EPA
  GROUP II,
       Development Document for
Interim Final Effluent Limitations Guidelines
  and New Source Performance Standards
                for the

          MINERALS FOR  THE
       CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
                VOL. I


         MINERAL MINING AND
         PROCESSING INDUSTRY
         Point Source Category
 UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
             OCTOBER 1975

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          DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT
                  for
             INTERIM FINAL
    EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
      and STANDARDS Of PERFORMANCE
 MINERAL MINING AND PROCESSING  INDUSTRY
                VOLUME I
 Minerals for the Construction  Industry
            Russell E. Train
             Administrator

        Andrew W. Breidenbach, Ph.D.
     Acting Assistant Administrator for
     Water and Hazardous Materials

            Eckardt c. Beck
   Deputy Assistant Administrator for
      Water Planning  and Standards
              Allen Cywin
 Director, Effluent Guidelines  Division

         Michael w. Kosakowski
            Project Officer
              October  1975

      Effluent Guidelines Division
Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
        Washington, D.C.    20460

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                          CONTENTS


section

         Abstract                                     i

   I     Conclusions                                  1

  II     Recommendations                              3

 III     Introduction                                 5

  IV     Industry Categorization                      51

   V     Water Use and Waste Characterization         55

  VI     Selection of Pollutant Parameters            151

 VII     Control and Treatment Technology             161

VIII     Cost Energy and Non-Water Quality Aspects    193

  IX     Effluent Reduction Attainable Through        239
           the Application of the Best Prac-
           ticable Control Technology Currently
           Available

   X     Effluent Reduction Attainable Through        255
           Application of the Best Available
           Technology Economically Achievable

  XI     New Source Performance Standards and         261
           Pretreatment standards

 XII     Acknowledgements                             267

XIII     References                                   269

 XIV     Glossary                                     273
                           iii

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                        FIGURES


                                                  Page

 1     Dimensional Granite                          14

 2     Dimensional Limestone                        15

 3     Dimensional, Sandstone, Quartz, Quartzite    16

 4     Crushed Granite                              21

 5     Crushed Limestone and Dolomite               22

 6     Sand and Gravel Production                   27

 7     Sand and Gravel Facilities                   28

 8     Industrial Sand Deposits                     33

 9     Gypsum Operations                            39

10     Asbestos Deposits                            44

11     Dimension Stone Mining and Processing        61

12     Crushed Stone  (Dry) Mining and               70
         Processing

13     Crushed Stone  (Wet) Mining and               72
         Processing

14     Crushed Stone  (Flotation) Mining             79
         and Processing

15     Sand and Gravel (Dry) Mining and             83
         Processing

16     Sand and Gravel (Wet) Mining and             87
         Processing

17     Sand and Gravel (HMS) Mining and             88
         Processing

18     Sand and Gravel (Dredging with On-           94
         land Processing)  Mining and
         Processing

19     Industrial Sand (Dry) Mining and             101
         Processing

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20     Industrial Sand  (Wet) Mining and            104
         Processing

21     Industrial Sand  (Flotation)  Mining           10?
         and Processing

22     Gypsum  (Dry) Mining and Processing           112

23     Gypsum  (HMS) Mining and Processing           117

24     Bituminous Limestone Mining  and              120
         Processing

25     Oil Impregnated Diatomite Mining            121
         and Processing

26     Gilsonite Mining and Processing              123

27     Asbestos (Dry) Mining and Processing         126

28     Asbestos (Wet) Mining and Processing         129

29     Wollastonite Mining and Processing           132

30     Perlite Mining and Processing                134

31     Pumice Mining and Processing                137

32     Vermiculite Mining and Processing            139

33     Mica and Sericite (Dry)  Mining and           143
         Processing

34     Mica (Wet)  Mining and Processing            145

35     Mica (Flotation or Spiral Separation)        143
         Mining and Processing

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                           TABLES
Table
   1     Recommended BPCTCA and BATEA for the       4
           Minerals for the Construction
           Industry Segment of the Mineral
           Mining and Processing Industry, for
           Process Water Only

   2     Data Base                                  9

   3     1972 Production and Employment Figures     12
           for the Industries Mining and Pro-
           cessing Minerals for the Construction
           Industry

   4     Dimension Stone Shipped or Used by         17
           Producers in the United States, by
           Use and Kind of Stone

   5     1973 Size Distribution of Crushed Stone    20
           Facilities

   6     1972 Uses of Crushed Stone                 25

   7     1972 Size Distribution of Sand and         29
           Gravel Facilities

   8     1972 Uses of Sand and Gravel               31

   9     1972 Uses of Industrial Sand               34

  10     Industry Categorization                    53

  11     Dimension Stone Water Use                  64

  12     Settling Pond Performance stone,           182
           Sand and Gravel operations

  13     Summary of Technology Applications,        189
           Limitations and Reliability

  14     Capital Investments and Energy Con-        195
           sumption of Present Waste water
           Treatment Plants

  15     Cost for a Representative Plant            201
           (Dimension Stone)

  16     Cost for a Representative Plant            204
                            vii

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          (Crushed  Stone,  Wet Process)

17     Cost for a  Representative Plant             209
          (Construction  Sand  and  Gravel,  Wet
         Process)

18     cost for a  Representative Plant             216
          (Industrial Sand, Wet Process)

19     Cost for a  Representative Plant             219
          (Industrial Sand, Acid  and  Alkaline
         Process)

20     Cost for a  Representative Plant             221
          (Industrial Sand, HF Flotation)

21     Cost for a  Representative Plant             226
          (Gilsonite)

22     Cost for a  Representative Plant             230
          (Vermiculite)

23     Cost for a Representative Plant             233
          (Mica, eastern)

24     Conversion Table                   - — •       280
                         viii

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                         SECTION I
                        CONCLUSIONS
For purposes of establishing effluent limitations guidelines
and standards of performance, and for ease of  presentation,
the  mineral  mining  industry  has  been divided into three
segments to be published in three volumes:  minerals for the
construction  industry;  minerals  for  the   chemical   and
fertilizer  industries;  and  clay,  ceramic, refractory and
miscellaneous minerals.  These  divisions  reflect  the  end
uses  of  the  minerals  after mining and beneficiation.  In
this volume covering minerals for the construction industry,
the 15 minerals were grouped into 9 production subcategories
for reasons explained in Section IV.

Based on the  application  of  best  practicable  technology
currently  available,  6  of  the 9 production subcategories
under study can be operated with  no  discharge  of  process
generated  waste water pollutants to navigable waters.  With
the best available technology economically achievable, 8  of
the  9  production  subcategories  can  be  operated with no
discharge of process generated  waste  water  pollutants  to
navigable  waters.   No discharge of process generated waste
water pollutants to navigable waters is achievable as a  new
source performance standard for all production subcategories
except  mica  (wet  beneficiation process with ceramic grade
clay as by-product).  Mine water and contaiminated  facility
runoff   discharge   are   considered  separately  for  each
subcategory.

This  study  included  15  minerals  for  the   construction
industry   of   Standard   Industrial  Classification   (SIC)
categories 1411, 1422, 1423, 1429,  1442,  1446,  1492,  and
1499  with significant waste discharge potential as given in
the following list with the corresponding SIC code.

1.  Dimension Stone (1411)
2.  Crushed Stone  (1422, 1423, 1429)
3.  Construction Sand and Gravel (1442)
4.  Industrial Sand (1446)
5.  Gypsum (1492)
6.  Asphaltic Minerals (1499)
    a. Bituminous Limestone
    b. Oil Impregnated Diatomite
    c. Gilsonite
7.  Asbestos and Wollastonite (1499)
8.  Lightweight Aggregate Minerals  (1499)
    a. Perlite

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    b. Pumice
    c. Vermiculite
9.  Mica and Sericite  (1499)

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                         SECTION II


                      RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommended  effluent  limitations  guidelines  and  the
suggested  technologies are listed in Table 1.  pH should be
maintained between 6.0 and 9.0 units at all times.

The pretreatment standards will not  limit  total  suspended
solids  or  pH, unless ther6 is a problem of sewer plugging,
in which case 40 CFR 182.131(c)  applies.   Limitations  for
parameters  other  than TSS and pH are recommended to be the
same as proposed for  best  practicable  control  technology
currently  available   (for  existing  sources)  and  for new
source performance standards (for new sources).

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                                                  Table 1

             RecoTf-msnded  Limits  and  Standards  for the  Mineral  Mining  and Processing  Industry

The  following apply  to  process waste water  except where noted.

Subcategory                             BPCTCA                                   3ATEA and NSPS
                             max.  avg.  of 30      TT-IX.  for             nax.  avg.  of  30     max. for
                             consecutive days     any one day         consecutive days    any one day

Dimension stone,
Crushed stons, &
Construction Sand and
Gravel                                  No discharge                             No  discharge

    Mine drainage                    .             TSS 30 rag/1                             TSS 30 mg/1

Industrial Sand
    Dry processing,
    Wet processing,  &
    Non HF flotation                   No discharge                '             No  discharge
    HF flotation             TSS 0,044  kg/kkg     TSS 0.038 kg/kkg               No  discharge
                             F 0.005 kg/kkg       F 0.01 kg/kkg
    Mine drainage                                 TSS 30 rag/1                             TSS 30 mg/1

Gypsum
    Dry s-
    Heavy i'edia Separation              No discharge                             No  discharge
    Wet Scrubbers            TSS 0.13 kg/kkg      TSS 0,26 kg/kkg                No  discharge
    Mine drainage                                 TSS 30 mg/1                             TSS 30 rag/1

Bituminous limestone,
Oil-y.rapregnated diatomite,
Oilsonite,
Asbestos, Wollostonite,
Perlite,
Puird.ce,
Vennicul-i'rt:, and expanded
  lightweight aggregates               No discharge                             No  discharge
    Mine drainage                                TSS 30 mg/1                             XSS 30 mg/1

Mica & Sericite
    Dry pror.sslng,
    Wet processing &
    Wet processing and
     general clay recovery             Ho discharge                             No  discharge
    Wet processing and
    Ceramic grade clay
      recovery               TSS 1.5 kg/kkg       TSS 3.0 kg/kkg       TSS 1.25 kg/kkg     XSS 2.3 kg/kkg
    Mine drainage                                TSS 30 irg/1                             TSS 30 mg/1


pH      6-9 for all  subcategories
No discharge - Mo discharge of process waste water pollutants
kg/kkg - kg of pollutant/kkg of product
BPCTCA - Best practicable control  technology
,-'AT£A - Best available Lcchnolcgy  economically achievable
-iSi-S - Kew source parfor. -ir.c.e standari

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                        SECTION III
                        INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE AND AUTHORITY

The United States Environmental Protection Agency   (EPA)  is
charged  under  the  Federal  Water  Pollution  Control  Act
Amendments of 1972 with  establishing  effluent  limitations
which  must  be  achieved by point sources of discharge into
the navigable water of the United States.

Section 301 (b) of the Act requires the  achievement  by  not
later  than  July 1, 1977, of effluent limitations for point
sources, other than publicly owned  treatment  works,  which
are based on the application of the best practicable control
technology   currently   available   as   defined   by   the
Administrator  pursuant  to  Section  304(b)  of  the   Act.
Section  301(b)   also  requires the achievement by not later
than  July  1,  1983,  of  effluent  limitations  for  point
sources,  other  than  publicly owned treatment works, which
are  based  on  the  application  of  the   best   available
technology  economically  achievable  which  will  result in
reasonable further progress  toward  the  national  goal  of
eliminating  the  discharge of all pollutants, as determined
in accordance with regulations issued by  the  Administrator
pursuant  to  Section 304(b)  to the Act.  Section 306 of the
Act requires the achievement by new  sources  of  a  Federal
standard  of  performance  providing  for the control of the
discharge of pollutants which reflects the  greatest  degree
of  effluent reduction which the Administrator determines to
be achievable through the application of the best  available
demonstrated   control   technology,   processes,  operating
methods r   or   other   alternatives,    including,    where
practicable,    a   standard   permitting   no  discharge  of
pollutants.   Section  304(b)   of  the  Act   requires   the
Administrator to publish within one year of enactment of the
Act,   regulations   providing   guidelines   for   effluent
limitations setting forth the degree of  effluent  reduction
attainable  through  the application of the best practicable
control technology currently available  and  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  control  measures  and  practices achievable including
treatment techniques,  process  and  procedure  innovations,
operating  methods  and other alternatives.  The regulations
proposed herein set forth  effluent  limitations  guidelines
pursuant  to  Section 304 (b)  of the Act for the minerals for
the  Construction  Industry  segment  of  minerals  for  the
construction  industry  segment  of  the  mineral mining and

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processing industry point source category.  Section  306  of
the  Act requires the Administrator, within one year after a
category of sources is included in a list published pursuant
to Section 306(b)  (1)  (A) of the Act, to propose regulations
establishing  Federal  standards  of  performances  for  new
sources   within   such   categories.    The  Administration
published in the Federal Register of January  16,  1973   (38
F.R.  1624), a list of 27 source categories.  Publication of
an  amended  list  will  constitute  announcement   of   the
Administrator's  intention  of  establishing,  under Section
306, standards of  performance  applicable  to  new  sources
within the mineral mining and processing industry.  The list
will  be  amended  when proposed regulations for the Mineral
Mining and Processing Industry are published in the  Federal
Register.

SUMMARY OF METHODS

The  effluent  limitations  guidelines and standards of per-
formance proposed herein  were  developed  in  a  series  of
systematic   tasks.    The  mineral  mining  and  processing
industry was first studied  to  determine  whether  separate
limitations  and  standards  are  appropriate  for different
segments within a point  source  category.   Development  of
reasonable   industry   categories  and  subcategories,  and
establishment of effluent guidelines and treatment standards
requires a sound understanding and knowledge of the  mineral
mining  and  processing  industry,  the  processes involved,
waste water generation and characteristics, and capabilities
of existing control and treatment methods.

This report describes the results obtained from  application
of  the  above approach to the minerals for the construction
industry  segment  of  the  mineral  mining  and  processing
industry.  Thus, the survey and testing covered a wide range
of processes, products, and types of wastes.

The  products,  covered  in this report are listed below with
their SIC designations:

    a.   Dimension stone (1411)
    b.   Crushed stone (1422, 1423, 1429, 1499)
    c.   Construction sand and gravel (1442)
    d.   Industrial sand (1446)
    e.   Gypsum (1492)
    f.   Asphaltic Minerals (1499)
    g.   Asbestos and Wollastonite (1499)
    h.   Lightweight Aggregates (1499)
    i.   Mica and Sericite (1499)

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Some of the above minerals which are processed  only  (3295)
are also included.

Categorization and Waste Load Characterization

The  effluent  limitation  guidelines  and standards of per-
formance proposed herein were  developed  in  the  following
manner.  The point source category was first categorized for
the  purpose of determining whether separate limitations and
standards are appropriate for different  segments  within  a
point  source  category.   Such  subcategorization was based
upon raw  material  used,  product  produced,  manufacturing
process   employed,  and  other  factors.   The  raw  wastes
characteristics for each subcategory were  then  identified.
This  included  an  analysis of (1)  the source and volume of
water used in the process employed and the sources of  waste
and  waste  waters at the facility;  and  (2)  the constituents
of all waste waters including harmful pollutants  and  other
constituents  which  could  result  in  degradation  of  the
receiving water.   The  pollutants  of  waste  waters  which
should  be  subject  to  effluent limitations guidelines and
standards of performance were identified.

Treatment and Control Technologies

The  full  range  of  control  and  treatment   technologies
existing  within  each  subcategory  was  identified.   This
included an identification of  each  control  and  treatment
technology,  including  both  in-facility and end-of-process
technologies,  which  are  existent  or  capable  of   being
designed   for   each  subcategory.    It  also  included  an
identification  of  the  amount  of  pollutants   (including
thermal)   and  the  characteristics  of pollutants resulting
from the  application  of  each  of  the  treatment  control
technologies.  The problems, limitations, and reliability of
each  treatment and control technology were also identified.
In addition, the  non-water  quality  environmental  impact,
such  as the effects of the application of such technologies
upon other pollution problems, including air,  solid  waste,
noise  and  radiation  were  also  identified.   The  energy
requirements  of  each  of   the   control   and   treatment
technologies  were  identified  as  well  as the cost of the
application of such technologies.

Data Base

The data for identification and analyses were derived from a
number of sources.   These  sources  included  EPA  research
information,   published   literature,  qualified  technical
consultation, on-site  visits  and  interviews  at  numerous
mining   and  processing  facilities  throughout  the  U.S.,
interviews and meetings with various trade associations, and

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interviews  and meetings with various regional offices of the
EPA.  All references used in developing the  guidelines  for
effluent  limitations  and  standards of performance for new
sources reported herein are included in Section XIII of this
report.  Table 2 summarizes the data base  for  the  various
subcategories in this volume.

Facility Selection

The following selection criteria were developed and used for
the selection of facilities.

Discharge effluent quantities

Facilities  with  lowest effluent quantities or the ultimate
of no discharge of process generated waste water  pollutants
were  selected.  These facilities might have reuse of water,
raw material recovery and recycling, or use of  evaporation.
The   significant  criterion  was  minimal  waste  added  to
effluent streams per weight of product manufactured.

Land utilization

The efficiency of land use was considered.

Air pollution and solid waste control

The facilities must have possessed overall effective air and
solid waste pollution control where relevant in addition  to
water  pollution  control  technology.   Care  was  taken to
insure that all facilities chosen  have  minimal  discharges
into  the  environment  and that these sites do not exchange
one form of pollution for another of  the  same  or  greater
magnitude.

Effluent treatment methods and their effectiveness

Facilities  selected  shall  have  in use the best currently
available  treatment  methods,   operating   controls,   and
operational   reliability.    Treatment  methods  considered
included basic  process  modifications  which  significantly
reduce  effluent  loads  as  well  as conventional treatment
methods.

Facility facilities

All  facilities  chosen  had  all  the  facilities  normally
associated with the production of the specific product (s)  in
question.    Typical  facilities  generally  were  facilities
which have  all  their  normal  process  steps  carried  out
on-site.

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                                TABLE 2

                               DATA BASE
Subcategory
                      No._
                      Plants
                         194

                         ,800
                         ,700
                          10
                          50
                         750
                         ,250
                          50
                         100

                          20
                         130
                          17
Dimension Stone
Crushed Stone
  Dry                  1
  Wet                  2
  Flotation
  Shell Dredging
Construction Sand
  Gravel
  Dry
  Wet                  4
  Dredging (on-land)
  Dredging (on-board)
Industrial Sand
  Dry
  Wet
  Flotation (Acid &
  Alkaline)
  Flotation (HF)           1
Gypsum
  Dry                     73
  Wet Scrubbing            5
  HMS                      2
Asphaltic Minerals
  Bituminous Limestone     2
  Oil Impreg.Diatomite     1
  Gilsonite                1
Asbestos
  Dry                      4
  Wet                   .   1
  Wollastonite             1
Lightweight Aggregates
  Perlite                 13
  Pumice                   7
  Vermiculite              2
Mica & Sericite
  Dry                  '    7
  Wet                      3
  Wet Beneficiation        7
    TOTAL             10,201
No Plants

Visited
20
5
26
2
4
0
46
8
3
0
3
4
1
5
1
1
0
1
1
2
1
1
4
2
2
5
2
5
155
Data
Available
20
52
130
3
4
50
100
15
25
5
10
10
1
54
8
2
2
1
1
4
1
1
4
7
2
7
3
7
529

Sampled
5
*
9
1
0
*
15
0
0
*
2
2
1
2
1
A
A
A
1
1
A
*
A

A
A
A
A
40
* There is no discharge of process waste water in this subcategory
  under normal operating conditions.

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Facility management, philosophy

Facilities  were  preferred  whose  management  insists upon
effective  equipment  maintenance  and   good   housekeeping
practices.   These  qualities  are best identified by a high
operational factor and facility cleanliness.

Geographic location

Factors which were considered include  facilities  operating
in  close  proximity  to  sensitive vegetation or in densely
populated areas,  other factors such as  land  availability,
rainfall,  and differences in state and local standards were
also considered-

Raw materials

Differences in raw materials purities were given strong con-«
sideration in cases where the amounts of wastes are strongly
influenced by the purity of  raw  materials  used.   Several
facilities  using  different  grades  of  raw materials were
considered for those minerals for which raw material  purity
is a determining factor in waste control.

Diversity of processes

On  the  basis  that  all  of  the  above  criteria are met,
consideration  was   given   to   installations   having   a
multiplicity   of  manufacturing  processes.   However,  for
sampling purposes, the complex facilities chosen were  those
for  which  the  wastes  could be clearly traced through the
various treatment steps.

Production

On the basis that other criteria  are  equal,  consideration
was  given  to  the  degree  of production rate scheduled on
water pollution sensitive equipment.

Product

For cases in which purity requirements play a major role  in
determining  the  amounts  of  wastes  to be treated and the
degree of water recycling possible, different product grades
were considered for subcategorization.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF INDUSTRY BY PRODUCT

The materials categorized  in  SIC  groups  141,  142,  144,
industry  code  1492, and select minerals in code 1499, have
much in common in terms  of  their  occurrence,  mining  and
processing methods, and end product use.
                          10

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General  processing  for  crushed  and broken stone includes
quarrying or mining, crushing of oversize, and sizing of the
crushed material.  Use of crushed stone by the  construction
industry  accounts  for  over  50  percent  of crushed stone
consumption.  Other uses include manufactured fine aggregate
and lime manufacture.  The degree of material processing  is
dependent  on  customer demand.  Dimension stone is quarried
or mined  in  block  form  and  requires  special  saws  and
equipment  for  dressing  the  finished  stone.   Monumental
granite is the largest use category, in terms of value.

Sand and gravel is  quarried  or  hydraulically  mined,  the
oversize  is  crushed,  sand  and gravel separated by water,
gravel sized and sand  hydraulically  classified.   Over  90
percent   of   sand   and   gravel  consumption  is  by  the
construction  industry.   Industrial  sand  is  quarried  or
mined,  the  oversize is crushed, impurities are washed out,
milled, graded according to size, and dried.  Glass sand  is
generally  beneficiated  by  flotation  to  yield a low iron
content  product.   Predominant  uses  for  industrial  sand
include   glassmaking,   molding,   and  foundry  sand,  all
important to the construction industry.  Gypsum is  quarried
or  mined,  the  oversize  is crushed, and milled into "land
plaster." Most "land plaster" is calcined and processed into
gypsum board products for use by the construction  industry.
Asphaltic  minerals  are usually extracted from an open pit,
crushed, sized, and  sold  as  a  substitute  for  synthetic
asphalt  products.   Asbestos  is  quarried  or  mined,  the
oversize is crushed, dried, and air classified into specific
fiber  lengths.   Asbestos  is  used  as  an  insulator  and
fireproofing   material   in   the   construction  industry.
Lightweight aggregates are either quarried or expanded  into
lightweight   construction   materials.    Mica   is  mined,
beneficiated, and ground into insulation or filler  material
used in the construction and electrical industries.

The   1972   production   and  employment  figures  for  the
industries  mining   and   processing   minerals   for   the
construction industry were derived either from the Bureau of
the Census (U.S. Department of Commerce)  publications or the
Commodity  Data  Summaries  (1974)   Appendix I to Mining and
Minerals Policy, Bureau of Mines,  U.S.  Department  of  the
Interior.  These figures are tabulated in Table 3.

                 DIMENSION STONE (SIC 1411)

Rock  which  has  been  specially  cut  or shaped for use in
buildings, monuments, memorial and gravestones, curbing,  or
other  construction  or  special  uses  is  called dimension
stone.  Large quarry blocks suitable for cutting to specific
dimensions are also  classified  as  dimension  stone.   The
principal  dimension  stones are granite, marble, limestone.
                           11


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                          TABLE 3
           1972 Production and Employment Figures
          for the Industries Mining and Processing
           Minerals for the Construction Industry

SIC                                       1972 Production
Code          Product             1000 kkg  1000 tons      Employment

1411     Dimension stone-             542       598         2,000
         limestone                                         combined
1411     Dimension stone-             357       394        SIC 1411
         granite
1411     Dimension stone-             559       616
         other*
1422     Crushed & broken         542,400   598,000        29,400
         stone-limestone
1423     Crushed & broken          95,900   106,000         4,500
         stone granite
1429     Crushed & broken         113,000   124,600         7,400
         stone NEC
1499     Crushed & broken       	19,.000   (20,900) 	  Unknown
         stone shell
1442     Construction sand        650,000   717,000        30,300
         & gravel
1446     Industrial sand           27,120    29,999         4,400
1492     Gypsum                    11,200    12,330         2,900
1499     Bituminous Limestone       1,770     1,950        Unknown
1499     Oil-impregnated              109       120        Unknown
         diatomite
1499     Gilsonite                     45        50        Unknown
1499     Asbestos                     120       132           400
1499     Wollastonite                  63        70            70
1499     Perlite                      589       649           100
1499     Pumice                     3,460     3,810           525
1499     Vermiculite                  306       337           225
1499     Mica                         145       160            75

* Sandstone,  marble, et al
                               12

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slate, and sandstone.  Less common are diorite, basalt, mica
schist, quartzite, diabase and others.

Terminology in the dimension stone  industries  is  somewhat
ambiguous  and  frequently  does  not correspond to the same
terms used in mineralogical  rock  descriptions.   Dimension
granites include not only true granite, but many other types
of  igneous  and  metamorphic rocks such as quartz diorites,
syenites, quartz porphyries, gabbros, schists, and gneisses.
Dimension marble may be used as a term to describe not  only
true  marbles,  which are metamorphosed limestones, but also
any limestone that will take  a  high  polish.   Many  other
rocks  such  as  serpentines,  onyx,  travertines,  and some
granites are frequently called marble by the dimension stone
industry.  Hard cemented  sandstones  are  sometimes  called
quartzite   although  they  do  not  specifically  meet  the
mineralogical definition.

Many of the  continental  United  States  possess  dimension
stone  of- one  kind  or  other,  and  many have one or more
producing operations.  However, only a few have  significant
operations.  These are as follows:

    Granite   -    Minnesota
                   Georgia
                   Vermont
                   Massachusetts
                   South Dakota

    Marble    -    Georgia
              -    Vermont
                   Minnesota (dolomite)

    Limestone -    Indiana
                   Wisconsin

    Slate     -    Vermont
                   New York
                   Virginia
                   Pennsylvania

    Sandstone, Quartz, and Quartzite - Ohio, Pennsylvania,
                                       and New York
Figures  1,  2  and  3  give the U. S. production on a state
basis for  granite,  limestone  and  sandstone,  quartz  and
quartzite  respectively  the  principal  stones  quarried as
shown in Table 4.  There are less than 500  dimension  stone
mining  activities  in  the U.S.  Present production methods
for dimension stone range from the inefficient antiquated to
the technologically modern*  Quarrying methods  include  use
of   various   combinations   of  wire  saws,  jet  torches,
channeling  machines,   drilling   machines,   wedges,   and
                          13

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                                             FIGURE  1.

                                        DIMENSIONAL  GRANITE
                                       1972/1000  short tons
* Producing States (total  = 214.0)
National  Total  = 621.2
Data From:  Minerals Yearbook - 1972, Vol.  I
              Table 5, p.  1164

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                                            FIGURE 2

                                      DIMENSIONAL LIMESTONE
                                      1972/1000 short tons
* Producing States (Total  = 54.8)
National Total  = 411.1  (excluding P.R.)
Data From:  Minerals Yearbook - 1972, Vol.  I
              Table 6, p. 1164

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                                            FIGURE 3
                                     DIMENSIONAL SANDSTONE,
                                        QUARTZ, QUARTZITE
                                      1972/1000 short tons
* Producing States (Total  = 22.3}
National Total - 230.7
Data From:   Minerals  Yearbook -  1972,  Vol  I
              Table 7, p.  1165

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                                                     Table  4

                              DIMENSION STONE SHIPPED Oil VKKTi By rKOlXJCEHS IK THE
                                    UNITEi> STATES, BY USK  AN'. K.T.NI) OF -.TON!-
Kind of stone  and use
   GRANITE
                                   1000 short tons
                                                                      Kind of slonc  mid use
                                                                            continued
                                                              Dressed:
                                                                                                             1000  short tons

Rough :
Arch1"ecturnl
Cons L - uct ion
i.onumental
Other rough stone
Dressed ;
Cut
Sawed
House stone veneer
Construction
Monumental
Curbing
Flagging
Paving blocks
Other dressed stone

Total
Value ($1000)

LIMESTOIIE AND DOLOMITE

Rough:
Architectural
Construction
Flagging
Other rough stone
Dressed:
Cut
Sawed
House stone veneer
Construction
Flagging
Other dressed stone

Total
Value ($1000)
KASBLE

Rough: Architectural
Dressed :
Cut
. Sawed
House stone veneer
Construction and Monumental

Total
Value ($1000)

SANDSTONE, QUARK 6 QUAHTZITS

Rough:
Architectural
Construct Ion
Flaeglng
Other rough stone







• 46
54
287


—
14
6
10
33
130
—
—
42

621
42,641




175
56
18
1

49
30
68
12
2
1

411
14,378


9

21
5
9
27

71
16,541




42
74
18
1





Cut
Curbing
Snwcd
House stone veneer
Flagging
Other uses not listed

Total
Value ($1000)

SLATE

Roofing slate

Millstock:
Structural and sanitary
Blackboards, etc.
Billiard table tops

Total

Flagging
Other uses not listed

Total
Value ($1000)

OTHER STONE

Rough:
Architectural
Construction
Dressed:
Cut
Construction
Flagging
Structural and sanitary purposes
Total
Value ($1000)

TOTAL STOHE

Rough:
Architectural
Construction
Monumental
Flagging
Other rough stone
Dressed:
Cut
Sawed
House stone veneer
Cony t ruction
Footing (elate)
milstock (slate)
MomiBientnl
Curbing
Flagging
Othtr uses not listed
Total
Value (S1000)
21
~ '
—
27
17
32

231
7,684



12


U
I
4

19

36
14

80
7,404




14
43

2
4
—
66
1,964




286
239
287
36
2

117
65
110
32
12
19
65
130
61
31
1,490
90,763
                           Minerals Yearbook,  1972,  U.S.  Department of the Interior,
                            Bureau of Min<-K
                                                     17

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broaching tools.  The choice of equipment mix depends on the
type   of  dimension  stone,  size  and  shape  of  deposit,
production capacity, labor  costs,  financial  factors,  and
management attitudes.

Blasting with a low level explosive such as black powder, is
occasionally  used.   Blocks  cut from the face are sawed or
split into smaller blocks for  ease  in  transportation  and
handling.   The  blocks  are taken to processing facilities,
often located at the quarry  site,  for  final  cutting  and
finishing  operations.   Stone finishing equipment includes:
(a)gang saws  (similar to large hack saws), used  with  water
alone,  or  water with silicon carbide (SiC) abrasive added,
and recently, with industrial diamond cutting edges; (b)wire
saws used with water alone, or with water and  quartz  sand,
or  water  with  SiC;  (c)diamond saws;  (d)profile grinders;
(e)guillotine cutters; (f)pneumatic actuated  cutting  tools
(chisels);   (g)sand blasting, shot peening;  and (h)polishing
mills.

          CRUSHED STONE (SIC 1422, 1423 and 1429)

This stone category pertains to rock which has been  reduced
in  size after mining to meet various consumer requirements.
As with dimension stone, the terminology used by the crushed
stone producing and consuming industries is  not  consistent
with  mineralogical definitions.  Usually all of the coarser
grained igneous rocks are called granite.  The term traprock
pertains to all dense, dark, and fine-grained igneous rocks.
Quartzite  may  describe  any  siliceous-cemented  sandstone
whether   or   not   it   meets   the  strict  mineralogical
description.  As the table that follows shows  approximately
three-fourths   of   all   crushed  stone  is  limestone  or
lime stone-dolomite ,

                  PRODUCTION OF ROCK TYPE
         Kind of
          Stone

         Granite
         Traprock
         Marble
         Limestone and
           Dolomite
         Shell
         Calcareous Marl
         Sandstone, Quartz
           and Quartzite
         Other
         Total
     1972
1000 Short Tons

  106,266
   80,462
    2,247
  671,496

   16,610
    2,650
   27,817

      298
  922,361
Percent
 11-5
  8.7
  0.2
 72.8

  1.8
  0.3
  3.0

  1.6
                          18

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Riprap is large irregular stone used chiefly  in  river  and
harbor  work  and  to  protect highway embankments.  Fluxing
stone is limestone, usually 4 to 6 inches in size, which  is
used  to form slag in blast furnaces and other metallurgical
processes.  Terrazzo is sized material,  usually  marble  or
limestone,  which  is  mixed with cement for pouring floors,
which are smoothed down to expose the chips after the  floor
has hardened.  A small amount of guartzose rock is also used
for flux.  Stucco dash consists of white or brightly colored
stoner  1/8 to 3/8 inches in size, for use in stucco facing.
The ability of ground limestone to significantly reduce  the
acidity  of  soils  has  resulted  in  its widespread use in
agricultural processes.

The crushed stone industry is widespread and varied in  size
of  facilities  and types of material produced.  The size of
individual firms varies  from  small  independent  producers
with  single  facilities  to  large diversified corporations
with 50 or more crushed stone facilities as  well  as  other
important  interests.   Facility  capacities range from less
than 22,700 kkg/yr (25,000 tons/yr)  to  about  13.6  million
kkg/yr  (15  million  tons/yr).  As Table 5 shows only about
5.2 percent of the commercial facilities are  of  a  816,000
kkg   (900,000 ton)  capacity or larger, but these account for
39.5 percent of the total output.   At  the  other  extreme,
facilities  of  less  than  22,700  kkg  (25,000 ton)  annual
capacity made up  33.3  percent  of  the  total  number  but
produce   only   1.3   percent   of   the   national  total.
Geographically,  the  facilities  are  widespread  with  all
states  reporting  production.    In general, stone output of
the  individual  States  correlates  with   population   and
industrial  activity  as  shown by Figures 4 and 5.  This is
true because of the large cost of shipment  in  relation  to
the value of the crushed stone.

Most  crushed  and broken stone is presently mined from open
quarries, but in many  areas  factors  favoring  large-scale
production  by  underground mining methods are becoming more
frequent  and  more  prominent.   Surface  mining  equipment
varies  with  the  type  of  stone,  the production capacity
needed, size and shape of deposits, estimated  life  of  the
operation,  location  of  the  deposit with respect to urban
centers, and other important factors.  Ordinarily,  drilling
is  done  with  tricone  rotary drills, long-hole percussion
drills including "down the hole" models, and  churn  drills.
Blasting  in  smaller  operations  may  still  be  done with
dynamite,  but   in   most   sizable   operations   ammonium
nitrate-fuel  oils mixtures (AN/FO), which are much lower in
cost, are used.  Secondary  breakage  increasingly  is  done
with  mechanical  equipment such as drop hammers to minimize
blasting in urban and residential areas.
                          19

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                                TABLE 5

            1973 SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF CRUSHED STONE PLANTS*
ANNUAL PRODUCTION
     TONS
                           NUMBER OF
                           QUARRIES
  TOTAL ANNUAL
   PRODUCTION
   1000 TONS
 PERCENT
 OF TOTAL
 25,000
 50,000
 75,000
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
500,000
600,000
700,000
800,000
§ 25,000
- 49,999
- 74,999
- 99,999
- 199,999
- 299,999
- 399,999
- 499,999
- 599,999
- 699,999
- 799,999
- 899,999
§ 900,000
        TOTAL
1,600
600
339
253
634
308
233
182
126
98
76
51
248
13,603
24,221
20,485
21,941
90,974
75,868
80,946
80,956
68,903
62,730
56,694
42,718
418,502
1.3
2.3
1.9
2.1
8.6
7.2
7.6
7.7
6.5
5.9
5.4
4.0
39.5
                           4,808
1,058,541
100.0
   U.S. Deaprtment of the Interior
   Bureau of Mines
   Division of Nonmetallic Minerals
                                 20

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                                            FIGURE 4

                                         CRUSHED GRANITE
                                    1972/1 ,000,000 short tons
* Other producing States  (total
National Total  = 106.3
Data From:   Minerals Yearbook - 1972, Vol.  I
              Table 11, p.  1T68

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to
to
                                                      FIGURE 5
                                                  CRUSHED LIMESTONE
                                                    AND DOLOMITE
                                              1972/1,000,000 short tons
                                                                                         Pacific Islands = ,9
         ** Total stone - crushed & dimensional
         *  Other producing States (total = 8.2)
         National total (excluding P.R. & territories) = 663.3
Data From:  Mineral  Yearbook - 1972, Vol.  I
              Table  13, p.  1170

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Underground operations  are  becoming  more  common  as  the
advantages  of  such facilities increase or are increasingly
recognized by  the  producers.   Underground  mines  can  be
operated  on  a  year-round,  uninterrupted  basis;  do  not
require extensive removal of overburden; do not produce much
if any waste requiring subsequent disposal;  require  little
surface  area  which  becomes of importance in areas of high
land cost  and  finally,  greatly  reduce  the  problems  of
environmental  disturbance  and  those  of rehabilitation of
mined-out areas.  An  additional  benefit  from  underground
operations,  as  evidenced  in  the Kansas City area, is the
value of the underground storage space created by the mine -
in many cases the sale  or  rental  of  the  space  produces
revenue exceeding that from the removal of the stone.

Loading and hauling equipment has grown larger as increasing
demand  for  stone  has  made  higher  production capaciti es
necessary.    Track-mounted   equipment   is   still    used
extensively  but pneumatic-tire-mounted hauling equipment is
predominant.

Crushing and screening facilities  have  become  larger  and
more  efficient, and extensive use is made of belt conveyors
for transfer of material from the pits  to  the  loading-out
areas.   Bucket  elevators  are  used  for  lifting up steep
inclines.  Primary crushing is often done  at  or  near  the
pit,  usually  by  jaw  crushers  or  gyratories, but impact
crushers and special  types  may  be  used  for  nonabrasive
stone,  and  for  stone which tends to clog the conventional
crushers.  For secondary crushing a variety of equipment  is
used  depending  on  facility  size,  rock  type,  and other
factors.  Cone crushers and gyratories are the  most  common
types.   Impact  types including hammer mills are often used
where stone is not  too  abrasive.   For  fine  grinding  to
produce stone sand, rod mills predominate.

For screening, inclined vibrating types are commonly used in
permanent  installations,  while horizontal screens, because
they require less space, are used  extensively  in  portable
facilities.   For  screening  large  sizes of crushed stone,
heavy punched  steel  plates  are  used,  while  woven  wire
screens   are  used  for  smaller  material  down  to  about
one-eighth of an inch.  Air  and  hydraulic  -separation  and
classifying  equipment  is ordinarily used for the minus 1/8
inch material.

Storage of finished crushed stone is usually  done  in  open
areas  except  for  the  small  quantities  that  go  to the
load-out bins.  In the larger and more efficient  facilities
the stone is drawn out from tunnels under the storage piles,
and  the  equipment is designed to blend any desired mixture
of sizes that may be needed.
                            23

-------
Oyster shells are found in shallow waters in great quantity,
and, being made of very pure  calcium  carbonate,  they  are
dredged  for use in the manufacture of lime and cement.  The
industry  is  large  and  active  along  the   Gulf   Coast,
especially  at New Orleans, Lake Charles, Houston, Freeport,
and Corpus Christi.

In Florida, oyster shell  was  recovered  from  fossil  beds
offshore  on  both  Atlantic and Gulf coasts.  Production in
1957  amounted  to  1,364,000  kkg  (1,503,964  tons),  used
principally  for  road  metal  and a small amount as poultry
grit.  This figure included coquina, a cemented  shell  rock
of  recent  but not modern geological time, which is dredged
for the  manufacture  of  cement  near  Bunnell  in  Flagler
County.   It  is  used widely on lightly traveled sand roads
along the east coast.

Clam shells used to be dredged from fresh water  streams  in
midwestern  states  for  the manufacture of buttons, but the
developments in the plastics industry have impacted heavily.

Table 6 gives a breakdown of the end uses of crushed  stone.
The  majority  of crushed stone is used in road base, cement
and concrete.

          CONSTRUCTION SAND AND GRAVEL (SIC 1442)

Sand and gravel are products of the weathering of rocks  and
thus  consist  predominantly  of  silica  but  often contain
varying amounts of other minerals such as iron oxides,  mica
and  feldspar.   The  term sand is used to describe material
whose grain size lies within the range of 0,065 and 2 mm and
which consists primarily of silica but may also include fine
particles of any rocks, minerals and slags.  Gravel consists
of naturally occurring rock particles larger than about 4 mm
but less than 64 mm in diameter.   Although  silica  usually
predominates  in  gravel,  varying  amounts  of  other  rock
constituents such as mica, shale,  and  feldspar  are  often
present.   Silt  is  a  term used to describe material finer
than sand,   while  cobbles  and  boulders  are  larger  than
gravel.   The term "granules" describes material in the 2 to
4 nun size range.  The descriptive terms and the size  ranges
are  somewhat  arbitrary  although  standards  have  to some
extent been accepted.  For most  applications  of  sand  and
gravel   there   are   specifications   for  size,   physical
characteristics, and chemical composition.   For construction
uses, the specifications depend on the type of  construction
   roads (concrete or bituminous), dams,  and buildings - the
geographic area, architectural standards, climate,   and  the
type and quality of sand and gravel available.
                           24

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           Kind  of  utone  tjr<;i<..jcc
     2,517

     2.6SO
     3,598
   18,579
   16,068
    3,966
   37,877
    5,696
   10,048
    4,036
    6,1(32

       97
    3,718
  106,266
  182,930
   27,140
  100,173
   49,977
   26,993
  139,257
   38,704
   71,647
   12,935
    7,250
      339
    4,752
      124
  101,304
   28,858
    1,670
    1,030
   24,728
      395
    4,199
      876
    2,964
      635
    4,243
    1,794
      560
   18,930
  671,496
1,090,707
       44
       83
      862
       203
    1,047
        8
    2,247
   25,005
     2,092
     1,613
       351
     8,744
       951
     3,290
     2,213
     1,014
       52
       343
       23
          Kind of stone mid vac                  Quantity
                                                 ;iOUO (onn)
     SANDSTONE, QUARTZ, AND QUART/. ITE
               (continued)

Cttnt-nt nnd,  Urns mnn«fncture                             522
Ferroalllcon                                            227
Flux stout                                            1,102
Refractory  Htone                                        211
Abrasives                                                45
Class                                                   925
Other uses                                            3,100
     Totol                                           26,817
     Value  (?1000)                                   57,994

                      SHELL

Concrete angregste  (coarse)
Dense grodod  voad base  stone                          1,675
Unspecified construction  aggregate  a.-d  roadstone     3,281
Cement and  lin-.e manufacture                           5,67^
Other uses                                            5,98u
     Total                                           16,610
     Value  (51000)                                   29,571

                    TRAFROCK

Agricultural  purposes                                  444
Concrete aggregate  (coarse)                           6,643
Bituminous  aggregate                                11,469
Macadam aggregate                                     1,438
Dense graded  road base  stope                         19,361
Surface treatrr.ent aggregate                           5,341
Vnepecified construction  aggregate  and  roadstone    23,811
Riprap and  jetty stone                                3,623
Rallr.td ballast                                      2,332
Filter stone                                             LI?
Manufactured  fine aggregate  (stone  sand)                 231
Fill                                                  1,686
Other uses                                            3,966
     Total                                            80,462
     Valup  ($1000)                                   170,823

                      OTHER STOHE

Concrete aggregate  (coarse)                            1,159
Bituminous  aggregate                                  2,202
Macadam aggregate                                        278
Dense graded  raod base  stone                           3,051
Surface treatment aggregate                              591
Unspecified construction  aggregate  and  roadstone      2,911
Riprap and  jetty stone                                 1,738
Railroad ballast                                         —
Mineral fillers, extenders and whiting
Fill                                                     578
Other uses                                             1,789
     Total                                            14,298
     Value  ($1000)                                     24,442

                TOTAL STOHE

Agricultural  purposes                                 23,393
Concrete aggregate  (coarse)                          113,471
Bituminous  Aggregate                                 82,560
Macadam aggregate                                     33,110
Lense graded  road base stone                          210,013
Surface treatment aggregate                           51,.943
Unspecified construction  aggregate and  roadstone      113,406
Riprap and  jetty atone                                24,560
Railroad ballast                                      18,021
Filter stone                                             636
Manufactured  fine aggregate (stone sand)                5,869
Terrazao and  exposed aggregate                           402
Cement manufacture                                    108,857
Lime manufacture                                       30,051
Bead-burned dolomite                                   1,670
Ferroellicor,                              •              1,257
Flux stone                                             25,830
Refractory  stone                                          605
Chemical stone for alkali works                         4,199
Spc.clal noes  and products                               1,071
Mineral fillers, extenders and whiting                  4,423
Fill                                                    6,630
CJflBB                                  .                2,738
Expanded nlatc                                          1,270
Other uooa                    '                         31,394
     Total                                            922,361
     VoJup  ($1000)                                   1,592,569
                             MlnoralH  Ycttrttoofc,  ]972,  U.S.  Ucpnrtmsnt  of!  tli« Interior
                             Bui.-an fif Klnnn
                                                     25

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Briefly,  on  a  geographic-geologic basis, in the glaciated
areas in the northern States, and for  a  hundred  miles  or
more  south of the limit of glacial intrusion, the principal
sand and  gravel  resources  consist  of  various  types  of
outwash glacial deposits and glacial till.  Marine terraces,
both  ancient  and  recent  geologically, are major sand and
gravel sources in the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coastal  Plains.
River  deposits  are  the  most  important  sand  and gravel
sources in several of the  Southeastern  and  South  Central
States.   Abundant  sand  and  gravel resources exist in the
mountainous areas and the drainage from  the  mountains  has
created  deposits at considerable distances from the initial
sources.  Great Plains sand  and  gravel  resources  consist
mainly  of  stream-worked  material from existing sediments.
On the West Coast, deposits consist of alluvial fans,  river
deposits,  terraces,  beaches,  and  dunes.  Figures 6 and 7
show the production and facility distribution for the United
States.

The sand and gravel  industry,  on  the  basis  of  physical
volume,  is  the largest nonfuel mineral industry; the value
of sand and gravel output is exceeded by that  of  only  one
nonfuel mineral commodity, stone.  Because of its widespread
occurrence  and  the necessity for producing sand and gravel
near the point of  use  there  are  more  than  5,000  firms
engaged in commercial sand and gravel output, with no single
firm  being large enough to dominate the industry.  Facility
sizes range from very small producers of pit-run material to
highly  automated   permanent   installations   capable   of
supplying as much as 3.6 million kkg (4 million tons)  yearly
of  closely  graded  and  processed  products;  the  average
commercial  facility  capacity  is  about   108,000   kkg/yr
(120,000 tons/yr).  As seen from Table 7 about 40 percent of
all  commercial  facilities  are  of  less  than  22,600 kkg
(25,000 tons)  capacity, but together these account for  only
4  percent of the total commercial production.  At the other
extreme, commercial operations with production capacities of
more than 907,000 kkg (1 million tons)  account for less than
1 percent of the total number of facilities and for 12 to 15
percent of the commercial production.

Geographically the sand and gravel industry is  concentrated
in  the  large  rapidly  expanding  urban  areas  and  on  a
transitory basis,  in areas where highways, dams,  and  other
large-scale public and private works are under construction.
Three-fourths  of  the  total  domestic  output  of sand and
gravel is by commercial firms, and one-fourth by Government-
and-contractor operations.
                           26

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                                                  FIGURE 6
                                               SAND  AND GRAVEL
                                                 PRODUCTION  '
                                          1972/1,000,000 short  tons
National Total  (excluding P.R.) = 913.2
Data From:  Minerals Yearbook - 1972,  Vol.  I
              Table  3,  p.  1111-1112
            Bureau of Mines

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N)
CO
                                                      FIGURE 7
                                                   SAND  AND GRAVEL
                                                      PLANTS
                                                        1972
                                                                 Data  From:   Minerals Yearbook - 1972
                                                                               Vol  U
                                                                             Bureau of Mines

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                                TABLE 7

            1972 Size Distribution of Sand and Gravel Plants
                                                          Production
                                                  Thousand          Percent
Annual Production
(short tons)
Less than 25,000
25,000 to 50,000
50,000 to 100,000
100,000 to 200,000
200,000 to 300,000
300,000 to 400,000
400,000 to 500,000
500,000 to 600,000
600,000 to 700,000
700,000 to 800,000
800,000 to 900,000
900,000 to 1,000,000
1,000,000 and over
Plants
Number
1,630
850
957
849
400
217
134 .
79
71
56
26
27
88
short
tons
17,541
30,508
68,788
121,304
97,088
75,157
59,757
42,924
46,036
41,860
22,310
25,666
136,850
of
total
2.2
3.9
8.8
15.4
12.4
9.6
7.6
5.5
5.9
5.3
2.8
3.3
17.3
    Total
5,384
785,788
100.0
Minerals Yearbook, 1972, U.S. Department of the Interior,
 Bureau of Mines, Vol I, page 1120
                                29

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California leads in total sand and  gravel  production  with
output more than double that of any other State,  Production
for  the  State  in   1968  was  113 million kkg  (125 million
tons), or 14 percent of the national total.  Three of the  10
largest producing firms are located in California.  The next
five producing States  with  respect  to  total  output  all
border  on the Great Lakes, where ample resources, urban and
industrial growth, and low-cost lake transportation are  all
favorable factors.

Mining  equipment  used varies from small, simple units such
as  tractor-mounted  high-loaders   and   dump   trucks   to
sophisticated  mining systems involving large power shovels,
draglines, bucket-wheel excavators, belt conveyors and other
components.  Increasingly, mining systems are being designed
to provide for most efficient and economical subsequent land
rehabilitation.  Sand and gravel is also dredged from  river
and lake bottoms rich in such deposits.

Processing  may consist of simple washing to remove clay and
silt and screening to produce two or more products or it may
involve more complex heavy medium separation  of  slate  and
other  lightweight  impurities,  and  complex  screening and
crushing equipment designed to produce the  optimum  mix  of
salable  sand  and  gravel  sizes.   Conveyor  belts, bucket
elevators,   and   other   transfer   equipment   are   used
extensively.    Ball   processing   is  often  required  for
production  of  small-size  fractions  of  sand.   Permanent
installations  are  built  when  large  deposits  are  to be
operated for many years,  Semiportable  units  are  used  in
many  pits which have an intermediate working life.  Several
such units can be tied  together  to  obtain  large  initial
production  capacity or to add capacity as needed.  In areas
where large deposits are  not  available,  use  is  made  of
mobile screening facilities, which can be quickly moved from
one deposit to another without undue interruption or loss of
production.   Table  8  breaks down the end uses of sand and
gravel.

