Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines
and Standards of Performance for New Sources
BEET SUGAR PROCESSING
Subcategory of the
Sugar Processing Point
Source Category
JANUARY 1974
\
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Washington, D.G. 20460
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DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT
for
EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
and
STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE FOR NEW SOURCES
BEET SUGAR PROCESSING SUBCATEGORY
QF THE SUGAR PROCESSING POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
Russell E. Train
Administrator
Robert L. Sansom
Assistant Administrator for Air and Water Programs
Allen Cywin
Director, Effluent Guidelines Division
Richard V. Watkins
Project Officer
January, 197U
Effluent Guidelines Division
Office of Air and Water Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.c. 20460
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 2M02 - Price $2
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ABSTRACT
This document presents the findings of an extensive study of the
beet sugar processing industry by the Environmental Protection
Agency for the purpose of developing effluent limitations
guidelines of performance and pretreatment standards for the
industry to implement Sections 304(b) and 306 of the "Act".
Effluent limitations guidelines contained herein set forth the
degree of effluent reduction attainable through the application
of the best practicable control technology currently available
and the degree of effluent reduction attainable through the
application of the best available technology economically
achievable which must be achieved by existing point sources by
July 1, 1977, and July 1, 1983, respectively. The standards of
performance for new sources contained herein set forth the degree
of effluent reduction which is achievable through the application
of the best available demonstrated control technology, processes,
operating methods, or other alternatives- The regulations set
forth the effluent limitations for discharge of process waste
water pollutants to be met by July 1, 1977, by controlled
discharge of barometric condenser water only or alternative
attainment through discharge of composite beet sugar processing
waste waters. The regulations for the remaining two levels of
technology establish the requirement of no discharge of process
waste water pollutants to navigable waters in all instances for
new sources and as the best available technology economically
achievable for existing sources except where plant size and soil
filtration rate present practical economic restraints. Where
plant size is less than 2090 kkg (2300 tons) per day of beets
sliced, or soil filtration rate at the plant site is less than
0.159 cm (1/16 in) per day, effluent limitations for discharge of
process waste water pollutants to be met by July 1, 1983, are
given to be attained by controlled discharge of barometric
condenser water only or alternative attainment through discharge
of composite beet sugar processing waste waters.
Supportive data and rationale for development of the effluent
limitations guidelines and standards of performance are contained
in this report.
11
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CONTENTS
.Section
I-1
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
Conclusions
Rec ommend at i on s
Introduction
Purpose and Authority
Summary of Methods Used for Development
of the Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
Standards of Performance
General Description of the Beet Sugar
Processing Subcategory
Processing and Refining Operations
Production Classification
Regulations and Future Growth
Industry Categorization
Profile of Production Processes
Categorization of the Beet Sugar
Processing Industry
Water Use and Waste characterization
Specific Water Uses
Factors Affecting the Quantity and
Quality of Waste Waters
Typical Process Waste characterization
Raw Waste Characteristics of specific
Operations
Process Flow Diagrams
Pollutant Parameters
Pollutant and Pollutant Parameters
Properties of the Pollutant
Parameters
Control and Treatment Technology
Introduction
In-Plant control Measures and Techniques
Water Use and Waste Water Management
Treatment and Control Technology
Mass Water Balance in a Beet Sugar Processing
Plant
Identification of Water Pollution Related
Operation and Maintenance Problems at Beet
Sugar Processing Plants
soil as a Waste Water Disposal Medium
14
16
16
19
19
21
27
27
31
32
33
41
49
49
51
61
61
62
67
68
91
101
103
VIII
Cost, Energy, and Non-Water Quality Aspects
Cost and Reduction Benefits of Alternative
107
107
iii
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IX
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
Treatment and Control Technologies
Basis of Assumptions Employed in Cost Estimation
Related Energy Requirements of Alternative
Treatment and Control Technologies
Non-Water Quality Aspects of Alternative
Treatment and Control Technologies
Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the
Application of the Best Practicable
Control Technology currently Available
Introduction
Effluent Reduction Attainable
Identification
Rationale for Selection
Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the
Application of the Best Available Technology
Economically Achievable
Introduction
Effluent Reduction Attainable
Identification
Rationale for Selection
New Source Performance Standards
Introduction
Effluent Reduction, Identification, and
Rationale
Acknowledgments - -
References
Glossary
Paige
116
118
123
123
124
125
126
133
133
133
1 35
135
139
139
1 41
H3
153
1v
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TABLES
Number Title
1 operating Beet Sugar Processing Plants in the
United states
II Consumption and Processing for the Beet Sugar
Processing Industry
III Present and Projected Processing Capacity of Beet
Sugar Processing Plants by States
IV Product Classification by SIC Code for the Beet
Sugar Processing Industry
V Size Distribution of Beet Sugar Processing Plants
in the United States, Daily Slicing Capacities
VI Representative Waste Characteristics and Total
Waste water Flow Data for a Typical Beet Sugar
Processing Plant
VII Characteristics of Beet Sugar Processing
Plant Wastes
VIII summary of selected Pollution control Practices
at Beet Sugar Processing Plants
Page
n
12
13
17
25
28
34
70
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FIGURES
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
XI
XII
Title
Location of Beet Sugar Processing Plants
Within the U.S., 197U
Materials Flow in a Beet sugar Processing
Plant With No Recirculation or Treatment
of Waste Waters — Steffen Process
Materials Flow in Beet Sugar Processing
Plant With Commonly-Used Water utilization and
Waste Disposal Pattern
Water Flow Diagram for a Beet Sugar
Processing Plant With Minimum Recycle or
Reuse
water Flow Diagram for a Beet Sugar
Processing Plant With Substantial In-Process
Recycle and Re-use
Water Flow Diagram for a Beet Sugar
Processing Plant With Maximum In-Process and
Discharge Controls
Water Balance Diagram for a Beet
Sugar Processing Plant, Net Gains and Losses
for Flume Water System
Water Balance Diagram for a Beet
Sugar Processing Plant, Net Gains and
Losses for condenser Water System
Water Balance Diagram for Beet Sugar
Processing Plant, Net Gains and Losses From
Total Processing Operation
Total Cost Effectiveness Relationship for Complete
Land Disposal With Suitable Land Located Adjacent
to Plant Site
Unit Cost Effectiveness Relationship with
Land for Waste Water Disposal Located
Adjacent to Plant Site and Presently
Under Plant Ownership
Unit Cost Effectiveness Relationship with
Land for Waste Water Disposal Located Adjacent
to Plant Site Not Presently Under Plant
42
44
45
46
47
92
93
94
109
110
111
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Ownership but Available for Purchase at a
Reasonable Cost
XIII Unit Cost Effectiveness Relationship with
Suitable Land Not Physically Available Adjacent
to the Plant Site; Suitable Land Located at a
Reasonable Distance under Plant Ownership
XIV Unit Cost Effectiveness Relationship with
Suitable Land for Waste water Disposal Not
Physically Available Adjacent to the Plant
Site; suitable Land Located at a Reasonable
Distance Not Under Plant Ownership but
Available for Purchase at a Reasonable Cost
112
113
XV
Minimum Total Land Area Requirements for Waste
Water Disposal by Capacity of Plant and Length of
Production Campaign
114
vii
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
In one sense, the beet sugar processing subcategory of the sugar
processing point source category is a logical coherent industrial
classification as evidenced by similarities in waste loads, waste
water characteristics, and available waste treatment and control
measures. Even though all plants, partially or fully, utilize
land for disposal and/or control of beet sugar processing waste
waters, individual conditions are acknowledged to affect
application of a complete land- based technology. Factors such
as climate, age, and size of plant may affect segmentation of the
subcategory for purposes of effluent limitations guidelines
development. The effluent limitation guidelines for July 1,
1983, reflect segmentation of the subcategory based on plant
size, and soil filtration characteristics which are judged the
most determinable, important, and influencing factors for
segmentation. The segmentation is justified principally upon
economic rather than technological considerations.
Presently, 11 of the 52 operating plants are achieving zero
discharge of waste waters to navigable waters. A total of five
beet sugar processing plants discharge flume and/or condenser
water to municipal sewage systems. It is concluded that the
remainder of the beet sugar processing subcategory of the sugar
processing point source category can achieve the requirements as
set forth herein by July 1, 1983. It is estimated that the
capital costs of achieving such limitations and standards by all
plants within the segment is less than $36 million. This figure
assumes that no pollution control measures presently exist within
the industry. In consideration of existing facilities estimates
of total capital cost for achieving zero discharge to navigable
waters range from $9 million to $16 million with availability of
suitable land. with consideration of these plants without
present availability of suitable land for controlled waste water
disposal, cost might be expected to approximate $16 to $20
million. This would represent an increase in total capital
invested in the industry under conditions of land availability of
1,0 to 1.7 percent. Overall cost increases for the production of
sugar would vary from 0.2 percent to 2.2 percent depending on
plant size, campaign length, soil conditions, and levels of
control currently in place. The average cost increase for the
industry would be approximately 0.3 percent.
A thorough analysis of the effects of pollution control
requirements on the industry in terms of capital investment,
marketing, employment, and plants likely to be adversely impacted
economically is contained within the document entitled "Economic
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Analysis of Proposed Effluent Guidelines, Beet Sugar Industry,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, office of Planning and
Evaluation, Washington, D.C., August, 1973." That document sets
forth the full economic impact of the established pollution
control requirements.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
Effluent limitation guidelines recommended to be met by July lr
1977, for the beet sugar processing subcategory provide for a
maximum discharge of process waste water pollutants to navigable
waters as designated below. These effluent limitations are
permitted to be met either by controlled discharge of process
waste water derived from barometric condensing operations only or
through discharge of composite process waste waters. This
represents the degree of effluent reduction attainable by
existing point sources through the application of the best
practicable control technology currently available. No discharge
of process waste water pollutants to navigable waters is
recommended as the best available technology economically
achievable, with exception for small plants or where unfavorable
soil filtration rates are experienced. Where exceptions apply,
effluent limitations are established for permitted controlled
discharge of process waste water derived from barometric
condensing operations only, or through discharge of composite
process waste waters. No discharge of process waste water
pollutants represents, for new sources, a standard of performance
providing for the control of the discharge of pollutants which
reflects the greatest degree of effluent reduction achievable
through application of the best available demonstrated control
technology, processes, operating methods, or other alternatives.
The technologies for achieving the limitations and standards as
set forth are based on maximum water reuse and recycling within
the process to minimize net waste water production and controlled
land disposal of excess waste water without discharge of such
waste waters to navigable waters. Allowances for reaching the
recommended effluent limitations through a controlled composite
process waste water discharge permit appropriate use of
demonstrated alternative pollutant reduction technologies.
Disposal of waste water by controlled filtration on land or use
for crop irrigation or other beneficial purposes is in confor-
mance with no discharge of waste waters to navigable waters.
The following limitations establish the degree of effluent
reduction attainable by the application of the best practicable
control technology currently available:
The following limitations establish the quantity or quality of
pollutants or pollutant properties, controlled by this
regulation, which may be discharged by a point source subject to
the provisions of this subpart after application of the best
practicable control technology currently available; provided
however, that a discharge by a point source may be made in
accordance with the limitations set forth in either subparagraph
(a) exclusively or subparagraph (b) exclusively below:
(a) The following limitations establish the maximum
permissible discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
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process waste water discharge results from barometric
operations only.
condensing
Effluent
Characteristic
Effluent
Limitations
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily
values for thirty
consecutive days
shall not exceed
(Metric units)
BOD 5
PH
Temperature
(English units)
kcr/kkg of product
'3.3 2.2
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
Temperature not to exceed the
temperature of cooled water
acceptable for return to the
heat producing process and in
no event greater than 32°C.
Ib/j. COQ T Ib of product
3.3 2.2
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
Temperature not to exceed the
temperature of cooled water
acceptable for return to the
heat producing process and in
no event greater than 90°F.
(b) The following limitations establish the maximum
permissible discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
process waste water discharge results, in whole or in part from
barometric condensing operations and any other beet sugar
processing operation.
BODS
pH
Temperature
Effluent
Effluent
Limitation
Maximum for
any one day
(Metric units)
Average of daily
values for thirty
consecutive days
shalj. not exceed
of product
BOD5
TSS~
pH
Fecal Coliform
Temperature
3.3 2,2
3.3 2.2
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
Not to exceed MPN of a00/100 ml
at any one time.
Not to exceed 32°C.
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(English units)
lb/lC_CO Ib of product
BODS
TSS~
pH
Fecal Coliform
Temperature
3.3 2.2
3.3 2.2
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
Not to exceed MPN of UOO/100 ml
at any one time.
Not to exceed 90°F.
The following limitations establish the quantity or quality of
pollutants or pollutant properties controlled by this regulation
which may be discharged by a point source subject to the
provisions of this subpart after application of the best
available technology economically achievable.
•' (a) The following limitations establish the quantity or
quality of pollutants or pollutant properties which may be
discharged by a point source where the sugar beet processing
capacity of the point source does not exceed 2090 kkg (2300 tons)
per day of beets sliced and/or the soil filtration rate in the
vicinity of the point source is less than or equal to 0.159 cm
-(1/16 in) per day; provided however, that a discharge by a point
source may be made in accordance with the limitations set forth
in either subparagraph (1) exclusively or subparagraph (2)
exclusively below:
(1) The following limitations establish the maximum
permissible discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
process waste water discharge results from barometric condensing
operations only.
Effluent
Characteristic
Effluent
Limitations
Maximum for
any one day
(Metric units)
Average of daily
values for thirty
consecutive days
shall not exceed
of product
BODS
pH "
Temperature
2,0 1,3
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0
Temperature not to exceed the
temperature of cooled water
acceptable for return to the
heat producing process and in
no event greater than 32°c.
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(English units)
j.b/1 C C C_ lb of product
BODJ5 2.0 1.3
pH ~" Within the range of 6.0 to 9,0.
Temperature Temperature not to exceed the
temperature of cooled water
acceptable for return to the
heat producing pocess and in
no event greater than 90°F.
(2) The following limitations establish the maximum
permissible discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
process waste water discharge results in whole or in part from
barometric condensing operations and any other beet sugar
processing operation.
Effluent
Characteristic
Effluent
Limitations
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily
values for thirty
consecutive days
shall not exceed
(Metric units)
BOD5
TSs"
pH
Fecal coliform
Temperature
(English units)
BOD5
TSS"
PH
Fecal Coliform
Temperature
&q/kkq of product
2.0 1.3
2.0 1.3
Within the range 6,0 to 9.0
Not to exceed MPN of 400/100 ml
at any time.
Not to exceed 32°C,
lb/1000lbof
2.0 1.3
2.0 1.3
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
Not to exceed MPN of 400/100 MPN
at any one time. (Not typically
expressed in English units.)
Not to exceed 90°F,
(b) The following limitations establish the quantity or
quality of pollutants or pollutant properties controlled by this
regulation which may be discharged by a point source in all
instances not specified under the provisions of a) above: There
shall be no discharge of process waste water pollutants to
navigable waters.
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
sources other
based on the
than publicly
application of
Purpose and Authority
Section 301 (b) of the Act requires the achievement by not later
than July 1, 1977, of effluent limitations for point sources,
other than publicly owned treatment works, which are based on the
application of the best practicable control technology currently
available as defined by the Administrator pursuant to Section
304 (b) of the Act. Section 301 (b) also requires the achievement
by not later than July 1, 1983, of effluent limitations for point
owned treatment works, which are
the best available technology
economically achievable which will result in reasonable further
progress toward the national goal of eliminating the discharge of
all pollutants, as determined in accordance with regulations
issued by the Administrator pursuant to Section 304(b) of the
Act. Section 306 of the Act requires the achievement by new
sources of a Federal standard of performance providing for the
control of the discharge of pollutants which reflects the
greatest degree of effluent reduction which the Administrator
determines to be achievable through the application of the best
available demonstrated control technology, processes, operating
methods, or other alternatives, including where practicable a
standard permitting no discharge of waste water process
pollutants to navigable waters.
Section 304 (b) of the Act requires the Administrator to publish
within one year of enactment of the Act, regulations providing
guidelines for effluent limitations setting forth the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the best
practicable control technology currently available and the degree
of effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best control measures and practices achievable including
treatment techniques, proces s and procedure innovations,
operation methods, and other alternatives. The regulations
proposed herein set forth effluent limitations guidelines
pursuant to Section 304(b) of the Act for the beet sugar
processing subcategory pf the sugar processing point source
category.
Section 306 of the Act requires the Administrator, within one
year after a category of sources is included in a list published
pursuant to Section 306(b) (1) (A) of the Act, to propose
regulations establishing Federal standards of performances for
new sources within such categories. The Administrator published
in the Federal Register of January 16, 1973 (38 F.R. 1624), a
list of 27 source categories. Publication of the list
constituted announcement of the Administrator's intention of
establishing under Section 306 standards of performance
applicable to new sources within the beet sugar processing
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subcategory of the sugar processing point source category,
was included in the list published January 16, 1973.
which
_ used for Development of the Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and standards of Performance
The effluent limitations guidelines and standards of performance
proposed herein were developed in the following manner. The beet
sugar processing subcategory was first studied for the purpose of
determining whether separate limitations and standards are
appropriate for different segments within the subcategory. This
analysis included a determination of whether differences in raw
material used, product produced, manufacturing process employed,
as well as other factors which may exist, require the development
of separate effluent limitations and standards for different
segments. Raw waste characteristics for each subcategory were
then identified and quantified. This included analyses of (1)
.the source and volume of water used in the process employed and
the sources of waste and waste waters in various plants; and (2)
the constituents (including possibly thermal) of all waste waters
including other constituents which result in taste, odor, and
color in water. The constituents of waste waters which should
be subject to effluent limitations guidelines and standards of
performance were identified.
The full range of control and treatment technologies existing
within the subcategory was identified. This included an
identification of each distinct control and treatment technology,
including both inplant and end-of-process technologies, which are
existent or capable of being designed for each subcategory. It
also included an identification in terms of the amount of
constituents (including thermal) and the chemical, physical, and
biological characteristics of pollutants associated with effluent
levels achievable by the application of each of the treatment and
control technologies. The problems, limitations, and reliability
of each treatment and control technology and the required
implementation time were also identified. In addition, the non-
water quality environmental impact, such as the effects of the
application of such technologies upon other pollution problems,
including airr solid waste, noise, and radiation were also
identified and evaluated. The energy requirements of each of the
control and treatment technologies were identified as well as the
cost of the application of these technologies.
The information, as outlined above, was then evaluated in order
to determine the levels of technology constituting the "best
practicable control technology currently available," "best
available technology economically achievable," and the "best
available demonstrated control technology, processes, operating
methods, or other alternatives." In identifying such
technologies, various factors were considered. They included the
total cost of application of technology in relation to the
effluent reduction benefits to be achieved from its application.
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the age of equipment and facilities involved, the process
employed, the engineering aspects of the application of various
types of control techniques, required process changes, non-water
quality environmental impact (including energy requirements), and
other factors.
The data for identification and analysis were derived from a
number of sources. These sources included EPA research
information, published literature, a voluntary questionnaire
survey of the industry conducted by the u. s. Beet sugar
Association, previous EPA technical guidance for beet sugar
processing, qualified technical consultation, and on-site visits
and interviews at better beet sugar processing plants throughout
the United states. Each of these general sources provided
information relating to the evaluation factors (cost, non-water
quality impact effluent reduction benefits, etc.). All
references used in developing the guidelines for effluent
limitations and standards of performance for new sources reported
herein are included in section XIII of this document.
General Description of the Beet Sugar Processing Subcatecrory
Although the culture of sugar beets is reported in early history,
extraction of sugar from the beet was first begun on a commercial
scale in Germany and France in the early nineteenth century. The
earliest beet sugar enterprises in the United States were
established in the 1830's in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and
Michigan, but these plants and many others that followed failed
in a few years because of low sugar yield from then known
processing methods. In 1879, the Alvarado, California, beet
sugar processing plant became the first successful operation in
the U.S. because of higher sugar yields and production
efficiency. The basic sugar extraction process for sugar beets
has not changed since 1880. However, improved production
equipment and increased processing rates, have progressively
increased production efficiency particularly over the last twenty
years.
There are a total of 52 beet sugar processing plants owned by 11
companies in the United States (see Figure I and Table I), with a
combined daily processing capacity of 164,000 kkgs (181,000t) of
beets. Capacity of these plants ranges from 1270 to 8200 kkgs
(1400 to 9000t) of sugar beets per day with annual production of
3 million kkgs (3.3 million tons) of refined sugar (Tables II and
III). A plant of average size handles approximately 3265 kkgs
(3600t) of sliced beets per day during "campaign."
For a plant of average size, the waste waters if discharged
without treatment would be equivalent in terms of organic
polluting effect to the sewage load to be expected from a
population of about 823,000 people, with consideration of in-
place pollution control measures which have been constructed or
installed by the beet sugar processing industry, the total
potential pollution load from the average sized plant has been
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Figure I
LOCATION OF BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANTS WITHIN THE U.S.,1974
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TABLE I
Operating Beet Sugar Processing Plants in the
United States (35)
Company
Plants
Amalgamated Sugar Company, ogden, Utah tt
American Crystal Sugar Company, Fargo, North Dakota 6
Buckeye Sugar, Inc., Ottawa, Ohio 1
Holly Sugar Corp., Colorado Springs, Colorado 9
Michigan Sugar Company, Saginaw, Michigan 4
Monitor Sugar Company, Bay City, Michigan 1
The Great Western Sugar company, Denver, Colorado 15
Northern Ohio Sugar Company, a wholly-owned
subsidiary of The Great Western Sugar company 2
Spreckels Sugar Division, Amstar corporation 5
San Francisco, California
Union sugar Division, consolidated Foods 1
Corporation, San Francisco, California
Utah-Idaho Sugar Company, Salt Lake City, Utah H
TOTAL
52
11
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TABLE II
Consumption and Processing for the Beet Sugar
Processing Industry
Production of Sugar Beets
Domestic production (1970)
25.9 million kkg (28.6 million tons)
12.59
Percent sucrose of beets (1969)
Sugar yield per harvested land area (1970) 5.21 kkg/ha (2.33 ton/ac)
Number of beet sugar farms (1969)
Domestic land area harvested (1969)
Planted land area harvested (1969)
Average land area harvested (1969)
Sugar beet yield per unit land area
18,424
624,100 ha (1,542,000 ac)
35.7 ha (88.2 ac)
33.9 ha (82.5 ac)
41.5 kkg/ha (18.5 ton/ac)
Raw Sugar Production (1969)
Total continental sugar production 4.17 million kkg (4.6 million tons)
Cane sugar production
Beet sugar production
1.17 million kkg (1.3 million tons)
3.00 million kkg (3.3 million tons)
Other U.S. cane sugar production (Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands)
1.45 million kkg (1.6 million tons)
Total U.S. sugar production 5.62 million kkg (6.2 million tons)
Total world sugar production 71.1 million kkg (78.4 million tons)
Sugar Beets Processed (1969)
Total sliced 24.6 million kkg (27.1 million tons)
Sucrose in cossettes, percent 14.36
Domestic (U.S.) Refined Beet Sugar Production (1969)
Refined sugar per unit weight of beets received 113 kg/kkg (226 Ib/ton)
Refined sugar per unit weight of beets sliced 116 kg/kkg (231 Ib/ton)
Extraction rate based on weight of beets sliced 80.43 percent
Sugar Consumption (1969) - Raw Value
Total U.S. sugar consumption 9.61 million kkg. (10.6 million tons)
Per capita U.S. consumption (refined value) 44.7 kg (98.6 Ib)
Miscellaneous Information (based on weight of beets sliced)
Typical sugar content of beets
Typical sugar recovery, non-Steffen plant
Typical sugar recovery, Steffen plant
Typical dried pulp production
Typical molasses production, non-steffen plant
15%
70 - 85%
80 - 95%
4.5%
4.5%
12
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TABLE III
Present and Projected Processing Capacity of Beet Sugar
Processing Plants by States
StAte
California
Colorado
Michigan
Idaho
Minnesota
Nebraska
Montana
Ohio
Utah
Wyoming
Washington
Arizona
Kansas
North Dakota
Oregon
Texas
Number of
Plants
10
10
5
4
3
4
2
3
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
52
Rated 1973 Capacity
Wt. of Bertts Sliced/Day,
kkg (tons)
28,400
24,500
10,200
22,600
10,400
9,000
7,000
6,000
2,200
6,500
11,200
3,800
2,900
4,700
6,000
6,000
( 1,300)
(27,000)
(11,250)
(24,920)
(11,500)
( 9,900)
( 7,700)
( 6,650)
( 2,430)
( 7,200)
(12,325)
( 4,200)
( 3,200)
( 5,200)
( 6,600)
( 6,600)
Projected Capacity 1980
Wt. of Beets Sliced/Day
Meg (ton)
36,300
26,600
10,700
22,600
13,500
9,100
10,400
5,000
5,800
6,800
12,500
3,800
3,300
4,500
6,500
5,900
(40,000)
(29,300)
(11,800)
(24,950)
(14,750)
(10,000)
(11,450)
( 5,130)
( 6,350)
« ( 7,500)
(13,800)
( 4,200)
( 3,600)
( 5,000)
( 7,200)
( 6,500)
161,400 (188,400)
183,300 (202,100)
13
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substantially reduced to approximate an equivalent pollution load
of a population of 15,000 to 110,000. Pollution load is
estimated in terms of present waste water discharged to surface
waters as BOD5_.
within the U.S., beet sugar processing plants are located from
the warmer areas of Southern California and Ari^pna to the cool
temperature regions of Montana, Minnesota, and North Dakota.
Sugar beets are also processed in modern plants in Canada, Great
Britain, Western Europe, Poland, the Soviet Union, and other
countries. There are some 800 beet sugar plants in Europe and in
North America and all use the same basic technology for pro-
cessing. About 15* of U.S. beet sugar processing is carried out
individually by each of the states of California, Idaho and
Colorado. Minnesota, Michigan and Washington each process about
six percent while the remaining 37 percent of the sugar beets are
about equally distributed among eleven other states.
Processing and Refining operations
General
The raw materials entering beet sugar processing operations are
sugar beets, limestone, small quantities of sulfur, fuel, and
water. The products are refined sugar, dried beet pulp, and
molasses. The average raw material requirements and end products
produced per unit weight of clean beets processed are given below
for non-Steffen and Steffen processes (30) .
NON-STEFFEN PLANTS
Raw Material or End-Product Per Unit Weight of Sliced Beets
Limestone
Fuel, gas or coal
Avg. water intake
Dry Beet pulp
Sugar product
Molasses produced
Avg. waste water flow
40.0 kg/kkg (80 Ib/ton)
6.9 x 10» kg cal/kkg
(2.5 x 106 BTU/ton)
9150 1/kkg (2200 gal/ton)
50.1 kg/kkg (100 ib/ton)
130 kg/kkg (260 Ib/ton)
50.0 kg/kkg (100 Ib/ton)
8780 1/kkg (2100 gal/ton)
STEFFEN PLANTS
Molasses worked
Additional limestone
Additional sugar produced
Steffen filtrate
50.1 kg/kkg (100 Ib/ton)
20.0 kg/kkg (UO Ib/ton)
15.0 kg/kkg (30 Ib/ton)
376 1/kkg (90 gal/ton)
The various unit operations required for converting sugar beets
into refined sugar are many and complex, but they are
essentially the same in all plants in this country. The basic
14
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processes consist of slicing, diffusion, juice purification,
evaporation, crystallization, and recovery of sugar.
The sugar beet harvesting, piling and processing periods vary in
different sections of the country. The processing season or
"campaign" extends from early September to late February or early
March in Ohio, Michigan, North Dakota, Minnesota, and the Rocky
Mountain Region. However, the length of the processing season is
variable and sometimes intermittent, being highly dependent upon
climatic conditions. In the warmer areas, the beet processing
season may extend from April to late December. The sugar beet
processing campaign is a seasonal activity operating on a 24-hour
a day basis, 7 days a week during the "campaign." From 40 to more
than 400 seasonal workers are employed at a single plant. The
smaller work force of 40 persons is representative of the inter-
campaign period.
Incoming sugar beets contain between 10 and 16 percent sugar,
about 5 percent non-soluble matter (called "marc") and water.
The initial process for the extraction of purified sugar and the
formation of byproduct molasses (the "straight house") is
identical throughout the industry. Some plants also have an
additional operation, the "Steffen process," for the extraction
of additional sugar from molasses. Whether a plant is a
11 straight house" or a "Steffen process" operation, the end
product of the beet sugar processing plant is refined sugar. In
the straight house or non-steffen process the byproduct molasses
containing approximately 85 percent solids and 15 percent water
results. The total molasses produced accounts for approximately
4,5 percent of the weight of beets sliced. Sugar extraction
efficiency in the straight house or non-Steffen process is
approximately 75 percent. The Steffens process operation enables
the plant to extract additional sugar from the molasses produced
in a straight house operation and, with this addition, the
production may be 85 percent efficient in total extraction of the
sugar from raw beets. Of the 52 beet sugar processing plants in
the U.S. at present, 20 utilize the Steffen process.
In recent years, there has been a trend toward a lower "purity"
beet, i.e. lower sugar content. The lower purity of beets is
attributed to their harvest prior to maturity in order to
maintain uniform processing rates and therefore a longer
processing season (e.g. California), nitrogen use during the
growing season, and pile storage deterioration during longer
campaigns (in northern climates), Higher nitrogen content of
soils through wide spread fertilizer use, and increased emphasis
on sugar beet breeding for disease resistence also may be factors
in reduced beet purity. With lower purity of beets, the sugar
extraction efficiency in a straight house operation decreases
substantially, approaching 70 percent, with the sugar which is
not extracted being retained in the byproduct molasses.
15
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WATER
STRAIGHT
HOUSE
SUGAR 4
BEETS WATER! T PULP
WATER
LIME
f PRODUCT
SUGAR
Preparation
Sugar
Extraction
Purification
STEFFEN
PROCESS
Calcium
Saccharate
STEFFEN „
FILTRATE
Crystallize
Evaporation
Lime
Molasses
Additional
Extraction
Production Classification
The U. s. Bureau of the census of Manufacturers classifies the
beet sugar processing subcategory of the sugar processing point
source category as standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Group
Code Number 2063 under the more general category of Sugar and
Confectionery Products, Food and Kindred Products (Major Group
10). The four-digit classification code (2063) comprises indus-
trial establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing sugar and
sugar products from sugar beets. A detailed list of product
codes within the broad beet sugar processing industry
classification code (2063) is included in Table IV.
Regulations and.Future.Grgwth
Federal Sugar Act
until the late 1940's the economic stability of both the beet
sugar and the cane sugar processing industry fluctuated widely*
Tariff reductions on imported sugar seriously depressed the
domestic sugar economy throughout its growth. The sugar industry
is now protected and operates on a quota system established by
the Federal Sugar Act of 1948 which was amended in July, 1962.
Quotas are established on both domestic and foreign sugar. Under
the Federal Sugar Actr the price of sugar is controlled by the
secretary of Agriculture. Annually the total national sugar
requirement is projected and sales quotas to domestic producers
are adjusted accordingly.
16
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TABLE IV
Product Classification by SIC Code.for the Beet Sugar
Dv*n/*aceInn TnHnctt*\/l -3
SIC Product Code
Product
20630
20630-21
20630-81
20630-83
20630-85
20630-87
20630-09
20630-11
20630-13
20630-15
20630-31
20630-35
20630-51
20630-55
20630-71
20630-79
Refined beet supar and byproducts
Granulated beet sugar:
Shipped 1n individual services (small packets)
Shinned in consumer units (cartons & sacks
of 25 Ibs, or less)
Shioped in commercial units (bags & other
containers more than 25 Ibs.)
Shipped in bulk (railcars, trucks, or bins)
Cube and tablet sugar:
Confectioners nowdered sugar:
Shlnped in consumer units (containers of
10 Ibs. or less)
Shipped in commercial units (containers of
more than 10 Ibs.)
Liauid sugar or sugar syrup:
Sucrose type
Inert and partially Inert type
Other beet sugar factory products and byproducts
Whole or straight house molasses:
Shipped for desugarlzatlon
Shipped for other uses
Discard molasses
Molasses beet pulp
Dried beet pulp, plain
Wet beet pulp (estimated dry weight basis)
17
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Anticipated Industry Growth
Under the present Federal Sugar Act, the beet sugar processing
industry is permitted to increase its production at a rate of 3
percent annually. The growth and development of beet production
areas and processing facilities may be in new areas as well as in
present beet-growing areas. Some companies anticipate very large
increases at certain plants and little or no growth at others.
Additional beet sugar processing plants are presently being
considered for construction in the United states. One such plant
is being considered at Renville, Minnesota, to replace a former
plant at Chaska, Minnesota, which was closed in 1970. This plant
reportedly may employ an ion exchange process for extracting
sugar from molasses rather than the conventional steffen process.
A plant is also proposed a1? Wahpeton, North Dakota. Another
plant at Hillsboro, North Dakota is under construction with
completion scheduled for 1974.
Large population growth, urban encroachment due to land
development, and increased land values are likely to result in
decreased growth of the beet sugar processing industry in
Colorado. Industry experts predict that the areas of future
growth of the beet sugar processing industry will be the Red
River of the North (Minnesota and North Dakota), and the Columbia
River Basin. Expansion of the industry may be expected in Kansas
and Nebraska because of proximity to sugar beet growing areas and
land availability for future beet sugar processing plant sites
with opportunity for land disposal of waste waters.
18
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SECTION IV
INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
Profile of Production Processes
Beginning with arrival of sugar beets at a given plant to the
production of refined sugar* the production processes, beet
handling methods, and associated plant management are all
considered part of the total plant system. Detailed narrative
descriptions of processes and methods associated with beet sugar
processing are given below. The description serves as an
introduction to the rationale for segmentation the beet sugar
processing subcategory of the sugar processing point source
category.
Delivery and Storage of Beets
Beets are delivered to the plant by trucks or railroad cars and
stored in large piles or dumped directly into flumes for
transport into the processing plant. Beets must generally be
stored for periods ranging from 20 to 100 days or more, since the
processing period takes considerably longer than the harvest. In
areas benefited by low ambient temperatures, beets can be stored
in large piles until processing begins. However, during the
storage period, considerable deterioration of beets may occur.
Loss of recoverable sugar from beets through inversion in storage
occurs even under the best of storage conditions. Therefore,
great effort is made to reduce the time in storage by maintaining
maximum slicing rates in the processing plants to the possible
detriment of sugar extraction efficiency. Storage of beets in
piles is not practiced in California and other areas where the
prevailing warmer winter temperatures would encourage rapid beet
deterioration. The harvest is carefully regulated in these
regions so that beets may be processed soon after removal from
the field. If harvesting is interrupted by winter rains, the
plants are closed until harvesting can resume.
Transporting, Washing, Slicing and Weighing
Sugar beets are transported from the delivery point or storage
piles to the process by water flumes. The beet transport flumes
are provided with rock catchers which trap and remove stones and
other heavy foreign material from flume flow. Trash catchers
remove light material including weeds and loose beet tops. The
sugar beets are lifted from the flume to a beet washer by a beet
wheel and are discharged from the washer to a roller conveyor
where they receive a final washing by high pressure sprays of
clean water. Water from the beet washer and sprays is discharged
into the flume system. The washed beets are sliced into thin
ribbon-like strips called "cossettes," and fed into a continuous
diffuser. A scale is usually installed in a section of the belt
19
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feeding the diffuser to weigh the sliced beets entering this
portion of the process.
Sugar Extraction by Diffusers
The diffuser extracts sugar and other soluble substances from the
cossettes under a counter-current flow of water. The liquor or
"raw juice" containing the sugar and other soluble substances is
pumped to purification stations. This raw juice contains between
10 and 15 percent sugar.
Disposal of Exhausted Cossettes
The exhausted beet pulp or cossettes are conveyed to pulp presses
where the water content is reduced from about 95 percent to
approximately 80 percent before the pulp is fed into a pulp drier
where the pressed pulp is further dried to a moisture content of
5 to 10 percent. The pulp press water is usually returned to the
diffuser as part of the diffuser supply. The dried pulp is
utilized as a base for livestock feed. Only one plant in the
industry now stores wet beet pulp in a silo. This silo is
scheduled for replacement with a pulp drier by October, 1973.
Carbonation of Raw Juice, Clarification, Concentration, and
Separation
The raw juice from the diffuser containing most of the sugar from
the beets as well as soluble and colloidal impurities is pumped
to the first carbonation station. Lime (calcium oxide), slaked
lime, or calcium saccharate (from the steffen process) is added
to the raw juice and the juice is then saturated with carbon
dioxide gas to precipitate calcium carbonate. The calcium
carbonate sludge thus formed carries with it suspended impurities
in the juice and is separated from the mixture by vacuum filters.
The "thin juice," after further treatment with carbon dioxide,
filtration, and sulfur dioxide to reduce the pH to about 8, is
concentrated in multiple-effect evaporators to a "thick juice"
(65 percent solids) and then boiled in a vacuum pan crystallizer
to obtain the crystallized sugar. The sugar is separated by
centrifugation from the adhering syrup and dried. The remaining
syrup is further concentrated to yield additional crystalline
sugar and molasses. The molasses may be added to the exhausted
beet pulp and sold for animal feed or may be further desugarized
by the Steffen process.
The Steffen Process
In this process the molasses produced from the straight house
operation is diluted, cooled and treated with calcium oxide to
precipitate the sugar as a saccharate. The calcium saccharate,
after separation by filtration from the remaining solution of
impurities (Steffen filtrate), is returned to the first
carbonation station in the straight house process. The Steffen
20
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filtrate may be discharged as a waste, or after precipitation and
removal of calcium carbonate by addition of carbon dioxide
(carbonation), be evaporated to a thick liquor called
concentrated Steffen filtrate. This filtrate may be dried in
combination with beet pulp or used as a source for the production
of such byproducts as mbnosodium glutamate and potash fertilizer
salts.
