Idaho
Moses Lake, Washington
Rupert, Idaho
Myssa, Oregon
'iereford, Texas
BrawlP.y, California
Salinas, California
Drayton, NorLh DakoLa
Betteravia, California
Twin Falls, Idaho
Moorhead , Minnesota
Idaho Falls, Idaho
Billings, Montana
Manteca, California
Chandler, Arizona
Ilendota, California
Crooks ton, Minnesota
Tracy, California
Toppert.ish, Washington
liay City, Michigan
Woodland , California
Sidney, Montana
Ft. Morgan, Colorado
Loveland, Colorado
Fremont, Ohio
Rocky Ford, Colorado
Longmcmt , Colorado
Scottsbluff, Nebraska
Tor ring ton, Wyoming
GoodLand, Kansas
Clarkaburg, California
E. Grand Forks, Minnesota
Ovid, Colorado
Garland, Utah
Hamilton City, California
Sterling, Colorado
Bayard, Nebraska
Brighton, Colorado
Raton, Colorado
Groeley, Colorado
Lovell, Wyoming
Caring, Nebraska
Sebewaing, Michigan
Carrollton, Michigan
Caro , Michigan
Wor land , Wyonii ns
Delta, Colorado
Santa Ana, California
Pindlay, Ohio
Ottawa, Ohio
Croswoll , Mlchiean
Beets Sliced


















X
ra
•o
w
(3
Q
U
•H
^
S
8163
7710
0100 •
5964
5895
5895
5895
4716
4535
4376
4172
3991
3809
3809
3809
3809
3628
3628
3464
3447
3265
3174
3174
3174
3083
3083
2902
2902
2902
2902
2721
2630
2542
2449
2267
2177
2041
2041
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1905
1614
1814
1746
1633
1633
1406
1451
1270
1?
T) 1
1 i
o
H
(9000)
(8500)
(6725)
(6575)
(6500)
(6500)
(6500)
(5200)
(5000)
(4825)
(4600)
(4400)
(4200)
(4200)
(4200)
(4200)
(4000)
(4000)
(3825)
(3800)
(3600)
(3500)
(3500)
(3500)
(3400)
(340C)
(3200)
(3200)
(3200)
(3200)
(3000)
(2900)
(2800)
(2700)
(2500)
(2400)
(2250f
_L225£L
(2200)
(2200)
(2200)
(2200)
(2200)
(2ioqL,
(2000)
(2000)
(1800)
(1800)
(1800)
(1650_i_
(1600)
(1400)
'Molasses Worked
Metric Tons/Day
204
m
317
205
113
163
200
102
103
167
172
85
171
by
126

100

91
69
54
87

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(350)
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(125)
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H3.31
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(187)
(190)
( 94)
(189)
(175)
(139)

(110)

(100)
f 76)
( 60)
( 96)

Existing Pollution Control Practices
Discharge to Navigable
Waters
Y
N
Y1
Y
N
yi
N
y
N
Y
Y1
y
Y
N
N
N
y
N
Y
Y
N
Y'
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y'
Y
Y1
N
Y
YT
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y'
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Retention or Land
Disposal for Flume Water
Y°
Y
Y°
Y°
Y
yo
Y
Y"
Y
Y"
YD
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y
y
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y
Y
Y°
Y"
Y°
Y"
Maximum Flume Water
Recycling
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Partial Flume Water
Recycling






Y
Y
Y



Y

Y



Maximum Condenser
Water Recycling or
Re- use
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y



Y
Y
Y
Partial Condenser
Water Recycling or
Re-use
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y°

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
•H
O 1-
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IB ra
01 3
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a o
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n o
U
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ra o
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Y°
Y
Y
r*
Y
Y°
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y°
Y°
Y"
Y°
Y"
Y°
PL.

Y
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y"
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y"
Discharge of Excels
Waste Water to
Municipal System
Y







Y






Y
Y
Y
Treated Waste Water
Used for Land
Irrigation

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
'i




Use of Cooling Devices
for Condeaser Water
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
*
    Occasional discharge  only
    Partial
Yes
Ho
                                 70

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The  beet  sugar  processing  industry  has  demonstrated  that a
drawoff or blowdown rate of 20 percent of the total water flow is
sufficient  to  maintain  suspended  solids  control  and   total
dissolved  solids  concentration at or below approximately 10,000
mg/1.  Such a level of total dissolved solids  concentration  and
suspended  solids  control  in a fluming system will not promote,
under the prevailing  pH  conditions,  abnormal  scaling  of  the
piping in the waste water conveyance system.

The  pH  of  flume  water is a highly variable and erratic factor
requiring careful  control  by  the  addition  of  lime.   Proper
control  can  be  accomplished  through pH determinations on grab
samples of flume water taken at least every two hours as  is  the
practice  at  some  plants.  At a number of other plants, milk of
lime is added to the flume water as it leaves the screens  or  as
it  enters  settling  ponds  or  clarifier facilities.  This lime
addition serves to keep the pH at a level which impedes bacterial
action, thereby  reducing  odors  and  corrosive  effects.   Lime
addition also assists in sedimentation as a flocculating agent.

The amount of soil associated with incoming beets varies with the
wetness  or  dryness  of  the  harvesting  season, soil type, and
location,  A plant slicing 363,000 kkgs (400,000 tons)  of  beets
during  a  campaign  may accumulate 5,100 to 6,130 cu m (20 to 2U
thousand cu yd)  of soil in its  settling  ponds.   At  one  plant
40,500  cu  m (53,000 cu yd)  of dirt were removed from lagoons in
1969 after processing 903,000 kkgs (995,000 tons)  of sugar beets.

Barometric Condenser Water - condenser water is characterized by:

1)  Relatively high temperature 55~65°C (131-149°F)
2)  Entrained organics from boiler vapor entrainment
3)  Alkaline properties

The pH varies between 8 and 10 but usually is  less  than  9  and
results   from  entrainment  of  ammonia  during  the  raw  juice
evaporation process.   Reuse  of  condenser  water  is  a  common
industry  practice.   Many  plants  make  some  in-'plant reuse of
condenser water and discharge the  excess  to  water  bodies.   A
total  of  11 plants presently accomplish complete land retention
of  condenser  waters  without  discharge  to   surface   waters;
twenty-three  plants  practice partial land disposal of condenser
waters; while  18  practice  no  land  disposal  for  this  waste
component.    Thirty-five  plants  practice  maximum  or  partial
recycle of condenser water.  Cooling of  condenser  water  before
discharge   to   receiving  streams,  or  recycling,  is  usually
necessary for protection of the quality of receiving  waters.   A
total of 32 plants employ cooling devices.

Surface  or non-contact condensers offer a possible means of non-
contaminant use  of  condenser  waters  in  lieu  of  entrainment
control devices with conventional barometric condensers.  Surface
condensers  provide  positive  control  against  contamination of
condenser  water  through  non-contact  between  vapors   to   be
                                71

-------
condensed  and  cooling water.  The alternative method of control
is relatively expensive (estimated at roughly  $200,000  for  the
average-  sized  beet sugar processing plant) and requires larger
water volumes than barometric condensers.  The method is reliable
as  a  mechanism  of  pollution  control,  and   is   worthy   of
consideration  at  new  beet  sugar processing plants planned for
construction.

When  using  cooling  towers  for  condenser  water  cooling  and
recirculation,  it  has often been found economical and expedient
to supplement the recycled condenser water with cool fresh  water
from  wells  in  order  to reduce the temperature of the recycled
water.  Where employed, such practices often  do  not  result  in
conservation  of  water  since larger water volumes are used than
those needed to meet minimal barometric  condenser  requirements.
In  the  Central  and North Central portions of the United States
additional  cooling  requirements   for   molasses   in   Steffen
operations is obtained through use of large volumes of water from
existing  surface  or  ground water sources.  At other locations,
e.g., in California, heat exchangers  are  commonly  employed  to
meet additional cooling requirements of the Steffen process.

In  recycling  systems  cooling  may  be  accomplished with spray
ponds, cooling towers,  evaporative  condensers,  and  air-cooled
heat  exchangers.   All but the last depend on the cooling effect
of evaporation.  The  effectiveness  of  an  evaporative  cooling
system   is  determined  by  the  wet  bulb  temperature  of  the
environment since this is the absolute lower limit to  which  the
water   can  be  cooled  by  evaporation.   The  actual  terminal
temperature may range from a  degree  or  two  below  atmospheric
temperature  at high humidity (as measured in Fahrenheit) to 17°c
(30°F) or more below atmospheric temperature when the air is very
dry  (88).  Therefore, evaporative coolers are most  effective  in
arid  regions.  As a rule of thumb, cooling towers are capable of
lowering temperatures on a  once-through  basis  to  within  12°c
(22°F) of wet bulb temperature.

Forced-draft  cooling  towers with bottom fans and countercurrent
air flow are gaining favor  over  induced  draft  (top  fan)  and
natural  draft  types  for  cooling heated waste waters.  Cooling
towers are generally more efficient than spray  ponds  for  waste
water  cooling  because of increased contact in the cooling tower
between the heated water and circulating air.

Barometric condenser water resulting from beet  sugar  processing
plants   characteristically  exhibits  relatively  high  nitrogen
content, attributed largely to ammonia   (3  to  15  mg/1  NH3  as
nitrogen)  introduced by juice evaporating and sugar crystallizing
operations.   Therefore,  the  removal of nitrogen centers on the
removal of ammonia-nitrogen.

Pilot plant experiments by Lof et. al. support the ability of air
stripping to remove nitrogen  from  beet  sugar  plant  condenser
water effluent.  Data for ammonia removal from a synthetic medium
                                72

-------
 (prepared by the addition of NH4C1, NaNO3 and NaNO2 to tap water)
 indicate   that  most  of  the ~"NH^,  removal  in "cooling  tower
 operations occurs by air stripping rather than  by  oxidation  to
 nitrite  nitrogen.   Removal  of ammonia nitrogen at the 16 to 18
 mg/1 as N range was shown to be 25 to 50 percent over  a  2U~hour
 interval  (6.2  passes  through the cooling tower) for G/L weight
 ratios of 0.3 and 0.6, respectively.  The G/L weight ratio equals
 the weight rate ratio of air to water, e.g., kg  (Ib) of  air  per
 hr. divided by kg (Ib) of water per hr.

 Applications  of  combined  cooling  and  bio-treatment  of waste
 waters  have  been  utilized  by  means  of  cooling  towers  for
 refinery,  corn milling operations, and bleached board production
 plants.  Among other constituents, cooling devices sometimes with
 the  addition  of  synthetic  packing  have   been   demonstrated
 effective  in  reducing  temperature,  sulfides,  chemical oxygen
 demand, biochemical oxygen demand, and  ammonia  in  this  double
 duty role.  BOD5 and COD removals vary between 30 and 90 percent.
 Although  heavy" sliming occurred in several of the above cooling
 units, growth was reported not to  be  sufficient  to  cause  any
 problem   in   cooling   tower   operation.   Similar  successful
 experiences with biological oxidation of pollutants are known  to
 occur   with  efficient  temperature  reduction  through  use  of
 aeration ponds, primarily at pulp  and  paper  mills  (6) .   BOD.5
 reductions  ranged  from  80  to  95  percent.  Aerobic treatment
 processes have been demonstrated  effective  in  removing  up  to
 about 70 percent of total nitrogen in waste water (101).

 The  air-to-water  ratio required in cooling barometric condenser
 waters by cooling devices at beet sugar processing plants may  be
 estimated   on   the   basis   of   the  following  thermodynamic
 considerations.  Assuming ambient air with an  absolute  humidity
 of  0.011  kg  (Ib) water vapor per kg (Ib)  of dry air (75 percent
 relative  humidity  and  21°C  (70°F)  dry   bulb   temperature),
 adiabatic  cooling,   and air leaving t^e cooling device saturated
 with water,  exit conditions of air after use  for  cooling  would
 have  an  absolute  humidity  of 0.012 kg (Ib) water vapor per kg
 (Ib) dry air under  exit  conditions  of  18°C   (6U°F)  dry  bulb
 temperature  and 100 percent relative humidity.  Therefore, under
 the assumptions, 0.001 kg (Ib)  water vapor per kg (Ib) of dry air
would be added to the air during the evaporative cooling process.
 In reducing the barometric condenser water temperature from  60°C
to  20°c  (140°F  to  68°F), a total temperature decrease of 40°C
 (72°F)  has occurred.  With  approximately  555  kg  cal/kg  (1000
BTU/lb)  as  the heat of evaporation of water and an estimated UO
kg cal/kg (72  BTU/lb)   of  water  recirculated,  evaporation  to
accomplish  the  required  temperature drop would be estimated at
 0.072 kg (Ib)  of water evaporated  for  each  kg  (Ib)  of  water
recirculated.   Therefore,  dry  air requirements for evaporative
cooling to accomplish the designated temperature  decrease  would
be  72/0.012  x  (1000)   =  6  kg  (Ib)   dry  air/kg  (Ib)   water
recirculated.
                                73

-------
Ammonia stripping as a treatment process has been demonstrated to
be  pH  dependent,  the  optimum  ammonia  removal  by  stripping
occurring  at a pH of approximately 11.  studies conducted at the
University of Wisconsin and  elsewhere  have  substantiated  high
removal  of ammonia (78 to 92 percent)  by stripping at air/liquid
loadings of 3345 1/1 (447 cu ft /  gal)  and  4100  1/1  (549  cu
ft/gal), respectively.

The  above discussion supports the conclusion that ammonia can be
substantially  removed  from  waste  waters  through  appropriate
cooling devices and aerobic waste treatment systems.

Ammonia  is soluble in water and would be expected to be found in
minimal concentrations under natural conditions.  At  atmospheric
conditions, the solubility of ammonia in water is 0.89 mg/1, 0.53
mg/1,  0.33  mg/1,  and 0.07 mg/1 at 0°C (0°F), 20°C (68°F), 40°C
(104°F) , and 100°c (212°F), respectively.

Lime Mud Wastes - Plants normally release lime mud in the form of
a slurry which is contained in holding ponds.

Two plants now reburn lime mud cake for the production  of  lime.
One   recent   lime   mud   cake  reburning  operation  has  been
discontinued, reportedly because of objections  to  dust  emitted
from the rotary kiln and cost inefficiencies.  Lime mud cake from
this  operation  is  now  being  shipped  to  another factory for
reburning.

Dry handling of lime mud cake is  accomplished  at  a  number  of
plants.    One  plant  indicates  plans  to install dry conveyance
facilities for lime  mud  cake  during  1973.   By  using  a  dry
conveyance  system,  the  lime  mud  cake  is  transported to the
disposal area without  the  conventional  addition  of  slurrying
water in order to permit pumping.  Injection of compressed air at
0.7  to  1.1  kg per sq cm (10 to 15 psi) to maintain fluidity of
the semi-liquified mass has also  been  an  effective  method  of
transport at the Chandler, Arizona plant.

Sale  of  lime  mud  cake for agricultural and other uses has not
been notably successful.  At only two plants, one  in  California
and one in Washington,  has any considerable outside use been made
of  the  material.   The  rather  large store of lime mud cake in
California is being sold to farmers for use on peat  soils  at  a
somewhat faster rate than it is being produced.  In Washington, a
commercial  distributor collects lime mud cake from the dry ponds
for sale at 552/kkg (500/ton) for us© in areas with acid soils.

A typical beet sugar processing plant employs one  or  more  lime
mud  ponds, varying in depth from  0.6 to 3.0 m (2 to 10 ft).  On
occasion, miscellaneous wastes may  be  added  to  the  lime  mud
ponds.   Deposits from a given campaign are scraped from the pond
bottom and added onto the dike  walls.    where  large  ponds  are
employed,  solids  removal  is not necessary for a period of many
years.  Active fermentation within the ponds may begin  near  the
                                 74

-------
end  of  campaign in the central United States and is accelerated
by the warmer temperatures occuring  through  spring  and  summer
(13)«   Cleaning  of  lime  mud  ponds is a continuing, expensive
chore at many plants-  As a general practice, two  or  more  lime
mud  ponds  are  available  at a plant, enabling the operators to
take one of the ponds  out  of  service  as  required  to  permit
removal of accumulated solid material.

The  various difficulties in storing lime mud slurry, such as the
viscous nature of the waste, land  and  construction  costs,  and
possible offensive odors offer strong reasons for converting to a
dry system of handling and disposal in most cases,

Steffen Waste - Steffen plants produce a liquid waste which has a
high  alkalinity  as  well  as  a  high  BODS  and organic matter
content.  The solids content of  the  waste  resulting  from  the
Steffen  process, in addition to the lime content, consist of the
sugar and the nonsugars of the original  molasses.   The  Steffen
waste  includes  various  inorganics  together  with a variety of
organic and nitrogenous compounds.

When Steffen  waste  biologically  degrades  it  soon  loses  its
alkaline  nature  and  various  malodorous  compounds are formed.
Where this waste is disposed of  in  ponds,  odor  problems  have
become acute.

Because  of  the  large variety of materials contained in Steffen
wastes, it has been  given  considerable  study  as  a  potential
source of byproducts.  During World War I, a number of beet sugar
plants  concentrated the Steffen waste and burned the concentrate
to  produce  a  crude  potash  salt  for  fertilizer.   Later,  a
successful  process was developed to produce monosodium glutamate
(MSG)  from the concentrated Steffen filtrate (CSF).  Feeding  and
nutritional  studies  have  shown  that CSF can partially replace
molasses as a cattle feed supplement.   This  use  has  been  the
primary  outlet  for  this material, since the attractiveness for
sale of MSG has decreased.  When used as a  dried-pulp  additive,
CSF  is  normally  limited  in livestock feed by the solids (ash)
content.  Experience has shown that only about  30%  molasses  by
weight, may be added to dried pulp for cattle feed.

Land  spreading  is  another  alternative  method  of disposal of
Steffen waste.  This can be accomplished with a minimum  of  odor
production  if  managed  properly.   The  dilute Steffen waste is
spread in a thin layer over a land area which is quite level  and
divided  into  small parcels by low levees.  This permits feeding
the waste onto these parcels in sequence to allow absorption  and
drying  before  further  additions.   It is beneficial to disc or
till  the  soil  between  campaigns  to  enhance  its  absorptive
capacity.   Such  land spreading of Steffen waste with protection
from runoff is practiced at the beet sugar  processing  plant  at
Salinas, California.
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A  study  on  a  laboratory  scale (68) demonstrated that Steffen
waste can be treated with various yeasts, algae, and bacteria  to
produce  a potential feed stuff while stabilizing the waste.  But
another study incorporating a four-pond system, was  judged  high
in  installation and operating cost without subsequent production
of a usable byproduct.

To reduce the cost of evaporating Steffen filtrate,  considerable
effort  is made to keep the concentration of the waste as high as
possible without adversely affecting the purity of the saccharate
produced.  One method used  is  the  return  of  cold  saccharate
filtrate  as  part  of the dilution water.  The volume of Steffen
waste is thus reduced from about 42 1/kkg (10 gal  of  waste/ton)
of molasses to about 25 1/kkg (6 gal of waste/ton).

General  Wastes  -  General  waste including floor and equipment,
wash waters, filter cloth wash, and miscellaneous  effluents  are
usually discharged to the general or flume water ponds.

Demonstrated and Potential Treatment and Control Technologies

General - Biological treatment of beet sugar processing waste has
been  effectively  demonstrated.   Two  approaches  to biological
waste treatment are currently being  used.   They  are  anaerobic
fermentation and aerobic oxidation.  The former is believed to be
the  most  efficient,  resulting  in  the  most nearly completely
stabilized  effluent.   Anaerobic  action  does  give   rise   to
objectionable  odors  including particularly the odor of hydrogen
sulfide.  At some plants, neighboring  residents  have  protested
the annual nuisance of odors of anaerobic conditions.

The   removal  efficiencies  of  waste  treatment  processes  are
difficult  to   assess.    Adequate   BOD5   determinations   are
infrequently  available  in  statistically  significant  numbers.
Exceptions to this are the results of the intensive studies  made
by  the  EPA on the matter of pollution in the south Platte River
Basin, and the various studies of experimental units conducted by
companies or by the  Beet  Sugar  Development  Foundation.   Past
studies  indicate  that substantial BOD 5 reduction of beet sugar
processing wastes can be accomplished by biological oxidation.

Common to all processes available  for  biological  treatment  of
bee t  s ugar  plant  wa ste s  are  the  requirements  for  adequate
screening of wastes  'to  remove  fragments  of  beets  and  other
organic   matter   and   facilities  (mechanical  or  other)  for
separation of muds.  Previous methods of handling  the  clarified
or  partly clarified liquid wastes were the following:  1) Direct
discharge to streams during  periods  of  high  water  flows;  2)
anaerobic biological treatment in deep ponds, followed usually by
aerobic action in shallow ponds or ponds equipped with mechanical
aerators;  and  3)  aerobic  treatment  or  ponds  equipped  with
mechanical aerators; and 3) aerobic treatment alone.
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Many studies have been performed on the treatment of  beet  sugar
processing wastes utilizing biological means, including activated
sludge, trickling filters, waste stabilization lagoons, and other
methods   (11) .   In  many  cases,  comfirmative results have been
obtained well beyond the pilot-plant stage.

Even though numerous methods of treatment of the  various  wastes
from  beet  sugar  processing  plants  have been applied with the
object of producing an effluent suitable for discharge to surface
waters, these methods are  generally  undesirable  in  comparison
with   inplant   waste   water  reuse  and  recycling  practices.
Applicable treatment methods in the  conventional  sense  present
operational and economic questions as applied to large volumes of
liquid  produced  during  essentially a three-month period of the
year generally known as the beet sugar campaign.  Large treatment
plant facilities would be required  to  handle  the  large  waste
volumes  during  a  relatively short seasonal operation.  If such
conventional biological treatment  systems  are  to  be  utilized
effectively, waste water would have to be stored in large storage
facilities  to help sustain organic and hydraulic loading for the
treatment facilities on essentially a year-round basis.

Inplant process control with reuse of waste  waters  rather  than
treatment  and  discharge  has  been  generally  adopted  by  the
industry as an expedient and  economical  approach  to  pollution
control  from  beet  sugar  processing operations.  Various waste
treatment and control methods applicable to beet sugar processing
plants are discussed below.

Coarse solid Collectors -  Trash  collectors,  traps,  and  other
recovery   devices   are  normally  placed  at  all  major  waste
collection   points   within   the   plants.    Proper    design,
installation, ,and maintenance of these devices are essential for
adequate performance.  Solids control is necessary not  only  for
routine  waste  but  also  for  spills,  leakage, and inadvertent
releases to the floor drains.
Fine-Mesh Screening - The screening operation  is  a  preliminary
step  in  waste  treatment  intended to reduce waste loads placed
upon subsequent treatment and control units.   For  screening  of
flume  water,  inclined vibrating screens are generally preferred
by the industry because they are more effective and  less  costly
than  other  screening  devices.  Adequate screening of the waste
flows from a typical plant may remove from 9 to 36 kkg (10 to  40
tons)  of  coarse wet solids daily.  The recovered screenings are
shredded and introduced into the pressed  pulp  and  fed  to  the
dryer.   screenings  removed  from  recycled flume water are also
generally fed to livestock with or without drying.

One plant provides dual vibrating screens which have 0.32 by 1.59
cm (1/8 by 5/8 in)  slotted openings as the first unit within  its
flume  water recirculation system.  The screens remove about 29.7
kkg  (27 tons) of wet solids daily, which  are  sold  directly  to
                                77

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local  farmers  for use aa stock feed.  Another operation employs
three vibrating screens installed in parallel;  the  screens  are
preceded  by  a  liquid  cyclone or hydroseparator for removal of
heavy grit and solids.

Grit and  solids  Removal  -  Mechanical  clarifiers  or  earthen
settling  ponds  preceeded by coarse screening are generally used
in recycle flume water systems.  Mechanical  settling  units  are
usually preferred in the industry.  The objective is to remove as
much  dirt,  soil  and  other  solids  as  possible.   The  large
quantities of accumulated dirt  and  debris  are  deposited  into
sludge storage ponds.

Both  earthen  ponds  and mechanical clarifiers can cause serious
problems without proper operation, maintenance, and  control  but
the   mechanical  clarifier  merits  careful  attention.   It  is
important that sludge underflows and flotable scjim and grease  be
removed  quickly,  preferably  continuously.   If waste detention
times are  excessive,  organic  fermentation  may  occur  in  the
settling  facilitie s,  resulting  in  organic  acid  and hydrogen
sulfide buildup.  Chlorination or pH control with  lime  addition
may  be  used to retard such odor-producing action.  In any case,
efficient  course  screening  ahead  of  the  settling  tank   is
essential.   Indications are that clarifiers with detention times
from 30 minutes to several hours will  produce  effective  solids
removal   with   minimum  odors-   With  continuous  flume  water
recirculation, dissolved organic material may increase to  rather
high  levels  (approximately 10,000 mg/1), necessitating blowdown
and water makeup in the system for solids and scaling control.

Current state-of-the-art practices for mechanical  clarifiers  of
wastes  with settleable solids of 30 to 125 mg/1 result in waters
containing 0.3 to 1.0 mg/1 of  settleable  material.   Fine  clay
particles which do not readily settle must be removed by chemical
flocculation  in  the pH range of 10.5 to 11.5,  Addition of lime
not only retards fermentation but serves to raise the pH  to  the
level necessary for effective flocculation.