                 INDUSTRIAL SAND (SIC 1446)

Industrial  sands  includes  those  types  of   silica   raw
materials  that  have been segregated and refined by natural
processes into nearly monomineralic deposits and  hence,  by
virtue  of  their  high  degree  of  purity, have become the
sources  of  commodities   having   special   and   somewhat
restricted  commercial  uses.   In some instances, these raw
materials occur in nature as unconsolidated  quartzose  sand
or  gravel  and  can  be exploited and used with very little
preparation  and  expense.   More  o ften,  they   occur   as
sandstone,  conglomerate  quartzite,  quartz mica schist, or
massive  igneous  quartz  which  must  be  crushed,  washed.
                          30

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                                Table 8
                      1972 Uses  of Sand and Gravel
                  Use                          Quantity
                                     1000  kkg     1000  short  tons
        Building
           Sand                       170,329       187,794
           Gravel                     139,001       153,254

        Paving
           Sand                       119,182       131,402
           Gravel                     254,104       280,159

        Fill
           Sand                        44,050        48,567
           Gravel                      39,416        43,458

        Railroad Ballast
           Sand                           948         1,045
           Gravel                       2,022         2,229

        Other
           Sand                         8,685         9,575
           Gravel                      11,682        12,880

        Total                         789,419       870,363
        Value ($1000)                             1,069,374
        Value ($/Quantity)                1.35          1.23
Minerals Yearbook, 1972, U.S. Department of the Interior
 Bureau of Mines
                                  31

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screened,    and   sometimes   chemically   treated   before
commodities   of   suitable   compositional   and   textural
characteristics can be successfully prepared.

Industrial  silica  used  for  abrasive  purposes falls into
three  main  categories:    (a)  blasting  sand;   (b)  glass-
grinding sand; and (c) stonesawing and rubbing sand.

Figure  8  locates  the  domestic  industrial sand deposits.
Table 9 gives the breakdown of the uses of industrial sand.

Blasting sand is a sound closely-sized  quarts  sand  which,
when propelled at high velocity by air, water, or controlled
centrifugal  force,  is  effective for such uses as cleaning
metal castings, removing paint and rust, or renovating stone
veneer.  It is commonly referred  to  as  sand  blast  sand.
Chief  sources  of  blasting  sands  are  in Ohio, Illinois,
Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,   New   Jersey,   California,
Wisconsin, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Idaho.

Glass-grinding  sand is clean, sound, fine to medium-grained
silica sand, free from foreign material and  properly  sized
for  either  rough  grinding  or semifinal grinding of plate
glass.  Raw materials suitable  for  processing  into  these
commodities   comprise   deposits   of  clean,  sound  sand,
sandstone, and quartzite.  As this commodity will not  stand
high  transportation  charges, sources of this material near
sheet and  plate  glass  facilities  are  the  first  to  be
exploited.

Stone-sawing  and  rubbing  sand  is relatively pure, sound,
well-sorted, coarse-grained, siliceous  material  free  from
flats and fines used for sawing and rough-grinding dimension
stone.   Neither  textural  nor  quality  specifications are
rigorous on this type of material as long as it is  high  in
free  silica  and  no clay, mica, or soft rock fragments are
present.  Chert tailings, locally known as chats in  certain
mining  districts, are used successfully in regions close to
the source of  such  materials.   River  terrace  sand,  and
glacial   moraine  materials  which  have  been  washed  and
screened to remove oversize and fines, are  often  employed.
Several important marble and granite producing districts are
quite  isolated  from  sources  of clean silica sand and are
forced to  adapt  to  less  efficient  sawing  and  grinding
materials  in  order  to  eliminate  the  high  cost of long
freight hauls.

Glass-melting and chemical sands are quartz  sands  of  such
high   purity   that  they  are  essentially  monomineralic;
permissible trace impurities are variable according to  use;
grain  shape  is  not  a critical factor, but size frequency
distribution  can   vary   only   between   narrow   limits.
                          32

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        FIGURE 3
INDUSTRIAL SAND DEPOSITS
                           From Glass Sand and Abrasives chart-pg.184
                           The National Atlas of The USA
                           USGS-1970

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                                  Table 9
                       1972 Uses of Industrial Sand
        Use
         Quantity
1000 kkg    1000 short tons
                 Value
              $/kkg   $/ton
Unground
  Glass
  Molding
  Grinding and polishing
  Blast sand
  Fire or furnace
  Engine (RR)
  Filtration
  Oil Hydrofrac
  Other

Ground Sand

Total
  9821
  6822
   238
   972
   638
   545
   212
   256
  3187

  4092

 26784
10828
 7522
  262
 1072
  703
  601
  234
  282
 3514

 4512

29530
4.20
3.64
3.08
6.46
3.52
2.54
5.53
4.18
3.73
  81
  30
  79
  86
3.19
  30
  02
  79
3.38
5.26    4.77

4.20    3.81
Minerals Yearbook, 1972, U.S. Department of the Interior,
 Bureau of Mines
                                 34

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Appropriate  source  materials  are more restricted than for
any other industrial silica commodity  group.   Because  the
required   products   must  be  of  superlative  purity  and
consequently  are  the  most  difficult  and  expensive   to
prepare,  they command higher prices and can be economically
shipped greater distances than nearly  any  other  class  of
special sand.

To  qualify as a commodity in this field the product must be
a  chemically  pure  quartz   sand   essentially   free   of
inclusions,   coatings,   stains,   or   detrital  minerals.
Delivery to the customer in this highly refined  state  must
be  guaranteed and continuing uniformity must be maintained.
At the present time the principal supply  of  raw  materials
for  these commodities comes from two geological formations.
The Oriskany quartzite  of  Lower  Devonian  age  occurs  as
steeply   dipping   beds   in   the  Appalachian  Highlands.
Production, in order of  importance,  is  centered  in  West
Virginia,   Pennsylvania,   and  Virginia.   The  St.  Peter
sandstone of Lower Ordovician age occurs as  flatlying  beds
in  the  Interior  Plains  and Highlands and is exploited in
Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas.

Metallurgical pebble is clean graded silica in gravel sizes,
low in iron and alumina, used chiefly as a component in  the
preparation   of   silicon  alloys  or  as  a  flux  in  the
preparation of elemental phosphorus.  A quartzite or  quartz
gravel, to qualify as a silica raw material chemically, must
meet  rigorous  specifications.   Metallurgical gravel is no
exception and in the production of silicon alloys, purity is
paramount.  Such alloys  as  calcium-silicon,  ferrosilicon,
silicon-chrome,   silicon   copper,   silicomanganese,   and
silicon-titanium are the principal  products  prepared  from
this  material.   The better deposits of metallurgical grade
pebble   occur   principally   as   conglomerate   beds   of
Pennsylvanian  age,  and  as .gravelly remnants of old river
terraces developed from late Tertiary to Recent times.

Significant producing areas are in the  Sharon'  conglomerate
member  of  the Pottsville formation in Ohio.  Silica pebble
from the Sewanee conglomerate is produced in  Tennessee  for
alloy  and  flux use.  Past production for metallurgical use
has  come  from  the  Olean  conglomerate  member   of   the
Pottsville   formation   in   New   York,   and  the  Sharon
conglomerate  member  of   the   Pottsville   formation   in
Pennsylvania.   Production  from  terrace gravels comes from
North Carolina, Alabama,  South  Carolina,  and  Florida  in
roughly  decreasing  order of economic importance.  Marginal
deposits of  coarse  quartzose  gaavel  occur  in  Kentucky.
Terrace  deposits  of  vein quartz gravel in California have
supplied excellent material  for  ferrosilicon  use  in  the
past.
                          35

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Industrial   silica  used  principally  for  its  refractory
properties in the steel and foundry business is  of  several
types:   (a) core sand;  (b) furnace-bottom sand;  (c) ganister
mix;   (d)  naturally  bonded  molding  sand;   (e)  processed
molding sand;  (f) refractory pebble; and  (g) runner sand.

A  foundry  sand  used  in  contact  with  molten metal must
possess a high degree of refractoriness; that  is,  it  must
resist sintering which would lead to subsequent adhesion and
penetration   at  the  metal-sand  interface.   To  be  used
successfully as a mold or a core into which or around  which
molten  metal  is  cast,  it  also must be highly permeable.
This allows escape of steam and gases generated by action of
the hot metal upon binders and additives in the mold or core
materials.  Such a sand must have sufficient strength  under
compression,  shear,  and  tension to retain its molded form
not only in the green state at room  temperature,  but  also
after   drying   and  baking,  and  later  at  the  elevated
temperatures  induced  by  pouring.   Finally,  it  must  be
durable  and  so  resist  deterioration  and breakdown after
repeated use.

Core sand is washed and  graded  silica  sand  low  in  clay
substance  and  of  a  high permeability, suitable for core-
making in ferrous and nonferrous foundry practice.

Furnace bottom sand is  unwashed  and  partially  aggregated
silica sand suitable for lining and patching open hearth and
electric  steel furnaces which utilize an acid process.  The
term fire sand is often employed but is gradually going  out
of  use.   As  for  core  sands,  source  materials for this
commodity are quartz sands and sandstones which occur within
reasonable shipping distances of steelmaking centers,   chief
production centers are in  Illinois,  Ohio,  Michigan,  West
Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey.

Ganister  mix is a self-bonding, ramming mixture composed of
varying proportions of  crushed  quartzose  rock  or  quartz
pebble and plastic fire clay, suitable for lining, patching,
or  daubing hot metal vessels and certain types of furnaces.
It is variously referred to as Semi-silica or Cupola daub.

As  in  molding  sands,  there  are  two  broad  classes  of
materials  used  for  this  purpose.   One  is  a naturally-
occuring mixture of quartz sand and refractory clay, and the
other is a prepared mixture of quartz in pebble, granule, or
sand sizes bonded by a clay to give it plasticity.

Commercial ganister mix occuring naturally is  exploited  in
two areas in California and one in Illinois.  The California
material  contains  roughly  75 percent quartz sand and lies
                           36

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between the 50 and 200 mesh sieves; the remaining portion is
a refractory clay.

The bulk of this commodity is produced in the East and  Mid-
West  where  the  foundry and steel business is centered.  A
large volume is produced from pebbly phases  of  the  Sharon
conglomerate  in Ohio.  The Veria sandstone of Mississippian
age is crushed and pelletized for this purpose in Ohio.   In
Pennsylvania  it  is prepared from the Chickies quartzite of
Lower Cambrian age, although some comes from a pebbly  phase
of  the  Oriskany.   In  Massachusetts, a post-Carbonif erous
hydrothermal quartz is used  and  in  Wisconsin,  production
comes from the Pre-Cambrian Baraboo quartzite.

Naturally   bonded   molding   sand  is  crude  silica  sand
containing sufficient indigenous clay to  make  it  suitable
for   molding  ferrous  or  non-ferrous  castings.   Natural
molding sands are produced in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and
Ohio.   Coarse-grained  naturally bonded molding sand with a
high permeability suitable for steel castings is produced to
some  extent  wherever  the  local  demand  exists.    Large
tonnages  are  mined  from  the Connoquenessing and Homewood
Sandstone   members   of   the   Pottsville   formation   in
Pennsylvania;  the  St. Peter sandstone in Illinois, and the
Dresbach sandstone of Upper Cambrian age in Wisconsin.

Processed molding sand is  washed  and  graded  quartz  sand
which,  when combined with appropriate bonding agents in the
foundry, is suitable for use for cores and molds in  ferrous
and  nonferrous  foundry  practice.   Source materials which
account for the major tonnage of processed molding sand  are
primarily  the St. Peter formation in Illinois and Missouri,
the Oriskany quartzite in Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia,
the  basal  Pottsville  in  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania, and the
Tertiary sands in New Jersey,

Refractory pebble is clean graded silica  in  gravel  sizes,
low  in  iron  and  alumina,  used  as  a  raw  material for
superduty acid refractories.

With few exceptions, bedded conglomerate and terrace  gravel
furnish  the bulk of the raw material.  Silica pebble in the
Sharon conglomerate in Ohio, and the Mansfield formation  in
Indiana,  are utilized.  Significant production comes from a
coarse phase of the Oriskany in Pennsylvania as well as from
deposits  of  Bryn  Mawr  gravel  in  Maryland.    Potential
resources  of  conglomerate  and  terrace  gravel of present
marginal quality occur in other areas of the United States.

Other  quartzitic  formations  are  currently  utilized  for
superduty  refractory  work.   Notable production comes from
the Baraboo quartzite in Wisconsin, the Weisner quartzite in
                           37

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Alabama, and  from  quartzite beds  in the Oro Grande series of
sediments in  California.

Runner  sand  is   a  crude   coarse-grained   silica   sandr
moderately  high   in natural clay bond, used to  line runners
and dams on the casting floor  of blast  furnaces.   Runner
sand  is  also  used  in  the casting of pig iron.  The term
Casthouse sand also is used in the steel industry.

Coal-washing  sand  is a washed  and  graded  quartz  sand  of
constant  specific gravity  used in a flotation process for
cleaning anthracite and bituminous coal.

Filter media  consist of washed and graded  quartzose  gravel
and  sand produced under close textural control, for removal
of turbidity  and   bacteria  from  municipal  and  industrial
water supply  systems.

Hydraulic-fracturing sand is a sound, rounded, light-colored
quartz sand free of aggregated particles and possessing high
uniformity  in specified size ranges which, when immersed in
a suitable carrier and pumped under great  pressure  into  a
formation,  increases fluid production by generating greater
effective permeability.   It  is  commonly  referred  to  as
Sandfrac sand in the trade.

                     GYPSUM (SIC  1492)

Gypsum  is  a hydrated calcium sulfate (CaSO4_«2H2O)  generally
found  as  a  sedimentary  bed  associated  with  limestone,
dolomite,  shale   or  clay  in  strata  deposited from early
Paleozoic to Recent.  Most deposits of gypsum and  anhydrite
(CaSO4)  are  considered  to be chemical precipitates formed
from saturated  marine  waters.   Deposits  are  found  over
thousands  of square miles with thicknesses approaching 1800
feet - for example the Castle anhydrite  of  Texas  and  New
Mexico.   Field  evidence  indicates that most deposits were
originally anhydrite which were   subsequently  subjected  by
surface hydration to gypsum.

Commercial  gypsum  deposits are  found in many states of the
United States with the leading producers  being  California,
Iowa,  Nevada,  New  York,  Texas and  Michigan with lesser
amounts being produced in Colorado, and Oklahoma.  Figure  9
shows  the distribution of facility sizes.  The ore is mined
underground and from open pits with  the  latter  being  the
more  general method because of lower costs.  In 1958, 44 of
the 62 mining operations were open pits, while three of  the
remainder  were  combinations  of  open  pit and underground
mines.  In quarrying operations,  stripping of the overburden
is usually accomplished with  drag  lines  or  with  tractor
equipment.    Quarry   drilling   methods  vary  with  local
                            38

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   FIGURE 9
GYPSUM OPERATIONS
          Data From:   Salines chart - p. 181
                       The National  Atlas of USA
                         USGS -.1970

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conditions, blasting is   accomplished  with  low-speed,   low
density explosives.  The  fragmented ore is loaded with power
shovels  onto  truck  or  rail  transport  to the processing
facility.  Generally, the primary crushing is  done  at   the
quarry  site.  Second-stage crushing is usually accomplished
with gyratory units and final crushing is almost  invariably
by  hammermills.  The common unit for grinding raw gypsum is
the air-swept roller process  facility.   Ground  gypsum  is
usually  termed  "land  plaster"  in the industry because in
this  form,  sacked  or   in  bulk,  it  is  also  sold    for
agricultural purposes.

In   recent   years,   a   trend  has  started  towards   the
beneficiation of low-grade gypsum deposits  where  strategic
location   has   made   this   economically  feasible.    The
heavy-media  method  has  been  introduced   in   two   Ohio
facilities;  screening and air separation have been employed
for  improving  purity  in  a  limited   number   of   other
operations.   The  tonnage  of  gypsum  thus beneficiated is
still a small part of the total output.

Most  mined  and  crushed  gypsum   is   calcined   to    the
hemi-hydrate  stage  by  one  of  six  different  methods
kettles, rotary, calciner,  hollow-flight  screw  conveyers,
impact grinding and calcining mills, autoclaves, and beehive
ovens.   The  calcined  gypsum  is used for various types of
plasters, board and block, preformed gypsum tile,  partition
tile,  and  roof  plank.  By far the largest use of calcined
gypsum (stucco)  takes place  in  the  manufacture  of  board
products.   Gypsum board is a sandwich of gypsum between two
layers of specially prepared paper.   It is  manufactured  in
large  machines  by  mixing  the prepared stucco with water,
foam and other ingredients and then poured  upon  a  moving,
continuous  sheet  of  special  heavy  paper.   Under "master
rolls" the board is formed with the bottom  paper  receiving
the wet slurry and another continually moving sheet of paper
being placed on top, compacted, cut, and dried.

                     ASPHALTIC MINERALS

The  bitumens  are  defined  as  mixtures of hydrocarbons of
natural  or  pyrogenous  origin  or  combinations  of  both,
frequently  accompanied  by  their derivatives, which may be
gaseous, liquid, semisolid or solid and which are completely
soluble in carbon disulfide.   Oil shale and  like  materials
which  are mined for their energy content are not covered by
this subcategory.

The principal bituminous materials  of  commercial  interest
are:

-------
 (1) Native asphalts, solid  or  semisolid,  associated  with
    mineral   matter   such   as   Trinidad   Lake  asphalt.
    Selenitza, Boeton and Iraq asphalts.
 (2) Native Asphaltites, such  as  gilsonite,  grahamite  and
    glance pitch, conspicuous by their hardness, brittleness
    and comparatively high softening point.
 (3) Asphaltic  bitumens  obtained  from  non-asphaltic   and
    asphaltic  crude petroleum by distillation, blowing with
    air and the cracking of residual oils.
 (4) Asphaltic pyrobitumens of which wurtzilite and elaterite
    are of chief interest industrially as they  depolymerize
    upon  heating,  becoming fusible and soluble in contrast
    to their original properties in these respects.
 (5) Mineral waxes, such as ozokerite, characterized by their
    high crystallizable paraffine content.

There  are  several  large  deposits  of  bituminous   sand,
sandstone  and  limestone  in various parts of the world but
those of most  commercial  importance  are  located  in  the
United States and Europe.

Commercial  deposits of bituminous limestone or sandstone in
the United States are found in Texas,  Oklahoma,  Louisiana,
Utah,   Arkansas,  California,  and  Alabama.   The  bitumen
content in these tends to run from 4 to 14 percent.  Some of
the sandstone in California has a higher content,  about  15
percent,  and  a  deposit in Oklahoma contains as high as 18
percent.  The Uvalde County, Texas deposit is a conglomerate
containing 10 to 20 percent of  hard  bitumen  in  limestone
which  must  be mixed with a softer petroleum bitumen and an
aggregate  to  produce  a   satisfactory   paving   mixture.
Commercially,  rock  asphalt  in this country is used almost
exclusively for the paving of streets and highways.

Rock asphalt is mined from open quarries by blasting and  is
reduced to fines in a series of crushers and then pulverized
in  roller mills to the size of sand grains varying from 200
mesh to 1/4 inch in size.

Gilsonite, originally known as  uintaite  is  found  in  the
Uintah  basin  in  Utah  and Colorado.  Gilsonite is a hard,
brittle, native  bitumen  of  variable  but  high  softening
point.   It  occurs  in  almost  vertical  fissures  in rock
varying in composition from sandstone to shale.   The  veins
vary  in  width from 0.025 to 6.7 meters  (1 in to 22 ft> and
in length from a few kilometers to as much as 48 km (30 mi).
The depth varies from a few meters to over 460 m (1500 ft).

Mining difficulties, such as the creation  of  a  very  fine
dust  which in recent years resulted in two or three serious
explosions, and  the  finding  of  new  uses  for  gilsonite
nece s sitated  one  company  to  supplement  the conventional
                          41

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pick-and-shovel method  by the hydraulic  system.   However,
on  some  properties the mining is still done by hand labor,
compressed air. picks, etc.

Grahamite occurs in many localities in the United States and
in various countries throughout the world but never in large
amounts.   The  original  deposit  was  discovered  in  West
Virginia  but has long been exhausted.  Deposits in Oklahoma
were exploited to a great extent for years but little is now
mined in commercial quantities.

The material differs from gilsonite and glance pitch  having
a  much  higher  specific gravity and fixed carbon, and does
not melt readily but intumesces on heating.

Glance pitch was first reported on the island  of  Barbados.
The   material   is   intermediate   between  gilsonite  and
grahamite.  It has a specific gravity at  60°F  of  1.09  to
1.15, a softening point (ring and ball)  of 275° to 400°F and
a fixed carbon of 20 to 30 percent.

Wurtzilite,  sometimes  referred  to as elaterite, is one of
the asphaltic  pyrobitumens  and  is  distinguished  by  its
hardness  and  infusibility.   It is found in Uintah County,
Utah, in vertical veins varying from 2.5 cm to 63.5 cm (1 in
to 25 in)  in width and from a. few hundred meters to  4.8  km
(3  miles)   in  length.   It  is  used in the manufacture of
paints, varnishes, as an extender in hard rubber  compounds,
and various weatherproofing and insulating compounds.

Ozokerite is a solid waxlike bitumen the principal supply of
which  is  found  in the Carpathian mountains in Galicia.  A
small amount of it is also found in Rumania, Russia and  the
state of Utah.  The hydrocarbons of which it is composed are
solids,   resembling   paraffin   scale  and  resulted  from
evaporation and decomposition of  paraffinaceous  petroleum.
It  occurs  in  either  a pure state or it may be mixed with
sandstone or other mineral matter.  The material is mined by
hand  and  selected  to  separate  any  material  containing
extraneous  matter.   Ozokerite  when  refined by heating to
about 182°C (360°F), treated with sulfuric acid, washed with
alkali  and  filtered  through  fuller's  earth  is   called
"ceresine."

                    ASBESTOS (SIC 1499)

Asbestos  is  a  broad  term  that is applied to a number of
fibrous mineral silicates which are incombustible and which,
by suitable mechanical processing,  can  be  separated  into
fibers  of  various  lengths  and  thicknesses.   There  are
generally six varieties of asbestos that are recognized: the
finely fibrous form of serpentine known  as  chrysotile  and
                          42

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five   members   of  the  amphibole  group,  i.e.,  amosite,
anthophyllite,  crocidolite,  tremolite,   and   actinolite.
Chrysotile,   which  presently  constitutes  93  percent  of
current  world  production,  has   the   empirical   formula
3MgO.2SiO2-2H2O  and  in  the  largest  number  of  cases is
derived from deposits whose host  rocks  are  ultrabasic  in
composition.   The  bulk of chrysotile production comes from
three principal areas:  the Eastern Townships of  Quebec  in
Canada,  the Bajenova District in the Urals of USSR and from
south  central  Africa.   The  ore-body  of  greatest  known
content  in  the  United  states  is found in the serpentine
f ormati on  of  Northern  Vermont  which  i s  part   o f   the
Appalachian belt extending into Quebec.  Figure 10 shows the
domestic asbestos deposits.

In North America the methods of asbestos mining are (1) open
quarries,   (2)  open  pits  with  glory holes,  (3) shrinkage
stoping, and  (4)  block caving; the tendency is  toward  more
underground  mining.   In quarrying, the present trend is to
work high benches up to 46 meters (150 feet) high and  blast
down  91,000  kkg   (100,000 tons)  or more of rock at a shot.
An interesting feature of asbestos mining is  that  no  wood
may  be used for any purpose unless it is protected, because
it is impossible to separate wood  fiber  from  asbestos  in
processing.

Since the fiber recovery averages only 5 to 6 percent" of the
rock mined, very large tonnages must be handled - a capacity
of  910  kkg/day  (1,000  tons/day)  is about the minimum for
profitable operation.

Milling methods used at the various mills  vary  in  detail,
but they are nearly all identical in principle.  The objects
of  processing  are to recover as much of the original fiber
as possible, free from dirt and adhering rock; to expand and
fluff up the fiber;  to handle the ore as gently as  possible
to  minimize the reduction in fiber length by attrition; and
to grade the fibers into different length groups best suited
to use requirements.  The  general  method  in  use  is  (1)
coarse  crushing  in  jaw or gyratory crushers, sometimes in
two stages, to 3.8 to 5.1 cm (1-1/2 to 2 in);  (2) drying  to
1   percent   or   less  moisture,  in  rotary  or  vertical
inclined-plane driers; (3) secondary crushing in short  head
cone  crushers,  gyratories, or hammer mills;  (4) screening,
usually  in  flat   shaking   or   gyratory   screens;    (5)
fine-crushing  and fiberizing in stages, each stage followed
by screening, during which air  suction  above  the  screens
effects   separation   of  the  fiber  from  the  rock;  (6)
collection of the fiber in cyclone  separators,  which  also
remove  the  dust;   (7)  grading  of fibers in punched-plate
trommel  screens;   (8)  blending   of   products   to   make
specification grades; and (9)  bagging for shipment.
                           43

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   FIGURE 10.
ASBESTOS DEPOSITS
                From Minor Industrial Minerals chart-pg.184
                The National  Atlas of The USA
                USGS-1970

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Fiberiz ing  or  opening  up -the bundles of fiber  (step 5) is
done in a special type of beater or impact process  facility
designed  to  free  the fiber from the rock and fluff up the
fiber without reduction in fiber length.

The screening operations are perhaps the most critical.  The
air in the  exhaust  hoods  over  each  screen  must  be  so
adjusted  that  only the properly fiberized material will be
lifted, leaving the rock  and  unopened  fiber  bundles  for
further fiberizing.  The air system uses 20 to 25 percent of
the total power consumed in a process facility.

                  WOLLASTONITE (SIC 1499)

Wollastonite  is  a  naturally  occurring,  fibrous  calcium
silicate, CaSiO3, which is found in metamorphic rocks in New
York and California, as well as several  foreign  locations.
In the U.S. the mineral is mined only in New York.

The  material is useful as a ceramic raw material, as filler
for plastics and asphalt products, as  filler  and  extender
for  paints,  and  in  welding  rod  coatings.   Due  to its
fibrous, non-combustible nature, wollastonite is also  being
considered as a possible substitute for asbestos in a number
of product situations in which asbestos is objectionable.

Wollastonite  ore  is  mined  by underground room and pillar
methods and trucked to the processing facility.  The ore  is
crushed in three stages, screened, dried, purified of garnet
and  other  ferro-magnesiurn  impurities  via  high-intensity
magnetic separation and then ground to the  desired  product
size.

         LIGHT WEIGHT AGGREGATE MINERALS (SIC 1499)

                          PERLITE

Perlite  is  a  natural glassy rhyolitic rock, essentially a
metastable amorphous aluminum silicate, with an abundance of
spherical or convolute cracks which cause it to  break  into
small  pearl-like  masses  usually less than a centimeter in
diameter, formed by the rapid cooling of acidic lavas.

Since natural geological  processes  tend  to  work  towards
devitrification by progressive recrystallization and loss of
water,  most  useful  deposits  of vitrified lava will be in
recent lava flows of Tertiary  or  Quarternary  age.   Thus,
most  of  the  significant deposits of perlite in the United
States  are  found  in  the  Western  states  where   active
volcanism  was  recent  enough that the perlite deposits are
preserved.   At  the  present  time,  the   most   important
commercial deposit is in New Mexico.
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Mining  operations  are open pit in locations chosen so that
little overburden removal is required and where  topographic
factors  are favorable for drainage and haulage of the crude
ore.  The ore is mined  by  loosening  the  perlite  with  a
ripper  to  be  picked up with a pan scraper.  In some cases
fragmentation is accomplished  by  blasting  followed  by  a
power shovel loading.

Milling  proceeds by crushing in a jaw crusher and secondary
roll crusher with  the  normal  screening  operations.   The
sized  ore,  after removal of fines which constitute roughly
25 percent of the process  facility  feed,  is  dried  in  a
rotary  kiln to a residual moisture content below 1 percent,
and  sent  to  storage  for  subsequent  shipment  to  final
processors.

The  commercial  uses  of  perlite  are all predicted on the
properties of expanded perlite.  The glassy  nature  of  the
natural material, coupled with the inclusion of considerable
moisture,  when rapidly heated to 850-1100°C, results in the
rapid evolution of steam within the softened glass,  causing
an  explosive  expansion  of  the  individual  fragments and
producing a frothy mass having 15 to 20 times  the  bulk  of
original material.  In commercial parlance, the term perlite
is  applied  to both the crude ore and the expanded product.
Approximately 70 percent of consumption is as  an  aggregate
for plaster, concrete and for prefabricated insulating board
wherein the perlite inclusion increases the fireproof rating
of  aggregate  plaster  as  well  as  yielding a significant
reduction in weight.  The fact that  perlite  is  relatively
chemically  inert  and  relatively incompressible along with
the large surface area to volume ratios, makes it useful  as
an   important  filter-aid  material  in  the  treatment  of
industrial   water   and   in   the   beverage,   food   and
pharmaceutical processing industry.

The  environmental  problems  associated with the mining and
processing of perlite are almost  entirely  associated  with
the excessive amount of fines.

                           PUMICE

Pumice is a rhyolitic (the volcanic equivalent of a granite)
glassy  rock of igneous origin in which expanded gas bubbles
have  distended  the  magma  to  form  a  highly   vesicular
material.    Pumicite   has   the   same   origin,  chemical
composition  and  glassy  structure  as  pumice  but  during
formation the pumicite was blown into small particles, hence
the  distinction  is  largely  one  of particle size in that
pumicite has a particle size of less than 4 mm in  diameter.
Commercial  usage  has  resulted  in the generic term pumice
                          46

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being applied to all of the various rocks  of  volcanic  ash
origin.

The  chemical  composition  of pumice varies from 72 percent
silica, 14 percent alumina and 4 percent  combined  calcium,
magnesium  and  iron  oxides  for  the  most acidic types to
approximately 45 percent silica, 16 percent alumina, and  30
percent combined calcium, magnesium, and iron oxides for the
most basic types.

The  distribution  of pumice is world wide, but due to meta-
morphism only those areas  of  relatively  recent  volcanism
yield  pumice  deposits of commercial importance.  One great
belt of significant deposits borders the Pacific Ocean;  the
other  trends  generally  from  the Mediterranean Sea to the
Himalayas and thence to the East Indies where it  intersects
the  first  belt.   The  largest producers within the United
States are found in California and Idaho.

Mining operations are currently by open pit methods with the
overburden  removed  by  standard  earth  moving  equipment.
Since most commercial deposits of pumice are unconsolidated,
bulldozers,  pan scrapers, draglines or power shovels can be
used without prior fragmentation.

When the mined pumice is used for railroad ballast  or  road
construction, processing required consist of simple crushing
and  screening.  Preparation for aggregate usually follows a
similar procedure but with somewhat more involved sizing  to
produce  a  product  conforming  to rigorous specifications.
Occasionally, the  ore  requires  drying  in  rotary  dryers
either  before  or  after  crushing.   Pumice  prepared  for
abrasive use requires additional grinding followed by sizing
via screening or air classification.

                        VERMICULITE

Vermiculite is the generic  name  applied  to  a  family  of
hydrated-ferro-magnesium-aluminum  silicates  which,  in the
natural state have  a  characteristic  micaceous  habit  and
which  readily  split  into  their  laminaie which are soft,
pliable, and inelastic.  Vermiculite deposits are  generally
associated  with  ultrabasic  igneous  host  rocks  such  as
pyroxenite or serpentine from which the Vermiculite seems to
have been formed  by  hydro-thermal  activity.   Biotite  and
phlogopite  mica,  which  frequently occur with vermiculite,
are considered to have a similar origin.

When  heated  rapidly,  to  temperatures  of  the  order  of
1050-1100°C,  vermiculite  exfoliates  by expanding at right
angles to the cleavage into long  wormlike  pieces  with  an
increase   in  bulk  of  from  8  to  12  times.   The  term
                          47

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vermiculite is applied berth to the unexpanded mineral and to
the commercial expanded product.

The bulk of domestically mined vermiculite comes either from
the extensive deposit at Libby, Montana or from the group of
deposits near Enoree, South Carolina,  Mining operations are
by open pit with removal of alluvial overburden accomplished
by tractor-driven scrapers.  The ore can be dug directly  by
power  shovel  or  dragline excavator.  Dikes or barren host
rock require fragmentation by drilling and blasting prior to
removal.

Ore  beneficiation  is  accomplished   by   wet   processing
operations  using hammer mills, rod mills, rake classifiers,
froth flotation, cyclones,  and  screens.   Centrifuges  and
rotary  driers  are used to remove excess moisture following
beneficiation.

Exfoliation is carried out in vertical furnaces wherein  the
crude,  sized  vermiculite  is  top  fed  and  maintained at
temperatures from  900-1100°C  for  4  to  8  seconds.   The
expanded  product  is  removed  by  suction  fans and passed
through a classifier system to collect the  product  and  to
remove excessive fines.

                      MICA (SIC 1499)

Mica  is  a  group  name  for  a  number  of complex hydrous
potassium aluminum silicate minerals differing  in  chemical
compositions  and  in  physical properties but which are all
characterized by excellent basal cleavage  that  facilitates
splitting into thin, tough, flexible, elastic sheets.   There
are  four  principal types of mica named for the most common
mineral in each type - muscovite,  phlogopite,  biotite  and
lepidolite    with    muscovite   (potassium   mica)    being
commercially  the  most  important.    Mica,  for  commercial
convenience,  is broken down into ten broad classifications;
sheet  mica  which  consists  of  relatively   flat   sheets
occurring in natural books or runs,  and flake and scrap mica
which includes all other forms.

Muscovite  sheet  mica  is  recovered  only  from  pegmatite
deposits where books or runs of mica occur  sporadically  as
crystals  which  are  approximately tabular hexagons ranging
from  a  few  centimeters  to  several  meters  in   maximum
dimension.    Mica  generally  occurs  as  flakes  of  small
particle size in many rocks.   In addition, the mica  content
of  some schists and kaolins is sufficiently high to justify
recovery as scrap mica.
                           48

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Domestic mica mining has been confined mainly to  pegmatites
in  a  few  well-defined  areas of the country.  The largest
area extends from central Virginia southward through western
North and South Carolina and east-central Alabama.  A second
area lies discontinuously in the New England  States,  where
New  Hampshire,  Connecticut,  and  Maine  each possess mica
bearing pegmatites.  A third region comprises  districts  in
the  Black Hills of South Dakota and in Colorado, Idaho, and
New Mexico.  Additional sources of flake mica have been made
available through the development of technology  to  extract
small  particle  mica  from  schists  and  other host rocks.
Deposits containing such mica are available  throughout  the
U.S.

Sheet  mica  mines are usually small-scale operations.  Open
pit mining is used when economically feasible, but many mica
bearing pegmatites are mined by underground methods.  During
mining care must be taken to  avoid  drilling  through  good
mica  crystals.   Only  a  few holes are shot at one time to
avoid  the  destruction  of  the   available   mica   sheet.
Presently  there  is  no  significant quantity of sheet mica
mined in the U.S.  Larger scale quarrying methods  are  used
to     develop    deposits    for    the    extraction    of
small-particle-size mica and other co-product minerals.

Flake mica that is recovered  from  pegmatites,  schist,  or
other  rock  is  obtained by crushing and screening the host
rock and additional beneficiation by  flotation  methods  in
order to remove mica and other co-product minerals.  Then it
is  fed  to  an oil-fired rotary dryer.  The dryer discharge
goes to a screen from which the fines can go to waste or  be
saved for further recovery.

Raw  material  for  ground  mica is obtained from sheet mica
processing  operations,  from  crushing  and  processing  of
schists, or as a coproduct of kaolin or feldspar production.
Buhr  mills,  rodmills, or high-speed hammer mills have been
used for dry-grinding mica.  The process facility  is  in  a
circuit  with  an  air  separator which returns any oversize
material for additional grinding and  which  discharges  the
fines to a screening operation.  The various sized fractions
are  bagged  for  marketing.   The  ground  mica  yield from
beneficiated scrap runs 95 to 96 percent.

"Micronized"  mica  is  produced  in  a  special   type   of
dry-grinding  machine,  called a Micronizer.  This ultrafine
material is produced in a disintegrator that has  no  moving
parts  but  uses  jets of high-pressure superheated steam or
air to reduce the mica to micron sizes.  This type  of  mica
is  produced in particle size ranges of 10 to 20 microns and
5 to 10 microns.
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Wet-ground mica is produced in chaser-type mills to preserve
the sheen or luster of  the  mica.   This  process  facility
consists of cylindrical steel tank that is lined with wooden
blocks  laid  with  the  end  grain  up.  Wooden rollers are
generally used, which revolve at a slow rate  of  15  to  30
revolutions per minute.  Scrap goes to the mill, where water
is added slowly to form a thick paste.  When the bulk of the
mica  has  been  ground  to  the desired size, the charge is
washed from the process facility into  settling  bins  where
gritty  impurities  sink.   The  ground  mica overflows to a
settling tank and is dewatered  by  centrifuging  and  steam
drying.   The  final  product  is  obtained  by screening on
enclosed multiple-deck vibrating screens,  stored  and  then
bagged for shipment.

The  major environmental problem in processing flake mica is
the disposal of overburden material and flotation  tailings,
and  reconditioning  of  unused  or  abandoned  mine  sites.
Mining generally occurs away from  highly  urbanized  areas,
and land use conflicts are minor problems.
                          50

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                         SECTION IV
                  INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
INTRODUCTION

In  the  development  of effluent limitations guidelines and
recommended standards of performance for new  sources  in  a
particular   industry,  consideration  should  be  given  to
whether the industry can  be  treated  as  a  whole  in  the
establishment  of  uniform  and equitable guidelines for the
entire industry or whether there are sufficient  differences
within the industry to justify its division into categories.
For  this  segment  of  the  mineral  mining  and processing
industry,  which  includes  fifteen  mineral  products,  the
following factors were considered as possible justifications
for industry categorization and subcategorization:

1)   manufacturing processes;

2)   raw materials

3)   pollutants in effluent waste waters;

4)   product purity;

5}   water use volume;

6)   facility size;

7)   facility age; and

8)   facility location.

INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION

The first categorization step was  to  segment  the  mineral
mining  and  processing  industry  according to product use.
Thus, this volume. Volume Ip is "Mining of Minerals for  the
Construction Industry," Volume II is "Mining of Minerals for
the  Chemical  and  Fertilizer Industry," and. Volume III is
"Mining of  Clay,  Ceramic r  Refractory,  and  Miscellaneous
Minerals."   The  reason  for  this  is  twofold.  First the
industries in each  volume generally  have  the  same  waste
water  treatment  problems.  Secondly, this division results
in development documents that are not so big that the reader
may easily forget earlier points as he reads from section to
section.
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The first cut in subcategorization was made on  a  commodity
basis.   This  was  necessary because of the large number of
commodities and in order to avoid insufficient study of  any
one  area.   Furthermore,  the  economics  of each commodity
differs and an individual assessment is necessary to  insure
that  the  economic  impact  is  not  a  limiting  factor in
establishing  effluent  treatment  technologies.   Table  10
lists the nine commodities and the twenty-nine subcategories
in this report.

FACTORS CONSIDERED

Manufacturing Processes

Each commodity can be further subcategorized into three very
general  classes  -  dry crushing and grinding, wet crushing
and  grinding  (shaping),  and  crushing  and  beneficiation
(including  flotation,  heavy  media, et al).  Each of these
processes is described  in  detail  in  Section  V  of  this
report,  including  process  flow  diagrams pertinent to the
specific facilities using the process.

Raw Materials

The raw materials  used  are  principally  ores  which  vary
across  this  segment of the industry and also vary within a
given deposit.  Despite these  variations,  differencies  in
ore  grades  do  not generally affect the ability to achieve
the effluent limitations.  In cases where it does, different
processes are used and subcategorization is  better  applied
by process type as described in the above paragraph.
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Commodity

Dimension stone
Crushed stone
Construction
 sand and gravel
       TABLE 10

Industry Categorization
SIC Code       Subcatecror^
1411
1422,1423,
1429,1499

14U2
Industrial sand    1446
Gypsum
1492
Asphaltic Minerals 1499
Asbestos and
 Wollastonite

Lightweight
 Aggregates
1499
1499
Mica and Sericite  1499
No further subcategorization
Dry
Wet
Flotation
Dry
Wet
Dredging, on-land
processing
Dry
Wet
Flotation (acid and alkali)
Flotation (HF)
Dry
Dry, wet scrubbers
HMS
Bituminoius lime-stone
Oil impregnated diatomite
Gilsonite
Asbestos, Dry
Asbestos, Wet
Wollastonite
Perlite
Pumice
Vermiculite
Dry
Wet
Wet Beneficiation
either no clay or
general purpose
clay by-product
Wet Beneficiation
cer.gr. by-product
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Product Purity

The  mineral  extraction  processes  covered  in this report
yield products which vary  in  purity  from  what  would  be
considered  a  chemical  technical  grade  to an essentially
analytical  reagent  quality.   Product   purity   was   not
considered  to  be  a viable criterion for categorization of
the industry.  Pure product  manufacture  usually  generates
more  waste than the production of lower grades of material,
and thus could be a basis for subcategorization.  As is  the
case   for  variation  of  ore  grade  discussed  under  raw
materials previously,  pure  products  usually  result  from
different  beneficiation processes, and subcategorization is
better applied there.

Facility Size

For this segment of the industry, information  was  obtained
from more than 400 different mineral mining sites.  Capacity
varied  from  as  little  as  5  to  5,000 kkg/day.  Setting
standards based  on  pounds  pollutant  per  ton  production
minimizes  the  differences in facility sizes.  The economic
impact on facility size will be addressed in another study.

Facility Age

The newest facility studied was less than a year old and the
oldest was 150 years old.  There is no  correlation  between
facility age and the ability to treat process waste water to
acceptable  levels of pollutants.  Also the equipment in the
oldest facilities either operates on the same  principle  or
is   identical  to  equipment  used  in  modern  facilities.
Therefore, facility age was not an acceptable criterion  for
categorization.

Facility Location

The  locations  of  the  more  than  400  mineral mining and
processing sites studied are in 45 states spread from  coast
to coast and north to south.  Some facilities are located in
arid regions of the country, allowing the use of evaporation
ponds  and  surface  disposal  on  the facility site.  Other
facilities are located near raw  material  mineral  deposits
which are highly localized in certain areas of the country.

In  general  the  principal  factor within facility location
affecting effluent quantity or  quality  is  the  amount  of
precipitation and evaporation.   Appropriate consideration of
these  factors was taken where applicable, most notably mine
water discharge.

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                         SECTION V
            WATER USE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
INTRODUCTION

This section  discusses  the  specific  water  uses  in  the
minerals  for  the  construction  industry  segment  of  the
mineral mining and processing industry, and the  amounts  of
process  waste  materials  contained  in  these waters.  The
process  wastes  are  characterized  as  raw   waste   loads
emanating  from  specific processes in the extraction of the
materials involved in this study and  are  given  either  in
terms  of  kg/kkg of product produced or ore processed.  The
specific water uses and amounts are given in terms of  1/kkg
of  product  produced or ore mined (gal/ton)  for each of the
facilities contacted in this study.  The treatments used  by
the   mining   and   processing   facilities   studied   are
specifically described and the  amount  and  type  of  water
borne waste effluent after treatment is characterized.

The   verification   sampling   data  measured  at  specific
facilities for each subcategory is included in  this  report
where industry data and data from other sources is lacking.

SPECIFIC WATER USES

Waste  water originates in the mineral mining and processing
industry from the following sources.

(1) Non-contact cooling water
(2) Process generated water - wash water
                              transport water
                              scrubber water
                              process and product consumed water
                              miscellaneous water
(3) Auxiliary processes water
(4) Storm and ground water - mine water
                             storm runoff

Non-contact cooling water is defined as that  cooling  water
which  does  not  come  into  direct  contact  with  any raw
material, intermediate product, by-product or  product  used
in or resulting from the process or any process water.  Such
water will be regulated by general limitations applicable to
all industries.
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Process  generated  waste  water  is  defined  as that water
which,  in  the  mineral  processing  operations   such   as
crushing,  washing,  and  benefication,  comes  into  direct
contact  with  any  raw  material,   intermediate   product,
by-product or product used in or resulting from the process.

Auxiliary  processes  water  is  defined  as  that  used for
processes necessary for the manufacture of a product but not
contacting the process materials, for example influent water
treatment.   Such  water  will  be  regulated   by   general
limitations applicable to all industries.

The  quantity  of water usage for facilities in the minerals
for the construction industry segment of the mineral  mining
and  processing industry ranges from 0 to 2,640,000 I/day (0
to 656,000 gal/day).  In general, the facilities using  very
large  quantities of water use it for heavy media separation
and flotation processes and, in some  cases,  wet  scrubbing
and non-contact cooling.

Non-Contact Cooling Water

The largest use of non-contact cooling water in this segment
of  the  mineral  mining  industry  is  for  the  cooling of
equipment, such as crusher bearings, dryers, pumps  and  air
compressors.

Contact Cooling Water

Insignificant quantities of contact cooling water is used in
this  segment of the mineral mining industry.  When used, it
usually either evaporates immediately or  remains  with  the
product.

Wash Water

This  water  also  comes  under the heading of process water
because it comes into direct contact  with  either  the  raw
material,   reactants  or products.  Examples of this type of
water usage are ore washing to remove fines and  washing  of
crushed  stone,  sand and gravel.  Waste effluents can arise
from these  washing  sources,  due  to  the  fact  that  the
resultant  solution  or suspension may contain impurities or
may be too dilute a solution to reuse or recover.

Transport Water

Water is widely used  in  the  mineral  mining  industry  to
transport  ore  to and between various process steps.   Water
is used to move  crude  ore  from  mine  to  facility,  from
crushers  to  grinding  mills  and  to transport tailings to
final retention ponds.  Transport water is process water.
                           56

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Scrubber Water

Particularly in the dry processing of many of  the  minerals
in  this  industry, wet scrubbers are used for air pollution
control.  These scrubbers  are  primarily  used  on  dryers,
grinding  mills, screens, conveyors and packaging equipment.
Scrubber water is process water.

Process and Product Consumed Water

Process water is primarily  used  in  this  industry  during
blunging,  pug processing, wet screening, log washing, heavy
media separation and flotation unit processes.  The  largest
volume  of  water  is  used  in  the  latter four processes.
Product consumed water is often evaporated or  shipped  with
the product as a slurry or wet filter cake.

Miscellaneous Water

These  water  uses  vary  widely  among  the facilities with
general usage for floor washing and cleanup, safety  showers
and  eye  wash  stations  and  sanitary uses.  The resultant
streams  are  either  not  contaminated  or  only   slightly
contaminated  with  wastes.   The  general  practice  is  to
discharge such streams without  treatment  or  combine  with
process water prior to treatment.

Another  miscellaneous  water  use in this industry involves
the use of sprays to  control  dust  at  crushers,  conveyor
transfer  points,  discharge  chutes  and  stockpiles.  This
water is usually low volume  and  is  either  evaporated  or
adsorbed  on  the  ore.   The  water  uses  so described are
process waters.

Auxiliary Processes Water.

Auxiliary processes water  include  blowdowns  from  cooling
towers,  boilers  and  water treatment.  The volume of water
used  for  these  purposes  in  this  industry  is  minimal.
However,  when  they  are  present,  they usually are highly
concentrated in waste materials.

Storm and Ground Water

Water will enter the mine area from three  natural  sources,
direct  . precipitation,   storm   runoff  and  ground  water
intrusion.  Water contacting the exposed  ore  or  disturbed
overburden will be contaminated.  Storm water and runoff can
also become contaminated at the processing site from storage
piles,  process  equipment and dusts that are emitted during
processing.
                          57

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PROCESS WASTE CHARACTERIZATION

The mineral products are discussed  in  Standard  Industrial
Classification    (SIC)    Code  numerical  sequence  in  this
section.  For each mineral product the following information
is given:

         — a short description of the processes at the
            facilities studied and pertinent flow diagrams;

         — raw waste load data per unit weight of product
            or raw material processed;

         — water consumption data per unit weight of product
            or raw material processed;

         — specific facility waste effluents found and the
            post-process treatments used to produce them.

                 DIMENSION STONE (SIC 1U11)

Sixteen   dimension   stone   quarries   and/or   processing
facilities  were  inspected for the purpose of studying this
industry.  These companies employ almost 3,200  persons  and
process  about  300,000 kkg/yr (330,000 tons/yr) of finished
dimension stone products.  Production of  quarry  stone  was
about 1,340,000 kkg (1,480,000 tons)  in 1972.

Process Description

The  quarrying  of dimension stone can be accomplished using
six primary techniques.  Some can be used singly,  most  are
used  in  various  combinations.    These  techniques,  their
principal  combinations,  and  their  areas  of   use,   are
discussed as follows:

(1) Drilling, with or without broaching, dry or wet,  simply
    results  in  circular  holes in the stone.  On occasion,
    shallow drilling of holes a few centimeters apart is the
    prelude  to  insertion  of  explosive  charges,  or   to
    insertion  of  wedges,  or  wedges  with  two especially
    shaped iron  strips  ("plugs-and-feathers").   On  other
    occasions, drilling of deeper holes, followed by removal
    of  stone between holes (broaching)  is the primary means
    of stone cutting.   Drilling is either dry  or  wet  with
    water serving to suppress dust, to wash away stone chips
    from  the-  working zone,  and to keep the drills cool and
    prolong the cutting edge.   Drilling to  some  extent  is
    necessary in virtually all dimension stone quarrying.
                           58

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(2) Channel  machines  are  simple,  long,   semi-automated,
    multiple-head  chisels.   They are electrically or steam
    powered  (with the steam generating unit an integral part
    of each machine), and are primarily  used  on  limestone
    along  with  other  techniques.  The machines are always
    used with water, primarily to remove stone  chips  which
    are formed by machine action.