Categorization,of_the Beet Sugar Processing Industry
The beet sugar processing subcategory of the sugar processing
point source category is defined as the production of refined
sugar utilizing sugar beets as a raw material.
Factors considered
With respect to identifying any relevant, discrete segments for
the beet sugar processing subcategory of the sugar processing
point source category the following factors or elements were
considered in determining whether the industry subcategory should
be subdivided into segments for the purpose of the application of
effluent limitations guidelines and standards of performance:
1. Waste water constituents
2. Treatability of wastes
3. Raw materials
U. Products produced
5. Production processes and methods
6. Size and age of production facilities
7. Land availability, climate, and soil conditions
After considering all these factors it is concluded that the beet
sugar processing subcategory of the sugar processing point source
category comprises a single and coherent industry subcategory.
Accordingly, categorization is based on the entire industry,
encompassing all plants, processes, wastes, and descriptive
elements in a single subcategory as defined above. Plant size
and soil factors are determined to be of significant economic
importance in achievement of pollution control levels, and have
been appropriately considered in segmentation of the subcategory
for purposes of the July 1, 1983, effluent limitation guidelines.
Raw Waste Water Constituents and Treatability
The nature and characteristics of raw waste components released
for treatment or control from any beet sugar processing plant are
similar. Moreover, all effluents respond to, and are treated by,
the same or similar waste treatment systems. As with other
factors considered, wastes and treatment systems show some
variations (e.g., increases in total waste loads as lime mud
slurry from Steffen plants). However, the variations are not
sufficient in magnitude to warrant segmenting the subcategory on
this basis. Typical waste water constituents, waste loads, and
-------
flow data for the beet sugar processing subcategory of the sugar
processing point source category are included in Table VI.
The difference in waste load by comparison of a Steffen to a non-
Steffen beet sugar processing plant of comparable capacity
results from additional lime use in clarification of sugar
solutions, the generation of Steffen filtrate, and the
possibility of additional organic entrainment of barometric
condenser water through the additional concentration in the
Steffen process. In practical terms, these additional waste
sources present little impact on the total plant pollutional
waste load volumes and effects under present waste disposal
practices.. A Steffen house operation may contribute a lime mud
slurry volume of 680 1 and BOD^ of 9.5 kg/kkg (180 gal and 19 lb/
ton) of beets sliced in comparison to 340 1 and 3.2 kg/kkg (90
gal and 6.5 Ib/ton) of beets sliced for a non-Steffen process.
Under present plant practices, the relatively small lime slurry
volume generated at beet sugar processing plants (Steffen or non-
Steffen) is disposed of on land without discharge to navigable
waters. Steffen filtrate, resulting from extraction of sugar
from molasses in the Steffen process, is universally concentrated
for byproduct recovery or disposed of on land without discharge
to navigable waters. The Steffen filtrate is a small waste
volume of 510 1/kkg (120 gal/ton) of beets sliced of high
pollutional load of 5.2 Kg BODjj/kkg (10.4 Ibs/ton) of beets
sliced. Additional sugar entrainment in the evaporation and
crystallization process can result in an increase of 0.05 kg
BOD5/kkg (0.1 Ib/ton) of beets sliced in a Steffen process as
compared to 0.25 kg BOD*>/kkg (0.5 Ibs/ton) of beets sliced
commonly expected for a non-Steffen process. The additional
waste load is not significant as compared to the total plant
waste load and may be reduced or eliminated by the identical
technology judged applicable to a non-Steffen process.
Raw Materials and Final Products
Raw materials (e.g., sugar beets, water, limestone, and fuel) and
final products do not provide a basis for segmenting the
industry, as the essential characteristics of these materials are
consistent throughout the industry. Unimportant variations in
the composition of these materials may exist as exemplified by
sugar beets themselves. The beets will vary slightly in quality
and characteristics primarily in terms of the sugar content and
amount of associated incoming "tare" and debris. These
variations are not unique, are experienced throughout the
industry, and are influenced by cultural practices, care in
harvesting of the beets, climatic conditions, handling
procedures, and beet storage practices.
Water use is determined by the needs of the individual plant, and
under existing practices is primarily influenced by the
temperature and quality of available water supply sources and the
degree of inplant water reuse. Water use by beet sugar
processing plants varies markedly due to these variables.
22
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The quality of product (refined sugar) is uniform throughout the
industry. Differences arise in the various uses for which the
final product is made or the method of packaging for the buyer.
The latter factors are not environmental quality related in their
relationship to beet sugar processing. Lime used in the process
for precipitation of impurities and pH control is disposed of
essentially by the same technique throughout the industry,
Energy requirements in a beet sugar processing plant are fairly
uniform at 1.2 kw of electrical energy per kkg (1.3 hp/t) of
beets sliced per day. Small variations can be attributed to
ancillary activities such as pollution abatement equipment.
Sugar, molasses, and beet pulp are the three major products
produced in all plants and industry-wide product quality control
effectively eliminates any significant differences in unit
quantity of production or product characteristics.
Production Processes and Methods
As discussed. in the previous section, there is little to
differentiate in the essential operations conducted for beet
sugar processing at all plants. Improved sugar recovery
processes ,(e.g«, Steffen Process) lead to enhanced inprocess
recycle efficiencies but show no material effect upon overall
production methods. Other unit processes such as slicing,
extraction, pulp pressing, and carbonation for juice
clarification are uniform in all plants. The quality of the
juice resulting from the diffusion process may vary with beet
storage and growing conditions.
Some plants within the beet sugar processing industry operate
what is referred to as an "extended use" campaign. In such
operations, the "thick juice" after purification and
concentration is stored in part for processing through the sugar
end of the plant during the intercampaign. The effect of such
operations on raw waste loads from the plant is to extend the
period of waste water generation over the thick juice processing
period. The total waste load remains the same. However, the
waste generated as a problem source in the processing of beets to
thick juice is of primary consideration (flume, condenser, and
lime mud wastes). The processing of thick juice in the
intercampaign in the sugar end of the process adds only a small
waste load attributed primarily to contaminants in barometric
condenser waters of the crystallization tank without adequate
entrainment control devices.
In consideration of the relatively small waste load attributed
only to barometric condenser water resulting from the extended
use campaign, such procedures are not justification for
segmentation of the beet sugar processing subcategory. Waste
disposal facilities designed and operated to adequately dispose
of waste waters resulting during the beet processing season serve
adequately during the "extended use" campaign operations, since
these two activities are not conducted concurrently.
23
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Land Availability, Climate and Soil Conditions
Land availability and climatic and soil conditions are principal
factors that must be considered in the handling and disposal of
beet sugar processing waste waters.
Climate, soil conditions, and land availability vary in various
regions of the country and at individual plant sites. Very tight
soil in terms of percolation characteristics exists in some
geographical regions (e.g,, glacial till soils of Michigan, Ohio,
and the Red River of the North in North Dakota and Minnesota)
which necessitates greater reliance upon evaporation and
increased land requirements as a mechanism for obtaining no
discharge of process waste water pollutants to navigable waters.
Land availability is particularly an important factor where
because of climate and soil conditions increased reliance on pond
surface evaporation is required. Based on mass water balance
relationships developed in this document, land for no discharge
of process waste, water pollutants to navigable waters with
extensive recycling and controlled land disposal of waste waters
(0.635 cm or 1/U in per day allowable filtration rate)
requirements are approximately 50.6 ha (100 ac) for the
average-sized plant. Greater land requirements may result under
adverse land disposal conditions. Present practice in much of
the industry is the construction and use of much larger land
disposal areas for waste disposal than actually required for this
purpose. Necessary land i s generally available under the
prevailing climate and soil conditions throughout the industry
for controlled land disposal of waste waters. Controlled land
disposal of waste water by reliance on maximum allowable soil
filtration rates alone effectively eliminates variable climatic
factors such as rainfall and evaporation as concerns in the
recommended land based waste water disposal and control
technology. With the exception of the Michigan-Ohio area (where
lake evaporation nearly compensates for annual rainfall)
additional waste water losses may be attributable to net
evaporation as well as filtration. Factors related to land
availability and soil characteristics need to be fully considered
in application of effluent guidelines and limitations for a land
based waste water control technology. Adverse soil filtration
rates such as experienced in the Michigan-Ohio area substantially
increase land area requirements for land disposal of waste
waters, thus affecting the technological and economic feasibility
of land disposal under these circumstances. Inadequate soil
filtration is judged to present an economic justification for
segmentation of the subcategory in development of effluent
limitations guidelines applicable to July 1, 1983.
Size and Age of Production Facilities
As can be determined from Table V, over seventy percent of both
the number of plants and production capacity are in the range of
1800-4700 kkgs (2000 - 5200 tons) a day; with the balance of the
plants characterized by the same order of magnitude. Age of
24
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TABLE V
SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANTS IN THE
UNITED STATES, DAILY SLICING CAPACITIES
Slicing Capacity in kkg/day (ton/dav^
1270 (1400) or less
1450 -
2200 -
2181 -
2631 -
3081 -
3451 -
3991 -
1810
2180
2630
3080
3450
3990
4710
(1600 -
(2001 -
(2401 -
(2901 -
(3401 -
(3801 -
(4401 -
2000)
2400)
2900)
3400)
3800)
4400)
5200)
5890 - 6350 (6500 - 7000)
6351 - 8610 (7000 - 9500)
More than 8610 (9500)
Number of Plants
1
7
11
4
7
6
6
3
5
1
TOTAL ~52
25
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equipment and facilities proves unimportant because the industry
has been continually modernizing operations to enhance production
efficiency. Size of plant bears a general relationship to land
available — the smaller plants being generally located in more
urbanized areas with climatic and soil conditions less favorable
than other areas for controlled land disposal. The relationship
is only general in context; there are notable exceptions to the
generalization. Of great importance is the increased economic
impact on the smaller plant as compared to larger plant
operations. This economic factor serves as the primary
justification of segmentation of the subcategory in development
of effluent limitations guidelines applicable to July 1, 1983.
Raw waste load characteristics and quantities for various waste
water components are reliably related to unit production rates,
thereby eliminating size as a possible factor in generation of
disproportionate waste loads by capacity of plant.
26
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SECTION V
WATER USE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
Specific Water Uses
Water is commonly used in a beet sugar processing plant for six
principal purposes: Transporting (fluming) of beets to the
processing operation, washing beets, processing (extraction of
sugar from the beets), transporting beet pulp and lime mud cake
waste, condensing vapors from evaporators and crystallization
pans, and cooling.
The quantity of fresh water intake to plants ranges between 1,250
and 25,000 1/kkg (200 and 6,000 gal/ton) of beets sliced. Fresh
water use is highly contingent upon in-plant water conservation
practices and reuse techniques. Average water use in the
industry approximates 9200 1/kkg (2200 gal/ton) of beets
processed. Total water used, including reused water, varies much
less and totals approximately 20,900 1/kkg (5000 gal/ton) of
beets sliced. Most of the water used in beet sugar processing
plants is employed for condensing vapors from evaporators, and
for the conveying and washing of beets (see Table VI)* Since
many process uses do not require water of high purity,
considerable recirculation is possible without extensive
treatment. The nature and amounts of these water reuses as
influenced by in-plant controls and operational practices have a
substantial effect on resulting waste water quantities and
characteristics. Reduction in water use with minimum waste water
volumes promises fewer difficulties in waste handling and
disposal, and greater economy of treatment. Water uses for
various operations in a beet sugar processing plant are further
described below.
Flume or Beet Transport Water
As previously mentioned, transport of beets from piles, trucks,
or railroad cars into the plant is invariably accomplished by
means of water flowing in a narrow channel (flume) which provides
for handling and conveyance of the beets and removal of much
adhered soil. Beets are lifted from the flume to a washer and
subjected to a final wash by sprays. The combined flume, wash,
and spray water constitutes the largest single use of water in a
beet sugar processing plant, and ranges between 5,000 and 17,000
1/kkg (1,200 and 4,000 gal/ton) of beets, averaging about 11,000
1/kkg (2,600 gal/ton.) In most plants, flume water is recycled
after separation of much of the suspended soil. Flume water
generally accounts for approximately 50 percent of the total
plant water use. Water used for fluming in many plants is drawn
in part from barometric condenser seal tanks. In some plants,
fresh water is used, either alone or as a supplement to condenser
water. The use of warm condenser seal tank water for fluming is
27
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TABLE VI
REPRESENTATIVE WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS AND TOTAL FLOW DATA
FOR A TYPICAL BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT (*)
Flow 1/kkg of
BOD, kg/kkg of
Suspended Solids
Waste Source
Flume Water
Process Water
Screen (Pulp Trans-
port) Water
Press Water
Silo Water
Lime Mud Slurry**
Condenser Water
Steffen Filtrate
beets sliced
(gal/ton)
10,842 (2600)
1668 (400)
751 (180)
876 (210)
375 (90)
8340 (2000)
500 (120)
BOD^(mg/l)
210
910
1,700
7,000
8,600
40
10,500
beets sliced
(Ib/ton)
2,25 (4.5)
1.50 (3.0)
1.30 (2.6)
6.15 (12.3)
3.25 (6.5)
0.35 (0.7)
5.20 (10.4)
Suspended
Solids (mg/1)
800-4,300
1,020-
420
270
120,000
-
100-700
kg/kkg of beets sliced
(Ib/ton)
8.5-41.5 (17-93)
1.7 (3.4)
0.3 (0.6)
0.25 (0.5)
45 (90)
0.05-0.35 (0.1-0.7)
Totals
23,352 (5600)
20.0 (40.0)
55.8-94.1 (111.6-188.2)
(*) All values are based upon no recirculation or treatment of waste waters (24,25,26,48).
(**) Relates to non-Steffen or straight house process.
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often found to be advantageous in cold climates to thaw/ frozen
incoming beets.
Process Water
Process water is associated with the operations of extraction of
sugar from the beet. About 920 liters/kkg (220 gal of makeup
water/ton) of beets are used for this purpose. Available data
indicate considerably more water use in some instances, but these
instances apparently include some pulp transport water. Nearly
all plants practice complete process reuse of pulp transport
water and return pulp press water to the diffuser. Dry pulp
handling with elimination of pulp transport water is a common
practice. The weight of raw juice drawn from the diffuser is
approximately 125 percent of the weight of sliced beets entering
the diffuser. This ratio, called "draft," varies between 100 and
150 percent. The discharged pulp contains about 95 percent
moisture when it leaves the diffuser and is reduced to about 80
percent moisture by pressing. Any necessary makeup water in the
diffuser may be obtained from fresh water supplies, condensate
water from the heaters, barometric condenser water, or a
combination of these sources. Barometric condenser water is not
the most desirable source of makeup water since it contains
undesirable dissolved solids after cooling and reuse. Heater
condensate is preferred and generally considered to be far more
suitable for use in the diffuser.
Lime Mud System
Raw juice impurities contained in the calcium carbonate sludge in
the clarification process are removed from clarification tanks
and conveyed to a rotary vacuum filter for dewatering. The
resultant lime mud cake contains approximately 50 percent solids
which are normally slurried with fresh water or condenser water
to about 40 percent solids and pumped to a lime mud pond. A high
quality water for slurrying is not required. Lime use within a
beet sugar processing plant generally amounts to approximately
2.4 to 4.0 percent by weight of the beets processed. Water for
slurrying and pumping lime mud to land disposal facilities is not
normally metered but may be estimated on the basis of the lime
dosage used. At one plant, water use for slurrying is estimated
at 170 1/min (45 gal/min) or 40 1/kkg (10 gal/ton) of beets
processed on the basis of 22,6 percent calcium content of the
lime mud cake and 12,0 percent in the lime mud slurry. The
quantities actually used vary from less than 41.7 1/kkg (10
gal/ton) of beets processed to more than 417 1/kkg (100 gal/ton).
Many plants use between 83.5 and 251 1/kkg (20 and 60 gal/ton) of
beets sliced averaging about 208 1/kkg (50 gal/ton). Recent
trends are toward reduced use of water in the lime mud slurry.
The lime mud slurry, though relatively small in volume, is very
high in BODS and suspended solids. With careful control, water
use for lime mud slurrying can be limited to less than 41.7 1/kkg
(10 gal/ton) of beets processed for a straight-house operation.
Semi-dry lime mud handling techniques as practiced at some plants
29
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are effective in limiting water use for lime mud slurrying
purposes. Because of additional sugar extraction from straight
house molasses in the Steffen operation through additional lime
precipitation, the Steffen process results in increased lime mud
volumes for disposal. Reduced water volume techniques for
handling lime mud from straight house operations are equally
applicable to lime mud produced from the Steffen process.
Barometric Condenser Water
Barometric condensers are commonly employed in the operation of
pan evaporators and crystallizers in the beet sugar processing
industry. Water in large quantities is required for this
purpose. The quality of the water is not of critical importance,
but since the most readily available source of cold water is
generally the fresh water from wells or streams it is usually
relatively pure. In 27 of the 52 plants in the United States
condenser water is cooled by some type of cooling device and
recycled in varying degrees for reuse in the plant. In 35 of the
beet sugar processing plants within the United States, spent
condenser water frequently is reused, principally for fluming
beets. The amount of barometric condenser water used varies
between 5400 and 18,800 1/kkg (1300 and 4500 gal/ton) of beets
processed. The average use is approximately 8250 1/kkg (2,000
gal/ton) of beets sliced.
Steffen Dilution Water (Steffen Process Only)
The Steffen process is employed by 20 beet sugar processing
plants. In this process, molasses containing about 50 percent
sucrose is diluted with cold fresh water to produce a "solution-
for-cooler" containing 5 to 6 percent sucrose.
In the south Platte River Basin Steffen house process plants
account for higher water use than non-steffen plants because of
lower temperature and greater cooling water requirements in the
processing of the molasses solution. The use of heat exchangers
in these plants such as presently employed in other regions
(e.g., California) for cooling the molasses solution could reduce
this high fresh water use for cooling and support the economic
use of cooling towers.
Miscellaneous Water Uses
condensate water from steam or vapors in heating and evaporation
of raw juice produces high-quality water ranging between 150 and
200 percent of the weight of beets sliced. The purest of these
condensates is collected and used as boiler feed. Normally, no
other water is used for this purpose. Condensate waters are used
for many other purposes: Diffuser supply (in part); press wash,
i.e., washing of lime mud cake precipitate; centrifugal wash; and
house hot water (cleaning evaporators, floors, etc.).
Miscellaneous water uses vary widely among plants with
housekeeping practices. Floor drainage water may vary between
30
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38,000 and 1,500,000 1 (10,000 and 400,000 gal) per day for
plants ranging from 1360 to 6000 kkgs (1500 to 6600t) of beets
sliced a day, respectively. The floor drainage waste may
typically contain approximately 2400 mg/1 BOD5 and 3000 mg/1
sugar as sucrose. Gas washer water also varies considerably from
30,300 to,1,326,000 1 (8,000 to 350,000 gal) a day at plants in
the industry.
Factors Affecting.the. Quantity and Quality_pf_Wa_ste Waters
Even though all beet sugar processing plants in this country and
abroad use essentially the same basic processes for production of
refined sugar, facilities for handling waste waters vary markedly
from plant to plant.
Two relatively recent and important equipment changes have been
made in United states beet sugar processing plants which have
affected water use and corresponding quantities of wastes. These
are the installation of continuous diffusers and widespread use
of pulp driers. Replacement of the Roberts (cell-type) diffuser
with the continuous diffuser was completed in 1967 for all
plants. The new diffuser showed important reductions in water
required in the process by permitting reuse of pulp press water.
With the cell-type diffuser, pulp screen water and pulp press
water were discharged as waste. The first pulp drier was
installed in an American plant over 50 years ago, and by October,
1973, it is anticipated that all plants will be equipped with
modern driers. One plant uses a silo for disposal of wet
exhausted beet pulp.
Concentration of the Steffen waste produced at §teffen process
plants by evaporation is also commonly practiced. Before
evaporation of Steffen waste was generally practiced, the BOD£
discharge was 5.0 kg/kkg (10 Ibs/ton) of beets from this source.
Concentration of Steffen wastes now permits substantial
reductions in waste volume which permits easier handling,
disposal and by-product use.
The amount of water reuse varies greatly among beet sugar
processing plants. At one plant in 1968 the total water use,
including reuse, exceeded the fresh water intake by only 24
percent; while at another plant the total use exceeded intake
water by 1,300 percent as water shortages engendered maximum
conservation. At most plants fresh water intake constitutes one-
third to one-half of the total use; although fresh water
constituted less than 20 percent of. the total water use ,in six
plants in 1968.
The greatest reduction in fresh water use within the past two
decades has been accomplished by the recirculation of flume water
and by the reuse, after cooling, of condenser water. In a number
of plants, considerable reliance has been placed upon the
mechanical settling unit as an integral part of flume water
recirculation systems. Use of mechanical clarifiers is
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widespread, as are earthen ponds to provide settling for flume
water recycle systems. The British Columbia Research council
although reporting favorable results with mechanical and pond
settling devices concluded that tare recovery and disposal are an
ever-continuing problem. The Council suggested that soil buildup
within the plant could be eliminated only by physical transport
of the soil in the opposite direction to the fields. In the
future it is possible that the sugar beet producing farmer may be
required to retrieve sludge solids from the processing plant
system equivalent to his incoming tare. Elimination or
minimization of soil loads on incoming beets is an integral part
of best technology for overall pollution control for the beet
sugar processing subcategory of the sugar processing point source
category.
Typical Process Waste characterization
The most widely recognized and representative data of waste
characterization for the beet sugar processing subcategory of the
sugar processing point source category is included in "An
Industrial Waste Guide to the Beet Sugar Industry" published by
the U.S, Public Health Service. These waste data are included in
Table VI. The waste loads are representative of once-through
water use without recycling or treatment. The data given in
Table VI serve as a reliable base for determining the total waste
load potential of a beet sugar processing plant. Because of the
wide diversity of in-plant control, recycling, and treatment
practices at present beet sugar processing plants the data in
Table VI do not reflect the combination of conditions existing at
any single plant within the industry today. The data do reflect
total waste load and waste water flow values associated with the
individual waste source components, which • may be predicably
amended by various methods of controlling and handling these
individual waste water sources within the industry. The total
potential waste load and water requirement attributed to each of
the waste producing production processes has particular
significance and constancy throughout the industry. In addition
to providing a baseline of total pollutional load attributed to
individual waste components the data also serve to provide a
basis for comparison between former and current waste handling
techniques.
The former practice of beet sugar processing plants of
discharging wastes containing between 15 and 20 kg BOD5/kkg (30
and 40 Ibs/ton) of beets sliced had been reduced to an average of
less than 2.5 kg (5 Ibs) by 1968. A further reduction in BO05
load has taken place in most recent years with all plants soon to
accomplish a discharge from zero to less than 1.0 kg BOD£/kkg
(2.0 Ibs/ton) of beets sliced to surface streams. The total
waste discharge to streams from the entire beet sugar processing
industry in the United States in 1968 was estimated at about 215
billion 1 (57 billion gal) which contained a total of about 37
million kg (82 million Ib) of BOD5. However, the 24 million kkg
(26 million ton) crop in 1968 was unusually large — a more
32
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normal crop would have been about 20 million kkgs (22 million
tons) of beets processed. A number of plants currently recycle
much of the flume and condenser waters and some plants do not
discharge any waste water to navigable waters at all.
The waste water flow data and waste load information in Table VI
(and supported by data from other sources) are adopted as base
total flow data and total waste load data associated with beet
sugar processing for purposes of this document. information
generally supporting these data and supplemental information
regarding characteristics of beet sugar processing plant wastes
are summarized in Table VII. The effects of current practices of
in-plant control, recycling, and reuse of waste waters within
beet sugar processing plants on waste water contribution and
characteristics are discussed in the following section. Values
for waste water constituents are given to illustrate the
variability of waste water qualities and quantities experienced
in practice as dependent upon in-process control practices *
Every beet sugar processing plant today employs some degree of
waste water recycling or reuse.
Under present practices, process waters (pulp screen water, pulp
press water, and pulp silo drainage), Steffen waste, and lime mud
slurry have essentially been eliminated as polluting waste
sources in terms of discharge to navigable waters. Process
waters are universally recycled within the plant, Steffen waste
is disposed of with byproduct use or land disposal, and lime mud
slurry receives land disposal. Flume water and barometric
condenser water are presently the two primary polluting waste
water sources.
Raw Waste Characteristics of Specific Operations
Flume water
Flume water consists of beet transport water as well as various
miscellaneous small waste streams generated within the plant.
These include excess cooling water, pump gland leakage,
accidental spills, beet washings and spray table overflows. This
mixture when discharged from the flume water system is called
spent flume water and is generally considered the main plant
waste stream.
The industrial Waste Guide (49) describes waste values for flume
water of 9,800 liters (2,600 gal) and 2.25 kg BOD5/kkg (U.5
Ib/ton) of beets processed in the United States. The British
Columbia Research Council investigated flume waters of many
plants both in the United States and Canada. Plants with a high
degree of recirculation as well as those with once-through
systems were included. The BOD5 levels of these waters ranged
between 115 and 1525 mg/1 and averaged 565 mg/1; the suspended
solids content ranged from a low of 127 mg/1 to a high of 4500
mg/1; the average was 210 mg/1. In Europe the value was 2.5 kg
BOD5/kkg (5.0 Ibs BOD^/ton) of beets sliced.
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TABLE VII
CHARACTERISIICS OF BEET_SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT WASTES
Characteristic
Flume
Water
Barometric Pulp Pulp
Condenser Screen, Press
Water Water" Water
Pulp local Lime-Cake
Silo Process Lime-Cake Lsgoort Steffen General Water
Drainage Waste Water Slurry Effluent Waste Analysis
Volume, gal/ton
Beet a
BOD, ug/1
Suspended solids
ng/1
2600(5
210(5
800(3
800-4300(5
Total solids, mg/1 15BO(3
Volatile solids, %
COD, ng/1
Protein-N, ng/1
NHj-N, mg/1
KJeldahl Nitrogen
mg/1
Nitrite Nitrogen
mg/1
Nitrate Nitrogen
mg/1
Total PhospnoruB
ng/1
770
6.8C
.2<7
325"
1600f2
2220<3
3800^2
65(2
15(2
120,000(5
3310(3
10,500(5
10,000(3
7 00 <3
100-700(S
,600<3
Turbidity
Sultate, mg/1
Chloride, rag/1
Sucrose, mg/1
Dissolved solids
pH
Alkalinity, mg/1
Temperature, "C
Total coliform
Fecal coliform
MPN/lOOol.
Fecel atrep,
MPN/lOOwl.
ioo(J
16"
33"
(1 Represents typical characteristic values of beet sugar wastes prior to treatment
(2 As reported by Pearson, E., and C. N. Sauyer
"Recent Developments in Chlorination in the Beet Sugar Industry," Proceedings of 5th Industrial
Waste Conference, Purdue University {November 1949', p. 110.
(3 As reported by Elridge, E.F., Indufltrial Waste Treatment Practice, New York - McGraw-Hill BooV Co., Inc., 19W, p. 8*..
[4 AH reported by Rodgers, H.G., and L. Smith, "Beet Sugar Waste Lagoonlng," Proceedings of 8th Industrial Wast* Conference, Puraue University
May 1953, p. 136.
(5 As reported by U.S. Public Health Service,
(6 Water - transported pulp in lieu of mechanical conveyor.
(7 As reported by Brenton, fi.W., Condenser Water Survey, 1971 - 1972 campaign for beet sugar processing plants of The Great Western Sugar Co
"An Industrial Waste Guide to the Beet:Sugar Industry," 1950 (48)
March 1972 (47)
Use of continuous - type dirrusers Is asaune
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Investigations have shown an increase in BODJ5 values of flume
waters during the campaign. These increases are mainly
attributed to the release of soluble organic matter from frozen
beets or those deteriorating as a result of poor storage
conditions in northern regions. The leaching losses of sugar
into the flume water are also associated to some degree with the
temperature of the flume water. To minimize this effect, cold
fresh water is used for makeup in some plants* In others,
barometric condenser water is first discharged through a cooling
tower before being used for makeup in the flume system. However,
when frozen beets are to be sliced they are usually thawed with
the hot barometric condenser water, studies in Minnesota showed
that the average BOD5/unit weight of beets processed varied from
1.0 to 2.2 kg/kkg" (2.0 to U.4 Ib/ton) at the beginning of the
campaign to 4.6 to 5.14 kg/kkg (9.2 - 10.3 Ib/ton) near its end.
The "leveling off" of the BOD5 in recycled flume water systems at
many plants within the 6,000 - 7,000 mg/1 range has been well
established through estensive studies. It has been shown that
for BOD5 concentrations greater than 25 mg/1 in flume water, the
COD may be predicted at 150 percent of the BOD5 concentration.
COD concentrations in recirculated flume water systems range
between 9,000 and 10,000 mg/1.
Flume waters vary considerably in their content of soil, stones,
beet leaves, roots, and dissolved solids between locations and
harvesting conditions and from season to season. During fluming
large quantities of detritus are removed from the beets. Under
certain conditions when incoming beets have great quantities of
adhering soil, the flume water consistency may approach that of a
slurry because of its solid content. In more favorable dry
harvesting seasons, particularly in areas of light sandy soil,
the adhering soil may only be 3 or 4 percent by weight when the
beets are received at the plant, but during wet harvesting
seasons, soil may range up to 20 percent by weight. The average
soil tare ranges from 5 to 6 percent. As a result, a typical
plant may receive about 19,900 kkg (22,000 tons) of incoming tare
over the average campaign.
The basic flume water recycling system was first in operation at
Brighton, Colorado, and was later firmly demonstrated at the
Longmont, Colorado, plant of the Great Western Sugar Company
under a project sponsored by the Beet Sugar Development
Foundation and the Federal Water Pollution Control Admin-
istration. After overcoming initial mechanical operational
problems in handling water surges, the system operated
successfully, Recirculation of flume water is now a common
practice within the beet sugar processing industry and involves
lime addition for pH control, screening, settling to remove
settleable solids, and discharge of solids to control buildup in
the recirculation system. Large organic particles removed by
screening are recovered for byproducts such as cattle feed.
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Dissolved solids content of the flume water generally increases
through the first 6 weeks of operation of the closed system,
reaching the observed maximum total dissolved solids
concentration of approximately 9,000 to 10,000 mg/1. As also
previously noted, the BOD5 level tends to reach an equilibrium
concentration in the range of 6,000 to 7,000 mg/1 during the
campaign.
A number of studies have related bacterial densities that have
been found on the outer surfaces of beets, and associated dirt,
trash, and fertilizers at beet sugar processing plants in the Red
River of the North. Total coliform bacteria determinations
indicate that the dirt from freshly unloaded beets contained
490,000 organisms per gram of solid material. Very high total
coliforms were found on the surfaces of the sliced beets and on
the beet trash removed from the flume water. These levels were
13,000,000 and 17,200,000 total coliforms per gram of material,
respectively.
The bacterial loads varied from 0 to 68 Bacterial Quantity Units
(BQU) of total coliform bacteria discharged per 110 kkg (100 ton)
of beets sliced, and fecal coliform bacteria from 0 to 8.4 BQU
discharged per 93 kkg (100 ton) of beets sliced. For comparative
purposes, the raw sewage discharged by a human population of
1,000 persons would be expected to contain around 15-30 BQU of
total coliform bacteria and 5-20 BQU of fecal coliforms .
Relatively low bacterial loads have been attributed to some
plants because of lime addition, contributing to very high pH
levels in the total plant wastes. The field surveys have shown
that pH levels exceeding 9.0 are particularly destructive to
organisms of the coliform group.
studies of fecal coliform to fecal streptococci ratios of sampled
final waste discharges indicate bacterial pollution to be
primarily and originally derived from the fecal excreta of
animals rather than humans. The source of such pollution would
be from livestock animals such as found on farm feedlots and
stockyards or from storm water runoff. Sugar beet wastes have
been found to contain Streptococci boyis, a species strongly
associated with the feces of cattle and other domestic animals.
Within the plant, river water used for fluming and washing
purposes may represent another source of fecal coliforms. These
bacteria were found to originate generally from up-stream
domestic wastewater discharges. The bacterial population found
in beet sugar processing plants and in associated waste streams
are introduced largely into the plant through the flume water
system. From the flume water they are transferred through the
beet washer, spray table, and beet slicer to the diffuser.
An extremely favorable environment is created in the fluming
system for sustaining and enhancing bacteria growth by an
abundance of nutrients, favorable temperatures, stagnant zones,
and the availability of fixed surfaces. Control is easily
achieved in the diffuser with formalin or other biocide
36
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treatment. Total bacterial destruction is accomplished by the
subsequent heat effects in the evaporation process.
In the continuously recycled flume water system, the underflow
volume (approximately 20%) has been demonstrated to compensate
for the buildup of dissolved and suspended solids and BOD5 in the
recycled flume water. As a result the buildup to equilibrium
concentrations presents no problem in the beet sugar processing
and sugar production operation. However, to avoid contamination,
the flume water must not enter the diffusion unit operation and
fresh water is used on a final spray wash of the beets before
processing to assure no contamination.
The practice of discharging approximately 20% blowdown for solids
control in recirculating flume water systems is widely supported
by experience in the beet sugar and cane sugar processing
industries as well as recirculating process water systems
employed by other similar industries. This figure serves as a
generally industry accepted value for needed blowdown to effect
satisfactory solids control with fresh water makeup in this type
of system,
Lime Mud Slurry
Hydrated lime is added to the raw juice as a purifying agent and
then precipitated by carbon dioxide in the carbonation process.
The resulting calcium carbonate sludge, with impurities removed
from the juice, is vacuum filtered and slurried with water. This
mixture is known as lime mud waste, lime-cake, or lime slurry
residue, steffen house plants use two to three times the
quantity of lime employed in straight-house operations, and the
lime-cake slurry is reported by studies of the Federal Water
Pollution control Administration to be about 50 percent higher in
BOD5 strength. Sludges from the concentrated Steffen filtrate
process and boilouts from the cleaning of evaporators and vacuum
pans may also be added to the lime mud for disposal.
Lime mud slurry or sludge is alkaline with extremely high organic
and suspended solids content. Besides calcium carbonate, the
sludge includes pectins, albuminoids, amino acids, other
nitrogenous and proteinaceous compounds, and a significant amount
of impure sugars. A study of 59 plants in the U.S. and Canada
showed lime mud slurries to have an average BOD5 of 6,370 mg/1
with a range of 1,060 to 27,800 mg/1. The suspended solids
content of these slurries averaged 229,000 mg/1 with a range from
143,000 to 357,000 mg/1. Amounts of water added to the filter
cake from the vacuum filter varied greatly and were mainly
responsible for the wide range demonstrated in BOD5 and total
suspended solids values,
Lime mud slurry may be expected to have unit waste values of 340
liter's (90 gal) and 3.3 kg BOD5/kkg (6.5 Ibs BOD5/ton) of beets
sliced (49). From experiences in Europe and Great Britain both
37
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lower and higher BOD5 values have been reported. A survey
conducted by The Federal water Pollution Control Administration
on beet sugar processing plants in the South Platte River Basin
in Colorado showed that lime mud wasting from a Steffen house
plant could add about 2.5 kg (5 Ibs) BOD5, 3.5 kg (7 Ibs) COD, 45
kg (90 Ibs) total suspended solids (TSS) , and 22.5 kg (45 Ibs) of
alkalinity per 1.1 kkg (ton) of beets processed to the basic
plant loads. A straight-house plant would result in one-half to
three-fourths of these respective levels.
Lime cake generated from juice purification operations amounts to
about 5.0 percent of the weight of beets processed in U.S. and
European practice. A plant handling 136,000 kkg (150,000 tons)
of beets over the season could produce 2000-4100 kkg (2200-4500
tons) of lime-cake. The weight of slurry would be considerably#
greater. The pollutional strength of lime mud slurries vary
widely among beet sugar processing plants, depending in large
part on the amount of water used in diluting the filter cake.
Steffen Filtrate
Steffen waste results from the extraction of sugar from the
straighthouse molasses by the Steffen process. Steffen filtrate
(the source of wastes) originates from the filtering of
saccharate cake in the precipitation of diluted molasses in the
Steffen house.
The Steffen filtrate through the 1940's represented the most
damaging waste product from the beet sugar processing plant. The
filtrates are highly alkaline with a pH level near 11, with 3 to
5 percent organic solids. The Industrial Waste Guide (49)
describes Steffen filtrate as containing around 10,500 mg/1 BOD5,
25,000 to 40,000 mg/1 total solids, and 100 to 700 mg/1 total
suspended solids.
The South Platte River Basin studies conducted by the Federal
water Pollution Control Administration showed that elimination of
Steffen waste from the effluent by concentration and disposal as
a cattle feed supplement reduced the pollution load of Steffen
operations by about 115 kg of BOD5/kkg (230 Ib of BOD_/ton) of
molasses worked.
Condenser water
Barometric condenser water is employed in multiple effect
evaporators and across the vacuum pans to create vacuum for low
temperature boiling of sugar solutions in the sugar production
process. Steam and vapors from the fifth-effect of the multiple
effect evaporator and from the vacuum pans are condensed by
direct contact with the water passing through the barometric
condenser. The condenser water remains relatively unchanged
except for an increase in temperature to 50-65°C (122-149°F)
(65). However, condenser waters generally accumulate some
entrained solids and absorb ammonia from the evaporating juices.
38
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They are always alkaline, with a pH
usually are less than 9.
range from 8 to 10, but
The principal waste constituents in barometric condenser water
include BOD5, ammonia nitrogen, and sometimes phosphates from
water treatment. Total solids are of importance in a "recycled"
condenser water system. Ammonia, organics, and phosphorus are
important in the eutrophication process and have a potential
degrading influence on streams and lakes.