Waste  Holding Ponds - Waste holding ponds have widespread use in
the beet sugar processing industry.  Their function is similar to
that provided by mechanical settling.   Less  care  is  generally
given  to  their design, operation, and maintenance as mechanical
settling  devices.   The  pond  facilities  normally  serve   for
retention of wastes as contrasted to treatment benefits for which
a  waste stabilization lagoon is designed.  Waste water detention
times in earthen holding ponds generally  range  from  24  to  48
hours.   Minimum  detention  times  are encouraged for minimizing
noxious odors associated with organic fermentation when ponds are
used for solids settling.  Holding ponds, as  distinguished  from
waste stabilization lagoons, serve for solids removal, short-term
retention,  or  long-term  storage  without  discharge to surface
waters.  In the case  (long-term  storage)  the  waste  water  is
disposed  of  by evaporation and filtration.  Waste stabilization
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ponds on the other hand are specifically designed and constructed
to  provide  waste  treatment  for  subsequent  controlled   land
disposal, irrigation, or discharge to surface waters.

Jensen  states  that  the  pond  system, using single or multiple
basins, has been the most common means of solids removal for beet
sugar processing waste waters.  He recommends that the system  be
shallow  and  flowing  in  order  to  avoid the odor nuisances of
hydrogen sulfide gas  generation.   From  his  experience,  Henry
favored  settling ponds for reasons of economy and also suggested
the following principles in relation to these ponds.  First,  the
waste  water should enter the settling pond with minimum velocity
and  circulate  evenly  but  quickly  without  interference  with
settling.   Second,  the use of large ponds is advisable in order
to minimize dike construction.  Third,  pond  bottoms  should  be
level,  and grass and weeds should be removed from the bottom and
sides frequently,  other studies,  conducted  in  Great  Britain,
have  indicated that the ideal shape for a settling pond may be a
rectangle five to six times as long as wide,  providing  a  flow-
through  velocity of about 0.2U m/min (0.8 ft/ min) .  The British
investigations also suggested that small ponds were  advantageous
in  the  event  of  dike rupture, since less waste material would
accidently enter the receiving stream.

Experience within the industry has indicated that  odor  problems
accompanying  the  long-term retention of waste waters in earthen
ponds at many plants can  be  minimized  by  the  maintenance  of
shallow pond depths (optimum of 45.7 cm or 18 in).  In the U. s.,
shallow  lagoons are preferred to deep ponds for municipal waste,
and operating depths are generally in the range of 0.92 to 1.53 m
(3 to 5 ft)   However, effective settling depths will  range  from
less  than 0.3 m (1 ft)  to 6.1 m (20 ft).  In actual practice the
holding ponds may fill rapidly with solids.

In the construction and operation of holding  ponds,  sealing  of
pond  bottoms  to  eliminate or control percolation to acceptable
maximum rates may be necessary even though a mat of splid organic
material often provides some degree of self-sealing.  The general
criterion, adopted by many state pollution control  agencies  for
waste  stabilization  lagoons for municipal wastes, is a 0.635 cm
(1/U in)  maximum drop in pond liquid depth each  day.   This  has
general  application  to waste holding ponds as a practical limit
of filtration and should not be  exceeded.    In  some  instances,
state  pollution  control agencies may desire or regulate maximum
allowable soil filtration from waste holding or  treatment  ponds
to  less  than  0.635 cm (1/U in)  per day.   In these cases, lower
soil filtration rates are applicable.  No contamination of ground
water must result from controlled soil filtration.  Holding ponds
in use in the industry  today  have  no  specific  provision  for
filtration  control.   Even  with uncontrolled soil filtration of
waste water, no pollution of ground waters   has  been  positively
attributed to date to land application practices.
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A  number  of  process  waste  water  storage, retention, or land
disposal systems have been investigated, some systems proving  to
be  of  little  or no protection against polluted discharges.  In
this regard, two types  of  long-term  waste  ponding  have  been
generally  in use:   (1)  Waste retention with controlled regulated
intermittent  discharge  of  holding  pond  contents  to  surface
receiving  waters  and  (2)  long-term waste storage and disposal
with no discharge of process waste waters  to  navigable  waters.
The  procedure of controlled discharge from holding facilities to
receiving waters is practiced at  the  Moorhead,  Crookston,  and
East  Grand Forks, Minnesota, beet sugar processing plants and at
the Drayton, North Dakota, plant.  In this  region,  waste  flows
are  contained  in holding ponds during the processing season and
the  contents  are  discharged  under  controlled  conditions  to
receiving waters during the spring high stream flow period.  Some
reduction  in BOD5 content of the ponded waste takes place during
the winter storage period and before regulated discharge  to  the
river, but the BOD reduction is usually not great.

The   first  extensive  study  of  long-term  waste  storage  was
conducted at the Moorhead, Minnesota, plant during the  1949-1951
campaigns.   Waste flume waters, together with pulp press waters,
were released into two 3.7  meter  (12  ft)  ponds  identical  in
capacity,  with  a  total area of 33 hectares (82 ac) and a total
volume of 1340 million liters (354 million gal).  A third lagoon,
0.9 meters  (3  ft)   deep,  covering  20  hectares   (50  ac)  and
providing  190  million  liters   (50  million  gal) capacity, was
maintained in reserve until late  in  the  campaign.   The  total
campaign  used 1600 million liters water volume (423 million gal)
in 1950.  Uncontrolled discharge from the ponds  began  in  early
spring following severe winter conditions and much ice cover over
the ponds.

The  study showed that waste treatment during the campaign itself
was effected largely by settling of suspended matter  within  the
ponds.   Over  this  period  BODji reductions ranged from 48. to 58
percent and suspended solids removal was indicated  at  about  97
percent.   After  the processing campaign ended, the stored waste
waters underwent no further decrease in BOD£ reduction.  This was
attributed to complete cessation of  biological  activity  within
the  ponds  because  of  freezing  and possible lack of secondary
nutrients.  The study concluded that long-term waste storage even
in cold climates, would provide effective  removal  of  suspended
solids  but  would  be effective in removing only one-half of the
BOD5 load,

A later study undertaken in 1964^1965 in the  Red  River  of  the
North  included  the  Moorhead,  East Grand Forks, and Crookston,
Minnesota plants.  Discharge  was  controlled  according  to  the
amount  of  flow,  dissolved  oxygen,  and  BOD5 in the receiving
stream, and was permitted before and following ice cover  on  the
river.   The  results  of the study showed that the Moorhead pond
effluent contained 449 mg/1 BOD5 and  163  mg/1  total  suspended
solids  and  had  median  values  of  1.5  million total coliform
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bacteria and 1.25 million fecal coliform  bacteria  per  100  ml.
The  discharge at the East Grand Forks, N. D., plant had effluent
values of 164 mg/1 BOD5, 54 mg/1 total suspended  solids,  22,100
total coliforms per 100 ml, and 1,720 fecal coliforms per 100 ml,
Waste removal efficiencies were not determined.

Land  Spreading  of Wastes or Aeration Fields - The term aeration
fields is applied to the process of spreading  wastes  from  beet
sugar  processing  plants  over  large land surfaces.  The wastes
infiltrate the ground in  numerous,  shallow  channels,  and  are
collected and disposed of at the opposite end of the field.

The history of aeration fields for beet sugar processing waste in
the  U.  S.  start,  with  studies  conducted  at  the  Loveland,
Colorado, plant in 1951.  The aeration field there covered 54  ha
(133   ac) .    suspended  solids  and  alkalinity  removals  were
reasonably good, but organic loads (BOD5) were reduced only to  a
minumum  degree.   The  facility  provided  less  than equivalent
primary  treatment,  and  waste  concentrations  in   the   final
effluents  remained  at  high  levels.  The merits of maintaining
this type of extensive treatment area were  seriously  questioned
in view of the results obtained,

A  similar  aeration  field  that  was  formerly used at Windsor,
Colorado, was found even less effective than Loveland,  producing
less  than 10 percent removal of BODJ, 60 percent removal of COD,
and 60 percent reduction of TSS,  The waste  water  entering  the
Cache  La  Poudre  River  contained approximately 1100 mg/1 BOD5,
1060 mg/1 TSS, and 6.6 million total coliform  bacteria  per  100
ml.

Full  scale  aeration field facilities were also constructed at a
Nebraska plant during 1952, and evaluation studies  were  carried
out over the 1952*1953 campaign.  The total combined plant wastes
were  delivered  to a 1,069 by 534 meter  (3,500 by 1,750 ft)  area
of fairly level  contour.   Although  native  buffalo  grass  was
present,  only  part  of  the  field was described as a grassland
filter as compared to installations in Europe.  Waste  channeling
was  quite  evident  and  only  50  percent  of  the waste volume
disappeared by downward soil percolation before reaching the  end
of  the field.  The 1952-1953 survey results showed that incoming
waste levels of 482 mg/1 BOD£ were reduced to, 158  mg/1  in  the
aeration   field  or  that  67  percent  BOD£  removal  occurred.
Corresponding values of total suspended solids  were  5,125  mg/1
and  63  mg/1,  giving 99 percent apparent total suspended solids
reduction.    Similarly,  total  coliform  bacteria  numbers  were
reduced  89  percent.   Although  algal  and  fungal growths were
abundant, the dissolved  oxygen  was  quite  low  in  the  field.
Average  waste  detention  approximated 14 hours, and the results
indicated that odor production was at a  minimum.   The  aeration
field is no longer in use.

Aeration  fields  were also used during the 1963-1964 campaign at
three Colorado plants.  It  was  observed  that  these  treatment
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facilities  did  not embody many of the favorable characteristics
of the earlier installation, and the aeration fields  were  beset
with  numerous  operational  and  maintenance problems.  The 1968
south Platte River Basin studies concluded that aeration  fields,
as they were maintained, could not by any means satisfy the water
quality   criteria   recommended  for  the  receiving  waterbody.
Further conclusions were that aeration fields support  little  or
no  vegetative growth, and because of short circuiting the wastes
were often  applied  vegetative  growth,  and  because  of  short
circuiting  the  wastes  were  often  applied  only  over a small
portion of the field.  Although the majority of suspended  solids
were  removed,  there is little or no other apparent benefit from
the use of aeration fields for beet sugar processing waste.


Waste stabilization Ponds or Lagoons - Waste stabilization  ponds
or lagoons are distinguished from waste holding ponds in that the
former  are  designed,  constructed,  operated, and maintained in
accordance with established design criteria  and  procedures  for
the  primary  purpose  of effecting waste treatment for pollutant
reduction.  Waste holding pondst while affording some benefit  of
waste  treatment,  serve  primarily  to store or retain the waste
with or without discharge of pond contents to surface waters.

Many of the plants  in  California  utilize  waste  stabilization
lagoons  for treatment of excess flume and condenser system waste
waters.  The impetus to provide treatment  of  waste  waters  has
resulted  from  the  advantages obtained by utilizing the treated
waste waters for cropland irrigation in water-short regions.  The
installations are characterized by the use of many interconnected
ponds generally in series, specifically  designed  for  settling,
biological  oxidation,  evaporation, and filtration.  The various
lagoons range generally from 0.6 to 3.0 meters (2.0 to 10 ft)  in
depth,  with  surface  areas  up  to 80 ha (197 ac) .  The shallow
ponds are aerobic, whereas the deeper basins  were  designed  for
controlled  anaerobic  digestion.   The BOD5 of the waters pumped
from  the  final  aerobic  pond  in  series  for  irrigation   is
relatively  low,  of  approximately 105 to 190 mg/1 or less.  The
suspended nature of the BOD5 is demonstrated  by  the  fact  that
studies show that the BODji of the pond effluent may be reduced to
7  to  10  mg/1  by  effective  filtration.  Essentially complete
removal of total suspended solids by filtration is obtained.

Anaerobic-aerobic lagoons have been utilized  on  a  pilot  study
basis  for treating beet sugar processing wastes with encouraging
results (65).  Encouraged by the successful application of  these
principles  in  the  treatment  of  other  wastes, the Beet Sugar
Development Foundation with funding support from EPA initiated  a
pilot  plant  study  in  California.  The major objectives of the
study were to demonstrate the waste removal efficiencies  of  the
system  and  to  determine methods to minimize odor in connection
with this means of treatment.   The  system  was  evaluated  with
respect  to  the  effects of varying feed rates and recirculation
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 ratios  upon organic  waste  removal,  and the  degree of  odor control
 and microbial  growth associated with the  operations.

 Hopkins et.  al«  found that if  total beet  sugar  processing  wastes
 were discharged  uniformly across  the  upper  end of 2  ha (5  ac)
 shallow lagoons  with a detention time of  about  one day  virtually
 all  suspended  solids,   55 percent of the  concentration of BOD5.,
 and 63   percent   of   the   weight of  BOD£   were   removed.   This
 procedure   also   reduced the alkalinity by  69 percent, completely
 eliminated  nitrate nitrogen, and reduced  ammonia  nitrogen by 94.3
 percent.    Coliform   bacteria   increased,   but  phosphates  were
 unchanged.   Water  loss   was   4,040 cu m (3.27 ac ft) per day of
 which 222 cu m (0.18 ac ft)  was due to evaporation and 3818 cu  m
 (3.09 ac ft) was attributed to soil filtration.

 At   the California   pilot  plant,   screened, settled plant waste
 water (principally flume water)  was treated in  a  series  of  three
 ponds.   These  consisted of a 4.6 m  (15 ft)  deep anaerobic pond,  a
 facultative  pond 2.1 m   (7  ft) deep, and an  aerobic pond 0.9  m
 (3.0  ft) deep, from  which  the  effluent could be   discharged  and
 also recycled  to the anaerobic pond.   Detention times varied from
 about  10   to  25 days in the anaerobic pond, 10 to 30 days in  the
 faculative  pond, and 10 to 20  days  in the aerobic pond.   Over  the
 first two years  of  the  study,   the  anaerobic,   faculative  and
 aerobic ponds  were  used respectively as-the  first, second,  and
 third units  in  series.    During September and   October,   1966,
 influent  BOD£  values generally ranged from 1,200  to 1,650 mg/1.
 In  the  first experimental  run,  the  applied  organic loadings were
 1383  kg  BOD5/ha/day  (1,235  Ibs BOD5/ac/day)  for the  anaerobic
 pond, 931 kg BOD5/ha/day  (831  Ibs BOD£/ac/day)  for the faculative
 pond, and 739  kg BOD5/ha/day  (660  Ibs   BOD5/ac/day)   for  the
 aerobic pond.    The  results   of  the first   run represented an
 overall waste  detention period of about 35  days and  provided   70
 percent BOD5  removal and 38  percent  COD   removal.   The BOD5
 concentrations  from  inflow  to outflow    were    reduced  from
 approximately  1,200 mg/1  to 350 mg/1.  Another test, where there
 was no  recirculation  and   the  applied  loadings  were   1838   kg
 BOD5/ha/day  (1,640 Ib BOD^/ac/day)  for the  anaerobic  pond,  502 kg
 BOD5/ha/day   (448 Ibs BOD5/ac/day)  for the faculative  pond,  and
 355~kg  BOD5/ha/day (317 lbs~BOD5/ac/day for the  aerobic  pond,
 with    overall   waste  retention   time  of 70   days,   provided
 approximately  90  per cent BOD5  removal   and  77   percent  COD
.removal.   Correspondingly,  the BOD5 concentrations  were reduced
 from  about  1,650 mg/1 to 170 mg/1.   These   studies  included  the
 enumeration  of   algae, coliform, and fecal streptococci bacteria
 present within the system.   Efficient removals  were achieved with
 respect to   both  coliforms and fecal streptococci organisms,
 reaching  99.99   percent   reduction  in practically   all  cases.
 Although mechanical  and other  disturbances  resulted in less than
 desirable  treatment  operation,  the  system indicated  that beet
 sugar processing wastes could  be successfully treated by  such  a
 system.  BOD5  and COD were effectively removed  in the pond system
 with    the   highest  removal   rates  occurring  in   the  heavily
 organically  loaded anaerobic pond.   As long as  algae  were present
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in the aerobic pond, recycling of waste water  from  the  aerobic
pond  to  the anaerobic pond was beneficial in the prevention and
minimization of odors.  Without recirculation,  there  were  odor
problems with the anaerobic pond.

The  use  of waste water treatment lagoons for the propagation of
fish at plants in California has been investigated and  has  been
reported  by  industry  representatives  to  have  met  with only
partial success.

Laboratory studies have been conducted by  the  British  Columbia
Research  council  to  determine the feasibility of using aerated
lagoons to treat waste flume waters.  The studies  also  provided
data  on  optimum  load  conditions,  determination  of  the time
required in startup relative to the beginning  of  the  campaign,
and  adaptability  of  the  aerated lagoon method to intermittent
operation and .to temperature change.  The waste flume  water  was
obtained  from  a  plant  with a high degree of recycling and the
initial BOD5 values ranged from 821 to 1121 mg/1.  Effluent  BOD5,
values ranged from 30 to 140 mg/1.                              "

The  efficiency  of  a lagoon system depends to a large degree on
the climatic conditions, organic loading, and ability to maintain
uniform flows through the  lagoon  system.   Lagoon  systems  are
effective  in  removing  essentially  all  the  suspended solids.
Effluents of low BOD£ can be attained only  by  maintaining  long
retention  periods, which require large land areas.  The water in
the  lagoons  must  be  kept  shallow,  and  water  movement   is
preferable  in  order to avoid the generation of hydrogen sulfide
with its attendant nuisance odors (28).  Preliminary screening of
beet sugar processing wastes to remove particulate organic matter
before discharge to lagoons substantially lessens the  occurrence
and intensity of noxious odors.

Waste   stabilization   lagoons   for  treatment  of  beet  sugar
processing wastes would undoubtedly perform more  efficiently  in
warm  arid  climates  such  as  southern California than those in
northern, colder climates such as the Red River Valley  of  North
Dakota  and  Minnesota.   Relatively  large land requirements for
lagoons result where treatment of waste water for irrigation  use
is  the  primary objective.  Lagoons must be located so as not to
contribute to ground water pollution.  Selection  of  the  proper
site  by  a  qualified  geologist  to prevent pollution of nearby
aquifers is a necessity.

Odors have  been  experienced  with  operation  of  some  of  the
stablization  lagoons  in  California.  The settling pond and the
initial anaerobic ponds in some  cases  have  been  found  to  be
covered  by  a  heavy proteinaceous scum layer, and the anaerobic
ponds at times have produced serious odors.  The  utilization  of
purple  sulfur  bacteria   (Thiopedia  and  Chromatium) has been a
recent innovation and has been quite effective for  odor  control
in  waste treatment lagoons in California.  The bacteria impart a
pinkish-to-reddish  color  to  the  pond  surface  and  serve  as
                                 84

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biological    deodorizers    by   converting   hydrogen   sulfide
photosynthetically to  produce  elemental  sulfur  and  sulfates.
Where  these bacteria are present in sufficient numbers, hydrogen
sulfide odors  are  usually  greatly  diminished  or  eliminated.
Experience  with  the  use of these bacteria for odor control has
shown that although they are quite  effective  in  warm  climates
they  are  less  efficient  under  the cooler climatic conditions
existing at Hereford, Texas.

Chemical Treatment - Although chemical additives are in fact used
throughout the beet  sugar  process  cycle,  this  discussion  is
limited  to chemical flocculation as a unit operation employed in
waste treatment.

studies at one operation offer  a  noteworthy  example  of  waste
treatment  by  chemical  precipitation.   Waste flume waters were
received into a grit separator  for  heavy  solids  removal  then
treated  by chemical flocculation, with 40 percent of the treated
waters being returned to the beet flume and the  remainder  being
discharged  to  the  river.   The  sludges  from  both  the  grit
separator and the setting basin were directed to sludge ponds and
supernatants were returned  to  the  grit  chamber.   This  plant
utilized  dry  handling techniques in moving the sugar beets from
storage piles to the wet hopper.  This resulted in minimum  waste
loadings  in  the  flume  system.   The average BOD5 level in the
flume waters before treatment was 223  mg/1.   Treatment  results
showed  that the chemical flocculation system obtained 90 percent
removal of suspended solids, and reduction of final  BOD5  levels
between  70  and  130  mg/1  or  a  57  percent reduction in BOD5
content, equal to a residual waste  load  of  0.43  kg/kkg  (0.86
Ib/ton)    of  beets  processed.   other  plant  wastes  were  not
accounted for in the total waste  balance.   These  included  the
continuous discharge of excess condenser waters and some overflow
from the lime mud ponds to the river.

The  British  Columbia  Research  Council  has  given preliminary
attention to chemical flocculation as a polishing means following
activated sludge treatment.  The  Council  found  that  effluents
from  aeration  units  were measurably improved by adding lime or
lime together with a coagulant aid.

Polymers to promote solids settling in mechanical clarifiers have
been used with  success  at  the  Winnipeg,  Manitoba,  plant  in
Canads.     In  the  United  States  polymers  have  not  received
widespread use because improvement of settling in the flume water
is made with  the  addition  of  lime  to  flume  waters  in  the
mechanical clarifier or the earthen holding ponds.

Land  Irrigation - The use of treated beet sugar processing waste
waters for irrigating agricultural lands directly  or  indirectly
is   widely  practiced  throughout  the  western  United  states.
Examples of this practice  exist  at  plants  in  California  and
Texas,  and  in  the  South Platte River Basin in Colorado.   Beet
sugar processing wastes  are  applied  directly  to  agricultural
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lands  when  the  processing  campaign coincides with the growing
season.  This is true for  the  warmer  climates  such  as  those
existing  in  California.   Over  much  of  the remaining western
United states the waste waters are generally stored in  ponds  or
reservoirs  until  irrigation  commences the following spring.  A
high degree of water  reuse  in  the  water-short  areas  of  the
western United States, predominantly for agricultural irrigation,
is strongly reinforced by western water law.

Irrigation  in  general  does  not require a high degree of water
quality, and often results in a completely consumptive use of the
waste waters, with no resultant  discharge  of  waste  waters  to
surface waters under properly controlled conditions.

Activated  Sludge - It has been shown on a pilot scale basis that
activated sludge can effectively reduce the organic load in waste
flume waters by 83 to 97 percent.  The maximum time  required  in
fully  adapting the floe to the substrate was less than 96 hours.
Bio-oxidation of beet sugar  wastes  at  about  2tt°C  (75<>F)  was
successful,  and  initial  BOD5 values of 1035 to 2,000 mg/1 were
lowered to less than 50 mg/1 within 20 to 30 hours.

Pilot plant evaluation of activated sludge treatment at Hereford,
Texas, has provided favorable results.  The study showed that  an
activated  sludge system could produce good organic removals, but
the system was rather easily upset.  A system  loading  of  1  kg
COD/kg  (1  Ib/lb)   of mixed liquor volatile suspended solids/day
with 3,000 to a,000 mg/1 mixed liquor volatile  suspended  solids
concentration was suggested.

Laboratory activated sludge units were also used in Great Britain
for  treating  waste  waters received from a plant settling pond.
Aeration periods varied from 6 to 24 hours.  The first three runs
used aeration times of 6 to 17 hours and provided BOD5 reductions
of 48 to 83 percent.  The active floe may  not  have "been  fully
adapted  to  the  waste  in  these  runs.   Five other runs using
aeration times of 18 to 24 hours produced BODjj reductions in  the
range  of  89  to  95  percent.  Initial BOD5~values in the above
tests were approximately 400 mg/1.  When pond muds were used as a
source of innoculum, startup ra-fces were  slower  than  desirable,
but  with  an  established active floe, the rates of BOD5 removal
were entirely adequate to handle  high  BOD5  loadings.  "" Maximum
BOD5  removal  rates  for flume wastes, employing an active floe,
were obtained within 96 hours.  A later report of experiments  in
which  flume  wastes  from 38 beet sugar plants were subjected to
bio-oxidative treatment showed that  significant  BOD5  reduction
was   obtained   after  72  hours  startup  period  with  aerobic
treatment.

Trickling Filters - Trickling filter studies undertaken in  Texas
and  Idaho  and at many full-scale installations in Great Britain
and Western Europe have suggested  that  such  filters  may  have
merit  in  beet  sugar  processing waste treatment.  On the other
hand, two full-scale trickling filter treatment plants have  been

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constructed  for the treatment of beet  sugar  processing  wastes  in
the United States  (Idaho and  Utah).    In  both  cases   treatment
performance  was  most  disappointing,  and both  plants have  since
been closed.  The failures were largely attributed   to   a   gross
underestimation of the waste water  production rate and difficulty
in design and selection of treatment units at these plants.