(3) Wire sawing is another technique requiring  the  use  of
    water.   Generally,  a  slurry  of  hard sand or silicon
    carbide in water is used in  connection  with  the  saw.
    The  use of wire saws is probably not justified in small
    quarries, as the initial setup  is  time  consuming  and
    costly.  However, the use of wire saws permits decreased
    effort  later  at  the  saw facility, and will result in
    decreased loss of stone.  Wire saws are used chiefly  on
    granite and limestone.

(**) Low level explosives,  particularly  black  powder,  are
    used in the quarrying of slate, marble, and mica schist.

(5) Jet piercing is  used  primarily  with  granite  in  the
    dimension  stone  industry.   This technique is based on
    the use of high velocity jet flames to cut channels.  It
    involves combustion of oxygen and a fuel oil  fed  under
    pressure  through  a nozzle to attain jet flames of over
    2600°C (5000°F).  A stream of water joins the flame  and
    the  combined  effect  is spalling and disintegration of
    the rock into fragments  which  are  blown  out  of  the
    .immediate zone.

(6) Splitting techniques of one sort or another seem  to  be
    used  in  the  quarry  on  nearly  all dimension stones.
    Splitting always requires  initial  spaced  drilling  of
    holes  in  the stone, usually along a straight line, and
    following the "rift" of the stone if it is well defined.
    Simple wedges, or "plugs-and-feathers" are  inserted  in
    the holes and a workman then forces splitting by driving
    in  the  wedges  with  a  sledge hammer.  This technique
    appears crude, but with a skilled workman good cuts  can
    be made.

After  a large block of stone is freed, it is either hoisted
on to a truck- which drives from the floor of the  quarry  to
the  facility,  or  the  block is removed from the quarry by
means of a derrick, and then loaded on a truck.

Most dimension stone processing facilities are located at or
close  to  the  quarry.   On  occasion,  centrally   located
facilities  serve  two or more quarries  (as facilities 3029,
3038, 3053, 3007, 3051).   To  a  much  lesser  extent,  one
quarry  can  serve  two or more processors  (as at facilities
                          59

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3304  and   3305).   Also  in  a  well  defined,   specialized
producing   area  such as Barre, Vermont, two large quarriers,
who are also stone processors, sell blocks and/or slabs  to
approximately  50  processors.   However,  the  most  common
situation is that in which the processor has his  own quarry.
In this study, no situation was seen in which a   quarry  was
operated without an accompanying processing facility.

In  dimension stone processing, the first step is to saw the
blocks into slabs.  The initial sawing is accomplished using
gang saws (large hack saws),  wire  saws,  or  occasionally,
rotating  diamond  saws.   All  saw systems use considerable
water, for cooling and particle removal, but this  water  is
usually  recycled.   Generally, the saw facility  is operated
at the same physical location as the finishing facility, and
without any conscious demarkation or separation,  but  in  a
few  cases the saw facility is either at a separate location
(facilities 3034 and  3051),  is  not  associated  with  any
finishing operations (facilities 3008, 3010 and 5600), or is
separately  housed  and  operated  but  at the same location
(facilities 3007 and 3001).

After the initial sawing of blocks to slabs of predetermined
thickeness,   finishing  operations   are   initiated.    The
finishing  operations used on the stone are varied and are a
function of the properties  of  the  stone  itself,  or  are
equally affected by characteristics of the end product.  For
example,  after  sawing, slate is hand split without further
processing if used for structural stone, but is hand  split,
trimmed,  and  punched  if  processed to shingles, and it is
hand split and trimmed if processed to flagstone.  Slate  is
rarely  polished,  as  the rough effect of hand splitting is
desirable.   Mica schist and  sandstone  are  generally  only
sawed, since they are used primarily for external structural
stone.   Limestone cannot be polished, but it can be shaped,
sculptured and machined for a variety of  functional  and/or
primarily  decorative purposes.   Granite and marble are also
multi-purposed stones and can  take  a  high  polish.   Thus
polishing  equipment  and  supplies,  and  water  usage, are
important considerations for these two large  categories  of
stone.   Dolomitic limestone can be polished,  but not to the
same degree as granite or marble.  Generally  most  of  this
stone  is used primarily for internal or external structural
pieces,  veneer, sill stone,  and rubble stone.   ,A  schematic
flow  sheet  for dimension stone quarrying and processing is
given in Figure 11.

Raw Waste Loads

Extremely large quantities of  stone  are  quarried  in  the
dimension  stone  industry,  and yields of good quality stone
are quite low and variable,  from 15 percent to  65  percent.
                           60

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OY
-*-»
_WATE_R_ __
(OPTIONAL )~~|
                         QUARRY
                            1	
                                               MAKE-UP
                                                WATER
                                                       RECYCLE
•gjj
                  SAW PLANT
                  POND OR
                 ABANDONED
                   QUARRY
                                         MAKE-UP
                                          WATER
                                                                             RECYCLE
FINISHING
 PLANT
                           SETTLING
                             PONDS
•a* PRODUCT
                                                   FIGURE n
                                 DIMENSION  STONE MINING  AND PROCESSING

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with   0.5 to  5.7 kkg of waste  stone per kkg of  product.   The
lowest yields are characteristic of  the   stones  which   are
generally  highly  polished  and  therefore require the  most
perfection  (granite and marble).  Low  yields   (18  percent)
also   occur  in  slate due to  large quantities  of extraneous
rock.  Most of the yield losses occur at the quarry but  some
unavoidable yield losses also  occur in  the  saw  facilities
and  finishing  facilities.    The  table   below lists   some
dimension stone quarry and facility yields.
Stone Type

Slate
Dolomitic
 limestone
Limestone

Marble
Granite
Facility

3053

3040
3010
3007
3051
3001
3038
Yield
18%
Loss
kkg/kkg
Product

4.56
65%
35%
50%
25%
15%
15-40%*
0.54
1.86
1.00
3.00
5,67
5.67-1.50
* Many quarries of differing stones and locations.

Untreated aqueous effluents can occur in the quarry  and  at
the saw and finishing facilities.

Some   quarries   use   no  water;  mica  schist,  dolomitic
limestone, slate  and  sandstone,   (facilities  5600,  3017,
3018,  3053. . 3039,  3040),  plus  some  marble,  travertine
marble, and granite (facilities  3051,  3034,  3001,  3029).
Ground  or  rain  waters do accumulate in these quarries but
rarely cause  severe  problems.   Most  limestone  and  some
granite quarries do use water for sawing or channel cutting,
(facilities  3038, 3304, 3305, 3306, 3007, 3008, 3009, 3010)
therefore, ground and rain  water  is  retained,  and  other
sources  of water may also be tapped for makeup.  This water
is continuously recycled into the quarry sump and is  rarely
discharged.

All  saw facilities use water and the general practice is to
recycle after settling most of the  suspended  solids.   The
quality  of  untreated  effluent  from saw facilities can be
significant.  However, no data is available of the raw waste
load (dissolved and suspended solids)   of  these  effluents.
The  same  situation  is  true  of  untreated effluents from
finishing facilities.   In many cases, the saw facilities and
the finishing facilities are under the same roof,  in  which
case the water effluents are combined.
                          62

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Water Use

In  the  quarrying  of  dimension  stone,  water  is used- in
quantity wherever two specific quarrying methods  are  used,
The   methods   are   wire   sawing  and  channel  machining
(facility-quarries 3038, 3007, 3008, 3009, 3010, 3304, 3305,
3306).  In all  cases,  rain  and  ground " water  are  used,
without  pretreatment,  as  well  as  water  from  any other
convenient source  (creek,  city  water,  abandoned  quarry,
etc.).   In  no  case  has  the  quantity of water used been
determined.  Water is also used in wet  drilling,  but  this
quantity is small and not measured.

In  the saw and finishing facilities, water is used with the
gang  saws,  wire  saws,  diamond  saws,  polishing   mills,
grinders,  and  in  final washing.  The greatest quantity of
water is used in sawing, whether it is for initial sawing in
the saw facility or in connection  with  operations  in  the
finishing facility.

In  Table  11,  water  and  effluent  data are presented for
dimension stone facilities having reliable  data  available.
Combined  saw  facility  and  finishing  facility  raw water
effluents vary from 4,340 to 43,400 1/kkg of product  (1,040
to 10,400 gal/ton).  Water usage varies due to varying stone
processes,  water  availability,  and  facility attitudes on
water usage.

The quality of water  used  in  dimension  stone  processing
appears  to be of little concerni  For the most part, river,
creek, well, abandoned quarry, or lake water is used without
prior treatment.  Occasionally pretreatment in the  form  of
prior   elementary  screening  or  filtration  is  performed
(facilities 3018, 3051), and in only two instances  is  city
water  used  (facility  3007,  3029)   as  part of the makeup
water.

Waste Water Treatment

In an industry where process feed water is largely  obtained
from  any  convenient  source,  and  used  with virtually no
pretreatment, it would be unexpected to find a  high  degree
of  sophistication in the treatment of waste water.  Such is
the case in most of the dimension stone industry.

In no known case is quarry water given any  treatment  prior
to  its  discharge  to a convenient stream, field, abandoned
quarry or settling pond.  This  type  of  pumpout  is  quite
infrequent,  the  water  contains  only  small quantities of
suspended solids (usually  <25  mg/1)  and  no  known  toxic
pollutants.
                           63

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                             TABLE  11
                    Dimension Stone Water Use
               Makeup Water

Stone and
Plant
Mica Schist
5600
Slate
3053
Dolomitic
Limestone
3039
3040
Limestone
3007
3009
3010*
Granite
3001
3029
3038
Marble
3051
3304
3305
3306
1/kkg of
stone processed
(gal/ton)

20 (5)

450 (110)


1,250 (300)
13,000 (3100)

540 (130)
unknown
unknown

unknown
840 (200)
1,600 (390)

100,000 (24,000)
590 (140)
unknown
1,300 (300)
Water Use,
processed
Saw Plant

4,460

unknown


unknown
unknown

16,600
unknown
9,800

7,350
unknown
unknown

100,000
unknown
unknown
unknown
1/kkg of stone
(gal/1000 Ib)
Finish Plant

none

unknown


unknown
unknown

1,600
unknown


7,360
unknown
unknown

unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown


Combined

4,460

4,550


unknown
13,000

18,200
6,030
9,800

14,700
3,900
43,400

unknown
5,940
39,800**
6,500
*  No finishing plant
** Primarily a saw plant which ships slabs to 3304 for finishing.

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In dimension stone processing facilities, water is generally
used  with  no  recycle  or  with  70-100  percent  recycle.
Facility effluents  may  be  discharged  with  no  treatment
whatsoever   (facilities   3018,   3051),  discharged  after
settling in ponds or quarries (facilities 5600, 3053,  3039,
3040,  3007,  3008,  3009,  3001,  3029,  3034, 3304, 3305),
discharged or recycled after chemical treatment and settling
(facilities  3038,  3306),  or  there  may  be  no  effluent
whatsoever  (facilities  3017,  3010)  due  to  100  percent
recycle.  This data is summarized in the following table.
Stone

Mica Schist
Slate
Dolomitic
 Limestone
Limestone
Granite
Marble
5600
3017
3018
3053
3039
3040
3007
3008
3009
3010
3001
3029
3038

3002
3003
3034
3051
3304
3305
3306
Waste Water Trea-tment

settling
100* recycle
none
settling
settling
settling
settling
settling, 10056 recycle
settling
settling, 10055 recycle
settling
settling
flocculants, settling,
100X recycle
settling
settling
settling
none
settling
settling
settling, polymer, alum
At facility 3038 there is  chemical  treatment  of  facility
waste  effluents,  solids  separation  via a raked tank with
filtration of tank underflow, plus  total  recycle  of  tank
overflow.   This  practice  is  necessary since the facility
hydraulic load would otherwise overwhelm the small  adjacent
river.   Furthermore, the facility has a proprietary process
for separating silicon carbide particles from  other  solids
in  order to resell this valuable by-product.  Since granite
facilities  are  the  only   users   of   silicon   carbide,
non-granite  processors  could  not obtain any cost benefits
from this practice.

Effluents and Disposal

Disposition of quarry and facility waste  stone  is  more  a
function  of  state  requirements  than of any other factor.
Thus,   waste   stone   and   settling   pond   solids   are
                          65

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conscientiously  used  to  refill and reclaim quarries where
the state has strict  reclamation  laws.   Corporate  policy
regarding  disposition  of  solid  wastes is the second most
important factor, and type and yield of stone is  the  least
important  factor.   Thus,  where  both  state and corporate
policy are lenient, solid wastes are  accumulated  in  large
piles  near  the  quarry  (facilities 3017, 3053, and to some
extent 3051) .

In addition to refilling abandoned quarries, some facilities
make real efforts to convert waste stone  to  usable  rubble
stone  (facilities  3034,  3040),  crushed stone (facilities
3051, 3038, 3018), or sell  as  rip  rap  (facilities  3051,
3039).  Successful efforts to convert low grade stone to low
priced  products  are  seen only in the marble, granite, and
dolomitic limestone industries.  The only estimate that  can
be  made of solid wastes, regardless of disposition, is that
which is based on data in the last  column  of  a  preceding
table  of  stone  losses,  which shows the loss of dimension
stone as kg/kkg product.

On the average, dimension stone  facilities  are  much  more
careful  in  their handling of water effluents than they are
for solid wastes.  The most important factors are state  and
federal agencies which impose or are likely to impose strict
regulations.   The single important water effluent parameter
for this industry is suspended solids.

Some quarries use no water (generally mica schist,  dolomitic
limestone, slate, sandstone).  Water use is associated  with
channel machines and wire saws (mining methods), and thus it
is  seen in limestone quarrying (facilities 3007, 3008, 3009
and 3010), and to some extent in  granite  (facility  3038),
and marble (facilities 3304, 3305, 3306).

Where  water  is  used  in  quarrying,  there is 100 percent
recycle.   Pit pumpout does occur as  a  seasonal  factor  at
some  locations,  but  suspended  solids have generally been
found to be less than 25 mg/1.  If there is a problem  or  a
border-line  situation  with respect to suspended solids,  it
can be attributed more to  stone  type  than  to  any  other
factor.   For  example,   granite  quarry pumpout at facility
3001 is  25  mg/1  TSS.    However,  limestone,  marble,  and
dolomitic limestone quarry water is generally very clear and
much lower in suspended solids.
At  no  facility where wet quarrying methods are used is the
water  flow  measured.   Likewise,  pit  pumpout  which   is
generally  infrequent,  is  rarely measured.  A few existing
state permits for pit pumpout  are  specified  in  terms  of
total  pumpout  for  given  periods  of  time,  as  well  as
                          66

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allowable levels of pollutants (primarily suspended  solids,
pH, and turbidity).

Very little quantitative data is available on the quality or
quantity  of  dimension  stone  processing  facility treated
effluents.  The common method of treatment  simply  involves
the  use  of  settling  ponds.   In some cases, the settling
ponds lose so  much  water  by  seepage  that  there  is  no
overflow.   In  other cases, the settling pond effluent flow
rate does not match the raw waste flow rate due to increases
in volume  from  rainfall  and  runoff  and  decreases  from
seepage,  evaporation,  and  undetermined  degrees  of water
recycle to the processing facilities.

Several analyses  of  treated  effluents  available  are  as
follows:
Facility 3007

Facility 3304
Facility 3305
Facility 3306
Facility 3002
Facility 3003
Facility 3001
Facility 5600
Facility 3051
7.8 pH
7.1 mg/1 TSS (range 0-24.5)
<10 JTU
<100 mg/1 total solids
<5 mg/1 TSS
<1 BOD
<1 JTU
600 mg/1 TSS
34 mg/1 TSS
Water including runoff from 2
  quarries
1 mg/1 TSS
4 mg/1 TSS
Finishing Facility 37 mg/1 TSS
Quarry - 7 mg/1 TSS
Quarry - 7 mg/1 TSS
Facility 1658 mg/1 TSS
Second Facility 4008 mg/1 TSS
                          67

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            CRUSHED STONE  (SIC 1422, 1423,  1429)

There  are  more than 4,600 quarries producing  crushed  stone
in the United States, in every state except  Delaware.    The
types  of  stone  mined  and  crushed include:  limestone  and
dolomite  (73 percent of the total  tonnage);  granite;  trap
rock; marble; shell; calcareous marl; sandstone, quartz,  and
quartzite;  slate;  and other stone.  Pennsylvania leads  the
nation in yearly output which combined with the outputs   of
Florida, Illinois, Ohio, and Texas account  for  approximately
one-third of the total U.S. production.

Facilities  smaller  than  22,700  kkg/yr   (25,000  tons/yr)
account for less than 2 percent  of  the  total production.
The  principal  use  for crushed stone of all kinds is  as an
aggregate in the construction and  paving   industries.    The
crushed stone industry is the largest non-fuel, non-metallic
mineral industry in the United States from  the  standpoint of
total  value  of  production  and is second only to sand  and
gravel in volume production.

Three basic methods of extraction are practiced:   (1)removal
of  raw material from an open face quarry;  (2)removal of  raw
material from an underground mine (approximately  5  percent
of  total crushed stone production); and  (3)  shell dredging,
mainly from coastal waterways (approximately  1 percent   of
total  crushed  stone production).  Once the  raw material is
extracted, methods of processing are similar, consisting   of
crushing,   screening,  washing,  sizing,   and  stockpiling.
Approximately 0.2 percent of total crushed  stone  production
employ  flotation  techniques  to  obtain   a  calcite (CaC03)
product.

Based on 189 facility contacts (approximately 4 percent   of
the  total  facilities),  the  industry was divided into  the
following subcategories:

(1)  Dry process (52 facilities contacted)
(2)  Wet process (130 facilities contacted)
(3)  Flotation process (3 facilities contacted)
(4)  shell dredging (4 facilities contacted)

These facilities are located in 38 states in  all  areas   of
the  nation representing various levels of  yearly production
and facility age.  Production figures range  from  36,000
1,180,000  kkg/yr  (40,000-1,300,000  tons/yr)  and facility
ages vary from less than one year to over 150 years old.
                           68

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                        DRY PROCESS

Process Description

Most crushed stone is mined from quarries.  After removal of
the  overburden,  drilling  and  blasting   techniques   are
employed  to  loosen the raw material.  The resulting quarry
is characterized by steep, almost vertical walls, and may be
several hundred meters deep.  Excavation is normally done on
a number of horizontal levels, termed  benches,  located  at
various  depths.   In  most  cases, front-end loaders and/or
power shovels are utilized to load  the  raw  material  into
trucks   which  in  turn  -transport  it  to  the  processing
facility.  In some cases, however, the raw material is moved
to the facility by a belt conveyor system  perhaps  preceded
by  a  primary  crusher.   Another  variation  is the use of
portable processing facilities .which can  be  situated  near
the  blasting  site,  on one of the quarry benches or on the
floor of  the  quarry.   In  this  situation,  the  finished
product  is  trucked  from the quarry to the stockpile area.
Specific methods vary with the nature and  location  of  the
deposit.

No  distinction  is  made  between  permanent facilities and
portable facilities since the individual operations  therein
are  basically  identical.   At the processing facility, the
raw  material  passes   through   screening   and   crushing
operations  prior  to  the  final  sizing  and  stockpiling.
Customer demands for various product grades  determines  the
number  and -position of the screens and crushers.  Figure 12
is a dry process flow diagram.

Raw Wastes

The raw wastes from the  process  consist  of  oversized  or
undersized crushed stone and is usually disposed of in pits.
The amounts of these solid wastes are variable, depending on
the  specific  grades  of  material  being processed.  It is
difficult to determine an average value  of  raw  waste  per
metric ton of product processed, since the industry does not
produce a great deal of solid waste.

Water Use

No  process  water  is used in the crushing and screening of
dry process crushed stone.   Many  operators  dewater  their
quarries  because  of ground water, rain, or surface runoff.
Approximately half of the  quarries  studied  dewater  their
quarries either on an intermittent or continual basis.
                          69

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QUARRY
VIBRATOR
 FEEDER
                                     PRIMARY
                                     CRUSHER
                                                          CRUSH
PIT PUMPOUT

SCREEN
PRODUCT
                               FIGURE  12
                 CRUSHED STONE MINING AND PROCESSING
                                   (DRY)

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Incidental  water uses include non-contact cooling water for
cooling  crusher  bearings   and   water   used   for   dust
suppression, which is adsorbed onto the product and does not
result in a discharge.

                   Incidental Water Use
                   1/fckS Qf product  (gal/ton)
Faci lity           Non~contact cooling      Dust suppression
                   UO  (9.5)                       None
1216               38  (9.2)                      81  (20)
5660               None                          6.0  (1.5)

Waste Water Treatment

Pit  pumpout  and  non- contact  cooling  water  are  usually
discharged without  treatment.   Some  facilities,  such  as
1020,  pump  their quarry water through settling ponds prior
to discharge.  Other facilities such as 1216  and  1022  are
able  to recycle about one half of their non-contact cooling
water.

Effluent and Disposal

Facilities  in  this  subcategory  are  characterized  by  a
waterborne  effluent  in  the  form  of pit pumpout and some
discharge non-contact cooling water.
                 CRUSHED STONE, WET PROCESS

Process Description

Excavation and  transportation  of  crushed  stone  for  wet
processing   use   methods   identical   to  those  for  dry
processing.  Wet processing is the same  as  dry  processing
with  the  exception  that  water is added to the system for
washing the stone.  This is normally done  by  adding  spray
bars  to  the  final  screening  operation  after  crushing.
Figure 13 is a  process  flow  diagram  for  wet  processing
crushed  stone.   In  many  cases, not all of the product is
washed,  and  a  separate  washing  facility  or  tower   is
incorporated  which  receives  all  of  the  material  to be
washed.  This separate system will normally only  include  a
set  of  screens  for  sizing  which are equipped with spray
bars.  In the portable processing facility, a portable  wash
facility can also be incorporated to satisfy the demands for
a  washed  material.  At facility 5662, the finished product
from the dry facility is fed into a separate unit consisting
of a logwasher and screens equipped with spray bars.
                           71

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                        QUARRY
                                           CRUSH
                   SCREEN
                                                         WATER
SCREEN
  AND
 WASH
PRODUCT
-•4
to
  PIT
PUMPOUT
                                       SETTLING AIDS	B»»
                                                             DEWATER
                                 POND
                                                                    WASTE
                                                     EFFLUENT  RECYCLE
                                              FIGURE  13
                               CRUSHED STONE  MINING  AND  PROCESSING
                                                  (WET)

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Raw Waste Loads

The raw waste loads of wet processing facilities are similar
to those from dry processing facilities.   The  quantity  of
raw waste varies as shown by the tabulation as follows:

Facility      Raw Waste Load,
              kg/kkq of product  (lb/1000 _lbX

1001          40
1002          50
1003          40
1004          150
1021          80
1023          20
1039          20
1212          270
1213          30
1215          10
1221          130
1974          22
5640.          10
5664          180

Water Use

Incidental water is also used for non-contact cooling and/or
dust suppression.  Use varies widely as shown below:

                   Water Use
                                (gal/1000 Ib)
Facility      Non-contact Cooling      Dust

1001          None                     None
1002          None                     None
1003          None                     None
1004          None                     None
1021          None                     500
1022          8                        None
1023          Unknown                  16
1 039          None                     Unknown
1040          None                     13
1212          None                     None
1213          None                     None
1215          290                      8
1221          None                     None
1974          17                       60
5640          None                     None

There  is  no  distinction  between  wet and dry process pit
pumpout.  Neither frequency  of  flow  nor  pumping  methods
differ for a wet or dry process.
                           73

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Water necessary for the washing operations is drawn from any
one  or  combination  of  the  following sources:  quarries,
wells, rivers, company  owned  ponds,  and  settling  ponds.
There  is  no  set  quantity  of water necessary for washing
crushed stone as the amount required is dependent  upon  the
deposit from which the raw material is extracted.  A deposit
associated  with  a  higher percentage of fine material will
require a larger volume of water to remove  impurities  than
one  with  a  lower  percentage  of  fines.  A second factor
affecting the amount of washwater is the degree of  crushing
involved.   The  amount  of undesirable fines increases with
the number of  crushing  operations,  and  consequently  the
greater  the  volume  of  water  necessary to wash the finer
grades of material.

                             Washwater

                   Percent of          1/kkg of
Facility           washed material     product (gal/ton)

5663               8
5640               15
1439               40
1219               50
1004               100
1003               100

Less than 10 percent of all crushed limestone operators  dry
their  product or a portion of their product.   Approximately
5 percent of  these  operators  employ  a  wet  scrubber  in
conjunction  with  the  dryer  as  a  means of air pollution
control.  Facility 1217 uses a  rotary  dryer  approximately
30-40  percent  of the total production time.   At such time,
the wet scrubber associated with this dryer  utilizes  water
at the rate of 2,600 1/kkg of dried product (690 gal/ton).

Waste Water Treatment

Non-contact  cooling  water  is generally discharged without
treatment as is the case with facility  1974.    Pit  pumpout
may   either   be  discharged  directly  with  no  treatment
(facility 1039)» discharged  following  treatment  (facility
5640),  or  discharged  with  the  treated effluent from the
washing operation (facility 1001).  In the latter case,  the
quarry  water  may  be  combined with the untreated facility
effluent and then flow through a settling pond system  prior
to  discharge (facility 5662).  The quarry water may instead
join the semi-treated effluent as flow to the second of  two
settling  ponds  (facility 1213).  There are many variations
to the handling of pit pumpout by  the  wet  processor.   In
general, however, the pit water is pumped through a settling
pond system.
                           74

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In  all  of  the facilities contacted, the effluent from the
washing operation is sent through  a  settling  pond  system
prior  to  discharge.   This system generally consists of at
least two settling ponds in series designed  to  reduce  the
suspended  solids  in  the  final  di scharge.  Facility 1439
utilizes two settling ponds to  treat  the  washwater.   The
suspended  solids  concentration entering the first settling
pond is 7000-8000 mg/1 which is reduced to a level of  15-20
mg/1  after  flowing  through  the two ponds.  Facility 3027
reports its settling pond system reduces the total suspended
solid level in the facility washwater by 95 percent.

In some instances, flocculating  agents  are  added  to  the
waste  stream  from  the wash facility prior to entering the
first settling pond to expedite the  settling  of  the  fine
particles.   Facility  1222  uses such an agent.  Mechanical
equipment may be used in conjunction with  a  settling  pond
system  in an effort to reduce the amount of solids entering
the first pond.  At facility 1040, the waste water from  the
washing  operation  flows  through  a dewatering screw which
reportedly removes 50 percent of the  solid  material  which
represents  a  salvageable  product.   The waste water flows
from the screw into the first settling pond.

Facility 1039 has an even more effective method for treating
waste water from the washing operation.   As  with  facility
1040r  the  waste water flows into a dewatering screw.  Just
prior to this step, however, facility 1039 employs a polymer
injection system which releases a  flocculating  agent  into
the  waste water.  This enhances the action of the screw and
leads to a higher salvage rate.

Effluents and Disposal

Waterborne  waste  discharges  from   facilities   of   this
subcategory  can consist of pit pumpout, non-contact cooling
water, or process wash water plus pit pumpout.   Where  wash
water  is  not  discharged, it is completely recycled to the
process.  Of the  facilities  contacted  that  wash  crushed
stone,  33  percent do not discharge their wash water.  Many
of the remaining facilities recycle a portion of their waste
water after treatment.  It should be noted that  evaporation
and  percolation  have a tendency to reduce the flow rate of
the final discharge in many  instances.   The  main  concern
with  the final effluent of a wet crushed stone operation is
the level  of  suspended  solids.   This  may  vary  greatly
depending  on  the  deposit, the degree of crushing, and the
treatment methods employed.

The waste water from the wet scrubber in  facility  1217  is
sent  to  the  first of two settling ponds in series.  After
flowing through both ponds, the water is  recycled  back  to
                          75

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•the  scrubber with no discharge.  Effluent data  from  some  of
the facilities that do discharge wash water after  treatment
by settling ponds are:
facility effluent

1004     Flow - 8.7 x 10*
         I/day  (2.30 mgd)
         pH - 7.5
         Turbidity - 16 FTU

1053     Flow - 1.8 x 10*
         I/day  (0,48 mgd)
         pH - 8. 4
         Turbidity - 18 FTU

1218     Flow - 6.2 x 10*
         I/day  (1.64 mgd)
         TSS - 20 mg/1
                    source
                    treated discharge composed
                    of wash water  (456) and
                    pit pumpout  (96%)
                    wash water after treatment
                    wash water after treat-
                    ment then combined with
                    pit pumpout
Of  the  facilities  contacted  the  following are achieving
total recycle of process generated waste water:
    1002
    1062
    1066
    1070
    1161
    1439
1003
1063
1067
1071
1212
3027
1039
1064
0168
1072
1220
5663
1040
1065
1079
1090
1223
The following facilities use a common pond for process waste
water and mine water.  These facilities  use  much  of  this
combined pond water for the total process water intake:
         facility

         1001
         1023
         1219
         1222
         1226
         1227
         1228
         5662
         5664
          effluent
          TSS mg/1

          8
          34
          2
          9
          40, 42
Many  treatment  ponds  discharge  less  than  the  influent
because of ground seepage.  Facility 1974 is an example of a
facility achieving no discharge because  of  seepage.   Mine
water   discharge  data  from  several  facilities  of  this
subcategory are;
                           76

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         facility       TSS mq/1

         1001           3
         1003           7
         1004           12
         1020           (1)5, (2)1
         1021           14
         1022           15
         1023           34
         1039           7
         1040           25
         1214           <1,2,3
         1215           (1)^2, (2)28
         1219           2
         1224           10-30
         5660           14
         5661           0
         5663           1
         5664           42.4
(1)  first pit
(2)  second pit
These discharges typically are  not  treated  after  removal
from the pit sump.

Many  of the operators in this subcategory must periodically
clean their settling ponds of the fines which  have  settled
out  from  wash  water.  A clamshell bucket is often used to
accomplish this task.  The fines recovered are sometimes  in
the form of a saleable product (facility 1215) while in most
instances  these  fines  are  actually a waste material.  In
this instance, the material is either stockpiled or used  as
landfill   (facilities 1053 and 1212).  The quantity of waste
materials entering the pond varies for each operator and the
processes  involved.   Facility  1002   reports   that   the
washwater  entering  the  settling  ponds is composed of 4-5
percent waste fines.  The frequency of pond cleaning depends
not only on the processes involved but also on the  size  of
the  pond.  Facility 1217 must clean its settling ponds once
per month, the recovered material serving as landfill.   The
disposal   of   these   fines  presents  problems  for  many
operators.
                           77

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              CRUSHED STONE, FLOTATION PROCESS

Process Description

Marble or other carbonaceous rock can  be  transported   from
the  quarry  to the processing facility where it is crushed,
screened  or  wet  milled  and  fed  to   flotation   cells.
Impurities  are  removed  in  the  overflow  and  the pumped
product is collected from the underflow,  it is further  wet
milled  to  achieve a more uniform particle size, dried, and
shipped.  A process diagram is shown in Figure 1U.

Raw Waste Load

Process raw wastes consist  of  clays  and  fines  separated
during  the  initial  washing  operations and iron minerals,
silicates, mica, and graphite separated by flotation.

              kq/kkg of product (Ib /1QOO Ib)
waste          1975           3069

clays and     1,000          unknown
fines

flotation     50-100         50-100
wastes
(solids)

In addition to  the  above,  the  flotation  reagents  added
(organic amines, fatty acids and pine oils)  are also was-ted.
The  quantities  of  these  materials are estimated to range
from 0.1 to 1.0 kg/kkg of material.

Water Use

The water use  for  the  three  facilities  is  outlined  as
follows.    There  are considerable variations in process and
mine pumpout waters.
                           78

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                                                 CONDITIONERS
PIT PUMPOUT
                                WATER
CRUSHING


SCREENING
OR
WET
GRINDING
                              WASTE WATER
TO WASTE
TREATMENT
WASTE WATER
DTKERS
WATER
V f 1
WATER VENT
' I T
FLOTATION


WET
MILLING


DRYING
                                                                                           PRODUCT
                                          FIGURE   14
                          CRUSHED  STONE MINING  AND  PROCESSING
                                     (FLOTATION PROCESS)

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process
cooling
dust control
boiler
mine
pumpout
  1975

151,000
(36,000)

22,700
(5,400)

1,510
(360)
unknown
                   1/kkg of product  (gal/ton)
 3069

4,900
(1,170)

850
(200)

1,400
(335)

6,600
(1,580)

none
 1021

2,570
(610)
16,000
(3,800)
*Facility 1975 also employs some of this "process" water  to
wash other materials.

Treatment

At  facility  1975, all waste water is combined and fed to a
series of settling lagoons to  remove  suspended  materials.
The  water is then recycled back to other washing operations
with the exception of about  5  percent  which  is  lost  by
percolation  and  evaporation  from the ponds.  This loss is
made up by the addition of fresh water.

At facility 1429 a considerable portion of the  waste  water
is  also recycled.  The individual waste streams are sent to
settling tanks for removal of suspended solids.  From these,
about 70 percent of the process water and all of the cooling
and boiler water is recycled.  The remainder is released  to
settling ponds for further removal of suspended solids prior
to discharge.

At  facility  1021,  lagooning  is  also used for removal of
suspended solids.   Only  at  this  facility  is  all  water
discharged.

Effluent

At facility 1975, there is no effluent.  Ninety-five percent
of the water is recycled and the remainder is lost by either
evaporation or percolation in the ponds.

For  facilities  3069  and  1021 the effluents are listed as
follows along with corresponding intake water  compositions.
In  the  case  of  facility  1021  the  data  presented  are
analytical measurements made by the contractor.
                           80

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         intake
         water
         (3069)
TSS      5
 (mg/1)

BOD      1.0
   (mg/1)

COD      1.0
   (mg/1)

sulfate  3.5
 (mg/1)

turbi-   10
dity  (FTU)

chloride 3.8
 (mg/1)
          effluent
          (1069)

          10
intake           mine
water  ef fluent  pumpout
Q021) (!02_1)    (1021)
                   8
          <2.Q
  13
 19
                                         27
total
solids
(mg/1)
32
4.1


128
                         50
 464
                       SHELL DREDGING
20


154
                 12
118
Process Description
Shell dredging is the hydraulic mining of semi-fossil oyster
and clam shells  which  are  buried  in  alluvial  estuarine
sediments.   Extraction  is carried out using self-contained
floating hydraulic suction dredges  which  operate  in  open
bays  and  sounds,  usually  several miles from shore.  This
activity is conducted along the coastal Gulf of  Mexico  and
to  a lesser extent along the Atlantic coast.  Shell dredges
are self-contained and support an average  crew  of  12  men
working 12 hours/day in two shifts.

All  processing  is done on board the dredge and consists of
washing and screening the  shells  before  loading  them  on
tow-barges  for transport to shore.  Shell is a major source
of calcium carbonate along the Gulf Coast States and is used
for   construction    aggregate    and    Portland    cement
manufacturing.   Shell  dredging  and on-board processing is
regulated under section 404 of the Act, Permits for  Dredged
or Fill Material.
                          81

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          CONSTRUCTION SAND AND GRAVEL  (SIC 1442)
There are over 5,000 commercial operations, located in every
state  of the nation, extracting and processing construction
sand and gravel.  Three basic methods  of  sand  and  gravel
extraction  are  practiced:   (1)dry  pit,  removal above the
water table;  (2)wet pit, raw material extracted by means  of
a  dragline  or  barge-mounted dredging equipment both above
and below the water table; and  (3)dredging, where  sand  and
gravel  is recovered from public waterways, including lakes,
rivers, and estuaries.  Once the raw material is  extracted,
methods  of  processing are similar for all cases, typically
consisting  of  sand  and  gravel   separation,   screening,
crushing, sizing, and stockpiling.

Based on one hundred facility visits and contacts (2 percent
of  the  total), the industry was divided into the following
subcategories:

         (1)  Dry process (10 facilities contacted)
         (2)  Wet process (80 facilities contacted)
         (3)  Dredging with on-land processing
              (7 facilities contacted)

These facilities are located in 22 states in all regions  of
the nation representing production levels from 10,800 kkg/yr
(12,000   tons/yr)    to  over  1,800,000  kkg/yr  (2,000,000
tons/yr).  Facility ages varied from less than a year old to
more than 50 years old.

                SAND AND GRAVEL, DRY PROCESS

Process Description

After  removal  of  the  overburden,  the  raw  material  is
extracted  via front-end loader, power shovel or scraper and
conveyed to the  processing  unit  with  conveyor  belts  or
trucks.   Specific methods vary with the nature and location
of the deposit.   At the processing  facility,  the  sand  is
separated from the gravel via inclined vibrating screens and
sized  according to percent passing various screen openings.
The larger sizes are used as a product or  crushed  and  re-
sized.    The  degree  of  crushing  and  sizing  is  highly
dependent on the needs  of  the  user.   A  typical  process
diagram is shown in Figure 15.

Raw Waste Loads

The  raw  wastes  consist  of oversize or undersize sand and
gravel that is normally disposed of in worked-out pits.  The
amounts of these solid wastes are quite variable,  depending
                          82

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                         MINI
SEPARATION
                                                            SIZE
                                   SAND
                                   PRODUCT
                                                          WASTE FINES
oo
OJ
                                                            SIZE
                                                          WASTE FINES
                                   GRAVEL
                                   PRODUCT
                                                                    CRUSH
                                             FIGURE " 15
                          SAND AND GRAVEL MINING  AND PROCESSING

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on  the  quality  of the deposits being processed.  Some dry
processing facilities are able to sell or utilize as much  as
95 percent of the raw material, while  others  are  able   to
sell  less  than 50 percent.  The remainder is stockpiled  or
discarded as solid waste.  The range of raw waste  loads   is
from 50 to over 500 kg/kkg of raw material, or, in different
terms, from 53 to over  1,000 kg/kkg of product.

Water Use

No  water  is used in the dry processing of sand and gravel.
Mine pumpout may occur during periods of rainfall or, in the
cases of  portable  or  intermittent  operations,  prior   to
initial  start-up.  Most pumpouts occur when the water level
reaches a predetermined height in a pit  or  low-area  sump.
Incidental  water uses may include non-contact cooling water
for crusher bearings and water for  dust  suppression.   The
following   tabulates   incidental  water  use  at  selected
facilities:

         1/kkg of product (gal/ton)
Facility      Non-contact cooling      Dust Suppression

1236          None                     27,5 (6.6)
1231          None                     16 (3.8)
1044          5 (1.2)                   19 (4.5)

Waste Water Treatment

Mine pumpout and non-contact  cooling  water  are  typically
discharged  without  treatment.   Dust  suppression water  is
adsorbed on the product and evaporated.

Effluents and Disposal

Facilities in this subcategory  have  no  process  water   to
discharge.   Where  effluents  occur,  they  consist  of pit
pumpout and/or non-contact cooling water.  At Facility 1044,
only non-contact cooling water is discharged.   Facility 1007
discharges  pit  water  on  a  regular  basis  without   any
treatment.   The  pH  of  facility 1007 effluent ranges from
6.0-8.0, and the significant parameters are:

 Flow, 1/kkg of product (gal/ton)       625   (150)
 TSS, mg/1                             55
 TSS, kg/kkg of product (Ib/ton)        0.034 (0.068)
                           84

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                .SAND AND GRAVEL, WET PROCESS

Process Description

Sand and gravel operations requiring extraction from  a  wet
pit or quarry typically use a dragline or a hydraulic dredge
to  excavate the material.  The hydraulic dredge conveys the
raw material as a wet slurry  to  the  processing  facility.
After removal of the overburden, the raw material from a dry
pit  or  quarry  is  extracted  via  front-end loader, power
shovel or scraper, and conveyed to the  processing  facility
on conveyor belts or in haul trucks.

Water  in this subcategory is used to remove  (wash)  the clay
or other impurities from the sand and gravel.  State, local,
and  Federal  specifications  for  construction   aggregates
require the removal of clay fines and other impurities.  The
sand  and  gravel deposits surveyed during this study ranged
from 5 to 30 percent clay content.

Facility  processing  includes   washing,   screening,   and
otherwise classifying to size, crushing of oversize, and the
removal  of  impurities.   Impurities  which  are soluble or
suspendable in water (e.g., clays) generally are washed  out
satisfactorily.   These  facilities  are  a  combination  of
conveyors,  screens,  crushers,  washing   and   classifying
equipment,  and  storage  and loading facilities.  A typical
wet processing  facility  would  consist  of  the  following
elements;

(1) A hopper, or equivalent, receives  material  transported
from  the  deposit.   Generally, this hopper will be covered
with a "grizzly" of parallel bars to screen  out  rocks  too
large to be handled by the facility.

(2) A scalping screen separates oversize material  from  the
smaller marketable sizes.

(3) The material passing through the scalping screen is  fed
to  a battery of screens, either vibrating or revolving, the
number, size, and arrangement of which will  depend  on  the
number  of  sizes  to be made.  Water from sprays is applied
throughout the screening operation.

(4) From these screens the different  sizes  of  gravel  are
discharged into bins or onto conveyors for transportation to
stockpiles,  or in some cases, to crushers and other screens
for  further  processing.   The  sand  fraction  passes   to
classifying  and dewatering equipment and from there to bins
and stockpiles.  Screens are used to separate the sand  from
the  gravel  and  to make required separation coarser than a
-20 mesh  sieve.   Finer  sizes  of  sand  are  produced  by
                           85

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classification   equipment.    Figure   16   illustrates   a
generalized flow diagram  for  a  wet  processing  sand  and
gravel facility.

A   small  number  of  facilities  must  remove  deleterious
particles occurring in the  deposit  prior  to  washing  and
screening.   Particles considered undesirable are classified
as: soft  fragments;  thin  and  friable  particles;  shale;
argillaceous  sandstones  and limestones; porous and unsound
cherts;  coated  particles;  coal;  lignite  and  other  low
density    impurities.     Heavy-media   separation   (i.e.,
sink-float)  is used for the separation of materials based on
differing  specific  gravities.   The  process  consists  of
floating  out  the  lightweight material on a heavy "liquid"
which  is  formed  by  suspension  of  finely  ground  heavy
ferromagnetic    materials    such   as   magnetite   and/or
ferrosilicon in water.  The  "floated"  impurities  and  the
"sink"  product  (sand  and gravel)  are passed over a screen
where the  magnetite  and/or  ferrosilicon  are  removed  by
magnetic   separation  and  recycled.   The  impurities  are
usually disposed of in nearby  pits  while  the  product  is
transported  to the facility for routine washing and sizing.
Figure 17 shows the heavy-media separation step  used  prior
to the processing illustrated in Figure 16.

Raw Waste Loads

Raw  wastes  consist  of waste fines composed of clays,  fine
mesh  sands  (usually  less  than  150  mesh),   and   other
impurities.    Oversize  material  is  crushed  to  size  and
processed except in a few cases except where discarded.   The
amounts of these  wastes  are  variable,  depending  on  the
nature  of  the raw material (i.e.,  percent of clay content)
and degree of processing at the  facility.    Facility  1981,
using heavy-media separation prior to wet processing, floats
out  150  kg/kkg  of  the  total  raw  material  fed  to the
facility.   The  following  lists  the  rate  of  raw  waste
generation at several other facilities:

Facility      kq/kkg of raw_material (lb/1000 Ib)

1006               140
1007               480
1055                50
1056               250
1391                80
3091               110
                           86

-------
                                                    CRUSH
CO
                QUARRY

              LEGEND;
                   ALTERNATE
                   ROUTES
                                  WATER
                                                    SCREEN
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SEF



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1

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JD WATER
RATE —. 1

^. WET ^ ^M.,*^^«
fca^sa HHiiiB»cac OFWA i F- R
CLASSIFICATION utwMitrt
' f f
PONDS AND/OR THICKENERS
                                     EFFLUENT
 WATER
RECYCLE
                                            FIGURE 16
                           SAND AND  GRAVEL  MINING  AND PROCESSING
                                                WET)
                 GRAVEL
                 PRODUCT
                                                                                  SAND
                                                                                  PRODUCT

-------
                   WATER
        MEDIA
     MINE:
LEGEND;
      ALTERNATE
      ROUTE
  HEAVY
  MED? A
SEPARATION
 WASH
 AMD
SCREEN
                                         1
      MEDIA RECOVERY

   WET
PROCESSING
GRAVEL PRODUCT


• SAND PRODUCT
                             ¥
                           WASTE
              SETTLING AID--
       PONDS AND/OR
        THICKENERS
                           EFFLUENT   WATER
                                    RECYCLE
                                      FIGURE   17
                           AND  GRAVEL MINING  AND PROCESSING
                                          ( HMS }

-------
Water Use

Process  water  includes  water  used to separate, wash, and
classify sand and gravel.   Incidental  water  is  used  for
non-contact  cooling  and  dust suppression.  Water used for
sand and gravel separation enters a rotary  scrubber  or  is
sprayed  via  spray bars onto a vibratory inclined screen to
separate the sand and the clay from the  gravel.   The  sand
slurry  is  further  processed  via hydraulic classification
where additional water is usually added.  As the  source  of
the  raw  material constantly changes, so does the raw waste
load and the  amount  of  water  required  to  remove  these
wastes.

The  following  tabulates  process  water  use  at  selected
facilities:
Facility

1006
1012
1055
1391
5630
5656
5666
5681
                          !dS3 of product  (gal/ton)

                             2500  (600)
                             9400  (2250)
                             3400  (820)
                             1430  (340)
                             1460  (350)
                             750   (180)
                             7400  (1800)
                             2000  (480)
Facilities 1012 and  5666  have  markedly  higher  hydraulic
loads  than  the  others  because they use hydraulic suction
line dredges.

Facility 1006 discharges  an  average  of  1900  1/min  (500
gal/min)  of pit water, or 208 1/kkg of product (50 gal/ton)
ranging from 0 to 5000 1/kkg  (0-1200 gal/ton)  depending  on
the rainfall.

Waste water Treatment

The predominant method of treating process waste water is to
remove   sand   fines  and  clay  impurities  by  mechanical
dewatering devices and settling basins or ponds.  Removal of
-200 mesh sand and clay fines is  much  more  difficult  and
requires settling times that are usually not achievable with
mechanical  equipment.  Some facilities use settling aids to
hasten the settling process.  The best  facilities  in  this
subcategory  are able to recycle the clarified water back to
the process.  Water with a total  suspended  solids  content
less than 200 mg/1 is generally clean enough to reuse in the
process.  The following tabulates data from facilities which
recirculate their process water resulting in no discharge of
process waste water:
                           89

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Facility TSS  (mcf/li.

1055     unknown
1235
1391
1555
3049
5617
5631
5674
unknown
4,550
15,000
5,000
unknown
unknown
unknown
               Treatment

               spiral classi-
               fiers, 4-hectares
               (10-acre) settling
               basin
mechanical thick-   54
eners, settling
ponds

mechanical thick-   32
eners, cyclones,
2-hectares (5-acre)
settling basin

cyclones, 14-hectares
(35-acre) settling
basin

cyclones, vacuum    30
disc filter, 2-hectares
(S^acre)  settling pond
with polymer floe
                    Output
                    TSS  (ma/1)

                    25
     35
dewatering screws,
settling ponds
unknown
dewatering screws,  unknown
10-hectares (25-acre)
settling pond

dewatering screws,  unknown
0.8-hectare (2-acre)
settling pond
Facilities  1012 and 5666 are hydraulic dredging facilities.
Slurry from these facilities is sent to a settling basin  to
remove  waste fines and clays.  The decant from the settling
basin is returned to the wet  pit  to  maintain  a  constant
water  level  for  the  dredge  resulting in no discharge of
process water.

Lack of land to a major extent will  impact  the  degree  to
which  a  facility is able to treat its process waste water.
Many operations are able to use worked-out sand  and  gravel
pits  as  settling  basins.   Some  have  available land for
impoundment construction.  The following lists the suspended
solids concentration of treated waste water  effluents  from
facilities discharging:
                          90

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Facility      Treatment           TSS,. mg/1

1006          dewatering screw,        55
              settling ponds
104'4          dewatering screw,        154
              settling pond
1056          settling ponds           25
1083          dewatering screw,        47
              settling ponds
1129          dewatering screw,        44
              settling ponds
5630          dewatering screw,        5
              settling ponds

Facility  1981,  using  heavy-media separation, recovers the
magnetite and/or ferrosilicon pulp,  magnetically  separates
the  media  from  the tailings, and returns the media to the
process.  Separation tailings from  the  magnetic  separator
are  discharged  to  settling  basins and mixed with process
water.

Pit  pumpout  and  non-contact  cooling  water  are  usually
discharged  without treatment.  Facility 1006 discharges pit
pumpout water through the same settling ponds  which  handle
process water.  Facility 1044 discharges non-contact cooling
water  through  the  same  settling  ponds used for treating
process water.  Dust suppression water is  adsorbed  on  the
product and evaporated.

Effluents and Disposal

Half  the  facilities  visited  are  presently recirculating
their process water resulting in no discharge.

Those facilities recirculating all process  generated  waste
water include:

    1007      1059      1206      1391
    1013      1084      1207      1555
    1014      1200      1208      1629
    1048      1201      1230      3049
    1055      1202      1233      5622
    1056      1203      1234      5631
    1057      1204      1236      5656
    1058      1205      1250      5674

The following facilities achieve no discharge to navigable
waters by perculation:

    1231      5666
    1232      5681
                           91

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The  following  facilities previously mentioned as recycling
all process generated waste waters declared that significant
perculation occurs in their ponds:

    1057      1233      5656
    1058      1234

Facilities 1005, 1012, 5670 dredge  closed  ponds  on  their
property  and discharge all process waste waters back to the
pond being dredged.  Only very large rainfalls would cause a
discharge from these ponds to navigable waters.