Data regarding the BOD£ content of condenser water confirm
previous findings, namely, that sugar lost by entrainment amounts
to about 820 kg (1800 Ibs) per day in a plant of 2300-2700 kkg
(2500-3000 ton) capacity. Suspended solids in the condenser
water which leaves the seal tank are low. The British Columbia
Research Council study on various plants reported an average BOD5
for condenser waters of 43 mg/1 with a range of 25 to 130 mg/T
BOD5. Another study found an average BOD5 of 50 ppm or less
(65); a third reported 30 mg/1 (74). Ammonia nitrogen
concentration approached 3-15 mg/1 as nitrogen with good
operation. Suspended solids averaged 67 mg/1 with a range from 0
to 100 mg/1.
The concentration of organics in condenser water with complete
recirculation has reached an equilibrium concentration near 25
mg/1 BODji in present recirculation systems and has not been an
operational problem. Degradation of biodegradable organics will
occur in various cooling devices such as cooling towers, aeration
ponds, or open cooling ponds designed primarily for cooling.
Experience indicates that accidents, shock loads, etc., cause
heavy vapor entrainment into condenser waters, and these
conditions are reflected in the waste loads. when overloading
occurs, pan condensers receive intermittent quantities of liquor
that boil over during the various stages of the boiling cycle.
More carryover of organics into condenser water is generally
experienced in the fall in the North and North Central United
States as a result of beet deterioration. Based upon U.S. and
European practices, good control procedures will lower the
condenser BOD5 concentration to 15-30 mg/1 (13). Better
operation with entrainment control devices can limit the degree
of entrainment to 10-15 mg/1.
The source of fecal coliforms if present in condenser water would
originate from the water supply source and generally would be of
concern only where surface waters containing bacteriological
contamination are used as the source of condenser water. The
elevated temperatures with small entrainment of organics from the
barometric condensers present favorable conditions for the growth
of bacteria in the condenser water. However, because of its
relative purity in comparison with other waste waters, condenser
water is frequently used for both diffuser supply and flume water
makeup. The latter practice is especially necessary in cold
climates when processing frozen beets. The elevated temperatures
39
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resulting from use of water for barometric condensing eliminates
serious concern as to the presence of pathoganic organisms in the
waste water after use.
The practice of reuse of condenser water has increased in recent
years. In 1968, 38 of the 58 beet sugar processing plants used
condenser water for fluming and other in-plant uses; 20 cooled
and recycled this water to condensers. Many plants made some in-
plant use of condenser water and discharged the remainder to
surface waters. At present, 35 of 52 plants employ complete or
partial recycling or reuse of condenser water; 32 plants utilize
cooling devices of which 16 also employ maximum recycling for
condenser water for condensing purposes.
In most plants the condenser and cooling water systems are the
principal sources of makeup water supply for the beet flumes and
for beet washing, when not reused for fluming and beet washing,
condenser water becomes another waste source. Its volume is
substantially reduced by recycling.
Extensive recycling of condenser water requires some additive
control measures in areas where the water is of poor or marginal
quality. As recycling is increased, the scaling properties are
increased by the concentration of solids through evaporation and
by increased pH from the absorption of ammonia. Although most
plants use some type of polyphosphate threshold treatment to
prevent scaling, it may also be necessary to reduce the pH with
acid.
The problem of dissolved solids accumulation may be controlled
(and is generally accomplished in the industry) through periodic
bleed-off (approximately 10 percent) of water from the system in
order to maintain acceptable total dissolved solids levels
(approximately 10,000 mg/1 or less) for scaling control. Fresh
or clean water make up is necessary.
Various means of cooling are employed, such as spray ponds, open
ponds, and natural draft and induced draft cooling towers. The
latter are generally necessary in warmer and more humid climates.
In most cases, it is not possible to provide recycled water at as
low a temperature as the normal primary cold water source.
Because of this, the recycle system generally requires the
addition of low temperature make-up water.
The use of cooling towers for condenser water recycling usually
presents a potential problem in the growth of slime-producing
organisms in the tower packing. In the presence of small amounts
of sugar and other nutrients and with warm temperatures the
growths are difficult to control. Under the most adverse
conditions of processing extremely deteriorated beets the foaming
tendency of beet liquors may likely be increased substantially so
as to complicate the control and minimization of vapor
entrainment into barometric condenser waters. At such times
conventional entrainment separators may become less effective
40
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with increased carryover of organics in the barometric condenser
water system. The tendency of sugar liquors to foam requires
efficient vapor entrainment separators in order to preclude the
loss of significant quantities of sugar to the condenser water
(28) * The entrainment produced by boil-over and foamir.g can
produce substantial shock loading of BOD5 in the effluent
condenser water. These two hazards necessitate careful and
frequent analysis of condenser water for sugar in order to
obviate the problem. Superior entrainment separators and mist
eliminators will aid materially in the reduction of condenser
water contamination by sugar. The additional use of level
controllers on some equipment will assist materially in reducing
contamination that originates from human error.
Miscellaneous
Various sources of wastewater other than those previously
described are generated in a beet sugar processing plant. These
waste sources are of less importance in load and volume than
those previously described and result from gas scrubber washing,
miscellaneous cooling waters, flyash, juice water, waste water
from cleaning of boilers, and floor washing.
Potable quality water is not necessary for gas washing, but a
sizeable volume of water is used, crane of the British Sugar
Corporation reports the reuse of clarified flume water in the gas
washer, after which it is returned to the unclarified flume water
portion of the system.
crane also notes that selected cooling waters such as those used
for cooling turbine oil can be recirculated through a separate
cooling tower. Many of the other cooling water streams may be
recycled to the main cooling tower and reused. Where furnace ash
(flyash) is conveyed with water, a complete recirculatory system
is reported. A separate settling pond is provided where the
water is decanted and recycled.
Periodic (weekly or biweekly) cleaning of pan evaporators to
eliminate accumulated scale is accomplished by using caustic soda
followed by acid treatment in the cleaning process with the
discharge of "boil-outs" generally being sent to the flume system
or lime mud slurry pond.
The primary source of water for miscellaneous use is condensate
and excess condenser waters.
Process Flow Diagrams
A schematic diagram of the beet sugar processing operation is
given in Figure II. The flow diagram reflects a situation in
which no recirculation or treatment of individual waste water
streams is practiced and corresponds with the waste loads given
in Table VI, The hypothetical plant includes the Steffen
process. The three pulp waters (pulp screen water, pulp press
41
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Figure II
MATERIALS FLOW IN A BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT WITH NO REC1RCULATION
OR TREATMENT OF WASTE WATERS-- STEFFEN PROCESS A
I PRINCIPAL SUGAR BEARING STREAM
• •• MINOR SUGAR BEARING STREAM
=3HAWWATER FLOW
•j»u BY-PRODUCT STREAM
••WASTE WATER FLOW
o
RAW MATERIAL
INTERMEDIATE PRODUCT
FINAL PRODUCT
-UAs taken from Beet-Sugar Technology, Second Edition. Edited by R.A. McGinnis,
Beet-Sugar Development Foundation, Fort Collins, Colorado (1971) (65)
-------
water, and pulp silo drainage) are commonly referred to as
process water. since the stipulated conditions are without
recirculation, maximum conditions of water requirement and waste
water disposal are indicated.
A schematic of materials flow in a common recirculation system of
a beet sugar processing plant is indicated in Figure III.
Variations in this scheme of recycling waters as practiced within
present plants are indicated in Figures IV through VI. The
diagrams are presented with emphasis on direct process related
uses of water within the beet sugar processing plant. Other
water uses (e.g. boiler supply water, hot water for floor and
evaporator cleaning, gas washer water, etc.) are not indicated on
the diagrams for sake of simplicity. Boiler supply water,
diffuser make-up, and hot water for cleaning purposes are
supplied through in-plant water reuse or fresh water sources
(primarily the purer condensate waters from juice evaporation).
A more detailed description of other water uses is included in
Mass Water Balance in a Beet Sugar Processing Plant, Section VII
of this document.
Figure IV represents a water flow scheme in the industry. In
this type of flow scheme, all the fresh water is used in the
barometric condensers of evaporators and pans, for miscellaneous
cooling, and at steffen plants for dilution of molasses. Spent
condenser water is used for fluming and washing beets, for makeup
in the diffuser, and for other purposes. Plants employing this
sequence of water use are equipped with continuous diffusers,
pulp screens, pulp presses, and pulp driers. Pulp press water is
returned to the diffuser. Settling ponds for removing soil from
spent flume water and ponds for collecting lime mud are provided.
The overflow from ponds and any excess condenser water may be
discharged to streams.
Figure V represents a flow pattern involving more nearly complete
reuse of water. Fresh water is used only in evaporator and
crystallization pan condensing, for some miscellaneous cooling,
and at steffen plants for dilution of molasses. During the
campaign, flume water after screening is pumped to settling ponds
and after more or less complete removal of settleable solids is
returned to the flume. Water from the evaporator and pan
barometric condensers is used as makeup water in the diffuser, in
the beet washers, and in sprays. Pulp water and pulp press water
are returned to the diffuser. Lime mud is pumped to a separate
lime pond. Most of the condenser water is cooled by cooling
tower or spray pond and recycled to condensers. Steffen waste is
evaporated to concentrated steffen filtrate.
Figure VI represents an extensive recirculation pattern of flow,
except that at the end of the operating campaign ponds may be
drained to municipal sewage treatment plants or land disposal.
43
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Figure III
MATERIALS FLOW IN BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT WITH
TYPICAL WATER UTILIZATION AND WASTE DISPOSAL PATTERN
FLUME I^IUM»IJ[«"'"»»IIII •" IUMHI* «•
IIIMIMII$U :
£.».,
SHER ImmTiiiAiJ
WASHER ^
J I^^^^T PULP SCREEN^]
- .......... « A
tiniil pULp PRESS I
L^»—— ^i i n • I
FRIER 1 VAPOR
. • !
^=C>|EVA^RATORt M....| CQNOENSER WAT£R |
^t r ' =
FLUME
WATER SOLIDS
CEMTRIF
PRINCIPAL SUGAR BEARING STREAM 1
MINOR SUGAR BEARING STREAM I •
~ PRINCIPAL SUGAR BEARING STR
•• MINOR SUGAR BEARING STREAM
3 RAW WATER FLOW
TO
SURfACE
ft WATERS
OH
LAND-
DISPOSAL
TO SURFACE WATERS
LAND DISPOSAL
r^\ /^
I 1 HAW MATERIAL ( 1 INTERMEDIATE PRODUCT
As taken and modified from Beetsugar Technology, Second Edition,
Edited by R.A. McGinnis, Beetsugar Development Foundation, Fort Collins. Colorado (p 645), 1971, {65)
44
-------
Figure IV
WATER FLOW DIAGRAM FOR A BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT
WITH MINIMUM RECYCLE OR REUSE
TO SURFACE WATERS
45
-------
Figure V
WATER FLOW DIAGRAM FOR A BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT
WITH SUBSTANTIAL IN-PROCESS RECYLE AND REUSE
RAW WATER |
ft
|
I
1
| BEET STORAGE
r-=i
t
fc^WAS
L — t
CLARIFIER OR.I
SETTLING 1
-{SCREEN)- POND *1 ( , (
1 i , - ,. MUL)
JSLICERS j
-*4 DIFFUSER ]*J
LI
CARB
/
f
^^ i
^ ^T~
| PULP PRESSES |
• J 1
{DRIER!
[DRIED PULP)
MINU S"- • LIME KILN 1
HNATinw " CO - r*
(FILTERS! '
jEVAPORATORsUi
VACUUM PANSH*J
CRVSTALLI2ER
CENTRIFUGE |
r\
GRANl
^ L
'\ M. LIME '
~^^ PUN US I
1 1 |
/COOLINoV
/ DEVICE V /4s
*M OR J"
\HOLDING /
VPOND./
* 1 MOLASSES
1 -«
JLATION [EVAPORATOR
f SUGAR |
CONTINC
INTERMITTENT DISCHARGE
TO SURFACE WATERS
46
-------
Figure VI
WATER FLOW DIAGRAM FOR A BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT
WITH MAXIMUM IN-PROCESS AND DISCHARGE CONTROLS
|RAW WATER]
_ a
i^
BEET STORAGE
/
V_
IFLUMING!
fcJwAS
[SLICERSJ
LI
CARB
_/
FFUSER }»J
/
CLARIFIER OR •
_. _ . RFTTijNn I
-JSCREEN)- POND •*!
L . ,_ „ _ ,_ . Ml in
POND
— 1
| PULP PRESSES 1
^M 1 T
[DRIERl
^RIED PULPj
VIINU *• LIME KM N
3NATION _CO2 * '
V-n,,_._._ ,.. SArrwARATTP nnu K 1
(FILTERS) '
f
\.
EVAPORATORS!*,
' ^
VACUUM PANS|"*J
CRYSTALLIZER
CENTRIFUGE |
/•
»
r \ ^. LIME f
^^ PONDS I
k I
• _..—
-*^~^^ ' z
/COOLtNG\ O
._ f TOWER \ >
"^^ OR 1^ 6
V SPRAY / ^
HOLDING
POND
— ^H MOLASSES
| -^ CiO
•^^ J— •"— " — '"' " ) _ . 1
GRANULATION 1 EVAPORATOR 1
CSF
SUGAR
47
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-------
SECTION VI
POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
Pollutant and Pollutant Parameters
Upon review of available EPA and industry data and information
gathered during on-site plant surveys by EPA personnel the
following chemical, physical, and biological properties or
constituents have been found to exist in significant, quantity in
process waste water from the beet sugar processing subcategory:
BOD5 (5-day, 2C°C Biochemical Oxygen Demand)
COD~(Chemical Oxygen Demand)
Total Coliforms
Fecal Coliforms
PH
Temperature
Alkalinity
Ammonia Nitrogen and Other Nitrogen Forms
Total Phosphorus
Total Dissolved Solids
Total Suspended Solids
On the basis of all evidence reviewed, there do not exist any
other pollutants (e.g., heavy metals, pesticides) in wastes
discharged from beet sugar processing plants.
The equilibrium concentration of BODJ5 in a. completely recycled
flume water system is generally found to be quite high (6,000 to
7,000 mg/1). The BOD5 concentration does not build up materially
in the recirculating barometer condenser system, and evidence
indicates an equilibrum level near the organic entrainment level.
Associated biological activity in cooling devices is apparently
effective in BOD5 reduction in the recycled condenser system. It
has been shown that for BOD5 concentrations greater than 25mg/l
in flume water the COD may be predicted at 150 percent of the
BOD5 concentration. COD concentrations in recirculated flume
water systems range between 9,000 and 10,OCO mg/1.
The South Platte River Basin study confirmed that the source of
coliform organisms in flume waters is animal manures spread on
fields where sugar beets are grown.
Bacteriological characteristics of flume water present no
sanitary problems in the production process. In production, high
pH conditions maintained in the recycled flume water system,
final fresh water wash of incoming beets, use of biocides in the
diffuser for pH control, and subsequent destruction of all
bacteria in the evaporation process satisfactorily limit and
control bacterial growth for production purposes. . If fecal
coliform bacteria are present in surface waters which serve as
the water supply for condensers, prolific bacterial growth will
49
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occur in the heated condenser water with the normal concentration
of organics through vapor entrainment. Bacteriological qualities
of waste waters are not normally a pollution problem where
inplant recycling, waste retention and land disposal are
practices. More detailed discussion of bacteriological
characteristics of beet sugar process waste waters with
quantitative evaluation is included in' Section VII of this
document.
The parameter pH is a very important criterion for frequent
measurement in providing in-process quality control (pH between 8
and 11) for efficacious recycling of flume water. High pH
conditions help to control odors arid inhibit bacterial growth.
The temperature of condenser waters leaving the pan evaporation
and crystallization process may approach 65°C (149°F).
Alkalinity is a measure of the presence of bicarbonate, carbonate
and hydroxide ions in waste Water. Alkalinity of beet sugar
processing waste results from the addition of lime in flume water
systems and from ammonia entrainment in barometric condenser
waters.
Ammonia nitrogen is present in barometric condenser waters (3 to
15 mg/1) as nitrogen under best operation) due to vapor
entrainment. With progressive oxidation, ammonia is converted t,o
nitrate nitrogen.
Phosphorus is found in flume waters as associated with incoming
soil on beets, and in barometric condenser waters because of
addition of de-scaling chemicals and entrainment of vapors from
barometric condensers. Surveys by Brenton indicate a total
phosphorus concentration in condenser waters of 0.06 mg/1.
Total dissolved solids in recycled flume and condenser waters
reach a high equilibrium level of approximately 9,000-11,000
mg/1. Periodic withdrawal of recirculated waste water is
required to maintain the equilibrium concentration.
The total dissolved solids contained in the underflow "blowdown"
volume of an extensive recycle flume water system have a high
concentration of sodium and potassium salts.
Suspended solids as a parameter in completely recycled waste
water systems serve most importantly in measuring the efficiency
of solid separation devices such as mechanical clarifiers or
earthen holding ponds for flume water. The performance of these
settling measures is reasonably reliable and dependable. The
suspended solids criterion has less importance in determining
efficiency of settling, but more importance for use as a control
measure in determining the quantity of soil conveyed to the plant
on incoming beets and subsequently transferred to the flume (beet
transport) water.
50
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Properties of the Pollutants and Pollutant Parameters
The following paragraphs describe the chemical, physical and
biological properties of the pollutants and pollutant parameters
that exist for the beet sugar processing subcategory. The
undesirable characteristics that these parameters exhibit or
indicate are stated giving reason as to why they were selected.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (5-day, 20°C BOD) - This parameter is a
measure of the oxygen consuming capabilities of organic matter.
The BOD5. does not in itself cause direct harm to a water system,
but it" does exert an indirect effect by depressing the oxygen
content of the water, sewage and other organic effluents during
their processes of decomposition exert a BOD5, which can have a
catastrophic effect on the ecosystem by depleting the oxygen
supply. conditions are reached frequently where all of the
oxygen is used and the continuing decay process causes the
production of noxious gases such as hydrogen sulfide and methane.
Water with a high BOD5 indicates the presence of decomposing
organic matter and subsequent high bacterial counts that degrade
its quality and potential uses.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a water quality constituent that, in
appropriate concentrations is essential not only to keep
organisms living but also to sustain species reproduction and
vigor and the development of populations. Organisms undergo
stress at reduced DO concentrations that make them less
competitive and able to sustain their species within the aquatic
environment. For example, reduced DO concentrations have been
shown to interfere with fish population through delayed hatching
of eggs, reduced size and vigor of embryos, production of
deformities in young, interference with food digestion,
acceleration of blood clotting, decreased tolerance to certain
toxicants, reduced food efficiency and growth rate, and reduced
maximum sustained swimming speed. Fish food organisms are
likewise affected adversely in conditions with suppressed DO.
Since all aerobic aquatic organisms need a certain amount of
oxygen, the consequences of total lack of dissolved oxygen due to
a high BOD5 can kill all inhabitants of the affected area.
If a high BODji is present the quality of the water is usually
visually degraded by the presence of decomposing materials and
algae blooms because of the uptake of degraded materials that
form the foodstuffs of the algal populations.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) - This parameter is a measure of the
quantity of chemically oxidizable materials present in water, in
some instances, a rough correlation between COD and BQD5 can be
established. Since an oxygen demand is indicated to exists this
parameter exhibits the same adverse conditions that may result by
BOD5.
Bacteriological characteristics (Total and Fecal Coliforms) -
Fecal coliforms are used as an indicator since they originate
51
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from the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. Their
presence in water indicates the potential presence of pathogenic
bacteria and viruses.
The presence of coliforms, more specifically fecal coliforms, in
water is indicative of fecal pollution. In general, the presence
of fecal coliform organisms indicates recent and possibly
dangerous fecal contamination* When the fecal coliform count
exceeds 2,000 per 100 ml there is a high correlation with
increased numbers of both pathogenic viruses and bacteria.
Many microorganisms pathogenic to humans and animals may be
carried in surface water, particularly that derived from effluent
sources which find their way into surface water from municipal
and industrial wastes. The diseases associated with bacteria
include bacillary and amoebic dysentery. Salmonella
gastroenteritis, typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, leptospirosis,
chlorea, vibriosis and infectious hepatitis. Recent studies have
emphasized the value of fecal coliform density in assessing the
occurrence of salmonella, a common bacterial pathogen in surface
water. Field studies involving irrigation water, field crops and
soils indicate that when the fecal coliform density in stream
waters exceeded 1,000 per 100 ml, the occurrence of Salmonella
was 53.5 percent. Salmonella organisms have been isolated in
flume (beet transport) wastes.
A problem of pollutional concern in ground waters could
conceivably arise in the absence of necessary controlled soil
filtration procedures with land disposal of process waste waters.
However, no ground water pollution problems are presently known
to exist as directly attributed to land disposal and/or
application of beet sugar processing wastes. At present a large
portion of the process waste waters of the subcategory are
disposed of on land in the absence of controlled filtration
procedures.
pH, Acidity, and Alkalinity - Acidity and alkalinity are
reciprocal terms. Acidity is produced by substances that yield
hydrogen ions upon hydrolysis and alkalinity is produced by
substances that yield hydroxyl ions. The terms "total acidity"
and "total alkalinity" are often used to express the buffering
capacity of a solution. Acidity in natural waters is caused by
carbon dioxide, mineral acids, weakly dissociated acids, and the
salts of strong acids and weak bases. Alkalinity is caused by
strong bases and the salts of strong alkalies and weak acids.
The term pH is a logarithmic expression of the concentration of
hydrogen ions. At a pH of 7, the hydrogen and hydroxyl ion
concentrations are essentially equal and the water is neutral.
Lower pH values indicate acidity while higher values indicate
alkalinity. The relationship between pH and acidity or
alkalinity is not necessarily linear or direct.
52
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Waters with a pH below 6.0 are corrosive to water works
structures, distribution lines, and household plumbing fixtures
and can thus add such constituents to drinking water as iron,
copper, zinc, cadmium and lead. The hydrogen ion concentration
can affect the "taste" of the water. At a low pH water tastes
"sour". The bactericidal effect of chlorine is weakened as the
pH increases, and it is advantageous to keep the pH close to 7.
This is very significant for providing safe drinking water.
Extremes of pH or rapid pH changes can exert stress conditions or
kill aquatic life outright. Dead fish, associated algal blooms,
and foul stenches are aesthetic liabilities of any waterway.
Even moderate changes from "acceptable" criteria limits of pH are
deleterious to some species. The relative toxicity to aquatic
life of many materials is increased by changes in the water pH.
Metalocyanide complexes can increase a thousand-fold in toxicity
with a drop of 1.5 pH units. The availability of many nutrient
substances varies with the alkalinity and acidity. Ammonia is
more lethal under a higher condition of pH.
The lacrimal fluid of the human eye has a pH of approximately 7.0
and a deviation of 0.1 pH unit from the norm may result in eye
irritation for the swimmer. Appreciable irritation will cause
severe pain,
Temperature - Temperature is one of the most important and
influential water quality characteristics. Temperature
determines those species that may be present; it activates the
hatching of young, regulates their activity, and stimulates or
suppresses their growth and development; it attracts, and may
kill when the water becomes too hot or becomes chilled too
suddenly. Colder water generally suppresses development; while
warmer water generally accelerates activity and may be a primary
cause of aquatic plant nuisances when other environmental factors
are suitable.
Temperature is a prime regulator of natural processes within the
water environment. It governs physiological functions in
organisms and, acting directly or indirectly in combination with
other water quality constituents, it affects aquatic life with
each change. These effects include chemical reaction rates,
enzymatic functions, molecular movements, and molecular exchanges
between membranes within and between the physiological systems
and the organs of an animal.
Chemical reaction rates vary with temperature and generally
increase as the temperature is increased. The solubility of
gases in water varies with temperature. Dissolved oxygen is
decreased by the decay or decomposition of dissolved organic
substances and the decay rate increases as the temperature of the
water increases reaching a maximum at about 30°c (86°F)„ The
temperature of stream water, even during summer, is below the
optimum for pollution-associated bacteria. Increasing the water
53
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temperature increases the bacterial multiplication rate when
environment is favorable and the food supply is abundant.
the
Reproduction cycles may be changed significantly by increased
temperature because this function takes place under restricted
temperature ranges. Spawning may not occur at all because
temperatures are too high. Thus, a fish population may exist in
a heated area only by continued immigration. Disregarding the
decreased reproductive potential, water temperatures need not
reach lethal levels to decimate a species. Temperatures that
favor competitors, predators, parasites, and disease can destroy
a species at levels far below those that are lethal.
Fish food organisms are altered severely when temperatures
approach or exceed 90°P. Predominant algal species change,
primary production is decreased, and bottom associated organisms
may be depleted or altered drastically in numbers and
distribution. Increased water temperatures may cause aquatic
plant nuisances when other environmental factors are favorable.
Synergistic actions of pollutants are more severe at higher water
temperatures. Given amounts of domestic sewage, refinery wastes,
oils, tars, insecticides, detergents, and fertilizers more
rapidly deplete oxygen in water at higher temperatures, and the
respective toxicities are likewise increased.
When water temperatures increase, the predominant algal species
may change from diatoms to green algae, and finally at high
temperatures to blue-green algae, because of species temperature
preferentials. Blue-green algae can cause serious odor problems.
The number and distribution of benthic organisms decreases as
water temperatures increase above 90°F, which is close to the
tolerance limit for the population. This could seriously affect
certain fish that depend on benthic organisms as a food source.
The cost attributable to fish being attracted to heated water in
winter months may be considerable, due to fish mortalities that
may result when the fish return to the cooler water.
Rising temperatures stimulate the decomposition of sludge,
formation of sludge gas, multiplication of saprophytic bacteria
and fungi (particularly in the presence of organic wastes), and
the consumption of oxygen by putrefactive processes, thus
affecting the esthetic value of a watercourse.
In general, marine water temperatures do not change as rapidly or
range as widely as those of freshwaters. Marine and estuarine
fishes, therefore, are less tolerant of temperature variation*
Although this limited tolerance is greater in estuarine than in
open water marine species, temperature changes are more important
to those fishes in estuaries and bays than to those in open
marine areas, because of the nursery and replenishment functions
of the estuary that can be adversely affected by extreme
temperature changes.
54
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In summary, heated waste discharges to surface waters create a
variety of thermal pollution effects including adverse
modification of the aquatic flora and fauna environment with the
accompanying increase in the rate of biological reactions, and
possible permanent temperature elevations over considerable
stream areas with continued added thermal loading. Thermal
conditions have considerable effects on the concentration of
dissolved oxygen, the biochemical reaction rate, pH, and the
physical activity of aquatic animals.
Cooling of barometric condenser waters is necessary before
discharge to navigable waters. Where adequate cooling devices
are provided for the heated condenser water (often with
additional cooling provided by fresh water addition through well
or surface water supplies) extensive recycling without surface or
ground water pollution can result. However, if greatly heated
waste water does reach surface or ground water formations,
potentially serious imbalances in micro-ecosystems can occur with
upsets of chemical equilibrium.
Ammonia Nitrogen and Other Nitrogen Forms - Ammonia is a common
product of the decomposition of organic matter. Dead and
decaying animals and plants along with human and animal body
wastes account for much of the ammonia entering the aquatic
ecosystem. Ammonia exists in its non-ionized form only at higher
pH levels and is most toxic in this state. The lower the pH, the
more ionized ammonia is formed, and its toxicity decreases.
Ammonia, in the presence of dissolved oxygen, is converted to
nitrate (N03) by nitrifying bacteria. Nitrite (N0_2) , which is an
intermediate product between ammonia and nitrate, sometimes
occurs in quantity when depressed oxygen conditions permit.
Ammonia can exist in several other chemical combinations
including ammonium chloride and other salts.
Nitrates are considered to be among the poisonous ingredients of
mineralized waters, with potassium nitrate being more poisonous
than sodium nitrate. Excess nitrates cause irritation of the
mucous linings of the gastrointestinal tract and the bladder; the
symptoms are diarrhea and diuresis, and drinking one liter of
water containing 500 mg/1 of nitrate can cause such symptoms.
Infant methemoglobinemia, a disease characterized by certain
specific blood changes and cyanosis, may be caused by high
nitrate concentrations in the water used for preparing feeding
formulae. While it is still impossible to state precise
concentration limits, it has been widely recommended that water
containing more than 10 mg/1 of nitrate nitrogen (N0.3-N) should
not be used for infants. Nitrates are also harmful in
fermentation processes and can cause disagreeable tastes in beer.
In most natural water the pH range is such that ammonium ions
(NH4+) predominate. In alkaline waters, however, high
concentrations of un-ionized ammonia in undissociated ammonium
hydroxide increase the toxicity of ammonia solutions. In streams
polluted with sewage, up to one half of the nitrogen in the
55
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sewage may be in the form of free ammonia, and sewage may carry
up to 35 mg/1 of total nitrogen. It has been shown that at a
level of 1.0 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia, the ability of hemoglobin
to combine with oxygen is impaired and fish may suffocate,
Evidence indicates that ammonia exerts a considerable toxic
effect on all aquatic life within a range of less than 1.0 mg/1
to 25 mg/1, depending on the pH and dissolved oxygen level
present.
Ammonia can add to the problem of eutrophication by supplying
nitrogen through its breakdown products. Some lakes in warmer
climates, and others that are aging quickly are sometimes limited
by the nitrogen available. Any increase will speed up the plant
growth and decay process.
Ammonia nitrogen in waste water effluent has several
features:
undesirable
(1)
water;
Ammonia consumes dissolved oxygen in the receiving
(2) Ammonia reacts with chlorine to form chloramines which
are less effective disinfectants than free chlorine;
(3) Ammonia has possible deleterious effects on fish life;
(4) Ammonia is corrosive to copper fittings;
(5) Ammonia increases the chlorine demand of waste waters
for subsequent treatment.
Ammonia may be reduced in waste waters by physical methods and
converted to nitrates by biological oxidation. A nitrified
effluent, free of substantial concentrations of ammonia, offers
several advantages:
(1) Nitrates will provide oxygen to sludge beds and prevent
the formation of septic odors;
(2) Nitrified effluents are more effectively and efficiently
disinfected by chlorine treatment;
(3) A nitrified effluent contains less soluble organic
matter than the same effluent before nitrification.
Ammonia and nitrate are interchangeable nitrogenous nutrients for
green plants and alage as well as bacteria. At the present time,
predictive generalizations cannot be made for the response of
algae to nutrients for all receiving waters. Different
geophysical systems appear to be responsive to different limiting
nutrients. The nitrogen content of natural unpolluted waters is
normally less than 1 mg/1, and during the growing season soluble
nitrogen compounds are virtually completely depleted by growing
plants and algae. Ammonia is rapidly adsorbed by soil minerals.
56
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and particulate matter containing nitrogen is also effectively
removed in the soil. However, if there is not sufficient plant
growth in the soil to use the bound ammonia, it will be converted
to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria.
Total Phosphorus - During the past 30 years, a formidable case
has developed for the belief that increasing standing crops of
aquatic plant growths, which often interfere with water uses and
are nuisances to man, frequently are caused by increasing
supplies of phosphorus. Such phenomena are associated with a
condition of accelerated eutrophication or aging of waters. It
is generally recognized that phosphorus is not the sole cause of
eutrophication, but there is evidence to substantiate that it is
frequently the key element of all of the elements required by
fresh water plants and is generally present in the least amount
relative to need. Therefore, an increase in phosphorus allows
use of other, already present, nutrients for plant growth.
Phosphorus is usually described, for these reasons, as a
"limiting factor."
When a plant population is stimulated in production and attains a
nuisance status, a large number of associated liabilities are
immediately apparent. Dense populations of pond weeds make
swimming dangerous. Boating and water skiing and sometimes
fishing may be eliminated because of the mass of vegetation that
serves as a physical impediment to such activities. Plant
populations have been associated with stunted fish populations
and with poor fishing. Plant nuisances emit vile stenches,
impart tastes and odors to water supplies, reduce the efficiency
of industrial and municipal water treatment, impair aesthetic
factors, reduce or restrict resort trade, lower waterfront
property values, cause skin rashes to man during water contact,
and serve as a desired substrate and breeding ground for flies.
Phosphorus in the elemental form is particularly toxic, and
subject to bio-accumulation in much the same way as mercury.
Colloidal elemental phosphorus will poison marine fish (causing
skin tissue breakdown and discoloration). Also, phosphorus is
capable of being concentrated and will accumulate in organs and
soft tissues. Experiments have shown that marine fish will
concentrate phosphorus from water containing as little as 1 ug/1
(one microgram per liter).
Even though phosphorus is readily adsorbed tenaciously on soil
particles, once in sediment or benthos the phosphorus may desorb
to become an available nutrient*
Total Dissolved Solids - In natural waters, the total dissolved
solids consist mainly of carbonates, chlorides, sulfates,
phosphates, and possibly nitrates of calcium, magnesium, sodium,
and potassium, with traces of iron, manganese and other
substances.
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Many communities in the United States and in other countries use
water supplies containing 2000 to 4000 mg/1 of dissolved salts,
when no more suitable water is available. Such waters, are not
palatable, may not quench thirst, and may have a laxative action
on new users. Waters containing more than 4000 mg/1 of total
salts are generally considered unfit for human use, although in
hot climates such higher salt concentrations can be tolerated
whereas they could not be in temperate climates. Waters
containing 5000 mg/1 or more are reported to be bitter and act as
bladder and intestinal irritants. It is generally agreed that
the salt concentration of good, palatable water should not exceed
500 mg/1.
Limiting concentrations of dissolved solids for fresh-water fish
may range from 5,000 to 10,000 mg/1, according to species and
prior acclimatization. Some fish are adapted to living in more
saline waters, and a few species of fresh-water forms have been
found in natural waters with a salt concentration of 15,000 to
20,000 mg/1. Fish can slowly become acclimatized to higher
salinities, but fish in waters of low salinity cannot survive
sudden exposure to high salinities, such as those resulting from
discharges of oil-well brines. Dissolved solids may influence
the toxicity of heavy metals and organic compounds to fish and
other aquatic life, primarily because of the antagonistic effect
of hardness on metals.
Waters with total dissolved solids over 500 mg/1 have decreasing
utility as irrigation water. At 5,000 mg/1 water has little or
no value for irrigation.
Dissolved solids in industrial waters can cause foaming in
boilers and cause interference with cleanness, color, or taste of
many finished products. High contents of dissolved solids also
tend to accelerate corrosion.
Specific conductance is a measure of the capacity of water to
convey an electric current. This property is related to the
total concentration of ionized substances in water and water
temperature. This property is frequently used as a substitute
method of quickly estimating the dissolved solids concentration.
Total Suspended Solids - Total suspended solids include both
organic and inorganic materials. The inorganic components
include sand, silt, and clay. The organic fraction includes such
materials as grease, oil, tar, animal and vegetable fats, various
fibers, sawdust, hair, and various materials from sewers. These
solids may settle out rapidly and bottom deposits are often a
mixture of both organic and inorganic solids. They adversely
affect fisheries by covering the bottom of the stream or lake
with a blanket of material that destroys the fish-food bottom
fauna or the spawning ground of fish. Deposits containing
organic materials may deplete bottom oxygen supplies and produce
hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane, and Other noxious
gases.
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In raw water sources for domestic use, state and regiona1
agencies generally specify that suspended solids in streams shall
not be present in sufficient concentration to be objectionable or
to interfere with normal treatment processes. Suspended solids
in water may interfere with many industrial processes, and cause
roaming in boilers, or encrustations on equipment exposed to
water, especially as the temperature rises. Suspended solids are
undesirable in water for textile industries; paper and pulp;
beverages; dairy products; laundries; dyeing; photography;
cooling systems, and power plants. Suspended particles also
serve as a transport mechanism for pesticides and other
substances which are readily sorbed into or onto clay particles.
Solids may be suspended in water for a time, and then settle to
the bed of the stream or lake. These settleable solids
discharged with man's wastes may be inert, slowly biodegradable,
or rapidly decomposable substances. While in suspension, they
increase the turbidity of the water, reduce light penetration and
impair the photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants.
Solids in suspension are aesthetically displeasing. When they
settle to form sludge deposits on the stream or lake bed, they
are often much more damaging to aquatic life, and they retain the
capacity to displease the senses. Solids, when transformed to
sludge deposits, may do a variety of damaging things, including
blanketing the stream or lake bed and thereby destroying the
living spaces for those benthic organisms that would otherwise
occupy the habitat. when of an organic and therefore
decomposable nature, solids use a portion or all of the dissolved
oxygen available in the area, organic materials also serve as a
seemingly inexhaustible food source for sludge worms and
associated organisms.
Turbidity is principally a measure of the light absorbing
properties of suspended solids. It is frequently used as a
substitute parameter of quickly estimating the total suspended
solids when the concentration is relatively low.
In establishing limits, only certain primary parameters have been
chosen which include:
BOD 5
pH "
Temperature
Fecal Coliforms
Total Suspended Solids
The last two parameters are applicable to limit the maximum
permissible discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
process waste water discharge results from total composite waste
waters including barometric condensing operations and any other
beet sugar processing operation. The parameters of fecal
coliforms and total suspended solids were not chosen to apply to
beet sugar processing operations discharging process waste water
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from barometric condensing operations only, as these parameters
are shown either to not be of known importance as attributed to
barometric condensing operations (e.g. fecal coliforms), or are
effectively controlled by use of other primary parameters (e.g.,
use of BOD5 for control of related TSS).
Other parameters (COD, Total coliforms, and Alkalinity) were not
chosen because they represent alternate methods of estimating
other general and more primary waste water parameters, as BOD5>
fecal coliforms and pH.
The parameter of ammonia and other nitrogen compounds is not
selected as this waste water component will receive substantial
and adequate reduction through barometric condenser water
entrainment control and biological activity.
Total phosphorus and total dissolved solids (TDS) are not judged
primary parameters for control at current concentration levels
normally experienced at beet sugar processing plants.
Furthermore, the cost factors and associated technical
difficulties of further reduction of these constituents in large
volumes of process waste water as experienced in the beet sugar
processing industry preclude feasible application of available
methods. The addition of lime within a recycling flume water
system may be expected to reliably result in attendant reduction
of phosphorus in the flume water through precipitation. Further
phosphorus reduction would be unwarranted.