In  Idaho, a conventional trickling filter plant was  completed  in
the summer of 1965 to provide treatment of wastes  expected  from
the  Rupert plant during the following  campaign.  Lime mud slurry
was separately impounded, and other plant wastes which   comprised
essentially  the  flume  and  condenser waters were  directed for
treatment.  The  facility consisted of  a screen station  with  six
vibrating   screens   in  parallel,  twin  hydro-separators  also
arranged in parallel followed  by   a  primary settling   tank,  a
single high-rate trickling filter,  secondary  settling tank,  and a
brush  aerator  installed  on  the  effluent discharge canal.  The
hydroseparators provided for removal of the heavier solids;  flows
in excess of 347 I/sec (5,500 gpm)  through  the  separators  were
returned  to  the  beet  flumes.    From the separators,  the  waste
water entered the primary clarifier which was approximately  37  m
 (120  ft) in diameter and 3.1 m (10 ft) deep  and provided a waste
retention period of about 2.5 hours.    The  treatment plant  was
grossly  overloaded,  and  only  189 I/sec (3,000 gpm) of settled
waste water was subsequently applied to the trickling filter; the
remaining 158 I/sec (2,500 gpm)  was discharged to  the   receiving
stream.   Sludges  from  both  the  separators and primary settler
were  pumped  to  a  storage  pond.   The  trickling  filter  was
approximately 60 m (200 ft)  in diameter and 3 m  (10 ft)   deep, and
contained  5.1  to  5.2  cm  (2 to  6 in) slag material.    The slag
material was not uniformly distributed  within  the  filter.   The
recirculation  ratio  was about 3:1 for this  single stage filter.
Filter effluent was then received into  the  secondary clarifier,
and  the  final  effluent was released  into the receiving stream.
The design plans specified 3,200 kkg (3,500 ton)  of beets/day  to
be  processed by the Rupert plant; however, during the very first
campaign the average processing rate actually amounted   to  5,900
kkg  (6,500  ton)/day.    Treatment plant overload was inescapable
and drastic.  Although firm data were   not  available  concerning
Rupert,  it  was  estimated  that  the  hydraulic  load  onto the
trickling filter approximated 234 million  1/ha/day   (25  million
gal/ac/day),  and that the waste load was in the order of 12.6 to
21.6 kg BOD5/CU m of filter media/day (7 to 12 Ibs BOD5/cu yd  of
filter  media/day)   including  recirculation  (13).  These applied
loads are extremely high.  Besides poor  distribution  of  media,
there  was  little or no visible biological growth on the surface
Of the filter.   Water vapor forming over the filter   during  cold
weather  retarded air movement in the filter bed, thereby tending
to provide insufficient air supply to the  bed.   Provisions  for
including  air  undercurrents  through  the side and bottom of the
bed  possibly  would  have  alleviated   this   condition    (13).
Furthermore,  an automatic skimming device on the primary settler
would have aided in removing the substantial accumulation of scum
and grease present.  Information  obtained  on  Rupert   indicated
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that  the  treatment  plant was providing around 30 to 40 percent
BOD5 removal for that portion of the beet sugar processing wastes
receiving  treatment.   The  conditions  described   above   were
observed  principally  during the 1965 and 1966 season and do not
reflect changes since that time.

The trickling filter in Utah was  constructed  in  1961  and  was
intended  for  treating  and recycling waste flume water.  During
the off-season the filter received various wastes from the  plant
holding pond.  The facility consisted of a screen station, a grit
chamber,  and  a mechanically-operated clarifier 37 m (120 ft) in
diameter by 3.0 m (10 ft) deep, followed by  a  single  trickling
filter  37  m (120 ft)  in diameter by 1,5 m (5 ft)  deep.  Two and
one-half hours  waste  detention  was  provided  in  the  primary
settler,   A  portion of the filter effluent could be returned to
the clarifier.  The treatment system was reported in 1963 to have
major defects,  serious  deficiencies  in  the  trickling  filter
included   a   poor   underdrainage  system  and  improper  media
specifications.   The  underdrain  system  experienced   frequent
flooding and required additional pumping capacity.   Compaction of
the  media  and  damage  to  the underdrains were suspected.  The
reduction of media interspace served to minimize air  circulation
through the filter and retarded biological growths.  The Lewiston
plant  wastes  also indicated an inorganic nutrient deficit which
may have caused even further difficulty in treatment.

Operation of the filter was initiated too late in the 1961 season
to  develop  adequate  biological   growth.    The   filter   was
reactivated  in  March,  1962,  using  holding  pond wastes.  The
results collected during March  -  May,  1962,  showed  0  to  30
percent   BOD5   reduction,  with  hydraulic  and  organic  loads
(including recirculation) of  43,900  cu  m/ha/day   (4.7  million
gal/ac/day)   and  10.8  kg  BOD^/cu m of filter media /day (6 Ibs
BOD§/cu yd of filter  media/day),  respectively.   Through  June,
1962,  the  BODji removal increased to the 40 to 60  percent level,
with applied filter loads of about 6.3 kg  BOD£/cu  m  of  filter
media/day (3.5 Ibs BOD£/cu yd of filter media/day).  By November,
1962, the treatment plant BODJ reduction dropped to a level of 10
to 50 percent.

Trickling filters have found wide favor at a number of beet sugar
processing  plants  in  Great  Britain and Western Europe,  crane
described the process by which some  plants  have  contained  the
wastes  in  ponds  from  which the water is passed over trickling
filters before discharge to a  stream.   During  startup  in  the
operation  of  the  filters,  it  has been necessary to use waste
dilution and recycle to avoid overloading the filter system.  The
contents of the pond are treated and discharged over a period  of
many months, with maximum BOD5 of the discharged effluent of less
than  20  mg/1.   Phipps  of "Great  Britain  has  suggested that
trickling filters offer one means of treating  accumulated  waste
waters  resulting  from  the integrated flume and condenser water
recycling system.  The waste water is stored over the campaign in
a large pond and drawn off for treatment  at  a  relatively  slow
                                88

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rate  throughout  the  year.   The  average  plant would probably
require storage capacity of 75.7 to 113.6 million liters   (20  to
30  million  gal).  Phipps preferred a shallow rather than a deep
pond to take advantage of wind mixing and aeration.  Research was
conducted in this regard, using an 8.1 ha  (20 ac)  lagoon  and  a
percolating  filter  18.3  m  (60 ft) in diameter and 1*8 m (6 ft)
deep.  Filter inflow was diluted with stream  water,  and  ranged
from  17 to 230 mg/1 BOD5; the filter outflow ranged from 7 to 71
mg/1 BOD5.  The results showed the filter  system  produced  BODS
reductions from 60 to 90 percent.

The  full-scale  waste treatment system at the Bardney beet sugar
processing plant in Great Britain consisted of  a  single  filter
operating  either  at low- or high-rate application and receiving
settling pond effluent diluted with  river  water  before  filter
dosing.   The  pond  effluent  varied in BOD5 concentrations from
1239 mg/1 in March to about 38mg/l in October.  The  waste  water
temperature  varied  from  4  to  16°c  (39  to 60°P), and filter
loadings ranged  from  0.13  to  1.39  kg  BOD5/cu  m  of  filter
media/day  (0,07 to 0.77 Ibs BOD^/cu yd of filter media/day)  with
an average load around 0.72 kg BOD5/cu m of filter media/day (O.U
Ibs BODS/cu yd of filter media/day)".  Total waste volume  treated
was  1UU million 1 (38 million gal).  BOD5 reductions varied from
55 to 97 percent,  with removals of 83 percent or higher occurring
in  9  of  the  12  months.   Final  effluent  BOD5  values  were
approaching  20  mg/1.   British studies have shown that properly
operated filters could consistently produce effluents  with  less
than  20  mg/1  BOD5 when the initial levels were between 105 and
180 mg/1.  in starting operation of a filter, domestic sewage was
recommended to be applied together with the beet sugar processing
waste to reduce the time required  for  full  filter  adaptation.
Primary  and secondary settling were considered essential, and it
was further recommended that for every 100 mg/1 BOD5,  the  waste
water  should  contain  a  phosphorous equivalent not less than 1
mg/1.  A reference was made to Russian experiences  where  strong
beet  sugar wastes of 4,000 to 5,000 mg/1 BOD5 have been directly
applied at low loading  rates  to  a  three-stage  filter  system
resulting in 75 to 85 percent BOD5 reduction.

Recirculation  -  Reuse  Systems - For plants presently utilizing
polluti on  control   technology,   rec irculation-reuse   systems,
biological treatment, and land application systems are being used
to  achieve  waste load reduction.  The nearly-closed waste water
recirculation system represents the best level of rigorous  waste
water  control,  and  has  generally  proved  to  be  superior to
biological methods in terms of overall results.
                                *
Flume Water Recycle Systems - A flume water recirculation circuit
can be described as one with continuous recycling of flume waters
and with essential treatment units in the  line,  thus  providing
efficient  water reuse.  Flume water recycling systems are in use
or are planned at essentially all beet sugar  processing  plants.
The  extensive  recycling flume water system commonly in place or
planned at beet sugar processing plants  has  largely  eliminated
                                89

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pollution originating from fecal coliforms in total process wasrtr
water.

Mechanical  clarifiers  providing generally a 30-minute detention
period with lime addition may be employed for settling  of  flume
water.   Mechanical clarifiers are preferred because they provide
better pH control of the recycling operations  and  require  less
land.   Sludge  withdrawn  from  the  clarifier  or  earthen pond
facilities is generally  conveyed  to  a  mud  holding  pond  for
complete  retention.   Overflow  from  the  mud  holding  pond is
contained in subsequent holding facilities.  In most cases  where
land  is available, flume mud is allowed to accumulate within the
pond without removal.  However, the accumulated mud at the  plant
at  Longmont, Colorado (an initial experimental project sponsored
by the  Beet  Sugar  Development  Foundation  and  Federal  water
Pollution  Control  Administration)  must be periodically removed
from alternate mud settling ponds for disposal on adjacent  land.
Industry  personnel  report  the cost of removing the accumulated
solid  material  from  the  pond  at  approximately  $15,000  per
campaign  or approximately 66 cents per cu meter (50 cents per cu
yard) of solid material removed.

Condenser  Water  Recycling  Systems  -  Partial   or   extensive
recycling  of water for barometric condenser purposes or reuse is
widely  practiced  in  the  industry.   A  total  of  16   plants
accomplish maximum recycling of condenser water within the plant,
the  only  waste  water discharged being that necessary for total
dissolved solids control  in  the  system  to  prevent  excessive
scaling.   The discharged volumes are almost universally disposed
of  through  land  application  without  discharge  to  navigable
waters.
Integrated   Flume   and  Condenser  water  Recycling  Systems  *-
Condenser waters may be added  into  the  flume  recycle  circuit
because of the fluming process need for thawing of beets or other
reasons.   Many  plants in Europe employ the integrated system in
whole or in part.  Integrated flume and condenser  water  systems
are in use in two U. S. plants.  One system was installed in 1956
and  has  as its basic components a screening station, mechanical
settling tanks, sludge pond, spray pond, lime pond, excess  water
storage  pond,  and  a  distribution line leading from the excess
water pond back into the plant.  Reclaimed waters are pumped from
the excess water pond to the plant main water supply  tank  which
in  turn  serves  to  supply the beet flumes, beet washer, roller
spray table, and condenser system, and for purposes of  slurrying
the lime mud.

Alternative  methods  of  flume  water recycling include separate
discharge of condenser water, dry methods of conveying beets into
the plant, or a combination  of  various  inplant  and  treatment
measures to achieve desired waste load reduction.  A multiplicity
of  choices  and  process alternatives exists in the latter case.
However, no  discharge  of  process  waste  water  pollutants  to
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navigable  waters  is  possible through mechanisms of water reuse
and recycling in a beet sugar processing plant with  control  and
disposal  of  excess  waste  water  through  land  application of
process waste waters.

One of the early systems  was  examined  in  1962  by  Force  for
possible  improvement.   Two areas were found to be of particular
significance.   First,  separate  flume   and   condenser   water
recycling  systems  would  serve  to  reduce the high flume water
temperatures existing in early fall.  The  addition  of  a  spray
pond  or other cooling device would be desirable on the condenser
water circuit.  In colder  weather,  the  two  systems  could  be
combined  thus taking advantage of the warm condenser water which
is desirable within  the  flume  waters  during  colder  weather.
Second,  the  lime  pond  overflow  should be eliminated from the
circuit because of the  many  problems  caused  by  high  solids.
Similar  exclusion of sludge pond overflow would aid the circuit,
although to a lesser extent.

Land Waste Water Disposal Without Discharge to Surface  Waters  -
Waste  disposal  of  all  beet  sugar  processing  wastes without
discharge to surface waters may be accomplished through extensive
inplant waste water recycling, waste water treatment and control,
and/or land disposal.   Any  excess  waste  water  is  ultimately
disposed  of by evaporation and controlled filtration, or in some
cases by use of waste water after treatment for irrigation.

One plant in the western U.S. practices remarkable  recirculation
and reuse of waste waters with very low fresh water intake of 900
1/kkg  (215 gal/ton) of beets.  Although large areas are available
for  ponding  of  wastes,  actually  little is used.  There is no
discharge to surface waters.
Mass Water Balance in a Beet Sugar Processing Plant

An account of water gains and losses that occur in a typical beet
sugar  processing  operation  is  given   in   this   subsection.
Schematic  diagrams  of  water balance (net gains and losses) for
typical flume, condenser,  and  overall  process  operations  are
given in Figures VII, VIII, and IX respectively.

Water Gains

Water gains in a beet sugar processing plant result from incoming
sugar beets and fresh water intake.  Incoming beets normally have
between  75  and  80  percent moisture.  A moisture content of 80
percent is assumed in subsequent calculations.
Water from incoming beets (75-80X moisture)  = 800 1/kkg of
processed (192 gal/ton).
beets
                                91

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                                                       Figure VII

                         WATER BALANCE DIAGRAM FOR A TYPICAL BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT
                                   NET GAINS AND LOSSESr^ FOR FLUME WATER SYSTEM
                      FRESH WATER MAKE-UP,
                       GAIN,Q^2130-Q1
                  SCREENS
                SCREENINGS
                 LOSS=10(2)
                                      LINE DOSAGE
                                       EQUIPMENT
                                                      MECHANICAL OR
                                                    EARTHEN CLARIFIER

  MISCELLANEOUS WASTES
    (FLOOR DRAINS, ETC.)
V      GAIN=46(11)
                                           FLUME MUD UNDERFLOW (SLOWDOWN)
                                          AS EXCESS WASTE WATER FOR DISPOSAL
                                                    LOSS=2170(520}
         CONDENSER SEAL
         TANK WATER MAKE-UP,
         GAIN = 0,
                                                     PUMP AND MOTOR
All water gains and losses are expressed in terms of l/kkg.  Expressions in terms of gallons per ton of beets  sliced are indicated in parenthesis.

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                                                     Figure VIII

                       WATER BALANCE DIAGRAM FOR A TYPICAL BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT


                               NET GAINS AND LOSSES-!/ FOR CONDENSER WATER SYSTEM
        BAROMETRIC
        CONDENSER
                               FRESHWATER MAKE-UP,•GAINfQ=128(H-a1(307-K>l)
'EXCESS WASTE WATER
SLOWDOWN FOR DISPOSAL
 LOSS=835(200)
                                                                                DIFFUSER SUPPLY,LOSS=0-317{0-76)
                                                                                BEET WASHER OR FLUME WATER
                                                                                MAKE-UP, LOSS = QI
                                                                                LIMESLURRYING
                                                                                EXCESS CONDENSATE WATER
                                                                                GAIN=514-83V(123-199)
                                                                   COOLING
                                                                    TOWER
                                                                      1
LOSS=835(200)
J/,
  All water gains and losses are expressed in terms of I/kkg.  Expressions in terms of gallons per ton of  beets sliced are indicated in parenthesis

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                                                     Figure IX

                        WATER BALANCE DIAGRAM FOR TYPICAL BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT
                              NET GAINS AND LOSSES ^ FROM TOTAL PROCESSING OPERATION
               GAIN=800(192)
    LOSS=10(2)
        LOSS=30(7)
                                                      JUICE PURIFICATION
                                                     (LIMJNG-CARBONATION)
    FRESH WATER
INTAKE,Q=2530(606)
                        CONDENSER WATER SLOWDOWN,
                               LOSS=835(200)
              CONDENSER
                WATER
                COOLING
                DEVICES
             LOSS=835(200)
    MOLASSES
    DILUTION
(STEFFEN PROCESS
      ONLY)
       A
   GAIN=729{75)
 MOLASSES
PRODUCTION
     V
 LOSS=8<2)
                  LOSS=10(2f
                       A
                                                        DRUM FILTER
                                                          VAPOR
                                                                       LOSS=10(2)
                                                        SULFITATION
                                                          VAPOR
DRIED PULP
PRODUCTION
                                                                                             FLUME WATER
                                                                                             "SLOWDOWN, Loss=2i70(52o)
 AMMONIA VENTING
  ON EVAPORATION
       PANS
    ¥
 LOSS=159(38}
LOSS NOT SIGNIFICANT
                                                                               TOTAL GAIN=40460(973)
                                                                                TOTAL LOSS=4060(973)
          All water gains and losses are expressed in terms of l/kkg. Expressions in terms of gallons per ton of beets sliced are indicated in parenthesis.

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The  quantity  of  fresh water intake for a beet sugar  processing
plant is highly variable.  Factors to be considered are chemical,
physical, and temperature qualities  of  water  supplies   (ground
water  or  surface  sources),  and  water makeup requirements for
solids and scaling control in recycled flume and condenser  water
systems.   Total water requirements for flume and condenser water
purposes amount to 10,840 1/kkg  (2600 gal/ton)  of  beets  sliced
and 8360 1/kkg (2000 gal/ton)  of beets sliced, respectively  (49).
Industrial  experience has shown that approximately 20 percent or
less water  makeup  in  volume  is  required  to  compensate  for
evaporative losses and to maintain scaling control in a recycling
condenser water system.  Fresh water makeup in the recycled flume
water  system  is  limited  by  the  need  for particulate solids
removal and approximates 20 percent  of  total  volume  based  on
existing  practices.   This  would amount to a fresh water volume
make-up of 2170 1/kkg  (520 gal/ton)  of  beets  sliced  and  1670
1/kkg  (400  gal/ton)  of beets sliced for the recirculating flume
and condenser water systems, respectively.   In  a  recirculating
barometric condenser water system, approximately 10 percent water
volume  may  be  attributable  to  evaporative  water  losses  in
cooling, the remaining being attributed to  "blowdown"  from  the
system  for  solids  control.    Essentially the entire 20 percent
water volume in the  recirculating  flume  water  system  may  be
attributed to "blowdown" associated with solids control. .

Water losses in the plant result from:

. Wet weeds and leaves
. carbonation tank venting
. Drum filter vapor
. Sulfitation vapor
. Ammonia venting on evaporators
. Pulp drying
. Molasses production
. Molasses dilution (Steffen process only)
. Cooling devices

Wet  weeds  and  leaves  contribute  to  water loss in the plant.
Iverson (75)  estimates that the moisture content of wet weeds and
leaves equals one percent of the weight of  beets  sliced.   This
amounts to 10 1/kkg of beets processed (2.4 gal/ton).

Small  amounts  of  water  vapor  are  lost  through  venting  of
carbonation tanks.  This water quantity is estimated  by  Iverson
(75)  to be 3 percent by weight of beets processed.

Carbonation tank venting water loss = 30 1/kkg of beets processed
                                      (7.2 gal/ton)

Drum filter vapor is another source of water loss estimated by
Iverson (75)  to be 1 percent by weight of beets processed.

       Drum filter vapor = 1 percent by weight of beets processed
       water loss        = 10  1/kkg of beets processed
                         -  (2.4 gal/ton)
                                95

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sulfitating   of  the  purified  and  clarified  thin  juices  is
conducted to  control  juice  color  formation,  to  improve  the
boiling   properties   of   the  juices,  and  to  reduce  excess
alkalinity.  Liquid sulfur dioxide is  introduced  directly  into
the thin juice pipeline from the second carbonation filters.

Sulfitation vapor water loss * 1 percent of the beets sliced by
                            weight » 10 1/kkg of beets processed
                              (2.4 gal/ton)

Some small undetermined water loss occurs through ammonia venting
lines  on  the  steam  chest  of  multi-effect  evaporators.  The
venting lines and valves are periodically  opened  to  bleed  off
small accumulations of ammonia gas in the evaporators.

Pulp  drying  produces the largest single loss of water in a beet
sugar processing plant.

Weight of dried pulp  (7-10 percent moisture)=45 kg/kkg of beets
                                             sliced  (94 Ibs/ton)

Water in dried pulp (7-10 percent moisture) = 2.9 1/kkg of beets
                                       processed  (0.7 gal/ton)

Water loss in pulp drying operation = 159 1/kkg of beets sliced
                                       (38 gal/ton)

Iverson (75)  reports a total water loss through dryer exhaust  of
15 percent of beets processed.  Water loss would then account for
150 1/kkg of beets processed  (36 gal/ton).

The  values  of  159  and  150  1/kkg  of beets sliced (38 and 36
gal/ton)  are in close agreement.  A water loss value of 159 1/kkg
of beets sliced (38 gal/ton)  is selected.

Molasses production in a straight-house operation ranges  between
4  and  6  percent  by  weight  of  the beets sliced  (65) .  Total
molasses production is taken at 5.5 percent by weight  of  sliced
beets  (standard industry parameter).  A typical analysis of beet
sugar molasses is 85 percent dry substance and 15 percent water.

Total molasses produced (5.5 percent by weight of beets sliced) =»
55 kg/kkg of beets sliced (110 Ibs/ton)
    Water in molasses  (15 percent)
8.3 1/kkg of beets sliced
(2 gal/ton)
Iverson  (75) reports the loss of water in molasses produced of  1
percent  of  the  weight  of  beets  sliced  equals 10 1/kkg  (2,4
gal/ton) of beets sliced.  The values of 8.3 and 10.0 1/kkg   (2.0
and  2.4  gal/ton)  of  beets sliced are in general agreement.  A
value of 8.3 1/kkg  (2.0 gal/ton) of beets sliced is taken.
                                 96

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    Solids in molasses =  0.85(55 kg/kkg)
                       =  47 kg/kkg of beets  sliced  (94  Ibs/ton)

Approximately 30 percent  of mola*sses produced  (maximum)  may
be disposed of on dried beet pulp for animal feeds,  or
molasses by weight of beets sliced
{standard industry practice).

Molasses disposed of on pulp  (30% of total molasses  produced)
                            = 0.021x1000 kg/kkg
                            * 21 kg/kkg of beets  sliced
                              (42 Ibs/ton)

Water in molasses disposed of on pulp ^ 3,2  1/kkg of beets  sliced
                                         (0.8 gal/ton)

Water in molasses not disposed of on pulp =  5.1 1/kkg of  beets
                                             sliced  (1.2 gal/ton)

Straight-house molasses containing 85 percent dry substance by
weight is diluted with water to approximately 6 percent sugar for
processing in the Steffen process.

    Solids in straight-house molasses-45 kg/kkg of beets  sliced
                                      (90 Ib/ton)

 Weight of molasses after dilution=783 kg/kkg of  beets  sliced
(1566 Ib/ton)
 weight of water in diluted molasses = 736 kg/kkg of beets
                            sliced  (1472 Ib/ton)

  Volume of water in diluted molasses (Steffen house) =
         736 1/kkg of beets sliced  (176 gal/ton)

  Required dilution water for molasses =736-7  or
         729 1/kkg of beets processed (175 gal/ton)

Cooling devices (spray ponds, open cooling ponds, cooling towers,
etc.)  result in  evaporative  water  losses  in   the process  of
cooling  condenser  and  other  heated  waters.   cooling  towers
account for an evaporative loss of 10 to 15  percent  of  the   total
condenser  water  volume  of  8350 1/kkg of  beets processed (2000
gal/ton)  of beets sliced.  A 10 percent evaporative  loss  through
cooling  of  condenser water is assumed where cooling devices are
employed for condenser water (835 1/kkg of beets  processed)   (200
gal/ton).


In^plant Water Uses

Pulp press water originates from the pressing of  exhausted  beet
pulp removed from the diffuser.
                                97

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Weight of wet pulp from diffuser  (80 percent of beets sliced by
          weight = 800 kg/kkg of be^ts processed  (1600 Ibs/ton)

Water contained in wet pulp from the diffuser  (95 percent
          moisture = 764 1/kkg of beets sliced  (183 gal/ton)

Dry solids in wet pulp from diffuser = 40 kg/kkg of beets sliced
                                        (80 Ib/ton)

Water contained in the exhausted pulp after pressing ranges between
76 and 84 percent.  Eighty percent moisture of pressed pulp
is common.

Weight of wet pulp after pressing (80 percent moisture)
          =  200 kg/kkg of beets sliced  (400 Ibs/ton)

Water contained within pulp after pressing (80 percent moisture)
          - 163 1/kkg of beets sliced (39 gal/ton)

Water extracted by pulp pressing = 764 - 163
          = 601 1/kkg of beets sliced (144 gal/ton)

The  diffusion  process  involves  the extraction of sucrose from
sliced beets.  The sugar-laden liquid (raw juice)  and  exhausted
pulp  resulting  from  the  process  are used subsequently in the
processing operation.  Total diffuser supply  water  is  normally
made  up  by  65  percent from pulp press water of 601 1/kkg (144
gal/ton)  of beets sliced  which  is  returned  to  the  diffuser.
Estimated total diffuser supply on this basis equals 918 1/kkg of
beets sliced (220 gal/ton).

Raw  or  diffusion  juice  has  12 to 15 percent solids or sugar,
which is about 98 percent of the sugar which was contained in the
beets when sliced.  Fifteen percent solids in diffusion juice  is
assumed   (standard  industry parameter).  Fifteen percent sucrose
content is a normal figure for sugar beets.