The rest discharge process water,  characteristics  of  some
discharges are:

                   Flow                TSS
              1/kkg of product    kq/kkq of product
Facility      jgal/tonj                (lb/1000 Ib)

1006          2500 (600)                0.14
1044          1670 (400)                0.26
1056          1750 (420)                0.04
1083          1040 (250)                0.05
1129          1150 (275)                0.05
5630          1170 (290)                0.006

Solid  wastes (fines and oversize) are disposed of in nearby
pits or worked-out areas or sold.  Clay fines which normally
are not removed by mechanical equipment settle out  and  are
routinely cleaned out of the settling pond.  Facilities 1391
and  1629  remove clay fines from the primary settling pond,
allow them to drain to  approximately  20  percent  moisture
content,  truck  the  wastes  to a landfill site, and spread
them out to enhance drying.
                           92

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              DREDGING WITH ON-LAND PROCESSING

Process Description

The raw material is  extracted  from  rivers  and  estuaries
using  a floating, movable dredge which excavates the bottom
sand and gravel deposit by  one  of  the  following  general
methods:   suction  dredge  with  or  without  cutter-heads,
clamshell bucket, or bucket ladder dredge.  After  the  sand
and  gravel  is  brought  on-board,  primary  sizing  and/or
crushing is accomplished with vibrating or  rotary  screens,
and  cone  or gyratory crushers with oversize boulders being
returned  to  the  water.   The  general  practice  in  this
subcategory  is to load a tow-barge, which is tied alongside
the dredge.   The  barge  is  transported  to  a  land-ba sed
processing  facility where the material is processed similar
to that described for wet processing  of  sand  and  gravel.
The degree of sand and gravel processing on-board the dredge
is  dependent  on  the  nature  of  the deposit and customer
demands for aggregate.  Dredges 1010,  1052,  1051,  extract
the  raw  material  via  clamshell  or bucket ladder, remove
oversize boulders, size, and primary crush on-board.  Figure
18 shows the basic material flow for these dredges.  Dredges
1046 and 1048 extract via clamshell, but  have  no  on-board
crushing  or  sizing.   The  extracted  material for all the
above-mentioned  dredges  is  predominantly  gravel.    This
gravel  must  undergo  numerous crushing and sizing steps on
land to make a manufactured sand product which is absent  in
the deposit.

Dredges  1011 and 1009 excavate the deposit with cutter-head
suction line dredges since the deposit is dominated by  sand
and small gravel.  Dredge 1011 pumps all the raw material to
an  on-land  processing  facility.   Dredge 1009, due to the
lack of demand for sand at its location, separates the  sand
and  gravel on-board the dredge with the sand fraction being
returned to the river.  The gravel is loaded onto tow-barges
and transported to a land facility where wet  processing  is
accomplished.   The  dredges in this subcategory vary widely
in capital investment and size.  Dredge 1046 consists  of  a
floating  power shovel powered by a diesel engine which digs
the deposit and loads onto a tow-barge,  A  shovel  operator
and  a  few  deck  hands  are on-board during the excavation
which is usually only an eight-hour shift.  Dredge  1009  is
much  larger  and  sophisticated  since  it requires partial
on-board separation of sand  and  gravel.   This  dredge  is
manned  by  a  twelve-man crew per shift, with complete crew
live-in quarters  and  attendant  facilities.   This  dredge
operates 24 hours/day.
                          93

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r
RAW
MATERIALS
«*££i
L.

SIZE
	
	
	 I
CRUSH
^
k (
«,
DREDGE 	

-
.
TOW __ „„,*£,„„.
BARGE PLANT

                                                         PRODUCT
     OVERSIZE
                        FIGURE  18
         SAND  AND GRAVEL MINING AND PROCESSING
            (DREDGING WITH ON-LAND PROCESSING)

-------
Raw Waste Loads

Raw wastes consist of oversize or unusable material which is
discarded  at  the  dredge  and  undersize waste fines  (-150
mesh)  which  are  handled  at  the  land-based   processing
facility.    The   amount  of  waste  material  is  variable
depending on the deposit and degree of processing.   On  the
average,  25  percent of the dredged material is returned to
the river.   Waste  fines  at  land  facilities  average  10
percent.   The  following  tabulates waste loads at selected
operations:

                   At Dredge           At_Land Facility
                   kg/kkg of feed      kg/kkg of feed
                   gb/1000 Ibj        Jib/1000 lb)^

                   460                 100

1010               none                400

1011               none                150

1046               none                110

1048               none                120

1051               250                 60

1052               180                 120

Clay content of dredged sand and gravel,  usually  averaging
less  than 5 percent, is less than that of land deposits due
to the natural rinsing action of the river.  Unsaleable sand
fines  resulting  from  crushing  of  gravel  to  produce  a
manufactured sand represent the major waste load at the land
facilities.

Water Use

Water   use  at  the  land  facilities  is  similar  to  wet
processing  subcategory  facilities.   the  wet   processing
subcategory.   Process  water is used to separate, wash, and
classify  sand  and  gravel.   Incidental   water   includes
non-contact  cooling and dust suppression.  Water use at the
dredge depends on the excavation method.  Some clamshell and
ladder bucket dredges do not use process water because there
is no on-board washing.  Suction line dredges bring  up  the
raw  material  as a slurry, remove the aggregate, and return
the water to the river.  Water use  at  land  facilities  is
variable  depending  on  the  raw  material  and  degree  of
processing as shown below:
                          95

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Facility                1/KJS3 of feed  (gal/ton)
1009                    2200  (530)
1010                    1400  (340)
1046                    1000  (240)
1048                    3440  (825)
1051                    1300  (320)
1052                    1500  (360)

Water used for  dust  suppression  averages   15  1/kkg   (3.8
gal/ton) of gravel processed.

Waste Water Treatment

At  dredge  1009,  there  is no treatment of  the sand slurry
discharged to the river.  Removal of  waste   fines  at   land
facilities  with  spiral  classifiers,  cyclones, mechanical
thickeners, or rake classifiers and settling  basins, is  the
method  of process waste water treatment.  These are similar
to  methods  used  in  the   wet   processing  subcategory.
Facilities   1046,   1048,   1051  and  1052,  by  utilizing
mechanical devices  and  settling  basins,  recirculate  all
process water thereby achieving no discharge.  The following
is a list of treatment methods, raw waste loads, and treated
waste water suspended solids for these operations:

                                            Treated Recycle
         Raw Waste Load,                         Water,
Facility TSS (mg/1)           Treatment           TSS imq/1)

1046          8,500          dewatering          275
                             screw, cyclone,
                             drag classi-
                             fier, settling
                             basin

1 048          10,000         dewatering          50
                             screw,
                             cyclones,
                             settling basins

1051          9,000          dewatering          300
                             screw, drag
                             classifier,
                             settling basin

1052          7,500          dewatering          200
                             screw, drag
                             classifier,
                             settling basin
                             with flocculants
                           96

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Availability  of  land  for  settling  basins influences the
method of process  water  treatment.   Many  operations  use
worked-out sand and gravel pits as settling basins  (Facility
1048) or have land available for impoundment.  Facility 1010
is  not  able to recirculate under current conditions due to
lack of space for settling basins.  Land availability is not
a problem at facilities 1011 and 1099.

Non-contact cooling water is typically discharged  into  the
same  settling basins used for treating process water.  Dust
suppression  water  is  adsorbed  onto   the   product   and
evaporates,

Effluents and Disposal

Four  of  the  seven  facilities visited in this subcategory
have no discharge of process generated water.  The remaining
three discharge process washwater.  Effluent  parameters  at
two of these facilities are:

                   TSS            TSS, kg/kkq of product
                   mg/1                (lb/1000 Ib)
1010               16,000              22

1009               50                  0. 10

Sand  fines   (+200 mesh) are removed with mechanical devices
and conveyed to disposal areas.  Clay fines and that portion
of the, silica fines smaller than 200 mesh, which settle  out
in   a   settling   basin,   are  periodically  dredged  and
stockpiled.  Facility 1051 spends approximately 120  days  a
year  dredging  waste  fines  out the primary settling pond.
These fines are hauled to a landfill area.
                           97

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             DREDGING WITH ON-BOARD PROCESSING

Process Description

The raw material is  extracted  from  rivers  and  estuaries
using  a floating, movable dredge which excavates the bottom
sand and gravel deposit by  one  of  the  following  general
methods:   suction  dredge,  with  or  without cutter-heads,
clamshell bucket, or bucket ladder dredge.  After  the  sand
and gravel is brought on-board, complete material processing
similar  to  that  described in the wet process subcategory,
occurs prior to the loading of  tow-barges  with  the  sized
sand  and  gravel.   Typical  on-board  processing includes:
screening,   crushing    of    oversize,    washing,    sand
classification  with  hydraulic  classifying  tanks,  gravel
sizing, and product loading.  Numerous  variations  to  this
process  are  demonstrated  by the dredges visited.  Dredges
1017 and 1247 use a rotary scrubber to separate the sand and
gravel which has been excavated from land  pits,  hauled  to
the  lagoon  where  the dredge floats, and fed into a hopper
ahead of the rotary scrubber.  Dredge 1008 excavates with  a
revolving cutter head suction line in a deposit dominated by
sand.   The  sand is separated from the gravel and deposited
into the river channel without processing.  Only the  gravel
is  washed, sized, and loaded for product as there is little
demand for sand  at  this  location.   Dredge  1050  employs
bucket  ladders, rough separates sand from gravel, sizes the
gravel,  crushing  the  oversize,  and  removes  deleterious
materials   from   the   gravel  by  employing  heavy  media
separation (HMS).  HMS media (magnetite/ferrous  silica)   is
recovered,  and  returned  to  the  process.  Float waste is
discharged into the river.  Dredge 1049r a slack-line bucket
ladder dredge normally  works  a  river  channel.   However,
during  certain  periods  of the year it moves into a lagoon
where water  monitors  "knock  down"  the  sand  and  gravel
deposit into the lagoon in front of the buckets.  All of the
dredges    pump   river   water   for   washing   and   sand
classification.  Periods of operation are widespread for the
dredges visited.  Dredge 1008 operates all  year,  24  hours
per  day  (two-12  hour shifts).  Dredge 1049 operates two 8
hour shifts for 10 months.  Dredging for sand and gravel  is
regulated under section 404 of the Act.
                           98

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                      INDUSTRIAL SAND

The  amount  of industrial sand produced accounts for only 7
percent of the total O.S. sand production, but represents 20
percent of the total dollar value  for  all  sand  products.
Sand  produced  for  industrial  purposes  is  used  in  the
following  areas:   glassmaking,   molding,   grinding   and
polishing,  blast  sand,  fire  and furnace sand, locomotive
traction sand,  filtration,  oil  hydrofracture,  or  ground
sand.  The first two account for approximately 62 percent of
the  total  industrial  sand  production,  37 and 25 percent
respectively.  The percentage of dollar values for  each  of
the  types  of  industrial  sand  correlate closely to their
respective  percentages  of  the  production  total.   Forty
states  produce  one  or more categories of industrial sands
with Illinois (16 percent). New Jersey (11.5  percent),  and
Michigan   (10  percent)   claiming  37.5 percent of the total
output.

The three basic methods of extraction are:

(1) Mining of sand from open pits;
(2) Mining of sandstone from quarries; and
(3) hydraulic dredging from wet pits,

Once the raw material is  extracted,  the  basic  operations
involved  in  the production of all types of industrial sand
are classification and removal of impurities.  The amount of
impurities  in  the  raw  material  is  dependent  upon  the
percentage  of  silica in the deposit.  The subsequent level
of technology involved in the removal  of  these  impurities
depends  on  the  desired grade of product.  Glass sand, for
example, requires  a  higher  degree  of  purity  than  does
foundry sand.

Based  on  15  facilities  surveyed  in  seven  states,  the
industry was divided into the following subcategories:

(1) Dry Process  (5 facilities surveyed);
(2) Wet Process  (4 facilities surveyed) ; and
(3) Flotation Process (6 facilities surveyed).

Two of the wet process facilities also use  flotation  on  a
small percentage of their finished product, and are included
in  the  flotation  process subcategory.  Production, in the
facilities contacted, ranges from 32,600 - 1,360,000  kkg/yr
(36,000  -  1,500,000  tons/yr)   and facility ages vary from
less than one year to 60 years.
                          99

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                INDUSTRIAL SAND, DRY PROCESS

Process Description

Approximately 10 percent of the industrial  sand  operations
fall  into this subcategory, characterized by the absence of
process water for  sand  classification  and  beneficiation.
Typically,  dry  processing of industrial sand is limited to
scalping  or  screening  of  sand  grains  which  have  been
extracted  from  a  beach deposit or crushed from sandstone.
Facilities 1106 and 1107 mine a beach sand  which  has  been
classified  into  grain  sizes by natural wind action on the
deposit.  Sand, of a specific grain size, is trucked to  the
facility  where  it  is dried, cooled, coarse grain scalped,
and stored.  Processing of beach sand which is excavated  at
differing distances from the shoreline, enables the facility
to  process  a number of grain sizes which can be blended to
meet customer specifications.

Facilities 1109 and 1110 quarry a sandstone, crush, dry, and
screen the sand prior to sale as a foundry  sand.   Facility
1108  is  able to crush, dry, and screen a sandstone of high
enough purity to be  used  for  glassmaking.   Most  of  the
facilities use a dust collection system at the dryer to meet
air  pollution  requirements.   Dust  collection systems are
either dry (cyclones and baghouses in facilities 1106,  1109
and  1110)  or  wet  (wet  scrubbers  in facilities 1107 and
1108).  Figure 19 shows a typical process for dry mining and
processing of industrial sand.

Raw Waste Loads

Raw wastes consist of oversize sandstone and undersize  sand
fines  at  facilities  1108, 1109, and 1110.  Waste at these
facilities averages less than 10 percent as shown below:

Facility           kq/kkq of feed
                   41b/lppg_lbl_

1108               100
1109               115
1110               92

Wastes at facilities 1109 and 1107 are undersize  or  coarse
grained  sand averaging about one percent of the feed to the
facility.

Water Use

No  water  is  used  to  wash  and  classify  sand  in  this
subcategory.    Facilities  1108  and  1107  use  a  wet dust
                          100

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  SANDSTONE
   QUARRY
    BEACH
   DEPOSIT
LEGEND:
      ALTERNATE
      ROUTE
  CRUSH
                                                  DUST
                                               COLLECTION
                                              (WET AND DRY)
DRY




SCREEN
                                                      WASTE
                                                       FINES
                                            WASTE
                                             FINES
               FIGURE  19
INDUSTRIAL  SAND MIMING AND PROCESSING
                   (DRY)
                                                                                 PRODUCT

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collection  system at  the  dryer.   Water flows  for   these  two
wet scrubbers are shown below:

Wet Scrubber Water Use       Facility 1107

total flow, 1/min           9460  (2500)
   (gal/min)
amount recirculated,         9390  (2480)
   1/min  (gal/min)
amount discharged           0
   1/min  (gal/min)
amount makeup, 1/min         76  (20)
   (gal/min)

Although  the  five   facilities  surveyed in this subcategory
did not use non-contact cooling  water, it  may  be used   in
other facilities.

Waste Water Treatment

Wet  scrubber water at facility  1108 is not treated prior  to
discharge.  Scrubber  water at facility 1107 is treated  in  a
settling  pond  where suspended solids are  settled and the
clarified decant  is returned to  the scrubber,  resulting   in
no discharge.

Effluents and Disposal

Facilities  1106,  1109, and 1110 do not have any  waterborne
wastes.   Facility  1107 recirculates all wet   scrubber   water
to  the  scrubber.    Facility  1108  discharges wet scrubber
water without any treatment as shown below:

Flow, I/day (GPD)            166,000 (43,000)
TSS, mg/1                              33,000

Solid  waste  (oversize  and  sand  fines)   at  all  of the
facilities is landfilled.
                          102

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                INDUSTRIAL SAND, WET PROCESS

Process Description

Mining methods vary with the facilities in this subcategory.
Facility  3066 scoops the sand off the beach, while facility
1989 hydraulically -mines the raw material from an open  pit.
Facility  1019  mines  sandstone  from  a  quarry.   At this
facility water is used as the transport medium and also  for
processing.   Facility  1019  dry  crushes  the raw material
prior to adding water.   An  initial  screening  is  usually
employed  by  most  facilities  consisting  of  a  system of
scalpers,  trommels  and/or  classifiers  where   extraneous
rocks,  wood,  clays, and other matter is removed.  Facility
1102 wet  mills  the  sand  to  produce  a  finer  grade  of
material.   At all facilities water is filtered off, and the
sand is then dried, cooled,  and  screened.   Facility  3066
magnetically  separates  iron  from  the dried product.  The
finished product is then stored to await shipment.  Facility
3066 mines a feldspathic  sand.   This,  however,  does  not
require  any  special  treatment  nor  different  method  of
processing.  A general wet process diagram  for  mining  and
processing of industrial sand is given in Figure 20.

Raw Waste Loads

At  facility  3066,  approximately  one percent solid wastes
(tree roots, rocks, clays,  etc.)  are  separated  from  the
sand.   These amount to less than 0.5 kg/kkg  (lb/1000 Ib) of
product.  Both facilities 1102 and 1019 pump  process  waste
materials,  mainly  clays, into their settling pond systems.
This amounts to  30  and  36  kg/kkg  respectively,  of  the
material processed.

Water Use

There  is  no  predetermined quantity of water necessary for
washing industrial sands as the amount required is dependent
upon the impurities in  the  deposit.   Typical  amounts  of
process water are given as follows:

Facility      1/kkg of product (gal/tonj

1019          12,000    (2,880)
1102          7,260     (1,740)
1989          5,000     (1,200)
3066          170       (40)

Facility  1102  also  uses water (quantity unknown) in a wet
scrubber.   Facility  1989  hydraulically  mines   the   raw
material  using  3600  1/kkg  of product (860 gal/ton).  The
remaining 1400 1/kkg of product  (340 gal/ton)  is  used  for
                          103

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             DRY PIT
o
-ts.
             WET PIT
                              SCREEN
      DESLIMING
        AND
     DEWATERING
THICKENER
   OR
CLARIFIER
                                                                   MILL
CLASSIFYING
PRODUCT
                                                          I	FLOCCULATING
                                                             AGENT
       I          I    RECYCLE WATER
                                             SETTLING POND
                                                 FIGURE    20
                                 INDUSTRIAL SAND MINING AND PROCESSING
                                                     (WET)

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washing  and  classifying.   Incidental  water  use includes
boiler and non-contact cooling water.

Waste Water Treatment

Under normal conditions facilities 1019, 1989, and 3066  are
able  to  recirculate  all process water by using mechanical
devices and the settling of suspended solids in  containment
ponds.   During  periods of heavy rainfall, area runoff into
the containment ponds cause a temporary discharge.  Facility
1102 discharges process water, including wet scrubber water,
after treatment in settling ponds.   The  treatment  methods
used by the facilities are shown as follows:

                             Treatment

                             thickener, clarifier, contain-
                             ment pond

1102                         cyclone, thickener and floccu-
                             lant, settling ponds

1989                         containment pond

3066                         containment pond

Effluents and Disposal

There  is  no  discharge  of process water from three of the
four facilities surveyed under normal operating  conditions.
Some  facilities  such  as  facility 1102, must periodically
clean  their  settling  ponds  of  the  fines   which   have
accumulated therein.  The material recovered is either sold,
stockpiled, or used as landfill.
                           105

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             INDUSTRIAL SAND, FLOTATION PROCESS

Process Description

Within  this  subcategory,  three  flotation  techniques are
used:

(1) Acid flotation to  effect  removal  of  iron  oxide  and
    ilmenite impurities,
(2) Alkaline   flotation   to   remove   aluminate   bearing
    materials, and
(3) Hydrofluoric acid flotation for removal of feldspar.

In acid flotation, sand or quartzite is crushed, and  milled
into  a  fine  material which is washed to separate adhering
clay-like materials.  The washed sand is slurried with water
and  conveyed  to  the  flotation  cells.   Sulfuric   acid,
frothers and conditioning agents are added and the silica is
separated   from   iron-bearing  impurities.   The  reagents
include sulfonated oils,  terpenes  and  heavy  alcohols  in
amounts  of  up to 0.5 kg/kkg (1 Ib/ton)  of product.  In the
flotation cells, the silica is depressed and sinks, and  the
iron-bearing  impurities  are  "floated" away.  The purified
silica is recovered, dried  and  stockpiled.   The  overflow
containing   the   impurities  is  sent  to  the  wastewater
treatment system.

In alkaline flotation, the process is very similar  to  that
described  above  with the following difference:  before the
slurried, washed sand is fed to the flotation  cell,  it  is
pretreated  with  acid.   In  the  cell,   it is treated with
alkaline solution  (aqueous  caustic,  soda  ash  or  sodium
silicate),  frothers  and conditioners.  The pH is generally
maintained at about 8.5 (versus about 2 in acid  flotation).
Otherwise,  the  process  is the same as for acid flotation.
Materials removed or "floated"  by  alkaline  flotation  are
aluminates and zirconates.

In  hydrofluoric  acid  flotation  operations, after the raw
sand has been freed of clays by various washing  operations,
it  is subjected to a preliminary acid flotation of the type
described above.  The underflow from this step is  then  fed
to a second flotation circuit in which hydrofluoric acid and
terpene  oils  are  added  along with conditioning agents to
float feldspar.   The underflow from  this  second  flotation
operation  is collected, dewatered and dried.   The overflow,
containing feldspar, is generally sent to  the  waste  water
treatment  system.   A  flowsheet  for  the  three flotation
processes is given in Figure 21.
                           106

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                  HF FLOTATION PROCESS-HF-
       ALKALINE FLOTATION PROCESS- CAUSTIC -

                    {FLOTATION AGENTS,   _
                    FROTHERS, CONDITIONERS

                    SULFUR1C  ACID	


                             WATER
MINE
CRUSH
 AND
GRIND
DESL1ME
-S5S
                                  RECYCLE
                                U
                                                                  VENT
                                                      t
                                                    DUST
                                                 COLLECTORS
                                                  WET AND
                                                     DRY
CONDITION
   AND
FLOTATION
DEWATER
  AND
  DRY
                                                  HF FLOTATION
                                                    FELDSPAR
                                                    RECOVERY
                                   LAGOONS AND/OR THICKENERS
                                            EFFLUENT
                                         FIGURE  21
                       INDUSTRIAL  SAND  MINING  AND PROCESSING
                                   (FLOTATION PROCESSES)
 MAGNETIC
SEPARATION
•PRODUCT
                                                                             „  FELDSPAR
                                                                              CO-PRODUCT
                                                                 IRON-BEARING
                                                                SOLID: WASTE

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Raw Waste Load

Process  raw  wastes  from  all   three  flotation   processes
consist of muds  separated in the  initial washing operations,
iron  oxides  separated magnetically and materials  separated
by flotation.  The amounts of wastes are given  below.
Waste
Source
Amount kg/kkg of raw material jib/1000_
1101  1019   1980   1103   5691    5980
Clays    Washing
Flotation Flotation
tailings
Iron     Magnetic
oxides   separation
Acid &   Flotation
flotation
agents*
Fluorides HF Flota-
(as HF)   tion tailings
10
50
none

not
given
530
20
none

not
given
48
60
12
(24)
0.055
(0.11)
               none  none
             none
36
140

none

not
given

none
3
17

none

not
given

none
165
135

34

0.3


0,45
* Generally flotation agents consist of oils and petroleum
  sulfonates and in some cases, minor amounts of amines.

Water Use

Facility water uses are shown below.  Most of the  water  is
recycled.   The  unrecycled  portions  of the waters for the
alkaline and HF processes are those used for  the  flotation
steps.  For the acid flotation at least two facilities  (1101
and  1980)  have  achieved  total  recycle.   Facility  1019
impounds process discharge as  wet  sludge.   Facility  1103
returns  process  waste  water to the same wet pit where the
raw material is extracted, adding make-up water  for  losses
due to evaporation.
Facility      JTHM
                1/kkg of product
             1019   1980    1103   5691    5980
Process
Recycle

Process
Discharge

Scrubber
(recycle)

Total
     25,400  2,580  23,200  27,300 8,400   24,200


     none    none*  none  6,830    5,250   1,760
     none    none
      50   none
     (10)
none
 none
     25,400   2,930  23,250  34,130 13,650  26,060
*  As impounded wet sludge
                           108

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Waste Water Treatment

At  the  acid  flotation  facilities, facilities 1101, 1019,
1980, and 1103, all process wash and flotation waste  waters
are  fed  to  settling  lagoons  in  which  muds  and  other
suspended materials are settled  out.   The  water  is  then
recycled  to  the  process.  Facilities 1101 and 1980 are in
their first year of operation.

At the alkaline flotation facility 5691, the washwaters  are
combined  and  fed to a series of settling lagoons to remove
suspended materials and then partially  recycled.   Alum  is
used  as  a  flocculating  agent  to  assist  in settling of
suspended materials, and the pH is adjusted prior to  either
recirculation or discharge.

At  facility  5980,  the  only  facility  found that uses HF
flotation, all waste  waters  are  combined  and  fed  to  a
thickener  to  remove  suspended  materials.   The  overflow
containing 93.2 percent of the  water  is  recycled  to  the
process.   The  underflow  containing less than 7 percent of
the water and essentially all of the suspended materials  is
fed  to  a  settling  lagoon for removal of suspended solids
prior to discharge.   The  pH  is  also  adjusted  prior  to
discharge.    Fluoride  ion  concentration  in  the  settled
effluent ranges from 1.5 to 5.0 mg/1.

Effluent and Disposal

Facilities 1101 and 1980 are presently producing products of
a specific grade which allows them to  totally  recycle  all
their  process  water.   In two other facilities, facilities
1019  and  1103,  all,  facility  waste  waters   leave   the
operations  either  as  part  of  a wet sludge which is land
disposed or through percolation  from  the  settling  ponds.
There  is  no  point  source  discharge from any of the acid
flotation operations.

The composition of the intake and final effluent waters  for
the  alkaline  flotation facility 5691, are presented below.
After neutralization of the added alkali and  settling,  the
quality  of  the  effluent  is  very  similar to that of the
intake.

Also shown below are the  compositions  of  the  intake  and
effluent   for  facility  5980,  the  HF  flotation  process
facility.
                          109

-------
Pollutants           Facility 5691             Facility  5980
(mq/1)             Intake    Effluent  Intake    Effluent

pH                 7,8       5.0       7.6       7.0-7.8
TDS                209       192       	       	
TSS                5         4         10        15-50
Sulfate            9         38        285       27-330
Oil and Grease     <1.0      <1.0      	'       	
Iron               0.1       0.06      	       	
Nitrate            	       	       23        0-9
Chloride           	       	       6 2        57-7 6
Fluoride           	       —^       0.8       1.8-4.6
Phenols            Not detectable
                           110

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Pollutants           Facility 5691             Facility 5980
(mq/1)             Intake    Effluent  Intake    Effluent
pH                 7.8       5.0       7.6       7.0-7.8
TDS                209       192       ---       ---
TSS                54         10        15-50
Sulfate            9         38        285       27-330
Oil and Grease     <1.0      <1.0      — -       ---
Iron               0.1       0.06      ---       ---
Nitrate            —       ---       23        0-9
Chloride           ---       ---       62        57-76
Fluoride           ---       — •*       0.8       1.8-4.6
Phenols            Not detectable
                           110

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Waste Water Treatment

At  the  acid  flotation  facilitiesp facilities 1101, 1019,
1980, and 1103, all process wash and flotation waste  waters
are  fed  to  settling  lagoons  in  which  muds  and  other
suspended materials are settled  out.   The  water  is  then
recycled  to  the  process.  Facilities 1101 and 1980 are in
their first year of operation.

At the alkaline flotation facility 5691, the washwaters  are
combined  and  fed to a series of settling lagoons to remove
suspended materials and then partially  recycled.   Alum  is
used  as  a  flocculating  agent  to  assist  in settling of
suspended materials, and the pH is adjusted prior to  either
recirculation or discharge.

At  facility  5980,  the  only  facility  found that uses HF
flotation, all waste  waters  are  combined  and  fed  to  a
thickener  to  remove  suspended  materials.   The  overflow
containing 93.2 percent of the  water  is  recycled  to  the
process.   The  underflow  containing less than 7 percent of
the water and essentially all of the suspended materials  is
fed  to  a  settling  lagoon for removal of suspended solids
prior to discharge.   The  pH  is  also  adjusted  prior  to
discharge.    Fluoride  ion  concentration  in  the  settled
effluent ranges from 1.5 to 5.0 mg/1.

Effluent and Disposal

Facilities 1101 and 1980 are presently producing products of
a specific grade which allows them to  totally  recycle  all
their  process  water.   In two other facilities, facilities
1019  and  1103,  all  facility  waste  waters   leave   the
operations  either  as  part  of  a wet sludge which is land
disposed or through percolation  from  the  settling  ponds.
There  is  no  point  source  discharge from any of the acid
flotation operations.

The composition of the intake and final effluent waters  for
the  alkaline  flotation facility 5691, are presented below.
After neutralization of the added alkali and  settling,  the
quality  of  the  effluent  is  very  similar to that of the
intake,

Also shown below are the  compositions  of  the  intake  and
effluent   for  facility  5980,  the  HF  flotation  process
facility*
                           109

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                           GYPSUM

Although both underground mining and quarrying of gypsum  is
practiced,  quarrying  is the dominant method of extraction.
General procedure for gypsum processing  includes  crushing,
screening,  and  processing.   An  air-swept  roller process
facility  is  most  commonly  used  for  the  latter.    Two
facilities use heavy media separation for beneficiation of a
low-grade gypsum ore prior to processing.  Ninety percent of
all  gypsum  ore  is calcined into gypsum products including
wall board, lath, building plasters and tile.  The remaining
10 percent is used as land plaster for agricultural purposes
and   in   the   cement   industry   for   portland   cement
manufacturing.   The  manufacture  of gypsum products is not
covered in this report.

Thirty-six companies mined crude gypsum at 65  mines  in  21
states  in 1972.  Five major companies operate 32 mines from
which over 75 percent of the total crude gypsum is produced.
Based on 5 facility visits and 36 facility contacts  {63%  of
the  total),  the  industry  was  divided into the following
subcategories:

(1) Dry (3 visits, 32 contacts)
(2) Wet scrubbing (1 visit, 3 contacts)
(3) Heavy media separation (1 visit, 1 contact)

The facilities studied were in all  regions  of  the  nation
representing various levels of yearly production and age.

                    GYPSUM, DRY PROCESS

Process Description

Underground mining is carried out in most mines by the room-
and-pillar  method,  using  trackless  mining equipment.  In
quarrying, stripping is accomplished both with draglines and
tractors.  Quarry drilling methods are adapted to meet local
conditions.  Low-density, slow-speed explosives are employed
in blasting.   Loading  is  commonly  done  with  diesel  or
electric  shovels.   Transportation  may be by truck or rail
from quarry to facility.  Primary crushing is done  at  most
quarries  using  gyratory and jaw crushers and impact mills.
Secondary  crushing  is  usually  accomplished  by  gyratory
units,   and   final   crushing  is  almost  exclusively  by
hammermills.  The common unit for grinding raw gypsum is the
air-swept roller process facility.  Ground gypsum is usually
termed "land plaster11 since in this form  it  is  sacked  or
sold  as  bulk for agricultural purposes.  A typical process
diagram is shown in Figure 22.
                           Ill

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                                           VENT
                                           DRY
                                           DUST
                                        COLLECTOR
MINE
OR
QUARRY


PRIMARY
AND
SECONDARY
CRUSHING


                                         GRINDING
PRODUCT
PIT PUMPOUT
                        FIGURE  22
             GYPSUM  MINING AND PROCESSING
                            (DRY)

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Raw Waste Loads

The raw  wastes  for  all  facilities  consist  of  oversize
material  and  gypsum  dust  from grinding.  Many facilities
work a gypsum deposit of such purity that all the ore fed to
the crushers is ground to land plaster, except for  a  small
percentage  (<556)  lost  to  dust collection equipment (e.g.
cyclones or bag  houses).   Facility  1977  discards  97,500
kkg/yr (1,075,000 tons/yr) of waste rock at the quarry site.
This is 24 percent of the ore quarried.

Water Use

No  process  water  is  used  in  the  mining,  crushing, or
grinding of gypsum.  However,  mine  or  quarry  pumpout  is
necessary in a number of facilities.  Pumpout is not related
to  a production unit of gypsum, and the flow is independent
of  facility  processing  capacities.   Most  pumpouts   are
controlled with a pit or low-area sump which discharges when
the  water level reaches a certain height.  Incidental water
use includes non-contact cooling water for crusher bearings.
Facility data for non-contact cooling  water  use  is  given
below:
Facility

1042
1700
1997
1999

Waste Water Treatment
1/kkg of product (gal/ton)
     246
     58
     250
     4.5
(59)
(60)
(1)
Mine  or  quarry  pumpout  is  generally  discharged without
treatment.  Most facilities  discharge  non-contact  cooling
water without treatment.

Effluents and Disposal

There  is  no process generated waste water discharge except
mine water discharge in this subcategory.  Effluent data for
some facilities discharging mine or quarry water  are  given
as follows:
                           113

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facility

1041
1042
1112
1997
1999
flow,
I/ day
                                   TSS,
4.4  (1.17)
6.4  (1.70)
5.1  (1.35)
0.68  (0.18)
6.5  (1.71)
6
4
14
5
24
7.7
7.8
8.1
7.9
7.4
Non-contact cooling water discharge from these facilities  is
given below:
facility

1041
1042
1112
1997
1999
flow,l/kkg of
product  (gal/ton)

none
246  (59)
none
250  (60)
4.5  (1)
                                  TSS
not known

6
130
               pH
not known

7.9
5
Land  plaster  dust collected in cyclones is either recycled
to the process or hauled away and landfilled.

                   GYSPUM, WET SCRUBBING

Process Description

Facilities  in  this  subcategory  employ  identical  gypsum
mining  and  processing  methods  as  those  used in the dry
subcategory, except for the addition of  wet  scrubbers  for
air  pollution  control.   Instead of dry dust collectors at
the grinding  mills   (see  Figure  22,  facilities  in  this
subcategory  use  wet  scrubbers to remove land plaster dust
created by hammerprocess facility operations.

Raw Waste Loads

Oversize wastes in this subcategory are similar to those  in
the dry subcategory.  Land plaster waste fines are collected
with  wet scrubbers and discharged as a slurry.  The amounts
of raw waste fines so discharged from the scrubbers are:
.facility           1776

kg/kkg of product  0.06
(lb/1000 Ib)
               1995
               6.6
     1998
     0. 12
Wet scrubber make-up water for facility 1998  is  sea  water
containing a high amount of dissolved and suspended solids.
                           114

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Water Use

The  only process water in this subcategory is that used for
wet scrubbing.  Quarry pumpout, while not found at the three
facilities visited,.is practiced by a number  of  facilities
in  this  subcategory.   Incidental  water use includes non-
contact cooling water for crusher bearings, as described  in
the  dry  subcategory.   The following is water used for wet
scrubbing at the facilities:

facility 	1/kkg of product (gal/ton)

1776          2,230 (530)
1995          5,950 (1,430)
1998          2,780 (670)

Waste Water Treatment

Facilities 1998 and 1995  do  not  treat  the  wet  scrubber
discharge.  Facility 1776 impounds the wet scrubber effluent
prior  to  final  discharge.   Quarry pumpout water and non-
contact cooling water usually receive no treatment prior  to
discharge.

Effuents and Disposal

wet scrubber effluents are shown below:

                             TSS
                             kq/kkq of product
facility      pj             /lb/10_00 Ib)

1776          7.9            0.12
1995          unknown        6.6
1998          7.7            0.13

These  are  the total raw waste loads at facilities 1995 and
1998 and one-half of the raw waste load  at  facility  1776.
Quarry  pumpout  and non-contact cooling water effluents and
waste disposal are similar to those in the dry subcategory.

               GYPSUM, HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION

Process Description

Two facilities at  the  same  general  location  beneficiate
crude gypsum ore using heavy media separation (HMS) prior to
processing.   Both  facilities follow the same process which
includes  quarrying,   primary   and   secondary   crushing,
screening  and  washing,  heavy  media  separation, washing,
processing of float  gypsum  ore  and  stockpiling  of  sink
dolomitic  limestone.  Magnetite and ferrous silica are used
                          115

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in both  facilities as the  separation  media,  with  complete
recirculation  of the media or pulp.  A process flow diagram
is shown in Figure 23.

Raw Waste Loads

At facility 1100 raw waste consists of  dolomitic  limestone
which  is  separated  via  heavy media separation, dewatered,
and  stockpiled  for  construction  aggregate  or   landfill
material.   The  amount of this waste is 500 kg/kkg  (lb/1000
Ib) of product.  Additional wastes include  fines  generated
during   crushing  which  are washed out through screens, and
allowed  to settle in a settling basin.  No  information  was
available on the quantity  of waste fines.

Water Use

Facility 1100 uses 1270 1/kkg (305 gal/ton) of ore processed
in  heavy  media  separation  screening  and  washing  which
accounts for all process water.  Additional  water  includes
quarry   pumpout.   During periods  of  heavy  rainfall,  a
discharge of up to 189,000 I/day (50,000 GPD)  of quarry sump
water  may  occur.   As  is  typical  with  quarry  pumpout,
discharge is controlled by a sump, located at the low end of
the  quarry.  Facility 1100 does not use non-contact cooling
water for gypsum beneficiation.

Waste Water Treatment

All  process  water  used  for  heavy  media  separation  at
facility 1100 and the one  other facility in this subcategory
is  re-circulated  through settling  basins,  an underground
mine settling sump, and returned to the separation  circuit,
resulting  in  no  discharge of process waste water.  In the
recycle circuit, the HMS media (magnetite/ferrous silica) is
reclaimed and is reused in the separation  process.   Quarry
pumpout  at  facility 1100 is discharged to a settling ditch
which flows to a company owned  marsh  prior  to  discharge,
thereby achieving an effective settling of suspended solids.

Effluents and Disposal

There  is  no  waterborne  process  water  effluent  in this
subcategory.   At  facility  1100,  only  quarry  water   is
discharged intermittently  shown below:
I/day (GPD)             0-189,000 (0-50,000)
TSS, mg/1                    60
pH                           7.8
                           116

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 RECYCLE
  WATER
 SCREEN
  AND
  POND
  RECYCLE
   WATER
RECYCLE
 WATER
  HEAVY
  MEDIA
SEPARATION
 WASH
                              MEDIA
                             RECOVERY
GRIND
•PRODUCT
  SUMP
 RECYCLE
TO PROCESS
            FIGURE  23
  GYPSUM  MINING-' AMD PROCESSING

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Part  of  the  waste  rock  from  the  HMS  is  sold as road
aggregate,  with  the  remainder  being  landfilled  in  old
worked-out  sections of the quarry.  Waste fines at facility
1100 settle out in the primary settling basin  and  must  be
periodically  dredged.   This  waste is hauled to the quarry
and deposited.
                          118

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This category of materials encompasses three basic types  of
materials produced by three different processes:

 (1) bituminous limestone which is dry quarried;
 (2) oil impregnated diatomite produced by dry methods;
 (3) gilsonite and other bituminous shales  produced  by  wet
    processes.

                   BITUMINOIUS LIMESTONE

Process Description

Bituminous limestone is dry surface mined, crushed, screened
and  shipped  as  product.  A process flow sheet is given in
Figure 24.

Raw Waste Load

The raw wastes from these  operations  consist  entirely  of
overburden  removed  during  the  mining  operations.   This
material is a solid waste  and  amounts  to  300  kg/kkg  of
product.

Water Usage, Treatment and Effluent

No  water is used in these operations, and hence there is no
need for waste water treatment and no waterborne effluent,

                 OIL IMPREGNATED DIATOMITE

Process Description

This material is produced at only one site.  Oil impregnated
diatomite is  surface  mined,  crushed,  screened  and  then
calcined  (burned)  to free it of oil.  The calcined material
is then ground and prepared  for  sale.   The  only  process
water  usage  is a wet scrubber used to treat the vent gases
from  the  calcination  step.   The  scrubber   waters   are
recycled.  A process flowsheet is given in Figure 25.

Raw Waste Load

There are no process solid or waterborne wastes.

Water Use

Facility  water  use consists of 1800 1/kkg (420 gal/ton)  of
product for scrubber makeup water.  The  scrubber  water  is
lost by evaporation.
                           119

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                  SURFACE
                    MINING
CRUSHING
SCREENING
PRODUCT
to
O
                  OVERBURDEN
                 (SOLID WASTE)
                                             FIGURE  2 4
                         BITUMINOUS  LIMESTONE  MINING AND  PROCESSING

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                               VENT
         MAKE-UP WATER'
SURFACE
MINING


CRUSHING
AND
SCREENING
                               WET
                             SCRUBBING
                            CALCINATION
GRINDING
-PRODUCT
                       FIGURE 25
OiL  IMPREGNATED  DIATOMITE  MINING AND PROCESSING

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Treatment and Effluent

There  is  no  treatment  required as there is no waterborne
effluent.

                         GILSONITE

Process Description

Gilsonite is mined underground.  The ore is conveyed to  the
surface  as  a  slurry and separated into a gilsonite slurry
and  sand,  which  is  discarded  as  a  solid  waste.   The
gilsonite  slurry  is  screen  separated to recover product.
Further processing by centrifuge and froth flotation recover
additional  material.   These  solids  are  then  dried  and
shipped  as product.  A process flowsheet is given in Figure
26.

Raw Waste Load

Raw wastes consist of sand, process water and  mine  pumpout
waters.

Water Use

Facility water use is given below.  A considerable amount of
intake   water  is  used  for  non-process  purposes  (i.e.,
drinking and irrigation) .   All  process  and  mine  pumpout
waters are currently discharged.

                   1/kkg of product (gal/ton^

intake             5,700 (1,400)

process            3,400 (820)

mine pumpout       470 - 1,800 (110-430)

drinking and
 irrigation        2,300 (550)

Effluent

The   compositions  of  the  intake  water,  the  discharged
facility process water and the mine pumpout water are listed
below.  There is a considerable concentration  of  suspended
solids  in  the  mine  pumpout  water.  These discharges are
currently being eliminated.  The process  and  mine  pumpout
waters  currently  discharged  will soon be employed on site
for other purposes.
                          122

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LO
                        WATER
         MINE
  SOLIDS
SEPARATOR
            SCREEN
 SCREEN
COLLECTOR
CENTRIFUGE
                         SAND
                      (SOLID WASTE)
                                                                                            VENT
                                                                              WATER-
                                               METHANOL
                                                                                             t
                                                                      WET
                                                                    SCRUBBER
FLOTATION
                                                                                      DRYER
                                                                                    POND
                                                             RECYCLE
                                                            TO PROCESS
                                                 FIGURE   26
                                      GILSONITE MINING AND  PROCESSING
                                                                               PRODUCT

-------
                        Concentr ati on  (mq/1)
                   intake     effluent      mine  pumpout
Suspended solids

BOD

PH

TDS

Turbidity

Arsenic

Barium

Cadmium

Chloride

sulfate
33

35

7.7

401
17

43

8,2

2949
          <0.001

          0.15

          363
3375

12

7.9 - 8,1

620

70 JTU

0.01

<0.01

0.004

8.8

195
                           124

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                 ASBESTOS AND WOLLASTONITE

                    ASBESTOS  (SIC 1U99)

Four states produce asbestos; California, with  6956  of  the
total  production,  is  the  leader,  followed  in  order by
Vermont, Arizona, and North Carolina,   The  California  and
Vermont  facilities  mine  a  chrysotile asbestos, while the
North Carolina deposit is an anthophyllite asbestos.   Major
uses  for  asbestos  fiber include construction, floor tile,
friction products, paper and asphalt felts.

Processing of asbestos  ore  principally  involves  repeated
crushing,  fiberizing,  screening, and air separation.  Five
facilities mine and process asbestos in the  United  States.
Based   on   information   from   all  five  facilities  two
subcategories  are  established  for  asbestos  mining   and
processing:

(1) Dry processing asbestos  (4 facilities)
(2) Wet processing asbestos  (1 facility)

                   ASBESTOS, DRY PROCESS

Process Description

Asbestos ore is  usually  extracted  from  an  open  pit  or
quarry.   At  three  facilities  the  fiber-bearing  rock is
removed from an open pit.   At  facility  1061  the  ore  is
simply "plowed", allowed to air-dry, and the coarse fraction
is screened out from the millfeed.

After  quarrying,  the asbestos ore containing approximately
15% moisture is crushed, dried in a rotary  dryer,  crushed,
then  sent  to a series of shaker screens where the asbestos
fiber  are  separated  from  the  rock  and  air  classified
according to length into a series of grades.  The collection
of  fibers  from  the  shaker  screens  is accomplished with
cyclones,  which  also  aid  in  dust  control.   Figure  27
illustrates process flow for a dry asbestos operation.

Raw Waste Loads

Asbestos  processing  involves fiber classification based on
length, and as such, the raw waste  loads  consist  of  both
oversize  rock  and  undersize  asbestos  fibers  which  are
unusable due to their length  (referred to as "shorts").   At
facility  1061 28 percent of the asbestos ore is rejected as
oversize waste.   At  the  processing  facility  another  65
percent of the feed are unusable asbestos fiber wastes which
must be disposed of.
                           125

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to

QUARRY
1
PUMf
«J»*EJ*
PRIMARY
CRUSHER


DRY
DUST
COLLECTOR
!
DRY
AIR
NHrgggl
SECONDARY
CRUSHER
i i
5OUT OVERSIZE
WASTE
II JIL iggT
DRY
DUST
COLLECTOR

I
SCREEN
iwnnQ^I
GRADE
WATER 	 »"[
1
WASTE
FINES
                                                                                 PRODUCT
                                       FIGURE  27
                             ASBESTOS MINING AND PROCESSING
                                           (DRY)

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Water Use

No  process water is used for the dry processing of asbestos
at any of the four facilities in this subcategory.  Facility
3052 must continuously dewater the quarry of rain and ground
water that accumulates.  The flow is from 380 1/min to  2270
1/min  {100  to  600  gal/min)depending  on  rainfall.   The
quantity of discharge is not related to production  rate  of
asbestos.   Facility  1061  uses  water for dust suppression
which  is  sprayed  onto  the  dry  asbestos   tailings   to
facilitate conveying of tailings to a waste pile.  The water
absorbed  in  this manner amounts to 17 1/kkg of tailings (4
gal/ton).

Waste Water Treatment

Facility 3052 treats their  quarry  pumpout  discharge  with
sulfuric acid (approximately 0.02 mg/1 of effluent) to lower
the  pH of the highly alkaline ground water that collects in
the quarry.   At  all  facilities,  both  at  the  mine  and
facility  site,  there  exists  the  potential  of rainwater
runoff contamination from asbestos waste tailings.  Facility
1061 has constructed diversion  ditches,  berms,  and  check
dams  to  divert and hold area runoff from the waste tailing
pile.  Due to soil conditions, water that  collects  in  the
check  dams  eventually  percolates  into  the  soil thereby
resulting in no discharge to surface waters.

Effluents and Disposal

Facility  3052  discharges  quarry  pumpout   water   on   a
continuous  basis.   The following tabulates analytical data
for facility 3052ls quarry discharge  after  treatment  with
H2SO4:

flow, I/day (mgd)        545,000-3,270,000 (0.144*0.864)
TSS, mg/1                    2.0
Fe, mg/1                     0.15
pH                           8.4-8.7
asbestos (fibers/liter)      1.0 - 1.8 x 10*

Waste asbestos tailings are stockpiled at all facilities.
                           127

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                   ASBESTOS, WET PROCESS

Process Description

The  only facility in this subcategory, facility  1060, mines
the asbestos ore from  a  quarry  located  approximately   50
miles  from the processing facility.  The ore is  "plowed"  in
horizontal benches, allowed  to  air-dry,  coarse fractions
screened   out,   and   transported   to  the  facility  for
processing.   At  the  facility,  processing   consists    of
screening,  wet  crushing,  fiber classification,  filtering,
and drying.  Figure 28 illustrates process flow at facility
1060.

Raw Waste Load

Raw  waste  consists  of oversize rock which is discarded  at
the quarry site  and  undersize  waste  asbestos   ("shorts")
which  are unsaleable.  The undersize waste fibers represent
30 percent of the total ore processed.  No data on amount  of
oversize wastes were available.

Water Use

Process water is used for wet processing and classifying   of
asbestos  fibers.   Facility  1060  uses  4,300 1/kkg  (1,025
gal/ton)  of asbestos milled.  Approximately 4 percent of the
water is incorporated into the end product which  is a filter
cake of asbestos fibers (505t  moisture  by  weight) .   Eight
percent  is  lost  in  the  tailings  disposal.   Sixty eight
percent is  recirculated  back  into  the  process,  and   20
percent  is  eventually  discharged  from the facility.  The
following tabulates estimated process water use at facility
1060:

                             1/kkcr of feed (gal/ton)

process water                4,300          (1,025)
water lost with product        150          (36)
water lost in tailings         350          (84)
water recirculated           2,900          (700)
water discharged to
  settling pond                860          (205)

This  facility  is  unable to recirculate the water from the
settling pond because of earlier  chemical  treatment  given
the  water in the course of production of a special asbestos
grade.  The recirculation of this effluent would  affect  the
quality  of  the  special  product.   In addition  to process
water, facility 1060 uses 2,100 1/kkg of feed (500  gal/ton)
of non-contact cooling water, none of which is recirculated.
                           128

-------
         QUARRY
N>
                             MAKE-UP
                             WATER
 CRUSH
 AND
SCREEN
                                   DEWATER
                                                   RECYCLE
CLASSIFY
•SB*
FILTER
                                                                       VENT
                                   WASTE DUMP
                                                      POND
                                                          VENT
DRY
PRODUCT
FILTER


DRY


                                                             ESPECIAL PRODUCT
                                     ASBESTOS
                                                FIGURE  28


                            AND  PROCESS!
                                                   (V/liT

-------
Waste Water Treatment

The  process water discharge is treated in settling/percola-
tion ponds.  Suspended asbestos fibers  settle  out  in  the
primary  settling  pond  prior  to  decanting  the clarified
effluent  to  the   secondary   settling/percolation   pond.
Facility  1060 does not discharge to surface waters but uses
percolation as a form of waste water treatment.

Non-contact cooling water is not treated prior to discharge.
Runoff from asbestos tailings at the facility and the quarry
is controlled with diversion ditches, berms, and check dams.
All    facility    drainage    is    diverted     to     the
settling/percolation ponds.

Effluents and Disposal

No  process water is discharged to surface water at facility
1060.  Data on the waste  stream  to  the  percolation  pond
includes the following:

                             Intake         Discharge to
                             Well Water     Percolation Pond

flow, 1/kkg feed(gal/ton)     unknown        856 (205)
total solids, mg/1           3^3            1,160
pH                           7.5            7.8
magnesium, mg/1              14             48
sodium, mg/1                 44             345
chloride, mg/1               19             104
nickel, mg/1                 0.02           0.1

Asbestos  fiber  tailings  are  stockpiled near the facility
where the water is  drained  into  the  settling/percolation
ponds.    After some drying, the tailings are transported and
landfilled near the facility  in  dry  arroyos  or  canyons.
Check dams are constructed at the lower end of these filled-
in areas.