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SECTION VII
CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
Introduction
Current technology for the treatment and control of beet sugar
processing wastes does not provide a single scheme that is
completely applicable under all circumstances. The major
treatment and disposal methods applicable to beet sugar
processing wastes include reuse of wastes, coagulation, waste
retention ponds or lagooning, and irrigation. The meaning of the
above statement i s that there is no known one treatment
(biological, chemical, or physical) process which is universally
applicable for complete pollution abatement for beet sugar
processing wastes. Individual factors must be taken into
consideration in adapting any one single plant to generally
established guidelines.
In arid climates (California and Arizona) climatic conditions are
favorable to permit no discharge of Waste waters to navigable
waters through land disposal. The waste waters are usually
treated in waste stabilization lagoons for subsequent irrigation
purposes or are contained in open earthen holding ponds where the
waste water is eliminated by evaporation and soil filtration.
Detailed studies and previous efforts at various plants in the
South Platte River Basin for treatment of beet sugar processing
wastes (primarily through land spreading, aeration fields, and
waste holding ponds) have generally proved to be ineffective in
obtaining waste water effluents of suitable quality for discharge
without detrimental effects on receiving streams. The problems
resulted from the unadaptability to the regional climatic
conditions, physical design limitations of installed units, and
poor operating and maintenance practices.
Pollution loads of wastes have been reduced by better control of
inplant practices; reuse of some wastes as process water;
recirculation of flume, condenser and other waste waters;
screening; settling; waste water retention; and waste treatment
in waste stabilization ponds.
The proper design, operation, and maintenance of all waste
treatment processes and pollution control facilities are
considered essential to an effective waste management program.
Awareness of the problem and priority recognition are necessary
ingredients in an effective pollution control program. The 1971
Federal Water Pollution control Administration's report of the
beet sugar processing industry in the South Platte River Basin
includes a discussion of recommended staffing patterns requisite
to adequate waste water control and process management.
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In-Plant Control Measures and Techniques
In-plant control measures are extremely important in the overall
scheme for pollution control of beet sugar processing wastes.
These measures include the proper handling of sugar beets before
reaching the plant, design of beet flume systems to facilitate
dry-handling techniques, process water reuse, dry methods for
handling lime mud cake, conversion of Steffen filtrate to usable
end-products, and the reuse and recovery of various flows in the
beet sugar processing plant.
Handling of Sugar Beets
Although handling of the beets in the field and en route to the
plant are not strictly part of in»plant operations, these
procedures are directly related to the waste disposal problems at
the plant and therefore warrant special attention. A major
concern in handling of beets at the plant is the large quantities
of soil brought into the plant with the incoming beets. The
sugar processors, however, generally consider production factors,
beet condition, and sugar content to be of greatest concern.
The soil and associated trash become part of the plant waste and
may without proper control eventually enter the receiving
watercourse. Increased mechanization on the farm, mechanical
harvesting of the beets, and harvesting during wet soil
conditions have led to increases in amounts of tare accumulated
at plants. Some solid waste or tare is removed by shaking and
screening before processing, and is returned to the beet delivery
source. However, the large majority of delivered soil enters
directly into the plant through the flume system.
To aid in waste abatement, a change in the method of harvesting
and delivery of sugar beets to the plant is suggested. The
removal of soil, leaves, and trash in the field would provide the
plant with the cleanest possible raw product and tend to solve
many present problems. Without adequate control measures, late
season irrigation, and wet-field harvesting contribute to
increased waste treatment needs and cost of settling devices in
complete recycle flume water systems. Many, if not all, beet
sugar processors possess sufficient influence to require that
proper measures be taken to reduce soil in the fields. Dry tare
removal techniques are highly desirable but may result in some
undetermined increase in harvesting costs. However, if extensive
plant waste treatment or retention facilities are to be relied
upon for removing these solid materials, the results will
undoubtedly be even more costly and less efficient,
Whereas storage of beets in northern climates is necessary
because of the short growing season, storage of beets before
processing is generally not practiced in California and southern
climates of the U. S. There the beets are processed directly
after shipment from the field. Storage of the beets in these
areas for any length of time (days) results in a loss of sugar
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content of about 1 kg of sugar/kkg of beets sliced (2 Ib/ton of
beets sliced) ,
Deterioration of the sugar beets within storage can be minimized
by maintaining proper conditions in the stockpiles and reducing
storage:time as much as possible. More care should be given to
preventing damage and breakage of the beets. In this -regard, the
mechanical equipment and handling procedures for loading and
unloading appear to suggest improvement needs. These measures
are highly important for reducing pollution loads in the beet
flume water.
A satisfactory method for storing beets for long periods has not
yet become available for general use. The operation of the
plants is therefore intermittent, and the sugar is extracted
during a seasonal "campaign" of about 100 days duration mainly in
the months of November through January in the greatest portion of
the United States.
The Beet Fluming System
In recent years many plants have reduced their available beet
storage facilities, shortened their fluming system, and
integrated a truck delivery and a truck hopper installation on
the processing line. Other plants have provided belt conveyors
for transporting beets at least part way into the plant. Either
minimum contact time between the sugar beets and the flume water
or dry handling procedures serve to reduce the waste loads
imposed upon the beet flume system. At least two plants have
significantly reduced waste loads by this process (1).
From the standpoint of production, hydraulic fluming is an
effective and expedient means of transporting and cleaning the
beets and of thawing frozen beets in the extreme northern
climates. One disadvantage of this technique is the loss of
sugar to the flume waters. An additional pollution control
measure is the complete dry handling of beets until they, reach
the washer. Beets may receive mechanical shaking or scrubbing
for removing most of the dirt and solids followed by high
pressure spray jets at the washing table. Dry handling, however,
can be a serious disadvantage in colder climates where flume
waters promote necessary warming and thawing of sugar beets. If
hot exhaust gases and steam are generally available at the plant,
they may possibly be adaptable for unthawing of beets before
processing.
The typical flume water recycling system as is commonly used
within the beet sugar processing industry, is judged a relatively
inexpensive means of providing treatment for reuse and retention
of flume water. Plants that recycle flume water have
demonstrated that the suspended solids concentration of the waste
is very amenable to gravity clarification, especially if lime is
added. Land is required for the settling device and for the
disposal of sludge removed from the clarification facilities.
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Mechanical clarifiers are preferred to earthen holding ponds for
the settling and clarification of flume water because of reduced
land area requirements, increased efficiency of solids removal,
and better control of the chemical and physical characteristics
of the recycled flume water. Odors can generally be controlled
to acceptable levels with the addition of lime to maintain
alkaline conditions (pH above 10).
Reuse of Process Water
The reuse of process waste waters (pulp press water, pulp
transport water, wet pulp screen waters) has been one of the
better areas of waste source elimination by the industry.
Process waters are reused for a variety of in-plant needs,
although the general practice is to return them to the diffuser.
The favorable economics in producing dry exhausted beet pulp for
an established animal feed market and additional sugar recovery
obtainable through reuse of process waters have contributed in
large part to this change.
The continuous diffuser has replaced multiple diffusion cells and
created flexibility in process water reuse by significantly
reducing the volume of waste waters generated as a result of the
diffuser system. A continuous diffuser consists of an inclined
cylinder in which hot water flows downwards by gravity while the
beet cossettes are moved in the opposite direction by means of
paddles. These spent cossettes are discharged continuously at
the upper end of the diffuser. Process water return to the
continuous diffuser requires careful control and in some cases
treatment. In addition to generally improving processing rate,
use of continuous diffusers is also accompanied by increased
sugar recovery gains.
Pulp transport water has been eliminated in many plants by a dry
conveyor system which moves exhausted pulp to the presses.
Return of pulp press water to the diffuser is a universally
accepted practice today. The quantity of press water obtained
varies with the efficiency of the pressing operation. The pulp
press is effective in reducing the water content of the exhausted
beet pulp from 95 percent as the pulp leaves the diffuser to 80
percent moisture from the presses.
Virtually the entire industry is now equippped with pulp drying
facilities. The one remaining plant employing wet pulp disposal
through use of a pulp silo {Torrington, Wyoming) is scheduled for
replacement of the silo with a pulp drier by October, 1973. With
installation of a pulp drier at this plant, pulp silo drainage
water as a polluting source will have been completely eliminated.
In addition to reducing a substantial waste disposal problem,
pulp drying equipment can usually be justified economically.
Dried pulp yields from a beet sugar plant average about 60 kg/kkg
(120 Ibs/ton) of beets processed. With molasses addition, the
yield is about 75 kg/kkg (150 Ib/ton). This pulp is generally
sold as a source of livestock feed. The price of pulp varies on
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the competitive market with grains but was selling for about
$66/kkg ($60/ton) for use as livestock feed in early 1973.
Handling of Lime Muds
Handling of lime mud wastes has been associated with problems of
fermentation and noxious odors at many plants. The calcium
carbonate sludges are generated from "juice" purification and
other operations within the beet sugar processing plant. Lime
mud cake is recovered from vacuum filters at approximately 50
percent moisture content. The usual practice consists of adding
water to the lime mud cake, thereby producing a slurry which is
easily transported by pumping to disposal locations.
Various techniques are presently in existence for the handling
and reuse of lime mud slurry wastes. The general procedure is to
dispose of the slurry through complete retention in an earthen
holding pond. At the Manteca, California, plant the deposited
lime mud cake is recovered from the pond and recalcinated for
reuse within the process, A similar procedure is employed at the
Mendota, California, plant, in which a portion of the lime mud
slurry is dewatered and recovered through a centrifuge operation
while the remaining lime mud slurry is contained in a holding
pond. At the Arizona plant, lime mud is handled by a low water
dilution/air pump conveyance for movement to holding facilities
rather than by the conventional method of slurrying. Other
plants project the use of similar conveyance facilities in the
near future. A number of plants in Europe and Canada also employ
dry means of conveyance and disposal.
All plants presently impound waste lime mud generally in separate
holding ponds. The lime mud pond must be sufficiently large and
the lime mud as concentrated as possible so that pond size, with
normal evaporation and seepage, will permit complete containment.
Lime mud pond discharge is an extremely strong waste, and
discharge to receiving water bodies can not be permitted. In
some plants excess lime mud pond water is recirculated to the
fluming system. The industry commonly uses a single storage pond
for lime mud, whereas European practice is to employ separate
ponding of the settled solids and the supernatant.
Problems of fermentation and noxious odors have been associated
with the long-term holding of lime mud wastes, but these can be
minimized through utilization of shallow pond depths and/or
aeration. Allowing accumulated lime mud to dry by containment in
holding ponds is commonplace. The industry is presently
experimenting with lime reclamation and reuse systems for
recovery of the solid lime product. The lime mud may be
recovered for use as a sweetener on acid soils. Studies have
also been directed to the reuse of burnt lime residue within the
plant and in the manufacture of cement and related products. The
cost of these methods must be balanced against those of waste
abatement and treatment costs that can be expected at the
individual plant.
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At one plant lime cake is dried in a kiln and pulverized, and
optimum moisture content for land spreading is maintained at
about 17 percent. A ton of lime mud filter cake may contain 3.2
kg (7 Ib) organic nitrogen, 5.9 kg (13 Ib) phosphoric acids, 0.91
kg (2 Ib) potassium, and 200 kg (440 Ib) organic matter (13).
steffen Filtrate Conversion
Steffen filtrate generated in the Steffen process is generally
converted to concentrated Steffen filtrate (CSF) and added to
dried pulp as a component in animal feeds. An exception in one
operation is that the steffen waste is spread under controlled
conditions within a 8.1 hectare (20 ac) holding pond for
disposal.
Beet pulp with the addition of concentrated steffen waste at most
plants is presently sold for livestock feed at approximately
$54/kkg ($60/ton) of pulp. However, the amount of concentrated
Steffen filtrate which can be added to beet pulp for livestock
feed is limited by the high ash content of the filtrate waste.
Barometric Condenser Waters
The beet sugar processing industry has demonstrated that waste
water associated with the barometric condensing operation can be
reused in the sugar manufacturing process. These waters may be
used for diffuser makeup water, raw water supply, beet flume
recirculation system makeup, lime mud slurrying, gas washing, and
miscellaneous uses. Many such uses for condenser water are found
at plants exhibiting extensive recycling and land disposal
technology.
Entrainment of organic matter in condenser water requires careful
control of the specific unit operation. However, entrainment
separators on evaporators and vacuum pans are effective in
greatly eliminating entrainment into condenser water. Most
plants within the industry presently employ some type of
entrainment control device. Condenser waters may be detrimental
to the receiving water because of temperature reaching as high
as 65°c (149°F) and the almost complete absence of dissolved
oxygen.
Where adequate water supply is available, the condenser waters
are seldom recycled. In some areas the waters are first passed
through cooling devices and the pH level is controlled before
subsequent disposition* Under normal operating conditions, the
BOD5 content of condenser waters may be as low as 15-30 mg/1.
Under best operation, BOD5 levels in barometric condenser waters
may be controlled within the range of 10-15 mg/1. However, BOD5
levels actually discharged to receiving waterbodies in excess of
100 mg/1 have been documented- This was generally a result of
careless operation and inadequate control procedures.
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Treatment of condenser waters on a one-time use basis (without
recycling) is not judged technically or economically feasible
because of the large volume and relatively low pollutant
concentrations. Cooling towers,-open earthern ponds, or spray
ponds may be used to permit recycling of condenser waters and
minimize total plant water use. The highest degree of control is
represented by recycling the condenser waters in a separate
system. A dual closed-loop condenser water system was recently
installed at one plant. One system is employed to supply heated
water for fluming purposes; the other system serves to cool the
condenser water for recycle for condensing purposes with makeup
from fresh water sources.
In open recirculating systems the evaporation of water in cooling
ponds or towers increases its dissolved solids concentration,
while windage loss removes dissolved solids from the system
(108), Evaporation loss generally accounts for about 1 percent
for each drop in temperature of 5.6°C (10°F) through the pond or
tower, windage losses are 1.0 to 5.0 percent for spray ponds, 0.3
to 1.0 percent for atmospheric towers, and 0.1 to 0.3 percent for
mechanical draft cooling towers. The mineral concentration can
be held within desired limits by bleeding recirculating water
from the system or by softening or demineralizing the make-up
water. Slime and algal growths in condensers and heat exchangers
may seriously impair their effective operation, control of such
growths is generally accomplished by the addition of cooling
water chemicals such as chlorine that will either prevent the
formation of growths or destroy existing growths. Chlorine may
be added intermittently to the system in an amount that will
produce an excess of several milligrams per liter of free
available chlorine for a short period to prevent slime growths.
The free chlorine is readily removed from the recirculated water
through the evaporative cooling process for temperature
reduction.
Water Use and.Waste Water Management
Experience within the industry has shown that proper management,
design, construction, operation, and maintenance of waste
treatment and disposal facilities all contribute to an overall
efficiency in plant operation.
A broad spectrum of water reuse and waste disposal practices
exists in the beet sugar industry throughout individual plants in
the U. S. and abroad, In-plant measures have proven more
effective than end-of-process waste treatment in contributing to
a successful waste management program.
In recent years the industry has recognized its responsibilities
for pollution control and has begun programs to substantially
reduce the pollution impact through improved waste management,
design of facilities, reuse of waste water, flow reduction
measures, and other pollution control devices.
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Proper planning and design of treatment and control measures are
a necessity. Structures which bypass treatment or disposal sites
should be eliminated. Similar structures for bypassing treatment
to land disposal or standby storage should be designed with
positive reliable controls to serve only in emergency. The
facilities must provide for intercepting various spills and
unintentional waste discharges and returning these to the waste
treatment or disposal system. Proper compaction and construction
of waste treatment lagoons and holding ponds are necessary to
afford satisfactory treatment and to properly control land
disposal of process waste waters.
Once the waste control and treatment facilities are established,
operation and maintenance of these facilities are most important.
All devices and procedures intended for waste abatement should be
considered as important as the process operations.
The importance of good administrative control and plant records
must also be emphasized in relation to the waste water control
program. Without proper administration, a program will suffer
serious shortcomings. A logical division of responsibility and
organized apprpach are necessary. A successful program requires
that lines of authority and responsibility be fully delineated
and that each person clearly understand his explicit
responsibilities. A prescribed format of data gathering and
recording is considered essential to a well-functioning pollution
control program,
Treatment and qontrol Technology
Current Treatment and control Practices Within the Industry
Classification of waste treatment and disposal techniques at the
various beet sugar processing plants is difficult, since such
practices range from little treatment to treatment, storage and
land disposal of all wastes. Procedures for reduction of BOD5
differ in principle. Some companies rely chiefly on anaerobic
fermentation in deep holding ponds others on aerobic bio*
degradation in shallow ponds with or without mechanical aeration.
Presently, a total of 11 beet sugar processing plants handle all
waste waters through extensive in-plant recycling and reuse and
complete land disposal of waste through holding ponds,
stabilization lagoons, or by irrigation. In California, use is
made of lagoon contents in many cases for irrigation of crops.
No adverse effects on water quality are identifiable or
attributable to this land application practice as the waste is
completely disposed of on the land without ill effect. Plants
presently accomplishing the level of technology resulting in zero
discharge of waste water pollutants to navigable waters are
located at Moses Lake, Washington; Hereford, Texas; spreckels
(Salinas), Betteravia, Manteca, Mendota, Tracy, Woodland and
Hamilton City, California; Chandler, Arizona; and Goodland,
Kansas.
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In general, plants in the North central portion of the United
States (Montana, Wyoming, Nebraska, and Colorado) and in Michigan
and Ohio have reported relatively higher amounts of BOD5 per unit
weight of beets sliced as discharged to streams. This generally
is attributable to less favorable soil and climatic conditions
for land disposal, location of plants near developed areas,
and/or smaller and older plants generally located in these
regions. Notable exceptions are the plants at Longmont, Eaton,
and Brighton, Colorado. Present treatment and control practices
characteristic of the industry are summarized in Table VIII
entitled "Summary of Selected Pollution Control Practices at Beet
Sugar Processing Plants." The practices summarized in Table VIII
are applicable to individual beet sugar processing plants for
handling and disposal of flume (beet transport) water and
condenser water. These two waste sources are presently those of
primary importance within the industry. Process waters (pulp
press, beet transport, and pulp silo drainage) have been
eliminated as a waste source by in-plant recycling or dry pulp
transport. One plant still employs a silo for drainage of wet
beet pulp. However, the silo is scheduled for replacement by
October, 1973. All other plants employ pulp dryers for handling
exhausted beet pulp. Lime mud is universally discharged to
holding ponds without discharge to surface waters, steffen waste
(Steffen process only) is concentrated for addition to dried beet
pulp or disposed of on land in isolated cases without discharge
to surface waters. Miscellaneous waste waters (floor drainage,
gas washer water, chemical wastes from cleaning of evaporators
and crystallizers, etc.) are discharged to flume (beet transport)
systems or disposed of by separate land disposal facilities
without discharge to surface waters.
Treatment and- control technologies applicable to various waste
water components of the beet sugar processing plant are discussed
below,
Flume Water - A preventive measure that can be developed at all
plants for the reduction of the flume water waste volume is dry
handling and transport of beets after they reach the plant. One
plant presently has dry beet handling facilities for conveyance
of beets into the plant. The water fluming system is
substantially reduced to approximately 15 meters (50 ft) in
length and the beets are washed under high-pressure sprays,
If dry fluming is not employed, the initial step in the treatment
of flume water is the screening process to remove suspended solid
organic material (beet fragments, etc.) which would otherwise
settle in holding ponds as slowly decaying organic material. In
a recirculating flume water system, clarification of the
recirculated waste water flow is accomplished through the use of
earthern holding ponds or mechanical clarifiers. The sludge
removed from the settling facilities is generally discharged to a
separate earthen holding pond for complete retention.
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Table VIII
Summary of Selected Pollution Control Practices at Beet Sugar Processing Plants
Beet Sugar
Processing Plant
Nampa, Idaho
Moses Lake, Washington
Rupert, Idaho
Myssa, Oregon
'iereford, Texas
BrawlP.y, California
Salinas, California
Drayton, NorLh DakoLa
Betteravia, California
Twin Falls, Idaho
Moorhead , Minnesota
Idaho Falls, Idaho
Billings, Montana
Manteca, California
Chandler, Arizona
Ilendota, California
Crooks ton, Minnesota
Tracy, California
Toppert.ish, Washington
liay City, Michigan
Woodland , California
Sidney, Montana
Ft. Morgan, Colorado
Loveland, Colorado
Fremont, Ohio
Rocky Ford, Colorado
Longmcmt , Colorado
Scottsbluff, Nebraska
Tor ring ton, Wyoming
GoodLand, Kansas
Clarkaburg, California
E. Grand Forks, Minnesota
Ovid, Colorado
Garland, Utah
Hamilton City, California
Sterling, Colorado
Bayard, Nebraska
Brighton, Colorado
Raton, Colorado
Groeley, Colorado
Lovell, Wyoming
Caring, Nebraska
Sebewaing, Michigan
Carrollton, Michigan
Caro , Michigan
Wor land , Wyonii ns
Delta, Colorado
Santa Ana, California
Pindlay, Ohio
Ottawa, Ohio
Croswoll , Mlchiean
Beets Sliced
X
ra
•o
w
(3
Q
U
•H
^
S
8163
7710
0100 •
5964
5895
5895
5895
4716
4535
4376
4172
3991
3809
3809
3809
3809
3628
3628
3464
3447
3265
3174
3174
3174
3083
3083
2902
2902
2902
2902
2721
2630
2542
2449
2267
2177
2041
2041
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1905
1614
1814
1746
1633
1633
1406
1451
1270
1?
T) 1
1 i
o
H
(9000)
(8500)
(6725)
(6575)
(6500)
(6500)
(6500)
(5200)
(5000)
(4825)
(4600)
(4400)
(4200)
(4200)
(4200)
(4200)
(4000)
(4000)
(3825)
(3800)
(3600)
(3500)
(3500)
(3500)
(3400)
(340C)
(3200)
(3200)
(3200)
(3200)
(3000)
(2900)
(2800)
(2700)
(2500)
(2400)
(2250f
_L225£L
(2200)
(2200)
(2200)
(2200)
(2200)
(2ioqL,
(2000)
(2000)
(1800)
(1800)
(1800)
(1650_i_
(1600)
(1400)
'Molasses Worked
Metric Tons/Day
204
m
317
205
113
163
200
102
103
167
172
85
171
by
126
100
91
69
54
87
?
o
at
d
g.
(225)
(204)
(350)
(226)
(125)
(180)
(220)
H3.31
naoi
(187)
(190)
( 94)
(189)
(175)
(139)
(110)
(100)
f 76)
( 60)
( 96)
Existing Pollution Control Practices
Discharge to Navigable
Waters
Y
N
Y1
Y
N
yi
N
y
N
Y
Y1
y
Y
N
N
N
y
N
Y
Y
N
Y'
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y'
Y
Y1
N
Y
YT
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y'
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Retention or Land
Disposal for Flume Water
Y°
Y
Y°
Y°
Y
yo
Y
Y"
Y
Y"
YD
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y
y
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y
Y
Y°
Y"
Y°
Y"
Maximum Flume Water
Recycling
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Partial Flume Water
Recycling
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Maximum Condenser
Water Recycling or
Re- use
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Partial Condenser
Water Recycling or
Re-use
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
•H
O 1-
CJ
rH 4J
IB ra
01 3
o
a M
a o
•H it
n o
U
•o -a
e a
ra o
-J u
Y°
Y
Y
r*
Y
Y°
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y°
Y°
Y"
Y°
Y"
Y°
PL.
Y
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y"
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y"
Discharge of Excels
Waste Water to
Municipal System
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Treated Waste Water
Used for Land
Irrigation
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
'i
Use of Cooling Devices
for Condeaser Water
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
*
Occasional discharge only
Partial
Yes
Ho
70
-------
The beet sugar processing industry has demonstrated that a
drawoff or blowdown rate of 20 percent of the total water flow is
sufficient to maintain suspended solids control and total
dissolved solids concentration at or below approximately 10,000
mg/1. Such a level of total dissolved solids concentration and
suspended solids control in a fluming system will not promote,
under the prevailing pH conditions, abnormal scaling of the
piping in the waste water conveyance system.
The pH of flume water is a highly variable and erratic factor
requiring careful control by the addition of lime. Proper
control can be accomplished through pH determinations on grab
samples of flume water taken at least every two hours as is the
practice at some plants. At a number of other plants, milk of
lime is added to the flume water as it leaves the screens or as
it enters settling ponds or clarifier facilities. This lime
addition serves to keep the pH at a level which impedes bacterial
action, thereby reducing odors and corrosive effects. Lime
addition also assists in sedimentation as a flocculating agent.
The amount of soil associated with incoming beets varies with the
wetness or dryness of the harvesting season, soil type, and
location, A plant slicing 363,000 kkgs (400,000 tons) of beets
during a campaign may accumulate 5,100 to 6,130 cu m (20 to 2U
thousand cu yd) of soil in its settling ponds. At one plant
40,500 cu m (53,000 cu yd) of dirt were removed from lagoons in
1969 after processing 903,000 kkgs (995,000 tons) of sugar beets.
Barometric Condenser Water - condenser water is characterized by:
1) Relatively high temperature 55~65°C (131-149°F)
2) Entrained organics from boiler vapor entrainment
3) Alkaline properties
The pH varies between 8 and 10 but usually is less than 9 and
results from entrainment of ammonia during the raw juice
evaporation process. Reuse of condenser water is a common
industry practice. Many plants make some in-'plant reuse of
condenser water and discharge the excess to water bodies. A
total of 11 plants presently accomplish complete land retention
of condenser waters without discharge to surface waters;
twenty-three plants practice partial land disposal of condenser
waters; while 18 practice no land disposal for this waste
component. Thirty-five plants practice maximum or partial
recycle of condenser water. Cooling of condenser water before
discharge to receiving streams, or recycling, is usually
necessary for protection of the quality of receiving waters. A
total of 32 plants employ cooling devices.
Surface or non-contact condensers offer a possible means of non-
contaminant use of condenser waters in lieu of entrainment
control devices with conventional barometric condensers. Surface
condensers provide positive control against contamination of
condenser water through non-contact between vapors to be
71
-------
condensed and cooling water. The alternative method of control
is relatively expensive (estimated at roughly $200,000 for the
average- sized beet sugar processing plant) and requires larger
water volumes than barometric condensers. The method is reliable
as a mechanism of pollution control, and is worthy of
consideration at new beet sugar processing plants planned for
construction.
When using cooling towers for condenser water cooling and
recirculation, it has often been found economical and expedient
to supplement the recycled condenser water with cool fresh water
from wells in order to reduce the temperature of the recycled
water. Where employed, such practices often do not result in
conservation of water since larger water volumes are used than
those needed to meet minimal barometric condenser requirements.
In the Central and North Central portions of the United States
additional cooling requirements for molasses in Steffen
operations is obtained through use of large volumes of water from
existing surface or ground water sources. At other locations,
e.g., in California, heat exchangers are commonly employed to
meet additional cooling requirements of the Steffen process.
In recycling systems cooling may be accomplished with spray
ponds, cooling towers, evaporative condensers, and air-cooled
heat exchangers. All but the last depend on the cooling effect
of evaporation. The effectiveness of an evaporative cooling
system is determined by the wet bulb temperature of the
environment since this is the absolute lower limit to which the
water can be cooled by evaporation. The actual terminal
temperature may range from a degree or two below atmospheric
temperature at high humidity (as measured in Fahrenheit) to 17°c
(30°F) or more below atmospheric temperature when the air is very
dry (88). Therefore, evaporative coolers are most effective in
arid regions. As a rule of thumb, cooling towers are capable of
lowering temperatures on a once-through basis to within 12°c
(22°F) of wet bulb temperature.
Forced-draft cooling towers with bottom fans and countercurrent
air flow are gaining favor over induced draft (top fan) and
natural draft types for cooling heated waste waters. Cooling
towers are generally more efficient than spray ponds for waste
water cooling because of increased contact in the cooling tower
between the heated water and circulating air.
Barometric condenser water resulting from beet sugar processing
plants characteristically exhibits relatively high nitrogen
content, attributed largely to ammonia (3 to 15 mg/1 NH3 as
nitrogen) introduced by juice evaporating and sugar crystallizing
operations. Therefore, the removal of nitrogen centers on the
removal of ammonia-nitrogen.
Pilot plant experiments by Lof et. al. support the ability of air
stripping to remove nitrogen from beet sugar plant condenser
water effluent. Data for ammonia removal from a synthetic medium
72
-------
(prepared by the addition of NH4C1, NaNO3 and NaNO2 to tap water)
indicate that most of the ~"NH^, removal in "cooling tower
operations occurs by air stripping rather than by oxidation to
nitrite nitrogen. Removal of ammonia nitrogen at the 16 to 18
mg/1 as N range was shown to be 25 to 50 percent over a 2U~hour
interval (6.2 passes through the cooling tower) for G/L weight
ratios of 0.3 and 0.6, respectively. The G/L weight ratio equals
the weight rate ratio of air to water, e.g., kg (Ib) of air per
hr. divided by kg (Ib) of water per hr.
Applications of combined cooling and bio-treatment of waste
waters have been utilized by means of cooling towers for
refinery, corn milling operations, and bleached board production
plants. Among other constituents, cooling devices sometimes with
the addition of synthetic packing have been demonstrated
effective in reducing temperature, sulfides, chemical oxygen
demand, biochemical oxygen demand, and ammonia in this double
duty role. BOD5 and COD removals vary between 30 and 90 percent.
Although heavy" sliming occurred in several of the above cooling
units, growth was reported not to be sufficient to cause any
problem in cooling tower operation. Similar successful
experiences with biological oxidation of pollutants are known to
occur with efficient temperature reduction through use of
aeration ponds, primarily at pulp and paper mills (6) . BOD.5
reductions ranged from 80 to 95 percent. Aerobic treatment
processes have been demonstrated effective in removing up to
about 70 percent of total nitrogen in waste water (101).
The air-to-water ratio required in cooling barometric condenser
waters by cooling devices at beet sugar processing plants may be
estimated on the basis of the following thermodynamic
considerations. Assuming ambient air with an absolute humidity
of 0.011 kg (Ib) water vapor per kg (Ib) of dry air (75 percent
relative humidity and 21°C (70°F) dry bulb temperature),
adiabatic cooling, and air leaving t^e cooling device saturated
with water, exit conditions of air after use for cooling would
have an absolute humidity of 0.012 kg (Ib) water vapor per kg
(Ib) dry air under exit conditions of 18°C (6U°F) dry bulb
temperature and 100 percent relative humidity. Therefore, under
the assumptions, 0.001 kg (Ib) water vapor per kg (Ib) of dry air
would be added to the air during the evaporative cooling process.
In reducing the barometric condenser water temperature from 60°C
to 20°c (140°F to 68°F), a total temperature decrease of 40°C
(72°F) has occurred. With approximately 555 kg cal/kg (1000
BTU/lb) as the heat of evaporation of water and an estimated UO
kg cal/kg (72 BTU/lb) of water recirculated, evaporation to
accomplish the required temperature drop would be estimated at
0.072 kg (Ib) of water evaporated for each kg (Ib) of water
recirculated. Therefore, dry air requirements for evaporative
cooling to accomplish the designated temperature decrease would
be 72/0.012 x (1000) = 6 kg (Ib) dry air/kg (Ib) water
recirculated.
73
-------
Ammonia stripping as a treatment process has been demonstrated to
be pH dependent, the optimum ammonia removal by stripping
occurring at a pH of approximately 11. studies conducted at the
University of Wisconsin and elsewhere have substantiated high
removal of ammonia (78 to 92 percent) by stripping at air/liquid
loadings of 3345 1/1 (447 cu ft / gal) and 4100 1/1 (549 cu
ft/gal), respectively.
The above discussion supports the conclusion that ammonia can be
substantially removed from waste waters through appropriate
cooling devices and aerobic waste treatment systems.
Ammonia is soluble in water and would be expected to be found in
minimal concentrations under natural conditions. At atmospheric
conditions, the solubility of ammonia in water is 0.89 mg/1, 0.53
mg/1, 0.33 mg/1, and 0.07 mg/1 at 0°C (0°F), 20°C (68°F), 40°C
(104°F) , and 100°c (212°F), respectively.
Lime Mud Wastes - Plants normally release lime mud in the form of
a slurry which is contained in holding ponds.
Two plants now reburn lime mud cake for the production of lime.
One recent lime mud cake reburning operation has been
discontinued, reportedly because of objections to dust emitted
from the rotary kiln and cost inefficiencies. Lime mud cake from
this operation is now being shipped to another factory for
reburning.
Dry handling of lime mud cake is accomplished at a number of
plants. One plant indicates plans to install dry conveyance
facilities for lime mud cake during 1973. By using a dry
conveyance system, the lime mud cake is transported to the
disposal area without the conventional addition of slurrying
water in order to permit pumping. Injection of compressed air at
0.7 to 1.1 kg per sq cm (10 to 15 psi) to maintain fluidity of
the semi-liquified mass has also been an effective method of
transport at the Chandler, Arizona plant.
Sale of lime mud cake for agricultural and other uses has not
been notably successful. At only two plants, one in California
and one in Washington, has any considerable outside use been made
of the material. The rather large store of lime mud cake in
California is being sold to farmers for use on peat soils at a
somewhat faster rate than it is being produced. In Washington, a
commercial distributor collects lime mud cake from the dry ponds
for sale at 552/kkg (500/ton) for us© in areas with acid soils.
A typical beet sugar processing plant employs one or more lime
mud ponds, varying in depth from 0.6 to 3.0 m (2 to 10 ft). On
occasion, miscellaneous wastes may be added to the lime mud
ponds. Deposits from a given campaign are scraped from the pond
bottom and added onto the dike walls. where large ponds are
employed, solids removal is not necessary for a period of many
years. Active fermentation within the ponds may begin near the
74
-------
end of campaign in the central United States and is accelerated
by the warmer temperatures occuring through spring and summer
(13)« Cleaning of lime mud ponds is a continuing, expensive
chore at many plants- As a general practice, two or more lime
mud ponds are available at a plant, enabling the operators to
take one of the ponds out of service as required to permit
removal of accumulated solid material.
The various difficulties in storing lime mud slurry, such as the
viscous nature of the waste, land and construction costs, and
possible offensive odors offer strong reasons for converting to a
dry system of handling and disposal in most cases,
Steffen Waste - Steffen plants produce a liquid waste which has a
high alkalinity as well as a high BODS and organic matter
content. The solids content of the waste resulting from the
Steffen process, in addition to the lime content, consist of the
sugar and the nonsugars of the original molasses. The Steffen
waste includes various inorganics together with a variety of
organic and nitrogenous compounds.
When Steffen waste biologically degrades it soon loses its
alkaline nature and various malodorous compounds are formed.
Where this waste is disposed of in ponds, odor problems have
become acute.
Because of the large variety of materials contained in Steffen
wastes, it has been given considerable study as a potential
source of byproducts. During World War I, a number of beet sugar
plants concentrated the Steffen waste and burned the concentrate
to produce a crude potash salt for fertilizer. Later, a
successful process was developed to produce monosodium glutamate
(MSG) from the concentrated Steffen filtrate (CSF). Feeding and
nutritional studies have shown that CSF can partially replace
molasses as a cattle feed supplement. This use has been the
primary outlet for this material, since the attractiveness for
sale of MSG has decreased. When used as a dried-pulp additive,
CSF is normally limited in livestock feed by the solids (ash)
content. Experience has shown that only about 30% molasses by
weight, may be added to dried pulp for cattle feed.
Land spreading is another alternative method of disposal of
Steffen waste. This can be accomplished with a minimum of odor
production if managed properly. The dilute Steffen waste is
spread in a thin layer over a land area which is quite level and
divided into small parcels by low levees. This permits feeding
the waste onto these parcels in sequence to allow absorption and
drying before further additions. It is beneficial to disc or
till the soil between campaigns to enhance its absorptive
capacity. Such land spreading of Steffen waste with protection
from runoff is practiced at the beet sugar processing plant at
Salinas, California.
75
-------
A study on a laboratory scale (68) demonstrated that Steffen
waste can be treated with various yeasts, algae, and bacteria to
produce a potential feed stuff while stabilizing the waste. But
another study incorporating a four-pond system, was judged high
in installation and operating cost without subsequent production
of a usable byproduct.
To reduce the cost of evaporating Steffen filtrate, considerable
effort is made to keep the concentration of the waste as high as
possible without adversely affecting the purity of the saccharate
produced. One method used is the return of cold saccharate
filtrate as part of the dilution water. The volume of Steffen
waste is thus reduced from about 42 1/kkg (10 gal of waste/ton)
of molasses to about 25 1/kkg (6 gal of waste/ton).
General Wastes - General waste including floor and equipment,
wash waters, filter cloth wash, and miscellaneous effluents are
usually discharged to the general or flume water ponds.
Demonstrated and Potential Treatment and Control Technologies
General - Biological treatment of beet sugar processing waste has
been effectively demonstrated. Two approaches to biological
waste treatment are currently being used. They are anaerobic
fermentation and aerobic oxidation. The former is believed to be
the most efficient, resulting in the most nearly completely
stabilized effluent. Anaerobic action does give rise to
objectionable odors including particularly the odor of hydrogen
sulfide. At some plants, neighboring residents have protested
the annual nuisance of odors of anaerobic conditions.
The removal efficiencies of waste treatment processes are
difficult to assess. Adequate BOD5 determinations are
infrequently available in statistically significant numbers.
Exceptions to this are the results of the intensive studies made
by the EPA on the matter of pollution in the south Platte River
Basin, and the various studies of experimental units conducted by
companies or by the Beet Sugar Development Foundation. Past
studies indicate that substantial BOD 5 reduction of beet sugar
processing wastes can be accomplished by biological oxidation.