  Sugar contained in diffusion juice = 0.15 x  1000 x 0.98
          - 147 kg/kkg of beets processed  (294 Ibs/ton)

  Total weight of diffusion juice = 983 kg/kkg of beets sliced
                                    (1960 Ib/ton)

  Weight of water contained in diffusion juice =
            836 kg/kkg of beets sliced  (1670 Ibs/ton)

  Volume of water in diffusion juice = 835 1/kkg of beets sliced
                                        (200 gal/ton)

Raw juice "draft" normally runs between 100 and 150 percent in
the diffusion process  (120 percent is used in this calculation}.

  Draft  (percent) =  (Weight of diffusion juice drawn from diffuser
                                98

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    r Weight of cossettes introduced as beets sliced) x  100

  Weight of raw juice from diffuser * 1200 kg/kkg of beets sliced
                                      (2400 Ibs/ton)

  Weight of solids in raw diffusion juice - 180 kg/kkg of beets
                                            sliced  (360  Ibs/ton)

  weight of water in raw diffusion juice = 1020 kg/kkg of beets
                                           sliced  (2040  Ibs/ton)

  Volume of water in raw diffusion juice = 1020 1/kkg of beets
                                           sliced  (245 gal/ton)

The diffusion process water supply requirements as determined  by
the  somewhat  different  approaches  as  above of 835,  918, 1020
1/kkg of beets sliced (200, 220, and 245 gal/ton)' are in general
agreement.   A value for total diffuser water supply requirements
of 918 1/kkg of  beets  sliced   (220  gal/ton)  is  taken  as  an
industry-wide  practice.   On  the  basis  of  total water supply
requirements for diffusion purposes of 918 1/kkg of beets  sliced
(220  gal/ton)   and  return  of  600 1/kkg (144 gal/ton) of beets
sliced of pulp press water  to  the  diffuser,  requirements  for
diffuser  water  makeup  from  other  sources   (condensate water,
condenser water, etc.)  would be 918 - 600 = 318  1/fckg   of  beets
sliced (76 gal/ton)

Condensate  water,  generally  the purest water source within the
plant, is generated in large quantities through  the  process  of
concentrating   the   purified,   thin  juice  after  liming  and
carbonation.  In the concentrating  process,  the  raw   juice  is
reduced  from 10 to 15 percent solids to 50 to 65 percent solids.
when  raw  juice  is  concentrated,  water  is  produced in  the
concentration  process  through condensation of vapors from juice
boiling.   A typical juice concentration of 55 percent  solids  is
taken as common practice (standard industry parameter).

    weight of solids in raw diffusion juice (15 percent  solids)
                   = 180 kg/kkg of beets sliced (360 Ibs/ton)

    Volume of water in raw diffusion juice = 1020 1/kkg  of beets
                                             sliced (245 gal/ton)

    Total weight of "thick" juice after concentration -  327
                                       kg/kkg of beets processed
                                       (655 Ibs/ton)

    Weight of water in "thick" juice after concentration
                   = 148 kg/kkg of beets sliced (296 Ibs/ton)

    Total condensate water produced from concentration of raw
   juice  - 1022 - 146 * 876 1/kkg of beets sliced (210 gal/ton)
                               99

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Condensate  water  is  commonly  used  for boiler feed and makeup
diffuser supply, floor washing,  or  other  uses  in  the  plant.
Vapors  in  multi-effect  evaporation  are  used  sequentially in
evaporators for heating effects-  Excess vapors from  evaporation
are  generally  used  for  heating purposes.  Condensate from the
first evaporation effect is generally preferred for the supply of
diffuser  water.   Condensate  from  the  second  through   fifth
evaporator  effects is employed for boiler feed, washing filters,
washing floors, and diffuser water makeup.

Total condensate volume (918 1/kkg of beets sliced)  (220 gal/ton)
may be attributed to diffuser supply (317 1/kKg of beets  sliced)
(76  gal/ton),  floor  washings  (46  1/kkg  of beets sliced)  (11
gal/ton), and an excess  of  approximately  510  1/kkg  of  beets
processed   (123  gal/ton).   The  excess condensate volume is not
generally metered, and is usually  discharged  to  the  condenser
water  system.   condensate  water is essentially pure and may be
satisfactorily used for  makeup  water  in  barometric  condenser
systems for total solids control.

Boiler  feed  is  supplied  by  condensate  water from the first,
second and third pan evaporation  processes.   The  steam  has  a
temperature   and  pressure  of about 302°C  (575° F) and 28.2 atm
(400  psi). The  pressure  of  the  exhaust  steam  after   power
generation is 4.1 atm (45 psi).  Makeup required by the necessity
of  blowdown  for solids control in the boiler system is reported
normally to account for 4 percent of the generated steam.

Press water is supplied directly from condensate water  from  the
fourth  and  fifth  effect  evaporators, overflow from the boiler
feed system, and miscellaneous other sources such as second  high
raw  and  evaporator pans, heaters, and juice boilers.  The press
water  is  used  for  washing  lime  mud  during  dewatering   of
precipitated  lime  from juice purification on the vacuum filter.
The combined filtrate and  wash  water  from  the  rotary  vacuum
filters  is called "sweet water," and this is used to supply milk
of lime in a straighthouse or saccharate milk in a Steffen house.
Excess "sweet water" is returned to first or  second  carbonation
stages.  The quality of condensate water utilized for press water
is  unknown  and  is  not  metered  at  most plants.  No reliable
estimate can be made.

Floor washing is accomplished with condensate water use  as  high
as  192  I/sec   (50 gpm)  at one 5900 kkg/day  (6500 ton/day) beet
sugar processing plant.  The quantity of  water  used  for  floor
washing  would  be  expected  to  be largely independent of plant
size.  Water use is approximately  = 46 1/kkg of beets  processed
(11 gal/ton).

Lime  mud  from  vacuum  filters  is  diluted  with water from 50
percent to 40 percent solids to  facilitate  pumping  to  holding
facilities.

  Lime slurry volume = 375 1/kkg of beets processed  (90 gal/ton)
        Specific gravity of solids  Ca(OH)2_= 2.08
                                 100

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  Weight of solids  in  lime  slurry =  23 kg/kkg  of beets  processed
                                     (46  Ib/ton)

  Weight of water in lime slurry = 22 kg/kkg of beets processed
                                    (44 Ib/ton)

  Volume of water in the lime slurry = 22  1/kkg of beets
                                       processed  (5.3 gal/ton)

Water use for lime  slurrying is reported to be as high  as  170
1/min  (U5 gpm) at one  5900  kkg/day  (6,500  ton/day) plant = 41
                                      1/kkg of beets processed
                                                   -  (10 gal/ton)

The  values,  22  and  41   1/kkg  (5,3   and  10 gal/ton) of beets
processed are in general agreement.   A  value of  25  1/kkg   (6
gal/ton)  of beets  processed is taken as an industry-wide  figure.
The water used for  lime slurrying may be provided from  condenser
water sources.

The  mass  water  balance for the average-sized 3300 kg/day  (3600
ton/day) beet sugar processing plant indicates the  necessity  to
adequately  dispose of 9.8  million I/day (2.6  million gal/day) of
waste  water  generated  over  an  average  100-day    processing
campaign.

The  length of the processing campaign may be  considerably longer
in warm and arid climates,  e.g.  California  (220  to   290  slice
days);  however,  land  availability  and  climatic conditions in
these locations generally permit controlled land disposal  of  all
process waste waters or reuse after treatment  for crop  irrigation
purposes.   Adequate  disposal  of process waste waters from beet
sugar processing plants with no discharge  to navigable  waters can
be accomplished through controlled land  disposal.

Identification of Water Pollution Related  Operation and
Maintenance"rProblems at Beet Sugar Processing  Plants
Improper design and control of biological-recirculation  systems,
variability  of waste water quantities and qualities, and process
variables can give rise to  operation-related  problems  at  beet
sugar   processing   plants.    These  operational  problems  are
generally related  to  reduced  performance  of  waste  treatment
facilities, or odor and nuisance level control.

Variability  in  the  quantity  and  qualities  of  flume  water,
condenser water, and floor washing can  present  difficulties  in
treatment  of  these  wastes.  Variability may often be accounted
for as due to accidental spills and introduction of  deteriorated
beets into the fluming system.
                                101

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Condensate water used as house hot water for evaporator and floor
cleaning  often  requires  the addition of acids or caustic soda.
The wastes are generally discharged to  the  main  sewer  of  the
plant  and  the flume water system.  The flow is intermittent and
often results in sudden change in the pH of the  waste  water  as
discharged  to ponds.  This accounts in part for erratic behavior
of waste treatment processes and is indicative of  the  need  for
satisfactory pH control facilities.

Improvement  in  the  design and arrangement of new equipment for
the  industry  should   help   prevent   unintended   losses   of
miscellaneous  waste  waters  into  the  treatment  and  disposal
system.   Expanded  use  of  automation  will  also   assist   in
maintaining better plant control and reducing shock waste loads.

Difficult problems often result from the use of waste lagoons and
mechanical  clarifiers  for  treatment  of  beet sugar processing
wastes.  The  problems  incurred  generally  relate  to  improper
operation  and maintenance and result in offensive odors from the
anaerobic conditions in these facilities.  Screening of  effluent
wastes   and   periodic   removal   of   accumulated  solids  can
substantially  reduce  or  minimize  odor  and   nuisance-related
problems.

Odors generated from various pollution control related operations
are  a  problem  at a number of plants.  Plants have used various
aeration devices in holding ponds and/or maintenance  of  shallow
pond depths to control odors.  Holding ponds may receive overflow
from  the  flume  mud  pond,  clarifier  effluent  from the flume
system, and excess barometric condenser water.  Aeration  may  be
accomplished by means of a spray system.  Mechanical aeration de-
vices  are  often  employed  for the initial anaerobic pond of an
extensive anaerobic-aerobic lagoon system for odor control.

Poor operation and maintenance (a practice at many  plants)  con-
tributes  to many difficulties.  Where shallow ponds are employe^
for waste treatment, the failure to remove routinely  accumulated
solids when necessary from the ponds reduces the effectiveness of
waste treatment.  Improper waste retention results in low organic
removal,  solids  carryover,  and  low  bacteriological reduction
efficiency.   waste  retention  is  severely  limited  by  solids
filling,  extensive  weed  growth,  and  unevenness  of  the pond
bottom.

Of greatest concern in the recycling of flume water is control of
odorous and corrosive properties of  the  recycled  flume  water.
These  factors  are  primarily  related  to  the  maintenance  of
alkaline  pH  conditions  (pH  8-11)  in  the  system,  which  is
generally  accomplished  by  the addition of lime under carefully
controlled and monitored conditions.  Lime addition also enhances
the ability of solids to settle in the recirculated  flume  water
system.
                                102

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The  leaching  of  sugar  from  beets  which  have been frozen is
considerably higher than that from unfrozen beets  in  the  flume
system.   Freezing  and  thawing of beets destroys the structural
integrity of the outer beet fibers, releasing sugar contained  in
the beets to the flume waters.  The dislodged fibers of the beets
often  pass  through  screening devices and are discharged to the
flume  water  clarifier  or  earthern   holding   ponds.    These
conditions  present  nuisance-related  problems  and  operational
difficulties.  Foaming  within  the  flume  and  condenser  water
system  is a major problem particularly during the latter part of
the campaign in regions  where  processing  of  frozen  beets  is
common practice.  The foaming problem is particularly enhanced by
low pH conditions-

Fecal streptococcus organisms are known to increase markedly in a
recirculating  flume water system*  This growth has been found to
increase as the  processing  season  progresses.   The  bacterial
growth  presents  no  pollution or production-related problems in
the recycling process.  A final  freshwater  wash  of  the  sugar
beets  before  slicing  is necessary for the sugar beets prior to
processing for production control purposes.

The  continuous  processing  of  sugar  beets  over  the   entire
processing  campaign  without  "shut  down" presents difficulties
(particularly  in  older  plants)   with  proper  maintenance   of
acceptable  housekeeping  practices,  and continuous operation of
equipment.  Because of the nature of  the  processing  operation,
leaks  and breakages in waste water and molasses conveyance lines
are not repaired  promptly.   Water  hoses  are  frequently  left
running  at  intervals  to  control  foaming *  to  flush  spilled
materials into drains, and for other purposes.   These  practices
result  in  wasteful  use  of  water  with  increased waste water
contributions  for  subsequent  treatment  and  disposal.    Much
improved  housekeeping  procedures are needed within the industry
to minimize pollution, particularly at older  plants.   The  beet
sugar  processing  industry has recently made substantial efforts
toward reducing pollution by improved housekeeping.

Improvements in the mechanical  harvesting  equipment  for  sugar
beets  are  being made to the end that the crops will be received
at the plants in cleaner condition.  Improvements are also  being
made almost routinely in the equipment used for dry separation of
the unwanted material from the sugar-bearing material.

soil As A Waste Water Disposal Medium

With  increasingly  rigid pollution control standards for surface
waters, emphasis has been placed in recent years on land disposal
of industrial wastes and municipal  sewage  effluents.   In  land
disposal  of waste waters the soil acts as an effective filter in
removal of particular contaminants.   Aerobic  biological  action
near  the  soil  surface  is  effective in substantial removal of
biodegradable organics.   The soil particles are  quite  effective
in  removal  of  many  substances,  particularly  phosphates,  by
                                103

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absorption and ion exchange. Of concern in land disposal of waste
waters is the current lack of complete knowledge of the hydrology
and hydro-mechanics of the ground water region, with  predictable
regard  for  the  fate  and  effects  of  subsurface  pollutants.
Dissolved materials derived from wastes water, particularly  non-
biodegradable  inorganic  salts,  may  tend  to  be persistent in
ground waters inasmuch as the capacity  of  the  soil  to  remove
minerals  by adsorption and ion exchange could be exhausted, with
decreased efficiency with the passage of time.  Effluent spraying
on land has been demonstrated on a full scale  basis  with  total
nitrogen removals from waste water of 54 to 68 percent, and 76 to
93  percent removal of total phosphorus (101).  Pollutant removal
efficiencies are dependent upon soil loading  and  dimatological
conditions.

Agriculture  is  a  major  contributor to land disposal of wastes
with some unknown contribution of ground  water  contaminants
chlorides,  nitrates,  and  non-biodegradable  organic materials.
Agriculture contamination of ground water is intensified in  arid
areas where ground water is used for irrigation process.  Salt is
inherently  concentrated  in  the  irrigation  process with water
intake by growing plants.  Most contamination  of  ground  waters
within  inland areas occurs from breaching of impervious barriers
between fresh and saline waters.  Ground water pollution problems
are most evident in areas of intensive land use.  The build-up of
contaminants in ground  waters  from  percolating  pollutants  is
seldom  dramatic,  and sources of percolating pollutants are both
diffuse and diverse.

In inland areas of  the  U.S.  approxomately  two-thirds  of  the
coterminous  region  is  underlain  by  saline  waters containing
greater than 1,000 mg/1  disolved  solids.   This  condition  has
resulted  largely  by natural geological factors with the washing
of soluble salts from the soils in large basins where  the  salts
have been concentrated by evaporation. Possible processes or com-
binations  of  processes for conversion of inland saline water as
well as sea water to fresh  water  for  agriculture,  industrial,
municipal,  and  other  uses have been investigated since 1952 by
the U.S. Dept. of the Interior under authority of Public Law 4U8.
The Office of Saline Water,  U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior,
classifies any water containing from 1000 to about 35,000 mg/1 as
brackish.  Sea water contains approximately 35,000 mg/1 and water
containing  more  dissolved  solids  than  sea water, such as the
Great Salt Lake, is classified as brine.

Processes for useful water conversion  include  vapor-compression
methods,  ion  exchange,  solar  (multiple effects) distillation(
freezing, osmotic processes, electrodialysis  (membrane  process) ,
and  ultrasonics.   Ion  exchange  appears particularly promising
when the concentration of dissolved materials is  below  4000  to
5000  mg/1.   several  plants  applying  this  method  have  been
constructed in recent years.  At the present state  of  the  art,
large scale treatment of brackish waters with a comparatively low
content   of   dissolved   solids  is  possible.   Most  existing
                                104

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installations are limited  in  capacity,  producing  fresh  water
quantities  of  thousands of I/day rather than millions of liters
daily.    The   membrane   processes,   reverse    osmosis    and
electrodialysis,  have their primary application in the desalting
of brackish waters in the general range of 2000 to 10,000 mg/1 of
total dissolved solids.  Large demonstration plants (I MGD)  have
been  constructed  at Freeport, Texas, San Diego, California, and
Roswell, New Mexico.

The  cost  of  converting   saline   water   has   been   reduced
substantially  during  the last 10 years.  Conversion cost ranges
from about $0.6 to $1.50 per  3785  1   (1000  gal)  exclusive  of
distribution   costs   depending   on   the   process  used,  the
brackishness of the raw water, the capacity  of  the  plant,  and
other  factors.   Desalination  is  an expensive process from the
standpoint of capital investment and daily operating costs.

Industry in the United states consumed  on  an  average  about  2
percent of its total water use of 619 billion I/day  (140 billion
gal/day)  in  1960,   The  heaviest consumption was in connection
with irrigation where 60 percent or more of the water was lost to
the water system through evaporation and transpiration.  About 17
percent  of  water  used  for  public  supplies   was   consumed.
Consumptive  use of water was the quantity of water discharged to
the atmosphere (evaporated)  or incorporated in  the  products  of
the   process   in   connection   with  vegetative  growth,  food
processing, or incidentally to an industrial process,

In the western portion of the U.S.  present  salinity  conditions
resulting  from irrigation return flows  (approximately 40 percent
of all water withdrawn from surface and  ground  sources  in  the
United  States  is  for  irrigation)   far  outweigh  the salinity
contribution attributed to the beet sugar industry.  Furthermore,
the majority of beet sugar processing plants are located  in  low
intensity land use areas.

Control of salinity and total dissolved solids contributions from
beet  sugar  processing wastes can be accomplished without ground
water pollution through associated with activated sludge  growths
in  biological  beds.   proper  location  of  land disposal sites
regulation of  waste  water  filtration  rates  consideration  of
geographical,  hydrologic  and  gologic factors and conduct of an
adequate monitoring program of nearby underground  aquifers.   At
present  all  beet  sugar  processing plants incorporate land for
disposal of all or part of the  waste  water  flow.   No  serious
ground  water pollution problems are known to occur as attributed
to these practices.

In any method of  dissolved  solids  removal,  concentrated  salt
solutions  resulting  as  a byproduct of the process of desalting
technology must be handled for  ultimate  disposal.   The  likely
method  for  disposal  of this material is land application under
controlled conditions.
                                105

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                          SECTION VIII

           COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
Cost, and Reduction Benefits of Alternative Treatment and
control Technologies

Detailed cost  data  and  pollution  reduction  benefit  data  of
alternative  treatment and control technologies applicable to the
beet sugar processing subcategory of the sugar  processing  point
source  category  are developed from supportive material for this
document.  The basic results are summarized below for an average-
sized 3300 kkg/day (3600 ton/day) beet sugar processing plant.

Alternative A - No Waste Treatment or Control

Effluent waste load is estimated at 5.8  kg  BOD5/kkg   (11.7  Ibs
BOD5/ton)  of  beets  processed  or  11.0  kg  BOD5/kkg  (22  Ibs
BOD5/ton) of beets processed including  Steffen  wastes  for  the
selected  typical  plant at this minimal control level.  Disposal
of Steffen waste on  dried  pulp,  byproduct  recovery,  or  land
disposal  is  assumed,  as  this  is universally practiced in the
industry.  No control of lime mud slurry, flume water  discharge,
or  condenser  water  flow  is assumed.  Pulp transport and press
waters are recycled within the plant process.
Costs,  None.  Reduction Benefits.  None.

Alternative B - Control of Lime Mud but
Streams of All Other Wastes
Discharge  to  Receiving
This  alternative includes control of lime mud slurry in earthern
holding ponds  without  discharge  to  navigable  waters  but  no
control  for  other  wastes.  This practice is used at all plants
presently within the industry.  Effluent waste load is  estimated
at  2.6 kg BOD5/kkg  (5.1 Ibs BOD^/ton) of beets processed for the
better plant at this control level.
Costs.  Increased capital costs are  approximately  $50,000
Alternative A, thus total capital costs are $50,000.
                    over
Reduction Benefits.  An incremental reduction in plant BOD5 of 57
percent  compared  to  Alternative  A  is evidenced.  Total plant
reduction in BOD5 is also 57 percent.

Alternative  C  -  Extensive  Recycle  of  Flume  Water   Without
Discharge to Navigable Waters


Under  Alternative  C  there  would be extensive recycle of flume
water with no discharge of  process  waste  water  pollutants  to
navigable  waters,  incorporating  treatment  of  flume  water by
screening and settling, and with mud drawoff to holding ponds for
                                107

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controlled land disposal.  This technique is presently  practiced
by  a  large  portion  of the industry, 50 of 52 plants utilizing
maximum or partial flume a large portion of the industry,  50  of
52  plants utilizing maximum or partial flume water recycling and
all plants utilizing complete or partial land disposal  of  flume
waters.  Present industry plans call for complete installation of
extensive  flume water recycling systems by 1975.  Effluent waste
load is estimated at 0.25 kg/kkg  (0.5  Ibs  BOD5/ton)  of  beets
processed  for  a better plant at this control level.  Presently,
all  but  8  plants  employ  maximum  recirculating  flume  water
systems.


Costs.   Increased  capital  costs  of  $228,000 to $310,000 over
Alternative B would be incurred,  thus  producing  total  capital
costs of $278,000 to $360,000.

Reduction Benefits.  An increment reduction in BODS of 90 percent
in  comparison to Alternative B would result, thereby producing a
total reduction in plant BOD5 of 96 percent.

Alternative D - Extensive  Recycle  of  Condenser  Water  Without
Discharge to Navigable Waters

Alternative  D  would  result  in complete recycling of condenser
water with land disposal of excess waste waters without discharge
to navigable waters.  Extensive water recycling and reuse  within
the  plant  process  is  assumed.  Effluent waste load is zero kg
BOD5/kkg (zero Ib BOD5/ton) of beets  processed  for  the  better
plants  at  this control level with complete land disposal of all
process waste waters.

Costs.  This alternative would require increased capital costs of
$176,000 to $316,000 over Alternative C, or total  capital  costs
of $454,000 to $676,000.

Reduction  Benefits.   There  would  be an increment reduction in
BOD5 of 100 percent in comparison to Alternative C, and  a  total
reduction in plant BOD5 of 100 percent.


In consideration of land availability factors as variables in the
application  of  land-based  technology  for  accomplishing  zero
discharge of  process  waste  waters  to  navigable  waters,  the
following  four  conditions are recognized as being applicable to
existing plants within the  beet  sugar  processing  subcategory.
The  capital costs of the application of technology to accomplish
zero discharge of all process waste waters to navigable waters is
given for each of the various conditions  in  Figures  X  through
XIV.   Cost  figures  reflect  land requirements based on a 0*635
cm/day  (1/4-in/day) filtration rate, an average  sized  plant  of
3300  kkg/day  (3600  ton/day)  capacity,  and an average 100-day
processing campaign.  Land requirements for  controlled  disposal
of   excess   process  waste  water  resulting  from  beet  sugar
                                108

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                                                                         CUMULATIVE  CAPITAL  INVESTMENT
                                                                                     $100,000
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-------
                              FIGURE XI
    UNIT COST EFFECTIVENESS RELATIONSHIP 'WITH SUITABLE LAND LOCATED
      ADJACENT TO PLANT SITE AND PRESENTLY UNDER PLANT OWNERSHIP
 30
'OLLUTANT REDUCTION
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PERCENT BOD5 REMOVAL
      50                       ,               22
                           EFFLUENT QUALITY
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ASSUMPTIONS
   1)  LAND COST OF $4938/ha ($2000/ac) INCLUDING POND CONSTRUCTION AND
       FILTRATION CONTROL MEASURES
   2)  377,728 kg REFINED SUGAR/DAY-PLANT (832,000 Ib/DAY-PLANT)
   3)  100 DAY CAMPAIGN
   4)  0.635 cm/DAY ft in/DAY) FILTRATION RATE
   »   I
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                                 110

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                                                       UNIT COSTS  OF INCREMENTAL POLLUTANT REDUCTION

                                                       $100,000/kg BOD5 REDUCTION/kkg REFINED SUGAR

                                                    ($100,000/lb BOD5 REDUCTION/1000 Ib REFINED SUGAR)
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                                   FIGURE XIII
             UNIT COST EFFECTIVENESS RELATIONSHIP WITH SUITABLE LAND
                NOT PHYSICALLY AVAILABLE ADJACENT TO THE PLANT SITE
            BUT LOCATED AT A REASONABLE DISTANCE UNDER PLANT OWNERSHIP
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                                  EFFLUENT QUALITY
                             kg BOD5/kkg REFINED SUGAR
                          
-------
                                   FIGURE XIV
    UNIT COST EFFECTIVENESS RELATIONSHIP WITH SUITABLE LAND NOT PHYSICALLY
       AVAILABLE ADJACENT TO THE PLANT SITE NOT UNDER PLANT OWNERSHIP
               BUT LOCATED AT A REASONABLE DISTANCE AND AVAILABLE
                       FOR PURCHASE: AT A REASONABLE COST                 A
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           ALTERNATIVE A
                          ALTERNATIVE B

                     20          40          60
                             PERCENT BOD5 REMOVAL
              80
  94  100
        50
22
2.2
                                EFFLUENT QUALITY
                            kg BODc/kkg refined sugar
                         (lb BOD5/IOOO Ib refined sugar)


    ASSUMPTIONS
      1)  LAND COST OF $7407/ha ($3000/ac) INCLUDING PURCHASE PRICE, POND
          CONSTRUCTION, AND FILTRATION CONTROL MEASURES
      2)  4.8 km (3.0 mi) DISTANCE TO DISPOSAL SITE
      3)  RIGHT-OF-WAY COSTS OF $12,346/ha ($5000/ac)
      4)  377,728 kg REFINED SUGAR/DAY-PLANT (832,000 Ib/DAY-PLANT)
      5)  100 DAY CAMPAIGN
      6)  0.635 cm/DAY (% In/DAY) FILTRATION RATE
                              113

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                                    FIGURE XV
            MINIMUM TOTAL LAND AREA REQUIREMENTS FOR WASTE DISPOSAL
            BY CAPACITY OF PLANT AND LENGTH OF PRODUCTION CAMPAIGN
 360
(900)
                                        BASED ON MAXIMUM  SOIL  FILTRATION
                               RATE OF  0.635 cm {& irt)/day AND EXTENSIVE FLUME  AND
                                          CONDENSER WATER RECYCLE
           100
          (110)
200
600
           300     400     500    600     700     800     900
  (220)    (330)   (440)     (550)    (660)     (770)    (880)   (990)
PRODUCTION CAPACITY OF PLANT, kkg/day (t/day) OF REFINED SUGAR
 100U
(1100)
                                      174

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processing  for varying processing rates and  campaign  lengths   are
given by Figure XV.