The  primary  settling  pond must be periodically dredged to
remove suspended solids (primarily asbestos  fibers).    This
is done with a power shovel, and the wastes are piled along-
side the pond, allowed to dry, and landfilled.
                          130

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                  WOLLASTONITE  (SIC 1499)

There is only one producer of wollastonite in the U.S.

Process Description

Wollastonite  ore  is  mined  by underground room and pillar
methods,  and  is  trucked  to  the   processing   facility.
Processing  is  dry  and  consists of 3 stage crushing, with
drying following primary crushing.  After screening, various
sizes are fed  to  high-intensity  magnetic  separators,  to
remove  garnet  and  other  ferro-magnetic  impurities.  The
purified wollastonite is then ground in pebble or  attrition
mills  to  the  desired  product  sizes.   A general process
diagram is given in Figure 29.

Raw Waste Load

Of the total amount of wollastonite ore mined, approximately
50 percent, or 70,000 -  80,000  tons/yr,  is  waste.   This
waste  material  is stocked for future use.  In wollastonite
processing, waste is generated in the  magnetic  separators,
with  garnet  and  some sand being sold as by-products.  The
rest is sent to a waste pile.

Water Use

Municipal water serves as the source for  the  sanitary  and
non-contact  cooling  water  used  in  the  facility.   This
amounts to 235 1/kkg of product (56 gal/ton).

Waste Water Treatment

Non-contact cooling water is discharged with no treatment to
a nearby river.

Effluent and Disposal

Solid wastes generated in mining are stocked and  eventually
used.   Processing  wastes  are  sent  to a waste pile, with
garnet  and  some  sand  sold  as  by-product.   Non-contact
cooling  water  is discharged untreated.  The limitations on
this discharge  as  established  by  the  Federal  discharge
permit are:

                             Average        Min.-Max.

Temperature                  11°C           10-17°C
                             (52°F)          (51-62°F)

pH                                          6-9
                           131

-------
MINE
'••»ig>
CRUSH
AMD
SCREEN
—•iflBB*
DRY
"• can
CRUSH
AND
SCREEN
.••in ggB
MAGNETIC
SEPARATORS
— • 9»
MILL
AND
CLASSIFY
                                                           PRODUCT
                             WASTEPILE
             FIGURE  29
WOLLASTONITE MINING AND  PROCESSING

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         LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE MINERALS  (SIC 1499)

                          PERLITE

New  Mexico  produces  87 percent of the U.S. crude perlite.
Three of four major perlite producers  in  New " Mexico  were
visited  and  analyzed.   All U.S. perlite facilities are in
the same geographic region, and the processes are all dry.

Process Description

All the  operations  are  open  pit  quarries  using  either
front-end  loaders  or  blasting  to remove the ore from the
quarry.  The ore is then hauled by truck to  the  mills  for
processing.    There  the  ore  is  crushed,  dried,  graded
(sized), and stored for shipping.  A general process diagram
is given in Figure 30.

Perlite is expanded into lightweight aggregate  for  use  as
construction  aggregate,  insulation  material,  and  filter
medium.  Expansion of perlite is accomplished  by  injection
of properly sized crude ore into a gas- or oil-fired furnace
with  the  temperature  above  760°c <1,400°F).  The desired
temperature is the point at which the specific perlite being
processed begins to soften to a plastic state and allows the
entrapped water to  be  released  as  steam.   This  rapidly
expands   the  perlite  particles.   Horizontal  rotary  and
vertical furnaces are commonly used for  expanding  perlite.
In   either  case,  there  is  no  process  water  involved.
Horizontal rotary furnaces occasionally require  non-contact
cooling water for bearings.

Raw Waste Load

Waste  is  generated  both  in  the  mining  and  processing
processes.  In the mining of perlite, oversize materials too
large for  the  primary  crushers  are  discarded.   In  the
processing   process  fines  are  generated  from  screening
operations and airborne dust  and  fines  are  collected  in
baghouses.   The  nature and amounts of raw wastes generated
are as follows:
                           133

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                                                                VENT
                                                                BAG
                                                               HOUSE
                  QUARRY
CRUSHING
DRYING
OJ
SCREENING
PRODUCT
                                                                                    EXPANDING
                                                               XPANDED
                                                               PRODUCT
                                                                     DUST    WASTE
                                                                     FINES     FINES
                                                                      TO       TO
                                                                     LAND     LAND
                                                                    DISPOSAL  DISPOSAL
                                                      FIGURE   30
                                         PERLITE  M!N!NG  AND  PROCESSING

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                                  kg/kkg product:
facility      Waste Material      (lb/1000mlb^

5501          dust and fines      150-200

5502          large boulders      250
              fines

5503          large boulders      ,10
              fines               50

The wasted material represents approximately  10-25  percent
loss of material in these mining and processing operations.

Water Use

There is currently no water used in the mining or processing
operations.   Facility  5500  does  dewater  the quarry when
water  accumulates,  but  this  water  is  pumped  out   and
evaporated on land.

Waste water Treatment

Since  there  is  no  water  used,  there  is no waste water
generated or water treatment required.

Effluent and Disposal

There are no effluents from these operations.  The  oversize
materials,  processing  and baghouse fines are hauled to the
mine areas and land-disposed.  There is work being  done  by
facilities  5501  and 5503 to reclaim further product grades
from the waste fines.  Facility 5501  is  investigating  the
idea  of  a  facility  fines disposal process using water to
make pellets designed to make land-disposal of fines  easier
and more efficient.
                          135

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                           PUMICE

Process Description

Pumice  is  surface  mined  in  open  pit  operations.   The
material is then crushed, screened, and shipped for  use  as
either  aggregate,  cleaning  powder or abrasive.  A process
flowsheet is given in Figure 31.

Raw waste Load

At most facilities, there are no  waterborne  wastes  as  no
water is employed.  At some facilities, there are some solid
wastes  consisting  of  overburden  and  oversize  materials
(facility 5665 0.5 kg/kkg, facility 5669  37.5-151  kg/kkg).
These  are disposed of as landfill in mined out areas.  Only
one  facility,  facility 1705,  has  an  effluent  and  this
consists  of  waters  from  a  wet  scrubber  used  for dust
control.

Water Use

At most operations, no water at all is  employed.   This  is
true  for  facilities 1702, 1703, 1704, 5665, 5667 and 5669.
At facility 1701  a  small  amount  of  water  (10.55  1/kkg
product)   is  used  for  dust  control  purposes and this is
absorbed  by   the   product   and   not   di scharged *    At
facility 1705  a  wet  scrubber  is  used  for  dust control
purposes.

Waste water Treatment

At all facilities except facility 1705, there  is  no  waste
water  to  be treated.  At facility 1705, the scrubber water
is discharged to a settling pond for  removal  of  suspended
materials prior to final discharge.

Effluent and Disposal

There  is  no  effluent  at  any  of  the  facilities except
facility 1705.  Facility 1705 operates  on  an  intermittent
basis, and no information is available on the composition of
its discharge.  This facility produces less than 0.1 percent
of U.S. pumice.

                        VERMICULITE

Process Description

Mining of vermiculite at facility 5506 is conducted by bench
quarrying  using  power  shovels and loaders.  Occasionally,
blasting is necessary  to  break  up  irregularly  occurring
                          136

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SURFACE
 MINING
SCREENING
   AND
 CRUSHING
PRODUCT
               FIGURE .31
     PUMICE  MINING AND PROCESSING

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L
             dikes  of  syenite.  Trucks then haul the ore to the process
             facility.  The vermiculite is concentrated by  a  series  of
             operations  based  on  mechanical screening and flotation, a
             new process  replacing  one  more  dependent  on  mechanical
             separations.   Sizer  screens  split the raw ore into coarse
             and fine fractions.  The fines  are  washed,  screened,  and
             floated.   After another screening the product is dewatered,
             dried  and  sent  to  the  screening  facility  at   another
             location.

             The  coarse  fraction is re-screened and the fines from this
             screening are hydraulically  classified.   Coarse  fractions
             from   screening  and  classification  are  sent  to  a  wet
             rod-processing  operation  and   recycled.    The   coarsest
             fraction from the hydraulic classification is sent to coarse
             tails.    The   fines   from  hydraulic  classification  are
             screened, floated, re-*screened and sent to  join  the  other
             process stream at the dewatering stage.

             Mining  of vermiculite at facility 5507 is conducted by open
             pit mining  using  scrapers  and  bulldozers  to  strip  off
             overburden.   The ore is then hauled to the facility on dump
             trailer-tractor haul units.   The  overburden  and  sidewall
             waste is returned to the mine pit when it is reclaimed.  The
             vermiculite ore is fed into the process facility where it is
             ground  and  deslimed.   The  vermiculite  is  then  sent to
             flotation.  After flotation, the product is dried, screened,
             and sent to storage for eventual shipping.  Figure 32  is  a
             flow   diagram   showing   the   mining  and  processing  of
             vermiculite.

             Raw waste Loads

             At facility 5506 waste is generated from the two  thickening
             operations,  from  boiler water bleed, and from the washdown
             stream that is applied at the coarse tails-solids  discharge
             point.   (This  is  used  to  avoid  pumping a wet slurry of
             highly abrasive pyroxenite coarse solids.)

             At facility 5507, there is one waste stream coming from  the
             mill   generated   from   desliming,  flotation  and  drying
             operations.  This  stream  consists  of  mineral  and  earth
             solids,    principally   silicates   including   actinolite,
             feldspar, quartz, and minor amounts of tremolite, talc,  and
             magnetite (1,600 kg/kkg product).

             Water Use

             Water comes from surface springs and runoff to facility 5507
             vermiculite operations both as source and make-up water.  At
             facility  5506,  water  from  2  local  creeks provides both
             source and make-up water for the vermiculite operations.  In
                                        138

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                                                          VENT
VD
OPEN
PIT
MINE

unnijiimggg
MAKE-UP WATER 	 <>
GRIND,
WASH
AND
SCREEN
j J

ILII immig£l£
I
RECYCLE
FLOTATION
i
1
•
MMIIIU^P

t
RECYCLE
1
DRY
J
f


SCREEN
\
RECYCLE
PONDS

                                                                                    •PRODUCT
                                           FIGURE 32
                               VERMiCULITE. MININI3 AND PROCESSING

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dry weather a nearby river becomes the make-up water source
A well on the property provides sanitary and boiler water.

Consumption of water for the two facilities is as follows;

Facility

5507
Consumption
process
dust control
evaporation
from drying
total
consumed
recycle
net make-up
1/kkq product
46,400
2,500
83
48,900
48,820
83
(qal/ton)
(11,110)
(600)
(20)
(11,720)
(11,700)
(20)
              water

Since the only water  loss  is  through  evaporation  during
drying  operations  and  some unknown amount is lost through
seepage from the ponds to ground water, the  net  amount  of
make-up water reflects this loss.
Facility
5506





Consumption
process
boiler
non-contact
cooling
total
consumed
recycle
apparent
1/kkq
5,430
120
740
6,290
4,820
1,480
(qal/ton)
(1*580)
(40)
(220)
(1,840)
dr400)
(430)
              water loss

              net make-up    1,480        (430)
              water

There  is some water loss from the facility operation but no
indication was given as to where the loss occurred, possibly
boiler blowdown, product drying, or pond seepage.
                           140

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Waste water Treatment

Both vermiculite  operations  have  no  discharge  of  wa ste
waters.   At  facility 5506, the waste stream is pumped to a
series of three settling  ponds  in  which  the  solids  are
impounded,  the water is clarified using aluminum sulfate as
a flocculant, and the clear water is recycled to the process
facility.  The only water escape from this operation is  due
to  evaporation and seepage from the pond into ground water.
The overburden and sidewall waste is returned  to  the  mine
upon reclamation

At facility 5507, the waste streams are pumped to a tailings
pond  for  settling  of  solids  from  which the clear water
underflows by seepage to a  "process  facility  pond"  which
serves  as  a  reservoir  for  process  water to the process
facility.   Local  lumbering  operations  are   capable   of
drastically  altering  water runoff in the watersheds around
the mine.  This requires by-pass streams around the  ponding
system.

Effluents and Disposal

Solid  mineral  wastes are land-disposed at both vermiculite
operations.  Both  sites  have  no  effluent  as  all  water
(excepting  loss  due  to  evaporation and seepage to ground
water) is recycled to the process.

The  recycled  process  water  amounting   to   10,200 1/min
(2,700 gal/min)   at   facility   5507   has  the  following
concentration of constituents (mg/1):

Acidity            6.U8
Total solids       110
Total volatile     22
  solids
Alkalinity As      0
CaC03
Hardness As        49.4
CaC03
Fe                 0.01
Mn                 nil
                           141

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                MICA AND SERICITE  (SIC 1499)

Mica and sericite are mined in open pits using  conventional
surface  mining  techniques.  The crude ore from .these mines
is generally hauled to stockpiles at mills for processing.

Sixteen significant U.S. facilities producing  flake,  scrap
or  ground mica were identified in this study.  Six of these
facilities are dry  grinding  facilities  processing  either
mica  obtained  from  company-owned  mines or purchased mica
from an outside supplier, three facilities are wet  grinding
facilities  and  seven are wet mica beneficiation facilities
utilizing froth flotation and/or  spirals,  hydroclassifiers
and wet screening techniques to recover mica.

Additionally  there are four known sericite producers in the
U.S.  Three of these companies surface mine  the  crude  ore
for brick facilities and a fourth company has a dry grinding
facility and sells the sericite after processing.

             DRY GRINDING OF MICA AND SERICITE

Dry  grinding  facilities  are  of  two  types,  those which
process ore obtained directly from the mine and others which
process beneficiated scrap and flake  mica.   A  generalized
flow diagram for these facilities are given in Figure 33.

The  ore  from the mine is processed through coarse and fine
screens before processing.  The wastes  generated  from  the
two  screening  operations consist of rocks, boulders, etc.,
which are bulldozed into stockpiles.  The crude ore is  next
fragmented,  dried and sent to a hammerprocess facility.  In
those facilities which process scrap  and  flake  mica,  the
feed  is  sent  directly  into the hammerprocess facility or
into a pulverizer.  In both types of facilities, the  milled
product  is  passed through a series of vibrating screens to
separate various sizes of product for  bagging.   The  waste
material  from  the  screening operations consists of quartz
and schist pebbles.

In some facilities either the screened ore or the scrap  and
flake  mica is processed in a fluid energy process facility.
The ground product, in these facilities, is next  classified
in  a  closed circuit air classifier to yield various grades
of  products.   Dry  grinding  facilities  utilize  baghouse
collectors for air pollution control.  The dust is reclaimed
from  these  collectors  and marketed.  Proce'ss water is not
used in dry grinding facilities,  therefore,  during  normal
operating   conditions,   waterborne   pollutants   are  not
generated by these facilities.
                           142

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                                                       BAG
                                                      HOUSE
                                                                    FLAKE  AND
                                                                    SCRAP MICA
        MINE
•«»
SCREEN
 AND
STORE
u>
      LEGEND;
       	.SCRAP AND FLAKE  MICA
    PRODUCT


—^PRODUCT
                                                                                                   ^PRODUCT
                                                                          ——-^PRODUCT
                                                                                      WASTE
                                                 FIGURE .33
                                       MICA  MINING AND PROCESSING
                                                     (DRY)

-------
Even though these  facilities  do  not  use  process  water,
natural  drainage  at  the  mine  and process facility could
carry fines from the stockpiles to a considerable  distance,
during and after heavy rainfall.

             WET GRINDING OF MICA AND SERICITE

Process Description

In  a typical wet grinding facility, scrap and flake mica is
batch milled in a water slurry.  The mica  rich  concentrate
from  the process facility is decanted, dried, screened, and
then bagged.  The mica  product  from  these  facilities  is
primarily used by the paint, rubber, and plastic industries.
The  tailings  from  the  process  facility are dewatered to
remove the sand.  The effluents emanating from the decanting
and dewatering operations constitute the waste  stream  from
the  facility.   A generalized flow diagram for wet grinding
operations is shown in Figure 34.

At  one  facility  visited  the  scrap  and  flake  mica  is
processed  in  a  fluid energy process facility using steam.
The steam generated in boilers is used in process and vented
to the atmosphere.  The waste  streams  emanating  from  the
boiler operations are sludge generated from the conventional
water   softening   process,  filter  backwash,  and  boiler
blowdown wastes.

Raw Waste Loads

The raw waste loads for facilities 2055 and 2059  are  given
below:

              kQ/kkq of product {lb/1000 Ib)
              2055           2059

clays         100            50
and sands

Water Use

Facilities  2059  and 2055 consume water at 4,900 and 12,500
1/kkg product (1,300 and 3,000 gal/ton),  respectively.   At
facility  2055,  about  80 percent  of the water used in the
process is make-up water, the remainder  is  recycled  water
from  the  decanting and dewatering operations.  At facility
2059  makeup  water  consumed  is  1,500 1/kkg  of   product
(360 gallons/ton);   the  remainder  is  recycled  from  the
settling pond.  The hydraulic loads of these facilities  are
given below:
                          144

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               WATER
SCRAP MICA—«DI
                                                                                WATER
WATER
GRINDING
MILLS

BHBX&g,
RIFFLE
LAUNDER

»
•
SAND
RLE
l»T««lJj|p
DECANT
TANK

m LUII jgp
CENTRIFUGE
f \
F 1
SETTLING
TANKS


FEED
BIN

amfi0)
DRYER

^ MICA
^ PRODUCT
                             TO
                           DISPOSAL
                                              POND
                                          WATER RECYCLED
                                          TO GRINDING MILLS
                                                 FIGURE  34
                                              MINING  AND PROCESSING
      (
                                                     WE"

-------
                   1/kkq of product:  (gal/ton)
                   2055           2059

Make-up water      10,000         2,200
                   (2,400)         (530)

Recycled water     2r500          4,200
                   (600)           (1,000)

Boiler feed        unknown        1,100
                                   (260)

Total Process      12,500         5,400
Water              (3,000)         (1,300)
Waste Treatment

At facility 2055, the raw waste stream is collected in surge
tanks and about 20 percent of the decanted water is recycled
to  the  process.   The  remainder  is  pumped  to  a nearby
facility for treatment.  The treatment  consists  of  adding
polymer,  clarification  and filtration.  The filter cake is
stockpiled and the filtrate discharged.

At facility 2059, the waste stream flows to settling  tanks.
The  underflow  from  the settling tanks is sent back to the
process  for  mica  recovery.   The  overflow  goes  into  a
0.8 hectare  (2 acre)  pond for settling.  The decanted water
from this pond is recycled to the process.

Effluent Composition

The effluent from facility 2055 is treated and discharged by
a neighboring company.  Facility 2059 has no discharge under
normal  operating   conditions.    However,   during   heavy
rainfall,  the  settling  pond overflows and the effluent is
discharged.

       WET BENEFICIATION PROCESS OF MICA AND SERICITE

Process Description

These ores contain approximately 5 to 15 percent  mica.   At
the beneficiation facility, the soft weathered material from
the  stockpiles is hydraulically sluiced into the processing
units.  The recovery of mica from the ore requires two major
steps, first, the coarse flakes  are  recovered  by  spirals
and/or trommel screens and second, fine mica is recovered by
froth flotation.
                           146

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Five   of   the  seven  facilities  discussed  below  use  a
combination of spiral classifiers and  flotation  techniques
and the remaining two facilities use only spirals to recover
the   mica  from  the  crude  ore.   Beneficiation  includes
crushing, screening, classification,  and  processing.   The
larger  mica  flakes are then separated from the waste sands
in  spiral  classifiers.   The  fine  sand  and  clays   are
deslimed,  conditioned and sent to the flotation section for
mica  recovery.   In  facilities  using  only  spirals,  the
underflow is screened to recover flaked mica.  In both types
of  facilities,  the  mica  concentrate or the flake mica is
centrifuged, dried, and ground.

Although all  flotation  facilities  use  the  same  general
processing steps, in some facilities, tailings are processed
to  recover additional by-products.  Facility 2050 processes
the classifier waste stream to produce clays for use by  the
brick   industry  and  also  processes  the  mica  flotation
tailings to recover  feldspar.   Facilities  2052  and  2057
process  the  classifier  waste to recover a high grade clay
for use by the ceramic industry.  Generalized flow  diagrams
for  facilities using a combination of spirals and flotation
and for facilities using spirals only is given in Figure 35.

Raw Waste Loads

The raw waste load in  these  facilities  consists  of  mill
tailings,  thickener  overflow,   and wastes from the various
dewatering units.  In some facilities, waste water from  wet
scrubbing operations is used for dust control purposes.  The
raw waste loads for these facilities are given as follows:

                   Clay, slimes, mica fines and sand wastes
                   	kg/kkg of product^ (lb/1000 Ibj	

                        600

                        14,400

                        2,600

                        4,000

                        4,700

                        2,900

                        6,300
                          147

-------
                WATER
   MINE
*»
•P-
oo
 LEGEND;
   	SPIRAL
CRUSH,
SCREEN
AND
CLASSIFY
1
CYCLONE
TION
L




MILL




SPIRALS
AND/OR
CYCLONES
1






i
L
V,
SCREEf
ATER R
1
FLOTAT
i
SAND PILE
1
i
POND
REAGENTS
                                                                    CENTRIFUGE
                                                                         DRY

                                                                         AND

                                                                         GRIND
                                   PRODUCT
                                            FIGURE  .35

                                   MICA  MINING  AND  PROCESSING

                                (FLOTATION OR SPIRAL SEPARATION)

-------
Water Use

The  water  used  in  these facilities is dependent upon the
quantity and type of clay material in the crude ore.   These
facilities  consume water at 69,500 to 656,000 1/kkg  (16,700
to 157,000 gal/ton)  of  product.   The  hydraulic  loads  of
these facilities are summarized as follows:

                   Process Water Used
Facility
2050
2051
2052
2053
2054
2057
2058
1/kkg of product (gal/ton)
95,200
240,000
125,000
110,000
69,500
143,000
656,000
(22,800)
(57,600)
(30,000)
(26,400)
(16,700)
(34,000)
(157,000)
Other Water Consumption
Facility
i/EKa of product
process discharge

(gal/ton)
loss due evaporation,
percolation and
spills
2050

2051

2052

2053

2054

2057

2058
none

none

75,200  (18,000)

none

69,500  (16,700)

86,000  (20,600)

none
negligible

negligible

50,600 (12,100)

80 (20)
57,000 (13,700)
Waste Treatment

In  facilities  2050,  2051,  2053, and 2058, the wastes are
treated by settling in ponds and the  supernatant  from  the
last  pond  is  recycled  to the facility.  The sizes of the
ponds used at each facility are given below.
                           149

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Facility           hectares  (acres)

2050               7.3        (18)
2051               3.2        (8)
2053               0.8, 1.6,  (2, 4, 7)
                   2.8
2058               8.1        (20)

During normal operating procedures, there  is  no  discharge
from  ponds  2050  and 2051.  However, these ponds discharge
during exceptionally heavy  rainfalls   (4"  rain/24  hours) ,
The only discharge at facility 2058 is the drainage from the
sand stockpiles which flows into a 0.4 hectare (1-acre) pond.
which discharges.

At  facility  2054  waste  water is treated in a 1.2 hectare
(3-acre)  pond.  The effluent from this pond  is  discharged.
This  facility has suspended its operation since June, 1974,
due to necessary repairs to the pond, and plans  to  convert
the  water flow system of this operation to a closed circuit
"no discharge" process by the  addition  of  thickening  and
filtration equipment.

At  facilities 2052 and 2057 the waste water is treated in a
series of ponds and the  overflow  from  the  last  pond  is
treated  by  lime  for  pH  adjustment  prior  to discharge.
Facility 2052 has three ponds of 1.2, 1.6, and  3.6 hectares
(3,  4,  and 9 acres, respectively) in size.  In addition to
mica, these two facilities produce clay for use  by  ceramic
industries.   According  to  responsible  company officials,
these two facilities cannot operate on a total water recycle
basis.  The amine reagent  used  in  flotation  circuits  is
detrimental  to  the  clay  products  as  it  affects  their
viscosity and plasticity.

Effluent Composition

The significant constituents  in  the  effluent  from  these
facilities are given below:

facility                2052      2054      2057

pH before lime
 treatment              4,2       	       4.3
pH after lime treatment 6,5       6-9     6.5
TSS, mg/1               20        400       <15
settleable solids,
 ml/liter               <0.1      <0.1      <0.1

There  is  no  quantitative  data available on the discharge
from facility 2058.
                           150

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                         SECTION VI
             SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
INTRODUCTION

The waste water constituents of pollution  significance  for
this  segment  of the mineral mining and processing industry
are based upon those parameters which have  been  identified
in the untreated wastes from each subcategory of this study.
The  waste water constituents are further divided into those
that have been selected as pollutants of  significance  with
the  rationale  for  their selection, and those that are not
deemed significant with the rationale for their rejection.

The basis for selection of the significant  pollutant  para-
meters was:

(1)  toxicity to terrestrial and aquatic organisms;
(2)  substances  causing  dissolved   oxygen   depletion   in
    streams;
(3)  soluble constituents that result in  undesirable  tastes
    and odors in water supplies;
(4)  substances that result in eutrophication  and  stimulate
    undesirable algal growth;
(5)  substances  that   produce   unsightly   conditions   in
    receiving water; and
(6)  substances that result in sludge deposits in streams.

SIGNIFICANCE  AND  RATIONALE  FOR  SELECTION  OF   POLLUTION
PARAMETERS

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Biochemical  oxygen  demand  (BOD)  is a measure of the oxygen
consuming capabilities of organic matter.  The BOD does  not
in  itself  cause direct harm to a water system, but it does
exert an indirect effect by depressing the oxygen content of
the water.  Sewage and other organic effluents during  their
processes  of  decomposition  exert  a BOD, which can have a
catastrophic effect on the ecosystem by depleting the oxygen
supply.  Conditions are reached frequently where all of  the
oxygen  is  used and the continuing decay process causes the
production of noxious gases such  as  hydrogen  sulfide  and
methane.   Water  with  a high BOD indicates the presence of
decomposing organic matter  and  subsequent  high  bacterial
counts that degrade its quality and potential uses.
                           151

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Dissolved  oxygen   (DO) is a water quality constituent that,
in appropriate concentrations, is essential not only to keep
organisms living but also to sustain  species  reproduction,
vigor,   and  the  development  of  populations.   Organisms
undergo stress at reduced DO concentrations that  make  them
less  competitive  and  less  able  to sustain their species
within the aquatic environment.   For  example,  reduced  DO
concentrations  have  been  shown  to  interfere  with  fish
population through delayed hatching of  eggs,  reduced  size
and  vigor  of  embryos, production of deformities in young,
interference with  food  digestion,  acceleration  of  blood
clotting,  decreased tolerance to certain toxicants, reduced
food  efficiency  and  growth  rate,  and  reduced   maximum
sustained  swimming speed.  Fish food organisms are likewise
affected adversely in conditions with suppressed DO.   Since
all  aerobic  aquatic  organisms  need  a  certain amount of
oxygen, the consequences of total lack of  dissolved  oxygen
due  to  a high BOD can kill all inhabitants of the affected
area.

If a high BOD is  present,  the  quality  of  the  water  is
usually  visually  degraded  by  the presence of decomposing
materials and alga blooms due  to  the  uptake  of  degraded
materials   that   form   the   food  stuffs  of  the  algal
populations.  BOD was not a major contribution to  pollution
in  this industry, but may possibly exist because of the use
of organic flotation agents.

Fluorides

As the most reactive non-metal, fluorine is never found free
in nature but as a constituent  of  fluorite  or  fluorspar,
calcium fluoride, in sedimentary rocks and also of cryolite,
sodium  aluminum fluoride, in igneous rocks.   Owing to their
origin only in certain types of rocks  and  only  in  a  few
regions,  fluorides  in high concentrations are not a common
constituent of natural surface waters, but they may occur in
detrimental concentrations in ground waters.

Fluorides are used as insecticides, for disinfecting brewery
apparatus, as a  flux  in  the  manufacture  of  steel,  for
preserving  wood and mucilages, for the manufacture of glass
and enamels, in chemical industries,  for  water  treatment,
and for other uses.

Fluorides  in  sufficient quantity are toxic to humans, with
doses of 250 to 450 mg giving  severe  symptoms  or  causing
death.

There  are  numerous  articles  describing  the  effects  of
fluoride-bearing waters on dental enamel of children;  these
studies  lead  to  the  generalization that water containing
                          152

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less than 0.9 to 1.0 mg/1  of  fluoride  will  seldom  cause
mottled  enamel  in children, and for adults, concentrations
less than 3 or  4 mg/1  are  not  likely  to  cause  endemic
cumulative   fluorosis   and   skeletal  effects.   Abundant
literature is also available describing  the  advantages  of
maintaining  0.8  to  1.5 mg/1  of  fluoride ion in drinking
water to aid in the reduction of  dental  decay,  especially
among children.

Chronic fluoride poisoning of livestock has been observed in
areas   where   water  contained  10  to  15 mg/1  fluoride.
Concentrations of 30-50 mg/1 of fluoride in the total ration
of dairy cows is considered the upper safe limit.   Fluoride
from waters apparently does not accumulate in soft tissue to
a  significant  degree and it is transferred to a very small
extent into the milk and to a somewhat greater  degree  into
eggs.   Data  for  fresh  water  indicate that fluorides are
toxic  to  fish  at  concentrations  higher  than  1.5 mg/1.
Fluoride  is  found  in  one  industry  sutcategory  in this
segment, the mining and processing of industrial sand by the
HF flotation process.

Iron

Iron is considered to be a highly objectionable  constituent
in public water supplies,, the permissible criterion has been
set at 0.3 mg/1.

Oil and Grease

Oil  and grease exhibit an oxygen demand.  Oil emulsions may
adhere to the gills of fish or coat  and  destroy  algae  or
other  plankton.   Deposition of oil in the bottom sediments
can  serve  to  inhibit   normal   benthic   growths,   thus
interrupting the aquatic food chain.  Soluble and emulsified
material  ingested  by fish may taint the flavor of the fish
flesh.  Water soluble components may exert toxic  action  on
fish.   Floating oil may reduce the re-aeration of the water
surface and in conjunction with emulsified oil may interfere
with photosynthesis.  Water insoluble components damage  the
plumage  and  coats  of  aquatic animals and fowls.  Oil and
grease  in  the  water  can  result  in  the  formation   of
objectionable  surface  slicks preventing the full aesthetic
enjoyment of the water,  oil spills can damage  the  surface
of  boats  and  can destroy the aesthetic characteristics of
beaches and shorelines.

Acidity and Alkalinity

Acidity and alkalinity are  reciprocal  terms.   Acidity  is
produced   by  substances  that  yield  hydrogen  ions  upon
hydrolysis and alkalinity is  produced  by  substances  that
                           153

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yield  hydroxyl  ions.  The terms "total acidity" and "total
alkalinity" are often used to express the buffering capacity
of a solution.  Acidity  in  natural  waters  is  caused  by
carbon dioxide, mineral acids, weakly dissociated acids, and
the  salts  of  strong  acids and weak bases.  Alkalinity is
caused by strong bases and the salts of strong alkalies  and
weak acids.

The term pH is a logarithmic expression of the concentration
of  hydrogen  ions.  At a pH of 7, the hydrogen and hydroxyl
ion concentrations are essentially equal and  the  water  is
neutral.   Lower  pH  values  indicate  acidity while higher
values indicate alkalinity.  The relationship between pH and
acidity and alkalinity is not necessarily linear or direct.

Waters with a pH below 6.0  are  corrosive  to  water  works
structures,   distribution  lines,  and  household  plumbing
fixtures and can thus  add  such  constituents  to  drinking
water as iron, copper, zinc, cadmium and lead.  The hydrogen
ion concentration can affect the "taste" of the water.  At a
low  pH  water  tastes  "sour".   The bactericidal effect of
chlorine  is  weakened  as  the  pH  increases,  and  it  is
advantageous  to  keep  the  pH  close  to  7.  This is very
significant for providing safe drinking water.

Extremes  of  pH  or  rapid  pH  changes  can  exert  stress
conditions  or  kill  aquatic  life  outright.   Dead  fish,
associated algal blooms, and  foul  stenches  are  aesthetic
liabilities  of  any  waterway.   Even moderate changes from
"acceptable" criteria limits of pH are deleterious  to  some
species.   The  relative  toxicity  to  aquatic life of many
materials  is  increased  by  changes  in  the   water   pH.
Metalocyanide  complexes  can  increase  a  thousandfold  in
toxicity with a drop of 1.5 pH units.  The  availability  of
many  nutrient  substances  varies  with  the alkalinity and
acidity.  Ammonia is more lethal with a higher pH.

The  lacrimal  fluid  of  the  human  eye  has   a   pH   of
approximately  7.0  and  a deviation of 0.1 pH unit from the
norm  may  result  in  eye  irritation  for   the   swimmer.
Appreciable irritation will cause severe pain.

Total Suspended Solids

Suspended   solids   include   both  organic  and  inorganic
materials.  The anorganic components include sand, silt, and
clay.  The  organic  fraction  includes  such  materials  as
grease, oil, tar, animal and vegetable fats, various fibers,
sawdust,  hair  and  various  materials  from sewers.   These
solids may settle out rapidly and bottom deposits are  often
a  mixture  of  both  organic  and  inorganic  solids.  They
adversely affect fisheries by covering  the  bottom  of  the
                           154

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stream  or lake with a blanket of material that destroys the
fish-food bottom fauna  or  the  spawning  ground  of  fish.
Deposits  containing  organic  materials  may deplete bottom
oxygen  supplies  and  produce  hydrogen   sulfide,   carbon
dioxide, methane, and other noxious gases.

In  raw  water  sources for domestic use, state and regional
agencies generally specify that suspended solids in  streams
shall  not  be  present  in  sufficient  concentration to be
objectionable  or  to  interfere   with   normal   treatment
processes.   Suspended  solids  in  water may interfere with
many industrial processes, and cause foaming in boilers,  or
encrustations  on  equipment exposed to water, especially as
the temperature rises.  Suspended solids are undesirable  in
water  for  most  industrial processes and power facilities.
Suspended particles also serve as a transport mechanism  for
pesticides  and  other  substances  which are readily sorbed
into or onto clay particles.

Solids may be suspended in water for a time, and then settle
to the bed of the stream or lake.  These  settleable  solids
may  be  inert,  slowly  biodegradable materials, or rapidly
decomposable substances.  While in suspension, they increase
the turbidity of the water,  reduce  light  penetration  and
impair the photosynthetic activity of aquatic facilities.

Solids  in  suspension  are aesthetically displeasing.  When
they settle to form sludge deposits on the  stream  or  lake
bed, they are often much more damaging to the life in water,
and  they  retain  the  capacity  to  displease  the senses.
Solids, when  transformed  to  sludge  deposits,  may  do  a
variety  of damaging things, including blanketing the stream
or lake bed and thereby destroying  the  living  spaces  for
those  benthic  organisms  that  would  otherwise occupy the
habitat.  When of  an  organic  and  therefore  decomposable
nature,  solids use a portion or all of the dissolved oxygen
available in the area.  Organic materials also  serve  as  a
seemingly  inexhaustible  food  source  for  sludgeworms and
associated organisms.

Turbidity is principally a measure of  the  light  absorbing
properties  of suspended solids.  It is frequently used as a
substitute method of quickly estimating the total  suspended
solids  when  the  concentration  is  relatively low.  Total
suspended solids are the  single  most  important  pollutant
parameter  found  in  this segment of the mineral mining and
processing industry.
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Asbestos

"Asbestos" is a generic term for a number of  fire-resistant
hydrated silicates that, when crushed or processed, separate
into  flexible  fibers  made  up  of fibrils noted for their
great tensile strength.  Although there  are  many  asbestos
minerals,   only   five   are   of   commercial  importance:
chrysotile,  a  tubular  serpentine  mineral,  accounts  for
95 percent  of  the  world's  production;  the  others,  all
amphiboles, are  amosite,  crocidolite,  anthophyllite,  and
tremolite.   The  asbestos minerals differ in their metallic
elemental content, range of fiber diameters, flexibility  or
hardness,  tensile  strength,  surface properties, and other
attributes that determine  their  industrial  uses  and  may
affect    their    respirability,   deposition,   retention,
translocation, and biologic reactivity.

Serpentine asbestos is a magnesium silicate  the  fibers  of
which  are  strong and flexible so that spinning is possible
with the longer fibers.  Amphibole asbestos includes various
silicates of magnesium,  iron,  calcium,  and  sodium.   The
fibers are generally brittle and cannot be spun but are more
resistant to chemicals and to heat than serpentine asbestos.

         Chrysoltile         3MgO*2SiO2«2H20

         Anthophyllite       (FeMg)«Sio3«H2o

         Amosite             (ferroanthophyllite)

         Crocidolite         NaFe»(SiO3)2«FeSiO3«H2O

         Tremolite           Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH) 2


All   epidemiclogic   studies   that   appear   to  indicate
differences in pathogenicity among  types  of  asbestos  are
flawed  by  their  lack  of  quantitative data on cumulative
exposures,  fiber  characteristics,  and  the  presence   of
cofactors.  The different types, therefore, cannot be graded
as  to relative risk with respect to asbestosis.  Fiber size
is  critically  important  in   determining   respirability,
deposition,  retention,  and  clearance  from  the pulmonary
tract and is probably an important determinant of  the  site
and  nature  of  biologic action.  Little is known about the
movement of the fibers  within  the  human  body,  including
their  potential  for  entry  through  the  gastrointestinal
tract.  There is evidence though that bundles of fibrils may
be broken down within the body to individual fibrils.
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SIGNIFICANCE  AND  RATIONALE  FOR  REJECTION  OF   POLLUTION
    PARAMETERS

A number of pollution parameters besides those selected were
considered, but had to be rejected for one or several of the
following reasons:
              /
(1)  insufficient data on facility effluents;
(2)  not usually present in quantities  sufficient  to  cause
    water quality degradation;
(3)  treatment does not "practicably" reduce  the  parameter;
    and
(4)  simultaneous  reduction   is   achieved   with   another
    parameter which is limited.

Toxic Materials

Although   arsenic,   antimony,   barium,   boron,  cadmium,
chromium, copper, cyanide ion, manganese,  mercury,  nickel,
lead,  selenium,  tin, and zinc are harmful pollutants, they
were not found to be present  in  quantities  sufficient  to
cause water quality degradation.

Dissolved Solids

The  total dissolved solids is a gross measure of the amount
of  soluble  pollutants  in  the  waste  water.   It  is  an
important  parameter  in  drinking  water supplies and water
used for irrigation.  A total dissolved  solids  content  of
less  than  500 mg/1  is  considered  desirable.   From  the
standpoint of  quantity  discharged,  TDS  could  have  been
considered   a   harmful  characteristic.   However,  energy
requirements, especially for evaporation,  and  solid  waste
disposal  costs  are usually so high as to preclude limiting
dissolved solids at this  time.   The  cations  A1+3,  Ca*2,
Mg+2,  K+  and  Na+,  the  anion  Cl~ and the radical groups
C03~z, N02~, phosphates and silicates are commonly found  in
all  nautral  water  bodies.   Process water, mine water and
storm  runoff  will  accumulate  quantities  of  the   above
constutuents  both  in  the  form of suspended and dissolved
solids.  However, their amount is small  and  certainly  not
enough  to cause water quality problems.  Limiting suspended
solids and dissolved solids, where they pose a problem, is a
more practicable approach to limiting these ions.

Temperature

Temperature is one of the  most  important  and  influential
water quality characteristics.  Temperature determines those
species  that  may  be present; it activates the hatching of
young,  regulates  their   activity,   and   stimulates   or
suppresses  their  growth  and development; it attracts, and
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may Jcill when -the water becomes too hot or  becomes  chilled
too    suddenly.     Colder   water   generally   suppresses
development.  Warmer water  generally  accelerates  activity
and  may  be  a  primary cause of aquatic facility nuisances
when other environmental factors are suitable.

Temperature is a prime regulator of natural processes within
the water environment.  It governs  physiological  functions
in   organisms   and,   acting  directly  or  indirectly  in
combination  with  other  water  quality  constituentsr   it
affects  aquatic  life  with  each  change.   These  effects
include  chemical  reaction  rates,   enzymatic   functions,
molecular   movements,   and   molecular  exchanges  between
membranes within and between the physiological  systems  and
the organs of an animal.

Chemical  reaction rates vary with temperature and generally
increase as the temperature is increased.   The solubility of
gases in water varies with temperature.  Dissolved oxygen is
decreased by the decay or decomposition of dissolved organic
substances and the decay rate increases as  the  temperature
of  the  water  increases  reaching  a maximum at about 30°C
(86 ° F).   The  temperature  of  stream  water,  even  during
summer,   is  below  the  optimum  for  pollution-associated
bacteria.  Increasing the water  temperature  increases  the
bacterial   multiplication  rate  when  the  environment  is
favorable and the food supply is abundant.

Reproduction  cycles  may  be   changed   significantly   by
increased  temperature  because  this  function  takes place
under restricted temperature ranges.  Spawning may not occur
at all because temperatures are  too  high.   Thus,  a  fish
population  may  exist  in  a  heated area only by continued
immigration.   Disregarding   the   decreased   reproductive
potential,  water  temperatures need not reach lethal levels
to decimate a species.  Temperatures that favor competitors,
predators, parasites, and disease can destroy a  species  at
levels far below those that are lethal.

Fish  food  organisms are altered severely when temperatures
approach or exceed 90°F,  Predominant algal species  change,
primary  production  is  decreased,  and  bottom  associated
organisms may be depleted or altered drastically in  numbers
and  distribution.   Increased  water temperatures may cause
aquatic facility nuisances when other environmental  factors
are favorable.

Synergistic  actions of pollutants are more severe at higher
water  temperatures.   Given  amounts  of  domestic  sewage,
refinery  wastes,  oils, tars, insecticides, detergents, and
fertilizers more rapidly deplete oxygen in water  at  higher
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temperatures,  and  the  respective  toxicities are likewise
increased.

When water  temperatures  increase,  the  predominant  algal
species  may change from diatoms to green algae, and finally
at high temperatures to blue-green algae, because of species
temperature  preferentials.   Blue-green  algae  can   cause
serious  odor  problems.   The  number  and  distribution of
benthic organisms decreases as water  temperatures  increase
above  90°F,  which  is close to the tolerance limit for the
population.  This could seriously affect certain  fish  that
depend on benthic organisms as a food source.

The  cost  of fish being attracted to' heated water in winter
months may be considerable, due to fish mortalities that may
result when the fish return to the cooler water.

Rising temperatures stimulate the decomposition  of  sludge,
formation  of  sludge  gas,  multiplication  of  saprophytic
bacteria and fungi (particularly in the presence of  organic
wastes) ,  and  the  consumption  of  oxygen  by putrefactive
processes, thus affecting the  esthetic  value  of  a  water
course.

In  general,  marine  water  temperatures  do  not change as
rapidly or range as widely as those of freshwaters.   Marine
and  estuarine  fishes,  therefore,  are  less  tolerant  of
temperature variation.  Although this limited  tolerance  is
greater  in  estuarine  than  in  open water marine species,
temperature changes are more important to  those  fishes  in
estuaries  and  bays  than  to  those  in open marine areas,
because of the nursery and replenishment  functions  of  the
estuary   that   can   be   adversely  affected  by  extreme
temperature changes.

Excess thermal load, even in non-contact cooling water,  has
not  been and is not expected to be a significant problem in
this segment of the mineral mining and processing industry.
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                        SECTION VII
              CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION

Waterborne wastes from the mining of minerals for  the  con-
struction  industry  consist  primarily of suspended solids.
These are usually composed  of  chemically  inert  and  very
insoluble   sand,   clay   or   rock  particles.   Treatment
technology is well developed  for  removing  such  particles
from  waste  water  and is readily applicable whenever space
requirements or economics do not preclude utilization.

In a few instances dissolved substances such  as  fluorides,
acids,  alkalies, and chemical additives from ore processing
may also be involved.  Where  they  are  present,  dissolved
material   concentrations   are   usually   low.   Treatment
technology for the dissolved solids is also well-known,  but
may  often  be  limited  by the large volumes of waste water
involved and the cost of such large scale operations.

The control and treatment of the usually  simple  waterborne
wastes  found  in  the mining and processing of minerals for
the  construction  industry  are  complicated   by   several
factors:

(1) the large volumes of waste water involved  for  many  of
    the processing operations,

(2)  variable waste water amount and composition from day to
    day, as influenced by rainfall  and  other  surface  and
    underground water contributions,

(3) differences in waste water compositions arising from ore
    or raw material variability,

(4) geographical location:  e.g., waste water can be handled
    differently  in   dry   isolated   locations   than   in
    industrialized wet climates.

Each   of  these  points  are  discussed  in  the  following
sections. •
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PROBLEM POLLUTANTS

Two significant was-te water problem areas have been found in
this industry:

(1) High suspended solids levels in discharged  waste  water
    resulting from submicron suspensions which are difficult
    to  settle.   This  problem  is  encountered  in several
    segments of this industry.

(2) In at least one subcategory of  this  industry  problems
    are encountered with waterborne fluoride wastes.

Suspended  solids come from mine drainage, rainwater runoff,
air pollution scrubber water, and  process  water.   Massive
quantities of process water are used in the sand and gravel,
crushed  stone,  industrial sand, and mica industries.  Much
of this process water,  used  for  classifying  and  benefi-
ciating  operations  may  be  recycled  with relatively high
suspended solids concentrations, often 200 mg/1.  This makes
recycling  process  water  not  only   feasible   but   also
economical since treatment facility demands are not as great
for  water  of  this quality.  However, in some cases, where
flotation is employed, sensitivity of  the  process  to  the
flotation  reagents  added makes complete recycle of process
water unfeasible, giving rise to effluents.  This occurs  in
some industrial sand and mica operations.

In  other  operations  which  use  no process water or whose
process  water  volume  is  small,  scrubber   water,   mine
drainage,  and  rainwater  runoff  are  the major sources of
suspended solids.  Dimension stone,  gypsum,  asbestos,  and
gilsonite   are   examples  of  such  industries.   Asbestos
presents a special suspended  solids  problem  in  its  mine
drainage due to the presence of asbestos fibers,

One  of  the  industrial  sand  subcategories uses a process
employing hydrofluoric acid as a  flotation  reagent.   This
gives  rise to an acidic fluoride bearing waste water stream
which must be treated.

CONTROL PRACTICES

Control practices such as selection of raw  materials,  good
housekeeping,   minimizing   leaks  and  spills,  in-process
changes, and segregation of process waste water streams  are
not as important in the mining of minerals for the construc-
tion  industry as they are in more process-oriented manufac-
turing  operations.   Raw  materials  are   fixed   by   the
composition  of  the  ore  available;  good housekeeping and
small leaks and spills have little influence  on  the  waste
loads;  and  it  is  rare that any noncontact water, such as
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cooling  water,  is  involved   in   minerals   mining   and
processing.

There  are a number of areas, however, where control is very
important.  These include:

(1) waste water containment

(2) separation and control of mine water, process water, and
    rain water

(3) monitoring of waste streams.

Containment

The majority of waste water treatment and control facilities
in the mining of minerals for the construction industry  use
one  or  more  settling  ponds.  Often the word "pond" is an
euphemism for swamp, gully, or other  low  spot  which  will
collect water.  In times of heavy rainfall these "ponds" are
often  flooded  and the settled solids may be swept along as
well.  In many other cases, the identity of the pond may  be
maintained  during  rainfall  but its function as a settling
pond is significantly impaired by the large amount of  water
flowing  through  it.   In addition to rainfall and flooding
conditions, waste containment in ponds can be troubled  with
seepage  through  the  ground  around  and beneath the pond,
escape through pot holes,  faults  and  fissures  below  the
water surface and physical failure of pond dams and dikes.

In  most  instances  satisfactory  pond  performance  can be
achieved by proper design.  In instances  where  it  is  not
possible   to   achieve   satisfactory   pond   performance,
alternative treatment methods can be  utilized:  thickeners,
clarifiers,    tube   and   lamella   separators,   filters,
hydrocyclones, and centrifuges.

Separation and Control of Waste water

In these industries waste water may be separated  into  dif-
ferent categories:

(1) Mine drainage water.  Since minerals  mining  operations
    often  involve  large surface areas, the rain water that
    falls on the mine or mine property surface constitutes a
    major portion of the overall waste  water  load  leaving
    the  property.   This  runoff  entrains  minerals, silt,
    sand, clay, organic matter and other suspended solids.

(2) Process water.  This is water involved in  transporting,
    classifying, washing, beneficiating, and separating ores
    and  other  mined  materials.   When present in minerals
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    mining operations  this  water  usually  contains  heavy
    loads  of  suspended  solids and possibly some dissolved
    materials.

The relative amounts and compositions  of  the  above  waste
water streams differ from one mining category to another and
the  separation, control and treatment techniques differ for
each.

Process  water  is  normally  controlled  and  contained  by
pumping or gravity flow through pipes, channels, ditches and
ponds.    Mine   drainage,  on  the  other  hand,  is  often
uncontrolled and may either  contaminate  process  and  mine
drainage  water  or  flow off the land independently as non-
point discharges.  Mine drainage  also  increases  suspended
solid  material  in rivers, streams, creeks or other surface
water used for process water supply or, in  some  cases,  as
point discharge sources from mining property.

Control  technology,  as  discussed in this report, includes
techniques and practices employed before, during, and  after
the  actual  mining  or  processing  operation  to reduce or
eliminate adverse environmental effects resulting  from  the
discharge   of   mine   or  process  facility  waste  water.
Effective pollution-control planning  can  reduce  pollutant
contributions  from  active  mining and processing sites and
can  also  minimize  post-operational  pollution  potential.
Because  pollution potential may not cease with closure of a
mine or process facility, control  measures  also  refer  to
methods   practiced   after   an  operation  has  terminated
production of ore or concentrated product.  The presence  of
pits,  storage areas for spoil (non-ore material, or waste),
tailing ponds, disturbed areas, and other results or effects
of mining or processing operations  necessitates  integrated
plans  for reclamation, stabilization, and control to return
the affected areas to a condition at least fully capable  of
supporting the uses which it was capable of supporting prior
to  any  mining  and  to  achieve a stability not posing any
threat of water diminution, or  pollution  and  to  minimize
potential hazards associated with closed operations.