Common to all processes available for biological treatment of
bee t s ugar plant wa ste s are the requirements for adequate
screening of wastes 'to remove fragments of beets and other
organic matter and facilities (mechanical or other) for
separation of muds. Previous methods of handling the clarified
or partly clarified liquid wastes were the following: 1) Direct
discharge to streams during periods of high water flows; 2)
anaerobic biological treatment in deep ponds, followed usually by
aerobic action in shallow ponds or ponds equipped with mechanical
aerators; and 3) aerobic treatment or ponds equipped with
mechanical aerators; and 3) aerobic treatment alone.
76
-------
Many studies have been performed on the treatment of beet sugar
processing wastes utilizing biological means, including activated
sludge, trickling filters, waste stabilization lagoons, and other
methods (11) . In many cases, comfirmative results have been
obtained well beyond the pilot-plant stage.
Even though numerous methods of treatment of the various wastes
from beet sugar processing plants have been applied with the
object of producing an effluent suitable for discharge to surface
waters, these methods are generally undesirable in comparison
with inplant waste water reuse and recycling practices.
Applicable treatment methods in the conventional sense present
operational and economic questions as applied to large volumes of
liquid produced during essentially a three-month period of the
year generally known as the beet sugar campaign. Large treatment
plant facilities would be required to handle the large waste
volumes during a relatively short seasonal operation. If such
conventional biological treatment systems are to be utilized
effectively, waste water would have to be stored in large storage
facilities to help sustain organic and hydraulic loading for the
treatment facilities on essentially a year-round basis.
Inplant process control with reuse of waste waters rather than
treatment and discharge has been generally adopted by the
industry as an expedient and economical approach to pollution
control from beet sugar processing operations. Various waste
treatment and control methods applicable to beet sugar processing
plants are discussed below.
Coarse solid Collectors - Trash collectors, traps, and other
recovery devices are normally placed at all major waste
collection points within the plants. Proper design,
installation, ,and maintenance of these devices are essential for
adequate performance. Solids control is necessary not only for
routine waste but also for spills, leakage, and inadvertent
releases to the floor drains.
Fine-Mesh Screening - The screening operation is a preliminary
step in waste treatment intended to reduce waste loads placed
upon subsequent treatment and control units. For screening of
flume water, inclined vibrating screens are generally preferred
by the industry because they are more effective and less costly
than other screening devices. Adequate screening of the waste
flows from a typical plant may remove from 9 to 36 kkg (10 to 40
tons) of coarse wet solids daily. The recovered screenings are
shredded and introduced into the pressed pulp and fed to the
dryer. screenings removed from recycled flume water are also
generally fed to livestock with or without drying.
One plant provides dual vibrating screens which have 0.32 by 1.59
cm (1/8 by 5/8 in) slotted openings as the first unit within its
flume water recirculation system. The screens remove about 29.7
kkg (27 tons) of wet solids daily, which are sold directly to
77
-------
local farmers for use aa stock feed. Another operation employs
three vibrating screens installed in parallel; the screens are
preceded by a liquid cyclone or hydroseparator for removal of
heavy grit and solids.
Grit and solids Removal - Mechanical clarifiers or earthen
settling ponds preceeded by coarse screening are generally used
in recycle flume water systems. Mechanical settling units are
usually preferred in the industry. The objective is to remove as
much dirt, soil and other solids as possible. The large
quantities of accumulated dirt and debris are deposited into
sludge storage ponds.
Both earthen ponds and mechanical clarifiers can cause serious
problems without proper operation, maintenance, and control but
the mechanical clarifier merits careful attention. It is
important that sludge underflows and flotable scjim and grease be
removed quickly, preferably continuously. If waste detention
times are excessive, organic fermentation may occur in the
settling facilitie s, resulting in organic acid and hydrogen
sulfide buildup. Chlorination or pH control with lime addition
may be used to retard such odor-producing action. In any case,
efficient course screening ahead of the settling tank is
essential. Indications are that clarifiers with detention times
from 30 minutes to several hours will produce effective solids
removal with minimum odors- With continuous flume water
recirculation, dissolved organic material may increase to rather
high levels (approximately 10,000 mg/1), necessitating blowdown
and water makeup in the system for solids and scaling control.
Current state-of-the-art practices for mechanical clarifiers of
wastes with settleable solids of 30 to 125 mg/1 result in waters
containing 0.3 to 1.0 mg/1 of settleable material. Fine clay
particles which do not readily settle must be removed by chemical
flocculation in the pH range of 10.5 to 11.5, Addition of lime
not only retards fermentation but serves to raise the pH to the
level necessary for effective flocculation.
Waste Holding Ponds - Waste holding ponds have widespread use in
the beet sugar processing industry. Their function is similar to
that provided by mechanical settling. Less care is generally
given to their design, operation, and maintenance as mechanical
settling devices. The pond facilities normally serve for
retention of wastes as contrasted to treatment benefits for which
a waste stabilization lagoon is designed. Waste water detention
times in earthen holding ponds generally range from 24 to 48
hours. Minimum detention times are encouraged for minimizing
noxious odors associated with organic fermentation when ponds are
used for solids settling. Holding ponds, as distinguished from
waste stabilization lagoons, serve for solids removal, short-term
retention, or long-term storage without discharge to surface
waters. In the case (long-term storage) the waste water is
disposed of by evaporation and filtration. Waste stabilization
78
-------
ponds on the other hand are specifically designed and constructed
to provide waste treatment for subsequent controlled land
disposal, irrigation, or discharge to surface waters.
Jensen states that the pond system, using single or multiple
basins, has been the most common means of solids removal for beet
sugar processing waste waters. He recommends that the system be
shallow and flowing in order to avoid the odor nuisances of
hydrogen sulfide gas generation. From his experience, Henry
favored settling ponds for reasons of economy and also suggested
the following principles in relation to these ponds. First, the
waste water should enter the settling pond with minimum velocity
and circulate evenly but quickly without interference with
settling. Second, the use of large ponds is advisable in order
to minimize dike construction. Third, pond bottoms should be
level, and grass and weeds should be removed from the bottom and
sides frequently, other studies, conducted in Great Britain,
have indicated that the ideal shape for a settling pond may be a
rectangle five to six times as long as wide, providing a flow-
through velocity of about 0.2U m/min (0.8 ft/ min) . The British
investigations also suggested that small ponds were advantageous
in the event of dike rupture, since less waste material would
accidently enter the receiving stream.
Experience within the industry has indicated that odor problems
accompanying the long-term retention of waste waters in earthen
ponds at many plants can be minimized by the maintenance of
shallow pond depths (optimum of 45.7 cm or 18 in). In the U. s.,
shallow lagoons are preferred to deep ponds for municipal waste,
and operating depths are generally in the range of 0.92 to 1.53 m
(3 to 5 ft) However, effective settling depths will range from
less than 0.3 m (1 ft) to 6.1 m (20 ft). In actual practice the
holding ponds may fill rapidly with solids.
In the construction and operation of holding ponds, sealing of
pond bottoms to eliminate or control percolation to acceptable
maximum rates may be necessary even though a mat of splid organic
material often provides some degree of self-sealing. The general
criterion, adopted by many state pollution control agencies for
waste stabilization lagoons for municipal wastes, is a 0.635 cm
(1/U in) maximum drop in pond liquid depth each day. This has
general application to waste holding ponds as a practical limit
of filtration and should not be exceeded. In some instances,
state pollution control agencies may desire or regulate maximum
allowable soil filtration from waste holding or treatment ponds
to less than 0.635 cm (1/U in) per day. In these cases, lower
soil filtration rates are applicable. No contamination of ground
water must result from controlled soil filtration. Holding ponds
in use in the industry today have no specific provision for
filtration control. Even with uncontrolled soil filtration of
waste water, no pollution of ground waters has been positively
attributed to date to land application practices.
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A number of process waste water storage, retention, or land
disposal systems have been investigated, some systems proving to
be of little or no protection against polluted discharges. In
this regard, two types of long-term waste ponding have been
generally in use: (1) Waste retention with controlled regulated
intermittent discharge of holding pond contents to surface
receiving waters and (2) long-term waste storage and disposal
with no discharge of process waste waters to navigable waters.
The procedure of controlled discharge from holding facilities to
receiving waters is practiced at the Moorhead, Crookston, and
East Grand Forks, Minnesota, beet sugar processing plants and at
the Drayton, North Dakota, plant. In this region, waste flows
are contained in holding ponds during the processing season and
the contents are discharged under controlled conditions to
receiving waters during the spring high stream flow period. Some
reduction in BOD5 content of the ponded waste takes place during
the winter storage period and before regulated discharge to the
river, but the BOD reduction is usually not great.
The first extensive study of long-term waste storage was
conducted at the Moorhead, Minnesota, plant during the 1949-1951
campaigns. Waste flume waters, together with pulp press waters,
were released into two 3.7 meter (12 ft) ponds identical in
capacity, with a total area of 33 hectares (82 ac) and a total
volume of 1340 million liters (354 million gal). A third lagoon,
0.9 meters (3 ft) deep, covering 20 hectares (50 ac) and
providing 190 million liters (50 million gal) capacity, was
maintained in reserve until late in the campaign. The total
campaign used 1600 million liters water volume (423 million gal)
in 1950. Uncontrolled discharge from the ponds began in early
spring following severe winter conditions and much ice cover over
the ponds.
The study showed that waste treatment during the campaign itself
was effected largely by settling of suspended matter within the
ponds. Over this period BODji reductions ranged from 48. to 58
percent and suspended solids removal was indicated at about 97
percent. After the processing campaign ended, the stored waste
waters underwent no further decrease in BOD£ reduction. This was
attributed to complete cessation of biological activity within
the ponds because of freezing and possible lack of secondary
nutrients. The study concluded that long-term waste storage even
in cold climates, would provide effective removal of suspended
solids but would be effective in removing only one-half of the
BOD5 load,
A later study undertaken in 1964^1965 in the Red River of the
North included the Moorhead, East Grand Forks, and Crookston,
Minnesota plants. Discharge was controlled according to the
amount of flow, dissolved oxygen, and BOD5 in the receiving
stream, and was permitted before and following ice cover on the
river. The results of the study showed that the Moorhead pond
effluent contained 449 mg/1 BOD5 and 163 mg/1 total suspended
solids and had median values of 1.5 million total coliform
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bacteria and 1.25 million fecal coliform bacteria per 100 ml.
The discharge at the East Grand Forks, N. D., plant had effluent
values of 164 mg/1 BOD5, 54 mg/1 total suspended solids, 22,100
total coliforms per 100 ml, and 1,720 fecal coliforms per 100 ml,
Waste removal efficiencies were not determined.
Land Spreading of Wastes or Aeration Fields - The term aeration
fields is applied to the process of spreading wastes from beet
sugar processing plants over large land surfaces. The wastes
infiltrate the ground in numerous, shallow channels, and are
collected and disposed of at the opposite end of the field.
The history of aeration fields for beet sugar processing waste in
the U. S. start, with studies conducted at the Loveland,
Colorado, plant in 1951. The aeration field there covered 54 ha
(133 ac) . suspended solids and alkalinity removals were
reasonably good, but organic loads (BOD5) were reduced only to a
minumum degree. The facility provided less than equivalent
primary treatment, and waste concentrations in the final
effluents remained at high levels. The merits of maintaining
this type of extensive treatment area were seriously questioned
in view of the results obtained,
A similar aeration field that was formerly used at Windsor,
Colorado, was found even less effective than Loveland, producing
less than 10 percent removal of BODJ, 60 percent removal of COD,
and 60 percent reduction of TSS, The waste water entering the
Cache La Poudre River contained approximately 1100 mg/1 BOD5,
1060 mg/1 TSS, and 6.6 million total coliform bacteria per 100
ml.
Full scale aeration field facilities were also constructed at a
Nebraska plant during 1952, and evaluation studies were carried
out over the 1952*1953 campaign. The total combined plant wastes
were delivered to a 1,069 by 534 meter (3,500 by 1,750 ft) area
of fairly level contour. Although native buffalo grass was
present, only part of the field was described as a grassland
filter as compared to installations in Europe. Waste channeling
was quite evident and only 50 percent of the waste volume
disappeared by downward soil percolation before reaching the end
of the field. The 1952-1953 survey results showed that incoming
waste levels of 482 mg/1 BOD£ were reduced to, 158 mg/1 in the
aeration field or that 67 percent BOD£ removal occurred.
Corresponding values of total suspended solids were 5,125 mg/1
and 63 mg/1, giving 99 percent apparent total suspended solids
reduction. Similarly, total coliform bacteria numbers were
reduced 89 percent. Although algal and fungal growths were
abundant, the dissolved oxygen was quite low in the field.
Average waste detention approximated 14 hours, and the results
indicated that odor production was at a minimum. The aeration
field is no longer in use.
Aeration fields were also used during the 1963-1964 campaign at
three Colorado plants. It was observed that these treatment
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facilities did not embody many of the favorable characteristics
of the earlier installation, and the aeration fields were beset
with numerous operational and maintenance problems. The 1968
south Platte River Basin studies concluded that aeration fields,
as they were maintained, could not by any means satisfy the water
quality criteria recommended for the receiving waterbody.
Further conclusions were that aeration fields support little or
no vegetative growth, and because of short circuiting the wastes
were often applied vegetative growth, and because of short
circuiting the wastes were often applied only over a small
portion of the field. Although the majority of suspended solids
were removed, there is little or no other apparent benefit from
the use of aeration fields for beet sugar processing waste.
Waste stabilization Ponds or Lagoons - Waste stabilization ponds
or lagoons are distinguished from waste holding ponds in that the
former are designed, constructed, operated, and maintained in
accordance with established design criteria and procedures for
the primary purpose of effecting waste treatment for pollutant
reduction. Waste holding pondst while affording some benefit of
waste treatment, serve primarily to store or retain the waste
with or without discharge of pond contents to surface waters.
Many of the plants in California utilize waste stabilization
lagoons for treatment of excess flume and condenser system waste
waters. The impetus to provide treatment of waste waters has
resulted from the advantages obtained by utilizing the treated
waste waters for cropland irrigation in water-short regions. The
installations are characterized by the use of many interconnected
ponds generally in series, specifically designed for settling,
biological oxidation, evaporation, and filtration. The various
lagoons range generally from 0.6 to 3.0 meters (2.0 to 10 ft) in
depth, with surface areas up to 80 ha (197 ac) . The shallow
ponds are aerobic, whereas the deeper basins were designed for
controlled anaerobic digestion. The BOD5 of the waters pumped
from the final aerobic pond in series for irrigation is
relatively low, of approximately 105 to 190 mg/1 or less. The
suspended nature of the BOD5 is demonstrated by the fact that
studies show that the BODji of the pond effluent may be reduced to
7 to 10 mg/1 by effective filtration. Essentially complete
removal of total suspended solids by filtration is obtained.
Anaerobic-aerobic lagoons have been utilized on a pilot study
basis for treating beet sugar processing wastes with encouraging
results (65). Encouraged by the successful application of these
principles in the treatment of other wastes, the Beet Sugar
Development Foundation with funding support from EPA initiated a
pilot plant study in California. The major objectives of the
study were to demonstrate the waste removal efficiencies of the
system and to determine methods to minimize odor in connection
with this means of treatment. The system was evaluated with
respect to the effects of varying feed rates and recirculation
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ratios upon organic waste removal, and the degree of odor control
and microbial growth associated with the operations.
Hopkins et. al« found that if total beet sugar processing wastes
were discharged uniformly across the upper end of 2 ha (5 ac)
shallow lagoons with a detention time of about one day virtually
all suspended solids, 55 percent of the concentration of BOD5.,
and 63 percent of the weight of BOD£ were removed. This
procedure also reduced the alkalinity by 69 percent, completely
eliminated nitrate nitrogen, and reduced ammonia nitrogen by 94.3
percent. Coliform bacteria increased, but phosphates were
unchanged. Water loss was 4,040 cu m (3.27 ac ft) per day of
which 222 cu m (0.18 ac ft) was due to evaporation and 3818 cu m
(3.09 ac ft) was attributed to soil filtration.
At the California pilot plant, screened, settled plant waste
water (principally flume water) was treated in a series of three
ponds. These consisted of a 4.6 m (15 ft) deep anaerobic pond, a
facultative pond 2.1 m (7 ft) deep, and an aerobic pond 0.9 m
(3.0 ft) deep, from which the effluent could be discharged and
also recycled to the anaerobic pond. Detention times varied from
about 10 to 25 days in the anaerobic pond, 10 to 30 days in the
faculative pond, and 10 to 20 days in the aerobic pond. Over the
first two years of the study, the anaerobic, faculative and
aerobic ponds were used respectively as-the first, second, and
third units in series. During September and October, 1966,
influent BOD£ values generally ranged from 1,200 to 1,650 mg/1.
In the first experimental run, the applied organic loadings were
1383 kg BOD5/ha/day (1,235 Ibs BOD5/ac/day) for the anaerobic
pond, 931 kg BOD5/ha/day (831 Ibs BOD£/ac/day) for the faculative
pond, and 739 kg BOD5/ha/day (660 Ibs BOD5/ac/day) for the
aerobic pond. The results of the first run represented an
overall waste detention period of about 35 days and provided 70
percent BOD5 removal and 38 percent COD removal. The BOD5
concentrations from inflow to outflow were reduced from
approximately 1,200 mg/1 to 350 mg/1. Another test, where there
was no recirculation and the applied loadings were 1838 kg
BOD5/ha/day (1,640 Ib BOD^/ac/day) for the anaerobic pond, 502 kg
BOD5/ha/day (448 Ibs BOD5/ac/day) for the faculative pond, and
355~kg BOD5/ha/day (317 lbs~BOD5/ac/day for the aerobic pond,
with overall waste retention time of 70 days, provided
approximately 90 per cent BOD5 removal and 77 percent COD
.removal. Correspondingly, the BOD5 concentrations were reduced
from about 1,650 mg/1 to 170 mg/1. These studies included the
enumeration of algae, coliform, and fecal streptococci bacteria
present within the system. Efficient removals were achieved with
respect to both coliforms and fecal streptococci organisms,
reaching 99.99 percent reduction in practically all cases.
Although mechanical and other disturbances resulted in less than
desirable treatment operation, the system indicated that beet
sugar processing wastes could be successfully treated by such a
system. BOD5 and COD were effectively removed in the pond system
with the highest removal rates occurring in the heavily
organically loaded anaerobic pond. As long as algae were present
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in the aerobic pond, recycling of waste water from the aerobic
pond to the anaerobic pond was beneficial in the prevention and
minimization of odors. Without recirculation, there were odor
problems with the anaerobic pond.
The use of waste water treatment lagoons for the propagation of
fish at plants in California has been investigated and has been
reported by industry representatives to have met with only
partial success.
Laboratory studies have been conducted by the British Columbia
Research council to determine the feasibility of using aerated
lagoons to treat waste flume waters. The studies also provided
data on optimum load conditions, determination of the time
required in startup relative to the beginning of the campaign,
and adaptability of the aerated lagoon method to intermittent
operation and .to temperature change. The waste flume water was
obtained from a plant with a high degree of recycling and the
initial BOD5 values ranged from 821 to 1121 mg/1. Effluent BOD5,
values ranged from 30 to 140 mg/1. "
The efficiency of a lagoon system depends to a large degree on
the climatic conditions, organic loading, and ability to maintain
uniform flows through the lagoon system. Lagoon systems are
effective in removing essentially all the suspended solids.
Effluents of low BOD£ can be attained only by maintaining long
retention periods, which require large land areas. The water in
the lagoons must be kept shallow, and water movement is
preferable in order to avoid the generation of hydrogen sulfide
with its attendant nuisance odors (28). Preliminary screening of
beet sugar processing wastes to remove particulate organic matter
before discharge to lagoons substantially lessens the occurrence
and intensity of noxious odors.
Waste stabilization lagoons for treatment of beet sugar
processing wastes would undoubtedly perform more efficiently in
warm arid climates such as southern California than those in
northern, colder climates such as the Red River Valley of North
Dakota and Minnesota. Relatively large land requirements for
lagoons result where treatment of waste water for irrigation use
is the primary objective. Lagoons must be located so as not to
contribute to ground water pollution. Selection of the proper
site by a qualified geologist to prevent pollution of nearby
aquifers is a necessity.
Odors have been experienced with operation of some of the
stablization lagoons in California. The settling pond and the
initial anaerobic ponds in some cases have been found to be
covered by a heavy proteinaceous scum layer, and the anaerobic
ponds at times have produced serious odors. The utilization of
purple sulfur bacteria (Thiopedia and Chromatium) has been a
recent innovation and has been quite effective for odor control
in waste treatment lagoons in California. The bacteria impart a
pinkish-to-reddish color to the pond surface and serve as
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biological deodorizers by converting hydrogen sulfide
photosynthetically to produce elemental sulfur and sulfates.
Where these bacteria are present in sufficient numbers, hydrogen
sulfide odors are usually greatly diminished or eliminated.
Experience with the use of these bacteria for odor control has
shown that although they are quite effective in warm climates
they are less efficient under the cooler climatic conditions
existing at Hereford, Texas.
Chemical Treatment - Although chemical additives are in fact used
throughout the beet sugar process cycle, this discussion is
limited to chemical flocculation as a unit operation employed in
waste treatment.
studies at one operation offer a noteworthy example of waste
treatment by chemical precipitation. Waste flume waters were
received into a grit separator for heavy solids removal then
treated by chemical flocculation, with 40 percent of the treated
waters being returned to the beet flume and the remainder being
discharged to the river. The sludges from both the grit
separator and the setting basin were directed to sludge ponds and
supernatants were returned to the grit chamber. This plant
utilized dry handling techniques in moving the sugar beets from
storage piles to the wet hopper. This resulted in minimum waste
loadings in the flume system. The average BOD5 level in the
flume waters before treatment was 223 mg/1. Treatment results
showed that the chemical flocculation system obtained 90 percent
removal of suspended solids, and reduction of final BOD5 levels
between 70 and 130 mg/1 or a 57 percent reduction in BOD5
content, equal to a residual waste load of 0.43 kg/kkg (0.86
Ib/ton) of beets processed. other plant wastes were not
accounted for in the total waste balance. These included the
continuous discharge of excess condenser waters and some overflow
from the lime mud ponds to the river.
The British Columbia Research Council has given preliminary
attention to chemical flocculation as a polishing means following
activated sludge treatment. The Council found that effluents
from aeration units were measurably improved by adding lime or
lime together with a coagulant aid.
Polymers to promote solids settling in mechanical clarifiers have
been used with success at the Winnipeg, Manitoba, plant in
Canads. In the United States polymers have not received
widespread use because improvement of settling in the flume water
is made with the addition of lime to flume waters in the
mechanical clarifier or the earthen holding ponds.
Land Irrigation - The use of treated beet sugar processing waste
waters for irrigating agricultural lands directly or indirectly
is widely practiced throughout the western United states.
Examples of this practice exist at plants in California and
Texas, and in the South Platte River Basin in Colorado. Beet
sugar processing wastes are applied directly to agricultural
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lands when the processing campaign coincides with the growing
season. This is true for the warmer climates such as those
existing in California. Over much of the remaining western
United states the waste waters are generally stored in ponds or
reservoirs until irrigation commences the following spring. A
high degree of water reuse in the water-short areas of the
western United States, predominantly for agricultural irrigation,
is strongly reinforced by western water law.
Irrigation in general does not require a high degree of water
quality, and often results in a completely consumptive use of the
waste waters, with no resultant discharge of waste waters to
surface waters under properly controlled conditions.
Activated Sludge - It has been shown on a pilot scale basis that
activated sludge can effectively reduce the organic load in waste
flume waters by 83 to 97 percent. The maximum time required in
fully adapting the floe to the substrate was less than 96 hours.
Bio-oxidation of beet sugar wastes at about 2tt°C (75<>F) was
successful, and initial BOD5 values of 1035 to 2,000 mg/1 were
lowered to less than 50 mg/1 within 20 to 30 hours.
Pilot plant evaluation of activated sludge treatment at Hereford,
Texas, has provided favorable results. The study showed that an
activated sludge system could produce good organic removals, but
the system was rather easily upset. A system loading of 1 kg
COD/kg (1 Ib/lb) of mixed liquor volatile suspended solids/day
with 3,000 to a,000 mg/1 mixed liquor volatile suspended solids
concentration was suggested.
Laboratory activated sludge units were also used in Great Britain
for treating waste waters received from a plant settling pond.
Aeration periods varied from 6 to 24 hours. The first three runs
used aeration times of 6 to 17 hours and provided BOD5 reductions
of 48 to 83 percent. The active floe may not have "been fully
adapted to the waste in these runs. Five other runs using
aeration times of 18 to 24 hours produced BODjj reductions in the
range of 89 to 95 percent. Initial BOD5~values in the above
tests were approximately 400 mg/1. When pond muds were used as a
source of innoculum, startup ra-fces were slower than desirable,
but with an established active floe, the rates of BOD5 removal
were entirely adequate to handle high BOD5 loadings. "" Maximum
BOD5 removal rates for flume wastes, employing an active floe,
were obtained within 96 hours. A later report of experiments in
which flume wastes from 38 beet sugar plants were subjected to
bio-oxidative treatment showed that significant BOD5 reduction
was obtained after 72 hours startup period with aerobic
treatment.
Trickling Filters - Trickling filter studies undertaken in Texas
and Idaho and at many full-scale installations in Great Britain
and Western Europe have suggested that such filters may have
merit in beet sugar processing waste treatment. On the other
hand, two full-scale trickling filter treatment plants have been
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constructed for the treatment of beet sugar processing wastes in
the United States (Idaho and Utah). In both cases treatment
performance was most disappointing, and both plants have since
been closed. The failures were largely attributed to a gross
underestimation of the waste water production rate and difficulty
in design and selection of treatment units at these plants.
In Idaho, a conventional trickling filter plant was completed in
the summer of 1965 to provide treatment of wastes expected from
the Rupert plant during the following campaign. Lime mud slurry
was separately impounded, and other plant wastes which comprised
essentially the flume and condenser waters were directed for
treatment. The facility consisted of a screen station with six
vibrating screens in parallel, twin hydro-separators also
arranged in parallel followed by a primary settling tank, a
single high-rate trickling filter, secondary settling tank, and a
brush aerator installed on the effluent discharge canal. The
hydroseparators provided for removal of the heavier solids; flows
in excess of 347 I/sec (5,500 gpm) through the separators were
returned to the beet flumes. From the separators, the waste
water entered the primary clarifier which was approximately 37 m
(120 ft) in diameter and 3.1 m (10 ft) deep and provided a waste
retention period of about 2.5 hours. The treatment plant was
grossly overloaded, and only 189 I/sec (3,000 gpm) of settled
waste water was subsequently applied to the trickling filter; the
remaining 158 I/sec (2,500 gpm) was discharged to the receiving
stream. Sludges from both the separators and primary settler
were pumped to a storage pond. The trickling filter was
approximately 60 m (200 ft) in diameter and 3 m (10 ft) deep, and
contained 5.1 to 5.2 cm (2 to 6 in) slag material. The slag
material was not uniformly distributed within the filter. The
recirculation ratio was about 3:1 for this single stage filter.
Filter effluent was then received into the secondary clarifier,
and the final effluent was released into the receiving stream.
The design plans specified 3,200 kkg (3,500 ton) of beets/day to
be processed by the Rupert plant; however, during the very first
campaign the average processing rate actually amounted to 5,900
kkg (6,500 ton)/day. Treatment plant overload was inescapable
and drastic. Although firm data were not available concerning
Rupert, it was estimated that the hydraulic load onto the
trickling filter approximated 234 million 1/ha/day (25 million
gal/ac/day), and that the waste load was in the order of 12.6 to
21.6 kg BOD5/CU m of filter media/day (7 to 12 Ibs BOD5/cu yd of
filter media/day) including recirculation (13). These applied
loads are extremely high. Besides poor distribution of media,
there was little or no visible biological growth on the surface
Of the filter. Water vapor forming over the filter during cold
weather retarded air movement in the filter bed, thereby tending
to provide insufficient air supply to the bed. Provisions for
including air undercurrents through the side and bottom of the
bed possibly would have alleviated this condition (13).
Furthermore, an automatic skimming device on the primary settler
would have aided in removing the substantial accumulation of scum
and grease present. Information obtained on Rupert indicated
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that the treatment plant was providing around 30 to 40 percent
BOD5 removal for that portion of the beet sugar processing wastes
receiving treatment. The conditions described above were
observed principally during the 1965 and 1966 season and do not
reflect changes since that time.
The trickling filter in Utah was constructed in 1961 and was
intended for treating and recycling waste flume water. During
the off-season the filter received various wastes from the plant
holding pond. The facility consisted of a screen station, a grit
chamber, and a mechanically-operated clarifier 37 m (120 ft) in
diameter by 3.0 m (10 ft) deep, followed by a single trickling
filter 37 m (120 ft) in diameter by 1,5 m (5 ft) deep. Two and
one-half hours waste detention was provided in the primary
settler, A portion of the filter effluent could be returned to
the clarifier. The treatment system was reported in 1963 to have
major defects, serious deficiencies in the trickling filter
included a poor underdrainage system and improper media
specifications. The underdrain system experienced frequent
flooding and required additional pumping capacity. Compaction of
the media and damage to the underdrains were suspected. The
reduction of media interspace served to minimize air circulation
through the filter and retarded biological growths. The Lewiston
plant wastes also indicated an inorganic nutrient deficit which
may have caused even further difficulty in treatment.
Operation of the filter was initiated too late in the 1961 season
to develop adequate biological growth. The filter was
reactivated in March, 1962, using holding pond wastes. The
results collected during March - May, 1962, showed 0 to 30
percent BOD5 reduction, with hydraulic and organic loads
(including recirculation) of 43,900 cu m/ha/day (4.7 million
gal/ac/day) and 10.8 kg BOD^/cu m of filter media /day (6 Ibs
BOD§/cu yd of filter media/day), respectively. Through June,
1962, the BODji removal increased to the 40 to 60 percent level,
with applied filter loads of about 6.3 kg BOD£/cu m of filter
media/day (3.5 Ibs BOD£/cu yd of filter media/day). By November,
1962, the treatment plant BODJ reduction dropped to a level of 10
to 50 percent.
Trickling filters have found wide favor at a number of beet sugar
processing plants in Great Britain and Western Europe, crane
described the process by which some plants have contained the
wastes in ponds from which the water is passed over trickling
filters before discharge to a stream. During startup in the
operation of the filters, it has been necessary to use waste
dilution and recycle to avoid overloading the filter system. The
contents of the pond are treated and discharged over a period of
many months, with maximum BOD5 of the discharged effluent of less
than 20 mg/1. Phipps of "Great Britain has suggested that
trickling filters offer one means of treating accumulated waste
waters resulting from the integrated flume and condenser water
recycling system. The waste water is stored over the campaign in
a large pond and drawn off for treatment at a relatively slow
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rate throughout the year. The average plant would probably
require storage capacity of 75.7 to 113.6 million liters (20 to
30 million gal). Phipps preferred a shallow rather than a deep
pond to take advantage of wind mixing and aeration. Research was
conducted in this regard, using an 8.1 ha (20 ac) lagoon and a
percolating filter 18.3 m (60 ft) in diameter and 1*8 m (6 ft)
deep. Filter inflow was diluted with stream water, and ranged
from 17 to 230 mg/1 BOD5; the filter outflow ranged from 7 to 71
mg/1 BOD5. The results showed the filter system produced BODS
reductions from 60 to 90 percent.
The full-scale waste treatment system at the Bardney beet sugar
processing plant in Great Britain consisted of a single filter
operating either at low- or high-rate application and receiving
settling pond effluent diluted with river water before filter
dosing. The pond effluent varied in BOD5 concentrations from
1239 mg/1 in March to about 38mg/l in October. The waste water
temperature varied from 4 to 16°c (39 to 60°P), and filter
loadings ranged from 0.13 to 1.39 kg BOD5/cu m of filter
media/day (0,07 to 0.77 Ibs BOD^/cu yd of filter media/day) with
an average load around 0.72 kg BOD5/cu m of filter media/day (O.U
Ibs BODS/cu yd of filter media/day)". Total waste volume treated
was 1UU million 1 (38 million gal). BOD5 reductions varied from
55 to 97 percent, with removals of 83 percent or higher occurring
in 9 of the 12 months. Final effluent BOD5 values were
approaching 20 mg/1. British studies have shown that properly
operated filters could consistently produce effluents with less
than 20 mg/1 BOD5 when the initial levels were between 105 and
180 mg/1. in starting operation of a filter, domestic sewage was
recommended to be applied together with the beet sugar processing
waste to reduce the time required for full filter adaptation.
Primary and secondary settling were considered essential, and it
was further recommended that for every 100 mg/1 BOD5, the waste
water should contain a phosphorous equivalent not less than 1
mg/1. A reference was made to Russian experiences where strong
beet sugar wastes of 4,000 to 5,000 mg/1 BOD5 have been directly
applied at low loading rates to a three-stage filter system
resulting in 75 to 85 percent BOD5 reduction.
Recirculation - Reuse Systems - For plants presently utilizing
polluti on control technology, rec irculation-reuse systems,
biological treatment, and land application systems are being used
to achieve waste load reduction. The nearly-closed waste water
recirculation system represents the best level of rigorous waste
water control, and has generally proved to be superior to
biological methods in terms of overall results.
*
Flume Water Recycle Systems - A flume water recirculation circuit
can be described as one with continuous recycling of flume waters
and with essential treatment units in the line, thus providing
efficient water reuse. Flume water recycling systems are in use
or are planned at essentially all beet sugar processing plants.
The extensive recycling flume water system commonly in place or
planned at beet sugar processing plants has largely eliminated
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pollution originating from fecal coliforms in total process wasrtr
water.
Mechanical clarifiers providing generally a 30-minute detention
period with lime addition may be employed for settling of flume
water. Mechanical clarifiers are preferred because they provide
better pH control of the recycling operations and require less
land. Sludge withdrawn from the clarifier or earthen pond
facilities is generally conveyed to a mud holding pond for
complete retention. Overflow from the mud holding pond is
contained in subsequent holding facilities. In most cases where
land is available, flume mud is allowed to accumulate within the
pond without removal. However, the accumulated mud at the plant
at Longmont, Colorado (an initial experimental project sponsored
by the Beet Sugar Development Foundation and Federal water
Pollution Control Administration) must be periodically removed
from alternate mud settling ponds for disposal on adjacent land.
Industry personnel report the cost of removing the accumulated
solid material from the pond at approximately $15,000 per
campaign or approximately 66 cents per cu meter (50 cents per cu
yard) of solid material removed.
Condenser Water Recycling Systems - Partial or extensive
recycling of water for barometric condenser purposes or reuse is
widely practiced in the industry. A total of 16 plants
accomplish maximum recycling of condenser water within the plant,
the only waste water discharged being that necessary for total
dissolved solids control in the system to prevent excessive
scaling. The discharged volumes are almost universally disposed
of through land application without discharge to navigable
waters.
Integrated Flume and Condenser water Recycling Systems *-
Condenser waters may be added into the flume recycle circuit
because of the fluming process need for thawing of beets or other
reasons. Many plants in Europe employ the integrated system in
whole or in part. Integrated flume and condenser water systems
are in use in two U. S. plants. One system was installed in 1956
and has as its basic components a screening station, mechanical
settling tanks, sludge pond, spray pond, lime pond, excess water
storage pond, and a distribution line leading from the excess
water pond back into the plant. Reclaimed waters are pumped from
the excess water pond to the plant main water supply tank which
in turn serves to supply the beet flumes, beet washer, roller
spray table, and condenser system, and for purposes of slurrying
the lime mud.
Alternative methods of flume water recycling include separate
discharge of condenser water, dry methods of conveying beets into
the plant, or a combination of various inplant and treatment
measures to achieve desired waste load reduction. A multiplicity
of choices and process alternatives exists in the latter case.
However, no discharge of process waste water pollutants to
90
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navigable waters is possible through mechanisms of water reuse
and recycling in a beet sugar processing plant with control and
disposal of excess waste water through land application of
process waste waters.
One of the early systems was examined in 1962 by Force for
possible improvement. Two areas were found to be of particular
significance. First, separate flume and condenser water
recycling systems would serve to reduce the high flume water
temperatures existing in early fall. The addition of a spray
pond or other cooling device would be desirable on the condenser
water circuit. In colder weather, the two systems could be
combined thus taking advantage of the warm condenser water which
is desirable within the flume waters during colder weather.
Second, the lime pond overflow should be eliminated from the
circuit because of the many problems caused by high solids.
Similar exclusion of sludge pond overflow would aid the circuit,
although to a lesser extent.
Land Waste Water Disposal Without Discharge to Surface Waters -
Waste disposal of all beet sugar processing wastes without
discharge to surface waters may be accomplished through extensive
inplant waste water recycling, waste water treatment and control,
and/or land disposal. Any excess waste water is ultimately
disposed of by evaporation and controlled filtration, or in some
cases by use of waste water after treatment for irrigation.
One plant in the western U.S. practices remarkable recirculation
and reuse of waste waters with very low fresh water intake of 900
1/kkg (215 gal/ton) of beets. Although large areas are available
for ponding of wastes, actually little is used. There is no
discharge to surface waters.
Mass Water Balance in a Beet Sugar Processing Plant
An account of water gains and losses that occur in a typical beet
sugar processing operation is given in this subsection.
Schematic diagrams of water balance (net gains and losses) for
typical flume, condenser, and overall process operations are
given in Figures VII, VIII, and IX respectively.
Water Gains
Water gains in a beet sugar processing plant result from incoming
sugar beets and fresh water intake. Incoming beets normally have
between 75 and 80 percent moisture. A moisture content of 80
percent is assumed in subsequent calculations.
Water from incoming beets (75-80X moisture) = 800 1/kkg of
processed (192 gal/ton).
beets
91
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Figure VII
WATER BALANCE DIAGRAM FOR A TYPICAL BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT
NET GAINS AND LOSSESr^ FOR FLUME WATER SYSTEM
FRESH WATER MAKE-UP,
GAIN,Q^2130-Q1
SCREENS
SCREENINGS
LOSS=10(2)
LINE DOSAGE
EQUIPMENT
MECHANICAL OR
EARTHEN CLARIFIER
MISCELLANEOUS WASTES
(FLOOR DRAINS, ETC.)