Condition  A  serves as the basis for the cost estimates and pol-
lutant reductions associated with zero discharge of waste  waters
to  navigable waters.  Further datails of this analysis are given
above under Alternatives  A  through  D  for  varying  levels  of
pollution  control for this condition. Other conditions described
below (Conditions B, C,  and  Dr)  serve  to  delineate  possible
restraints  of  land  availability and their resulting effects on
the  cost  effectiveness  of  successful  incremental   pollutant
removals under these land availability restraints.

Condition  A - Necessary land for controlled waste water disposal
is physically available adjacent to the plant site and under  the
ownership of the plant.  Total land costs are assumed at $4940/ha
($2000/ac)   which includes costs of holding pond construction and
infiltration control measures.
Total capital costs = $454,000 to $676,000.
curves are shown in Figure X and XI.
Cost  effectiveness
Condition  B - Necessary land for controlled waste water disposal
is physically available adjacent to the plant site but not  under
the  ownership  of  the  plant.  Land costs are taken at $7410/ha
<$3000/ac) including $2470/ha  ($1000 per ac) purchase  price  and
$4940/ha  ($2000/ac)  costs  for  pond  construction  and seepage
control measures.

Total capital cost  = $609,000 to  $800,00  A  cost-effectiveness
curve for this condition is presented in Fig. XI.

Condition  C - Necessary land for controlled waste water disposal
is not physically available  adjacent  to  the  plant  site,  but
suitable  land  is  available under ownership of the plant within
the plant vicinity.  Suitable land  for  controlled  waste  water
disposal  is  assumed  to be available at 4.82 km (3 mi)  from the
plant  site.   Land  costs  are  taken  at  $4940/ha   ($2000/ac)
including   costs  for  pond  construction  and  seepage  control
measures.  Waste treatment  costs  are  assumed  to  include  all
construction   costs   including   pipeline,   pumping   station,
engineering and design, right-of-way acquisition, and contingency
costs.  Costs of right-of-way are taken at $12,350/ha  ($5000/ac)
with  0.38  ha  required/km (1.5 ac/mi)  of pipe.  A 3.7 m (12 ft)
right-of-way is assumed.

Condition D - Necessary land for controlled waste water  disposal
is not physically available adjacent to the plant site.  Suitable
land  for  controlled waste disposal is located within 4.82 km (3
mi)  of the plant site but not under ownership of the plant.   Land
costs  are  taken  at  $7410/ha  ($30QO/ac)   including   $2470/ha
($1000/ac)  purchase price and $4940/ha ($2000/ac)  costs for pond
construction and seepage control  measures.    Waste  transmission
costs  are  assumed  to  include  all contruction costs including
                                115

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pipeline, pumping station, engineering and  design,  right-of-way
acquisition,  and  contingency  costs.  Costs of right-*of-way are
taken at $12,350/ha  ($5000/ac) with 0.38 ha/km  (1.5  ac  /mi)  of
pipe. A 3.7 m (12 ft) right-of-way is assumed.

As  expected,  the  cost  relative  to increased effectiveness in
removal of pollutants (as measured  by  BOD5)  increases  as  the
level  of pollutant in the effluent decreases.  This relationship
is shown in Figure XI.   As  can  be  seen,  in  proceeding  from
Alternative  C  to  Alternative D the increased capital costs per
unit of pollution load reduced rises by a significant factor.

As  developed  in  supportive  material  to  this  document,total
industry  capital  costs with consideration of existing pollution
control facilities and processes (Condition A) are  estimated  to
range  between  approximately  $9  million  and  $16  million for
extensive recycling and reuse of flume (beet transport) and  con-
denser  water without discharge of process waste water pollutants
to navigable waters,  corresponding total  industry  wide  annual
costs  including  operation  and  maintenance,  depreciation, and
annualization  of   capital   expenditures   are   estimated   at
approximately  $2.3 to $3.8 million for existing conditions.  The
above statement reflects the condition where  suitable  land  for
disposal  of beet sugar processing waste is readily available and
under  plant  ownership   at   the   plant   site.    With   land
unavailability  and the possible necessity for waste water piping
to and purchase of suitable land, required industry-wide  capital
cost could reach as high as $16 to $20 million.


Basis of Assumptions Employed in Cost Estimation

Judgments and Assumptions Used

Annual interest rate for capital costs = 8% Salvage value of zero
over  20  years  for  physical  plant  facilities  and  equipment
Straight-line depreciation of capital assets Annual operating and
maintenance expenses of 10 percent of capital costs for pollution
control measures, permanent physical facilities,  and  equipment,
except  that  an additional cost of $15,000 is allowed for solids
removal from the flume water mud pond.   The  costs  include  all
expenses  attributed  to  operation  and  maintenance  of control
facilities, routine maintenance of  equipment,  labor,  operating
personnel, monitoring, and power costs.


Where  adjustment  of  cost  data  to  August  1971  dollars (the
baseline of this report)  was necessary,  the  cost  figures  have
been  adjusted  in  accord  with indices published for use in EPA
publication "Sewage Treatment Plant and Sewer  Construction  Cost
Index,"  September,  1972.   Cost-effectiveness relationships for
the above alternative technologies are shown  in  Figures  X  and
XIV.   The  basis  for  development  of  the curves is covered in
detail  in  supportive  material  used  in  preparation  of  this
                                116

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document and the curves are included here for purposes of clarity
of presentation.


Related Energy .Requirement of Alternative. Treatment and
Control Technologies

Processing of sugar beets to refined sugar requires about 1.32 kw
(1.61  hp)   of electrical energy per kkg of beets sliced per day,
This electrical energy demand is affected by factors such as:  1)
The type of beet receiving and cleaning facilities, 2) whether or
not a steffen house is provided, 3) the lime  production  method,
U)  the drying and pelletizing of beet pulp, and 5) the number of
steam  drive  units  compared   to   electrical   motor   drives,
particularly in the higher power units.

The  electrical energy consumption per unit of product output has
continually increased over the  years,  and  this  trend  appears
unlikely  to change in the foreseeable future.  Among the primary
reasons for increased demand are the extensive  mechanization  of
the   process,  higher  lighting  illumination  levels,  and  new
practices  e.g.,  waste  water  treatment,  requiring  additional
electrical power for circulation pumps and aerators.

For  a  3300 kkg (3600t) a day beet sugar processing plant, total
energy requirements are estimated at 4320  kw  (5800  horsepower)
under   operating   conditions.    Principal  power  requirements
attributable to pollution control  in  a  beet  sugar  processing
plant   are   related  to  recirculation  of  waste  water  flows
(primarily  flume  and  condenser  water)   for  in-plant   reuse.
iverson   reports  the  energy  requirements,  on  the  basis  of
experience with plants of the Great  Western  Sugar  Company,  to
permit  recycling of flume water flow.  At a "typical" plant this
is approximately 370 kw (500 horsepower).   Because of the general
similarity of waste volumes attributed  to  flume  and  condenser
water,  power  requirements  for  recycling  condenser  water may
logically be assumed to be the same as that for the recirculation
of flume water.  Thus, the total power requirement for  recycling
of  both  flume and condenser water is approximately 740 kw (1000
horsepower)  or 20 percent of the total plant  power  requirement,
Iverson also estimates that the additional annual power costs for
pollution  abatement  purposes  incorporating  both the flume and
condenser water recycling systems is estimated  at  approximately
$22,000,  The cost of energy is taken at 1 cent per kwh.

Because  of  its  need  for  relatively  large  quantities of low
pressure  process  steam,   the  beet  sugar  processing  industry
usually  finds  it economical to generate its own electric power.
The power plant normally  uses  a  non^condensing  steam  turbine
generator  which  exhausts  steam at the pressure required by the
process.  This power can be generated for  about  half  the  fuel
required  in  a condensing steam turbine generator plant used for
power generation only.
                                117

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Regardless  of  the  source  of  electrical  power,  steam-boiler
facilities  must be provided to supply the process steam require-
ments.  With in-plant generation, the fuel chargeable to power is
the additional fuel needed over that required for operation  with
purchased  power.   The cost of fuel chargeable to electric power
generation by a non-condensing steam turbine is  0.425  mils  per
kwh  for each 10 cents of fuel cost per 250,000 kg cal  (1,000,000
Btu).  Thus, using 40 cent fuel, and with  a  cost  of  purchased
power  of  8  mils/kwh  with  an  assumed  load  of 4000 kw (5300
horsepower), the plant could pay for the entire installation cost
of a non-condensing steam-turbine generating set in approximately
3 years, not including taxes.

The reliability of the main steam supply system and the need  for
process  steam  have  made  it normal practice to power the large
horsepower individual loads  with  mechanically-driven,  non-con-
densing  steam  turbines.  Typical of such units are the carbon -
dioxide and  steffen-refrigeration  compressors.   Turbine-driven
compressors  allow  the  steam  designer  further  flexibility in
balancing out the steam requirements in the whole plant.

Almost all beet sugar processing  plants  purchase  some  outside
electrical  power for standby when the plant is not in operation.
Power is required for plant maintenance, liquid sugar production,
bulk sugar handling, packaging operations, lighting,  and  office
-  machine  operation.   In the event of power plant disturbances
and loss of plant generated power, the standby power provides for
critical electrical loads such as emergency lighting  and  boiler
plant  and  water  systems.  Usually it is not economical to size
the utility company purchased power standby source  to  meet  the
total  electrical demand of the plant. Generally, it is sized for
about 20 percent of the total plant demand.

If properly designed, the electrical power system may be expanded
readily with a minimum amount of additional investment  (65).


Non^Water Quality Aspects of AlternativerTreatment and control
Technologies  -                   -                    -


Air Pollution

There are three main items of air pollutional significance in the
beet sugar processing industry:   suspended  particulate  matter,
sulfur  oxides, and odors.  Fogging in the area of cooling towers
or other cooling devices may present visibility problems in  iso-
lated cases.

Suspended  Particulate Matter -  The primary sources of potential
particulate emissions result largely from the  steam  boiler  and
pulp  drier  stacks.   Minor  sources  of  particulate  emissions
include granulator exhaust, dry  sugar,  dried  pulp,  limestone.
                                118

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burnt  lime  and
booster fans.
coal  handling equipment, waste ponds, and kiln
Properly designed  and  maintained  gas-  and  oil-fired  boilers
should  present  no  particulate  emission  problems.   Fuel oil,
however, can present a sulfur dioxide emission problem.   One  of
the  most economical methods to avoid sulfur dioxide emissions is
to burn only low sulfur fuels.

Since some plants burn coal as a primary fuel, particulate  emis-
sions  can be a problem.  Fly ash, an emission common to all coal
burning units, is composed of the ash and  unburned  combustibles
which  become  airborne  in the firebox and find their way to the
atmosphere because of the velocity of the flue  gas  through  the
boiler  and  up the stack.  The type of stoker equipment used has
much to do with the amount of fly ash emitted.  In terms  of  fly
ash  emission  control, pulverized coal spreader stoker and chain
grate and underfeed stoker units emit lesser amounts of  fly  ash
to the atmosphere in that order respectively.

Fly  ash  emissions  can  usually be controlled with multicyclone
mechanical collectors or electrostatic precipitators.  A properly
designed  and  installed   mechanical   collector   will   do   a
satisfactory  job  on  virtually  all types of coal-fired boilers
except  pulverized   coal.    Electrostatic   pr-ecipitators   are
generally required on pulverized-fuel fired units.  They have the
advantage   of  increased  efficiency  with  a  low  draft  loss.
Generally, the lower the sulfur content of the  coal  the  poorer
the  efficiency  of the precipitator,  Precipitators are the most
costly of the commonly  used  particulate  collectors  in  boiler
plants.

Smoke is unburned carbon and results from poor combustion.  Smoke
emissions  are usually the most troublesome and visible at a beet
sugar processing plant.  Smoke emission problems  from  a  boiler
plant  stem  from many sources.  Some of the main sources include
the type of coal, load on the boiler, distribution of coal on the
grate, overfire air, fuel to air ratio, fuel oil atomization, and
grate and setting air  seals.   All  of  these  problems  may  be
alleviated  through  proper design, operation, and maintenance of
the boiler facilities.   These  considerations  are  discussed  in
detail in Beet Sugar Technplocrv^ Second Edition (65) .

The  other  major source of particulate material emanating from a
beet sugar processing plant is that of the exhaust gases from the
pulp dryer.  These pollutants are pulp dust, molasses dust,  fly-
ash  (if  coal  or oil fired), and smoke.   Reduced emissions have
been found to result by installing multiple cyclones  of  smaller
diameter, or skimming a cyclone vent stack, thus removing much of
the particulate matter load and returning the purified air to the
furnace  as  dilution  air  for  temperature control.  A skimming
system has two major advantages.  First, a large portion  of  the
particulate  matter is removed from the exhaust; second, up to 10
percent increased thermal efficiency can be realized  because  of
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the  smaller  heating load on the dilution air, since the recycle
gas is already above 93°C  (200°F).   The  other  source  of  air
pollution  in  the pulp dryer is the dust created by the handling
of dried pulp  and  pelleting  equipment.   This  source  can  be
controlled  with  a  well-designed  hood pickup system and a high
efficiency mechanical collector.

Sulfur Dioxide -  Boiler flue gas contains sulfur dioxide  as  an
important  air  pollution source.  Sulfur is present in all coals
and most heavy fuel  oils.   Common  gas  scrubbing  systems  for
removal  of particulate material are generally rather ineffective
in removal of sulfur dioxide.  However, within the  past  year  a
Venturi-type  scrubber  has  been  installed  at  one  beet sugar
processing plant in the  U.  S.   (Longmont,  Colorado).   It  was
installed  at  a  cost  of  $500,000  and is reported to be quite
effective in removal of sulfur dioxide  as  well  as  particulate
solids.   A similar installation is planned in the near future at
Loveland, Colorado.  The Venturi scrubber for boiler flue gas  at
the  Longmont,  Colorado, plant has an additional advantage as it
utilizes barometric condenser water  in  the  scrubbing  process.
This  use  results in reduction of condenser water volume through
vaporization,  which  is  a  benefit  where  disposal  of  excess
condenser water is a serious consideration.  Barometric condenser
water  of 1900 to 2300 1/min (500 to 600 gal/min) is employed for
the scrubbing process primarily for removal of fly ash.

The industry has generally found that change of the  fuel  source
from  coal  to  gas has been economically expedient in control of
air  pollution  because  of  the  large  capital  and   operating
expenditures  required  in  scrubbing  equipment  needed for coal
systems.


Odors -  One of the most challenging problems of  waste  disposal
at beet sugar processing plants is related to the matter of odor.
When  most of the plants were built, i.e., before 1930, they were
located downstream from small towns.  Inevitably, the towns  have
grown, often pressing close to the plant.


Odors  of  significance  at  beet  sugar processing plants result
largely from anaerobic bacterial action in waste water  treatment
systems,  the  pulp  dryer, and beet piles where deterioration of
the beets is occurring.

Ponding,  particularly  in  deep  anaerobic   ponds,   frequently
promotes  the  growth  of sulfur reducing organisms.  It has been
observed that careful  screening  of  wastes  to  remove  organic
matter  lessens  or  minimizes  septic  deposits of solids on the
bottom of ponds, thereby reducing the quantity of  noxious  gases
produced.   Screening  of  waste  water  for removal of suspended
organic  material  before  discharge   to   holding   ponds   can
substantially  reduce  the likelihood of noxious odor generation.
The  maintenance  of  shallow  holding  ponds  and  alkaline   pH
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conditions aid in odor reduction and minimization.  Purple sulfur
bacteria   (Chromatium  and  Thiopedia)  have  been  found  to  be
successful  odor  control  mechanisms  when  cultured  in   waste
stabilization  lagoons  utilized  for beet sugar processing plant
wastes at plants in California.

Fogging -  A feature of cooling tower operation often  overlooked
is  the  generation  of fog.  This can create a hazard to highway
traffic by impairment of visibility.  A circle  of  influence  of
0.8  km  (0.5  mi)   is  usually  regarded  as a safe distance for
avoidance of the effects of fog from these sources.  Fogging  due
to  water  vapor  in  the vicinity of draft cooling towers can be
expected to present problems with visibility at several  existing
plant locations.  Such fogging practices would not be in the best
environmental control practice or in some cases comply with local
air  pollution  ordinances  and state regulations.  The potential
problem is surmountable technologically by  the  use  of  closed,
air-cooled  heat  exchanger  cooling  systems  for these isolated
instances.   Such systems would incur an additional  capital  cost
with  reference  to  natural-draft or forced draft cooling towers
and can technologically help  to  alleviate  the  problem.   Air-
cooled  heat  exchangers  waste no water by evaporation, but they
can cool only to within a few degrees of atmospheric temperature,
and thus are limited to relatively high temperature applications.
Combining systems to cool as far as possible with air and then to
further  accomplish  temperature  reduction  in  a   conventional
cooling  tower  or  evaporative system of another type is often a
more economical way of handling cooling loads.  Elevation of  the
cooling  tower  to  avoid  or minimize visibility problems due to
fogging is an alternative in many instances.

Solid Waste Disposal

The large volumes of dirt and solid material removed  from  sugar
beets  at  the  processing  plant  pose  a perplexing problem for
permanent disposal.  Generally, about  50  kg  of  soil/kkg  (100
Ibs/ton)   of  beets sliced is contributed by a typical beet sugar
processing plant.   Where  holding  ponds  are  employed,  solids
accumulated  in the ponds are removed annually and disposed of by
adding the material to pond dikes.   These  ponds  are  generally
abandoned   after  useful  performance,  with  new  holding  pond
facilities  being established.

Sugar beets stored in  large  piles  at  the  plant  site  or  in
outlying  areas such as railroad sidings may be exposed to rodent
activity and additional pollution  from  truck  or  railroad  car
unloadings.   Rainfall may assist the spread of existing contami-
nation.

In addition to the large volumes of soil delivered to  the  plant
with  the  incoming beets, solid waste is also generated in terms
of trash normally associated with municipal activities.  Disposal
of this material may be at the plant site or the  waste  material
may  be  collected  by  the  local  municipality with disposal by
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incineration or sanitary landfill.   The  solid  waste  or  trash
consists of packaging materials, shipping crates, and similar dry
combustible materials.

Sanitary  landfills are generally best suited for non-combustible
material and organic wastes which  are  not  readily  combustible
such as decomposed beets, weeds, and peelings.  Composting offers
a  viable  alternative for disposing of organic materials such as
decomposed beets, weeds,  and  peelings.   Experience  with  this
method in the disposal of municipal wastes has proved more costly
than   sanitary   landfill  operations,  however.   The  sanitary
landfill is probably the lower cost  alternative,  provided  that
adequate land is available.

Consideration  of  suitability is a prime factor in location of a
landfill site.  Requirements in  selection  of  a  landfill  site
include  sufficient  area,  reasonable haulage distance, location
relative  to  residential  developments,  soil  conditions,  rock
formations,  transportation  access,  and  location  of potentia1
ground water polluting aquifers.  Location of sanitary  landfills
in  sandy  loam  soils  is most desirable.  Proper sloping of the
landfill  soil  cover  to  promote  runoff  rather  than   ground
percolation  is  necessary  to  prevent  ground  water pollution.
Other factors to be considered include no obstruction of  natural
drainage  channels,  installation  of protective dikes to prevent
flooding when necessary, location of the  base  of  the  landfill
operation  above  the  high  water  table,  and  consideration of
possible  fire  hazards-   The  general  methods  and   desirable
practices  in operation of municipal sanitary landfill operations
are equally applicable to disposal fo solid waste from beet sugar
processing plants.  Open burning of  combustible  wastes  on  the
plant  site  is an undesirable and often unlawful method of solid
waste disposal.
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                           SECTION IX

            EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
           APPLICATION OF THE BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL
                 TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
Introduction

The effluent limitations which must be achieved by July 1,  1977,
are  to  specify  the  degree  of  effluent  reduction attainable
through  the  application  of  the   Best   Practicable   Control
Technology   Currently   Available.    Best  Practicable  Control
Technology  Currently  Available  is  generally  based  upon  the
average  of  the  best  existing performance by plants of various
sizes, ages, and unit processes within the industrial category or
subcategory.  This average is not based upon  a  broad  range  of
plants  within  the beet sugar processing subcategory, but rather
on performance levels achieved by better  plants.   Consideration
must also be given to;

a.   The  total  cost of application of technology in relation to
the  ef fluent  reduction  benef its  to  be  achieved   from   the
application;

b.  the size and age of equipment and facilities involved;

c.  the processes employed;

d.   the  engineering aspects, of the application of various types
of control techniques;
e.  process changes;

f.  non-water  quality  environmental
requirements),
impact  (including  energy
Best   Practicable   Control   Technology   Currently   Available
emphasizes treatment facilities at the  end  of  a  manufacturing
process,  but  also  includes  the  control technology within the
process itself  when  the  latter  is  considered  to  be  normal
practice within an industry.

A further consideration is the degree of economic and engineering
reliability  which  must  be established for the technology to be
"currently available."  As a result  of  demonstration  projects,
pilot  plants,  and general use there must exist a high degree of
confidence in the engineering and economic practicability of  the
technology  at  the  time  of  commencement  of  construction  or
installation of the control facilities.
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Effluent Reduction Attainable Through,the Application of Best
Practicable Control Technology Currently Available

On the basis of the information contained in Sections III through
VIII of this document a determination  has  been  made  that  the
degree  of  effluent reduction attainable through the application
of the Best Practicable Control  Technology  Currently  Available
for the beet sugar processing subcategory is as stated below.


The  following  limitations  establish the quantity or quality of
pollutants or pollutant properties controlled by this  regulation
which  may  be  discharged  by  a  point  source  subject  to the
provisions  of  this  subpart  after  application  of  the   best
practicable  control  technology  currently  available;  provided
however, that a discharge by  a  point  source  may  be  made  in
accordance  with the limitations set forth in either subparagraph
(a) exclusively or subparagraph (b)  exclusively below:
    (a)  The  following   limitations   establish   the   maximum
permissible  discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
process waste water discharge results from barometric  condensing
operations only.
Effluent
Characteristic
                                     Effluent
                                     Limitations
                             Maximum for
                             any one day
                                             Average of daily
                                             values for thirty
                                             consecutive days
                                             shall not exceed
      (Metric units)
BOD5
pH
Temperature
      (English units)
                                       Xg/jckg of product
                                3.3                2.2
                                Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
                                Temperature not to exceed the
                                temperature of cooled water
                                acceptable for return to the
                                heat producing process and in
                                no event greater than 32°c.

                                       lb/1000 Ib of product

                                3.3                2.2
                                Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0,
                                Temperature not to exceed the
                                temperature of cooled water
                                acceptable for return to the
                                heat producing process and in
                                no event greater than 90°F.

    (b)   The  following   limitations   establish   the   maximum
permissible  discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
process waste water discharge results, in whole or in part,  from
BODS
PH ~
Temperature
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barometric   condensing
processing operation.

Effluent
Characteristic
      (Metric units)

BODS
TSS
pH
Fecal coliform

Temperature

      (English units)

BOD 5
TSS
pH
Fecal Coliform

Temperature
operations  and  any  other  beet  sugar
            Effluent
            Limitations
                             Maximum for
                             any one day
                    Average of daily
                    values for thirty
                    consecutive days
                    shall not exceed
              kcr/kkg of product

       3.3                2.2
       3.3                2.2
       Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
       Not to exceed MPN of 400/100 ml
       at any one time.
       Not to exceed 32°C.