Mining Techniques

Mining   techniques   can   effectively  reduce  amounts  of
pollutants coming from a mine area by containment within the
mine area or by reducing their formation.  These  techniques
can  be  combined  with  careful  reclamation  planning  and
implementation  to  provide  maximum   at-source   pollution
control.

Several   techniques   have   been   implemented  to  reduce
environmental degradation  during  strip-mining  operations.
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Utilization  of  the  box-cut  technique  in  moderate-  and
shallow-slope contour mining has increased recently  because
more stringent environmental controls are being implemented.

A box cut is simply a contour strip mine in which a low-wall
barrier  is  maintained.  Spoil may be piled on the low wall
side.  This technique significantly reduces  the  amount  of
water  discharged  from  a  pit  area,  since  that water is
prevented from seeping through spoil banks.  The problems of
preventing  slides,  spoil  erosion,  and  resulting  stream
sedimentation are still present, however.

Block-cut  mining  was  developed  to  facilitate regrading,
minimize  overburden  handling,  and  contain  spoil  within
mining  areas.   In  block-cut  mining, contour stripping is
typically accomplished by throwing spoil from the bench onto
downslope areas.   This  downslope  material  can  slump  or
rapidly  erode and must be moved upslope to the mine site if
contour regrading is desired.  The  land  area  affected  by
contour  strip  mining is substantially larger than the area
from which the ores are  extracted.   When  using  block-cut
mining,  only  material  from  the first cut is deposited in
adjacent low areas.  Remaining spoil is then placed in mined
portions of the bench.  Spoil handling is restricted to  the
actual  pit  area  for  all  areas  but the first cut, which
significantly reduces the area disturbed,

Pollution-control  technology  in  underground   mining   is
largely  restricted  to  at-source methods of reducing water
influx  into  mine  workings.   Infiltration   from   strata
surrounding the workings is the primary source of water, and
this  water  reacts with air and sulfide minerals within the
mines to create acid pH conditions and,  thus,  to  increase
the  potential  for  solubilization  of metals.  Underground
mines are, therefore, faced with problems of water  handling
and  mine-drainage  treatment.  Open-pit mines, on the other
hand, receive both direct rainfall and runoff contributions,
as well as infiltrated water from intercepted strata.

Infiltration in underground  mines  generally  results  from
rainfall   recharge   of  a  ground-water  reservoir.    Rock
fracture zones, joints, and faults have a  strong  influence
on  ground-water  flow  patterns  since they can collect and
convey large volumes of water.  These zones and  faults  can
intersect any portion of an underground mine and permit easy
access  of  ground  water.   In some mines, infiltration can
result in huge volumes of water that  must  be  handled  and
treated.   Pumping  can  be  a  major  part  of  the  mining
operation in terms of equipment  and  expense—particularly,
in mines which do not discharge by gravity.
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Water-infiltration  control  techniques,  designed to reduce
the amount of water entering  the  workings,  are  extremely
important  in  underground  mines  located in or adjacent to
water-bearing strata.  These techniques are  often  employed
in  such  mines  to  decrease  the volume of water requiring
handling and treatment, to make the mine  workable,  and  to
control   energy  costs  associated  with  dewatering.   The
techniques include pressure grouting of fissures  which  are
entry  points  for  water  into the mine.  New polymer-based
grouting materials have been developed which should  improve
the  effectiveness  of  such grouting procedures.  In severe
cases, pilot holes can be drilled  ahead  of  actual  mining
areas  to  determine  if  excessive  water  is  likely to be
encountered.  When water is encountered, a small pilot  hole
can  be  easily  filled  by  pressure  grouting,  and mining
activity may be directed toward non-water-contributing areas
in the formation.  The feasibility  of  such  control  is  a
function  of  the  structure  of  the  ore body, the type of
surrounding rock, and the characteristics of ground water in
the area.

Decreased water volume, however, does not  necessarily  mean
that  waste  water pollutant loading will also decrease.  In
underground mines, oxygen,  in  the  presence  of  humidity,
interacts  with  minerals  on  the  mine  walls and floor to
permit pollutant formation  e.g.,  acid  mine  water,  while
water  flowing through the mine transports pollutants to the
outside.  If the volume of this water is decreased  but  the
volume   of  pollutants  remains  unchanged,  the  resultant
smaller   discharge   will   contain   increased   pollutant
concentrations,  but  approximately the same pollutant load.
Rapid pumpout of the mine can, however, reduce  the  contact
time and significantly reduce the formation of pollutants.

Reduction of mine discharge volume can reduce water handling
costs.   In  cases  of  acid mine drainage, for example, the
same amounts of neutralizing agents will be required because
pollutant loads will remain unchanged.  The volume  of  mine
water to be treated, however, will be reduced significantly,
together  with  the  size  of  the  necessary  treatment and
settling facilities.  This cost reduction, along  with  cost
savings which can be attributed to decreased pumping volumes
(hence,   smaller  pumps,  lower  energy  requirements,  and
smaller  treatment   facilities),   makes   use   of   water
infiltration-control techniques highly desirable.

Water entering underground mines may pass vertically through
the  mine  roof from rock formation above.  These rock units
may have well-developed joint systems (fractures along which
no movement occurs), which tend to facilitate vertical flow.
Roof collapses can also cause widespread fracturing in over-
lying rocks, as well as joint separation far above the  mine
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roof.    Opened  joints  may  channel  flow  from  overlying
aquifers (water-bearing rocks), a  flooded  mine  above,  or
even from the surface.

Fracturing  of  overlying strata is reduced by employing any
or all of several methods:  (1) Increasing pillar size;  (2)
Increasing  support  of the roof; (3) Limiting the number of
mine entries and reducing mine entry widths; (4) Backfilling
of the mined areas with waste material.

Surface mines  are  often  responsible  for  collecting  and
conveying  large  quantities of surface water to adjacent or
underlying underground mines.  Ungraded surface mines  often
collect  water  in open pits when no surface discharge point
is available.  That water may subsequently enter the ground-
water system and then percolate into  an  underground  mine.
The  influx of water to underground mines from either active
or abandoned surface  mines  can  be  significantly  reduced
through implementation of a well-designed reclamation plan.

The  only  actual  underground  mining  technique  developed
specifically for pollution control is  preplanned  flooding.
This  technique  is primarily one of mine design, in which a
mine  is  planned  from  its  inception  for  post-operation
flooding  or  zero  discharge.   In  drift mines and shallow
slope or shaft mines, this is generally achieved by  working
the  mine  with the dip of the rock  (inclination of the rock
to the horizontal)  and pumping out the water which  collects
in  the  shafts.   Upon completion of mining activities, the
mine  is  allowed  to  flood  naturally,   eliminating   the
possibility  of acid formation caused by the contact between
sulfide minerals and oxygen.  Discharges,  if  any,  from  a
flooded   mine   should   contain  a  much  lower  pollutant
concentration.  A flooded mine may also be sealed.

Surface-water Control

Pollution-control technology related to  mining  areas,  ore
beneficiation   facilites,   and   waste-disposal  sites  is
generally designed for prevention of  pollution  of  surface
waters  (i.e.,  streams,  impoundments, and surface runoff).
Prior planning for waste disposal is a prime control method.
Disposal sites should be isolated  from  surface  flows  and
impoundments to prevent or minimize pollution potential.  In
addition,  several techniques are practiced to prevent water
pollution:

    (1)   Construction of a  clay  or  other  type  of  liner
         beneath  the planned waste disposal area to prevent
         infiltration of surface  water  (precipitation)  or
         water  contained in the waste into the ground-water
         system.
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     (2)  Compaction   of   waste    material    to    reduce
         infiltration,

     (3)  Maintenance of uniformly sized  refuse  to  enhance
         good   compaction   (which  may  require  additional
         crushing).

         Construction of a clay liner over the  material  to
         minimize  infiltration.   This is usually succeeded
         by placement of topsoil and seeding to establish  a
         vegetative  cover for erosion protection and runoff
         control.

     (5)  Excavation of  diversion  ditches  surrounding  the
         refuse disposal site to exclude surface runoff from
         the  area.   These  ditches  can  also  be  used to
         collect seepage from refuse piles, with  subsequent
         treatment, if necessary.

Surface  runoff  in  the  immediate  area  of  beneficiation
facilities presents  another  potential  pollution  problem.
Runoff  from  haul  roads,  areas  near  conveyors,  and ore
storage piles is a potential source of pollutant loading  to
nearby  surface  waters.  Several current industry practices
to control this pollution are:

     (1)  Construction of ditches surrounding  storage  areas
         to  divert  surface runoff and collect seepage that
         does occur.

     (2)  Establishment of a vegetative cover of  grasses  in
         areas  of  potential  sheet  wash  and  erosion  to
         stabilize the  material,  to  control  erosion  and
         sedimentation, and to improve the aesthetic aspects
         of the area.

     (3)  Installation  of  hard  surfaces  on  haul   roads,
         beneath  conveyors,  etc.,  with  proper  slopes to
         direct drainage to a sump.  Collected waters may be
         pumped  to  an  existing  treatment  facility   for
         treatment.

Another  potential  problem  associated with construction of
tailing-pond  treatment  systems  is  the  use  of  existing
valleys  and  natural drainage areas for impoundment of mine
water or process facility process waste water.  The capacity
of these impoundment systems frequently is not large  enough
to  prevent  high discharge flow rates—particularly, during
the late  winter  and  early  spring  months.   The  use  of
ditches, flumes, pipes, trench drains, and dikes will assist
in  preventing  runoff  caused  by  snowmelt,  rainfall,  or
streams from entering impoundments.  Very often, this runoff
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flow is  the  only  factor  preventing  attainment  of  zero
discharge.   Diversion  of  natural  runoff from impoundment
treatment systems, or construction of  these  facilities  in
locations   which  do  not  obstruct  natural  drainage,  is
therefore, desirable.

Ditches may be constructed upslope from the  impoundment  to
prevent  water  from entering it.  These ditches also convey
water away and reduce the total volume of water  which  must
be  treated.   This may result in decreased treatment costs,
which could offset the costs of diversion.

Segregation or Combination  of  Mine  and  Process  Facility
Waste Waters                                    ""*

A  widely  adopted  control  practice  in the ore mining and
dressing industry is the use of mine water as  a  source  of
process  water.   In  many areas, this is a highly desirable
practice, because it serves as a water-conservation measure.
Waste constituents may thus be concentrated into  one  waste
stream   for  treatment.   In  other  cases,  however,  this
practice results in  the  necessity  for  discharge  from  a
process facility-water impoundment system because, even with
recycle  of  part of the process water, a net positive water
balance results.

At several sites visited as part of this study,  degradation
of  the mine water quality is caused by combining the waste-
water streams for treatment at  one  location.   A  negative
effect  results  because  water  with  low pollutant loading
serves to dilute water of higher  pollutant  loading.   This
often   results   in  decreased  water-treatment  efficiency
because concentrated waste streams can often be treated more
effectively than dilute waste streams.  The  mine  water  in
these  cases  may  be  treated by relatively simple methods;
while the volume of  waste  water  treated  in  the  process
facility impoundment system will be reduced, this water will
be treated with increased efficiency.

There  are  also  locations  where  the use of mine water as
process water has resulted in an improvement in the ultimate
effluent.  Choice of the options  to  segregate  or  combine
waste  water treatment for mines and process facilities must
be made on an individual  basis,  taking  into  account  the
character of the waste water to be treated  (at both the mine
and   the  process  facility) ,  the  water  balance  in  the
mine/process facility system,  local climate, and topography.
The ability of  a  particular  operation  to  meet  zero  or
reduced  effluent levels may be dependent upon this decision
at each location.
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Regrading

Surface mining may often require removal of large amounts of
overburden to expose the ores to  be  exploited.   Regrading
involves  mass movement of material following ore extraction
to achieve a more desirable land configuration.  Reasons for
regrading strip mined land are:

     (1)  aesthetic improvement of land surface
     (2)  returning usefulness to land
     (3)  providing a suitable base for revegetation
     (4)  burying pollution-forming materials, e.g.
         heavy metals
     (5)  reducing erosion and subsequent
         sedimentation
     (6)  eliminating landsliding
     (7)  encouraging natural drainage
     (8)  eliminating ponding
     (9)  eliminating hazards such as high cliffs
         and deep pits
   (10)  controlling water pollution
Contour regrading  is  currently  the  required  reclamation
technique,  for many of the nations's active, contour and area
surface mines.  This technique involves regrading a mine  to
approximate  original  land contour.  It is generally one of
the most favored and aesthetically pleasing regrading  tech-
niques  because the land is returned to its approximate pre-
mined state.  This technique is also favored because  nearly
all   spoil   is   placed   back  in  the  pit,  eliminating
oversteepened downslope spoil banks and reducing the size of
erodable reclaimed area.  Contour regrading facilitates deep
burial of pollution-forming materials and minimizes  contact
time  between  regraded  spoil  and  surface runoff, thereby
reducing erosion and pollution formation.

However, there are also  several  disadvantages  to  contour
regrading  that  must  be  considered.   In area and contour
stripping, there may be  other  forms  of  reclamation  that
provide  land configurations and slopes better suited to the
intended uses of the land.  This can  be  particularly  true
with  steepslope contour strips, where large, high walls and
steep  final  spoil  slopes  limit  application  of  contour
regrading.   Mining  is, therefore, frequently prohibited in
such areas, although there may be other regrading techniques
that could be  effectively  utilized.   In  addition,  where
extremely   thick  ore  bodies  are  mined  beneath  shallow
overburden, there  may  not  be  sufficient  spoil  material
remaining to return the land to the original contour.
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There  are  several  other reclamation techniques of varying
effectiveness which have been utilized in  both  active  and
abandoned  mines.   These techniques include terrace, swale,
swallow-tail, and Georgia  V-ditch,  several  of  which  are
quite similar in nature.  In employing these techniques, the
upper  high-wall  portion  is  frequently  left  exposed  or
backfilled  at  a  steep  angle,  with  the  spoil  outslope
remaining  somewhat  steeper  than the original contour.  Jn
all cases, a terrace of some form remains where the original
bench was located, and  there  are  provisions  for  rapidly
channeling  runoff  from  the spoil area.  Such terraces may
permit more effective utilization of surface-mined  land  in
many cases.

Disposal  of  excess  spoil material is frequently a problem
where contour backfilling is not  practiced.   However,  the
same  problem  can also occur, although less commonly, where
contour regrading is in use.  Some types of overburden rock-
particularly,   tightly   packed   sandstones—substantially
expand  in  volume  when  they  are blasted and moved.  As a
result, there may be a large volume of spoil  material  that
cannot  be  returned  to  the  pit  area,  even when contour
backfilling is employed.  To solve  this  problem,  head-of-
hollow fill has been used for overburden storage.  The extra
overburden  is  placed  in  narrow,  steep-^sided  hollows in
compacted layers 1.2 to 2.4 meters (4 to 8 feet)   thick  and
graded to control surface drainage.

In  this  regrading  and  spoil  storage  technique, natural
ground is cleared of woody vegetation, and rock  drains  are
constructed  where  natural  drains  exist,  except in areas
where inundation has occurred.  This  permits  ground  water
and   natural   percolation  to  leave  fill  areas  without
saturating the fill, thereby  reducing  potential  landslide
and  erosion  problems.   Normally,  the face of the fill is
terrace graded to minimize erosion  of  the  steep  outslope
area.

This technique of fill or spoil material deposition has been
limited  to  relatively narrow, steep-sided ravines that can
be adequately  filled  and  graded.   Design  considerations
include  the  total number of acres in the watershed above a
proposed head-of-hollow fill, as well as the drainage, slope
stability, and prospective land use.    Revegetation  usually
proceeds  as  soon  as erosion and siltation protection have
been completed.  This technique is avoided  in  areas  where
under-drainage  materials  contain  high  concentrations  of
pollutants,  since  the  resultant  drainage  would  require
treatment to meet pollution-control requirements.

Erosion Control
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Although  regrading  is  the most essential part of surface-
mine  reclamation,  it  cannot   be   considered   a   total
reclamation  technique.   There  are  many  other  facets of
surface-mine  reclamation  that  are  equally  important  in
achieving  successful  reclamation.   The effectivenesses of
regrading and other control techniques  are  interdependent.
Failure  of any phase could severly reduce the effectiveness
of an entire reclamation project.

The most important auxiliary reclamation procedures employed
at  regraded  surface  mines  or  refuse  areas  are   water
diversion  and  erosion and runoff control.  Water diversion
involves collection of water before it enters  a  mine  area
and  conveyance  of  that  water  around  the  mine site, as
discussed previously.  This procedure decreases erosion  and
pollution  formation.  Ditches are usually excavated upslope
from a mine site to collect and convey  water.   Flumes  and
pipes  are  used  to carry water down steep slopes or across
regraded areas.  Riprap and dumped rock are  sometimes  used
to reduce water velocity in the conveyance system.

Diversion and conveyance systems are designed to accommodate
predicted  water volumes and velocities.  If the capacity of
a ditch is exceeded, water erodes the sides and renders  the
ditch ineffective.

Water  diversion  is  also employed as an actual part of the
mining procedure.  Drainways at  the  bases  of  high  walls
intercept  and  divert discharging ground water prior to its
contact   with   pollution-forming   materials.    In   some
instances,  ground  water  above the mine site is pumped out
before it enters  the  mine  area,  where  it  would  become
polluted   and   require   treatment.    Soil   erosion   is
significantly reduced on regraded areas by  controlling  the
course  of surface-water runoff, using interception channels
constructed on the regraded surface.

Water that reaches a mine site, such as direct rainfall, can
cause  serious   erosion,   sedimentation,   and   pollution
problems.    Runoff-control   techniques  are  available  to
effectively deal with this water, but these  techniques  may
conflict   with   pollution-control  measures.   Control  of
chemical pollutants forming at a  mine  frequently  involves
reduction  of  water  infiltration, while runoff controls to
prevent erosion usually  increase  infiltration,  which  can
subsequently increase pollutant formation.

There   are   a  large  number  of  techniques  in  use  for
controlling runoff, with highly variable costs  and  degrees
of effectiveness.  Mulching is sometimes used as a temporary
measure  which  protects  the  runoff  surface from raindrop
impacts and reduces the velocity of surface runoff.
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Velocity reduction is a critical facet  of  runoff  control.
This is accomplished through slope reduction by terracing or
grading;  revegetation;  or  use of flow impediments such as
dikes,  contour   plowing,   and   dumped   rock.    Surface
stabilizers have been utilized on the surface to temporarily
reduce  erodability  of the material itself, but expense has
restricted use of such materials in the past.
Revegetation

Establishment of good vegetative cover on  a  mine  area  is
probably the most effective method of controlling runoff and
erosion.  . A  critical  factor  in  mine revegetation is the
quality of the soil or spoil material on the  surface  of  a
regraded  mine.   There  are  several  methods  by which the
nature  of  this  material  has  been  controlled*   Topsoil
segregation  during  stripping  is mandatory in many states.
This permits topsoil to be replaced on  a  regraded  surface
prior  to  revegetation.   However, in many forested, steep-
sloped  areas,  there  is  little  or  no  topsoil  on   the
undisturbed   land   surface.   In  such  areas,  overburden
material is segregated in a manner that will allow the  most
toxic  materials  to  be  placed at the base of the regraded
mine, and the best spoil material  is  placed  on  the  mine
surface.

Vegetative cover provides effective erosion control; contri-
butes  significantly  to chemical pollution control; results
in  aesthetic  improvement;   and   can   return   land   to
agricultural,  recreational, or silvicultural usefulness.  A
dense ground cover stabilizes the  surface  (with  its  root
system),  reduces  velocity  of  surface runoff, helps build
humus on the surface, and can virtually  eliminate  erosion.
A  soil  profile begins to form, followed by a complete soil
ecosystem.  This soil profile acts  as  an  oxygen  barrier,
reducing the amount of oxygen reaching underlying materials.
This,   in   turn,  reduces  oxidation,  which  is  a  major
contributing factor to pollutant formation.

The soil profile also tends to act as a sponge that  retains
water  near  the  surface,  as opposed to the original loose
spoil   (which  allowed  rapid  infiltration).    This   water
evaporates  from  the mine surface, cooling it and enhancing
vegetative growth.  Evaporated  water  also  bypasses  toxic
materials   underlying   the   soil,   decreasing  pollution
production.    The  vegetation  itself  also  utilizes  large
quantities  of water in its life processes and transpires it
back to the atmosphere, again reducing the amount  of  water
reaching underlying materials.
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Establishment of an adequate vegetative cover at a mine site
is  dependent  on a number of related factors.  The regraded
surface of many spoils  cannot  support  a  good  vegetative
cover  without • supplemental treatment.  The surface texture
is often too irregular,  requiring  the  use  of  raking  to
remove  as much rock as possible and to decrease the average
grain size of the remaining material.   Materials  toxic  to
plant  life,  usually  buried during regrading, generally do
not appear on or near the  final  graded  surface.   If  the
surface  is  compacted,  it  is usually loosened by discing,
plowing, or  roto-tilling  prior  to  seeding  in  order  to
enhance plant growth.

Soil  supplements  are  often  required  to establish a good
vegetative cover on surface-mined lands  and  refuse  piles,
which are generally deficient in nutrients.  Mine spoils are
often acidic, and lime must be added to adjust the pH to the
tolerance  range  of  the  species to be planted.  It may be
necessary  to  apply  additional  neutralizing  material  to
revegetated   areas   for  some  time  to  offset  continued
pollutant generation.

Several potentially effective soil supplements are currently
undergoing research and experimentation.  Flyash is a  waste
product  of  coal-fired  boilers  and  resembles  soil  with
respect to certain physical and chemical properties.  Flyash
is  often  alkaline,  contains  some  plant  nutrients,  and
possesses    moisture    retaining   and   soil-conditioning
capabilities.  Its main function is that  of  an  alkalinity
source  and  a soil conditioner, although it must usually be
augmented with lime and fertilizers.   However,  flyash  can
vary  drastically  in quality—particularly, with respect to
pH--and may contain leachable materials capable of producing
water  pollution.    Future  research,   demon stration,   and
monitoring  of  flyash supplements will probably develop the
potential use of such materials.

Limestone screenings are also an effective long-term neutra-
lizing agent  for  acidic  spoils.    Such  spoils  generally
continue  to produce acidity as oxidation continues.  Use of
lime for direct planting upon these surfaces  is  effective,
but  it  provides  only  short-term alkalinity.  The lime is
usually consumed after several  years,  and  the  spoil  may
return to its acidic condition.   Limestone screenings are of
larger   particle   size  and  should  continue  to  produce
alkalinity on a decreasing scale for many years, after which
a vegetative cover should be well-established.   Use of large
quantities  of  limestone  should  also  add  alkalinity  to
receiving  streams.  These screenings are often cheaper than
lime, providing larger quantities of alkalinity for the same
cost.  Such applications of limestone  are  currently  being
demonstrated in several areas.
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Use  of digested sewage sludge as a soil supplement also has
good   possibilities   for    replacing    fertilizer    and
simultaneously  alleviating  the problem of sludge disposal.
Sewage sludge is currently being utilized  for  revegetation
in  strip-mined  areas  of  Ohio.  Besides supplying various
nutrients, sewage sludge can reduce  acidity  or  alkalinity
and  effectively  increase  soil  absorption  and  moisture-
retention  capabilities.   Digested  sewage  sludge  can  be
applied  in liquid or dry form and must be incorporated into
the spoil surface.  Liquid sludge applications require large
holding ponds or tank trucks, from which  sludge  is  pumped
and sprayed over the ground, allowed to dry, and disced into
the  underlying  material.   Dry sludge application requires
dryspreading machinery and must be followed by discing.

Limestone,  digested  sewage  sludge,  and  flyash  are  all
limited  by  their availabilities and chemical compositions.
Unlike commercial fertilizers, the chemical compositions  of
these materials may vary greatly, depending on how and where
they  are  produced.   Therefore,  a  nearby supply of these
supplements may be  useless  if  it  does  not  contain  the
nutrients  or pH adjusters that are deficient in the area of
intended application.  Flyash, digested sewage  sludge,  and
limestone   screenings  are  all  waste  products  of  other
processes and  are,  therefore,  usually  inexpensive.   The
major  expense related to utilization of any of these wastes
is the cost of transporting and applying the material to the
mine area.  Application may be  quite  costly  and  must  be
uniform to effect complete and even revegetation.

When  such  large  amounts of certain chemical nutrients are
utilized, it may also be necessary to institute controls  to
prevent  chemical pollution of adjacent waterways.  Nutrient
controls may consist of preselection of vegetation to absorb
certain chemicals, or of construction of berms and retention
basins in which runoff can be collected and  sampled,  after
which it can be discharged or pumped back to the spoil.  The
specific soil supplements and application rates employed are
selected  to  provide  the  best possible conditions for the
vegetative species that are to be planted.

Careful consideration should be given to  species  selection
in surface-mine reclamation.  Species are selected according
to  some  land-use  plan, based upon the degree of pollution
control to be achieved and the site  environment.   A.  dense
ground cover of grasses and legumes is generally planted, in
addition  to  tree  seedlings,  to rapidly check erosion and
saltation.  Trees are frequently planted in  areas  of  poor
slope  stability  to  help  control  landsliding.   Intended
future use of the land is an  important  consideration  with
respect to species selection.  Reclaimed surface-mined lands
are  occasionally  returned  to high-use categories, such as
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agriculture, if the land has potential  for  growing  crops.
However,  when  toxic  spoils  are encountered, agricultural
potential is greatly reduced, and only a  few  species  will
grow.

Environmental     conditions—"particularly,     climate—are
important  in  species  selection.   Usually,  species   are
planted  that  are  native to an area—particularly, species
that have been successfully established on nearby mine areas
with similar climate and spoil conditions.

Revegetation of arid and semi-arid  areas  involves  special
consideration   because   of   the   extreme  difficulty  of
establishing vegetation.  Lack of rainfall  and  effects  of
surface   disturbance   create  hostile  growth  conditions.
Because mining  in  arid  regions  has  only  recently  been
initiated   on   a   large   scale,  there  is  no  standard
revegetation technology.  Experimentation and  demonstration
projects  exploring  two  general  revegetation techniques—
moisture  retention  and  irrigation—are  currently   being
conducted to solve this problem.

Moisture  retention  utilizes entrapment, concentration, and
preservation of water within a  soil  structure  to  support
vegetation.   This  may  be  obtained utilizing snow fences,
mulches, pits, and other methods.

Irrigation can be achieved by pumping or by gravity, through
either pipes or ditches.  This technique  can  be  extremely
expensive,  and  acquisition  of  water rights may present a
major  problem.   Use  of  these  arid-climate  revegetation
techniques    in   conjunction   with   careful   overburden
segregation and regrading should permit return of arid mined
areas to their natural states.

Exploration, Development, and Pilot-Scale Operations

Exploration activities commonly employ  drilling,  blasting,
excavation,  tunneling,  and  other  techniques to discover,
locate,  or  define  the  extent  of  an  ore  body.   These
activities  vary  from  small-scale  (such as a single drill
hole)  to large scale (such as excavation of an open  pit  or
outcrop face).  Such activities frequently contribute to the
pollutant  loading  in  waste water emanating from the site.
Since available facilities (such as power sources)  and ready
accessibility of special equipment and  supplies  often  are
limited,  sophisticated treatment is often not possible.  In
cases where exploration activity is being carried  out,  the
scale  of such operations is such that primary water-quality
problems involve the presence of  increased  suspended-solid
loads  and  potentially  severe pH changes.  Ponds should be
provided for settling and retention of waste water, drilling
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fluids, or runoff from the  site.   simple,  accurate  field
tests  for  pH can be made, with subsequent pH adjustment by
addition of lime  (or other neutralizing agents).

Protection of receiving waters will  thus  be  accomplished,
with  the  possible additional benefits of removal of metals
from solution—either in connection with solids  removal  or
by precipitation from solution.

Development  operations frequently are large-scale, compared
to exploration activities,  because  they  are  intended  to
extend  already  known  or  currently  exploited  resources.
Because these operations are associated with facilities  and
equipment  already  in  existence,  it  is necessary to plan
development activities to minimize pollution potential,  and
to  use  existing  mine  or  process  facility treatment and
control methods and facilities.   These  operations  should,
therefore,  be subject to limitations equivalent to existing
operations with respect to effluent treatment and control.

Pilot-scale operations often  involve  small  to  relatively
large  mining  and beneficiation facilities even though they
may not be currently operating at full capacity  or  are  in
the  process of development to full-scale.  Planning of such
operations should be undertaken with treatment  and  control
of  waste  water  in mind to ensure that effluent limitation
guidelines and standards of performance for the category  or
subcategory  will be met.  Although total loadings from such
operations and facilites are not at the levels expected from
normal operating conditions, the compositions of wastes  and
the  concentrations  of waste water parameters are likely to
be  similar.   Therefore,  implementation   of   recommended
treatment and control technologies must be accomplished.
Mine and Process Facility Closure
      Closure   (Underground) «   Unless well-planned and well
designed   abatement   techniques   are   implemented,    an
underground   mine  can  be  a  permanent  source  of  water
pollution.

Responsibility   for   the   prevention   of   any   adverse
environmental   impacts  from  the  temporary  or  permanent
closure of a deep mine should rest  solely  and  permanently
with  the  mine  operator.   This  constitutes a substantial
burden; therefore, it behooves the operator to make  use  of
the  best  technology  available  for dealing with pollution
problems associated with mine closure.  The  two  techniques
most  frequently  utilized  in deep-mine pollution abatement
are treatment and mine  sealing.   Treatment  technology  is
well   defined   and   is  generally  capable  of  producing
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acceptable mine effluent  quality.   If  the  mine  operator
chooses this course, he is faced with the prospect of costly
permanent treatment of each mine discharge.

Mine  sealing  is an attractive alternative to the prospects
of perpetual treatment.   Mine  sealing  requires  the  mine
operator to consider barrier and ceiling-support design from
the  perspectives of strength, mine safety, their ability to
withstand  high  water  pressure,  and  their  utility   for
retarding  groundwater  seepage.   In the case of new mines,
these considerations should be included in the  mine  design
to cover the eventual mine closure.  In the case of existing
mines, these considerations should be evaluated for existing
mine barriers and ceiling supports, and the future mine plan
should  be  adjusted to include these considerations if mine
sealing is to be employed at mine closure.

Sealing eliminates the mine discharge and inundates the mine
workings, thereby reducing or terminating the production  of
pollutants.  However, the possibility of the failure of mine
seals  or outcrop barriers increases with time as the sealed
mine workings gradually became inundated by ground water and
the hydraulic head increases.  Depending upon  the  rate  of
ground-water influx and the size of the mined area, complete
inundation  of  a  sealed  mine may require several decades.
Consequently, the maximum anticipated hydraulic head on  the
mine  seals may not be realized for that length of time.  In
addition, seepage through, or failure  of,  the  barrier  or
mine  seal  could  occur  at any time.  Therefore,  the mine
operator should be  required  to  permanently  maintain  the
seals,  or  to  provide treatment in the event of seepage or
failure.

Mine  Closure  (Surface).     The   objectives   of   proper
reclamation   management   of   closed   surface  mines  and
associated workings are to (1)  restore the affected lands to
a condition at least fully capable of  supporting  the  uses
which  they  were capable of supporting prior to any mining,
and (2)  achieve a stability which does not pose  any  threat
to  public  health, safety, or water pollution.  With proper
planning and management  during  mining  activities,  it  is
often  possible  to minimize the amount of land disturbed or
excavated at any one time.  In preparation for the  day  the
operation  may cease, a reclamation schedule for restoration
of existing affected areas, as well as those which  will  be
affected,  should  be  specified.   The  use  of  a  planned
methodology such as this will return the workings  to  their
premined  condition  at  a  faster rate, as well as possibly
reduce the ultimate costs to the operator.

To accomplish the  objectives  of  the  desired  reclamation
goals,  it  is  mandatory  that  the  surface-mine  operator
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regrade and revegetate the disturbed area  during,  or  upon
completion   of,   mining.    The   final  regraded  surface
configuration is dependent upon the ultimate land use of the
specific site,  and  control  practices  described  in  this
report  can  be  incorporated  into  the  regrading  plan to
minimize erosion and  sedimentation.   The  operator  should
establish  a  diverse  and  permanent vegetative cover and a
plant succession at least equal in extent of  cover  to  the
natural  vegetation  of the area.  To assure compliance with
these requirements and permanence of vegetative  cover,  the
operator  should  be held responsible for successful revege-
tation and effluent water quality for a period of five  full
years after the last year of augmented seeding.  In areas of
the  country where the annual average precipitation is 64 cm
(26   in.)    or   less,   the   operator's   assumption   of
responsibility  and  liability should extend for a period of
ten full years after the last  year  of  augmented  seeding,
fertilization, irrigation, or effluent treatment.

Process   Facility   Closure.    As  with  closed  mines,  a
beneficiation facility's potential  contributions  to  water
pollution  do  not  cease  upon  shutdown  of  the facility.
Tailing  ponds,  waste  or  refuse  piles,  haulage   areas,
workings,  dumps, storage areas, and processing and shipping
areas  often  present  serious  problems  with  respect   to
contributions  to water pollution.  Among the most important
are tailing ponds, waste piles, and dump areas.  Failure  of
tailing  ponds  can  have  catastrophic  consequences,  with
respect to both immediate safety and water quality.

To protect against catastrophic occurrences,  tailing  ponds
should  be  designed  to  accommodate,  without overflow, an
abnormal storm which is observed every 25 years.   Since  no
waste  water is contributed from the processing of ores  (the
facility being closed),  the  ponds  will  gradually  become
dewatered   by   evaporation  or  by  percolation  into  the
subsurface.  The structural integrity  of  the  tailing-pond
walls  should  be  periodically  examined and, if necessary,
repairs  made.   Seeding  and  vegetation  can   assist   in
stabilizing  the  walls,  prevent erosion and sedimentation,
lessen the probability of structural  failure,  and  improve
the aesthetics of the area.

Refuse,  waste,  and tailing piles should be recontoured and
revegetated to return the topography as near as possible  to
the  condition  it  was  in before the activity.  Techniques
employed in surface-mine regrading and  revegetation  should
be  utilized.   Where process facilitys are located adjacent
to mine workings, the mines can be refilled  with  tailings.
Care  should  be f taken  to  minimize  disruption  of  local
drainage and to ensure that erosion and  sedimentation  will
not  result.   Maintenance of such refuse or waste piles and
                           179

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tailing-disposal areas should be performed for at least five
years  after  the  last  year  of  regrading  and  augmented
seeding.   In  areas of the country where the annual average
precipitation is 64 cm (26  in.)  or  less,  the  operator's
assumption  of  responsibility should extend for a period of
ten full years after the last  year  of  augmented  seeding,
fertilization, irrigation, or effluent treatment.
Monitoring

Since  most  waste  water  discharges  from these industries
contain suspended solids as the principal pollutant, complex
water analyses are not usually required.  On the other hand,
many of these industries today do little or no monitoring on
waste water  discharges.   In  order  to  obtain  meaningful
knowledge  and  control  of  their waste water quality, many
mines and minerals processing facilities need  to  institute
routine  monitoring  measurements of the few pertinent waste
parameters,

SUSPENDED SOLIDS REMOVAL

The treatment technologies available for removing  suspended
solids  from  minerals mining and processing waste water are
numerous and varied,  but  a  relatively  small  number  are
widely  used.  The following shows the approximate breakdown
of usage for the various techniques:

                             percent of treatment
                             facilities
removal technique            using technology

settling ponds (unlined)          95-97
settling ponds (lined)            <1
chemical flocculation             2-5
(usually with ponds)
thickeners and clarifiers         2-5
hydrocyclones                     <1
tube and lamella settlers         <1
screens                           <1
filters                           <1
centrifuges                       <1

Settling Ponds

As shown above,  the  predominant  treatment  technique  for
removal  of  suspended  solids involves one or more settling
ponds.  Settling ponds are versatile in  that  they  perform
several waste-oriented functions including:
                           180

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 O) Solids removal.  Solids settle to  the  bottom  and  the
    clear water overflow is much reduced in suspended solids
    content.

 (2) Equalization and  water  storage  capacity.   The  clear
    supernatant  water layer serves as a reservoir for reuse
    or for controlled discharge.

 (3) Solid waste storage.  The settled  solids  are  provided
    with long term storage.

This  versatility,  ease  of construction and relatively low
cost, explains the wide application  of  settling  ponds  as
compared to other technologies.

The  performance  of  these  ponds  depends primarily on the
settling characteristics of the solids suspended,  the  flow
rate through the pond and the pond size.  Settling ponds can
be used over a wide range of suspended solids levels.  Often
a  series  of  ponds  is used, with the first collecting the
heavy load of easily settled material and the following ones
providing  final  polishing  to  reach  a   desired   level.
suspended  level.  As the ponds fill with solids they can be
dredged to remove these solids or they may  be  left  filled
and new ponds provided.  The choice often depends on whether
land  for additional new ponds is available.  When suspended
solids levels are low and ponds large, settled solids  build
up  so  slowly that neither dredging nor pond abandonment is
necessary, at least not for a period of many years.

Settling ponds used in  the  minerals  industry  range  from
small   pits,   natural   depressions  and  swamp  areas  to
engineered thousand acre structures with  massive  retaining
dams and legislated construction design.  The performance of
these  ponds  can  vary from excellent to poor, depending on
character of the suspended  particles,  and  pond  size  and
configuration.

In  general  the current experience in this industry segment
with settling ponds shows reduction to 50 mg/1 or less,  but
for  some waste waters the discharge may still contain up to
150 mg/1 of TSS.  Performance data of  some  settling  ponds
found  in  the  dimension stone, crushed stone, construction
sand and gravel, and industrial sand subcategories is  given
in Table 12.

Eighteen  of  these  20  facility  samples show greater than
95 percent reduction of TSS by ponding.  There appear to  be
no   correlations   within  a  sampled  subcategory  due  to
differences in quality of intake water,  mined  product,  or
processing.
                           181

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                          Table 12
                 Settling Pond Performance
             Stone, Sand and Gravel Operations
                TSS
               Percent
        Treatment
Plant
Influent  Effluent  Reduction
             Chemical
Dimension Stone
3001          1,808
3003          3,406

3007          2,178
Crushed Stone
1001
1003
1004
1021
(2 ponds)
1039
1053
Construction
Sand and Gravel
          37
          34

          80
1391
12,700    18
Industrial Sand
1019          2,014
1101          427
1102          2,160

D - Dredge
A - Main Plant
B - Auxiliary Plant
          56
          56
          66
97.95
99

96.3
1017 (D)
1044
1083 (A)
1083 (B)
1129
1247 (D)
5,712
5,114
20,660
8,863
4,660
93
51
154
47
32
44
29
99.12
96.99
99.77
99.64
99.06
68.82
99.86
97.22
86.88
96.94
none
FeClS.,sodium
bicarbonate
none
1,054
7,68
5,710
7,206
772
10,013
21,760
8
8
12
28
3
14
56
99.24
99.92
99.79
99.61
99.61
99.86
99.74
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
flocculating
none
none
none
none
flocculating
  agent
none
none
none
flocculating
                               182

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Laboratory  settling  data  collected on samples of the pond
influent waste  water  from  six  of" the  sand  and  gravel
facilities  contained  in  the  above  data  show that under
controlled conditions they can be settled within 24 hours to
a range of 20-450 mg/1 of suspended solids,  and,  with  the
addition  of  commercial coagulant can be settled to a range
of 10-60 mg/1 in the same  time  period.   These  laboratory
data  are  consistent  with  the  pond  performance measured
above.

In this| segment of the mineral industry, settling is usually
a prelude to recycle of water for washing purposes.  At this
point the level  of  suspended  solids  commonly  viewed  as
acceptable in recycled water used for construction materials
washing  is  200 mg/1.   Every  facility in the above sample
achieved this level with values ranging from 3 to  154 mg/1.
Thus  the  TSS  levels obtained after settling in  ponds are
apparently under present practices  adequate  for  recycling
purposes in this industry segment.

Much of the poor performance exhibited by the settling ponds
employed  by:  the  minerals  industry is due to  the lack of
understating of settling techniques.  This  is  demonstrated
by  the construction of ponds without prior determination of
settling rate and detention time.  In some cases  series  of
ponds   have   been   claimed  to  demonstrate  a  company's
mindfullness of environmental control when in fact  all  the
component  ponds  are  so  poorly constructed and maintained
that they could be replaced by one pond  with  less  surface
area than the total of the series.

The  chief  problems experienced by settling ponds are rapid
fill-up, insufficient retention time and the closely related
short ciruciting.  The first can be avoided by  constructing
a  series of ponds as mentioned above.  Frequent dredging of
the first if needed will  reduce  the  need  to  dredge  the
remaining  ponds.   The  solution  to  the  second  involves
additional pond volume or use  of  flocculants.   The  third
problem,   however,  is  almost  always  overlooked.    Short
circuiting is simply the  formation  of  currents  or  water
channels  from pond influent to effluent whereby whole areas
of the pond are not utilized.  The principles  of  clarifier
construction apply here.  The object is to achieve a uniform
plug  flow  from  pond  influent  to  effluent.  This can be
achieved by proper  inlet-outlet  construction  that  forces
water to  be  uniformly distributed at those points,  such as
a weir.  Frequent dreding or insertion of baffles will  also
minimize channelling.  The EPA report "Waste water Treatment
Studies in Aggregate and Concrete Production"  (reference 25)
in detail lists the procedure one should follow in designing
and building settling ponds.
                          183

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Clarifiers and Thickeners

An  alternative  method  of removing suspended solids is the
use of clarifiers or thickeners which are essentially  tanks
with   internal  baffles,  compartments,  sweeps  and  other
directing and segregating mechanisms  to  provide  efficient
concentration   and  removal  of  suspended  solids  in  one
effluent stream and clarified liquid in the other,

Clarifiers differ from thickeners primarily in  their  basic
purpose.   Clarifiers  are  used  with  the  main purpose of
producing a clear overflow with the solids  content  of  the
sludge underflow being of secondary importance.  Thickeners,
on  the  other  hand,  have the basic purpose of producing a
high solids underflow with the character  of  the  clarified
overflow being of secondary importance.  Thickeners are also
usually smaller in size but more massively constructed for a
given throughput,

Clarifiers   and   thickeners  have  a  number  of  distinct
advantages over ponds:

(1)  Less land space is required.  Since  these  devices  are
    much more efficient in settling capacity than ponds.

(2)  Influences of rainfall are much less than for ponds.  If
    desired  the  clarifiers  and  thickeners  can  even  be
    covered.

(3)  Since  the  external  construction  of  clarifiers   and
    thickeners  consist  of  concrete  or steel tanks ground
    seepage and rain water runoff influences do not exist.

On the other hand, clarifiers  and  thickeners  suffe-r  some
distinct disadvantages as compared with ponds:

(1)  They have more mechanical parts and maintenance.

(2)  They have  only  limited  storage  capacity  for  either
    clarified water or settled solids.

(3)  The internal sweeps  and  agitators  in  thickeners  and
    clarifiers  require  more power and energy for operation
    than ponds.

Clarifiers and thickeners are usually used  when  sufficient
land for ponds is not available or is very expensive.
                           184

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Hydrocy clones

While hydrocyclones are widely used in the separation, clas-
sification  and  recovery  operations  involved  in minerals
processing, they are used only infrequently for waste  water
treatment.   Even  the  smallest  diameter  units  available
(stream velocity  and  centrifugal  separation  forces  both
increase  as  the  diameter  decreases)  are ineffective when
particle size is less than 25-50 microns.   Larger  particle
sizes are relatively easy to settle by means of small ponds,
thickeners or clarifiers or other gravity principle settling
devices.  It is the smaller suspended particles that are the
most  difficult  to  remove  and it is these that can not be
removed by hydrocyclones but may  be  handled  by  ponds  or
other   settling  technology.   Also  hydrocyclones  are  of
doubtful effectiveness when flocculating agents are used  to
increase settling rates.

Hydrocyclones  are  used  as scalping units to recover small
sand or other mineral particles  in  the  25  to  200 micron
range, particularly if the recovered material can be sold as
product.   In this regard hydrocyclones may be considered as
converting part of the waste load to useful product as  well
as providing the first step of waste water treatment.  Where
land  availability is a problem, a bank of hydrocyclones may
serve in place of a primary settling pond.

Tube and Lamella Settlers

Tube and  lamella  settlers  require  less  land  area  than
clarifiers  and  thickeners.   These  compact  units,  which
increase gravity settling efficiency  by  means  of  closely
packed  inclined  tubes  and  plates, can be used for either
scalping or waste water polishing  operations  depending  on
throughput and design.

Centrifuges

Centrifuges  are  not  widely used for minerals mining waste
water treatment.  Present  industrial-type  centrifuges  are
relatively  expensive  and  not particularly suited for this
purpose.   Future  use  of  centrifuges   will   depend   on
regulations,  land space availability and the development of
specialized units suitable for minerals mining operations.

Flocculation

Flocculating agents  increase  the  efficiency  of  settling
facilities  and  they  are  of two general types:  ionic and
polymeric.  The ionic types such as  alum,  ferrous  sulfate
and  ferric  chloride function by neutralizing the repelling
double layer ionic charges around the  suspended  particles.
                          185

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-thereby  allowing  the  particles  to attract each other and
agglomerate.   Polymeric  types   function   by   physically
agglomerating the particles.

Flocculating agents are most commonly used after the larger,
more readily settled particles  (and loads) have been removed
by  a  settling  pond,  hydrocyclone  or other such scalping
treatment.  Agglomeration,  or  flocculation,  can  then  be
achieved  with  less  reagent  and less settling load on the
polishing pond or clarifier.

Flocculation agents can be used with minor modifications and
additions to existing treatment systems, but the  costs  for
the  flocculating  chemicals  are  often significant.  Ionic
types are used in 10 to 100 mg/1 concentrations in the waste
water while the higher priced polymeric types are  effective
in the 2 to 20 mg/1 concentrations.

Flocculants  have  been  used by several segments within the
minerals industry with varying degrees of success.  The  use
of flocculants particularly for the hard to settle solids is
more  of  an  art  than  a  science,  since it is frequently
necessary   to   try   several   flocculants   at    varying
concentrations.

Screens

Screens  are  widely  used in minerals mining and processing
operations    for    separations,     classifications     and
beneficiations.   They  are similar to hydrocyclones in that
they are restricted to removing the larger  (<50-100 micron)
particle size suspended solids of the waste water, which can
then  often  be  sold  as  useful  product.  Screens are not
practical for removing the smaller suspended particles.

Filtration

Filtration is accomplished by passing the waste water stream
through solids-retaining screens,   cloths,  or  particulates
such  as  sand,  gravel,  coal  or  diatomaceous earth using
gravity,  pressure  or  vacuum   as   the   driving   force.
Filtration  is  versatile in that it can be used to remove a
wide range of suspended particle sizes,

The large volumes of  many  waste  water  streams  found  in
minerals  mining operations require large filters.  The cost
of these units and their relative  complexity,  compared  to
settling  ponds,  has restricted their use to a few industry
segments committed to complex waste water treatment.
                          186

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DISSOLVED MATERIAL TREATMENTS

Unlike ubiquitous suspended solids which need to be  removed
from  minerals mining and processing waste waters, dissolved
materials are a problem only in scattered instances  in  the
industries covered herein.

Treatments  for  dissolved  materials  are  base4  on either
modifying or removing the undesired materials.  Modification
techniques   include    chemical    treatments    such    as
neutralization.   Acids  and alkaline materials are examples
of dissolved materials modified in this way.   Most  removal
of    dissolved   solids   is   accomplished   by   chemical
precipitation.  An example  of  this  is  given  below,  the
removal of fluoride by liming:

    2F- + Ca(OH)2 ='CaF2 + 2OH~

With the exception of pH adjustment, chemical treatments for
abatement  of  waterborne  wastes  are  not  common  in this
industry segment.

Neutralization

Some of the waterborne wastes of this study, often including
mine drainage water, are either acidic or alkaline.   Before
disposal to surface water or other medium, excess acidity or
alkalinity needs to be controlled to the range of pH 6 to 9.
The  most  common  method  is  to  treat acidic streams with
alkaline materials such as limestone,  lime,  soda  ash,  or
sodium  hydroxide.   Alkaline streams are treated with acids
such as sulfuric.  Whenever possible, advantage is taken  of
the availability of acidic waste streams to neutralize basic
waste streams and vice versa.  Neutralization often produces
suspended  solids which must be removed prior to waste water
disposal.

pH Control

The control of pH may be equivalent to neutralization if the
control point is at or close to  pH 7.   Sometimes  chemical
addition to waste streams is designed to maintain a pH level
on   either  the  acidic  or  basic  side  for  purposes  of
controlling solubility.

An example  of  pH  control  being  used  for  precipitating
undesired pollutants is:

    (1)   Fe+3 + 30H- = Fe(OH)3

This reaction is used for removal of iron contaminants.
                          187

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SUMMARY  OF  TREATMENT  TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS , LIMITATIONS
    AND RELIABILITY

Table  13  summarizes  comments  on  the  various  treatment
technologies  as  they  are utilized for the minerals mining
industry.   Estimates  of  the  efficiency  with  which  the
treatments  remove  suspended or dissolved solids from waste
water as given in the table need to be  interpreted  in  the
following context.

These  values  will  obviously  not be valid for all circum-
stances, concentrations or  materials,  but  should  provide
general  guidance  for  treatment  performance capabilities.
Several comments may be made concerning the values:

(1) At  high  concentrations  and  optimum  conditions,  all
    treatments  can  achieve 99 percent or better removal of
    the desired material;

(2) At low concentrations, the removal efficiency drops off.

(3) Minimum concentration ranges achievable will not hold in
    every  case.   For  example,  pond  settling   of   some
    suspended   solids  might  not  achieve  less  than  the
    100 mg/1 level.  This is  not  typical,  however,  since
    many  such  pond  settling  treatments can achieve 10 to
    20 mg/1 without  difficulty.   Failure  to  achieve  the
    minimum  concentration  levels listed usually means that
    either the wrong treatment methods have been selected or
    that an additional treatment step is necessary (such  as
    a second pond or a polish filtration).