V GAIN=46(11)
FLUME MUD UNDERFLOW (SLOWDOWN)
AS EXCESS WASTE WATER FOR DISPOSAL
LOSS=2170(520}
CONDENSER SEAL
TANK WATER MAKE-UP,
GAIN = 0,
PUMP AND MOTOR
All water gains and losses are expressed in terms of l/kkg. Expressions in terms of gallons per ton of beets sliced are indicated in parenthesis.
-------
Figure VIII
WATER BALANCE DIAGRAM FOR A TYPICAL BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT
NET GAINS AND LOSSES-!/ FOR CONDENSER WATER SYSTEM
BAROMETRIC
CONDENSER
FRESHWATER MAKE-UP,•GAINfQ=128(H-a1(307-K>l)
'EXCESS WASTE WATER
SLOWDOWN FOR DISPOSAL
LOSS=835(200)
DIFFUSER SUPPLY,LOSS=0-317{0-76)
BEET WASHER OR FLUME WATER
MAKE-UP, LOSS = QI
LIMESLURRYING
EXCESS CONDENSATE WATER
GAIN=514-83V(123-199)
COOLING
TOWER
1
LOSS=835(200)
J/,
All water gains and losses are expressed in terms of I/kkg. Expressions in terms of gallons per ton of beets sliced are indicated in parenthesis
-------
Figure IX
WATER BALANCE DIAGRAM FOR TYPICAL BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT
NET GAINS AND LOSSES ^ FROM TOTAL PROCESSING OPERATION
GAIN=800(192)
LOSS=10(2)
LOSS=30(7)
JUICE PURIFICATION
(LIMJNG-CARBONATION)
FRESH WATER
INTAKE,Q=2530(606)
CONDENSER WATER SLOWDOWN,
LOSS=835(200)
CONDENSER
WATER
COOLING
DEVICES
LOSS=835(200)
MOLASSES
DILUTION
(STEFFEN PROCESS
ONLY)
A
GAIN=729{75)
MOLASSES
PRODUCTION
V
LOSS=8<2)
LOSS=10(2f
A
DRUM FILTER
VAPOR
LOSS=10(2)
SULFITATION
VAPOR
DRIED PULP
PRODUCTION
FLUME WATER
"SLOWDOWN, Loss=2i70(52o)
AMMONIA VENTING
ON EVAPORATION
PANS
¥
LOSS=159(38}
LOSS NOT SIGNIFICANT
TOTAL GAIN=40460(973)
TOTAL LOSS=4060(973)
All water gains and losses are expressed in terms of l/kkg. Expressions in terms of gallons per ton of beets sliced are indicated in parenthesis.
-------
The quantity of fresh water intake for a beet sugar processing
plant is highly variable. Factors to be considered are chemical,
physical, and temperature qualities of water supplies (ground
water or surface sources), and water makeup requirements for
solids and scaling control in recycled flume and condenser water
systems. Total water requirements for flume and condenser water
purposes amount to 10,840 1/kkg (2600 gal/ton) of beets sliced
and 8360 1/kkg (2000 gal/ton) of beets sliced, respectively (49).
Industrial experience has shown that approximately 20 percent or
less water makeup in volume is required to compensate for
evaporative losses and to maintain scaling control in a recycling
condenser water system. Fresh water makeup in the recycled flume
water system is limited by the need for particulate solids
removal and approximates 20 percent of total volume based on
existing practices. This would amount to a fresh water volume
make-up of 2170 1/kkg (520 gal/ton) of beets sliced and 1670
1/kkg (400 gal/ton) of beets sliced for the recirculating flume
and condenser water systems, respectively. In a recirculating
barometric condenser water system, approximately 10 percent water
volume may be attributable to evaporative water losses in
cooling, the remaining being attributed to "blowdown" from the
system for solids control. Essentially the entire 20 percent
water volume in the recirculating flume water system may be
attributed to "blowdown" associated with solids control. .
Water losses in the plant result from:
. Wet weeds and leaves
. carbonation tank venting
. Drum filter vapor
. Sulfitation vapor
. Ammonia venting on evaporators
. Pulp drying
. Molasses production
. Molasses dilution (Steffen process only)
. Cooling devices
Wet weeds and leaves contribute to water loss in the plant.
Iverson (75) estimates that the moisture content of wet weeds and
leaves equals one percent of the weight of beets sliced. This
amounts to 10 1/kkg of beets processed (2.4 gal/ton).
Small amounts of water vapor are lost through venting of
carbonation tanks. This water quantity is estimated by Iverson
(75) to be 3 percent by weight of beets processed.
Carbonation tank venting water loss = 30 1/kkg of beets processed
(7.2 gal/ton)
Drum filter vapor is another source of water loss estimated by
Iverson (75) to be 1 percent by weight of beets processed.
Drum filter vapor = 1 percent by weight of beets processed
water loss = 10 1/kkg of beets processed
- (2.4 gal/ton)
95
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sulfitating of the purified and clarified thin juices is
conducted to control juice color formation, to improve the
boiling properties of the juices, and to reduce excess
alkalinity. Liquid sulfur dioxide is introduced directly into
the thin juice pipeline from the second carbonation filters.
Sulfitation vapor water loss * 1 percent of the beets sliced by
weight » 10 1/kkg of beets processed
(2.4 gal/ton)
Some small undetermined water loss occurs through ammonia venting
lines on the steam chest of multi-effect evaporators. The
venting lines and valves are periodically opened to bleed off
small accumulations of ammonia gas in the evaporators.
Pulp drying produces the largest single loss of water in a beet
sugar processing plant.
Weight of dried pulp (7-10 percent moisture)=45 kg/kkg of beets
sliced (94 Ibs/ton)
Water in dried pulp (7-10 percent moisture) = 2.9 1/kkg of beets
processed (0.7 gal/ton)
Water loss in pulp drying operation = 159 1/kkg of beets sliced
(38 gal/ton)
Iverson (75) reports a total water loss through dryer exhaust of
15 percent of beets processed. Water loss would then account for
150 1/kkg of beets processed (36 gal/ton).
The values of 159 and 150 1/kkg of beets sliced (38 and 36
gal/ton) are in close agreement. A water loss value of 159 1/kkg
of beets sliced (38 gal/ton) is selected.
Molasses production in a straight-house operation ranges between
4 and 6 percent by weight of the beets sliced (65) . Total
molasses production is taken at 5.5 percent by weight of sliced
beets (standard industry parameter). A typical analysis of beet
sugar molasses is 85 percent dry substance and 15 percent water.
Total molasses produced (5.5 percent by weight of beets sliced) =»
55 kg/kkg of beets sliced (110 Ibs/ton)
Water in molasses (15 percent)
8.3 1/kkg of beets sliced
(2 gal/ton)
Iverson (75) reports the loss of water in molasses produced of 1
percent of the weight of beets sliced equals 10 1/kkg (2,4
gal/ton) of beets sliced. The values of 8.3 and 10.0 1/kkg (2.0
and 2.4 gal/ton) of beets sliced are in general agreement. A
value of 8.3 1/kkg (2.0 gal/ton) of beets sliced is taken.
96
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Solids in molasses = 0.85(55 kg/kkg)
= 47 kg/kkg of beets sliced (94 Ibs/ton)
Approximately 30 percent of mola*sses produced (maximum) may
be disposed of on dried beet pulp for animal feeds, or
molasses by weight of beets sliced
{standard industry practice).
Molasses disposed of on pulp (30% of total molasses produced)
= 0.021x1000 kg/kkg
* 21 kg/kkg of beets sliced
(42 Ibs/ton)
Water in molasses disposed of on pulp ^ 3,2 1/kkg of beets sliced
(0.8 gal/ton)
Water in molasses not disposed of on pulp = 5.1 1/kkg of beets
sliced (1.2 gal/ton)
Straight-house molasses containing 85 percent dry substance by
weight is diluted with water to approximately 6 percent sugar for
processing in the Steffen process.
Solids in straight-house molasses-45 kg/kkg of beets sliced
(90 Ib/ton)
Weight of molasses after dilution=783 kg/kkg of beets sliced
(1566 Ib/ton)
weight of water in diluted molasses = 736 kg/kkg of beets
sliced (1472 Ib/ton)
Volume of water in diluted molasses (Steffen house) =
736 1/kkg of beets sliced (176 gal/ton)
Required dilution water for molasses =736-7 or
729 1/kkg of beets processed (175 gal/ton)
Cooling devices (spray ponds, open cooling ponds, cooling towers,
etc.) result in evaporative water losses in the process of
cooling condenser and other heated waters. cooling towers
account for an evaporative loss of 10 to 15 percent of the total
condenser water volume of 8350 1/kkg of beets processed (2000
gal/ton) of beets sliced. A 10 percent evaporative loss through
cooling of condenser water is assumed where cooling devices are
employed for condenser water (835 1/kkg of beets processed) (200
gal/ton).
In^plant Water Uses
Pulp press water originates from the pressing of exhausted beet
pulp removed from the diffuser.
97
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Weight of wet pulp from diffuser (80 percent of beets sliced by
weight = 800 kg/kkg of be^ts processed (1600 Ibs/ton)
Water contained in wet pulp from the diffuser (95 percent
moisture = 764 1/kkg of beets sliced (183 gal/ton)
Dry solids in wet pulp from diffuser = 40 kg/kkg of beets sliced
(80 Ib/ton)
Water contained in the exhausted pulp after pressing ranges between
76 and 84 percent. Eighty percent moisture of pressed pulp
is common.
Weight of wet pulp after pressing (80 percent moisture)
= 200 kg/kkg of beets sliced (400 Ibs/ton)
Water contained within pulp after pressing (80 percent moisture)
- 163 1/kkg of beets sliced (39 gal/ton)
Water extracted by pulp pressing = 764 - 163
= 601 1/kkg of beets sliced (144 gal/ton)
The diffusion process involves the extraction of sucrose from
sliced beets. The sugar-laden liquid (raw juice) and exhausted
pulp resulting from the process are used subsequently in the
processing operation. Total diffuser supply water is normally
made up by 65 percent from pulp press water of 601 1/kkg (144
gal/ton) of beets sliced which is returned to the diffuser.
Estimated total diffuser supply on this basis equals 918 1/kkg of
beets sliced (220 gal/ton).
Raw or diffusion juice has 12 to 15 percent solids or sugar,
which is about 98 percent of the sugar which was contained in the
beets when sliced. Fifteen percent solids in diffusion juice is
assumed (standard industry parameter). Fifteen percent sucrose
content is a normal figure for sugar beets.
Sugar contained in diffusion juice = 0.15 x 1000 x 0.98
- 147 kg/kkg of beets processed (294 Ibs/ton)
Total weight of diffusion juice = 983 kg/kkg of beets sliced
(1960 Ib/ton)
Weight of water contained in diffusion juice =
836 kg/kkg of beets sliced (1670 Ibs/ton)
Volume of water in diffusion juice = 835 1/kkg of beets sliced
(200 gal/ton)
Raw juice "draft" normally runs between 100 and 150 percent in
the diffusion process (120 percent is used in this calculation}.
Draft (percent) = (Weight of diffusion juice drawn from diffuser
98
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r Weight of cossettes introduced as beets sliced) x 100
Weight of raw juice from diffuser * 1200 kg/kkg of beets sliced
(2400 Ibs/ton)
Weight of solids in raw diffusion juice - 180 kg/kkg of beets
sliced (360 Ibs/ton)
weight of water in raw diffusion juice = 1020 kg/kkg of beets
sliced (2040 Ibs/ton)
Volume of water in raw diffusion juice = 1020 1/kkg of beets
sliced (245 gal/ton)
The diffusion process water supply requirements as determined by
the somewhat different approaches as above of 835, 918, 1020
1/kkg of beets sliced (200, 220, and 245 gal/ton)' are in general
agreement. A value for total diffuser water supply requirements
of 918 1/kkg of beets sliced (220 gal/ton) is taken as an
industry-wide practice. On the basis of total water supply
requirements for diffusion purposes of 918 1/kkg of beets sliced
(220 gal/ton) and return of 600 1/kkg (144 gal/ton) of beets
sliced of pulp press water to the diffuser, requirements for
diffuser water makeup from other sources (condensate water,
condenser water, etc.) would be 918 - 600 = 318 1/fckg of beets
sliced (76 gal/ton)
Condensate water, generally the purest water source within the
plant, is generated in large quantities through the process of
concentrating the purified, thin juice after liming and
carbonation. In the concentrating process, the raw juice is
reduced from 10 to 15 percent solids to 50 to 65 percent solids.
when raw juice is concentrated, water is produced in the
concentration process through condensation of vapors from juice
boiling. A typical juice concentration of 55 percent solids is
taken as common practice (standard industry parameter).
weight of solids in raw diffusion juice (15 percent solids)
= 180 kg/kkg of beets sliced (360 Ibs/ton)
Volume of water in raw diffusion juice = 1020 1/kkg of beets
sliced (245 gal/ton)
Total weight of "thick" juice after concentration - 327
kg/kkg of beets processed
(655 Ibs/ton)
Weight of water in "thick" juice after concentration
= 148 kg/kkg of beets sliced (296 Ibs/ton)
Total condensate water produced from concentration of raw
juice - 1022 - 146 * 876 1/kkg of beets sliced (210 gal/ton)
99
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Condensate water is commonly used for boiler feed and makeup
diffuser supply, floor washing, or other uses in the plant.
Vapors in multi-effect evaporation are used sequentially in
evaporators for heating effects- Excess vapors from evaporation
are generally used for heating purposes. Condensate from the
first evaporation effect is generally preferred for the supply of
diffuser water. Condensate from the second through fifth
evaporator effects is employed for boiler feed, washing filters,
washing floors, and diffuser water makeup.
Total condensate volume (918 1/kkg of beets sliced) (220 gal/ton)
may be attributed to diffuser supply (317 1/kKg of beets sliced)
(76 gal/ton), floor washings (46 1/kkg of beets sliced) (11
gal/ton), and an excess of approximately 510 1/kkg of beets
processed (123 gal/ton). The excess condensate volume is not
generally metered, and is usually discharged to the condenser
water system. condensate water is essentially pure and may be
satisfactorily used for makeup water in barometric condenser
systems for total solids control.
Boiler feed is supplied by condensate water from the first,
second and third pan evaporation processes. The steam has a
temperature and pressure of about 302°C (575° F) and 28.2 atm
(400 psi). The pressure of the exhaust steam after power
generation is 4.1 atm (45 psi). Makeup required by the necessity
of blowdown for solids control in the boiler system is reported
normally to account for 4 percent of the generated steam.
Press water is supplied directly from condensate water from the
fourth and fifth effect evaporators, overflow from the boiler
feed system, and miscellaneous other sources such as second high
raw and evaporator pans, heaters, and juice boilers. The press
water is used for washing lime mud during dewatering of
precipitated lime from juice purification on the vacuum filter.
The combined filtrate and wash water from the rotary vacuum
filters is called "sweet water," and this is used to supply milk
of lime in a straighthouse or saccharate milk in a Steffen house.
Excess "sweet water" is returned to first or second carbonation
stages. The quality of condensate water utilized for press water
is unknown and is not metered at most plants. No reliable
estimate can be made.
Floor washing is accomplished with condensate water use as high
as 192 I/sec (50 gpm) at one 5900 kkg/day (6500 ton/day) beet
sugar processing plant. The quantity of water used for floor
washing would be expected to be largely independent of plant
size. Water use is approximately = 46 1/kkg of beets processed
(11 gal/ton).
Lime mud from vacuum filters is diluted with water from 50
percent to 40 percent solids to facilitate pumping to holding
facilities.
Lime slurry volume = 375 1/kkg of beets processed (90 gal/ton)
Specific gravity of solids Ca(OH)2_= 2.08
100
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Weight of solids in lime slurry = 23 kg/kkg of beets processed
(46 Ib/ton)
Weight of water in lime slurry = 22 kg/kkg of beets processed
(44 Ib/ton)
Volume of water in the lime slurry = 22 1/kkg of beets
processed (5.3 gal/ton)
Water use for lime slurrying is reported to be as high as 170
1/min (U5 gpm) at one 5900 kkg/day (6,500 ton/day) plant = 41
1/kkg of beets processed
- (10 gal/ton)
The values, 22 and 41 1/kkg (5,3 and 10 gal/ton) of beets
processed are in general agreement. A value of 25 1/kkg (6
gal/ton) of beets processed is taken as an industry-wide figure.
The water used for lime slurrying may be provided from condenser
water sources.
The mass water balance for the average-sized 3300 kg/day (3600
ton/day) beet sugar processing plant indicates the necessity to
adequately dispose of 9.8 million I/day (2.6 million gal/day) of
waste water generated over an average 100-day processing
campaign.
The length of the processing campaign may be considerably longer
in warm and arid climates, e.g. California (220 to 290 slice
days); however, land availability and climatic conditions in
these locations generally permit controlled land disposal of all
process waste waters or reuse after treatment for crop irrigation
purposes. Adequate disposal of process waste waters from beet
sugar processing plants with no discharge to navigable waters can
be accomplished through controlled land disposal.
Identification of Water Pollution Related Operation and
Maintenance"rProblems at Beet Sugar Processing Plants
Improper design and control of biological-recirculation systems,
variability of waste water quantities and qualities, and process
variables can give rise to operation-related problems at beet
sugar processing plants. These operational problems are
generally related to reduced performance of waste treatment
facilities, or odor and nuisance level control.
Variability in the quantity and qualities of flume water,
condenser water, and floor washing can present difficulties in
treatment of these wastes. Variability may often be accounted
for as due to accidental spills and introduction of deteriorated
beets into the fluming system.
101
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Condensate water used as house hot water for evaporator and floor
cleaning often requires the addition of acids or caustic soda.
The wastes are generally discharged to the main sewer of the
plant and the flume water system. The flow is intermittent and
often results in sudden change in the pH of the waste water as
discharged to ponds. This accounts in part for erratic behavior
of waste treatment processes and is indicative of the need for
satisfactory pH control facilities.
Improvement in the design and arrangement of new equipment for
the industry should help prevent unintended losses of
miscellaneous waste waters into the treatment and disposal
system. Expanded use of automation will also assist in
maintaining better plant control and reducing shock waste loads.
Difficult problems often result from the use of waste lagoons and
mechanical clarifiers for treatment of beet sugar processing
wastes. The problems incurred generally relate to improper
operation and maintenance and result in offensive odors from the
anaerobic conditions in these facilities. Screening of effluent
wastes and periodic removal of accumulated solids can
substantially reduce or minimize odor and nuisance-related
problems.
Odors generated from various pollution control related operations
are a problem at a number of plants. Plants have used various
aeration devices in holding ponds and/or maintenance of shallow
pond depths to control odors. Holding ponds may receive overflow
from the flume mud pond, clarifier effluent from the flume
system, and excess barometric condenser water. Aeration may be
accomplished by means of a spray system. Mechanical aeration de-
vices are often employed for the initial anaerobic pond of an
extensive anaerobic-aerobic lagoon system for odor control.
Poor operation and maintenance (a practice at many plants) con-
tributes to many difficulties. Where shallow ponds are employe^
for waste treatment, the failure to remove routinely accumulated
solids when necessary from the ponds reduces the effectiveness of
waste treatment. Improper waste retention results in low organic
removal, solids carryover, and low bacteriological reduction
efficiency. waste retention is severely limited by solids
filling, extensive weed growth, and unevenness of the pond
bottom.
Of greatest concern in the recycling of flume water is control of
odorous and corrosive properties of the recycled flume water.
These factors are primarily related to the maintenance of
alkaline pH conditions (pH 8-11) in the system, which is
generally accomplished by the addition of lime under carefully
controlled and monitored conditions. Lime addition also enhances
the ability of solids to settle in the recirculated flume water
system.
102
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The leaching of sugar from beets which have been frozen is
considerably higher than that from unfrozen beets in the flume
system. Freezing and thawing of beets destroys the structural
integrity of the outer beet fibers, releasing sugar contained in
the beets to the flume waters. The dislodged fibers of the beets
often pass through screening devices and are discharged to the
flume water clarifier or earthern holding ponds. These
conditions present nuisance-related problems and operational
difficulties. Foaming within the flume and condenser water
system is a major problem particularly during the latter part of
the campaign in regions where processing of frozen beets is
common practice. The foaming problem is particularly enhanced by
low pH conditions-
Fecal streptococcus organisms are known to increase markedly in a
recirculating flume water system* This growth has been found to
increase as the processing season progresses. The bacterial
growth presents no pollution or production-related problems in
the recycling process. A final freshwater wash of the sugar
beets before slicing is necessary for the sugar beets prior to
processing for production control purposes.
The continuous processing of sugar beets over the entire
processing campaign without "shut down" presents difficulties
(particularly in older plants) with proper maintenance of
acceptable housekeeping practices, and continuous operation of
equipment. Because of the nature of the processing operation,
leaks and breakages in waste water and molasses conveyance lines
are not repaired promptly. Water hoses are frequently left
running at intervals to control foaming * to flush spilled
materials into drains, and for other purposes. These practices
result in wasteful use of water with increased waste water
contributions for subsequent treatment and disposal. Much
improved housekeeping procedures are needed within the industry
to minimize pollution, particularly at older plants. The beet
sugar processing industry has recently made substantial efforts
toward reducing pollution by improved housekeeping.
Improvements in the mechanical harvesting equipment for sugar
beets are being made to the end that the crops will be received
at the plants in cleaner condition. Improvements are also being
made almost routinely in the equipment used for dry separation of
the unwanted material from the sugar-bearing material.
soil As A Waste Water Disposal Medium
With increasingly rigid pollution control standards for surface
waters, emphasis has been placed in recent years on land disposal
of industrial wastes and municipal sewage effluents. In land
disposal of waste waters the soil acts as an effective filter in
removal of particular contaminants. Aerobic biological action
near the soil surface is effective in substantial removal of
biodegradable organics. The soil particles are quite effective
in removal of many substances, particularly phosphates, by
103
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absorption and ion exchange. Of concern in land disposal of waste
waters is the current lack of complete knowledge of the hydrology
and hydro-mechanics of the ground water region, with predictable
regard for the fate and effects of subsurface pollutants.
Dissolved materials derived from wastes water, particularly non-
biodegradable inorganic salts, may tend to be persistent in
ground waters inasmuch as the capacity of the soil to remove
minerals by adsorption and ion exchange could be exhausted, with
decreased efficiency with the passage of time. Effluent spraying
on land has been demonstrated on a full scale basis with total
nitrogen removals from waste water of 54 to 68 percent, and 76 to
93 percent removal of total phosphorus (101). Pollutant removal
efficiencies are dependent upon soil loading and dimatological
conditions.
Agriculture is a major contributor to land disposal of wastes
with some unknown contribution of ground water contaminants
chlorides, nitrates, and non-biodegradable organic materials.
Agriculture contamination of ground water is intensified in arid
areas where ground water is used for irrigation process. Salt is
inherently concentrated in the irrigation process with water
intake by growing plants. Most contamination of ground waters
within inland areas occurs from breaching of impervious barriers
between fresh and saline waters. Ground water pollution problems
are most evident in areas of intensive land use. The build-up of
contaminants in ground waters from percolating pollutants is
seldom dramatic, and sources of percolating pollutants are both
diffuse and diverse.
In inland areas of the U.S. approxomately two-thirds of the
coterminous region is underlain by saline waters containing
greater than 1,000 mg/1 disolved solids. This condition has
resulted largely by natural geological factors with the washing
of soluble salts from the soils in large basins where the salts
have been concentrated by evaporation. Possible processes or com-
binations of processes for conversion of inland saline water as
well as sea water to fresh water for agriculture, industrial,
municipal, and other uses have been investigated since 1952 by
the U.S. Dept. of the Interior under authority of Public Law 4U8.
The Office of Saline Water, U.S. Department of the Interior,
classifies any water containing from 1000 to about 35,000 mg/1 as
brackish. Sea water contains approximately 35,000 mg/1 and water
containing more dissolved solids than sea water, such as the
Great Salt Lake, is classified as brine.
Processes for useful water conversion include vapor-compression
methods, ion exchange, solar (multiple effects) distillation(
freezing, osmotic processes, electrodialysis (membrane process) ,
and ultrasonics. Ion exchange appears particularly promising
when the concentration of dissolved materials is below 4000 to
5000 mg/1. several plants applying this method have been
constructed in recent years. At the present state of the art,
large scale treatment of brackish waters with a comparatively low
content of dissolved solids is possible. Most existing
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installations are limited in capacity, producing fresh water
quantities of thousands of I/day rather than millions of liters
daily. The membrane processes, reverse osmosis and
electrodialysis, have their primary application in the desalting
of brackish waters in the general range of 2000 to 10,000 mg/1 of
total dissolved solids. Large demonstration plants (I MGD) have
been constructed at Freeport, Texas, San Diego, California, and
Roswell, New Mexico.
The cost of converting saline water has been reduced
substantially during the last 10 years. Conversion cost ranges
from about $0.6 to $1.50 per 3785 1 (1000 gal) exclusive of
distribution costs depending on the process used, the
brackishness of the raw water, the capacity of the plant, and
other factors. Desalination is an expensive process from the
standpoint of capital investment and daily operating costs.
Industry in the United states consumed on an average about 2
percent of its total water use of 619 billion I/day (140 billion
gal/day) in 1960, The heaviest consumption was in connection
with irrigation where 60 percent or more of the water was lost to
the water system through evaporation and transpiration. About 17
percent of water used for public supplies was consumed.
Consumptive use of water was the quantity of water discharged to
the atmosphere (evaporated) or incorporated in the products of
the process in connection with vegetative growth, food
processing, or incidentally to an industrial process,
In the western portion of the U.S. present salinity conditions
resulting from irrigation return flows (approximately 40 percent
of all water withdrawn from surface and ground sources in the
United States is for irrigation) far outweigh the salinity
contribution attributed to the beet sugar industry. Furthermore,
the majority of beet sugar processing plants are located in low
intensity land use areas.
Control of salinity and total dissolved solids contributions from
beet sugar processing wastes can be accomplished without ground
water pollution through associated with activated sludge growths
in biological beds. proper location of land disposal sites
regulation of waste water filtration rates consideration of
geographical, hydrologic and gologic factors and conduct of an
adequate monitoring program of nearby underground aquifers. At
present all beet sugar processing plants incorporate land for
disposal of all or part of the waste water flow. No serious
ground water pollution problems are known to occur as attributed
to these practices.
In any method of dissolved solids removal, concentrated salt
solutions resulting as a byproduct of the process of desalting
technology must be handled for ultimate disposal. The likely
method for disposal of this material is land application under
controlled conditions.
105
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SECTION VIII
COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
Cost, and Reduction Benefits of Alternative Treatment and
control Technologies
Detailed cost data and pollution reduction benefit data of
alternative treatment and control technologies applicable to the
beet sugar processing subcategory of the sugar processing point
source category are developed from supportive material for this
document. The basic results are summarized below for an average-
sized 3300 kkg/day (3600 ton/day) beet sugar processing plant.
Alternative A - No Waste Treatment or Control
Effluent waste load is estimated at 5.8 kg BOD5/kkg (11.7 Ibs
BOD5/ton) of beets processed or 11.0 kg BOD5/kkg (22 Ibs
BOD5/ton) of beets processed including Steffen wastes for the
selected typical plant at this minimal control level. Disposal
of Steffen waste on dried pulp, byproduct recovery, or land
disposal is assumed, as this is universally practiced in the
industry. No control of lime mud slurry, flume water discharge,
or condenser water flow is assumed. Pulp transport and press
waters are recycled within the plant process.
Costs, None. Reduction Benefits. None.
Alternative B - Control of Lime Mud but
Streams of All Other Wastes
Discharge to Receiving
This alternative includes control of lime mud slurry in earthern
holding ponds without discharge to navigable waters but no
control for other wastes. This practice is used at all plants
presently within the industry. Effluent waste load is estimated
at 2.6 kg BOD5/kkg (5.1 Ibs BOD^/ton) of beets processed for the
better plant at this control level.
Costs. Increased capital costs are approximately $50,000
Alternative A, thus total capital costs are $50,000.
over
Reduction Benefits. An incremental reduction in plant BOD5 of 57
percent compared to Alternative A is evidenced. Total plant
reduction in BOD5 is also 57 percent.
Alternative C - Extensive Recycle of Flume Water Without
Discharge to Navigable Waters
Under Alternative C there would be extensive recycle of flume
water with no discharge of process waste water pollutants to
navigable waters, incorporating treatment of flume water by
screening and settling, and with mud drawoff to holding ponds for
107
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controlled land disposal. This technique is presently practiced
by a large portion of the industry, 50 of 52 plants utilizing
maximum or partial flume a large portion of the industry, 50 of
52 plants utilizing maximum or partial flume water recycling and
all plants utilizing complete or partial land disposal of flume
waters. Present industry plans call for complete installation of
extensive flume water recycling systems by 1975. Effluent waste
load is estimated at 0.25 kg/kkg (0.5 Ibs BOD5/ton) of beets
processed for a better plant at this control level. Presently,
all but 8 plants employ maximum recirculating flume water
systems.
Costs. Increased capital costs of $228,000 to $310,000 over
Alternative B would be incurred, thus producing total capital
costs of $278,000 to $360,000.
Reduction Benefits. An increment reduction in BODS of 90 percent
in comparison to Alternative B would result, thereby producing a
total reduction in plant BOD5 of 96 percent.
Alternative D - Extensive Recycle of Condenser Water Without
Discharge to Navigable Waters
Alternative D would result in complete recycling of condenser
water with land disposal of excess waste waters without discharge
to navigable waters. Extensive water recycling and reuse within
the plant process is assumed. Effluent waste load is zero kg
BOD5/kkg (zero Ib BOD5/ton) of beets processed for the better
plants at this control level with complete land disposal of all
process waste waters.
Costs. This alternative would require increased capital costs of
$176,000 to $316,000 over Alternative C, or total capital costs
of $454,000 to $676,000.
Reduction Benefits. There would be an increment reduction in
BOD5 of 100 percent in comparison to Alternative C, and a total
reduction in plant BOD5 of 100 percent.
In consideration of land availability factors as variables in the
application of land-based technology for accomplishing zero
discharge of process waste waters to navigable waters, the
following four conditions are recognized as being applicable to
existing plants within the beet sugar processing subcategory.
The capital costs of the application of technology to accomplish
zero discharge of all process waste waters to navigable waters is
given for each of the various conditions in Figures X through
XIV. Cost figures reflect land requirements based on a 0*635
cm/day (1/4-in/day) filtration rate, an average sized plant of
3300 kkg/day (3600 ton/day) capacity, and an average 100-day
processing campaign. Land requirements for controlled disposal
of excess process waste water resulting from beet sugar
108
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CUMULATIVE CAPITAL INVESTMENT
$100,000
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FIGURE XI
UNIT COST EFFECTIVENESS RELATIONSHIP 'WITH SUITABLE LAND LOCATED
ADJACENT TO PLANT SITE AND PRESENTLY UNDER PLANT OWNERSHIP
30
'OLLUTANT REDUCTION
ckg REFINED SUGAR
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PERCENT BOD5 REMOVAL
50 , 22
EFFLUENT QUALITY
kg BODc/kkg refined sugar
(Ib BOD5/1000 Ib refined sugar)
ASSUMPTIONS
1) LAND COST OF $4938/ha ($2000/ac) INCLUDING POND CONSTRUCTION AND
FILTRATION CONTROL MEASURES
2) 377,728 kg REFINED SUGAR/DAY-PLANT (832,000 Ib/DAY-PLANT)
3) 100 DAY CAMPAIGN
4) 0.635 cm/DAY ft in/DAY) FILTRATION RATE
» I
2.2 0
110
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UNIT COSTS OF INCREMENTAL POLLUTANT REDUCTION
$100,000/kg BOD5 REDUCTION/kkg REFINED SUGAR
($100,000/lb BOD5 REDUCTION/1000 Ib REFINED SUGAR)
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A REASONABLE COST
-------
FIGURE XIII
UNIT COST EFFECTIVENESS RELATIONSHIP WITH SUITABLE LAND
NOT PHYSICALLY AVAILABLE ADJACENT TO THE PLANT SITE
BUT LOCATED AT A REASONABLE DISTANCE UNDER PLANT OWNERSHIP
0,13
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£y ALTERNATIVE B
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PERCENT BODs REMOVAL
80
94 100
50 22 2/2 0
EFFLUENT QUALITY
kg BOD5/kkg REFINED SUGAR
-------
FIGURE XIV
UNIT COST EFFECTIVENESS RELATIONSHIP WITH SUITABLE LAND NOT PHYSICALLY
AVAILABLE ADJACENT TO THE PLANT SITE NOT UNDER PLANT OWNERSHIP
BUT LOCATED AT A REASONABLE DISTANCE AND AVAILABLE
FOR PURCHASE: AT A REASONABLE COST A
L
T
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Q H
.13
4.57
3,61
ALTERNATIVE C
ALTERNATIVE A
ALTERNATIVE B
20 40 60
PERCENT BOD5 REMOVAL
80
94 100
50
22
2.2
EFFLUENT QUALITY
kg BODc/kkg refined sugar
(lb BOD5/IOOO Ib refined sugar)
ASSUMPTIONS
1) LAND COST OF $7407/ha ($3000/ac) INCLUDING PURCHASE PRICE, POND
CONSTRUCTION, AND FILTRATION CONTROL MEASURES
2) 4.8 km (3.0 mi) DISTANCE TO DISPOSAL SITE
3) RIGHT-OF-WAY COSTS OF $12,346/ha ($5000/ac)
4) 377,728 kg REFINED SUGAR/DAY-PLANT (832,000 Ib/DAY-PLANT)
5) 100 DAY CAMPAIGN
6) 0.635 cm/DAY (% In/DAY) FILTRATION RATE
113
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FIGURE XV
MINIMUM TOTAL LAND AREA REQUIREMENTS FOR WASTE DISPOSAL
BY CAPACITY OF PLANT AND LENGTH OF PRODUCTION CAMPAIGN
360
(900)
BASED ON MAXIMUM SOIL FILTRATION
RATE OF 0.635 cm {& irt)/day AND EXTENSIVE FLUME AND
CONDENSER WATER RECYCLE
100
(110)
200
600
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
(220) (330) (440) (550) (660) (770) (880) (990)
PRODUCTION CAPACITY OF PLANT, kkg/day (t/day) OF REFINED SUGAR
100U
(1100)
174
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processing for varying processing rates and campaign lengths are
given by Figure XV.
Condition A serves as the basis for the cost estimates and pol-
lutant reductions associated with zero discharge of waste waters
to navigable waters. Further datails of this analysis are given
above under Alternatives A through D for varying levels of
pollution control for this condition. Other conditions described
below (Conditions B, C, and Dr) serve to delineate possible
restraints of land availability and their resulting effects on
the cost effectiveness of successful incremental pollutant
removals under these land availability restraints.
Condition A - Necessary land for controlled waste water disposal
is physically available adjacent to the plant site and under the
ownership of the plant. Total land costs are assumed at $4940/ha
($2000/ac) which includes costs of holding pond construction and
infiltration control measures.
Total capital costs = $454,000 to $676,000.
curves are shown in Figure X and XI.
Cost effectiveness
Condition B - Necessary land for controlled waste water disposal
is physically available adjacent to the plant site but not under
the ownership of the plant. Land costs are taken at $7410/ha
<$3000/ac) including $2470/ha ($1000 per ac) purchase price and
$4940/ha ($2000/ac) costs for pond construction and seepage
control measures.
Total capital cost = $609,000 to $800,00 A cost-effectiveness
curve for this condition is presented in Fig. XI.
Condition C - Necessary land for controlled waste water disposal
is not physically available adjacent to the plant site, but
suitable land is available under ownership of the plant within
the plant vicinity. Suitable land for controlled waste water
disposal is assumed to be available at 4.82 km (3 mi) from the
plant site. Land costs are taken at $4940/ha ($2000/ac)
including costs for pond construction and seepage control
measures. Waste treatment costs are assumed to include all
construction costs including pipeline, pumping station,
engineering and design, right-of-way acquisition, and contingency
costs. Costs of right-of-way are taken at $12,350/ha ($5000/ac)
with 0.38 ha required/km (1.5 ac/mi) of pipe. A 3.7 m (12 ft)
right-of-way is assumed.
Condition D - Necessary land for controlled waste water disposal
is not physically available adjacent to the plant site. Suitable
land for controlled waste disposal is located within 4.82 km (3
mi) of the plant site but not under ownership of the plant. Land
costs are taken at $7410/ha ($30QO/ac) including $2470/ha
($1000/ac) purchase price and $4940/ha ($2000/ac) costs for pond
construction and seepage control measures. Waste transmission
costs are assumed to include all contruction costs including
115
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pipeline, pumping station, engineering and design, right-of-way
acquisition, and contingency costs. Costs of right-*of-way are
taken at $12,350/ha ($5000/ac) with 0.38 ha/km (1.5 ac /mi) of
pipe. A 3.7 m (12 ft) right-of-way is assumed.
As expected, the cost relative to increased effectiveness in
removal of pollutants (as measured by BOD5) increases as the
level of pollutant in the effluent decreases. This relationship
is shown in Figure XI. As can be seen, in proceeding from
Alternative C to Alternative D the increased capital costs per
unit of pollution load reduced rises by a significant factor.
As developed in supportive material to this document,total
industry capital costs with consideration of existing pollution
control facilities and processes (Condition A) are estimated to
range between approximately $9 million and $16 million for
extensive recycling and reuse of flume (beet transport) and con-
denser water without discharge of process waste water pollutants
to navigable waters, corresponding total industry wide annual
costs including operation and maintenance, depreciation, and
annualization of capital expenditures are estimated at
approximately $2.3 to $3.8 million for existing conditions. The
above statement reflects the condition where suitable land for
disposal of beet sugar processing waste is readily available and
under plant ownership at the plant site. With land
unavailability and the possible necessity for waste water piping
to and purchase of suitable land, required industry-wide capital
cost could reach as high as $16 to $20 million.