              Ib/lCCC Ib of product

      3.3                 2.2
      3.3                 2.2
      Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
      Not to exceed MPN of ttOO/100 ml
      at any one time.
      Not to exceed 90°F.
Identification of Best Practicable Control Technology.Currently
Available

Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available  for  the
beet  sugar  processing subcategory of the sugar processing point
source category is extensive recycle and reuse  of  waste  waters
within  the  beet  processing  operation  with  no  or controlled
discharge of process waste water pollutants to navigable  waters.
To implement this level of technology requires:

a.   Recycling  of  beet transport (flume)  waters with partial or
complete land disposal of excess waste water.  This includes   (1)
screening;  (2)   suspended  solids  removal  and  control  in the
recirculating system; and (3)   pH  control  for  minimization  of
odors, bacterial populations,  foaming, and corrosive effects.

b.   Preferable  recycling  of  barometric  condenser  water  for
condenser or other inplant uses  with  land  disposal  of  excess
condenser water.
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c.  Land disposal of lime mud slurry and/or reuse or recovery.

d.   Return  of ' pulp press water and other process waters to the
diffuser.

e.  Use of continuous diffusers.

f.  Use of pulp driers,

g.  Concentration of Steffen waste for  disposal  on  dried  beet
pulp  or byproduct utilization.  Alternative methods such as land
disposal may be considered.

h.  Dry conveyance of beet pulp from diffusers to pulp driers.

i.   Handling  of  all  miscellaneous  wastes;  e.g.,  floor  and
equipment   washes,   filter   cloth  washes,  etc.,  within  the
processing plant  by  subsequent  treatment  and  reuse  or  land
disposal.

j.  Entrainment control devices must be installed  on  barometric
condensers,  and  operation  and  control  of  the  processes  to
minimize entrainment is necessary.
Rationale for Selection o£ Best Practicable control
Technology Currently available
Basis for Units of Measurement in Effluent Limitations

The inherent variability in the sugar  content  of  beets  to  be
processed   as   influenced   by  climatic,  soil  and,  cultural
practices,  and  the  application  of  effluent  guidelines   for
condenser  waters,  particularly  at  those  plants employing the
"extended  use"  campaign,  support  the  rationale  for  use  of
effluent limitations for condenser water based on unit production
of  refined  sugar  rather  than  based upon unit weight of beets
sliced.

The sugar solutions after thickening in the "sugar  end"  of  the
process  are  relatively uniform in quality and predictable as to
crystalline  sugar  yield.   Condenser   water   quantities   and
characteristics are related to factors inherent in the processing
of  the  relatively  uniform sucrose - containing product.  Sugar
beets to be processed contain between 10 and  16  percent  sugar.
Sucrose  content  in  sliced beets (cossettes)  averaged 1U.36 per
cent in 1969 (Table II).  Refined beet sugar production in the U.
S. in 1969 was 115 kg per kkg (231 Ibs. per ton) of beets sliced,
with an averaged extraction rate of 80.43 percent.

Allowance  for  controlled  discharge  of  composite   waste   in
complying  with  the  July  1, 1977,  effluent limitations permits
flexibility in  reaching  the  established  effluent  limitations
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through  use  of  alternative  demonstrated  control technologies
without necessitating any change in the units  of  expression  of
the limitations.

Allowance  for  variability  in  biodegradable organic content of
barometric condenser waters during processing of stored beets  in
later  campaign  in  northern  climates has been reflected in the
maximum daily effluent limitation level.

Basis of Pollutant Limitations


The pollutants of general significance in beet  sugar  processing
waste  waters  are BOD5, total suspended solids, fecal coliforms,
pH,  and  ammonia.   For  barometric   condenser   water   alone,
pollutants  of significance are reduced to BODJ, temperature, and
pH.

BOD5 (5-day, 20°C (68°F) Biochemical Oxygen Demand)

With  proper  attention   to   operation   of   evaporators   and
crystallizers  in  the  sugar  making  process, vapor entrainment
through the condensing process may be limited to between  30  and
50   mg/1  BOD5.   Under  reasonable  control,  BOD5  loading  in
condenser water can be limited to 2.2 kg  BOD5/kkg  (2.2  lb/1000
Ibs)  of  refined  sugar.  This level of control corresponds with
barometric condenser water use of 8300 1/kkg   (2000  gal/ton)  of
beets  sliced at a BOD5 concentration of 30 mg/1 as now practiced
at many plants within the industry.  Calculations  based  on  the
0.5  Ib BOD5/ton of beets processed and the average production of
115 kg of refined sugar per kkg  (231  Ibs.  per  ton)   of  beets
sliced,  yields  the  established  effluent  limitation of 2.2 kg
BOD5/kkg (2.2 lb/1000 Ib) of refined  sugar  produced.    On  this
basis  the  discharge of BOD5 during any period of 30 consecutive
days shall not exceed 2.2 kg/kkg refined sugar.  The discharge of
BOD5 during any one  day  period  shall  not  exceed  3.3  kg/kkg
refined  sugar.   This  increased  limitation  for  any  one  day
discharge is justified on the basis of the occasional  occurrence
of process upsets and mechanical failures.  Further reductions of
BOD£  in  condenser  waters  are  possible  through  reduction in
cooling devices (15-50 percent)  and through the use of  elaborate
entrainment control devices.

Temperature

The  quantity  of barometric condenser water utilized or required
at an individual beet sugar processing plant  varies  with  vapor
condensing  requirements,  raw  water source, process temperature
considerations, and climatic factors.   Condenser  water  leaving
the  barometric  condenser  process normally exhibits temperature
characteristics at or near 65°C (149°F).  Technology  exists  for
cooling the condenser water before discharge to navigable waters.
Cascading,   reuse,  water  before  discharge to navigable waters.
Cascading,   reuse,  or  recycling  of  the  mildly   contaminated
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condenser  water  can  reduce  the  requirements  and  expense of
facilities for  cooling  the  total  condenser  water  flow.   In
practice,  cooling  of  heated  waters is accomplished with spray
ponds, cooling towers, and open ponds dependent  on  the  cooling
effect  of evaporation.  The terminal temperature to which heated
water  may  be  cooled  may  range  from  several  degrees  below
atmospheric temperature at high humidity, to  17°C (30°F) or more
below   atmosperic   temperature   when  the  air  i s  dry  (88).
Evaporative coolers are most  effective  and  efficient  in  arid
regions.

The  temperature  of  water  suitable for reuse in the barometric
condenser water process is variable  depending  upon  water  use,
reuse,  conservation  practices,  and production-related factors.
However, the normal temperature requirements  for  effective  and
efficient  operation  of  the  sugar  solution  concentrating and
crystallizing processes are usually in  the  range  of  20°C-25°C
(68°F-77°F)  or cooler.  A maximum temperature limitation of 32°C
(90°F) is technologically accomplishable and justified.

The same considerations of temperature apply to composite  wastes
and  the  32°c  <90°F)  limitation  should be equally applicable.
Where composite discharge of process  waste  water  occurs,  32°C
(90°F)  for  composite  waste  discharge  generally  presents  no
difficulty to meet since temperature  reduction  can  usually  be
technologically accomplished principally through a combination of
waste  waters from barometric condensing operations together with
other wastes.

Ammonia

Ammonia in barometric condenser water varies  between  3  and  15
mg/1  NHJ  as  nitrogen  depending  upon  the  condition of beets
processed and the existence, non-existence, or  effectiveness  of
entrainment  control  devices.   Higher  ammonia  entrainment  in
condenser water  i s  evident  during  the  later  stages  of  the
processing  campaign particularly in areas where storage of beets
is practiced and progressive deterioration of the beets results.
Ammonia, like other dissolved gases, may be separated by heat  or
agitation  and  leave  no  residue  on  evaporation.   Evaporative
cooling  devices  for  heated  waste  waters  are  effective   in
accomplishing  essentially  complete  removal  of ammonia through
stripping.  Because of this  phenomenon,  no  specific  numerical
standard  for  ammonia nitrogen in barometric condenser discharge
water is established,  similar ammonia  concentrations  occur  in
flume waters which are readily reduced through biological action.

pH

Barometric  condenser water picks up ammonia from the evaporating
juices, hence is always alkaline, ranging from pH 8  to  11,  but
usually  less  than  9.  Reduction of ammonia concentrations will
effectively control the pH within the designated limits.  On this
basis and in accord with accepted water quality standards the  pH
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of  the  discharge  must be maintained within the range of 6,0 to
9.0.  High pH levels  (above 8.0)  often  result  in  flume  water
recycling  systems  by  the  addition of lime to control odor and
other factors.

Total Suspended solids

This  pollutant  parameter  has  particular  significance   where
treatment,  handling,  and  disposal of flume water results which
influences the solids level of a composite  process  waste  water
discharge  to navigable waters.  Total suspended solids levels in
barometric condenser water are negligible and are subject to  the
same methods and procedures for control as BODJ>.  Generally since
both  BOD5  and TSS are derived from the process of concentration
of sugar-laden solutions, control of BODJ3 will likewise result in
control of  corresponding  TSS  levels  in  barometric  condenser
water.  The limitation for TSS corresponding to that for BOD5 may
be  expeditiously  accomplished  as presently demonstrated within
the industry for composite waste through effective solids removal
devices.

Fecal Coliforms

A measure of fecal coliforms is an indirect measure  of  possible
pathogenic  bacteria  which  may  be  associated  with  the fecal
coliform organisms.   Fecal  coliforms  have  been  shown  to  be
derived from and resulting from the application of animal manures
to  beet  crops,  and  therefore,  is an important criterion only
where composite process waste water (including  flume  water)   is
discharged  to  navigable  waters.   Fecal  coliform  levels  are
subject  to  control  through  currently  available  and  applied
tehcnology.   Evidence  does  not  indicate the presence of fecal
coliform organisms  in  barometric  condenser  waters  to  be  of
serious concern.

Total  Cost  of  Application  in  Relation  to Effluent Reduction
Benefits

The cost effectiveness of attaining  zero  discharge  of  process
waste  waters  to  navigable waters for the beet sugar processing
industry is given in Figures X through XIV for various identified
conditions at the beet sugar processing plants where  unfavorable
soil, climate, land availability, and land costs exist.  The cost
effectiveness   relationships  bear  particular  significance  in
relation to the relative costs of achieving  the  elimination  of
barometric   condenser   water  from  navigable  waters  and  the
associated land  availability  requirements.   Exception  to  the
effluent  guidelines  limitation of no discharge of process waste
water pollutants to navigable waters is justified on the basis of
practical land availability considerations and  economic  factors
to  be  imposed  upon  the  beet  sugar processing subcategory in
achieving this limitation for affected plants by July 1, 1977.
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BODS reduction  as  accomplished  through  effective  entrainment
control   devices  in  pan  evaporators  and  crystallizers.   An
undetermined amount of BOD£ reduction (probably 15 to 50 percent)
occurs as a secondary benefit in  the  required  cooling  device.
The  amount  of  BOD5  reduction  attendant  to cooling under the
specified technology cannot  be  reliably  predicted.   The  BOD5
reduction  effected  would  be  dependent  to  a  large extent on
individual operating practices and type of facilities.

Age and size of Equipment and Facilities

As set forth in this document, industry competition  and  general
improvements in production methods have hastened modernization of
plant facilities throughout the industry.

Age and size are not within themselves determining factors in the
application  of  Best  Practicable  control  Technology Currently
Available for the beet sugar processing subcategory of the  sugar
processing  point  source category.  Estimated costs of pollution
reduction tend to vary uniformly with plant size because  of  the
land  based  waste  disposal technology and variance of raw waste
contribution directly with plant capacity.  Age and size of plant
are most appropriately related to  general  land  availability—a
factor   receiving   appropriate  consideration  in  establishing
practical effluent reduction levels attainable for this level  of
technology.

Processes Employed

All  plants  of the beet sugar processing subcategory manufacture
refined sugar using the same or similar production  methods,  the
discharges  from  which  are  also similar.  There is no evidence
that  operation  of  any  current  process  or  subprocess   will
substantially  affect  capabilities to implement Best Practicable
Control Technology Currently Available.

Engineering Aspects of Control Technique Applications

Land disposal of process waste waters is an integral part of  the
best  practicable  control technology currently available for the
beet  sugar  processing  subcategory  as  evidenced  by   present
widespread  use.   Reduction  of  pollutants  through  biological
processes commonly attendant with  process  waste  water  storage
and/or  aeration  for  odor  control occurs but varies with local
factors,   A  high  degree  of   pollution   control   has   been
demonstrated   to   be   capable  of  being  achieved  through  a
combination of use of  land  disposal,  biological  and  chemical
treatment, and waste water recycling and reuse.

The  use of controlled land disposal of process waste waters is a
widespread practice for  many  types  of  wastes,  including  both
municipal  and  industrial  within and outside the United States.
As noted in  Table  VIII,  essentially  all  present  beet  sugar
processing  plants  rely  either  in whole or in part on land for
                                130

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waste water  disposal.   Such  disposal  on  land  by  filtration
through  holding ponds, or use after treatment for irrigation, is
not generally accomplished under controlled filtration conditions
and no significant problems of  water  quality  from  such  waste
water disposal have been identified or recognized.

Furthermore,   disposal   by   land  application  of  beet  sugar
processing  waste  waters   has   obvious   benefits   of   cost-
effectiveness   and   practical   application   as   compared  to
utilization of conventional biological treatment  measures.   For
reasons  developed  within  the  document such as the varying and
seasonal nature of the waste  and  adaptability  of  conventional
treatment   measures   to  beet  sugar  processing,  conventional
biological treatment has generally proved to be  unsuccessful  in
application to date.

Land  disposal of food processing and other wastes is extensively
practiced in many areas of the country without  ill  effects.   A
fully  developed water technology should make maximum practicable
use of ground water recharge.

The  concepts  are  proved,  and  available  for  implementation.
Required  production  and waste management methods may be readily
employed  through  adaptation   or   modification   of   existing
production units.

Process Changes

In-process technology is an integral part of the waste management
program  now  being implemented within the industry.  Some degree
of in-process control is now practiced by all plants  within  the
subcategory.

Climatic Factors

Climatic   factors   of   precipitation   and   evaporation  vary
substantially  throughout  the  regions  in  which   beet   sugar
processing plants are situated in the United States.  Examination
of  evaporation  and  rainfall records in these locations reveals
that the most critical region for  disposal  of  waste  water  by
evaporation  is  the Ohio-Michigan area where annual rainfall and
lake evaporation is the Ohio-Michigan area where annual  rainfall
and  lake evaporationb approximately compensate one another.  All
other areas of the country in which beet sugar processing  plants
are located experience a net evaporation rate.

The mechanism for controlled process waste water disposal through
land  application  adapted  for  purposes of this document relies
solely  upon  land  disposal  by  controlled   soil   filtration.
Reliance  upon  controlled  soil  filtration  would  in all cases
except in the Michigan-Ohio area provide for  increased  benefits
for  reduction in land requirements due to actual net evaporation
which occurs.   Therefore,  reliance upon  controlled  seepage  for
waste  water  disposal  effectively  eliminates  or minimizes the
                                131

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effects of climatic factors on the established pollution  control
technology.   Effects  of  land  requirements and soil filtration
rates have been appropriately discussed under the heading of land
availability above.

Climatic  conditions  together  with  varying  soil   conditions^
harvesting   Climatic   conditions  together  with  varying  soil
conditions, harvesting procedures,  and  geographic  factors  may
affect soil loads on incoming beets and the condition of beets as
received  for processing at the processing plant.  Increased soil
loads on incoming beets result in increased  mud  handling  costs
and  expense  of  disposal.   These  increased handling costs are
assumed by the plant in accepting sugar beets  from  growers  and
are   a   relatively  insignificant  expense  relative  to  total
production costs*  Increased soil loads may result  in  the  need
for  more  frequent  cleaning of flume water settling and holding
ponds.

Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact

There are two essential impacts upon major non-water elements  of
the environment:  A limited degree of direct effects upon ambient
air  quality  (e.g.,  fly  ash  from  pulp  driers, odors); and a
potential effect on soil systems due to strong reliance upon  the
land  for ultimate disposition of final effluents.  In the former
case, responsible operation and maintenance procedures have  been
shown  to  minimize the problems.  Moreover, the vast enhancement
to water quality  management  provided  by  using  the  suggested
pollution   control   processes   substantially   outweigh  these
reasonably controllable air effects.

With respect to  the  concern  of  subsurface  pollution,  it  is
addressed  only  in a precautionary context since no evidence has
been discovered which indicates a strong or direct  impact.   All
evidence  points  to  the contrary.  Technology and knowledge are
available  to  assure  controlled  land  disposal  or  irrigation
systems with land application of process waste water commensurate
with crop need or soil tolerance.
                                132

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                         SECTION X
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF THE BEST
           AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
                EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
Introduction

The  effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
Best Available Technology Economically Achievable is given below.
In determining this level of technology high  reliance  has  been
made on available technology applicable for pollution control for
the subcategory with associated expected economic impact effects.

Effluent	Reduction	Attainable  Through	the Application of Best
Availabli'Technoloqv'Economicallv Achievable "

On the basis of the information contained in sections III through
VIII of this document a determination  has  been  made  that  the
degree  of  effluent reduction attainable through the application
of the Best Available Technology Economically Achievable for  the
beet sugar processing subcategory is as stated below.

The  following  limitations  establish the quantity or quality of
pollutants or pollutant properties controlled by this  regulation
which  may  be  discharged  by  a  point  source  subject  to the
provisions  of  this  subpart  after  application  of  the   best
available technology economically achievable.
    (a)  The following  limitations  establish  the  quantity  or
quality  of  pollutants  or  pollutant  properties  which  may be
discharged by a point source  where  the  sugar  beet  processing
capacity of the point source does not exceed 2090 kkg (2300 tons)
per  day  of  beets  sliced  and/or  soil  filtration rate in the
vicinity of the point source is less than or equal  to  0.159  cm
(1/16  in)   per day; provided however that a discharge by a point
source may be made in accordance with the limitations  set  forth
in  either  subparagraph  (1)   exclusively  or  subparagraph  (2)
exclusively below:
    (1)  The  following   limitations   establish   the   maximum
permissible  discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
process waste water discharge results from barometric  condensing
operations only.
                                133

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Effluent
characteristic
      (Metric units)
                                     Effluent
                                     Limitations
                             Maximum for     Average of daily
                             any one day     values for thirty
                                             consecutive days
                                             shall  ot exceed
                                              of  roduct
BODS
pH "
Temperature
      (English units)
                                2.0                1.3
                                Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
                                Temperature not to exceed the
                                temperature of cooled water
                                acceptable for return to the
                                heat producing process and in
                                no event greater than 32°C.

                                       lb/1000 Ib of product

                                2.0                1.3
                                Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
                                Temperature not to exceed the
                                temperature of cooled water
                                acceptable for return to the
                                heat producing process and in
                                no event greater than 90°F.

    (2)  The  following   limitations   establish   the   maximum
permissible  discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
process waste water discharge results, in whole or in part,  from
barometric   condensing  operations  and  any  other  beet  sugar
processing operation.
BODS
PH "
Temperature
Effluent
Characteristic
                                     Effluent
                                     Limitations
                             Maximum for
                             any one day
                                             Average of daily
                                             values for thirty
                                             consecutive days
                                             shall not exceed
      (Metric units)

BOD5
TSS"
PH
Fecal Coliform

Temperature

       (English units)
BOD5
TSS"
                                       Iccr/kkg of product

                                2,0                1.3
                                2.0                1.3
                                Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
                                Not to exceed MPN of UOO/100 ml
                                at any one time.
                                Not to exceed 32°C.

                                       lb/1000 Ib of product
                                2.0                1.3
                                2.0                1.3
                                 134

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pH
Fecal Coliform
Temperature
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
Not to exceed MPN of UOO/100 ml
at any one time 
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Even though land  disposal  is  generally  an  integral  part  of
pollution abatement measures for control of beet sugar processing
waste,   many   factors  influence  the  use,  availability,  and
suitability of land for  waste  disposal.   Segmentation  of  the
subcategory  as  stipulated recognizes the need for consideration
of plant size and soil filtration rate  as  principally  affected
economic factors.  The following factors are presented in support
of the limitations as developed:

    1.   No plants  anticipated  to  experience  soil  filtration
    rates  of  0.159  cm   (1/16 in) per day or less are currently
    achieving no discharge of process waste water  pollutants  to
    navigable waters.

    2.   All  those  plants  anticipated  to  experience  a  soil
    filtration  rate  of  0.159  cm (1/16 in) per day or less are
    identified in the economic impact analysis to experience  the
    greatest  probable  economic  impact resulting from pollution
    control regulations.

    3.   NO plants having a sugar  beet  processing  capacity  of
    2090  kkg  (2300  tons)  per  day  of  beets  sliced  or less
    presently accomplish no  discharge  of  process  waste  water
    pollutants  to  navigable waters.   Of the 16 plants below the
    size designation, 3 presently discharge excess process  waste
    water to municipal systems and would experience some economic
    impact  restraints  if  they  were required to provide needed
    biological treatment and/or land for waste  disposal.   Three
    of these plants are on the baseline closure list; i.e., would
    likely   incur   adverse   economic  impact  irregardless  of
    pollution  control  requirements.    The   economic   analysis
    indicates   5   plants   would  be  classified  on  the  high
    probability of closure list with consideration  of  pollution
    control  requirements.   Five  plants  are also identified as
    likely to experience medium probability of  adverse  economic
    impact  as  a  result of pollution control requirements.  The
    plant size selected as a basis for segmentation constitutes a
    logical break in the industry for purposes of economic impact
    factors.

    U.   Five plants located in Michigan would find it  extremely
    difficult  to  meet  a requirement of no discharge of process
    waste water  pollutants  to  navigable  waters.   Their  land
    requirements  would  be excessive due to poor evaporation and
    low soil filtration rates (less than 1/16 in. a  day).   Even
    if  land  were  available,  the  costs  may  be  beyond their
    economic  capabilities.    Municipal   systems   may   become
    subsequently  available,  but there is no certainty that this
    will occur.  A similar situation exists for  approximately  4
    plants  in  Minnesota  and North Dakota although the problems
    for these plants do not appear as critical.

    5.   From 2 to 8 plants in Colorado,  Nebraska,  and  Wyoming
    are  expected  to  have difficulties with a requirement of no
                                136

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    discharge of process waste water pollutants due  to  economic
    reasons.   They  are all relatively old and small and tend to
    be located in areas of high land cost.

Land disposal of waste waters without discharge to surface waters
would result in a possible net loss of water from surface streams
from the most extensive waste water  recirculation  system  of  a
straighthouse  beet  sugar  processing  plant  of 3200 1/kkg  (781
gal/ton)  of beets sliced.  The total water loss of  this  tonnage
volume  would consists of 825 1/kkg (203 gal/ton) of beets sliced
loss to the atmosphere through process venting  and  evaporation,
moisture  in  screenings, and molasses production; and 2440 1/kkg
(578 gal/ton) of beets  sliced  loss  due  to  land  disposal  of
required  blowdown  from  flume  and  condenser  water  recycling
systems.

In consideration of water gains and losses  in  an  average-sized
3300 kkg (3600 ton)  of beets sliced per day beet sugar processing
plant,  possible net loss of water to a stream would be estimated
at about 10.5 million liters (2.8 million gal)  per  day  assuming
the  complete  source  of  fresh water is a surface water source.
However,  because of cooling considerations  wide  use  of  cooler
ground  water  supplies as the source of fresh water requirements
to the beet sugar processing plant is made.  With use of  surface
waters  as  the  sole  source  of water supply, approximately 8.0
million liters (2.1 million gal)   per  day  may  be  disposed  of
and/or  added  to  ground water supplies through land application
without discharging process waste  water  pollutants  to  surface
waters.   Where  crop irrigation is practiced,  uptake of water by
plants offers a consumptive  but  beneficial  use  of  the  waste
water.   In  addition to fresh water, incoming beets constitute a
major source of water addition of  800  1/kkg  (192  gal/ton)   of
beets sliced to the extensive recycling system.

A detailed discussion of water gains and losses is included under
the  heading  of  Mass  water  Balance in a Beet Sugar Processing
Plant, section VII of this document.

The  above  estimates  give  due  consideration  for  water  gain
attributable  to  moisture within incoming beets and water losses
resulting from various sources.,  Total water supply from  surface
water  sources  is  assumed  which  results  in  many cases in an
overestimation of consumptive use from surface waters  for  plant
processes  and  pollution  control.  In fact, many plants utilize
ground water sources of water supply rather than surface  waters,
and  waste  water  returned  to  the ground through land disposal
usually may be reclaimed as ground  water  supply  or  eventually
finds  its  way,   generally  in a purified state, back to surface
waters.

The basis for limitation of various pollutants is as developed in
Section  IX  with  consideration  of   improved   practices   and
operations  which  may result in the reduced effluent limitations
                                137

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levels as presently demonstrated within the beet sugar processing
sufccategory.
                                138

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                             SECTION XI

                   NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
The standard of performance  for  new  sources  representing  the
degree  of  effluent reduction attainable through the application
of the best available demonstrated control  technology  has  been
determined  to  be no discharge of process waste water pollutants
to navigable  waters.   An  allowance  for  a  variation  of  the
Standard  is  not  needed  since  land  availability requirements
should be considered in site selection for a new point source.