PRETREATMENT TECHNOLOGY

Most  construction  minerals  mining  operations  have waste
water containing only suspended solids.  Suspended solids is
a  compatible   pollution   parameter   for   publicly-owned
activated  sludge  or  trickling filter wastewater treatment
facilities.  However, most of these  mining  and  processing
operations  are  located  in  isolated  regions  and have no
access to  these  treatment  facilities.   No  instances  of
discharge  to publicly-owned treatment facilities were found
in the industry segment of this volume.

In the relatively few instances  where  dissolved  materials
are  a  problem,  pH control and some reduction of hazardous
constituents such  as  fluoride  would  be  required.   Lime
treatment is usually sufficient to accomplish this.
                          188

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TABLE 13.  Summary of Technology, Applications, Limitations and Reliability


Wosle
Woler
Constituents
Suspended
Solids





























Dissolved
Solids






, Treolfiwiit
. PlOCCS!
(I) Pond
Settling



(2) C Wirier
Thicfcen=rs
(3) Hydro-
cyclones
(4) Tube ond
Lomello
Settlers
(5J Sereens

(6) Rotary
Vacuum
Filters

(7) Solid E0.vl
Centrifuge


(BJ Leaf ond
Pressure
Fillers
(9) Cartridge
and Ccndlc
Fillers
(10) Sand and
Mixed
Medio
Niters
(1} Nwi-oli-
fcolion rnd
pH Coni'ol
(?) Pietipito-
lion




AppKtotion
Uir-d For all
cancellations



Usfd for oil
con ccrit rations
Ticmovol of larger
particle sizes
Removal of 'mailer
particle sires

Removal of larger
port Tele sizes
Mainly for sludges
ond olher Iiiyli
suspended solids
streams
Mainly for sludges
and other hieih
suspended solids
streams
Used over wide
concfrirffitiOn
range
Mainly for [joliifi-
ing filliolions of
suspended solids
Moin!y for polisn-
rrig filiations of
impended solids

GcHcrol


Grcadiy u-.r,( to
ICMOVC ioluhU-j


Perccint
Solids
Removal
60-99




60-99

50-99

90-99


50-99

90-99



60-99



90-79


50-99

.50-99



99


50-7?


Enprctpd
Cofcen-
1 ret ion
(rVLV
5-200




5-1000

_




	

5-1000







10-100


2-10

2-50


Minimum
Concen-
t rat ion
Achievable
(r.a'l)
5-30




5-30

-




	

5-30







5-30


2-10

2-10



NA
NA


0-JO


0-10

Avoilo-
billty
of
Equip-
m-'nt
none
needed



readily
available
reedy
available
readily
available

ready
a/ciilable
read! I/
available


readily
available


readily
available

readily
available

readily
available


r.-Tlily
oval lab id

,,;My



Leod
Tiwe
(monllis)
1-12




3-24

3-12

3-12


3-12

3-12



3-12



3-6


1-3

3-6



3-12


3-6


Spoee
or
Land
Nei-ded
large
t-500 acrei
imall
0.05-1,0
acres

-------
NON-WATER  QUALITY  ENVIRONMENTAL  ASPECTS, INCLUDING ENERGY
    REQUIREMENTS

The effects of these treatment and control  technologies  on
air  pollution,  noise  pollution, and radiation are usually
small and not of any significance.

Large amounts of solid waste in the form of both solids  and
sludges  are  formed  as  a  result  of all suspended solids
operations as well as chemical  treatments  for  neutraliza-
tion,  and  precipitations.  Easy-to-handle,  relatively dry
solids are usually left in settling  ponds  or  dredged  out
periodically and dumped onto the land.  Since mineral mining
properties  are  usually  large,  space  for such dumping is
often available.

For those waste materials  considered  to  be  non-hazardous
where  land  disposal  is the choice for disposal, practices
similar  to  proper  sanitary  landfill  technology  may  be
followed.   The  principles  set  forth  in  the  EPA1s Land
Disposal of Solid Wastes Guidelines (CFR Title  40,  Chapter
1;  Part  241)   may  be used as guidance for acceptable land
disposal techniques.

For  those  waste  materials  considered  to  be  hazardous,
disposal  will  require  special  precautions.   In order to
ensure  long-term  protection  of  public  health  and   the
environment,  special  preparation  and  pretreatment may be
required prior to disposal.   If  land  disposal  is  to  be
practiced, these sites must not allow movement of pollutants
such  as fluoride and radium-226 to either ground or surface
water.  Sites should be selected that have natural soil  and
geological  conditions  to prevent such contamination or, if
such  conditions  do  not  exist,  artificial  means  (e.g*,
liners)   must  be provided to ensure long-term protection of
the   environment   from   hazardous    materials.     Where
appropriate,  the  location  of  solid  hazardous  materials
disposal  sites  should  be  permanently  recorded  in   the
appropriate  office  of  the legal jurisdiction in which the
site is located.

In summary, the solid wastes and sludges  from  the  mineral
mining  industry  waste  water  treatments are very large in
quantity.  Since these industries generally have  sufficient
space  and  earth-moving  capabilities,  they manage it with
greater ease than most other industries.

For  the  best  practicable  control  technology   currently
available the added annual energy requirements are estimated
to  be  1.45  x  1011  kcal.   This  amounts to estimated 13
percent increase in the present  estimated  energy  use  for
pollution  control  technologies  in  this  segment  of  the
                          190

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mineral mining and processing industry.  Over 80 percent  of
this   added   energy   requirement  is  attributed  to  wet
processing of crushed stone.
                          191

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                        SECTION VIII
    COST, ENERGY, WASTE REDUCTION BENEFITS AND NON-WATER
       ASPECTS OF TREATMENT AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
SUMMARY

The construction materials segment of the mineral mining and
processing industry has very large volumes of both  products
and waste water for treatment.  Overall industry waste water
treatment   costs   reflect   this.    Unlike  manufacturing
operations, where raw  materials  for  the  process  may  be
selected   and  controlled  as  to  purity  and  uniformity,
construction materials mining and processing operations  are
themselves  largely  controlled by the purity and uniformity
of the ores or raw materials involved.  Operations  have  to
be  located at or near the mineral deposits.  Since they are
mostly  low  cost  commodities,  used  mainly  in  urban  or
suburban  areas  the  mining and processing must normally be
done close to market outlets.  Both  availability  and  cost
for   land   necessary   for   treatment  are  significantly
influenced by this necessary location.  Suburban  and  urban
land is becoming more difficult to obtain and more costly.

Treatment  costs  often  vary  widely  with the character of
pollutants involved.  A salient example  involves  the  wide
variation  of  of  suspended  solids.   Effluents with large
particle size wastes have high settling rates while small or
colloidal suspended particles  are  slow  and  difficult  to
settle,  requiring  large  ponds or thickeners, flocculating
treatments or other devices for removing suspended solids in
many cases.

As land costs increase, more sophisticated treatment techno-
logies will come into use  that  require  less  land  space.
These  include  the  use  of  flocculants  and coagulants to
induce more rapid pond settling and mechanical settling  and
separation  devices  such as thickeners and clarifiers, tube
and   lamella   separators,   filters,    centrifuges    and
hydrocyclones.

In  general,  facility size and age have little influence on
the type of waste effluent.  The amounts and costs for their
treatment and disposal are readily scaled from facility size
and are not greatly affected by facility age.

Geographical location is important.   Mines  and  processing
facilities located in dry western areas rarely require major
waste water treatment or have subsequent disposal problems.
                           193

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Terrain  and  land availability are also significant factors
affecting  treatment  technology   and   costs.    Lack   of
sufficient  flat space for settling ponds forces utilization
of mechanical thickeners, clarifiers, or settlers.   On  the
other  hand,  advantage  is  often  taken of valleys, hills,
swamps, gullies and other natural configurations to  provide
low cost pond and solid waste disposal facilities.

In  view  of  the  large  number  of mines and beneficiation
facilities and the significant variables listed above, costs
have been developed for representative mines and  processing
facilities  rather  than  specific  facilities that may have
advantageous geographical, terrain or  ore  composition.   A
summary of cost and energy information for the present level
of  waste  water  treatment  technology  for this segment is
given in Table 14.  Present  capital  investment  for  waste
water  treatment  in  the  construction materials segment is
estimated as $141,000,000.

COST REFERENCES AND RATIONALE

Cost information contained  in  this  report  was  assembled
directly  from  industry,  from waste treatment and disposal
contractors,   engineering   firms,    equipment   suppliers,
government  sources,  and  published  literature.   Whenever
possible,  costs  are  taken  from   actual   installations,
engineering  estimates  for projected facilities as supplied
by contributing  companies,  or  from  waste  treatment  and
disposal  contractors quoted prices.  In the absence of such
information, cost estimates have been developed  insofar  as
possible  from  facility-supplied  costs  for  similar waste
treatments and disposal for other facilities or industries.

Interest Costs and Equity Financing Charges

Capital investment estimates for this study have been  based
on  10 percent  cost  of  capital,  representing a composite
number for interest paid or return on investment required.

Time Basis for Costs

All cost estimates are based on August 1972 prices and  when
necessary  have  been  adjusted  to  this  basis  using  the
chemical engineering facility cost index.

Useful Service Life

The useful service life of treatment and disposal  equipment
varies  depending on the nature of the equipment and process
involved, its usage pattern, maintenance care  and  numerous
other factors.  Individual companies may apply service lives
based  on their actual experience for internal amortization.
                          194

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                                 TABLE 14
             CAPITAL INVESTMENTS AND  ENERGYCON5UMPTION
                OF PRESENT WASTEWATER TREATMENT FACILITIES
       Subcotegory
Capital
 Spent
(dollars)
                 Present
                 Energy
                  'Use
               (kcal xlO6)
                  Total
                 Annual
               Costs ($Akg
                produced)
Dimension Stone
Crushed Stone,  Dry
Crushed Stone,  Wet
Crushed Stone,  Flotation
Crushed Shell,  Dredging
Construction S&G, Dry
Construction S&G, Wet
Construction S&G,
 (dredging with on-
 land processing)
Construction S&G,
 (dredging with on-
 board processing)
Industrial Sand, Dry
Industrial Sand, Wet
Industrial Sand,
 (acid and alkaline
 flotation)
Industrial Sand,
 (HF flotation)
Gypsum, Dry
Gypsum, Wet Scrubber
Gypsum, Heavy media
 separation
Bituminous Limestone
Oil Impregnated
 Diatomite
Gilsonite
Asbestos, Dry
Asbestos, Wet
Wollastonite
Perlite
Pumice
Vermiculite
Mica,  Dry  Processing
Mica, Wet Grinding
Mica, Wet Ben. w/o
 clay by-products
Mica, Wet Ben. with
 clay by-products
TOTAL
 1,100,000
26,400,000
    50,000
 90,000,000
  3,130,000
   220,000
  8,860,000
  8,770,000
    120,000
    small
     30,000
     25,000
     25,000
   < 50,000
    620,000
   small
    780,000

    550,000

141,000,000
    4,000         0.20
 .  . .  no waste water . . .
 659,500     I    0.07
    1,400     '    0.07
 . no waste wafer treatment
 .  . . no waste water . . .
  325,000
   11,100
                             0.08
                             0.08
             .  . no waste water treatment .
    small
   37,800
   30,200
                             0.02
                             0.18
                             0.20
      500         0.23
      no waste water.  .
    small
    small
                             0.01
                             0.05
                    no wasfe water
                    no waste wafer
      125         0.08
    . no waste water  .
    small    |    0.09
    . no process water ,
    . no process water .
    small
    2,400
                             0.01
                             0.62
               no process waste wafer
    small
    3,100

    2,300

1,080,000
                             0.22
                             5.0

                             5.5
                                 195

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Internal  Revenue  Service  provides  guidelines   for   tax
purposes   which   are   intended   to  approximate  average
experience.   Based  on  discussions   with   industry   and
condensed  IRS  guideline  information, the following useful
service life values have been used:
 (1) General process equipment     10 years
 (2) Ponds, lined and unlined      20 years
 (3) Trucks, bulldozers, loaders
    and other such materials
    handling and transporting
    equipment.                     5 years

Depreciation

The economic value of treatment and disposal  equipment  and
facilities  decreases  over its service life.  At the end of
the useful life, it is usually assumed that the  salvage  or
recovery  value  becomes  zero.   For  IRS  tax  purposes or
internal  depreciation   provisions,   straight   line,   or
accelerated  write-off schedules may be used.  straight line
depreciation was used solely in this report.

Capital Costs

Capital costs are defined  as  all  front-end  out-of-pocket
expenditures  for  providing  treatment/disposal facilities.
These costs  include  costs  for  research  and  development
necessary   to   establish  the  process,  land  costs  when
applicable,  equipment,   construction   and   installation,
buildings, services, engineering, special start-up costs and
contractor profits and contingencies.

Annual Capital Costs

Most  if not all of the capital costs are accrued during the
year or two prior to  actual  use  of  the  facility.   This
present  worth  sum  can  be converted to equivalent uniform
annual  disbursements  by  utilizing  the  Capital  Recovery
Factor Method:

    Uniform Annual Disbursement =P_i	(1+i)nth power
                                  (1+i)nth power - 1

    Where P = present value (capital expenditure), i =
         interest rate, X/100, n = useful life in years

The capital recovery factor equation above may be
rewritten as:

    Uniform Annual Disbursement = p (CR - i5t - n)
                           196

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    Where  (CR  -  i.% -  n)  is  the Capital  Recovery  Factor  for
    i% interest  taken over  "n" years  useful  life.

 Land Costs

 Land-destined  solid   wastes   require  removal   of  land from
 other economic use.   The amount of  land   so tied   up   will
 depend  on   the   treatment/disposal   method  employed and the
 amount of wastes involved.  Although  land  is non-depreciable
 according to IRS regulations,  there are numerous   instances
 where  the market value  of  the land for land-destined wastes
.has been* significantly   reduced permanently,   or   actually
 becomes  unsuitable   for future use due to the nature of the
 stored waste.  The general  criteria applied  to costing   land
 are as follows:

 (1) If land  requirements for on-site  treatment/disposal are
    not significant,  no  cost allowance  is  applied.
 (2) Where on-site land requirements are significant and the
    storage  or   disposal  of   wastes  does  not affect the
    ultimate  market   value of the  land,  cost   estimates
    include  only interest on invested money.
 (3) .For significant   on-site   land  requirements where the
    ultimate  market   value and/or availability of the land
    has been seriously reduced, cost  estimates include   both
    capital  depreciation and interest on invested money.
 (**) Off-site treatment/disposal land  requirements and  costs
    are  not  considered directly.   It is assumed  that land
    costs are  included  in  the overall   contractor's   fees
    along with its other expenses and profit.
 (5) In view  of   the   extreme   variability  of   land costs,
    adjustments   have been made  for  individual   industry
    situations.   In general, isolated,  plentiful   land has
    been costed  at $2,470/hectare  ($1,000/acre).

 Operating Expenses

 Annual  costs  of operating  the treatment/disposal facilities
 include labor, supervision, materials,  maintenance,  taxes,
 insurance  and  power and  energy.  Operating costs combined
 with annualized  capital  costs   equal  the  total costs for
 treatment  and  disposal.   No  interest  cost  was  included for
 operating (working) capital.   since working  capital might be
 assumed to be  one sixth  to  one  third  of  annual   operating
 costs   (excluding depreciation), about 1-2  percent of  total
 operating costs  might be involved.  This is  considered  to be
 well within  the  accuracy of the estimates.
                          197

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Rationale for Representative Facilities

All  facility  costs  are   estimated   for   representative
facilities    rather   than   for   any   actual   facility.
Representative facilities are defined to have a size and age
agreed upon by a substantial fraction of  the  manufacturers
in  the  subcategory producing the given mineral, orf in the
absence of such  a  consensus,  the  arithmetic  average  of
production  size  and  age  for all facilities.  Location is
selected to represent the industry as closely  as  possibly.
For  instance,  if  all facilities are in northeastern U.S.,
typical location is  noted  as  "northeastern  states".   If
locations  are  widely  scattered  around  the U.S., typical
location would be not specified geographically.   It  should
be  noted  that  the  unit  costs  to  treat  and dispose of
hazardous wastes at any given facility may  be  considerably
higher  or lower than the representative facility because of
individual circumstances.

Definition of Levels of Treatment and Control

Costs  are  developed  for  various  types  and  levels   of
technology:

Minimum jor basic level).  That level of technology which is
equalled  or  exceeded  by  most  or  all  of  the  involved
facilities.   Usually money  for  this  treatment  level  has
already been spent (in the case of capital investment)  or is
being spent (in the case of operating and overall costs).

B,C,D,E	Levels - Successively greater degrees of treatment
with  respect to critical pollutant parameters.  Two or more
alternative treatments are developed when applicable.

Rationale for Pollutant Considerations

(1)  All non-contact cooling water is exempted from treatment
    (and  treatment  costs)   provided   that   it   is   not
    contaminated  by process water and no harmful pollutants
    are introduced.
(2)  Water  treatment,  cooling  tower  and  boiler  blowdown
    discharges   are  not  treated  provided  they  are  not
    contaminated by process water  and  contain  no  harmful
    pollutants.
(3)  Removal  of  dissolved  solids,   other   than   harmful
    pollutants, is not included,
    Mine  drainage  treatments  and  costs   are   generally
    considered  separately  from process water treatment and
    costs.   Mine  drainage  costs  are  estimated  for  all
    mineral   categories   for   which   such  costs  are  a
    significant factor.
                          198

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 (5) All solid waste disposal costs are included as
    the cost development.

Cost Variances
                                                    part   of
The  effects  of  ager  location,  and  size  on  costs  for
treatment and control have been considered and are  detailed
in subsequent sections for each specific subcategory.

                    INDUSTRY STATISTICS

The   estimated  1972  selling  prices  for  the  individual
minerals in this report are summarized  as  follows.  . These
values  were  taken  from  minerals  industry  yearbooks and
Bureau of Census Publications.
Mineral Product
                   Estimated 1972 Selling Price Range,
                   	$/kkg  ($/ton)	
crushed stone            1.90       (1-72)
construction
sand and gravel          1.36       (1.23)
industrial sand          4.20       (3.81)
gypsum                   4.10       (3.75)
asbestos                 112        (102)
dimension stone          19.80      (18.00)
wollastonite             44         (40)
bituminous limestone     2.20 est.  (2.00)
gilsonite                unknown
oil impregnated
diatomite                71.71      (65.19)
perlite                  12.47      (11.34)
pumice                   1.88       (1-71)
vermiculite              26.41      (24.01)
mica                     29.93      (27.21)
                                          minimum
                          199

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        INDIVIDUAL MINERAL WASTE WATER TREATMENT AND
                       DISPOSAL COSTS

                      DIMENSION STONE

Of the sixteen facilities  visited,  thirteen  use  settling
ponds  for removal of suspended solids from waste water, two
had no  treatment  and  the  other  facility  uses  a  raked
settling  tank.  Approximately one-third of these facilities
have  total  recycle  after  settling.   Pond  settling  and
recycle costs are given in Table 15.  Since pond cost is the
major   investment   involved,  cost  for  settling  without
recycling is similar.

Cost Variances

Age.  The  sixteen  visited  facilities  range  from  10  to
142 years.   There  was  no  discernible correlation between
facility age and treatment technology or costs.

Location.   The  facilities  in  this  category  are  widely
scattered  around  the  U.S.  The general low level of waste
water treatment costs for dimension stone facilities  exists
independently of location.

Size.   Facility  sizes  ranged  from 2,720 to 64,100 kkg/yr
(3,000  to  70,650  tons/yr).    Since   pond   cost s   vary
significantly  with size in the less than one acre category,
cost -variance  with  size " may  be  estimated  to  be   0.8
exponential for capital and linear for operating expenses.

Cost Basis for Table 15

Waste  water treatment cost details for the typical facility
values at  Level C  are  shown  below.   Level B  costs  are
similar except for recycle equipment.

Production:        18,000 kkg/yr (20,000 tons/yr)
                   8 hr/day; 250 days/yr

Water Use and Waste Characteristics:

              4,170 1/kkg (1,000 gal/ton) of product
              2% of product in effluent stream
              5,000 mg/1 TSS in raw effluent
              360 kkg/yr  (400 tons/yr) waste, dry basis
              280 cu. m.  (10,000 cu. ft.) wet sludge per year
              1,300 kg solids per cu. m. sludge (80 Ib/cu. ft.)

Treatment;    Recycle of wash water after passing through
              a one acre settling pond
                           200

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      COST


SUBCATEGORY

PLANT SIZE
               TABLE  15
                 FOR  A REPRESENTATIVE  PLANT
     (ALL COSTS ARE  CUMULATIVE)
Dimension Stone
18,000
PLANT AGE 50   YEARS
METRIC TONS PER YEAR OF  Product
           PLANT LOCATION   near population center

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/ METRIC TON product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/metric ton of product )

Suspended Solids





RAW
WASTE
LOAD
20





LEVEL
A
(MINI
0
0
0
0
0
0
20





B
10,000
1,600
900
200
2,800
0.16
0.8





C
13,600
2,200
950
400
3,550
0.20
0





D












E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
    A — direct discharge
    B — settling, discharge
    C — settling plus recycle
                                201

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Cost Rational:
         Pond cost                $10,000/acre
         Total pipe cost          $1/diam/linear ft,
         Total pump cost          $100/HP
         Power costs              $0.02/kwh
         Maintenance              5% of capital
         Taxes and insurance      2% of capital
         Capital recovery factor  0.1627
                          202

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                       CRUSHED STONE

The   crushed  stone  industry  produces  approximately  one
billion tons annually,  of this, approximately 75 percent is
limestone and 25 percent is granite.  The industry has  been
subcategorized in the following manner:

(1) dry process
(2) wet process
(3) flotation

                        DRY PROCESS

An- estimated  seventy  percent  of  the crushed granite and
limestone facilities use no contact  process  water.   There
are  estimated 3,200 facilities in this category, accounting
for 640 million kkg/yr (700 million tons/yr).

                        WET PROCESS

Typical Facility Data

A typical wet crushed stone operation is assumed to  produce
180,000 kkg/yr  (200,000 tons/yr),  half of which is washed,
and half is dry processed.  The assumed wash water usage  is
1,000 1/kkg  (240 gal/ton), and the assumed waste content is
6% of the raw material.  The  cost  data  are  presented  in
Table 16.

Waste water Treatment

Levels B and C - Simple Settling, Discharge, or Recycle

The  waste  water is passed through a one acre settling pond
and discharged or recycled back to the facility.   The  pond
is dredged periodically and the sludge is deposited on site.

Level D - Settling with Flocculants, Recycle

The  waste  water  is  treated  with a flocculant and passed
through a one acre settling  pond.   The  effluent  is  then
recycled.   It  is rare that a flocculant would be needed to
produce an effluent quality  acceptable  for  recycle  in  a
crushed stone operation.

Cost Basis for Table 16
                          203

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      COST
          TABU: 16
            FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL  COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY  Crushed Stone7 Wet Process	

PLANT SIZE   180,000               METRIC TONS PER YEAR OF Crushed Stone
PLANT AGE  40  YEARS
      PLANT  LOCATION  rural location near population center

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS:
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg /metric ton of product )

Suspended Solids





RAW
WASTE
LOAD
60





LEVEL
A
(WIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
60





B
14,500
2,400
6,400
1,000
9,800
0.054
0.2





C
19,000
3,100
6,400
2,000
11,500
0.064
0





D
22,500
3,700
7,400
2,000
13,100
0.073
0





E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
    A — direct discharge
    B —settling pond, discharge
    C ™ settling pond, recycle
    D — flocculant, settling pond, recycle
                               204

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Level B
    Pond Cost                     $10,000
    Pumps and piping                4,500
    Power                           1,000
    Pond cleaning                   6,000
    Taxes and insurance               400
Level c
    Total pond cost               $10rOOO
    Total pump and piping cost      9,000
    Annual capital recovery         3,100
    Power                           2,000
    Pond cleaning                   6,000
    Taxes and insurance               400

Level D

    Additional capital flocculant equipment $ 3,500
    Additional annual capital                   600
    Annual chemical cost                      1,000

Cost Variances

(1)_ Granite .fines  settle  somewhat  slower  than  limestone
    fines.    As   a  result,  recirculation  granite  ponds
    generally run about 50% larger than those  of  limestone
    for the same capacity facility.

(2)  The amount of waste in the effluent is largely  depended
    on  the  type  of product.  Six percent was chosen as an
    average value.  Range of  wastes  is  2  to  12 percent.
    Cost  to  treat  per  ton  of  product  is approximately
    proportional to percent waste.

The amount of stone washed in any given year varies with the
demand  for  a  washed  product.   The  capital  costs   for
treatment  are more readily absorbed when a large portion of
the stone is washed.

Capital costs are estimated to vary as the 0,9 power of size
and operating expenses are proportional to size.

Estimation of Total Costs for Subcategory

There are an estimated  1600  facilities  in  this  category
producting  an  estimated 140 million kkg (150 million tons)
of washed stone along  with  140  million  kkg  (150 million
tons)  of dry processed stone annually.  An estimated 500 of
these 1600 facilities are  presently  on  complete  recycle.
The  remaining  1100  facilities  produce  approximately  91
                          205

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million kkg/yr  (100 million -tons/yr) of stone, 5056 of  which
is washed.

The  average  cost  increase  per  ton  for  the wet process
crushed stone  industry  would  be  $0,044   ($0.048/kkg)  to
convert to recycle.  The capital expenditure for the same is
estimated to be $10,000,000.

              CRUSHED STONE, FLOTATION PROCESS

There are an estimated eight facilities in this subcategory,
with a combined estimated annual production of 500,000 tons.
The  process  is  identical  to  that  of wet crushed stone,
except for an additional flotation step, using an additional
5% of process water.  The wash water can be recycled  as  in
wet  processing,  but the flotation water cannot be directly
recycled due to the  complex  chemical  processes  involved.
The  two  waste  streams  can  be  combined; however, and be
recycled in the  washing  process.   The  flotation  process
would require fresh input.

Typical Facility Data

The  treatment used is settling ponds and recycle.  Assuming
a 5% loss (equivalent to the input from flotation) from  the
combined  effects  of percolation and evaporation, discharge
would be eliminated under normal conditions.

Estimation of Total Costs for Subcategory

It is estimated that two of the  eight  facilities  in  this
subcategory  are presently recycling their waste water.  The
remaining six could achieve recycle with total capital  cost
of  $200,000.   The selling price of the product is $33/kkg,
($30/ton), therefore the increase in operating cost  due  to
recycle is approximately 0.2 percent.
                          206

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                CONSTRUCTION SAND AND GRAVEL

The  construction  sand and gravel industry has been divided
into three subcategories:

(1) Dry process
(2) Wet process
(3) River dredging with on-land processing

                        DRY PROCESS

Typical Facility Data

A typical dry process  sand  and  gravel  facility  produces
454,000 kkg/yr   (500,000 tons/yr)  of  construction sand and
gravel.  There is  no  process  water  use,  no  non-contact
cooling water and no pit pumpout.

Treatment Options

Since there is no water use or waste water generated, treat-
ment is not required.

Cost/Benefit Analysis of Treatment Technology

There is no cost of treatment at a typical facility.

Cost variances

Pit pumpout is required at some facilities during periods of
high  rainfall.   Some  facilities  also  have a non-contact
cooling water discharge.  The pit pumpout in some  of  these
cases is settled in a sump or pond.

Age,  location,  and production have no consistent effect on
waste waters from facilities  in  this  subcategory,  or  on
costs to treat them.

There  are  an  estimated 750 facilities in this subcategory
representing    a    production    of    129    x 106 kkg/yr
(143 x 106 tons/yr).

                        WET PROCESS

Typical Facility Data

The   average   production   rate   of  facilities  in  this
subcategory is  130,000  kkg/yr  {143,000 tons/yr).   Median
facility     size     is     approximately    227,000 kkg/yr
(250,000 tons/yr).  This is selected as  representative  for
facility size.
                          207

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    10 percent of raw material in waste stream  (68,000 mg/1)

    11f400 1/min  (3,000 gal/min) used for washing

    all particles down to 200 mesh  (74 micron) are recovered
    for sale by screw classifier cyclones, etc.

Cost Basis for Table 17

Level B: 5.6 acre settling pond and discharge of effluent.

    Pond cost           $28,000
    Pump cost             2,000
    Pipe cost             3,000

    Annual power            300
    Taxes and insurance     800
    Maintenance             800
Iievel C:  5,6 acre settling  pond  followed  by  recycle  of
waste water.

    Total pond cost           $28,000
    Total pump cost             3,000
    Total pipe cost             6,000
    Power, annual                 600
    Taxes and insurance         1,000
    Maintenance                 1,000

Level D: Two silt removal ponds of 0.04 ha (0.1  acre)   each
are "used  alternately  prior  to  the main settling pond of
5.6 acres.  The life of the main pond is  greatly  increased
as most of the solids are removed in the primary ponds.  One
small pond is dredged while the other is in use.  The sludge
is deposited on site.

    Total pond cost          $30,000
    Annual pond cost           3,600
    Total pump and piping     10,000
    Annual pump and piping     1,600
    Annual dredging and
      sludge disposal         20,000
    Power                        600
    Taxes and insurance        1,000

Level   E:   Mechanical  thickener  is  used  along  with  a
flocculating agent to produce an effluent  of  250 mg/1  for
recycle.   The  underflow  sludge is transported to a 4 acre
sludge disposal basin at a cost of $1.1/kkg ($l/ton)
                          208

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      COST
          TABLE  17
             FOR  A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE  CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY  Construction Sand & Grave!, Wet Process
PLANT SIZE     227,000
PLANT  AGE   5  YEARS
              METRIC TONS PER YEAR OF   product
PLANT  LOCATION
                             population center

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 8 M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kq/metric fon of product )

Suspended Solids





RAW
WASTE
LOAD
100





LEVEL
A
(WIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
100





B
33,000
5,400
1,600
300
7,300
0.03
0.4





C
37,000
6,000
2,000
600
8,600
0.04
0





D
40,000
5,200
21,000
600
26,800
0.12
0





E
50,000
8,100
29,200
400
37,700
0.17
0





F
180,000
29, 200
41,400
600
71,200
0.31
0





G
21,600
2,600
28,100
400
31,100
0.14
0





LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
    A — direct discharge
    B  — settling, discharge
    C  — settling, recycle
    D — two silt removal ponds, settling pond, recycle
    E — flocculant, mechanical thickener and recycle. Transportation of sludge to disposal basin.
    F — flocculant, inclined plate settlers, and recycle effluent.  Transport sludge to disposal basin,
    G— flocculant, settling basip, recycle
                                       209

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    Total thickener cost          $ 18,500
    Sludge disposal basin cost      20,000
    Polymer feed system cost         1,600
    Pump and piping                  9,700

    Annual sludge transportation    25,000
    Annual chemical cost             2,200
    Annual power                       400
    Maintenance                      1,000
    Taxes and insurance              1,000

Level F:  Inclined plate settlers are  used  to  produce  an
effluent  of 250 mg/1 which is recycled back to the process.
A coagulant is added  prior  to  the  settlers  to  increase
settling  rate.   The  underflow  sludge is transported to a
4 acre settling basin at a cost of one  dollar  per  ton  of
solids.   It  should  be  noted  that no case of an inclined
plate settler successfully treating a sand and gravel  waste
was  found.    The advantage of this system is the small area
required.

    Inclined plate settler cost        $150,000
    Pumping and piping                   10,000
    Sludge disposal basin                20,000

    Sludge transportation                25,000
    Chemical                              2,000
    Maintenance                           7,200
    Taxes and insurance                   7,200
    Power                                   600

Level G: Flocculant added, 1 acre settling pond is used  for
treatment,  and  effluent  is  recycled to the process.  The
sludge is dredged  and  deposited  on  site  at  a  cost  of
$0.55/kkg ($0.50/ton).

    Total pond cost               $ 10,000
    Polymer mixing unit              1,600
    Pump and piping                 10,000

    Chemical cost                    2,200
    Dredging                        25,000
    Power                              400
    Taxes and insurance                900

Cost Variances

Production,   Production rate in this subcategory varies from
10,900  to  1,800,00 kkg/yr  (12,000  to 2,000,000 tons/yr).
Waste  volume  and  water  flow  vary  proportionately  with
production.      As    a   result,   settling  . area   varies
proportionately with production.  Pond capacity also  varies
                           210

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proportionately  with  sludge  volume,  and thus production.
Pumping, piping and power costs may also be considered to be
roughly proportional to water flow, and  production.   Thus,
the capital costs for Levels B, C, D, and G are estimated to
vary  with  size  to  the  0.9 power.   operating  costs not
related to capital are approximately proportional  to  size.
Levels  E  and F use equipment for clarification rather than
ponds.  Capital costs for them should vary by an exponential
factor of  0.7  to  size.   Operating  costs  not  based  on
capitalization are approximately proportional to size.

Waste Content.  A facility having a waste content other than
ten percent should require a proportionately different water
usage.   The  settling  area  required  to obtain recyclable
effluent should be proportional to waste content.   Dredging
and  pumping  are  also proportional to waste content.  Thus
the treatment cost per ton of product  should  vary  roughly
proportionately  with waste content.  Waste content can vary
from less than 5* to 3036.

Topography.  A canyon or hillside  can  greatly  reduce  the
cost  of  pond  building.  Also, a wet land can increase the
cost of building a pond.

Particle  Size*   Suspended  solids  average  particle  size
greater  than  the  one  shown  would mean a proportionately
smaller settling area would be need  to  produce  recyclable
effluent.   A  smaller particle size could be countered with
the use of a flocculant, if necessary.

Coagulant Efficiency.  An increase in  settling  rate  would
require a proportionately smaller settling area.  A settling
rate  increase  due to the use of coagulant of 100 times was
assumed, based on laboratory  tests  and  industry  supplied
information.

Estimated Total Costs for Subcategory

There   are   an   estimated  4,250 facilities  in  the  wet
processing subcategory, producing 573 million  tons/yr.   Of
these,  an  estimated  5056  (2,125 facilities)  are presently
recycling  their  effluent.   An  e stimated  25%  of   the se
(1,063 facilities)  have no discharge under normal conditions
due  to  evaporation  and/or  percolation in settling ponds.
The  remaining  25%  (1,063 facilities)   presently  have   a
discharge.   It  is  estimated  that  9056  of the facilities
having a discharge (956 facilities)  presently have a ponding
system.  These latter facilities could in most cases convert
their ponds to a recycle  system  by  installing  pumps  and
pipe, with the use in some cases of a coagulant.
                          211

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Thus  the  facilities  in  this   subcategory without  present
ponding systems are estimated to  be  2.5X   (107 facilities).
Almost  all  of  these  facilities   could   install treatment
options  c,  D,  or  G,  which  are  the   least   expensive.
Options E  or  F would only be required in an urban environ-
ment where sufficient settling  area  is   not  available  on
site.

The  956 facilities with settling pond discharges produce an
estimated 168 million tons/yr.

The installation of  a  pump  and piping   system,  and  the
addition of a flocculant would result in a total annual cost
per  ton of $0.018 per ton, or the total capital expenditure
required represents about 7.4 million dollars.

The 107 facilities which are presently  discharging  without
treatment  produce  an  estimated 18 million tons/yr.  It is
assumed that these facilities may achieve recycle  for  an
average  annualized  cost  of $0,10/ton.   It should be noted
that a small fraction of these 107 facilities have  no  land
for  settling  ponds,  and  that  no sand and gravel facility
utilizing options E or F (no ponds)  to achieve  recycle  was
found.

Seventy-five  percent  of the facilities in this subcategory
presently are on recycle, or have no point source discharge.
23.555 of the facilities are not on recycle but  have  ponds.
They require a total capital expense of 7.4 million dollars,
and an annualized cost of $0.018  per ton.

The  facilities  not  having any  ponds could achieve recycle
for a capital cost of 1.7 million dollars.   The  annualized
increase in production costs would average $0.10/ton.

The  entire  subcategory  of  wet processed sand and gravel
could eliminate discharge of process effluent  for  a  total
capital  expense  of  about 10 million dollars.  The average
cost of production would rise $0.017/ton.   This  price  rise
represents  an  average  rise  of  0.6 percent  assuming  an
average selling price of $3 per ton.

              RIVER DREDGING, ON-LAND PROCESS

Typical Facility Data

Production:   360,000 kkg/yr (400,000 tons/yr)

Assume same treatment options as  in  wet   process  facility.
Costs  of waste water treatment for the typical facility can
be derived from these presented in Table 17 by applying  the
appropriate size factors.
                          212

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Cost Variances

Factors  affect  treatment  and  costs in the same manner as
described for wet processing.

Estimated Total Costs for Subcategory

There are an estimated fifty river dredging operations  with
on-land processing, producing 16,700,000 tons/yr of sand and
gravel.  An estimated 50% of the facilities producing 50% of
the  volume have no point source discharge at this time.  It
is estimated that twenty-two of  the  remaining  twenty-five
facilities have settling ponds at the present time.  Recycle
should  be  achievable  with  the aid of a flocculant for an
increased production cost of $0.02/kkg ($0.018/ton)-

The total capital cost for the subcategory is  estimated  to
be  $1,500,000.   The  average  increase in production costs
would  be  $0.01 per  ton.   This  represents   an   average
production cost increase of 0.3% based on an average selling
price of $3 per ton.
                          213

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                      INDUSTRIAL SAND

The  industrial  sand  industry  was  divided into four  sub-
categories:

(1) Dry process
(2) Wet process
(3) Acid and alkaline flotation
(4) HF flotation.

                       DRY PROCESSING

Approximately 10 percent of the industrial  sand  operations
fall  into  this subcategory.  The only water involved comes
from dust collectors used by some facilities.  Of  the   five
dry  process  facilities surveyed, two have such scrubbers -
one without treatment and the other with pond  settling  and
complete recycle.

Cost For Dry Process Scrubber Water Treatment

Treatment  is  by  addition of 5 mg/1 flocculating agent and
recycle through a one acre settling pond.

Assumptions:

    167,000 I/day (44,000 GPD)  scrubber water
    5 days/week; 8 hours/day
    flocculant cost - $1/lb
    piping cost - $1/inch diam/linear foot
    pump cost - $1/HP/yr
    power cost - $.02/kwh
    pond cost - $10,000/acre
    TSS in raw waste - 30,000 mg/1
    pond cleaning - $0.5/ton of sludge

Capital Costs:

    pond                $10,000
    piping and pump       3,000
    polymer mixing unit   1,500
    total capital        14,500
    annual capital
      recovery            2,360
                           214

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Operating Costs:

    pond cleaning            $  700
    power                       150
    chemical                     50
    maintenance                 725
    taxes and insurance         290
    total annual operating    1,700

    total annual recycle
      costs                   4,000

                        WET PROCESS

The  wet  process  uses  washing  and  screening  operations
similar   to   those   for  construction  sand  and  gravel.
Treatment  of  the  waste   water   also   used   the   same
technologies.   By  use of ponds, thickeners and clarifiers,
three out of the four wet process facilities studies have no
discharge of process water.  Table 18 summarizes  the  costs
for two treatment technologies.

Cost Basis for Table 18

Level A; 39 acre settling pond, discharge effluent

         pond cost                $60,000
         pump cost                  3,000
         piping cost                6,000

Level B
    Capital Costs

         settling pond area            39 acres
         pond cost                     $60,000
         pump costs                      6,000
         piping costs                   13,500
    total capital                      $79,500

    Annual Investment Costs

         pond costs (20 yr life d 10% interest) =  7000
         pump costs (5 yr life o> 10% interest)  =   1500
         piping costs (10 yr life 310% interest) = 2200
         total                                    10,700
                          215

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      COST
         TABLE   18
            FOR A REPRESENTATIVE  PLANT
{ALL  COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY  Industrial Sand, Wet Process	

PLANT SIZE    180,000              METRIC TONS  PER YEAR OF   product
PLANT AGE  10  YEARS
      PLANT  LOCATION  near population center

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/metric ton of product )

Suspended Solids





RAW
WASTE
LOAD
35





LEVEL.
A
(MIN)
69,000
8,000
^800
1,000
11,800
0.07
0.7





B
79,500
10,700
3,200
2,000
15,900
0.09
0





C
155,000
25,200
21,900
2,000
49,100
0.26
0





D












E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
   A — settle^discharge
   B — settle, recycle
   C — mechanical thickener with coagulant, overflow is recycled to process.  Underflow
       is passed through a settling basin.  Effluent from the settling basin is also recycled
       to process.
                                  216

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    Operating Costs

         maintenance costs a 2% of capital   =   1600
         power cost d $.02 per kwh           =   2000
         taxes and insurance o) 236 of
         capital                             =   1600
         total                                  $5200
Level C
    Capital Costs
         settling pond area       *    39 acres
         pond costs               -    60,000
         polymer feed system      -     5,000
         thickener                -    60,000
         pump costs               -    15,000
         piping costs
    total                             155,000

    total annual capital costs (10 years a 10%) = $25,200

    Operating Costs

         chemicals                11,000
         maintenance S 536
           of capital              7,800
         power                     2,000
         taxes and insurance
           a 236 of capital         JLtlfifi
    total                         23,900


Cost Variances
       Facilities  surveyed  for  this subcategory have ages
from one to 20 years.  There is no  discernable  correlation
of treatment costs with facility age.

Location.   There  was  no  discernable correlation of waste
water treatment costs with location.
        Production   capacities   range   from   54,000   to
900,000 kkg/yr  (60,000  to  1,000,000 tons/yr) .   Treatment
technology Levels A and B, involving pond costs, should show
slight unit cost variation (0.9 power).  Level C  technology
with  a mechanical thickener as well as a pond are estimated
to be 0.7 exponential function  of  size.   Operating  costs
other than taxes,  insurance and annualized capital costs are
estimated to be proportional to size.
                          217

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                ACID AND ALKALINE FLOTATION

There  are  three  types  of  flotation  processes  used for
removing impurities from industrial sands:

(1) Acid flotation to  effect  removal  of  iron  oxide  and
    ilmenite impurities

(2) Alkaline   flotation   to   remove   aluminate   bearing
    materials, and

(3) Hydrofluoric acid flotation for removal of feldspar.

These three flotation processes have  been  subdivided  into
two  subcategories;  (1)  acid  and  alkaline  flotation  and
(2) hydrofluoric  acid  flotation,    Subcategory   (1)   is
discussed  in  this  subsection  and  subcategory (2)  in the
following subsection.

Four surveyed acid flotation  facilities  have  no  effluent
discharge.   The  surveyed  alkaline  flotation facility has
effluent waste water similar in composition  to  the  intake
stream.  Recycle costs for acid and alkaline flotation waste
water are given in Table 19.

Cost Basis For Table 19

Basis:  (1)  production - 180,000 kkg/yr (200,000 tons/yr)
        (2)  the  process  waste  water is treated with lime,
         pumped to a holding pond and recirculated  back  to
         the  facility.   The  holding pond is one-half acre
         and is cleaned once every ten years.

    Capital costs

         lime storage and feed system       -    75,000
         reaction tank                      -    40,000
         pumps and piping                   *    20,000
                                                 agent

    annualized capital cost (10 yr life d 1096)   22,000

    Operating.Costs

         chemical costs                -    11,000
         maintenance a) 5% of capital   -     7,300
         power                         -     2,000
         taxes and insurance a) 2%
           of capital                  -     2,900
         total                              23,200
                          218

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                               TABLE 19
                                 FOR  A  REPRESENTATIVE  PLANT
                     (ALL COSTS ARE  CUMULATIVE)
      COST


SUBCATEGORY  Industrial Sand (acid and alkaline flotation)
PLANT SIZE    180,000
                                   METRIC TONS PER YEAR.OF  product
PLANT AGE   30 YEARS     PLANT  LOCATION  southeastern U.S.

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kq /metric ton of product }

Suspended Solids





RAW
WASTE
LOAD
100





LEVEL
A
(MIN)
115,000
18,700
19,000
1,000
38,700
0.22
0.4





B
135,000
22,000
21,200
2,000
45,200
0.25
0





C












D












E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
    A— neutralize, settle, discharge
    B — neutralize, settle, recycle
                               219

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Cost Variances

Age.  Surveyed facilities in this subcategory ranged in  age
from  one to 60 years.  There was no discernable correlation
between treatment costs and facility age.

Location.   Most  of  the   surveyed   facilities   are   in
southeastern  U.S.   There  was  no  discernable correlation
between treatment costs and facility location.

Size.  Facilities in this subcategory range  between  19,000
to    1,360,000 kkg/yr    (54,000   to   1,500,000 tons/yr).
Costs/acre of small ponds change  significantly  with  size.
Also, the chemical treatment facilities costs vary with size
at  an  estimated  exponential rate of 0.6.  Taken together,
capital costs  are  estimated  to  vary  with  size  at  0.7
exponential   rate.   Operating  costs,  except  for  taxes,
insurance and other capital related factors may be  expected
to vary directly with size.

                        HF FLOTATION

Unlike the acid and alkaline flotation processes where total
recycle  is  either  presently  utilized  or  believed to be
feasible, on  the  other  hand,  waste  water  from  the  HF
flotation  process  is  of  questionable  quality  for total
recycle.  Estimated costs for partial recycle are  given  in
Table 20.

Cost Basis For Table 20

Basis:   (1)  production:  180,000 kkg/yr (200,000 tons/yr)
         (2)  all waste waters are  fed  to  a  thickener  to
         remove    suspended    materials.     The   overflow
         containing 90 percent of the water is  recycled  to
         the  process,  the  underflow  is fed to a settling
         pond for removal of solid wastes and pH  adjustment
         prior to discharge.
                          220

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      COST
                                TABLE  20
                                  FOR  A  REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
                      (ALL  COSTS ARE  CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY   Industrie! Sand (HF Flotation) 	

PLANT SIZE    180,000	 METRIC TONS  PER YEAR OF   product

                                                    California
PLANT AGE  ~   YEARS
PLANT  LOCATION

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS:
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 3 M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/metric ton of product )

Suspended Solids
Fluoride




RAW
WASTE
LOAD
135
0.45




LEVEL
A
(MIN)
120,000
19,500
21,400
2,000
42,900
0.23
0.044
0.005




B
200,000
3^500
21,400
2,000
55,900
0.31
0
0




c












D












E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
    A — 90% of wastewater removed in thickener and recycled to process. Underflow from
        thickener fed to settling pond for removal of tailings and pH adjustment prior to
       'discharge.
    B'— segregate HF waste water, pond and evaporate; recycle other water after ponding.
                                 221

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    Capital Costs

    pond - 1/2 acre x 10 ft depth d $20,000/acre *   $ 10,000
    lime storage and feed system                 -     30,000
    thickener                                    =     60,000
    pump costs                                   =      5,000
    piping costs                                 =     15,000
    total                                             120,000

    annualized investment costs (10 yr life d 10% interest)

         $120,000 x .1629  =  $19,500

    Operating Costs

         maintenance a) 5% of capital        =    6,000
         chemicals, lime & $20/ton          =   11,000
         power a $.02/kwh                   =    2,000
         taxes and insurance a 2%
           of capital                       =    2,400
    total                                       23,400


Cost Variances

Age,  location  and  size  variances have no significance in .
this case since only one facility is involved.
                           .222

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                           GYPSUM

Gypsum is mined at sixty-five sites in  the  United  States.
An  estimated 57 of these facilities use no contact water, in
their process.  It is estimated that 5 of the facilities use
wet scrubbers for dust removal, which results in  a  contact
water  effluent.   Two  known  facilities  use  heavy  media
separation and washing to beneficiate the crude gypsum  ore,
which results in a process effluent.

                        DRY PROCESS

There  is  no  contact  process water in this category, thus
there are no waste water treatment costs.

           DRY PROCESS WITH USE OF WET SCRUBBERS

There are five facilities  in  this  subcategory.   Two  are
presently  using settling ponds.  All five intend to install
dry scrubbers at some time in the future.

The  scrubber  water  usage  in  two  facilities   in   this
subcategory  averages  2,505 1/kkg  (598 gal/ton)  of gypsum
produced.  The effluent quality from  these  two  facilities
averages  35 mg/1  with  a  pH  of  7.8.   One  of  the  two
facilities impounds the water  before  discharge  while  the
second  discharges  without  treatment.  Present waste water
treatment costs for both are considered  to  be  negligible.
The  capital  cost of a settling pond for such facilities is
$20,000.

A  third  facility  in  this  subcategory  uses  5,950 1/kkg
(1,427 gal/ton)   of  scrubber  water with a suspended solids
concentration of 1,110 mg/1.  This represents a  substantial
increase  in  water usage and suspended solids load over the
previous two facilities.  Present treatment  consists  of  a
settling  pond  which removes fifty percent of the suspended
solids.  The total annual cost for  the  settling  pond  was
reported as $2,500, which results in a cost of $0.01 per kkg
of  gypsum  produced.   The company plans to replace the wet
scrubber system with  a  dry  dust  collector,  which  would
eliminate  the waste stream.  The capital investment for the
dry system was reported as  $167,000,   The  annual  capital
recovery for such a system would be $27,200 which results in
a cost of $0.14 per kkg of gypsum produced ($0.13/ton).  All
gypsum producers contacted which use wet scrubbers indicated
that  they  plan  to  convert  their  systems  to  dry  dust
collectors.
                           223

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                   HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION

The third subcategory of wet processing of  gypsum  consists
of  only  two  facilities.   Both  facilities presently have
effluent  due  to  recycle  of  water  after  settling  pond
treatment.   In  one  of the facilities an abandoned mine is
utilized as the settling pond.  Capital investment  for  the
system is estimated to be $15,000.  Annual operating cost is
estimated to be $10,000.  Total annualized recycle costs are
estimated  to be $12,500.  This results in a recycle cost of
$0.05 per kkg of gypsum produced  ($0.045/ton).

                       MINE DRAINAGE

In all three of the subcategories of gypsum production, some
facilities find it necessary  to  pump  out  their  quarries
because  of  rainwater collection.  No facility is presently
treating its mine pumpout water, and the  average  effluents
are  all  below 25 mg/1, insofar as is known,  so there is no
cost to treat the pit pumpout in this  subcategory  down  to
this level, at least.
                          224

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                     ASPHALTIC MINERALS

Of   the  asphaltic  minerals,  bituminous  limestone,  oil-
impregnated  diatomite   and   gilsonite,   only   gilsonite
operations currently have any discharge to surface water.