Basis of Assumptions Employed in Cost Estimation
Judgments and Assumptions Used
Annual interest rate for capital costs = 8% Salvage value of zero
over 20 years for physical plant facilities and equipment
Straight-line depreciation of capital assets Annual operating and
maintenance expenses of 10 percent of capital costs for pollution
control measures, permanent physical facilities, and equipment,
except that an additional cost of $15,000 is allowed for solids
removal from the flume water mud pond. The costs include all
expenses attributed to operation and maintenance of control
facilities, routine maintenance of equipment, labor, operating
personnel, monitoring, and power costs.
Where adjustment of cost data to August 1971 dollars (the
baseline of this report) was necessary, the cost figures have
been adjusted in accord with indices published for use in EPA
publication "Sewage Treatment Plant and Sewer Construction Cost
Index," September, 1972. Cost-effectiveness relationships for
the above alternative technologies are shown in Figures X and
XIV. The basis for development of the curves is covered in
detail in supportive material used in preparation of this
116
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document and the curves are included here for purposes of clarity
of presentation.
Related Energy .Requirement of Alternative. Treatment and
Control Technologies
Processing of sugar beets to refined sugar requires about 1.32 kw
(1.61 hp) of electrical energy per kkg of beets sliced per day,
This electrical energy demand is affected by factors such as: 1)
The type of beet receiving and cleaning facilities, 2) whether or
not a steffen house is provided, 3) the lime production method,
U) the drying and pelletizing of beet pulp, and 5) the number of
steam drive units compared to electrical motor drives,
particularly in the higher power units.
The electrical energy consumption per unit of product output has
continually increased over the years, and this trend appears
unlikely to change in the foreseeable future. Among the primary
reasons for increased demand are the extensive mechanization of
the process, higher lighting illumination levels, and new
practices e.g., waste water treatment, requiring additional
electrical power for circulation pumps and aerators.
For a 3300 kkg (3600t) a day beet sugar processing plant, total
energy requirements are estimated at 4320 kw (5800 horsepower)
under operating conditions. Principal power requirements
attributable to pollution control in a beet sugar processing
plant are related to recirculation of waste water flows
(primarily flume and condenser water) for in-plant reuse.
iverson reports the energy requirements, on the basis of
experience with plants of the Great Western Sugar Company, to
permit recycling of flume water flow. At a "typical" plant this
is approximately 370 kw (500 horsepower). Because of the general
similarity of waste volumes attributed to flume and condenser
water, power requirements for recycling condenser water may
logically be assumed to be the same as that for the recirculation
of flume water. Thus, the total power requirement for recycling
of both flume and condenser water is approximately 740 kw (1000
horsepower) or 20 percent of the total plant power requirement,
Iverson also estimates that the additional annual power costs for
pollution abatement purposes incorporating both the flume and
condenser water recycling systems is estimated at approximately
$22,000, The cost of energy is taken at 1 cent per kwh.
Because of its need for relatively large quantities of low
pressure process steam, the beet sugar processing industry
usually finds it economical to generate its own electric power.
The power plant normally uses a non^condensing steam turbine
generator which exhausts steam at the pressure required by the
process. This power can be generated for about half the fuel
required in a condensing steam turbine generator plant used for
power generation only.
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Regardless of the source of electrical power, steam-boiler
facilities must be provided to supply the process steam require-
ments. With in-plant generation, the fuel chargeable to power is
the additional fuel needed over that required for operation with
purchased power. The cost of fuel chargeable to electric power
generation by a non-condensing steam turbine is 0.425 mils per
kwh for each 10 cents of fuel cost per 250,000 kg cal (1,000,000
Btu). Thus, using 40 cent fuel, and with a cost of purchased
power of 8 mils/kwh with an assumed load of 4000 kw (5300
horsepower), the plant could pay for the entire installation cost
of a non-condensing steam-turbine generating set in approximately
3 years, not including taxes.
The reliability of the main steam supply system and the need for
process steam have made it normal practice to power the large
horsepower individual loads with mechanically-driven, non-con-
densing steam turbines. Typical of such units are the carbon -
dioxide and steffen-refrigeration compressors. Turbine-driven
compressors allow the steam designer further flexibility in
balancing out the steam requirements in the whole plant.
Almost all beet sugar processing plants purchase some outside
electrical power for standby when the plant is not in operation.
Power is required for plant maintenance, liquid sugar production,
bulk sugar handling, packaging operations, lighting, and office
- machine operation. In the event of power plant disturbances
and loss of plant generated power, the standby power provides for
critical electrical loads such as emergency lighting and boiler
plant and water systems. Usually it is not economical to size
the utility company purchased power standby source to meet the
total electrical demand of the plant. Generally, it is sized for
about 20 percent of the total plant demand.
If properly designed, the electrical power system may be expanded
readily with a minimum amount of additional investment (65).
Non^Water Quality Aspects of AlternativerTreatment and control
Technologies - - -
Air Pollution
There are three main items of air pollutional significance in the
beet sugar processing industry: suspended particulate matter,
sulfur oxides, and odors. Fogging in the area of cooling towers
or other cooling devices may present visibility problems in iso-
lated cases.
Suspended Particulate Matter - The primary sources of potential
particulate emissions result largely from the steam boiler and
pulp drier stacks. Minor sources of particulate emissions
include granulator exhaust, dry sugar, dried pulp, limestone.
118
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burnt lime and
booster fans.
coal handling equipment, waste ponds, and kiln
Properly designed and maintained gas- and oil-fired boilers
should present no particulate emission problems. Fuel oil,
however, can present a sulfur dioxide emission problem. One of
the most economical methods to avoid sulfur dioxide emissions is
to burn only low sulfur fuels.
Since some plants burn coal as a primary fuel, particulate emis-
sions can be a problem. Fly ash, an emission common to all coal
burning units, is composed of the ash and unburned combustibles
which become airborne in the firebox and find their way to the
atmosphere because of the velocity of the flue gas through the
boiler and up the stack. The type of stoker equipment used has
much to do with the amount of fly ash emitted. In terms of fly
ash emission control, pulverized coal spreader stoker and chain
grate and underfeed stoker units emit lesser amounts of fly ash
to the atmosphere in that order respectively.
Fly ash emissions can usually be controlled with multicyclone
mechanical collectors or electrostatic precipitators. A properly
designed and installed mechanical collector will do a
satisfactory job on virtually all types of coal-fired boilers
except pulverized coal. Electrostatic pr-ecipitators are
generally required on pulverized-fuel fired units. They have the
advantage of increased efficiency with a low draft loss.
Generally, the lower the sulfur content of the coal the poorer
the efficiency of the precipitator, Precipitators are the most
costly of the commonly used particulate collectors in boiler
plants.
Smoke is unburned carbon and results from poor combustion. Smoke
emissions are usually the most troublesome and visible at a beet
sugar processing plant. Smoke emission problems from a boiler
plant stem from many sources. Some of the main sources include
the type of coal, load on the boiler, distribution of coal on the
grate, overfire air, fuel to air ratio, fuel oil atomization, and
grate and setting air seals. All of these problems may be
alleviated through proper design, operation, and maintenance of
the boiler facilities. These considerations are discussed in
detail in Beet Sugar Technplocrv^ Second Edition (65) .
The other major source of particulate material emanating from a
beet sugar processing plant is that of the exhaust gases from the
pulp dryer. These pollutants are pulp dust, molasses dust, fly-
ash (if coal or oil fired), and smoke. Reduced emissions have
been found to result by installing multiple cyclones of smaller
diameter, or skimming a cyclone vent stack, thus removing much of
the particulate matter load and returning the purified air to the
furnace as dilution air for temperature control. A skimming
system has two major advantages. First, a large portion of the
particulate matter is removed from the exhaust; second, up to 10
percent increased thermal efficiency can be realized because of
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the smaller heating load on the dilution air, since the recycle
gas is already above 93°C (200°F). The other source of air
pollution in the pulp dryer is the dust created by the handling
of dried pulp and pelleting equipment. This source can be
controlled with a well-designed hood pickup system and a high
efficiency mechanical collector.
Sulfur Dioxide - Boiler flue gas contains sulfur dioxide as an
important air pollution source. Sulfur is present in all coals
and most heavy fuel oils. Common gas scrubbing systems for
removal of particulate material are generally rather ineffective
in removal of sulfur dioxide. However, within the past year a
Venturi-type scrubber has been installed at one beet sugar
processing plant in the U. S. (Longmont, Colorado). It was
installed at a cost of $500,000 and is reported to be quite
effective in removal of sulfur dioxide as well as particulate
solids. A similar installation is planned in the near future at
Loveland, Colorado. The Venturi scrubber for boiler flue gas at
the Longmont, Colorado, plant has an additional advantage as it
utilizes barometric condenser water in the scrubbing process.
This use results in reduction of condenser water volume through
vaporization, which is a benefit where disposal of excess
condenser water is a serious consideration. Barometric condenser
water of 1900 to 2300 1/min (500 to 600 gal/min) is employed for
the scrubbing process primarily for removal of fly ash.
The industry has generally found that change of the fuel source
from coal to gas has been economically expedient in control of
air pollution because of the large capital and operating
expenditures required in scrubbing equipment needed for coal
systems.
Odors - One of the most challenging problems of waste disposal
at beet sugar processing plants is related to the matter of odor.
When most of the plants were built, i.e., before 1930, they were
located downstream from small towns. Inevitably, the towns have
grown, often pressing close to the plant.
Odors of significance at beet sugar processing plants result
largely from anaerobic bacterial action in waste water treatment
systems, the pulp dryer, and beet piles where deterioration of
the beets is occurring.
Ponding, particularly in deep anaerobic ponds, frequently
promotes the growth of sulfur reducing organisms. It has been
observed that careful screening of wastes to remove organic
matter lessens or minimizes septic deposits of solids on the
bottom of ponds, thereby reducing the quantity of noxious gases
produced. Screening of waste water for removal of suspended
organic material before discharge to holding ponds can
substantially reduce the likelihood of noxious odor generation.
The maintenance of shallow holding ponds and alkaline pH
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conditions aid in odor reduction and minimization. Purple sulfur
bacteria (Chromatium and Thiopedia) have been found to be
successful odor control mechanisms when cultured in waste
stabilization lagoons utilized for beet sugar processing plant
wastes at plants in California.
Fogging - A feature of cooling tower operation often overlooked
is the generation of fog. This can create a hazard to highway
traffic by impairment of visibility. A circle of influence of
0.8 km (0.5 mi) is usually regarded as a safe distance for
avoidance of the effects of fog from these sources. Fogging due
to water vapor in the vicinity of draft cooling towers can be
expected to present problems with visibility at several existing
plant locations. Such fogging practices would not be in the best
environmental control practice or in some cases comply with local
air pollution ordinances and state regulations. The potential
problem is surmountable technologically by the use of closed,
air-cooled heat exchanger cooling systems for these isolated
instances. Such systems would incur an additional capital cost
with reference to natural-draft or forced draft cooling towers
and can technologically help to alleviate the problem. Air-
cooled heat exchangers waste no water by evaporation, but they
can cool only to within a few degrees of atmospheric temperature,
and thus are limited to relatively high temperature applications.
Combining systems to cool as far as possible with air and then to
further accomplish temperature reduction in a conventional
cooling tower or evaporative system of another type is often a
more economical way of handling cooling loads. Elevation of the
cooling tower to avoid or minimize visibility problems due to
fogging is an alternative in many instances.
Solid Waste Disposal
The large volumes of dirt and solid material removed from sugar
beets at the processing plant pose a perplexing problem for
permanent disposal. Generally, about 50 kg of soil/kkg (100
Ibs/ton) of beets sliced is contributed by a typical beet sugar
processing plant. Where holding ponds are employed, solids
accumulated in the ponds are removed annually and disposed of by
adding the material to pond dikes. These ponds are generally
abandoned after useful performance, with new holding pond
facilities being established.
Sugar beets stored in large piles at the plant site or in
outlying areas such as railroad sidings may be exposed to rodent
activity and additional pollution from truck or railroad car
unloadings. Rainfall may assist the spread of existing contami-
nation.
In addition to the large volumes of soil delivered to the plant
with the incoming beets, solid waste is also generated in terms
of trash normally associated with municipal activities. Disposal
of this material may be at the plant site or the waste material
may be collected by the local municipality with disposal by
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incineration or sanitary landfill. The solid waste or trash
consists of packaging materials, shipping crates, and similar dry
combustible materials.
Sanitary landfills are generally best suited for non-combustible
material and organic wastes which are not readily combustible
such as decomposed beets, weeds, and peelings. Composting offers
a viable alternative for disposing of organic materials such as
decomposed beets, weeds, and peelings. Experience with this
method in the disposal of municipal wastes has proved more costly
than sanitary landfill operations, however. The sanitary
landfill is probably the lower cost alternative, provided that
adequate land is available.
Consideration of suitability is a prime factor in location of a
landfill site. Requirements in selection of a landfill site
include sufficient area, reasonable haulage distance, location
relative to residential developments, soil conditions, rock
formations, transportation access, and location of potentia1
ground water polluting aquifers. Location of sanitary landfills
in sandy loam soils is most desirable. Proper sloping of the
landfill soil cover to promote runoff rather than ground
percolation is necessary to prevent ground water pollution.
Other factors to be considered include no obstruction of natural
drainage channels, installation of protective dikes to prevent
flooding when necessary, location of the base of the landfill
operation above the high water table, and consideration of
possible fire hazards- The general methods and desirable
practices in operation of municipal sanitary landfill operations
are equally applicable to disposal fo solid waste from beet sugar
processing plants. Open burning of combustible wastes on the
plant site is an undesirable and often unlawful method of solid
waste disposal.
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SECTION IX
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
APPLICATION OF THE BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
Introduction
The effluent limitations which must be achieved by July 1, 1977,
are to specify the degree of effluent reduction attainable
through the application of the Best Practicable Control
Technology Currently Available. Best Practicable Control
Technology Currently Available is generally based upon the
average of the best existing performance by plants of various
sizes, ages, and unit processes within the industrial category or
subcategory. This average is not based upon a broad range of
plants within the beet sugar processing subcategory, but rather
on performance levels achieved by better plants. Consideration
must also be given to;
a. The total cost of application of technology in relation to
the ef fluent reduction benef its to be achieved from the
application;
b. the size and age of equipment and facilities involved;
c. the processes employed;
d. the engineering aspects, of the application of various types
of control techniques;
e. process changes;
f. non-water quality environmental
requirements),
impact (including energy
Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available
emphasizes treatment facilities at the end of a manufacturing
process, but also includes the control technology within the
process itself when the latter is considered to be normal
practice within an industry.
A further consideration is the degree of economic and engineering
reliability which must be established for the technology to be
"currently available." As a result of demonstration projects,
pilot plants, and general use there must exist a high degree of
confidence in the engineering and economic practicability of the
technology at the time of commencement of construction or
installation of the control facilities.
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Effluent Reduction Attainable Through,the Application of Best
Practicable Control Technology Currently Available
On the basis of the information contained in Sections III through
VIII of this document a determination has been made that the
degree of effluent reduction attainable through the application
of the Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available
for the beet sugar processing subcategory is as stated below.
The following limitations establish the quantity or quality of
pollutants or pollutant properties controlled by this regulation
which may be discharged by a point source subject to the
provisions of this subpart after application of the best
practicable control technology currently available; provided
however, that a discharge by a point source may be made in
accordance with the limitations set forth in either subparagraph
(a) exclusively or subparagraph (b) exclusively below:
(a) The following limitations establish the maximum
permissible discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
process waste water discharge results from barometric condensing
operations only.
Effluent
Characteristic
Effluent
Limitations
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily
values for thirty
consecutive days
shall not exceed
(Metric units)
BOD5
pH
Temperature
(English units)
Xg/jckg of product
3.3 2.2
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
Temperature not to exceed the
temperature of cooled water
acceptable for return to the
heat producing process and in
no event greater than 32°c.
lb/1000 Ib of product
3.3 2.2
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0,
Temperature not to exceed the
temperature of cooled water
acceptable for return to the
heat producing process and in
no event greater than 90°F.
(b) The following limitations establish the maximum
permissible discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
process waste water discharge results, in whole or in part, from
BODS
PH ~
Temperature
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barometric condensing
processing operation.
Effluent
Characteristic
(Metric units)
BODS
TSS
pH
Fecal coliform
Temperature
(English units)
BOD 5
TSS
pH
Fecal Coliform
Temperature
operations and any other beet sugar
Effluent
Limitations
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily
values for thirty
consecutive days
shall not exceed
kcr/kkg of product
3.3 2.2
3.3 2.2
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
Not to exceed MPN of 400/100 ml
at any one time.
Not to exceed 32°C.
Ib/lCCC Ib of product
3.3 2.2
3.3 2.2
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
Not to exceed MPN of ttOO/100 ml
at any one time.
Not to exceed 90°F.
Identification of Best Practicable Control Technology.Currently
Available
Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available for the
beet sugar processing subcategory of the sugar processing point
source category is extensive recycle and reuse of waste waters
within the beet processing operation with no or controlled
discharge of process waste water pollutants to navigable waters.
To implement this level of technology requires:
a. Recycling of beet transport (flume) waters with partial or
complete land disposal of excess waste water. This includes (1)
screening; (2) suspended solids removal and control in the
recirculating system; and (3) pH control for minimization of
odors, bacterial populations, foaming, and corrosive effects.
b. Preferable recycling of barometric condenser water for
condenser or other inplant uses with land disposal of excess
condenser water.
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c. Land disposal of lime mud slurry and/or reuse or recovery.
d. Return of ' pulp press water and other process waters to the
diffuser.
e. Use of continuous diffusers.
f. Use of pulp driers,
g. Concentration of Steffen waste for disposal on dried beet
pulp or byproduct utilization. Alternative methods such as land
disposal may be considered.
h. Dry conveyance of beet pulp from diffusers to pulp driers.
i. Handling of all miscellaneous wastes; e.g., floor and
equipment washes, filter cloth washes, etc., within the
processing plant by subsequent treatment and reuse or land
disposal.
j. Entrainment control devices must be installed on barometric
condensers, and operation and control of the processes to
minimize entrainment is necessary.
Rationale for Selection o£ Best Practicable control
Technology Currently available
Basis for Units of Measurement in Effluent Limitations
The inherent variability in the sugar content of beets to be
processed as influenced by climatic, soil and, cultural
practices, and the application of effluent guidelines for
condenser waters, particularly at those plants employing the
"extended use" campaign, support the rationale for use of
effluent limitations for condenser water based on unit production
of refined sugar rather than based upon unit weight of beets
sliced.
The sugar solutions after thickening in the "sugar end" of the
process are relatively uniform in quality and predictable as to
crystalline sugar yield. Condenser water quantities and
characteristics are related to factors inherent in the processing
of the relatively uniform sucrose - containing product. Sugar
beets to be processed contain between 10 and 16 percent sugar.
Sucrose content in sliced beets (cossettes) averaged 1U.36 per
cent in 1969 (Table II). Refined beet sugar production in the U.
S. in 1969 was 115 kg per kkg (231 Ibs. per ton) of beets sliced,
with an averaged extraction rate of 80.43 percent.
Allowance for controlled discharge of composite waste in
complying with the July 1, 1977, effluent limitations permits
flexibility in reaching the established effluent limitations
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through use of alternative demonstrated control technologies
without necessitating any change in the units of expression of
the limitations.
Allowance for variability in biodegradable organic content of
barometric condenser waters during processing of stored beets in
later campaign in northern climates has been reflected in the
maximum daily effluent limitation level.
Basis of Pollutant Limitations
The pollutants of general significance in beet sugar processing
waste waters are BOD5, total suspended solids, fecal coliforms,
pH, and ammonia. For barometric condenser water alone,
pollutants of significance are reduced to BODJ, temperature, and
pH.
BOD5 (5-day, 20°C (68°F) Biochemical Oxygen Demand)
With proper attention to operation of evaporators and
crystallizers in the sugar making process, vapor entrainment
through the condensing process may be limited to between 30 and
50 mg/1 BOD5. Under reasonable control, BOD5 loading in
condenser water can be limited to 2.2 kg BOD5/kkg (2.2 lb/1000
Ibs) of refined sugar. This level of control corresponds with
barometric condenser water use of 8300 1/kkg (2000 gal/ton) of
beets sliced at a BOD5 concentration of 30 mg/1 as now practiced
at many plants within the industry. Calculations based on the
0.5 Ib BOD5/ton of beets processed and the average production of
115 kg of refined sugar per kkg (231 Ibs. per ton) of beets
sliced, yields the established effluent limitation of 2.2 kg
BOD5/kkg (2.2 lb/1000 Ib) of refined sugar produced. On this
basis the discharge of BOD5 during any period of 30 consecutive
days shall not exceed 2.2 kg/kkg refined sugar. The discharge of
BOD5 during any one day period shall not exceed 3.3 kg/kkg
refined sugar. This increased limitation for any one day
discharge is justified on the basis of the occasional occurrence
of process upsets and mechanical failures. Further reductions of
BOD£ in condenser waters are possible through reduction in
cooling devices (15-50 percent) and through the use of elaborate
entrainment control devices.
Temperature
The quantity of barometric condenser water utilized or required
at an individual beet sugar processing plant varies with vapor
condensing requirements, raw water source, process temperature
considerations, and climatic factors. Condenser water leaving
the barometric condenser process normally exhibits temperature
characteristics at or near 65°C (149°F). Technology exists for
cooling the condenser water before discharge to navigable waters.
Cascading, reuse, water before discharge to navigable waters.
Cascading, reuse, or recycling of the mildly contaminated
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condenser water can reduce the requirements and expense of
facilities for cooling the total condenser water flow. In
practice, cooling of heated waters is accomplished with spray
ponds, cooling towers, and open ponds dependent on the cooling
effect of evaporation. The terminal temperature to which heated
water may be cooled may range from several degrees below
atmospheric temperature at high humidity, to 17°C (30°F) or more
below atmosperic temperature when the air i s dry (88).
Evaporative coolers are most effective and efficient in arid
regions.
The temperature of water suitable for reuse in the barometric
condenser water process is variable depending upon water use,
reuse, conservation practices, and production-related factors.
However, the normal temperature requirements for effective and
efficient operation of the sugar solution concentrating and
crystallizing processes are usually in the range of 20°C-25°C
(68°F-77°F) or cooler. A maximum temperature limitation of 32°C
(90°F) is technologically accomplishable and justified.
The same considerations of temperature apply to composite wastes
and the 32°c <90°F) limitation should be equally applicable.
Where composite discharge of process waste water occurs, 32°C
(90°F) for composite waste discharge generally presents no
difficulty to meet since temperature reduction can usually be
technologically accomplished principally through a combination of
waste waters from barometric condensing operations together with
other wastes.
Ammonia
Ammonia in barometric condenser water varies between 3 and 15
mg/1 NHJ as nitrogen depending upon the condition of beets
processed and the existence, non-existence, or effectiveness of
entrainment control devices. Higher ammonia entrainment in
condenser water i s evident during the later stages of the
processing campaign particularly in areas where storage of beets
is practiced and progressive deterioration of the beets results.
Ammonia, like other dissolved gases, may be separated by heat or
agitation and leave no residue on evaporation. Evaporative
cooling devices for heated waste waters are effective in
accomplishing essentially complete removal of ammonia through
stripping. Because of this phenomenon, no specific numerical
standard for ammonia nitrogen in barometric condenser discharge
water is established, similar ammonia concentrations occur in
flume waters which are readily reduced through biological action.
pH
Barometric condenser water picks up ammonia from the evaporating
juices, hence is always alkaline, ranging from pH 8 to 11, but
usually less than 9. Reduction of ammonia concentrations will
effectively control the pH within the designated limits. On this
basis and in accord with accepted water quality standards the pH
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of the discharge must be maintained within the range of 6,0 to
9.0. High pH levels (above 8.0) often result in flume water
recycling systems by the addition of lime to control odor and
other factors.
Total Suspended solids
This pollutant parameter has particular significance where
treatment, handling, and disposal of flume water results which
influences the solids level of a composite process waste water
discharge to navigable waters. Total suspended solids levels in
barometric condenser water are negligible and are subject to the
same methods and procedures for control as BODJ>. Generally since
both BOD5 and TSS are derived from the process of concentration
of sugar-laden solutions, control of BODJ3 will likewise result in
control of corresponding TSS levels in barometric condenser
water. The limitation for TSS corresponding to that for BOD5 may
be expeditiously accomplished as presently demonstrated within
the industry for composite waste through effective solids removal
devices.
Fecal Coliforms
A measure of fecal coliforms is an indirect measure of possible
pathogenic bacteria which may be associated with the fecal
coliform organisms. Fecal coliforms have been shown to be
derived from and resulting from the application of animal manures
to beet crops, and therefore, is an important criterion only
where composite process waste water (including flume water) is
discharged to navigable waters. Fecal coliform levels are
subject to control through currently available and applied
tehcnology. Evidence does not indicate the presence of fecal
coliform organisms in barometric condenser waters to be of
serious concern.
Total Cost of Application in Relation to Effluent Reduction
Benefits
The cost effectiveness of attaining zero discharge of process
waste waters to navigable waters for the beet sugar processing
industry is given in Figures X through XIV for various identified
conditions at the beet sugar processing plants where unfavorable
soil, climate, land availability, and land costs exist. The cost
effectiveness relationships bear particular significance in
relation to the relative costs of achieving the elimination of
barometric condenser water from navigable waters and the
associated land availability requirements. Exception to the
effluent guidelines limitation of no discharge of process waste
water pollutants to navigable waters is justified on the basis of
practical land availability considerations and economic factors
to be imposed upon the beet sugar processing subcategory in
achieving this limitation for affected plants by July 1, 1977.
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BODS reduction as accomplished through effective entrainment
control devices in pan evaporators and crystallizers. An
undetermined amount of BOD£ reduction (probably 15 to 50 percent)
occurs as a secondary benefit in the required cooling device.
The amount of BOD5 reduction attendant to cooling under the
specified technology cannot be reliably predicted. The BOD5
reduction effected would be dependent to a large extent on
individual operating practices and type of facilities.
Age and size of Equipment and Facilities
As set forth in this document, industry competition and general
improvements in production methods have hastened modernization of
plant facilities throughout the industry.
Age and size are not within themselves determining factors in the
application of Best Practicable control Technology Currently
Available for the beet sugar processing subcategory of the sugar
processing point source category. Estimated costs of pollution
reduction tend to vary uniformly with plant size because of the
land based waste disposal technology and variance of raw waste
contribution directly with plant capacity. Age and size of plant
are most appropriately related to general land availability—a
factor receiving appropriate consideration in establishing
practical effluent reduction levels attainable for this level of
technology.
Processes Employed
All plants of the beet sugar processing subcategory manufacture
refined sugar using the same or similar production methods, the
discharges from which are also similar. There is no evidence
that operation of any current process or subprocess will
substantially affect capabilities to implement Best Practicable
Control Technology Currently Available.
Engineering Aspects of Control Technique Applications
Land disposal of process waste waters is an integral part of the
best practicable control technology currently available for the
beet sugar processing subcategory as evidenced by present
widespread use. Reduction of pollutants through biological
processes commonly attendant with process waste water storage
and/or aeration for odor control occurs but varies with local
factors, A high degree of pollution control has been
demonstrated to be capable of being achieved through a
combination of use of land disposal, biological and chemical
treatment, and waste water recycling and reuse.
The use of controlled land disposal of process waste waters is a
widespread practice for many types of wastes, including both
municipal and industrial within and outside the United States.
As noted in Table VIII, essentially all present beet sugar
processing plants rely either in whole or in part on land for
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waste water disposal. Such disposal on land by filtration
through holding ponds, or use after treatment for irrigation, is
not generally accomplished under controlled filtration conditions
and no significant problems of water quality from such waste
water disposal have been identified or recognized.
Furthermore, disposal by land application of beet sugar
processing waste waters has obvious benefits of cost-
effectiveness and practical application as compared to
utilization of conventional biological treatment measures. For
reasons developed within the document such as the varying and
seasonal nature of the waste and adaptability of conventional
treatment measures to beet sugar processing, conventional
biological treatment has generally proved to be unsuccessful in
application to date.
Land disposal of food processing and other wastes is extensively
practiced in many areas of the country without ill effects. A
fully developed water technology should make maximum practicable
use of ground water recharge.
The concepts are proved, and available for implementation.
Required production and waste management methods may be readily
employed through adaptation or modification of existing
production units.
Process Changes
In-process technology is an integral part of the waste management
program now being implemented within the industry. Some degree
of in-process control is now practiced by all plants within the
subcategory.
Climatic Factors
Climatic factors of precipitation and evaporation vary
substantially throughout the regions in which beet sugar
processing plants are situated in the United States. Examination
of evaporation and rainfall records in these locations reveals
that the most critical region for disposal of waste water by
evaporation is the Ohio-Michigan area where annual rainfall and
lake evaporation is the Ohio-Michigan area where annual rainfall
and lake evaporationb approximately compensate one another. All
other areas of the country in which beet sugar processing plants
are located experience a net evaporation rate.
The mechanism for controlled process waste water disposal through
land application adapted for purposes of this document relies
solely upon land disposal by controlled soil filtration.
Reliance upon controlled soil filtration would in all cases
except in the Michigan-Ohio area provide for increased benefits
for reduction in land requirements due to actual net evaporation
which occurs. Therefore, reliance upon controlled seepage for
waste water disposal effectively eliminates or minimizes the
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effects of climatic factors on the established pollution control
technology. Effects of land requirements and soil filtration
rates have been appropriately discussed under the heading of land
availability above.
Climatic conditions together with varying soil conditions^
harvesting Climatic conditions together with varying soil
conditions, harvesting procedures, and geographic factors may
affect soil loads on incoming beets and the condition of beets as
received for processing at the processing plant. Increased soil
loads on incoming beets result in increased mud handling costs
and expense of disposal. These increased handling costs are
assumed by the plant in accepting sugar beets from growers and
are a relatively insignificant expense relative to total
production costs* Increased soil loads may result in the need
for more frequent cleaning of flume water settling and holding
ponds.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
There are two essential impacts upon major non-water elements of
the environment: A limited degree of direct effects upon ambient
air quality (e.g., fly ash from pulp driers, odors); and a
potential effect on soil systems due to strong reliance upon the
land for ultimate disposition of final effluents. In the former
case, responsible operation and maintenance procedures have been
shown to minimize the problems. Moreover, the vast enhancement
to water quality management provided by using the suggested
pollution control processes substantially outweigh these
reasonably controllable air effects.
With respect to the concern of subsurface pollution, it is
addressed only in a precautionary context since no evidence has
been discovered which indicates a strong or direct impact. All
evidence points to the contrary. Technology and knowledge are
available to assure controlled land disposal or irrigation
systems with land application of process waste water commensurate
with crop need or soil tolerance.
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SECTION X
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF THE BEST
AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
Introduction
The effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
Best Available Technology Economically Achievable is given below.
In determining this level of technology high reliance has been
made on available technology applicable for pollution control for
the subcategory with associated expected economic impact effects.
Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the Application of Best
Availabli'Technoloqv'Economicallv Achievable "
On the basis of the information contained in sections III through
VIII of this document a determination has been made that the
degree of effluent reduction attainable through the application
of the Best Available Technology Economically Achievable for the
beet sugar processing subcategory is as stated below.
The following limitations establish the quantity or quality of
pollutants or pollutant properties controlled by this regulation
which may be discharged by a point source subject to the
provisions of this subpart after application of the best
available technology economically achievable.
(a) The following limitations establish the quantity or
quality of pollutants or pollutant properties which may be
discharged by a point source where the sugar beet processing
capacity of the point source does not exceed 2090 kkg (2300 tons)
per day of beets sliced and/or soil filtration rate in the
vicinity of the point source is less than or equal to 0.159 cm
(1/16 in) per day; provided however that a discharge by a point
source may be made in accordance with the limitations set forth
in either subparagraph (1) exclusively or subparagraph (2)
exclusively below:
(1) The following limitations establish the maximum
permissible discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
process waste water discharge results from barometric condensing
operations only.
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Effluent
characteristic
(Metric units)
Effluent
Limitations
Maximum for Average of daily
any one day values for thirty
consecutive days
shall ot exceed
of roduct
BODS
pH "
Temperature
(English units)
2.0 1.3
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
Temperature not to exceed the
temperature of cooled water
acceptable for return to the
heat producing process and in
no event greater than 32°C.
lb/1000 Ib of product
2.0 1.3
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
Temperature not to exceed the
temperature of cooled water
acceptable for return to the
heat producing process and in
no event greater than 90°F.
(2) The following limitations establish the maximum
permissible discharge of process waste water pollutants when the
process waste water discharge results, in whole or in part, from
barometric condensing operations and any other beet sugar
processing operation.
BODS
PH "
Temperature
Effluent
Characteristic
Effluent
Limitations
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily
values for thirty
consecutive days
shall not exceed
(Metric units)
BOD5
TSS"
PH
Fecal Coliform
Temperature
(English units)
BOD5
TSS"
Iccr/kkg of product
2,0 1.3
2.0 1.3
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
Not to exceed MPN of UOO/100 ml
at any one time.
Not to exceed 32°C.
lb/1000 Ib of product
2.0 1.3
2.0 1.3
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pH
Fecal Coliform
Temperature
Within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
Not to exceed MPN of UOO/100 ml
at any one time
-------
Even though land disposal is generally an integral part of
pollution abatement measures for control of beet sugar processing
waste, many factors influence the use, availability, and
suitability of land for waste disposal. Segmentation of the
subcategory as stipulated recognizes the need for consideration
of plant size and soil filtration rate as principally affected
economic factors. The following factors are presented in support
of the limitations as developed:
1. No plants anticipated to experience soil filtration
rates of 0.159 cm (1/16 in) per day or less are currently
achieving no discharge of process waste water pollutants to
navigable waters.
2. All those plants anticipated to experience a soil
filtration rate of 0.159 cm (1/16 in) per day or less are
identified in the economic impact analysis to experience the
greatest probable economic impact resulting from pollution
control regulations.
3. NO plants having a sugar beet processing capacity of
2090 kkg (2300 tons) per day of beets sliced or less
presently accomplish no discharge of process waste water
pollutants to navigable waters. Of the 16 plants below the
size designation, 3 presently discharge excess process waste
water to municipal systems and would experience some economic
impact restraints if they were required to provide needed
biological treatment and/or land for waste disposal. Three
of these plants are on the baseline closure list; i.e., would
likely incur adverse economic impact irregardless of
pollution control requirements. The economic analysis
indicates 5 plants would be classified on the high
probability of closure list with consideration of pollution
control requirements. Five plants are also identified as
likely to experience medium probability of adverse economic
impact as a result of pollution control requirements. The
plant size selected as a basis for segmentation constitutes a
logical break in the industry for purposes of economic impact
factors.
U. Five plants located in Michigan would find it extremely
difficult to meet a requirement of no discharge of process
waste water pollutants to navigable waters. Their land
requirements would be excessive due to poor evaporation and
low soil filtration rates (less than 1/16 in. a day). Even
if land were available, the costs may be beyond their
economic capabilities. Municipal systems may become
subsequently available, but there is no certainty that this
will occur. A similar situation exists for approximately 4
plants in Minnesota and North Dakota although the problems
for these plants do not appear as critical.
5. From 2 to 8 plants in Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming
are expected to have difficulties with a requirement of no
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discharge of process waste water pollutants due to economic
reasons. They are all relatively old and small and tend to
be located in areas of high land cost.
Land disposal of waste waters without discharge to surface waters
would result in a possible net loss of water from surface streams
from the most extensive waste water recirculation system of a
straighthouse beet sugar processing plant of 3200 1/kkg (781
gal/ton) of beets sliced. The total water loss of this tonnage
volume would consists of 825 1/kkg (203 gal/ton) of beets sliced
loss to the atmosphere through process venting and evaporation,
moisture in screenings, and molasses production; and 2440 1/kkg
(578 gal/ton) of beets sliced loss due to land disposal of
required blowdown from flume and condenser water recycling
systems.
In consideration of water gains and losses in an average-sized
3300 kkg (3600 ton) of beets sliced per day beet sugar processing
plant, possible net loss of water to a stream would be estimated
at about 10.5 million liters (2.8 million gal) per day assuming
the complete source of fresh water is a surface water source.
However, because of cooling considerations wide use of cooler
ground water supplies as the source of fresh water requirements
to the beet sugar processing plant is made. With use of surface
waters as the sole source of water supply, approximately 8.0
million liters (2.1 million gal) per day may be disposed of
and/or added to ground water supplies through land application
without discharging process waste water pollutants to surface
waters. Where crop irrigation is practiced, uptake of water by
plants offers a consumptive but beneficial use of the waste
water. In addition to fresh water, incoming beets constitute a
major source of water addition of 800 1/kkg (192 gal/ton) of
beets sliced to the extensive recycling system.
A detailed discussion of water gains and losses is included under
the heading of Mass water Balance in a Beet Sugar Processing
Plant, section VII of this document.
The above estimates give due consideration for water gain
attributable to moisture within incoming beets and water losses
resulting from various sources., Total water supply from surface
water sources is assumed which results in many cases in an
overestimation of consumptive use from surface waters for plant
processes and pollution control. In fact, many plants utilize
ground water sources of water supply rather than surface waters,
and waste water returned to the ground through land disposal
usually may be reclaimed as ground water supply or eventually
finds its way, generally in a purified state, back to surface
waters.
The basis for limitation of various pollutants is as developed in
Section IX with consideration of improved practices and
operations which may result in the reduced effluent limitations
137
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levels as presently demonstrated within the beet sugar processing
sufccategory.
138
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SECTION XI
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
The standard of performance for new sources representing the
degree of effluent reduction attainable through the application
of the best available demonstrated control technology has been
determined to be no discharge of process waste water pollutants
to navigable waters. An allowance for a variation of the
Standard is not needed since land availability requirements
should be considered in site selection for a new point source.