Introduction

This level of technology is to be achieved by new  sources.   The
term  "new source" is defined in the Act to mean "any source, the
construction of which is commenced after the publication of  pro-
posed  regulations  prescribing a standard of performance."  This
level of technology shall be evaluated by adding to the consider-
ation underlying the identification of Best Available  Technology
Economically  Achievable a determination of what higher levels of
pollution control are  available  through  the  use  of  improved
production processes and and/or treatment techniques.

Effluent Reduction, Identification and Rationale for selection
of New source Performance Standards                          ~

The  effluent  limitation  is  for  new  sources  no discharge of
process waste water pollutants to navigable waters  as  developed
in Section X.
                                139

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                           SECTION XII

                        ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The  research  and preparation of this document were accomplished
through the efforts of Mr. Richard V, Watkins,  P.  E.,  and  Dr.
Valentin  Ulrich,  Professor  in the Department of Agriculture at
West  Virginia  University.   During  the  early  stages  of  the
document  preparation. Dr. Ulrich was employed as a consultant to
the Effluent Guidelines Division.

Dr. Ulrich performed some  of  the  basic  work  associated  with
preparation   of  several  basic  segments  of  the  first  draft
document, and was  primarily  involved  in  preliminary  editing,
technical  data  collection  and  analysis,  and  collection  and
evaluation of cost-related information.

Mr.  Watkins  is  a  sanitary  Enginneer  within   the   Effluent
Guidelines Division, Office of Air and Water Programs, EPA.  With
him  as the Project officer, the work was performed largely under
his  responsibility  and  primary   authorship.    Responsibility
included  that  for  planning, organization, data evaluation, and
preparation of the entire document,

Mr. George E. Webster, Chief, Technical  Analysis  &  Information
Branch,  Effluent  Guidelines Division, provided a careful review
of the preliminary draft document and  suggested  organizational,
technical,  and  editorial  changes.   Mr,  Webster was also most
helpful in making arrangements for the  drafting,  printing,  and
distribution of the document.

Mr.  Joseph  G.  Ross,  Jr.,  was  quite  helpful in the critical
examination of the draft document.  Mr. Ross offered many helpful
suggestions through his many years of experience in  the  editing
and production of scientific and technical publications.

The  figures  in  the document were prepared by Mr. Dick Owens of
the Audio-visual Branch, Facilities and Support Services Division
Of EPA.

Great assistance was provided in review of the  document  by  the
working Group/Steering Committee.  This Committee was established
for  in-house  EPA  review  of  the  document,  and provided many
helpful comments and suggestions.  The committee was composed  of
the following EPA personnel:
    C.  R.  McSwiney           Effluent Guidelines Division
    Richard V. Watkins       Project Officer, Effluent Guidelines
                               Division
    George Webster           Effluent Guidelines Division
    Kit Krickenberger        Effluent Guidelines Division
    Swep Davis               Office of Planning and Evaluation
    George Keeler            Office of Research and Monitoring
                                141

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    Ken A. Dostal

    Harold W. Thompson

    Ed Brooks
    Ed Struzeski, Jr.

    Kit Smith
    Erik Krabbe
    M. Shamaiengar
    R. L. Markey
    Melvin McCorkle
    Bob Burm
    Irwin Dickstein
    Robert D. Shankland
Office of Research and Monitoring
  Corvallis, Oregon
Office of Research and Monitoring
  Corvallis, Oregon
Office of Toxic Substances
National Field Investigation Center
  Denver, Colorado
Office of General Council
Region II
Region V
Region VII
Region VII
Region VIII
Region VIII
Region VIII
Mr.  Allen Cywin, Director, Effluent Guidelines Division, offered
many helpful suggestions during briefing  sessions  conducted  on
the  project  and  greatly  assisted  in  the  development of the
project through his enthusiasm and leadership.

Miss Kit Krickenberger of the Effluent  Guidelines  Division  was
particularly  helpful  and  cooperative  in  her untiring efforts
during editing and preparation of  the  document.   Her  work  is
greatly appreciated.

Acknowledgement  and  great  appreciation  are  also given to the
secretarial staff of the Effluent Guidelines Division  for  their
efforts  in the typing of drafts, making necessary revisions, and
final preparation of the document.

Appreciation is extended to various persons within the beet sugar
processing industry for their willing  cooperation  in  providing
requested  data  and  their assistance in regard to on-site plant
visits.  Mr. Dave c. Carter, Executive Vice President, U.S.  Beet
Sugar  Association;  Mr.  Clare  H.  Iverson, Chief Engineer, The
Great western Sugar company; Mr. J. P.  Abbott,  Chief  Engineer,
Holly  Sugar  Corporation;  and  Mr.  Ernest  W.  Beck, Jr., Vice
President - Operations and Mr. William O.  Weckel,  Assistant  to
Vice  President  of Spreckels sugar Division, Amstar Corporation,
deserve special mention.
                                 142

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                          SECTION XIII

                          REFERENCES
1.   Anonymous,   "State-of-Art,   Sugarbeet   Processing   Waste
Treatment,"  A  report  prepared  for  the Beet Sugar Development
Foundation for the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,  U.  S,
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., July 1971.

2.  Request  for  Proposal  No.  WA  73X-002  Effluent Limitation
Guidelines, Part  II,  Description  of  the  Requirement,  U.  S.
Environmental Protection Agency, October 1972.

3. 1967 Census of Manufacturers, Sugar and confectionery Products
Publication  MC67(2)-20F,  Bureau of the census, U. S. Department
of Commerce, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.  C.
20242, August 1970.

4.   Gurnham,  C.  F.,  Industrial  Wastewater  Control, Academic
Press, New York, 1965.

5. Force, S. L., "Beet Sugar Factory Wastes and Their  Treatment,
Primarily  the  Findlay  System,"  17th  Purdue  Industrial Waste
Symposium.  (1962.)

6. Lof, George O. G., Ward, John C, and  Hao,  O.  J.,  "Combined
Cooling  and  Bio-treatment of Beet Sugar Factory Condenser Water
Effluent,"  Environmental  Resources   Center,   Colorado   state
University,  Fort  Collins,  Colorado,  Completion  Report  OWRR,
Project No. A-008-COLO submitted to  Office  of  Water  Resources
Research,  U.  S.  Department  of the Interior, Washington, D. C.
20242, June 30, 1971.

7. Roy F. weston. Inc., Preliminary unpublished summary report of
sugar industry, 1972.

8. Brent, Ronald w. and  Fischer,  James  H,,  "Concentration  of
Sugarbeet wastes for Economic Treatment with Biological Systems."
Proceedings  First  National Symposium on Food Processing Wastes,
April  6-8,  1970,  Portland,  Oregon,  Water  Pollution  Control
Research   Series  12060—04  per70,  U.  S,  Department  of  the
Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration.

9* Sugar Statistics and Related Data.  Volume II  (Revised).   U.
S.   Department  of  Agriculture  statistical  Bulletin  No. 244,
Washington, D. C., 1969.

10.  Howard, T. E. and Walden, C. C.   Treatment  of  Beet  Sugar
Pl£H£  Flume Water, British Columbia Research Council, University
of^British Columbia, Vancouver, B. C., 1964.

11.  Tsugita, Ronald A., Oswald, William J.,  Cooper,  Robert  C,
and  Golueke,  Clarence  G.,  "Treatment of Sugarbeet Flume Waste
                                143

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Water by Lagooning, a Pilot  Study."
Technology 15(4):  282-297, 1969,
Am_j
12.   Lof,  George  0.  G. and Kneese, Allen Y., Tae Economics of
Water Utilisation in jtlie B££i Sugar Jndugtry,  Resources  of  the
Future,  Inc.,  Washington,  D.  C.   The  Johns  Hopkins  Press,
Baltimore, Maryland (1968) .

13.  The Bee£ Sugar Industry — -The water  Po^j-utipn  Problem  and
status  of  Waste Abatement and Treatment, U.S. Department of the
Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control  Administration,  South
Platte River Basin Project, Denver, Colorado  (June 1967) ,
14.    standard   Methods   £§£  tfre  Examination  of  Hafcqr  anfl
Wastewater^   Thirteenth   Edition,   American   Public    Health
Association, New York, New York  (1971) *

15.  Jensen, L. T. , Sugar Found ia industrial Wastewater Control^
(A  Textbook  and  Reference  Work) " edited  by  Gurnham,  C. F. ,
Academic Press, Inc., Publishers, New York and London  (1965).

16.  Jensen, L. T., "Recent Developments in Waste Water Treatment
by the Beet Sugar Industry," Proceedings oj: thg Tenth  Industrial
Waste Conference* Purdue University, 430, May 9*11  (1955).

17.   Unpublished data in the files of the Technical Advisory and
Investigation Section, Technical Services Program, U. S.  Depart-
ment   of   the   Interior,   Federal   Water  Pollution  Control
Administration, Cincinnati, Ohio.

18.  "Proceedings of the Conference in the Matter of Pollution of
the Interstate Waters of tbe Red River of the North, North Dakota
- Minnesota, September 14, 1965,"  Fargo,  North  Dakota,  U.  S.
Department  of  Health,  Education,  and  Welfare,  Public Health
Service, Washington, D. C. (September 1965) .

19.  "Procedings, Volume I, II and III, of the conference in  the
Matter  of Pollution of the South Platte River Basin in the State
of Colorado,  Second  Session,  Denver,  Colorado,  April  27-28,
1966,"  U. S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration, Washington, D. C.  (April 1966) .

20.  Black, H. H. and McDermott, G. N, , "Industrial Waste Guide  -
Beet Sugar", Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 24, 2,  181,  February
1952;  also  presented  at  the  first  Ontario  Industrial Waste
Conference, Ontario Agricultural College,  Guelph,  Ontario  June
15-18,1954.

21.   "Treatment  of  Beet Sugar Flume Water - Project Report 64-
117-B," Prepared  for  the  Beet  Sugar  Development  Foundation,
British   Columbia   Research   council,  University  of  British
Columbia, Vancouver, Canada (December 1964) .
                                 144

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22*  "Rate Studies for  BOD  Removal  in  Beet  Pluming  Water   -
Progress  Report  No. 3," Prepared for the Beet Sugar Development
Foundation,  British  Columbia  Research  council,  Vancouver   8,
Canada  (June 1965).

23,   Nemerow,  Nelson,  L.r Theories and Practices Qf Industrial
Haste Treatment Addison-Wesley Publishing company. Inc., Reading,
Massachusetts  (1963).

24.  Pearson, E. and  Sawyer,  C.  N.,  "Recent   Developments   in
Chlorination  in the Beet sugar Industry," Proceedings of the 5th
Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, p. 110,  November
1949.
25.   Elridge,  E.  P.,
York, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
        Industrial Waste Treatment Practice, New
       (1942).
26.  Rodgers, H. 6. and Smith, L., "Beet Sugar Waste  Lagooning",
Proceedings oj 8th Industrial Waste Conference. Purdue University
p. 136,  (May 1953) .

27.   Hopkins,  G., et al. "Evaluation of Broad Field Disposal of
Sugar Beet Wastes" Sewage ajid Industrial Wastes Journal•  28,  12,
1466, (December 1956).

28.   Inciustr.ia4  Wastewater  control—A  Textbook  and Reference
Workf Edited by C. Fred Gurnham, Academic Press, New York  (1965) .

29.  Southgate, B. A., Treatment and Disposal of Industrial Waste
waters^. London:
His Majesty's Stationery Office  (1948).
30.  Hungerford, E.  H.  and  Fischer,  James  H,,  "State-of^Art
Sugarbeet  Processing  Waste  Treatment,"  Proceedings  of Second
National Symposium on Food Processing  Waste,  Denver,  Colorado,
March 23-26, 1971, Water Pollution Control Research Series 12060-
-03, Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D,  C. (1971).

31.   "Summary  Report on the Beet Sugar Processing Industry  (Sic
2063)," U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,  Office  of  water
Programs,  Division  of Applied Technology, The Industrial wastes
Studies Program (1972).

32.  Oswald, William J., Galueke, Clarence G.f cooper, Robert  c.
and  Tsugita, Ronald N., Anaerobic-Aerobic Ponds  for Treatment oi
Beet Sugar Wastes, Denver, Colorado,  March  23-26,  1971,  Water
Pollution  Control Research Series, 12060	03, Superintendent of
Documents, Washington,  D. C.  (1971)

33.  Partially drafted report of findings and results of Phase  I
of  EPA  Project  No.  11060  ESC  "Separation,   Dewatering,  and
Disposal of Sugarbeet  Transplant  Water  Solids,"  Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D. C. (1973).
                                145

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34.   "Effluent  Limitation  Guidance  for  the Refuse Act Permit
Program, Beet Sugar Processing  Industry,"  U.  S-  Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D. c.  (June 13, 1972).

35.   "Beet  Sugar  Companies  in  the  United  states  (Executive
offices and Staffs, Factory Locations, Capacities, and  Principal
Personnel)," Washington, D. c.  (October 25, 1972).

36,   "sugar  statistics and Related Data," Administration of the
HA jLs,  sugar Acts, Volume II  (Revised), Statistical Bulletin  No.
244,   Agricultural,  Manufacturing  and  Income  Statistics  for
Domestic Sugar Areas, Revised February 1969, USDA, Washington, D.
C.  (Feb. 1970).

37.   "Sugar  statistics  and  Related  Data,"  Compiled  in  the
Administration of the Sugar Acts, Volume I (Revised), Statistical
Bulletin  No.  293,  Supplies^ "Distribution,  Quota  Operations,
Prices and International  Data  through  1968,  Revised  December
1969, USDA, Washington, D. C.   (February 1970).

38.   The Gilmore Louisiana - Florida - Hawaii Sucjar Manual 1971,
Edited  by  Aldrich  C.  Bloomquist,  The  Gilmore  Sugar  Manual
Division, Bloomquist Publications, Fargo, North Dakota.

39.   "Economic Impact of Water Pollution Control Requirements on
the Sugar Beet Industry," A report prepared  by  Development  and
Planning   Research   Assoc.,   Inc.,  for  U.  S.  Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Water Programs, Division of  Applied
Technology, Washington, D. C. (1972),

40.   "Cost  of  Waste  Water  Treatment  Processes".   A  report
prepared by the Advanced  Waste  Treatment  Research  Laboratory,
Robert  A.   Taft  Research  Center  for  U.  S. Department of the
Interior,  Federal  Water   Pollution   Control   Administration,
Washington, D. C.  (1968).

41.   "Pretreatment  Guidelines  for  the Discharge of Industrial
Waste to Municipal Treatment Works."  Roy F. Weston,  Inc.,  West
Chester, Pennsylvania, Draft prepared for the U. S. Environmental
Protection  Agency,  Washington,  D.  C., Contract No. 68-01-0346
(November 17, 1972).

42.  Linsley, Ray H., Kohler, Max A. and Paulhaus, Joseph L.  H.,
Hydrology  for  Engineering. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York
(1950) .

43.  Steel, Ernest W,, Water Supply and Sewage, McGraw--Hill  Book
Co-, Inc.,  New York  (1960)

44,   Grant,  Eugene  L.  and  Ireson,  W.  Grant,  Principles of
Engineering Economy.  The Ronald Press Co., New York  (1960).

45.  "Sewage  Treatment  Plant  Design,"   Prepared  by  A  Joint
Committee  of  the  water  Pollution  Control  Federation and the
                                 146

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American Society of Civil  Engineers.
Federation, Washington, D. C.  (1959).
                                        Water  Pollution  control
46.   "Recommended  Standards  for Sewage Works," A  report of the
Committee of the Great Lakes-Upper  Mississippi  River  Board  of
Sanitary  Engineers,  Health  Education Service, Albany, New York
(1968) .
<*7.   Brent,  Ronald,  W.,  "condenser
Campaign," Memorandum  (March 1972),
                                         Water   Survey   1971-72
48.   Smith, Robert and Eilers, Richard G., "Cost to the consumer
for collection and Treatment of  Waste  Water,"  Water  Pollution
Control   Research  Series.   Project  No.  17070,  Environmental
Protection Agency (1970) .

49.  U. S, Public Health Service, "An Industrial Waste  Guide  to
the Beet Sugar industry,"  (1950).

50.   Minnesota  State  Department of Health, "Progress Report on
Study of the Disposal of Beet Sugar Wastes by the Lagoon  Method:
Sept. 1950 to March 1951",  (1951)

51.  McAdams, William E.,  Heat Transmission, chemical Engineering
series.  Third  Edition,   sponsored  by  the  Committee  on  Heat
Transmission,  National  Research   Council,   McGraw-Hill   Book
Company, Inc., New York (1954).

52.   McKelvey,  K.   K.  and  Brooke, M.,  The Industrial Cooling
Tower, Elsevier, Amsterdam,  (1959).

53.  Berman, L. D.,   Evaporative Cooling  of  circulation  Water,.
Pergamon Press, N.Y.  (1961).

54.   Parker, Frank L. and Krenkel, Peter A.,  "Thermal Pollution
Status of the Art,"  Report No. 3 Prepared for the  Federal  Water
Pollution Control Administration, Washington, D. C. (1969).

55.   cotter,  T. J. and Lotz, R. W., "Cooling Pond Design in the
Southwest," Journal  of  the  Power  Division,  ASCE  JJ7,  85-103
(1961) .

56.   Climatic  Atlas  of  the United States. U. S. Department of
Commerce, U. S. Government Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.
(1968) .

57   Statistical  Abstracts  of  the  United  States. 29nd Annual
EditionT  U.  S.  Department  of  Commerce,  Bureau  of   census,
Washington, D. C.  (1971) .

58.   Provided by Mr. Clair H. Iversen, Chief Engineer, The Great
Western Sugar Company, Denver, Colorado (January 2, 1973).
                                 147

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59.  Provided by Mr. Herbert O. Ebell, General chemist,  Michigan
Sugar Company, Saginaw, Michigan  (February 1973).

60.   cost  Information  as provided by Black & Veatch Consulting
Engineers,  1500  Meadowlake  Parkway,  Kansas   City,   Missouri
(February 1973) .

61.   Information  as provided by Mr. Dale Slant, Fluor Industry,
Santa Bosa, California  (February 1973).

62.  Beet Sugar Industry, Background Information  on  Development
of  Effluent  Limitations,  Office of Refuse Act Permit Programs,
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D. C.   As  provided
to the Effluent Guidelines Division, EPA, by the Office of Permit
Programs, January 4, 1973.

63.   Provided  by Mr. David C. Carter, Executive Vice President,
U. S.  Beet Sugar Association  (January 26, 1973).

64.  Fordyce, I. V., and cooley, A. M.,  "Separation,  Dewatering
and  Disposal  of  Sugar Beet Transport Water Solids, Phase I," A
project conducted under the sponsorship of the office of Research
and Monitoring, Environmental protection Agency,  Washington,  D.
C., Grant Project #12060 ESC (June 1972).

65.   Beet-Sugar  Technology  Edited  by  R. A. McGinnis, Second
Edition, published by Beet Sugar Development  Foundation,  P.  O.
Box 538, Fort Collins, Colorado (1971)«

66.   Blankenbach,  W.  W.  and  Williams,  W.  A.,  15th Meeting
American society  of  Sugar  Beet  Technology,  Phoenix,  Arizona
(February 1968).

67.   Miller,  P. H., Eis, F. G. and Oswald, W. J., Pres. at 15th
Meeting American Society Sugar Beet Technology, Phoenix,  Arizona
(February 1968).

68.   ichikawO,  K.,  Golueke,  G. G. and Oswald, W. J., Pres. at
15th Meeting American Society  Sugar  Beet  Technology,  Phoenix,
Arizona  (Feb. 1968).

69.  Crane, G. W., "The Conservation of Water and Final Treatment
Effluent."   Proc.  at  19th  Technical  Conference British Sugar
Corporation, Ltd.  (June 1968) .

70.  Tsugita, R. A., Oswald, W. J., Cooper, R. C. and Golueke, C.
G., Pres. 15th Meeting American Society  Sugar  Beet  Technology,
Phoenix, Arizona.

71.   Querio,  C.  W. and Powers, T. J., Proc. of the 34th Annual
Meeting Water Pollution Control Federation, Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
(Oct. 1961) .
                                148

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72.   "Policy  on  Subsurface  Emplacement  of  Fluids  by   Well
Injection."  A policy statement issued by the U. S. Environmental
Protection   Agency   with   accompanying    "Recommended    Data
Requirements   for   Environmental   Evaluation   of   Subsurface
Emplacement  of  Fluids  by  Well  Injection,"  Washington,  D.C.
(February 1973).

73.   "Treatment  of  Selected  Internal  Kraft  Mill Wastes in a
Cooling TOwer," report of findings and results  prepared  by  the
Georgia  Kraft  Company  Research  and  Development  Center under
Program #12040 EEK, Grant #WPRD 116-01^68 for  the  Environmental
Protection   Agency,   Washington,   D.   c.   Superintendent  of
Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office,  Washington,  D.  c.
(Aug. 1971) .

74.   As obtained by on-site plant visits by EPA personnel during
January- February 1973.

75.  Iverson, Clair H,, "Water  consumption  of  A  Typical  Beet
Sugar Factory," The Great Western Sugar company, Denver, Colorado
(February 1973).

76.   Sawyer, Clair N., chemistry for Sanitary Engineers, McGraw-
Hill Book Company; New York, New York  (1960).

77 •  Public Health  Service  Drinking  water  Standards,  Revised
j.942f  U.S.    Department  of Health* Education and Welfare, U. s7
Public Health Service  Publication  No.  956,  U.  S.  Government
Printing Office, Washington, D, C.  (1962),

78.   "Methods  for  chemical  Analysis  of  Water  and  wastes,"
Environmental Protection Agency, National Environmental  Research
Center,  Analytical  Quality Control Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio
(1971) .

79.  Environmental Protection Agency,  "Proposed  Drinking  Water
Standards"  1971 Revision, U, S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Media Programs, Office of Water  Hygiene,  Division  of
Water Hygiene, Washington, D, C.  (1971).

80.    "Existing   and  Proposed  Effluent  Criteria  for  Common
Pollution Indices," Proposed by Refuse Act Permit Program, U.  S.
Environmental  Protection  Agency, Region VIII, Denver, Colorado,
(subject to revision)  (May 1972).

81.  Fairall, J, M., Marshall, L. s. and Rhines,  c.  E.,  "Guide
for  Conducting  an  Industrial  Waste  Survey  (Draft)",  U.  s.
Environmental  Protection  Agency,  Office  of  Air   and   Water
Programs,  Effluent Guidelines Division, Engineering and Sciences
Staff,  Cincinnati, Ohio (1972).

82.  Cooling Towers, Prepared by editors of Chemical  Engineering
Progress,  A  technical manual published by American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, New York, New York (1972).
                                149

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83.  Kolflat, T. D., "Cooling Towers - State of  the  Art,"  U.S.
Department   of   Interior,   Atomic  Industrial  Forum  Seminar,
Washington, D. C., February 13-14, 1973.

8U.  cost of Wastewater Treatment Processes, Report  No.  TWRC-6,
Robert  A.  Taft  Water  Research Center, Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration, Cincinnati, Ohio  (December 1968).

85.  proceedings of a Symposium on Waste Stabilization Lagoons, A
Review of  Research  and  Experiences  in  Design,  Construction,
Operation  and  Maintenance, Kansas City, Missouri, Public Health
Service  Publication  No.  872,  Superintendent   of   Documents,
Washington, D. C.

86.   Glossary  Water  and  sewage Control Engineering, Published
Under  the  Joint   sponsorship   of   American   Public   Health
Association,  American society of Civil Engineers, American Water
works Association, and Federation of Sewage and Industrial Wastes
Associations.

87.  Hardenbergh, W. A. and Edward B.  Rodie,  Hater  supply  and
W^SiS   Disposal,   International   Textbook  company,  ScrantonT
Pennsylvania, Third Printing, August, 1966.

88.  Manual on Water, ASTM Special Technical Publication No. U42,
American Society for Testing and Materials,  Third Edition, March,
1972.
89.  select committee on National Resources, U.S.
Supply and Demand," Committee Print No. 32, 1960.
senate, "Water
90.  McGuinness, C. L., "The Role of Ground Water in the National
Situation,"  U.S. Geological  Survey  Water  Supply  Paper  1800,
1963.

91.   "Subsurface  Pollution  Problems  in  the  United  states,"
Technical studies Report: TS-*00-72-*02, office of Water  Programs,
U.S.  Environmental  Protection  Agency,  Washington,  D.C., May,
1972.

92.  Proceedings of the National Ground Water Quality  Symposium,
Co-sponsored  by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the
National Water Well  Association,  August  25-27,  1971,  Denver,
Colorado,  Contract  No.  68-01-OOOU,  U.S.  Government  Printing
Office, Washington, D.c.

93.  Report on Water Quality Investigations, North  Platte  River
Basin   Torrington,  Wyoming,  to  Bayard,  Nebraska,  Office  of
Enforcement,  National  Field   Investigation   Center,   Denver,
Colorado, and Region VII, Kansas City, Missouri, April, 1972.

9U.   Memorandum  Report on the Evaluation of Great Western Sugar
Mills in the North Platte River  Basin,  Nebraska,  Environmental
                                150

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Protection  Agency,  Water  Quality  Office,  Division  of  Field
Investigations - Denver Center, Denver, Colorado, January, 1973.

95,  Perry, John H., Chemical Engineering Handbook, 4th  Edition,
McGraw- Hill, New York, New York  (1963).

96.   Handbook  of  Chemistry and Physics, 36th Edition, Chemical
Rubber Publishing Company, Cleveland, Ohio  (1954).

97.  The Cost of Clean Water, Volume I,  Summary  Report,  U.  S.
Department   of   Interior,   Federal ^ Water  Pollution  Control
Administration, January 10, 1968.

98.  The Economics of Cle*an Water, Volume Ip  Detailed  Analysis,
U,  s.   Department  of  the* Interior,  Federal  Water Pollution
Control Administration, March, 1970.

99.  Cos_t of Clean Water, Volume II, Cost Effectiveness and clean
Water, Environmenta1 Protection  Agency,  Water  Quality  Office,
March, 1971.

100.  Proceedings of the Advanced Waste Treatment and Water Reuse
Symposium,  Session  1-5,  Sponsored  by  the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Dallas, Texas, January 12-14, 1971.

101.  Martin, Edward J. and Leon  W.  Weinberger,  Eutrophication
and  Water  Pollution,  Publication  No. 15, Great Lakes Research
Division, the University of Michigan, 1966.

102.  St. Amant, Percy P. and Louis A. Beck, Methods of  Removing
Nitrates  from  Water,  Agricultural  and  Food Chemistry, Sept.,
1970.

103.  Water Quality Management Problems in Arid Regions,  Federal
Water  Quality  Administration, U. S. Department of the Interior,
Program #13030DYY, October, 1970.

104.  Nitrogen Removal from Waste Waters, Federal  Water  Quality
Administration,  Division  of  Research and Development, Advanced
Waste Treatment Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, May, 1970.

105.  Anaerobic - Aerobic Ponds for Beet Sugar  Waste  Treatment,
Environmental  Protection Technology Series, EPA - R2 - 73 - 025,
Office of Research and Monitoring, U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D. C., February, 1973.

106,  Cost of Wastewater Treatment Processes, Report No.  TWRC
6,  The  Advanced  Waste Treatment Research Laboratory, Robert A.
Taft Water Research center, U. s.  Department  of  the  Interior,
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Cincinnati, Ohio,
December, 1968.

107.   Cost  and  Performance  Estimates  for Tertiary Wastewater
Treatment Processes, Report No. TWRC  -  9,  The  Advanced  Waste
                                151

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Estimates  for  Tertiary wastewater Treating Processes, Treatment
Research Laboratory, Robert A. Taft Water Research Center, U.  S,
Department  of  the  Interior,  Federal  Water  Pollution Control
Administration, Cincinnati, Ohio, June, 1969,

108.  Fair, Gordon M. and John C. Geyer, Elements Q£ Water Supply
afid Wastewater Disposal, John Wiley and  Sons,  Second  Printing,
New York, September, 1961.

109.   "Special Report on Land Disposal," Journal Water Pollution
control Federation, Vol. 45, No. 7, July, 1973.
                                152

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                           SECTION  XIV

                            GLOSSARY
Activated Sludge Process

A biological sewage treatment process in which a mixture  of  sewage
and activated sludge is agitated and aerated.  The activated
sludge is subsequently separated from the treated sewage  (mixed
liquor) by sedimentation and wasted or returned to the process
as needed. , The treated sewage overflows the weir of the  settling
tank in which separation from the sludge takes place.

Aeration

The bringing about of intimate contact between air and a  liquid
by one of the following methods:  Spraying the liquid in  the air;
bubbling air through the liquid or agitation of the liquid
to promote surface absorption of air.

Aeration Period

(1)  The theoretical time, usually expressed in hours, that
the mixed liquor is subjected to aeration in an aeration  tank
undergoing activated sludge treatment; equal to  (a) the volume
of the tank divided by (b)  the volumetric rate of flow of the
sewage and return sludge.  (2) The theoretical time that water is
subjected to aeration.
The presence in the atmosphere of one or more air contaminants in
quantities, of characteristics, and of a duration,  injurious  to
human,  plant,  or animal life or property, or which unreasonably
interferes with the comfortable enjoyment thereof.

Alkalinity

A quality of waste waters due  to  the  presence  of  weak  bases
composed primarily of bicarbonates, carbonates, and hydroxides.

ftmmonia Nitrogen

All nitrogen in waste waters existing as the ammonium ion.

Anaerobic

Living or active in the absence of free oxygen.
                                 153

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The  solid  residue  left  after  incineration in the presence of
oxygen.  In analysis of sugar products, sulfuric acid is added to
the sample, and this residue as "sulfated ash" heated to 800°C is
taken to be a measure  of  the  inorganic  constituents.   It  is
sometimes  determined  indirectly  by  measure  of the electrical
conductivity of solutions of ttoe products.

Bacterial Quantit  Unit
One measure of the total load of bacteria passing a given  stream
location  and  is particularly useful in comparing relative loads
between stations.  The number of BQU's is derived as the  product
of flow in cfs and coliform density in MPN per 100 ml, divided by
100,000.

Beet End

The  part  of  the sugar plant which includes the process through
the evaporators.  In plants where the vacuum pans are  heated  by
vapors the evaporators are usually included in the sugar end.

Beet Pulp

The   vegetable   matter  left  after  sugar  is  extracted  from
cossettes.  Used, wet,  dehydrated,  or  pelleted  as  commercial
cattle feed.

Biological filtration

The  process  of  passing  a  liquid  through a biological filter
containing media on the surfaces of which zoogleal films  develop
which absorb fine suspended, colloidal, and dissolved solids,  and
release end products of biochemical action.

Biological Process

The  process  by  which the life activities of bacteria and other
microorganisms in the search for food break down complex  organic
materials into simple, more stable substances,  self -purification
of  sewage  polluted streams, sludge digestion, and all so-called
secondary sewage treatments result from this process.

Beet Wheel

A large wheel with baffles projecting radially  inward  from  the
surface of the perforated rim and used to raise beets to a higher
plane  and  separate  them  from the flume water; e.g., as from a
flume to a beet washer.
                                154

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BOD5 * 5-dav,_20°C Biochemical_Oxygen Demand

The quantity of oxygen  used  in  the  biochemical  oxidation  of
organic matter over a five-day period of incubation at 20°C.  The
procedure  is  a  standard  test  used  in  accessing waste water
pollutional strength.   (The term is printed as BOD£  rather  than
using the subscript number because of printing limitations.)

Slowdown

A  discharge  from a system designed to prevent a buildup of some
material, as in a boiler to control dissolved solids.

Brig

A hydrometer scale calibrated to.read percent sugar by weight  in
pure  sugar  solutions.   Originated  by  Balling,  improved  and
corrected by Brix.

Calcination

The roasting or burning of any substance to bring about  physical
or  chemical  changes;  e.g.,  the  conversion  of  lime  rock to
quicklime.
Campaign

The period of the year during which
plant produces sugar.

Carbonation
the  beet  sugar  processing
The process of treatment with carbon dioxide gas.

Caustic

Capable of destroying or eating away by chemical action.
to strong bases.

Chain-grate stoker
                     Applied
A stoker system which moves the coal in a continuous bed from the
bottom  of  a  feed  hopper into the furnace by means of a moving
grate, consisting  of  a  continuous  belt  constructed  of  many
individual  cast  - iron chain links so assembled as to allow air
to pass through.

Clarification

The process of removing  undissolved  materials  from  a  liquid.
Specifically,  removal  of suspended solids either by settling or
filtration.
                                 155

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Coagulation

(1)  The agglomeration of colloidal or  finely  divided  suspended
matter  by  the addition to the liquid of an appropriate chemical
coagulant, by biological processes, or by other means.   (2)   The
process  of  adding  a  coagulant  and  necessary  other reacting
chemicals.

COP - Chemical Oxygen Demand

A measure of the  oxygen  consuming  capacity  of  inorganic  and
organic  matter present in water or waste water.  It is expressed
as the amount of oxygen consumed from a  chemical  oxidant  in  a
specific test.

Conductivity

A  measure  of  the  ability of water in conducting an electrical
current,  in practical terms, it is used  for  approximating  the
salinity or total dissolved solids content of water.

Cpssette

Long, thin strips into which sugar beets are sliced before sugar-
containing  juices  are  extracted.  The strips somewhat resemble
shoestring potatoes.

Crop Year

In the sugar beet area  in  Southern  California  and  all  other
States  the  crop  year  corresponds  to  the  calendar  year  of
planting.  In Northern California, a crop of sugar beets  planted
in the interval beginning November 1 of one calendar year through
October  31  of the following calendar year is designated by crop
year to correspond with that following calendar year.

Depletion, or Logs

The volume of water which is evaporated, embodied in product,  or
otherwise  disposed  of  in  such  a  way  that  it  is no longer
available for reuse in  the  plant  or  available  for  reuse  by
another outside the plant.
An  apparatus  into  which water and cossettes are fed, the water
extracting sugar from the sugar beet cells.

Detention Period

The theoretical time required to displace the contents of a  tank
or  unit  at a given rate of discharge (volume divided by rate of
discharge) .
                                156

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DO,- Dissolved Oxygen

The oxygen dissolved in waste water or other liquid expressed  in
mg/1 or percent of saturation.

Dust Box

A  device  to remove sugar dust from air, usually employing water
sprays; a dust collector.

Effluent

Process waste water, treated or untreated,  resulting  from  beet
sugar processing operations.

Earthen Pond

A  pond  constructed  with or without filtration control measures
for the purpose of detention, long-term storage, or land disposal
of influent waste waters.

Electrostatic Precipitator

A  gas  cleaning  device  using  the  principle  of  placing   an
electrical  charge on a solid particle which is then attracted to
an oppositely-charged collector plate.  The  device  uses  a  d-c
potential  approaching  40,000  volts  to  ionize and collect the
particulate matter.   The  collector  plates  are  intermittently
rapped to discharge the collected dust into a hopper below.

Extraction Rate Efficiency

The  percentage  relationship between the sugar recovered and the
sugar content .in sugar beets.

Faculative Pond

An earthen detention facility  for  treatment  of  process  waste
water   incorporating   both  aerobic  and  anaerobic  biological
regimes.

Fecal.Coliform Bacteria

A group of bacteria of fecal origin  within  the  coliform  group
inhabiting  the intestines of man or animal.  The group comprises
all of the aerobic and facultative anaerobic, gram negative, non-
spore forming, rod-shaped bacteria which ferment lactose with gas
formation within 48 hours at 35°C.   In  addition,  the  bacteria
will  produce  gas  within 24 plus or minus 3 hours at 43 plus or
minus 0.2°c when inoculated into EC culture medium.

Filtrate

Liquid after passing through a filter.
                                157

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Filtration

Removal of solid particles from liquid or particles from  air  or
gas  stream  by passing the liquid or gas stream through a filter
medium,

Flume Waste Water

The normal term applied to the discharge of flume water which  is
employed to convey beets into the beet sugar processing plant.

gas Washer

Apparatus  used  to  remove entrained solids and other substances
from carbon dioxide gas from a lime kiln.

Glucose

(1)  An alternate chemical name for dextrose.  (2)   A name  given
to  corn  syrup  which  is obtained by the action of acids and/or
enzymes  on  cornstarch.   Commercial  corn  syrups  are   nearly
colorless and very viscous.  They consist principally of dextrose
and another sugar, maltose, combined with gummy organic materials
known as dextrins, in water solution.

Granulator

A  rotary  drier used to remove free moisture from sugar crystals
before packaging or storing.
                                                       sense  the
Ground Water

Water in the ground beneath the surface.  In a strict
term applies only to water below the water table.

Holding^Pond

An  earthen  facility,  with  or  without  lining to control soil
filtration,  constructed  for  the  primary  purpose   of   waste
detention  before  discharge, or containment or disposal of waste
water  without  direct  discharge  to  surface  waters   by   the
mechanisms  of  evaporation  and  ground  filtration.  Within the
context of the meaning  of  the  term  filtration  used  in  this
report,  filtration  shall  imply  controlled  ground  filtration
within specified limitations,  and  such  as  not  to  contribute
adversely to the quality of ground or surface waters.  Filtration
control measures may be required to limit filtration from holding
ponds within this context.

Lime Cake

The lime mud resulting upon clarification and purification of the
raw  sugar  juice by heating, lime addition, and precipitation in
an insoluble precipitate.
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Lime Mud slurry

The product resulting from the addition of water to lime cake  to
facilitate  pumping  of  the material for further handling and/or
disposal.
Lime Pond

An earthen diked area to which  the  lime
filter cake is transported and held.

Massecuite
                                           mud  slurry  or  waste
The  mixture  of mother liquor and sugar crystals produced in the
sugar boiling process  (literally, a "cooked mass").

Mechanical Clarifier

A man-made device designed  specifically  for  the  detention  of
waste  water  for the purpose of removal of the settleable solids
from the waste water under controlled operating conditions.

Molasses

A clark-colored syrup containing non-sugars produced in processing
both beet and cane sugar.  Beet molasses is  used  as  commercial
cattle feed or in the manufacture of monosodium glutamate, a food
flavoring agent, alcohol, yeast, citric acid, and other products.

Mother Liquor

The solution from which crystals are formed.

MEN - Most Probable Number

In  the  testing of bacterial density by the dilution method that
number of organisms per unit volume which,  in  acccordance  with
statistical  theory, would be more likely than any other possible
number to yield the observed test result or which would yield the
observed test result with the greatest frequency.   Expressed  as
density of organisms per 100 ml.
                       organic  nitrogen  into  nitrates  through
The   oxidation   of
biochemical action.
Nonsugar

Any material present, aside from water, which is not a sugar.

Pan

A single-effect evaporator used to crystallize sugar.
                                159

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Percentage Seduction

The ratio of material removed from water or sewage  by  treatment
to the material originally present  (expressed as a percentage).
A  measure  of  the relative acidity or alkalinity of water.  The
reciprocal of the logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.  A
pH value of 7.0 indicates a  neutral  condition,  less  than  7.0
indicates  a  predominance  of  acids,  and  greater  than  7,  a
predominance of alkalis.

Process Effluent or Discharge

The volume of water emerging from a particular use in the plant.

gond Lime

Lime cake after being run into waste ponds.

Population Equivalents  (P.E.)

Description of the pollutional effect of various waste discharges
in terms of a corresponding effect of discharging raw sewage from
an equivalent number of human population.  Each  P.E.  represents
the  waste  contributed  by one person in a single day, generally
equivalent to 0.17 Ibs BOD5.

Process flasfre Watey

All water used in or resulting from the processing of sugar beets
to refined sugar,  including  barometric  condenser  water,  beet
transport  (flume)  water,  and all other liquid wastes including
cooling waters,

gulp Press

A  mechanical  pressure  device  which  squeezes  the   exhausted
cossettes (pulp) to remove  a portion of the inherent water.

Pulp_Screen Water

Water  which  is  drained  from  the wet insoluble pulp after the
diffusion process but before the pulp is pressed to remove extra--
neous water and sugar.

          Drainage
Drainage water resulting from discharge of pulp from the diffuser
with screenings to a silo equipped  with  channels  for  drainage
water collection.
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Purity

A  measure  of  the actual  sugar content  in  relation  to  the  total
dry substance in sugar beets.   Specifically,  the   percentage  of
sucrose in total solids.

Raw Sugar

Raw  Sugar  is  an intermediate product consisting  of crystals of
high purity covered with a  film of low quality syrup.

Raw Value

Raw value is a computed weight of sugar used  in the Sugar Act for
a common expression of different types and  qualities of  sugar.
The major types of sugars are converted to raw value  as  follows:

    (1)  For hard refined crystalline sugar multiply  the
         number of Ib thereof by 1.07.
    (2)  For raw cane sugar, multiply the number of Ib
         by the figure obtained by adding to  0.93 the result
         of multiplying 0.175 by the number of degrees and
         fractions of a degree of polarization above  92  degrees.
    (3)  For sugar and liquid sugar, testing  less than 92 degrees
         by the polariscope, divide the number of Ib  of
         the "total sugar content" thereof by 0.972.

Raw Sugar Juice

The  liquid  product remaining after extraction of  sugar from the
sliced beets (cossettes)  during the diffusion process.

Riparian

An adjective describing anything connected with  or  adjacent  to
the banks of a stream or other body of water.

Refined Sugar

A high purity sugar normally used for human consumption.

Saccharate Milk

A slurry of calcium saccharate from the steffen process.

Screening

The removal of relatively coarse floating and suspended  solids by
straining through racks or screens.

Seal Tank

The tank on the bottom of a barometric leg pipe.
                                161

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Sedimentation

The  sedimentation  of  suspended  matter  in  a  liquid aided or
unaided by chemicals or other special means and without provision
for the decomposition of deposited solids  in  contact  with  the
sewage.

S^icer

Usually  a  drum on which V-shaped corrugated knives are mounted.
This machine produces the cossettes.

Slicing Capacity

Processing capacity.  The weight of sliced sugar  beets  a  plant
processes within a 24-hour period.
The settled mud from a thickener clarifier.  Also, in the Steffen
process,  the  vacuum filter tray bottoms returned to the process
as wet lime  for  preliming  the  diluted  molasses.   Generally,
almost any flocculated, settled mass.

Steffen Prpcess

A  process  employed  at  some  beet  sugar processing plants for
recovery of additional sucrose from  molasses-   The  process  is
generally   carried   on  in  conjunction  with  the  main  sugar
extraction process at  non-Steffen  or  "straight-house"  plants.
The  process  consists  of  the addition of finely ground calcium
oxide  to  dilute  molasses  under  low  temperature  conditions.
Sugar,  Steffen  filtrate,  and  insoluble calcium saccharate are
produced,  filtered  out,  and  generally  reused  at  the   main
purification   step  of  the  normal  "straighthouse"  extraction
process.

Steffen Filtrate

The waste which is separated from the calcium saccharate.

Sucrose

A disaccharide having the formula C^gHg^p^I.  The  terms  sucrose
and  sugar are generally interchangeable, and the common sugar of
ccmmerce is sucrose in varying degrees of purity.   Refined  cane
and beet sugars are essentially 100 percent sucrose.

Sugar

A  sweet, crystallizable substance, colorless or white when pure,
occurring in many plant juices and forming an  important  article
of human food.  The chief sources of sugar are the sugar cane and
the  sugar  beet,  the  completely  refined products of which are
                                 162

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 identical and  form  the granulated  sugar  of commerce.  Chemically,
 sugar  is a disaccharide with  the   formula  CT2#22O±1   formed   by
 union  of one molecule of  dextrose  with one molecule of  levulose.

 Supernatant

 The layer floating  above  the  surface of  a layer of solids,

 Spray  Irrigation

 Irrigation by  means of nozzles along a pipe on the ground or from
 perforated overhead pipes.

 Surface Irrigation

 The  process   of  waste   water irrigation in which waste water  is
 applied to and distributed over the surface of the ground.

 Suspended Solids

 (1) The quantity of material  deposited when a quantity  of  waste
water,  sewage^  or  other liquid  is filtered through an asbestos
mat in a Gooch crucible.  (2)  solids that  either  float  on  the
 surface  of  or  are  in  suspension  in  water, sewage, or other
 liquids and which are largely removable by laboratory filtering.

Sweetwater

Dilute sugar   solution,   formed  from  washing  filter  cakes   or
granular  carbon  beds,   too dilute to continue with the filtrate
into the main  process stream.   Normally used in  making  milk   of
lime and saccharate milk.

Tare

waste  material which must be discharged.  Also, the empty weight
of a container used for weighing or transporting material.

Total Coliform Bacteria

Represents a diverse group of microorganisms whose  presence  has
been  classically used as indication of sewage pollution in water
supplies.   They are always present in the intestinal tract of man
and other warm-blooded animals and are excreted in  large  number
in  fecal  wastes.    Where  such  fecal pollution exists there is
always the possibility of  the  presence  of  enteric  pathogenic
bacteria  and  other  pathogenic entities.   Increasing density of
the coliform bacteria group is assumed to represent  an  increase
in  the  quantity  of pollution and therefore greater hazard.  It
must be noted under some  circumstances  total  coliform  may  be
present which are derived from sources other than fecal excreta.
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TDS r Total Dissolved Solids

The  solids in water, sewage, or other liquids, which include the
suspended solids  (largely removable  by  filter  paper)   and  the
filterable solids  (those which pass through filter paper).

Trickling Filter

A filter consisting of an artificial bed of coarse material, such
as  broken  slag,  clinkers,  slate,  slats, or brush, over which
sewage is distributed and applied in drops, films, or spray, from
troughs, drippers, moving distributors,  or  fixed  nozzles,  and
through  which it trickles to the underdrains, giving opportunity
for the formation of zoogleal slimes which  clarify  and  oxidize
the applied sewage.

Vacuum Filter

A filter consisting of a cylindrical drum mounted on a horizontal
axis,  covered with a filter cloth, revolving with a partial sub*
mergence in liquid.  A vacuum is maintained under the  cloth  for
the larger part of a revolution to extract moisture.  The cake is
scraped off continuously.
Derived   from  boiling  juices,  as  differentiated  from  steam
generated in  the  boiler  house  or  obtained  from  exhaust  of
turbines or engines.

wet scrubbing

A  gas  cleaning  system  using  water or some suitable liquid to
entrap particulate matter,  fumes,  and  absorbable  gases.   The
collected  substances are then withdrawn along with the scrubbing
liquid.

waste_Discharged

The  amount   (usually  expressed  by  weight)  of  some  residual
substance  which  is suspended or dissolved  in the plant effluent
after treatment, if any, and conveyed directly to surface waters.

Waste Generated

The  amount   (usually  expressed  as  weight)  of  some  residual
substance  generated  by  a plant process or the plant as a whole
and which is suspended or dissolved in water.  This  quantity  is
measured before treatment.
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Watercourse

A channel in which a flow of water occurs, either continuously or
intermittently and if the latter, with some degree of regularity.
The  flow  must g be in a definite direction.  Watercourses may be
either natural or artificial, and the former may occur either  on
the  surface or underground.  A different set of legal principles
may apply to rights  to  use  water  from  different  classes  of
watercourses.

Water_Riqhts

The  rights  acquired under the law to use the water occurring in
surface or ground waters for a specified  purpose  and  in  a  in
surface  or  ground waters for a specified purpose and in a given
manner and usually within the limits of a  given  period.   While
these  rights  may  include  the  use  of  a  body  of  water for
navigation, fishing, and hunting,  other  recreational  purposes,
etc., the term is usually applied to the right to divert or store
water  for  some  beneficial  purpose or use, such as irrigation,
generation of hydroelectric power, or domestic or municipal water
supply.  In some states, a water right by law becomes appurtenant
to the particular tract of land to which the water is applied.

Water Recirculation_or Recycling

The volume of water already used for some purpose  in  the  plant
which  is  returned with or without treatment to be used again in
the same or another process.

Watey Use or Gross Use

The total volume of water applied to various uses in  the  plant.
It is the sum of water recirculation and water withdrawal.

Water Withdrawal, or .Intake

The  volume  of fresh water removed from a surface or underground
water source (stream, lake, or aquifer)  by  plant  facilities  or
obtained from some source external to the plant.

Zooglea

A  jelly-like  matrix developed by bacteria.   The word is usually
associated with activated sludge growths in biological beds.
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                                      TABLE XVIII
                                   CONVERSION TABLE
  MULTIPLY (ENGLISH UNITS)

      ENGLISH UNIT      ABBREVIATION
  acre
  acre -  feet
  British Thermal
    Unit
  British Thermal
    Unit/pound
  cubic feet/minute
  cubic feet/second
  cubic feet
  cubic feet
  cubic inches
  degree  Fahrenheit
  feet
  gallon
  galIon/minute
  horsepower
  inches
  inches  of mercury
  pounds
  million gallons/day
  mile
  pound/square
    inch  (gauge)
  square  feet
  square  inches
  tons (short)
  yard
  1 Actual conversion, not a multiplier
     by                TO OBTAIN  (METRIC  UNITS)

CONVERSION   ABBREVIATION   METRIC UNIT
                            hectares
                            cubic meters

                            kilogram  -  calories

                            kilogram  calories/kilogram
                            cubic meters/minute
                            cubic meters/minute
                            cubic meters
                            liters
                            cubic centimeters
                            degree  Centigrade
                            meters
                            liters
                            liters/second
                            killowatts
                            centimeters
                            atmospheres
                            kilograms
                            cubic meters/day
                            kilometer

                            atmospheres (absolute)
                            square  meters
                            square  centimeters
                            metric  tons (1000 kilograms)
                            meters
ac
ac ft
BTU
BTU/lb
cfm
cfs
cu ft
cu ft
cu in
F°
ft
gal
gpm
hp
in
in Hg
Ib
mgd
mi
psig
sq ft
sq in
ton
yd
0.405
1233.5
0.252
0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555(°F-32)1
0.3048
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
3,785
1.609
(0.06805 peig +1)1
0.0929
6.452
0.907
0.9144
ha
cu m
kg cal
kg cal/kg
cu ra/mln
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kg
cu m/day
km
atm
sq m
sq cm
kkg
m

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