Introduction
This level of technology is to be achieved by new sources. The
term "new source" is defined in the Act to mean "any source, the
construction of which is commenced after the publication of pro-
posed regulations prescribing a standard of performance." This
level of technology shall be evaluated by adding to the consider-
ation underlying the identification of Best Available Technology
Economically Achievable a determination of what higher levels of
pollution control are available through the use of improved
production processes and and/or treatment techniques.
Effluent Reduction, Identification and Rationale for selection
of New source Performance Standards ~
The effluent limitation is for new sources no discharge of
process waste water pollutants to navigable waters as developed
in Section X.
139
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SECTION XII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research and preparation of this document were accomplished
through the efforts of Mr. Richard V, Watkins, P. E., and Dr.
Valentin Ulrich, Professor in the Department of Agriculture at
West Virginia University. During the early stages of the
document preparation. Dr. Ulrich was employed as a consultant to
the Effluent Guidelines Division.
Dr. Ulrich performed some of the basic work associated with
preparation of several basic segments of the first draft
document, and was primarily involved in preliminary editing,
technical data collection and analysis, and collection and
evaluation of cost-related information.
Mr. Watkins is a sanitary Enginneer within the Effluent
Guidelines Division, Office of Air and Water Programs, EPA. With
him as the Project officer, the work was performed largely under
his responsibility and primary authorship. Responsibility
included that for planning, organization, data evaluation, and
preparation of the entire document,
Mr. George E. Webster, Chief, Technical Analysis & Information
Branch, Effluent Guidelines Division, provided a careful review
of the preliminary draft document and suggested organizational,
technical, and editorial changes. Mr, Webster was also most
helpful in making arrangements for the drafting, printing, and
distribution of the document.
Mr. Joseph G. Ross, Jr., was quite helpful in the critical
examination of the draft document. Mr. Ross offered many helpful
suggestions through his many years of experience in the editing
and production of scientific and technical publications.
The figures in the document were prepared by Mr. Dick Owens of
the Audio-visual Branch, Facilities and Support Services Division
Of EPA.
Great assistance was provided in review of the document by the
working Group/Steering Committee. This Committee was established
for in-house EPA review of the document, and provided many
helpful comments and suggestions. The committee was composed of
the following EPA personnel:
C. R. McSwiney Effluent Guidelines Division
Richard V. Watkins Project Officer, Effluent Guidelines
Division
George Webster Effluent Guidelines Division
Kit Krickenberger Effluent Guidelines Division
Swep Davis Office of Planning and Evaluation
George Keeler Office of Research and Monitoring
141
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Ken A. Dostal
Harold W. Thompson
Ed Brooks
Ed Struzeski, Jr.
Kit Smith
Erik Krabbe
M. Shamaiengar
R. L. Markey
Melvin McCorkle
Bob Burm
Irwin Dickstein
Robert D. Shankland
Office of Research and Monitoring
Corvallis, Oregon
Office of Research and Monitoring
Corvallis, Oregon
Office of Toxic Substances
National Field Investigation Center
Denver, Colorado
Office of General Council
Region II
Region V
Region VII
Region VII
Region VIII
Region VIII
Region VIII
Mr. Allen Cywin, Director, Effluent Guidelines Division, offered
many helpful suggestions during briefing sessions conducted on
the project and greatly assisted in the development of the
project through his enthusiasm and leadership.
Miss Kit Krickenberger of the Effluent Guidelines Division was
particularly helpful and cooperative in her untiring efforts
during editing and preparation of the document. Her work is
greatly appreciated.
Acknowledgement and great appreciation are also given to the
secretarial staff of the Effluent Guidelines Division for their
efforts in the typing of drafts, making necessary revisions, and
final preparation of the document.
Appreciation is extended to various persons within the beet sugar
processing industry for their willing cooperation in providing
requested data and their assistance in regard to on-site plant
visits. Mr. Dave c. Carter, Executive Vice President, U.S. Beet
Sugar Association; Mr. Clare H. Iverson, Chief Engineer, The
Great western Sugar company; Mr. J. P. Abbott, Chief Engineer,
Holly Sugar Corporation; and Mr. Ernest W. Beck, Jr., Vice
President - Operations and Mr. William O. Weckel, Assistant to
Vice President of Spreckels sugar Division, Amstar Corporation,
deserve special mention.
142
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SECTION XIII
REFERENCES
1. Anonymous, "State-of-Art, Sugarbeet Processing Waste
Treatment," A report prepared for the Beet Sugar Development
Foundation for the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, U. S,
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., July 1971.
2. Request for Proposal No. WA 73X-002 Effluent Limitation
Guidelines, Part II, Description of the Requirement, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, October 1972.
3. 1967 Census of Manufacturers, Sugar and confectionery Products
Publication MC67(2)-20F, Bureau of the census, U. S. Department
of Commerce, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
20242, August 1970.
4. Gurnham, C. F., Industrial Wastewater Control, Academic
Press, New York, 1965.
5. Force, S. L., "Beet Sugar Factory Wastes and Their Treatment,
Primarily the Findlay System," 17th Purdue Industrial Waste
Symposium. (1962.)
6. Lof, George O. G., Ward, John C, and Hao, O. J., "Combined
Cooling and Bio-treatment of Beet Sugar Factory Condenser Water
Effluent," Environmental Resources Center, Colorado state
University, Fort Collins, Colorado, Completion Report OWRR,
Project No. A-008-COLO submitted to Office of Water Resources
Research, U. S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C.
20242, June 30, 1971.
7. Roy F. weston. Inc., Preliminary unpublished summary report of
sugar industry, 1972.
8. Brent, Ronald w. and Fischer, James H,, "Concentration of
Sugarbeet wastes for Economic Treatment with Biological Systems."
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April 6-8, 1970, Portland, Oregon, Water Pollution Control
Research Series 12060—04 per70, U. S, Department of the
Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration.
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Pl£H£ Flume Water, British Columbia Research Council, University
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11. Tsugita, Ronald A., Oswald, William J., Cooper, Robert C,
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143
-------
Water by Lagooning, a Pilot Study."
Technology 15(4): 282-297, 1969,
Am_j
12. Lof, George 0. G. and Kneese, Allen Y., Tae Economics of
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144
-------
22* "Rate Studies for BOD Removal in Beet Pluming Water -
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24. Pearson, E. and Sawyer, C. N., "Recent Developments in
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25. Elridge, E. P.,
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Industrial Waste Treatment Practice, New
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26. Rodgers, H. 6. and Smith, L., "Beet Sugar Waste Lagooning",
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p. 136, (May 1953) .
27. Hopkins, G., et al. "Evaluation of Broad Field Disposal of
Sugar Beet Wastes" Sewage ajid Industrial Wastes Journal• 28, 12,
1466, (December 1956).
28. Inciustr.ia4 Wastewater control—A Textbook and Reference
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30. Hungerford, E. H. and Fischer, James H,, "State-of^Art
Sugarbeet Processing Waste Treatment," Proceedings of Second
National Symposium on Food Processing Waste, Denver, Colorado,
March 23-26, 1971, Water Pollution Control Research Series 12060-
-03, Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D, C. (1971).
31. "Summary Report on the Beet Sugar Processing Industry (Sic
2063)," U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of water
Programs, Division of Applied Technology, The Industrial wastes
Studies Program (1972).
32. Oswald, William J., Galueke, Clarence G.f cooper, Robert c.
and Tsugita, Ronald N., Anaerobic-Aerobic Ponds for Treatment oi
Beet Sugar Wastes, Denver, Colorado, March 23-26, 1971, Water
Pollution Control Research Series, 12060 03, Superintendent of
Documents, Washington, D. C. (1971)
33. Partially drafted report of findings and results of Phase I
of EPA Project No. 11060 ESC "Separation, Dewatering, and
Disposal of Sugarbeet Transplant Water Solids," Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D. C. (1973).
145
-------
34. "Effluent Limitation Guidance for the Refuse Act Permit
Program, Beet Sugar Processing Industry," U. S- Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D. c. (June 13, 1972).
35. "Beet Sugar Companies in the United states (Executive
offices and Staffs, Factory Locations, Capacities, and Principal
Personnel)," Washington, D. c. (October 25, 1972).
36, "sugar statistics and Related Data," Administration of the
HA jLs, sugar Acts, Volume II (Revised), Statistical Bulletin No.
244, Agricultural, Manufacturing and Income Statistics for
Domestic Sugar Areas, Revised February 1969, USDA, Washington, D.
C. (Feb. 1970).
37. "Sugar statistics and Related Data," Compiled in the
Administration of the Sugar Acts, Volume I (Revised), Statistical
Bulletin No. 293, Supplies^ "Distribution, Quota Operations,
Prices and International Data through 1968, Revised December
1969, USDA, Washington, D. C. (February 1970).
38. The Gilmore Louisiana - Florida - Hawaii Sucjar Manual 1971,
Edited by Aldrich C. Bloomquist, The Gilmore Sugar Manual
Division, Bloomquist Publications, Fargo, North Dakota.
39. "Economic Impact of Water Pollution Control Requirements on
the Sugar Beet Industry," A report prepared by Development and
Planning Research Assoc., Inc., for U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Water Programs, Division of Applied
Technology, Washington, D. C. (1972),
40. "Cost of Waste Water Treatment Processes". A report
prepared by the Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory,
Robert A. Taft Research Center for U. S. Department of the
Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
Washington, D. C. (1968).
41. "Pretreatment Guidelines for the Discharge of Industrial
Waste to Municipal Treatment Works." Roy F. Weston, Inc., West
Chester, Pennsylvania, Draft prepared for the U. S. Environmental
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(November 17, 1972).
42. Linsley, Ray H., Kohler, Max A. and Paulhaus, Joseph L. H.,
Hydrology for Engineering. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York
(1950) .
43. Steel, Ernest W,, Water Supply and Sewage, McGraw--Hill Book
Co-, Inc., New York (1960)
44, Grant, Eugene L. and Ireson, W. Grant, Principles of
Engineering Economy. The Ronald Press Co., New York (1960).
45. "Sewage Treatment Plant Design," Prepared by A Joint
Committee of the water Pollution Control Federation and the
146
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American Society of Civil Engineers.
Federation, Washington, D. C. (1959).
Water Pollution control
46. "Recommended Standards for Sewage Works," A report of the
Committee of the Great Lakes-Upper Mississippi River Board of
Sanitary Engineers, Health Education Service, Albany, New York
(1968) .
<*7. Brent, Ronald, W., "condenser
Campaign," Memorandum (March 1972),
Water Survey 1971-72
48. Smith, Robert and Eilers, Richard G., "Cost to the consumer
for collection and Treatment of Waste Water," Water Pollution
Control Research Series. Project No. 17070, Environmental
Protection Agency (1970) .
49. U. S, Public Health Service, "An Industrial Waste Guide to
the Beet Sugar industry," (1950).
50. Minnesota State Department of Health, "Progress Report on
Study of the Disposal of Beet Sugar Wastes by the Lagoon Method:
Sept. 1950 to March 1951", (1951)
51. McAdams, William E., Heat Transmission, chemical Engineering
series. Third Edition, sponsored by the Committee on Heat
Transmission, National Research Council, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York (1954).
52. McKelvey, K. K. and Brooke, M., The Industrial Cooling
Tower, Elsevier, Amsterdam, (1959).
53. Berman, L. D., Evaporative Cooling of circulation Water,.
Pergamon Press, N.Y. (1961).
54. Parker, Frank L. and Krenkel, Peter A., "Thermal Pollution
Status of the Art," Report No. 3 Prepared for the Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration, Washington, D. C. (1969).
55. cotter, T. J. and Lotz, R. W., "Cooling Pond Design in the
Southwest," Journal of the Power Division, ASCE JJ7, 85-103
(1961) .
56. Climatic Atlas of the United States. U. S. Department of
Commerce, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
(1968) .
57 Statistical Abstracts of the United States. 29nd Annual
EditionT U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of census,
Washington, D. C. (1971) .
58. Provided by Mr. Clair H. Iversen, Chief Engineer, The Great
Western Sugar Company, Denver, Colorado (January 2, 1973).
147
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59. Provided by Mr. Herbert O. Ebell, General chemist, Michigan
Sugar Company, Saginaw, Michigan (February 1973).
60. cost Information as provided by Black & Veatch Consulting
Engineers, 1500 Meadowlake Parkway, Kansas City, Missouri
(February 1973) .
61. Information as provided by Mr. Dale Slant, Fluor Industry,
Santa Bosa, California (February 1973).
62. Beet Sugar Industry, Background Information on Development
of Effluent Limitations, Office of Refuse Act Permit Programs,
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D. C. As provided
to the Effluent Guidelines Division, EPA, by the Office of Permit
Programs, January 4, 1973.
63. Provided by Mr. David C. Carter, Executive Vice President,
U. S. Beet Sugar Association (January 26, 1973).
64. Fordyce, I. V., and cooley, A. M., "Separation, Dewatering
and Disposal of Sugar Beet Transport Water Solids, Phase I," A
project conducted under the sponsorship of the office of Research
and Monitoring, Environmental protection Agency, Washington, D.
C., Grant Project #12060 ESC (June 1972).
65. Beet-Sugar Technology Edited by R. A. McGinnis, Second
Edition, published by Beet Sugar Development Foundation, P. O.
Box 538, Fort Collins, Colorado (1971)«
66. Blankenbach, W. W. and Williams, W. A., 15th Meeting
American society of Sugar Beet Technology, Phoenix, Arizona
(February 1968).
67. Miller, P. H., Eis, F. G. and Oswald, W. J., Pres. at 15th
Meeting American Society Sugar Beet Technology, Phoenix, Arizona
(February 1968).
68. ichikawO, K., Golueke, G. G. and Oswald, W. J., Pres. at
15th Meeting American Society Sugar Beet Technology, Phoenix,
Arizona (Feb. 1968).
69. Crane, G. W., "The Conservation of Water and Final Treatment
Effluent." Proc. at 19th Technical Conference British Sugar
Corporation, Ltd. (June 1968) .
70. Tsugita, R. A., Oswald, W. J., Cooper, R. C. and Golueke, C.
G., Pres. 15th Meeting American Society Sugar Beet Technology,
Phoenix, Arizona.
71. Querio, C. W. and Powers, T. J., Proc. of the 34th Annual
Meeting Water Pollution Control Federation, Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
(Oct. 1961) .
148
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72. "Policy on Subsurface Emplacement of Fluids by Well
Injection." A policy statement issued by the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency with accompanying "Recommended Data
Requirements for Environmental Evaluation of Subsurface
Emplacement of Fluids by Well Injection," Washington, D.C.
(February 1973).
73. "Treatment of Selected Internal Kraft Mill Wastes in a
Cooling TOwer," report of findings and results prepared by the
Georgia Kraft Company Research and Development Center under
Program #12040 EEK, Grant #WPRD 116-01^68 for the Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D. c. Superintendent of
Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. c.
(Aug. 1971) .
74. As obtained by on-site plant visits by EPA personnel during
January- February 1973.
75. Iverson, Clair H,, "Water consumption of A Typical Beet
Sugar Factory," The Great Western Sugar company, Denver, Colorado
(February 1973).
76. Sawyer, Clair N., chemistry for Sanitary Engineers, McGraw-
Hill Book Company; New York, New York (1960).
77 • Public Health Service Drinking water Standards, Revised
j.942f U.S. Department of Health* Education and Welfare, U. s7
Public Health Service Publication No. 956, U. S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D, C. (1962),
78. "Methods for chemical Analysis of Water and wastes,"
Environmental Protection Agency, National Environmental Research
Center, Analytical Quality Control Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio
(1971) .
79. Environmental Protection Agency, "Proposed Drinking Water
Standards" 1971 Revision, U, S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Media Programs, Office of Water Hygiene, Division of
Water Hygiene, Washington, D, C. (1971).
80. "Existing and Proposed Effluent Criteria for Common
Pollution Indices," Proposed by Refuse Act Permit Program, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Region VIII, Denver, Colorado,
(subject to revision) (May 1972).
81. Fairall, J, M., Marshall, L. s. and Rhines, c. E., "Guide
for Conducting an Industrial Waste Survey (Draft)", U. s.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Water
Programs, Effluent Guidelines Division, Engineering and Sciences
Staff, Cincinnati, Ohio (1972).
82. Cooling Towers, Prepared by editors of Chemical Engineering
Progress, A technical manual published by American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, New York, New York (1972).
149
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83. Kolflat, T. D., "Cooling Towers - State of the Art," U.S.
Department of Interior, Atomic Industrial Forum Seminar,
Washington, D. C., February 13-14, 1973.
8U. cost of Wastewater Treatment Processes, Report No. TWRC-6,
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85. proceedings of a Symposium on Waste Stabilization Lagoons, A
Review of Research and Experiences in Design, Construction,
Operation and Maintenance, Kansas City, Missouri, Public Health
Service Publication No. 872, Superintendent of Documents,
Washington, D. C.
86. Glossary Water and sewage Control Engineering, Published
Under the Joint sponsorship of American Public Health
Association, American society of Civil Engineers, American Water
works Association, and Federation of Sewage and Industrial Wastes
Associations.
87. Hardenbergh, W. A. and Edward B. Rodie, Hater supply and
W^SiS Disposal, International Textbook company, ScrantonT
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89. select committee on National Resources, U.S.
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92. Proceedings of the National Ground Water Quality Symposium,
Co-sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the
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Office, Washington, D.c.
93. Report on Water Quality Investigations, North Platte River
Basin Torrington, Wyoming, to Bayard, Nebraska, Office of
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150
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Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, Division of Field
Investigations - Denver Center, Denver, Colorado, January, 1973.
95, Perry, John H., Chemical Engineering Handbook, 4th Edition,
McGraw- Hill, New York, New York (1963).
96. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 36th Edition, Chemical
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Department of Interior, Federal ^ Water Pollution Control
Administration, January 10, 1968.
98. The Economics of Cle*an Water, Volume Ip Detailed Analysis,
U, s. Department of the* Interior, Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration, March, 1970.
99. Cos_t of Clean Water, Volume II, Cost Effectiveness and clean
Water, Environmenta1 Protection Agency, Water Quality Office,
March, 1971.
100. Proceedings of the Advanced Waste Treatment and Water Reuse
Symposium, Session 1-5, Sponsored by the U. S. Environmental
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and Water Pollution, Publication No. 15, Great Lakes Research
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Administration, Division of Research and Development, Advanced
Waste Treatment Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, May, 1970.
105. Anaerobic - Aerobic Ponds for Beet Sugar Waste Treatment,
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151
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Estimates for Tertiary wastewater Treating Processes, Treatment
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152
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SECTION XIV
GLOSSARY
Activated Sludge Process
A biological sewage treatment process in which a mixture of sewage
and activated sludge is agitated and aerated. The activated
sludge is subsequently separated from the treated sewage (mixed
liquor) by sedimentation and wasted or returned to the process
as needed. , The treated sewage overflows the weir of the settling
tank in which separation from the sludge takes place.
Aeration
The bringing about of intimate contact between air and a liquid
by one of the following methods: Spraying the liquid in the air;
bubbling air through the liquid or agitation of the liquid
to promote surface absorption of air.
Aeration Period
(1) The theoretical time, usually expressed in hours, that
the mixed liquor is subjected to aeration in an aeration tank
undergoing activated sludge treatment; equal to (a) the volume
of the tank divided by (b) the volumetric rate of flow of the
sewage and return sludge. (2) The theoretical time that water is
subjected to aeration.
The presence in the atmosphere of one or more air contaminants in
quantities, of characteristics, and of a duration, injurious to
human, plant, or animal life or property, or which unreasonably
interferes with the comfortable enjoyment thereof.
Alkalinity
A quality of waste waters due to the presence of weak bases
composed primarily of bicarbonates, carbonates, and hydroxides.
ftmmonia Nitrogen
All nitrogen in waste waters existing as the ammonium ion.
Anaerobic
Living or active in the absence of free oxygen.
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The solid residue left after incineration in the presence of
oxygen. In analysis of sugar products, sulfuric acid is added to
the sample, and this residue as "sulfated ash" heated to 800°C is
taken to be a measure of the inorganic constituents. It is
sometimes determined indirectly by measure of the electrical
conductivity of solutions of ttoe products.
Bacterial Quantit Unit
One measure of the total load of bacteria passing a given stream
location and is particularly useful in comparing relative loads
between stations. The number of BQU's is derived as the product
of flow in cfs and coliform density in MPN per 100 ml, divided by
100,000.
Beet End
The part of the sugar plant which includes the process through
the evaporators. In plants where the vacuum pans are heated by
vapors the evaporators are usually included in the sugar end.
Beet Pulp
The vegetable matter left after sugar is extracted from
cossettes. Used, wet, dehydrated, or pelleted as commercial
cattle feed.
Biological filtration
The process of passing a liquid through a biological filter
containing media on the surfaces of which zoogleal films develop
which absorb fine suspended, colloidal, and dissolved solids, and
release end products of biochemical action.
Biological Process
The process by which the life activities of bacteria and other
microorganisms in the search for food break down complex organic
materials into simple, more stable substances, self -purification
of sewage polluted streams, sludge digestion, and all so-called
secondary sewage treatments result from this process.
Beet Wheel
A large wheel with baffles projecting radially inward from the
surface of the perforated rim and used to raise beets to a higher
plane and separate them from the flume water; e.g., as from a
flume to a beet washer.
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BOD5 * 5-dav,_20°C Biochemical_Oxygen Demand
The quantity of oxygen used in the biochemical oxidation of
organic matter over a five-day period of incubation at 20°C. The
procedure is a standard test used in accessing waste water
pollutional strength. (The term is printed as BOD£ rather than
using the subscript number because of printing limitations.)
Slowdown
A discharge from a system designed to prevent a buildup of some
material, as in a boiler to control dissolved solids.
Brig
A hydrometer scale calibrated to.read percent sugar by weight in
pure sugar solutions. Originated by Balling, improved and
corrected by Brix.
Calcination
The roasting or burning of any substance to bring about physical
or chemical changes; e.g., the conversion of lime rock to
quicklime.
Campaign
The period of the year during which
plant produces sugar.
Carbonation
the beet sugar processing
The process of treatment with carbon dioxide gas.
Caustic
Capable of destroying or eating away by chemical action.
to strong bases.
Chain-grate stoker
Applied
A stoker system which moves the coal in a continuous bed from the
bottom of a feed hopper into the furnace by means of a moving
grate, consisting of a continuous belt constructed of many
individual cast - iron chain links so assembled as to allow air
to pass through.
Clarification
The process of removing undissolved materials from a liquid.
Specifically, removal of suspended solids either by settling or
filtration.
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Coagulation
(1) The agglomeration of colloidal or finely divided suspended
matter by the addition to the liquid of an appropriate chemical
coagulant, by biological processes, or by other means. (2) The
process of adding a coagulant and necessary other reacting
chemicals.
COP - Chemical Oxygen Demand
A measure of the oxygen consuming capacity of inorganic and
organic matter present in water or waste water. It is expressed
as the amount of oxygen consumed from a chemical oxidant in a
specific test.
Conductivity
A measure of the ability of water in conducting an electrical
current, in practical terms, it is used for approximating the
salinity or total dissolved solids content of water.
Cpssette
Long, thin strips into which sugar beets are sliced before sugar-
containing juices are extracted. The strips somewhat resemble
shoestring potatoes.
Crop Year
In the sugar beet area in Southern California and all other
States the crop year corresponds to the calendar year of
planting. In Northern California, a crop of sugar beets planted
in the interval beginning November 1 of one calendar year through
October 31 of the following calendar year is designated by crop
year to correspond with that following calendar year.
Depletion, or Logs
The volume of water which is evaporated, embodied in product, or
otherwise disposed of in such a way that it is no longer
available for reuse in the plant or available for reuse by
another outside the plant.
An apparatus into which water and cossettes are fed, the water
extracting sugar from the sugar beet cells.
Detention Period
The theoretical time required to displace the contents of a tank
or unit at a given rate of discharge (volume divided by rate of
discharge) .
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DO,- Dissolved Oxygen
The oxygen dissolved in waste water or other liquid expressed in
mg/1 or percent of saturation.
Dust Box
A device to remove sugar dust from air, usually employing water
sprays; a dust collector.
Effluent
Process waste water, treated or untreated, resulting from beet
sugar processing operations.
Earthen Pond
A pond constructed with or without filtration control measures
for the purpose of detention, long-term storage, or land disposal
of influent waste waters.
Electrostatic Precipitator
A gas cleaning device using the principle of placing an
electrical charge on a solid particle which is then attracted to
an oppositely-charged collector plate. The device uses a d-c
potential approaching 40,000 volts to ionize and collect the
particulate matter. The collector plates are intermittently
rapped to discharge the collected dust into a hopper below.
Extraction Rate Efficiency
The percentage relationship between the sugar recovered and the
sugar content .in sugar beets.
Faculative Pond
An earthen detention facility for treatment of process waste
water incorporating both aerobic and anaerobic biological
regimes.
Fecal.Coliform Bacteria
A group of bacteria of fecal origin within the coliform group
inhabiting the intestines of man or animal. The group comprises
all of the aerobic and facultative anaerobic, gram negative, non-
spore forming, rod-shaped bacteria which ferment lactose with gas
formation within 48 hours at 35°C. In addition, the bacteria
will produce gas within 24 plus or minus 3 hours at 43 plus or
minus 0.2°c when inoculated into EC culture medium.
Filtrate
Liquid after passing through a filter.
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Filtration
Removal of solid particles from liquid or particles from air or
gas stream by passing the liquid or gas stream through a filter
medium,
Flume Waste Water
The normal term applied to the discharge of flume water which is
employed to convey beets into the beet sugar processing plant.
gas Washer
Apparatus used to remove entrained solids and other substances
from carbon dioxide gas from a lime kiln.
Glucose
(1) An alternate chemical name for dextrose. (2) A name given
to corn syrup which is obtained by the action of acids and/or
enzymes on cornstarch. Commercial corn syrups are nearly
colorless and very viscous. They consist principally of dextrose
and another sugar, maltose, combined with gummy organic materials
known as dextrins, in water solution.
Granulator
A rotary drier used to remove free moisture from sugar crystals
before packaging or storing.
sense the
Ground Water
Water in the ground beneath the surface. In a strict
term applies only to water below the water table.
Holding^Pond
An earthen facility, with or without lining to control soil
filtration, constructed for the primary purpose of waste
detention before discharge, or containment or disposal of waste
water without direct discharge to surface waters by the
mechanisms of evaporation and ground filtration. Within the
context of the meaning of the term filtration used in this
report, filtration shall imply controlled ground filtration
within specified limitations, and such as not to contribute
adversely to the quality of ground or surface waters. Filtration
control measures may be required to limit filtration from holding
ponds within this context.
Lime Cake
The lime mud resulting upon clarification and purification of the
raw sugar juice by heating, lime addition, and precipitation in
an insoluble precipitate.
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Lime Mud slurry
The product resulting from the addition of water to lime cake to
facilitate pumping of the material for further handling and/or
disposal.
Lime Pond
An earthen diked area to which the lime
filter cake is transported and held.
Massecuite
mud slurry or waste
The mixture of mother liquor and sugar crystals produced in the
sugar boiling process (literally, a "cooked mass").
Mechanical Clarifier
A man-made device designed specifically for the detention of
waste water for the purpose of removal of the settleable solids
from the waste water under controlled operating conditions.
Molasses
A clark-colored syrup containing non-sugars produced in processing
both beet and cane sugar. Beet molasses is used as commercial
cattle feed or in the manufacture of monosodium glutamate, a food
flavoring agent, alcohol, yeast, citric acid, and other products.
Mother Liquor
The solution from which crystals are formed.
MEN - Most Probable Number
In the testing of bacterial density by the dilution method that
number of organisms per unit volume which, in acccordance with
statistical theory, would be more likely than any other possible
number to yield the observed test result or which would yield the
observed test result with the greatest frequency. Expressed as
density of organisms per 100 ml.
organic nitrogen into nitrates through
The oxidation of
biochemical action.
Nonsugar
Any material present, aside from water, which is not a sugar.
Pan
A single-effect evaporator used to crystallize sugar.
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Percentage Seduction
The ratio of material removed from water or sewage by treatment
to the material originally present (expressed as a percentage).
A measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity of water. The
reciprocal of the logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. A
pH value of 7.0 indicates a neutral condition, less than 7.0
indicates a predominance of acids, and greater than 7, a
predominance of alkalis.
Process Effluent or Discharge
The volume of water emerging from a particular use in the plant.
gond Lime
Lime cake after being run into waste ponds.
Population Equivalents (P.E.)
Description of the pollutional effect of various waste discharges
in terms of a corresponding effect of discharging raw sewage from
an equivalent number of human population. Each P.E. represents
the waste contributed by one person in a single day, generally
equivalent to 0.17 Ibs BOD5.
Process flasfre Watey
All water used in or resulting from the processing of sugar beets
to refined sugar, including barometric condenser water, beet
transport (flume) water, and all other liquid wastes including
cooling waters,
gulp Press
A mechanical pressure device which squeezes the exhausted
cossettes (pulp) to remove a portion of the inherent water.
Pulp_Screen Water
Water which is drained from the wet insoluble pulp after the
diffusion process but before the pulp is pressed to remove extra--
neous water and sugar.
Drainage
Drainage water resulting from discharge of pulp from the diffuser
with screenings to a silo equipped with channels for drainage
water collection.
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Purity
A measure of the actual sugar content in relation to the total
dry substance in sugar beets. Specifically, the percentage of
sucrose in total solids.
Raw Sugar
Raw Sugar is an intermediate product consisting of crystals of
high purity covered with a film of low quality syrup.
Raw Value
Raw value is a computed weight of sugar used in the Sugar Act for
a common expression of different types and qualities of sugar.
The major types of sugars are converted to raw value as follows:
(1) For hard refined crystalline sugar multiply the
number of Ib thereof by 1.07.
(2) For raw cane sugar, multiply the number of Ib
by the figure obtained by adding to 0.93 the result
of multiplying 0.175 by the number of degrees and
fractions of a degree of polarization above 92 degrees.
(3) For sugar and liquid sugar, testing less than 92 degrees
by the polariscope, divide the number of Ib of
the "total sugar content" thereof by 0.972.
Raw Sugar Juice
The liquid product remaining after extraction of sugar from the
sliced beets (cossettes) during the diffusion process.
Riparian
An adjective describing anything connected with or adjacent to
the banks of a stream or other body of water.
Refined Sugar
A high purity sugar normally used for human consumption.
Saccharate Milk
A slurry of calcium saccharate from the steffen process.
Screening
The removal of relatively coarse floating and suspended solids by
straining through racks or screens.
Seal Tank
The tank on the bottom of a barometric leg pipe.
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Sedimentation
The sedimentation of suspended matter in a liquid aided or
unaided by chemicals or other special means and without provision
for the decomposition of deposited solids in contact with the
sewage.
S^icer
Usually a drum on which V-shaped corrugated knives are mounted.
This machine produces the cossettes.
Slicing Capacity
Processing capacity. The weight of sliced sugar beets a plant
processes within a 24-hour period.
The settled mud from a thickener clarifier. Also, in the Steffen
process, the vacuum filter tray bottoms returned to the process
as wet lime for preliming the diluted molasses. Generally,
almost any flocculated, settled mass.
Steffen Prpcess
A process employed at some beet sugar processing plants for
recovery of additional sucrose from molasses- The process is
generally carried on in conjunction with the main sugar
extraction process at non-Steffen or "straight-house" plants.
The process consists of the addition of finely ground calcium
oxide to dilute molasses under low temperature conditions.
Sugar, Steffen filtrate, and insoluble calcium saccharate are
produced, filtered out, and generally reused at the main
purification step of the normal "straighthouse" extraction
process.
Steffen Filtrate
The waste which is separated from the calcium saccharate.
Sucrose
A disaccharide having the formula C^gHg^p^I. The terms sucrose
and sugar are generally interchangeable, and the common sugar of
ccmmerce is sucrose in varying degrees of purity. Refined cane
and beet sugars are essentially 100 percent sucrose.
Sugar
A sweet, crystallizable substance, colorless or white when pure,
occurring in many plant juices and forming an important article
of human food. The chief sources of sugar are the sugar cane and
the sugar beet, the completely refined products of which are
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identical and form the granulated sugar of commerce. Chemically,
sugar is a disaccharide with the formula CT2#22O±1 formed by
union of one molecule of dextrose with one molecule of levulose.
Supernatant
The layer floating above the surface of a layer of solids,
Spray Irrigation
Irrigation by means of nozzles along a pipe on the ground or from
perforated overhead pipes.
Surface Irrigation
The process of waste water irrigation in which waste water is
applied to and distributed over the surface of the ground.
Suspended Solids
(1) The quantity of material deposited when a quantity of waste
water, sewage^ or other liquid is filtered through an asbestos
mat in a Gooch crucible. (2) solids that either float on the
surface of or are in suspension in water, sewage, or other
liquids and which are largely removable by laboratory filtering.
Sweetwater
Dilute sugar solution, formed from washing filter cakes or
granular carbon beds, too dilute to continue with the filtrate
into the main process stream. Normally used in making milk of
lime and saccharate milk.
Tare
waste material which must be discharged. Also, the empty weight
of a container used for weighing or transporting material.
Total Coliform Bacteria
Represents a diverse group of microorganisms whose presence has
been classically used as indication of sewage pollution in water
supplies. They are always present in the intestinal tract of man
and other warm-blooded animals and are excreted in large number
in fecal wastes. Where such fecal pollution exists there is
always the possibility of the presence of enteric pathogenic
bacteria and other pathogenic entities. Increasing density of
the coliform bacteria group is assumed to represent an increase
in the quantity of pollution and therefore greater hazard. It
must be noted under some circumstances total coliform may be
present which are derived from sources other than fecal excreta.
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TDS r Total Dissolved Solids
The solids in water, sewage, or other liquids, which include the
suspended solids (largely removable by filter paper) and the
filterable solids (those which pass through filter paper).
Trickling Filter
A filter consisting of an artificial bed of coarse material, such
as broken slag, clinkers, slate, slats, or brush, over which
sewage is distributed and applied in drops, films, or spray, from
troughs, drippers, moving distributors, or fixed nozzles, and
through which it trickles to the underdrains, giving opportunity
for the formation of zoogleal slimes which clarify and oxidize
the applied sewage.
Vacuum Filter
A filter consisting of a cylindrical drum mounted on a horizontal
axis, covered with a filter cloth, revolving with a partial sub*
mergence in liquid. A vacuum is maintained under the cloth for
the larger part of a revolution to extract moisture. The cake is
scraped off continuously.
Derived from boiling juices, as differentiated from steam
generated in the boiler house or obtained from exhaust of
turbines or engines.
wet scrubbing
A gas cleaning system using water or some suitable liquid to
entrap particulate matter, fumes, and absorbable gases. The
collected substances are then withdrawn along with the scrubbing
liquid.
waste_Discharged
The amount (usually expressed by weight) of some residual
substance which is suspended or dissolved in the plant effluent
after treatment, if any, and conveyed directly to surface waters.
Waste Generated
The amount (usually expressed as weight) of some residual
substance generated by a plant process or the plant as a whole
and which is suspended or dissolved in water. This quantity is
measured before treatment.
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Watercourse
A channel in which a flow of water occurs, either continuously or
intermittently and if the latter, with some degree of regularity.
The flow must g be in a definite direction. Watercourses may be
either natural or artificial, and the former may occur either on
the surface or underground. A different set of legal principles
may apply to rights to use water from different classes of
watercourses.
Water_Riqhts
The rights acquired under the law to use the water occurring in
surface or ground waters for a specified purpose and in a in
surface or ground waters for a specified purpose and in a given
manner and usually within the limits of a given period. While
these rights may include the use of a body of water for
navigation, fishing, and hunting, other recreational purposes,
etc., the term is usually applied to the right to divert or store
water for some beneficial purpose or use, such as irrigation,
generation of hydroelectric power, or domestic or municipal water
supply. In some states, a water right by law becomes appurtenant
to the particular tract of land to which the water is applied.
Water Recirculation_or Recycling
The volume of water already used for some purpose in the plant
which is returned with or without treatment to be used again in
the same or another process.
Watey Use or Gross Use
The total volume of water applied to various uses in the plant.
It is the sum of water recirculation and water withdrawal.
Water Withdrawal, or .Intake
The volume of fresh water removed from a surface or underground
water source (stream, lake, or aquifer) by plant facilities or
obtained from some source external to the plant.
Zooglea
A jelly-like matrix developed by bacteria. The word is usually
associated with activated sludge growths in biological beds.
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TABLE XVIII
CONVERSION TABLE
MULTIPLY (ENGLISH UNITS)
ENGLISH UNIT ABBREVIATION
acre
acre - feet
British Thermal
Unit
British Thermal
Unit/pound
cubic feet/minute
cubic feet/second
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic inches
degree Fahrenheit
feet
gallon
galIon/minute
horsepower
inches
inches of mercury
pounds
million gallons/day
mile
pound/square
inch (gauge)
square feet
square inches
tons (short)
yard
1 Actual conversion, not a multiplier
by TO OBTAIN (METRIC UNITS)
CONVERSION ABBREVIATION METRIC UNIT
hectares
cubic meters
kilogram - calories
kilogram calories/kilogram
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters
liters
cubic centimeters
degree Centigrade
meters
liters
liters/second
killowatts
centimeters
atmospheres
kilograms
cubic meters/day
kilometer
atmospheres (absolute)
square meters
square centimeters
metric tons (1000 kilograms)
meters
ac
ac ft
BTU
BTU/lb
cfm
cfs
cu ft
cu ft
cu in
F°
ft
gal
gpm
hp
in
in Hg
Ib
mgd
mi
psig
sq ft
sq in
ton
yd
0.405
1233.5
0.252
0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555(°F-32)1
0.3048
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
3,785
1.609
(0.06805 peig +1)1
0.0929
6.452
0.907
0.9144
ha
cu m
kg cal
kg cal/kg
cu ra/mln
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kg
cu m/day
km
atm
sq m
sq cm
kkg
m
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