For   gilsonite,   present  mine  water  drainage  treatment
consists of pond  settling  of  suspended  solids  prior  to
discharge.   Process  water  is discharged untreated.  Costs
for  present  treatment  are  an  estimated   $0,08/kkg   of
gilsonite produced ($0.07/ton).

Completion  of  treatment  facilities  currently  under con-
struction will 'result in no discharge of  waste  water  from
the  property  at  a cost of $1,lO/kkg ($1/ton) of Gilsonite
produced.  The cost estimates are given in Table 21.

Cost Variances

The only gilsonite facility is 50 years old and  located  in
Utah.  All cost developments are for this specific facility.

Cost Basis For Table 21

    Level A
         Capital Costs

         pond cost, $/hectare  ($/acre):  $24,700
                                                      ($10,000)
         settling pond area, hectares (acres):  0.8   (2)
         pump, piping, ditching:  $5,000

         Operating and Maintenance Costs

         taken as 2% of capital costs

    Level B
         Capital Costs

         pond costs - same as Level A
         sand filters -                $150,000
         pumps and piping -              40,000
         electrical and
           instrumentation               25,000
         roads, fences, landscaping -    15,000
                           225

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      COST
          TABLE  21
            FOR  A  REPRESENTATIVE  PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE  CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATE60RY   Gilsonite

PLANT SIZE    45,450
PLANT AGE 50   YEARS
              METRIC TONS PER YEAR OF  Gilsonite

                             Utah
PLANT  LOCATION

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!-
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 G M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON Gilsonite

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
Mine Pumpout:
Suspended Solids, me/liter
BOD, mg/liter
Process Water:
Suspended Solids, mg/Hte!
BOD, mg/liter
RA\V
V.'ASTE
LOAD






LEVEL
A
(MIN)
25,000
2,940
500
200
3,640
0.08

3,375
12

17
43
B
250,000
29,400
20,000
500
49,900
1.10

0
0

0
0
c












D












E












LEVEL
  A — pond settling of suspended solids in.mine pumpout; no treotment of process water
      (present minimum).
  B  — combining of mine pumpout ana process water followed by pond settling, filtration
      and partial recycle. Discharge from recycle to be used .for on-property irrigation.
                                 226

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Operating and Maintenance Costs

labor - 1/2 man 3 $10,000/yr       $ 5,000
maintenance labor and materials
  a U% of investment                10,000
power a $.01/kw-hr                     500
taxes and insurance
  3 2% of investment                 5,000
                  227

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                          ASBESTOS

Asbestos  is  mined  and  processed at five locations in the
U.S., two in California, and one each  in  Vermont,  Arizona
and  North  Carolina.  One facility in California uses a wet
processing process, while the remaining four facilities  use
a  dry process.  There is also one wollastonite dry facility
which has  no  process  water.   The  wet  process  facility
process  results  in  a  discharge  of twenty percent of the
process  water   (155,200 I/day;   41,000 gal/day)   to   two
pereolation/evaporation  ponds.   The  ponds total less than
one half acre in size.  The total capital investment for the
percolation  ponds  was  estimated  to  be  $2,000.   Annual
operating  and  maintenance  is estimated to be $1,000,  The
total annualized cost is estimated to  be  $1,325,  for  the
percolation/evaporation   ponds.   One  pond  serves  as  an
overflow for the other, therefore, surface  water  discharge
almost never occurs.  The ponds are dredged once annually.

Sixty-eight percent of tiae water in the wet process facility
is  recycled  via  a  three  acre  settling pond.  A natural
depression is utilized for the pond, and dredging  has  been
not   nece s sary.    The   water   rec irculated   amounts  to
529,900 I/day (140,000 gal/day).  Annualized  cost  for  the
recirculation   system  is  estimated  to  be  $2,500.   The
remaining twelve percent of the process water is lost in the
product and  tailings.   Total  annualized  water  treatment
costs  for  wet  processing  of asbestos are estimated to be
$3,825, which results in a cost  of  $0.09/kkg  of  asbestos
produced ($0.08/ton).

All  five  operations  accumulate waste asbestos tailings at
both facility and  the  mining  site.   These  tailings  are
subject  to  rainwater  runoff.  At two sites dams have been
built     to     collect      rainwater      and      create
evaporation/percolation ponds.  The total capital investment
at  each  site  is  estimated  to  be  $500.   Operating and
maintenance costs  for  these  dams  are  considered  to  be
negligible.   Natural canyons were utilized in both cases to
create the ponds.  One facility because  of  its  geological
location  must  discharge  water collected in its mine.  The
alkaline groundwater in the area requires the  water  to  be
treated  by  addition  of  0.02 mg/1  sulfuric  acid  before
discharge.    The  pumping  costs  for  this  operation   are
considered  to  be  part  of  the  production  process.  The
chemical costs are considered to be less than $100/yr.   The
total  waste water treatment costs for pit pumpout water are
therefore  considered  to  be  negligible.   The   estimated
capital   cost  for  total  impoundment  of  mine  water  to
eliminate the discharge is $15,000,
                          228

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               LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE MINERALS

Lightweight aggregate minerals consist  of  perlite,  pumice
and vermiculite.

                           PUMICE

All U.S. perlite facilities are in southwestern U.S. and the
processes  are all dry.  Since there is no water used, there
is no waste water generated  or  water  treatment  required.
One investigated mine does dewater the quarry when water ac-
cumulates, but this water is evaporated on land at estimated
cost of $0.01 to $0.05/kkg (or ton)  of perlite produced.

                          PERLITE

At  most  facilities,  there  are no waterborne wastes as no
water is employed.  At one facility there is scrubber  water
from  a  dust  control  installation.  The scrubber water is
sent to a settling pond prior to discharge.  Because of  the
relatively  small  amount  of  water  involved and the large
production volume of pumice per  day,  treatment  costs  for
this  one  facility  are  roughly  estimated  as  less  than
$0.05/kkg (or ton) of pumice produced at that facility.

                        VERMICULITE

The two facilities described in  Section V  represent  total
capacity  appraching  the  total  U.S.  production.  Both of
these  facilities  currently   achieve   no   discharge   of
pollutants   by  means  of  recycle,  pond  evaporation  and
percolation.  Detailed costs  for  a  typical  facility  are
given in Table 22.

cost Variance
       The  ages  of the two facilities are 18 and 40 years,
Age is not a cost variance factor.

Location.  One facility is located in Montana and the  other
in South Carolina.  In spite of their different geographical
location,   both   are  able  to  achieve  no  discharge  of
pollutants  by  the  same  general  means  and  at   roughly
equivalent costs.

Size.   Facility  sizes range from 109,000 to 209,000 kkg/yr
(120,000 to 230,000 tons/yr).  Since pond costs per acre are
virtually constant in the size range involved,  waste  water
treatment  costs  may be considered directly proportional to
facility size and  therefore  invariant  on  a  cost/ton  of
product basis.
                           229

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      COST
          TABLE  22
           FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY  VermicuMte

PLANT  SIZE    160,000
PLANT  AGE  30  YEARS
     	 METRIC TONS PER YEAR OF   product

      PLANT LOCATION   Montana or South Carolina

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS:.
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND PO'.YER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/metric ton of product )

Suspended Solids





RAW
WASTE
LOAD
1,600





LEVEL
A
(MiN)
325,000
5^900
40,000
5,000
97,900
0.62
0





B












C












D












E












LEVEL
  A — recycle, evaporation and percolation,
                              230

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Cost Basis For Table 22

Capital   and  operating  costs  were  taken  from  industry
reported values.  The basis of these values is shown below:
Assumptions:

    Production:
    Process Water Use;
    Treatment:

    Capital Cost:
    Operating Costs:
    Annual Capital
      Recovery:
157,000 kkg/yr (175,000 tons/yr)
8,350 1/kkg (2,000 gal/ton)
settling ponds and recycle of
  process water
$325,000
$ 45,000/yr

$ 52,900
                           231

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                            MICA

There  are  seven   significant   wet   mica   beneficiation
facilities   in   the  U.S.,  six  dry  grinding  facilities
processing  beneficiated  mica,  and  three   wet   grinding
facilities.

There  are  also  several  western U.S. operations using dry
surface mining.  They have only some  mine  water  drainage.
Treatment  for  this  mine  water  is estimated as $0.19/kkg
($0.2/ton) (based on a 1/2  acre  pond  3>  $10,0QO/acre  and
operating costs of $750/yr).

                  WET BENEFICIATION PLANTS

Eastern U.S. beneficiation facilities start with matrices of
approximately 10 percent mica and 90 percent clay, sand, and
feldspar combinations.  Much of this 90 percent is converted
to  saleable  products,  but  there is still a heavy portion
which must be stockpiled or collected in pond bottoms.   The
variable  nature  of  the  ore,  or matrix, leads to several
significant treatment/cost considerations:

(1) Treatment  costs  and  effluent  quality   differ   from
    facility to facility,

(2) Additional saleable products reduce the cost  impact  of
    the overall treatment systems developed.

(3) solids disposal costs are often a major portion  of  the
    overall treatment costs, particularly if they have to be
    hauled off the property.

All  of these factors can change the overall treatment costs
per unit of product of Table 23 by at least a factor of  two
in either direction.

Cost Variances

Age.  Known ages for four of the seven facilities range from
18  to  37 years.   There  is  no significant treatment cost
variance due to this range.

Location.  All facilities are located in southeastern states
in rural locations.  Location  is  not  a  significant  cost
variance factor.

Size.   The  sizes range from 13,600 to 34,500 kkg/yr (1,500
to 3,800 tons/yr).  The unit costs given  are  meant  to  be
representative  over  this  size  range on a unit production
basis.
                           232

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      COST
          TABLE 23
            FOR A REPRESENTATIVE  PLANT
(ALL  COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SU3CATEGORY   Mica/ Wet Beneficiation (eastern)

PLANT SIZE    16,360
PLANT AGE   27  YEAftS
              METRIC TONS PER YEAR.OF    Mica
      PLANT  LOCATION,
Southeastern U.S.

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS:
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 Q M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON Mica

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg /metric ton of Mica )


.Suspended Solids
pH



RAW
WASTE
LOAD

2,100
—



LEVEL
A
(MiN)
150,000
17,600
50,000
2,000
.69,600
4.3

2.5-6
6-9



B
275,000
32,300
64,500
3,000
99,800
6.1

1.2-2.5
6-9



C
300,000
35,200
68,000
5,000
108,200
6.6

0
-



D
245,00.0
39,900
74,400
5,000
119,300
7.3

1.2-2.5
6-9



E
245,000
39,900
74,400
5,000
119,300
7.3

0
-



LEVEL
  A — minimum level ponding
  B  — extended ponding and chemical treatment
  C  — closed cycle pond system (no discharge)
  D — mechanical  thickener and filter
  E  — closed cycle thickener and filter system (no discharge)
                                 233

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Cost Basis For Table 23

Treatment Level A - Pond settling of process wastes (minimum
treatment)
Basis:




(1)
(2)
(3)
W
(5)
Production rate - 16
ton/yr)
Solid wastes ponded -
ton/yr)
Solid waste stockpiled
ton/yr)
Pond size - 4 hectares
Effluent quality
,400 kkg/yr
34,200 kkg/yr
- 45,000 kkg/yr
(10 acres)

(18,000
(38,000
(50,000


              (a)   suspended solids - 20-50 mg/1
              (b)   pH - 6-9
         (6)
Waste water effluent - 5.7 x
     mgd)
10*  I/day  (1.5
    Capital.costs
         Ponds                              =
         Pumps and piping                   -
         Miscellaneous constructions        =
         Total

         Assume 20 yr life and 10% interest
           capital recovery factor  =  .1174
                                   $100,000
                                     35,000
                                   	15.000
                                   $150,000
         Annual investment costs

    Operating Costs
                      =  $17,610/yr
         Solid wastes handling a $0.30/ton  =    $15,000
         Pond cleaning d $0.50/ton          =     19,000
         Maintenance               \         =     10,000
         Power                              =      2,000
         Labor                              =      3,000
         Taxes and insurance a 2% of
           capital                          =      3,000
         Total                                   $52,000
                           234

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Treatment Level B - Pond settling of process wastes and
chemical treatment

Basis:   Same as for Level A, except

         (1)  Pond size - 8 hectares (20 acres)
         (2)  Chemical treatments - lime, acid and
              flocculating agents used as needed
         (3)  Effluent quality
              (a)   suspended solids - 10-20 ing/1
              (b)   pH - 6-9

    Capital Costs

         Ponds                              =    $200,000
         Pumps and piping                   =      50,000
         Miscellaneous construction         =      25,000
         Total                                   $275,000

         Annual investment costs  =  $32,285/yr

    Operating Costs

         Solid wastes handling d $0.30/ton  =    $15,000
         Pond cleaning 3 $0.50/ton          =     19,000
         Maintenance                        =     15,000
         Chemicals                          =      5,000
         Power                              =      3,000
         Labor (misc)                        =      5,000
         Taxes and insurance 3) 2%
           of capital                       =    	5,500
         Total                                   $67,500

Treatment Level c - Total recycle of process water using,
pond system

Basis:   Same as Level B except no discharge

    Capital Costs

         Ponds                              =    $200,000
         Pumps and piping                   =      75,000
         Miscellaneous construction         =      25,000
         Total                                   $300,000

         Annual investment costs  =  $35,220
                          235

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    Opera-ting Costs

         Solids wastes handling 3 $0.30/ton =    $15,000
         Pond cleaning d $0.50/ton          =     19,000
         Maintenance                        =     20,000
         Chemicals                          =      5,000
         Power                              =      5,000
         Labor                              =      3,000
         Taxes and insurance d 2% of
           capital                          =    	6^000
         Total                                   $73,000

Treatment Level D   -   Thickener  plus  filter  removal  of
suspended solids.  Generally pond systems are the  preferred
system  for  removing suspended solids from waste water.  In
some instances, however, when the  land  for  ponds  is  not
available  or  there  are  other  reasons  for  compactness,
mechanical thickeners, clarifiers, and filters are used.

Basis:   Same as for Level B, except no pond required

    Capital costs

         Thickener - 15 meter (50 ft.)  diameter  =    $150,000
         Filter system installed                 =      35,000
         Pumps, tanks, piping, collection        =      50,000
         Conveyor                                =       5,000
         Building                                =    	5^.000
         Total                                        $245,000

         At 10 yr life and 10% interest rate
         Capital recovery factor  =  .1627
         Annual investment costs  =    $39,862

    Operating Costs

         Solids wastes handling d $0.30/ton =    $26,400
         Maintenance                        =     20,000
         Chemicals                          =     20,000
         Power                              =      5,000
         Labor                              =      3,000
         Taxes and insurance a 2%
           of capital                       =      5,000
         Total                                   $79,400
                          236

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Treatment Level E  -  Thickener  and   filter   removal   of
suspended solids and recycle to eliminate discharge.

Basis:   same as for Level D, complete  recycle  of  treated
wastes

    Capital Costs

         Same as for Level D - pumping and piping to surface
         water discharge taken as same as recycle piping and
         pumping.

    Operating Costs

         Same as for Level D
         Total annual costs  =  $119,300

                    DRY GRINDING PLANTS

There are no waterborne wastes from this subcategory.

                    WET GRINDING PLANTS

Of the three facilities involved, one sends its small amount
of  wast^ water to nearby waste treatment facilities of much
larger volume, the second has no waterborne waste due to the
nature of its process and the third uses a settling pond  to
remove suspended solids prior to water recycle.  Total costs
for  waste  water  treatment  from  this third operation are
estimated  as  $2.60/kkg  of  wet   ground   mica   produced
($2.30/ton).  A capital investment of $65,000 is required.
                          237

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                         SECTION IX
         EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
                     APPLICATION OF THE
            BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
                    CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
INTRODUCTION

The  effluent  limitations which must be achieved by July 1,
1977, are based on the degree of effluent reduction  attain-
able through the application of the best practicable control
technology  currently available.  For the mining of minerals
for the construction industry, this level of technology  was
based  on  the  average  of the best existing performance by
facilities of various sizes, ages, and processes within each
of  the  industry's  subcategories.   In  Section  IV,  this
segment  of  the minerals mining and processing industry was
divided into nine major categories.  Several of these  major
categories have been further subcategorized and, for reasons
explained  in  Section  IV, each subcategory will be treated
separately for the recommendation  of  effluent  limitations
guidelines and standards of performance.

Best  practicable  control  technology  currently  available
emphasizes  treatment   facilities   at   the   end   of   a
manufacturing   process   but   also  includes  the  control
technology within the process itself when it  is  considered
to be normal practice within an industry.  Examples of waste
management  techniques which were considered normal practice
within these industries are:

(a)  manufacturing process controls;
(b)  recycle and alternative uses of water; and
(c)  recovery and/or reuse of some waste water constituents.

Consideration was also given to:

(a)  the total cost of application of technology in  relation
    to  the  effluent reduction benefits to be achieved from
    such application;
(b)  the size and age of equipment and facilities involved;
(c)  the process employed;
(d)  the engineering aspects of the  application  of  various
    types of control techniques;
(e)  process changes; and
(f)  non-water quality environmental impact (including energy
    requirements).
                          239

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The following  is  a  discussion  of  the  best  practicable
control  technology  currently  available  for  each  of the
subcategories,  and  the   proposed   limitations   on   the
pollutants in their effluents.

GENERAL WATER GUIDELINES

Process Water

Process  water  is  defined as any water contacting the ore,
processing chemicals, intermediate products, by-products  or
products  of a process including contact cooling water.  All
process water effluents are limited to the pH range  of  6.0
to 9.0 unless otherwise specified.

Process  generated waste water is defined as any water which
in the  mineral  processing  operations  such  as  crushing,
washing  and  beneficiation,  comes into direct contact with
any  raw  material,  intermediate  product,  by-product   or
product used in or resulting from the process.

Where  sufficient  data was available a statistical analysis
of the data was performed to determine a monthly and a daily
maximum.  In most subcategories, where there is an allowable
discharge, an achievable monthly maximum was determined from
the data available.

A detailed analysis of the ratio of daily TSS to monthly TSS
maximum at a  99  percent  level  of  confidence  for  large
phosphate  slime  ponds indicates that a TSS ratio of 2.0 is
representative of a large settling  pond  treatment  system,
and this ratio was used where there was insufficient data to
predict a daily maximum directly.

A  ratio of 2.0 was also used for parameters other than TSS.
It is judged that  this  is  an  adequate  ratio  since  the
treatment  systems  for  F,  Zn  and  Fe  for  instance have
controllable variables,  such  as  pH  and  amount  of  lime
addition.   This  is in contrast to a pond treating only TSS
which has few if any operator controllable variables.

Cooling Water

In the minerals mining and processing industry, cooling  and
process  waters  are  sometimes mixed prior to treatment and
discharge.  In other situations, cooling water is discharged
separately.  Based on the application  of  best  practicable
technology  currently available, the recommendations for the
discharge of such cooling water are as follows:
                          240

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An allowed discharge of all non-con-tact cooling waters  pro-
vided that the following conditions are met:

(a)  Thermal pollution be in accordance with  EPA  standards.
    Excessive  thermal  rise  in  once  through  non-contact
    cooling water in the mineral  mining  industry  has  not
    been a significant problem.

(b)  All non-contact cooling waters should  be  monitored  to
    detect leaks of pollutants from the process.  Provisions
    should   be   made   for   treatment  to  the  standards
    established for process waste water discharges prior  to
    release in the event of such leaks.

(c)  No untreated process waters  be  added  to  the  cooling
    waters prior to discharge.

The  above  non-contact cooling water recommendations should
be considered as interim, since  this  type  of  water  plus
blowdowns  from  water treatment, boilers and cooling towers
will be regulated by EPA as a separate category.

Mine Drainage

Mine drainage is any water drained, pumped or siphoned  from
a mine.

Storm Water Runoff

Untreated  overflow  may  be  discharged  from process waste
water or mine drainage impoundments  without  limitation  if
the  impoundments  are designed, constructed and operated to
contain all process generated waste water or  mine  drainage
and surface runoff into the impoundments resulting from a 10
year  24  hour  precipitation  event  as  established by the
National Climatic Center, National Oceanic  and  Atmospheric
Administration  for  the locality in which such impoundments
are  located.   To  preclude   unfavorable   water   balance
conditions   resulting  from  precipitation  and  runoff  in
connection with  tailing  impoundments,  diversion  ditching
should  be constructed to prevent natural drainage or runoff
from mingling with process waste water or mine drainage.

WASTE WATER GUIDELINES AND LIMITATIONS

                      DIMENSION STONE

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.
                          241

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Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1
Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the  mining and processing of dimension stone is ponding and
recycle of process water.  To implement this  technology  at
facilities   not   already  using  the  recommended  control
techniques would require the improvement of suspended solids
settling and the  installation  of  recycle  equipment.   At
least  seven  facilities representing all the major types of
stone  presently  achieve  the  recommended  limits.    Four
facilities were cited in Section V as applying total recycle
of process waste water.

                    CRUSHED STONE (DRY)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no  discharge  of  process  generated  generated waste water
pollutants because no process water is used.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

                    CRUSHED STONE (WET)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.
                          242

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Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the  mining  and  processing  of  crushed  stone  by the wet
process is recycle of process  waste  water.   To  implement
this   technology   at  facilities  not  already  using  the
recommended   control   techniques   would    require    the
installation  of  pumps  and  associated  recycle equipment.
Approximately one third of the facilities studied  presently
use the recommended technology.

             CRUSHED STONE (FLOTATION PROCESS)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

Best  practicable control technology currently available for
the mining and processing of crushed stone by the  flotation
process  is  recycle of all process water to the wet process
washing step.  To implement this  technology  at  facilities
not  already  using the recommended control techniques would
require the installation of  pumps  and  associated  recycle
equipment.   This technology is already employed in at least
two facilities in this subcategory.

             CONSTRUCTION SAND AND GRAVEL (DRY)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants
because no process water is used.
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Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaiminated runof.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

             CONSTRUCTION SAND AND GRAVEL (WET)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage.

Effluent characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

Best  practicable control technology currently available for
the mining and processing of construction sand and gravel by
the wet process is ponding and/or  recycle  of  all  process
waste water.  To implement this technology at facilities not
already  using  the  recommended  control  techniques  would
require installation of ponds where necessary  and  plumbing
and piping for recycling.  More than half the subcategory is
presently using the recommended technologies.

CONSTRUCTION SAND AND GRAVEL (DREDGING WITH LAND PROCESSING)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no  discharge  of  process  generated waste water pollutants
from the -land  based  operations  where  the  process  water
intake  does  not originate from the dredge pump.  No limits
are proposed for dredges and dredge  pumpage  water  pending
further investigation of this subcategory.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for process contaiminated runoff.

Effluent Characteristic              Effluent Limitation
                                       Daily Maximum

     TSS                                 30 mg/1
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Best  practicable control technology currently available for
the mining and processing of construction sand and gravel by
the dredging process with land processing is ponding  and/or
recycle of all non-dredge pumped process waste water.

To implement this technology at facilities not already using
the    recommended    control   techniques   would   require
installation of ponds, if necessary, and pumping and  piping
for recycling.

More  than half this subcategory is presently achieving this
level of technology for on-land treatment.

               INDUSTRIAL SAND (DRY PROCESS)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the  mining  and  processing  of  industrial sand by the dry
process is the recycle of  air  pollution  control  scrubber
water, where wet scrubbers are used.  There is no water used
in  the  processing  of  this  mineral.   To  implement this
technology at facilities not already using  the  recommended
control  techniques would require the installation of pumps,
piping, and tanks for scrubber recycle, where wet  scrubbers
are  used.   This  technology  is  employed  by at least one
facility in this subcategory.

               INDUSTRIAL SAND (WET PROCESS)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.
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Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the  mining  and  processing  of  industrial sand by the wet
process  is  settling  of  suspended  solids  by  means   of
mechanical  equipment  and/or  ponds and complete recycle of
process water.  To implement this technology  at  facilities
not  already  using the recommended control techniques would
require the  installation  of  adequate  settling  equipment
and/or  ponds  and  recycle  equipment*   Three  of the four
facilities  surveyed  presently  utilize   the   recommended
technologies.

    INDUSTRIAL SAND (ACID AND ALKALI FLOTATION PROCESS)

Based upon the information contained in Sections ill through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

Best  practicable control technology currently available for
the mining and processing of industrial sand by the acid and
alkali flotation processes  is  the  settling  of  suspended
solids   in   ponds   using   flocculants  where  necessary,
adjustment of pH where necessary and/or recycle  of  process
water.   To  implement  this  technology  at  facilities not
already  using  the  recommended  control  techniques  would
require   the   installation  of  pumps,  piping  and  other
necessary recycle equipment.  Four of  the  five  facilities
studied  are currently meeting the recommended limitation by
utilizing these technologies.

           INDUSTRIAL SAND (HF FLOTATION PROCESS)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
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effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:

                                  Effluent Limitation
                                  kq/kkg
Effluent                          fib/1000 Ib) of product
Characteristic          Monthly Average     Daily_Maximum

    TSS                 O.OU4               0.088
    fluoride            0.005               0.01

The  above limitations were based on the average performance
of the only facility in this subcategory.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff,

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the  mining  and  processing  of  industrial  sand by the HF
flotation process is thickening, ponding to settle suspended
solids, pH adjustment and partial recycle of process  water.
The  only  facility  in  bhis subcategory presently uses the
recommended technologies.

                        GYPSUM  (DRY)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  -the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no- discharge of process  .generated  waste  water  pollutanrs
because no process water is used.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

                   GYPSUM (WET SCRUBBING)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
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                                  Effluent Limitation
                                  kg/kkg
                                  of product
Effluent Characteristic      Monthly Average     Daily Maximum

TSS                            0.13                0.26

The  above  limitations  were  based  on   the   performance
demonstrated  at facilities employing wet scrubbers for dust
collection.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the  mining  and processing of gypsum using wet scrubbing is
settling  of  suspended  solids  by  ponds   or   mechanical
equipment.   To  implement this technology at facilities not
already  using  the  recommended  control  techniques  would
require  the  installation  of  solids settling equipment or
ponds.

This technology is already employed by  facilities  in  this
subcategory.

              GYPSUM (HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

Best  practicable control technology currently available for
the mining and processing  of  gypsum  by  the  heavy  media
separation  process  is recovery of heavy media, settling of
suspended solids, and total recycle of process water.   This
technology is used at both facilities in this subcategory.
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         ASPHALTIC MINERALS  (BITUMINOUS LIMESTONE)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIIIw  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no  discharge  of  process  generated waste water pollutants
because no process waste water is used.

       ASPHALTIC MINERALS (OIL IMPREGNATED DIATOMITE)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

Best practiclable control technology currently available for
the mining and processing of oil  impregnated  diatomite  is
the  recycle  of  scrubber water.  There is no water used in
the processing of this material.

The one facility in  this  subcategory  presently  uses  the
recommended technology.

               ASPHALTIC MINERALS (GILSONITE)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

Best  practicable control technology currently available for
the mining and processing of gilsonite is ponding,  settling
and partial recycle of water.

There  is  only  one  facility  in this subcategory and this
facility presently uses the recommended technologies.

                   ASBESTOS  (DRY PROCESS)

Based upon the information contained in sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants
because no water is used in the process.
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Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.
Effluent characteristic
 Effluent Limitation
   Daily Maximum
         TSS
      30 mg/1
                       ASBESTOS  (WET)
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII*  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.
Effluent Characteristic
         TSS
 Effluent Limitation
   Daily Maximum

      30 mg/1
Best  practicable control technology currently available for
the mining and processing of asbestos by the wet process  is
total impoundment of all process waste waters.
The  techniques  described  are
facility in this subcategory.
currently  used by the only
                        WOLLASTONITE

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants
because no process water is used.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.
Effluent Characteristic
         TSS
 Effluent Limitation
   Daily Maximum

      30 mg/1
          LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE MINERALS (PERLITE)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
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effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no  discharge  of  process  generated waste water pollutants
because no process water is used.

          LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE MINERALS (PUMICE)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants
because no process water is used.

        LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE MINERALS (VERMICULITE)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

Best  practicable control technology currently available for
the mining and  processing  of  vermiculite  is  ponding  to
settle  suspended  solids, clarification with flocculants if
needed, and recycle of water to process.

The two major facilities producing vermiculite presently use
the recommended technologies.

              MICA AND SERICITE  (DRY PROCESS)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a. determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants
because no process water is used.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

                MICA (WET GRINDING PROCESS)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
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best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

Best  practicable control technology currently available for
the mining and  processing  of  mica  by  the  wet  grinding
process  is  settling  of  suspended  solids  and recycle of
clarified water to process.  To implement this technology at
facilities  not  already  using  the   recommended   control
techniques  would require the installation of settling tanks
and/or ponds  and  recycle  equipment.   One  of  the  three
facilities  in  this  subcategory  utilizes  the recommended
technologies.

    MICA (WET BENEFICIATION PROCESS, EITHER NON-CLAY OR
              GENERAL PURPOSE CLAY BY-PRODUCT)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the  mining  and processing of mica by the wet beneficiation
process where either no clay or general purpose clay is  the
by-product  is  settling  of  suspended  solids in ponds and
recycle of process water.  Four of the  five  facilities  in
this   subcategory   are  presently  using  the  recommended
technologies,

MICA (WET BENEFICIATION PROCESS, CERAMIC GRADE CLAY BY-PRODUCT)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIIIt a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:
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                                  Effluent, Limitation
                        kg/kkg of product (Ibs/lOOO'lb)
Effluent Characteristic      Monthly Average     Daily Maximum

TSS                               1.5                 3.0

The  above  limitations  are based on the performance of two
facilities,

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the  mining  and processing of mica by the wet beneficiation
process where  ceramic  grade  clay  is  the  by-product  is
settling of suspended solids in ponds and lime treatment for
pH  adjustment  prior to discharge.  Both facilities in this
subcategory   are   presently    using    the    recommended
technologies.
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                         SECTION X
         EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
             APPLICATION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE
             TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
INTRODUCTION

The  effluent  limitations which must be achieved by July 1,
1983 are based on the degree of effluent  reduction  attain-
able  through  the  application  of the best available tech-
nology economically achievable.  For the mining of  minerals
for  the construction industry, this level of technology was
based on the very  best  control  and  treatment  technology
employed  by  a  specific  point  source  within each of the
industry's  .subcategories,   or   where   it   is   readily
transferable  from  one  industry  process  to  another.  In
Section IV, this segment of the mineral mining  and  proces-
sing  industry  was divided into nine major categories based
on  similarities  of  process.   Several  of   those   major
categories have been further subcategorized and, for reasons
explained  in  Section  IV, each subcategory will be treated
separately for the recommendation  of  effluent  limitations
guidelines and standards of performance.

The  following  factors  were  taken  into  consideration in
determining  the  best  available  technology   economically
achievable:

(1) the age of equipment and facilities involved;
(2) the process employed;
(3) the engineering aspects of the  application  of  various
    types of control techniques;
(4) process changes;
(5) cost of achieving the effluent reduction resulting  from
    application of BATEA; and
(6) non-water quality environmental impact  (including energy
    requirements).

In contrast to the  best  practicable  technology  currently
available, best available technology economically achievable
assesses   the  availability  in  all  cases  of  in-process
controls  as  well  as  control  or   additional   treatment
techniques employed at the end of a production process.  In-
process  control  options available which were considered in
establishing  these  control  and   treatment   technologies
include the following:
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 (1) alternative water uses
 (2) water conservation
 (3) waste stream segregation
 (4) water reuse
 (5) cascading water uses
 (6) by-product recovery
 (7) reuse of waste water constituents
 (8) waste treatment
 (9) good housekeeping
 (10) preventive maintenance
 (11) quality control (raw material, product, effluent)
 (12) monitoring and alarm systems.

Those facility processes and control technologies  which  at
the   pilot  facility,  semi-works,  or  other  level,  have
demonstrated both technological  performances  and  economic
viability  at  a  level  sufficient  to  reasonably  justify
investing  in  such  facilities  were  also  considered   in
assessing   the   best   available  technology  economically
achievable.   Although economic  factors  are  considered  in
this  development,  the  costs for this level of control are
intended to be for the top-of-the-line of current technology
subject to limitations imposed by economic  and  engineering
feasibility.   However, this technology may necessitate some
industrially  sponsored  development  work  prior   to   its
application.

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX of this report, the following determinations were made on
the  degree of effluent reduction attainable with the appli-
cation of the best available control technology economically
achievable in  the  various  subcategories  of  the  mineral
mining and processing industry.

Storm Water Runoff

Untreated  overflow  may  be  discharged  from process waste
water or mine drainage impoundments  without  limitation  if
the  impoundments  are designed, consturcted and operated to
contain all process generated waste water or  mine  drainage
and surface runoff into the impoundments resulting from a 25
year  24  hour  precipitation  event  as  established by the
National Climatic Center, National Oceanic  and  Atmospheric
Administration  for  the locality in which such impoundments
are  located.   To  preclude   unfavorable   water   balance
conditions   resulting  from  precipitation  and  runoff  in
connection with  tailing  impoundments,  diversion  ditching
should  be constructed to prevent natural drainage or runoff
from mingling with process waste water or mine drainage.
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PROCESS WASTEWATER GUIDELINES AND LIMITATIONS,
NO DISCHARGE GROUP

The  following  industry  subcategories  were  required   to
achieve  no  discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water
pollutants to navigable waters  based  on  best  practicable
control technology currently available:

    dimension stone
    crushed stone  (dry)
    crushed stone  (wet)
    crushed stone  (flotation)
    construction sand and gravel  (dry)
    cons-turction sand and gravel  (wet)
    construction sand and gravel  (dredging with land
         processing)
    industrial sand  (dry)
    industrial sand  (wet)
    industrial sand  (acid and alkaline flotation)
    gypsum (dry)
    gypsum (heavy media separation)
    bituminous limestone
    oil impregnated diatomite
    gilsonite
    asbestos (dry)
    asbestos (wet)
    wollastonite
    perlite
    pumice
    vermiculite
    mica and sericite  (dry)
    mica (wet, grinding)
    mica (wet beneficiation, either no clay or
      general purpose clay by-product)

The  same  limitations  guidelines  are recommended based on
best available technology economically achievable.

               INDUSTRIAL SAND  (HF FLOTATION)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a  determination  has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  available  technology  economically  achievable  is no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.
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Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

Best available technology economically  achievable  for  the
mining and processing of industrial sand by the HF flotation
process  is  thickening, ponding to settle suspended solids,
pH adjustment and  total  recycle  of  process  water  after
segregation  and  total  impoundment  of  the  HF-containing
segment of the process  waste  stream.   To  implement  this
technology   at   the   one   facility   would  require  the
installation of an impoundment pond and necessary piping.

This facility is located in an arid  region  and  should  be
able  to  totally  impound  the HF-containing portion of its
waste stream and recycle the remainder.

                   GYPSUM (WET SCRUBBING)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a  determination  has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  available  technology  economically  achievable  is no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

Based upon the data in Section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

Best available technology economically  achievable  for  the
mining and processing of gypsum by, the wet scrubbing process
is  the  elimination  of  wet  scrubbers  by  dry collection
methods  or  total  impoundment  of  scrubber   water.     To
implement  this  technology  at facilities not already using
the  recommended  control  techniques  would   require   the
installation of dry collection apparatus or impoundments for
scrubber  water.   All  the  facilities  presently using wet
scrubbers have stated their  intention  to  convert  to  dry
collection methods.
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       MICA (WET BENEFICIATION PROCESS, CERAMIC GRADE
                      CLAY BY-PRODUCT)

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX,  a  determination  has  been  made  that  the  degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is:

                             Effluent Limitation
Effluent Characteristic      Monthly Average     Daily Maximum

TSS                               1-25           2,5

The above limitations were based on the performance  at  one
facility.

Based upon the data in section V the following limits can be
achieved for mine drainage and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent Characteristic           Effluent Limitation
                                    Daily Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

Best  available  technology  economically achievable for the
mining and processing  of  mica  by  the  wet  beneficiation
process  where  ceramic-grade  clay  is  the  by-product, is
improved settling of suspended  solids  in  ponds  and  lime
treatment  for pH adjustment prior to discharge.  One of the
two facilities in this subcategory  is  presently  achieving
the recommended level,
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                         SECTION XI
              NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
                 AND PRETREATMENT STANDARDS
INTRODUCTION

This  level  of technology is to be achieved by new sources.
The term "new source" is defined in the  Act  to  mean  "any
source,  the  construction  of  which is commenced after the
publication of proposed regulations prescribing  a  standard
of  performance."  This technology is evaluated by adding to
the consideration  underlying  the  identification  of  best
available     technology    economically    achievable,    a
determination of what higher levels of pollution control are
available through the use of improved  production  processes
and/or   treatment   techniques.    Thus,   in  addition  to
considering the best in-facility and end-of-process  control
technology,  new  source  performance  standards are how the
level of effluent may be reduced by changing the  production
process itself.  Alternative processes, operating methods of
other alternatives were considered.  However, the end result
of  the analysis identifies effluent standards which reflect
levels of control achievable through  the  use  of  improved
production processes (as well as control technology), rather
than  prescribing a particular type of process or technology
which must be employed.

The  following  factors  were  considered  with  respect  to
production  processes  which  were analyzed in assessing the
best demonstrated control technology currently available for
new sources:

a)  the type of process employed and process changes;
b)  operating methods;
c)  batch as opposed to continuous operations;
d)  use of  alternative  raw  materials  and  mixes  of  raw
    materials;
e)  use  of  dry  rather  than  wet   processes   (including
    substitution of recoverable solvents from water); and
f)  recovery of pollutants as by-products.

In addition to the effluent limitations covering  discharges
directly  into  waterways,  the constituents of the effluent
discharge from a facility  within  the  industrial  category
which  would  interfere  with, pass through, or otherwise be
incompatible with a  well  designed  and  operated  publicly
owned  activated  sludge  or  trickling  filter  waste water
treatment facility were  identified.   A  determination  was
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made of whether the introduction of  such pollutants into the
treatment facility should be completely prohibited.

GENERAL WATER GUIDELINES

The  process  water,  cooling water, mine water pumpout, and
blowdown guidelines for new sources  are identical  to  those
based on best available technology economically achievable.

PROCESS WATER GUIDELINES

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
X  of this report, the following determinations were made on
the  degree  of  effluent  reduction attainable  with   the
application   of   new  source  standards  for  the  various
subcategories of the minerals for the construction  industry
segment of the mineral mining and processing industry.

Storm Water Runoff

Untreated  overflow  may  be  discharged  from process waste
water or mine drainage impoundments  without  limitation  if
the  impoundments  are designed, consturcted and operated to
contain all process generated waste water or  mine  drainage
and surface runoff into the impoundments resulting from a 25
year  24  hour  precipitation  event  as  established by the
National Climatic Center, National Oceanic  and  Atmospheric
Administration  for  the locality in which such impoundments
are  located.   To  preclude   unfavorable   water   balance
conditions   resulting  from  precipitation  and  runoff  in
connection with  tailing  impoundments,  diversion  ditching
should  be constructed to prevent natural drainage or runoff
from mingling with process waste water or mine drainage.

The  following  industry  subcategories  were  required   to
achieve  no  discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water
pollutants to navigable waters  based  on  best  practicable
control technology currently available;

    dimension stone
    crushed stone (dry)
    crushed stone (wet)
    crushed stone (flotation)
    construction sand and gravel (dry)
    construction sand and gravel (wet)
    construction sand and gravel (land processing)
    industrial sand (dry)
    industrial sand (wet)
    industrial sand (acid and alkaline flotation)
    gypsum (dry)
    gypsum (heavy media separation)
    bituminous limestone
                           262

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    oil impregnated diatomite
    gilsonite
    asbestos (dry)
    asbestos (wet)
    wollastonite
    perlite
    pumice
    vermiculite
    mica and sericite  (dry)
    mica (wet, grinding)
    mica (wet beneficiation, either no clay or
      general purpose clay by-product)

The  same  limitations  guidelines  are recommended based on
best available technology economically achievable,

The  following  industry  subcategories  were  required   to
achieve  no  discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water
pollutants to  navigable  waters  based  on  best  available
technology economically achievable:

    industrial sand (HF flotation process)
    gypsum (wet scrubbing)

The   same   limitations   are  recommended  as  new  source
performance standards.

The following industry subcategories are required to achieve
specific effluent limitations  as  given  in  the  following
paragraphs.

              MICA (WET BENEFICIATION, CERAMIC
                   GRADE CLAY BY-PRODUCT)

Same as best available technology economically achievable.

PRETREATMENT STANDARDS

Recommended   pretreatment   guidelines   for  discharge  of
facility waste water into public treatment works conform  in
general  with EPA Pretreatment Standards for Municipal Sewer
Works as published in the July 19, 1973 Federal Register and
"Title 40 - Protection  of  the  Environment,  Chapter  1
Environmental   Protection  Agency,  Subchapter  D  -  Water
Programs - Part 128 - Pretreatment standards"  a  subsequent
EPA publication.  The following definitions conform to these
publications:
                           263

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a,  compatible Pollutant

The term "compatible  pollutant"  means  biochemical  oxygen
demand,  suspended  solids,  pH and fecal coliform bacteria,
plus additional pollutants identified in the  NPDES  permit,
if  the publicly-owned treatment works was designed to treat
such pollutants, and, in fact, does remove  such  pollutants
to  a  substantial  degree.   Examples  of  such  additional
pollutants may include:

         chemical oxygen demand
         total organic carbon
         phosphorus and phosphorus compounds
         nitrogen and nitrogen compounds
         fats, oils, and  greases  of  animal  or  vegetable
              origin   except   as   defined  below  in  4.1
              Prohibited Wastes.

b.  Incompatible Pollutant

The term "incompatible pollutant" means any pollutant  which
is not a compatible pollutant as defined above.

c.  Joint Treatment Works

Publicly owned treatment works for both  non-industrial  and
industrial waste water.

d.  Major Contributing Industry

A major contributing industry is an industrial user  of  the
publicly  owned  treatment  works that:  has a flow of 50,000
gallons or more per average work day;  has  a  flow  greater
than  five percent  of  the  flow  carried  by the municipal
system receiving the  waste;  has  in  its  waste,  a  toxic
pollutant  in  toxic  amounts as defined in standards issued
under Section 307 (a) of the Act; or is found by  the  permit
issuance  authority,  in  connection with the issuance of an
NPDES permit to the publicly owned treatment works receiving
the waste, to have significant impact, either singly  or  in
combination  with  other  contributing  industries,  on that
treatment works or upon the quality of  effluent  from  that
treatment works,

e.  Pretreatment

Treatment of waste waters from sources  before  introduction
into the joint treatment works.
                           264

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Prohibited Wastes

No  waste  introduced  into a publicly owned treatment works
shall interfere with the operation  or  performance  of  the
works.   Specifically,  the  following  wastes  shall not be
introduced into the publicly owned treatment works:

a.  Wastes which create a fire or explosion  hazard  in  the
    publicly owned treatment works;

b.  Wastes which will cause corrosive structural  damage  to
    treatment  works,  but in no case wastes with a pH lower
    than 5.0, unless the works are designed  to  accommodate
    such wastes;

c.  Solid or viscous wastes in  amounts  which  would  cause
    obstruction to the flow in sewers, or other interference
    with   the   proper  operation  of  the  publicly  owned
    treatment works, and

d.  Wastes at a flow rate and/or  pollutant  discharge  rate
    which is excessive over relatively short time periods so
    that  there  is a treatment process upset and subsequent
    loss of treatment efficiency*

Pretreatment for Incompatible Pollutants

In addition to the  above,  the  pretreatment  standard  for
incompatible  pollutants  introduced  into  a publicly owned
treatment works by a major contributing  industry  shall  be
best practicable control technology currently available.

Recommended Pretreatment Guidelines

In  accordance with the preceding Pretreatment standards for
Municipal Sewer Works, the  following  are  recommended  for
Pretreatment Guidelines for the waste water effluents:

a.  No  pretreatment  required  for  removal  of  compatible
    pollutants - biochemical oxygen demand, suspended solids
    (unless hazardous), pH, and fecal coliform bacteria;

b.  Suspended solids containing hazardous pollutants such as
    heavy metals, cyanides and chromates should  conform  to
    be   restricted   to  those  quantities  recommended  in
    Section IX  Guidelines  for   Be st   Practi cal   Control
    Technology  Currently Available for existing sources and
    new sources performance standards for new sources;

c.  Pollutants such as chemical oxygen demand, total organic
    carbon, phosphorus and  phosphorus  compounds,  nitrogen
    and  nitrogen  compounds,  and  fats, oils, and greases,
                           265

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    need  not  be  removed  provided  the   publicly   owned
    treatment  works  was  designed to treat such pollutants
    and will accept them.  Otherwise  levels  should  be  at
    best  practicable control technology currently available
    recommendations for existing sources and at  new  source
    performance standards recommendations for new sources;

d.  Limitation on dissolved solids is not recommended except
    in cases of water quality violations.
                             266

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                        SECTION XII
                      ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The preparation of this report was accomplished through  the
efforts  of  the  staff  of  General  Technologies Division,
Versar,  Inc.,  Springfield,  Virginia,  under  the  overall
direction  of  Dr.  Robert G.  Shaver,  Vice President.  Mr.
Robert C.  Smith,  Jr.,  Chief  Engineer,  Project   Office,
directed the day-to-day work on the program,

Mr.  Michael W. Kosakowski was the EPA Project Officer.  Mr.
Allen Cywin, Director,  Effluent  Guidelines  Division,  Mr.
Ernst P.  Hall, Jr., Assistant Director, Effluent Guidelines
Division, and Mr. Harold B. Coughlin, Branch Chief, Effluent
Guidelines Division, offered many helpful suggestions during
the program.  Mr. Ralph Lorenzetti assisted in many facility
inspections.

Acknowledgement and appreciation is also given to Linda Rose
and   Darlene  Miller  (word  processors)  of  the  Effluent
Guidelines Division and the secretarial staff of the General
Technologies Division of Versar, Inc., for their efforts  in
the   typing  of  drafts,  necessary  revisions,  and  final
preparation of the effluent guidelines document.

Appreciation is extended to the following trade associations
and  state  and  federal   agencies   for   assistance   and
cooperation rendered to us in this program:

    American Mining Congress
    Asbestos Information Association, Washington, D.C.
    Barre Granite Association
    Brick Institute of America
    Building Stone Institute
    Fertilizer Institute
    Florida Limerock Institute, Inc.
    Florida Phosphate Council
    Georgia Association of Mineral Processing Industries
    Gypsum Association
    Indiana Limestone Institute
    Louisiana Fish and Wildlife Commission
    Louisiana Water Pollution Control Board
    Marble Institute of America
    National Clay Pipe Institute
    National Crushed Stone Association
    National Industrial Sand Association
    National Limestone Institute
    National Sand and Gravel Association
                          267

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    New York State Department of Environmental conservation
    North Carolina Minerals Association
    North Carolina Sand, Gravel and Crushed Stone Association
    Portland Cement Association
    Refractories Institute
    Salt Institute
    State of Indiana Geological Survey
    Texas Water Quality Board
    U.S. Bureau of Mines
    U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lacrosse, Wisconsin
    Vermont Department of Water Resources

Appreciation is also extended to the many mineral mining and
producing  companies  who  gave us invaluable assistance and
cooperation in this program.

Also, our appreciation is extended to the individuals of the
staff of General Technologies Division of Versar, Inc.,  for
their  as si stance  during  thi s  program.  Speci fi cally, our
thanks to:

    Dr. R. L. Durfee, Senior Chemical Engineer
    Mr. D. H. Sargent, Senior Chemical Engineer
    Mr. E. F. Abrams, Chief Engineer
    Mr. L. C. McCandless, Senior Chemical Engineer
    Dr. L. C. Parker, Senior Chemical Engineer
    Mr. E. F. Rissman, Environmental Scientist
    Mr. J. C. Walker, Chemical Engineer
    Mrs. G. Contos, Chemical Engineer
    Mr. M. W. Slimak, Environmental Scientist
    Dr. I. Frankel, Chemical Engineer
    Mr. M. DeFries, Chemical Engineer
    Ms. C. V. Fong, Chemist
    Mrs. D. K. Guinan, Chemist
    Mr. J. G. Casana, Environmental Engineer
    Mr. R. C, Green, Environmental Scientist
    Mr. R. S. Wetzel, Environmental Engineer
    Ms. M.A. Connole, Biological Scientist
    Ms* M. Smith, Analytical Chemist
    Mr. M. C, Calhoun, Field Engineer
    Mr. D. McNeese, Field Engineer
    Mr. E. Hoban, Field Engineer
    Mr. P. Nowacek, Field Engineer
    Mr. B. Ryan, Field Engineer
    Mr. R. Freed, Field Engineer
    Mr. N. O. Johnson, Consultant
    Mr. F. Shay, Consultant
    Dr. L. W. Ross, Chemical Engineer
    Mr. J. Boyer, Chemical Engineer
                          268

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                        SECTION XIII
                         REFERENCES
1.  Agnello,  L.,  "Kaolin",  Industrial   and   Engineering
    Chemistry,Vol* 52, No. 5, May 1960, pp. 370-376.

2.  "American Ceramic Society Bulletin,"  Vol.  53,  No.  1,
    January 1974, Columbus, Ohio.

3.  Arndt, R.H., "The Shell Dredging Industry  of  the  Gulf
    Coast Region," U.S. Department of the Interior, 1971.

4.  Bates,  R.Ii,,  Geology  of  the  Industrial  Rocks   and
    Minerals,Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1969.

5.  Beeghly, J.H., "Water Quality and the  Sand  and  Gravel
    Industry,"  37th  Annual  Meeting  Ohio  Sand and Gravel
    Association, 1971.

6.  Boruff,  C.S.,  "Removal  of  Fluorides  from   Drinking
    Waters,"  Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. Vol. 26,
    No. 1, January 1934, pp. 69-71.

7.  Brooks,  R.G.,  "Dewatering  of  Solids,"  57th   Annual
    Convention National Crushed Stone Association, 1974.

8.  Brown, W.E., U.S. Patent 2,761,835, September 1956.

9.  Brown, W.E., and Gracobine, C.R., U.S. Patent 2,761,841,
    September 1956.

10. "Census of Minerals Industries,"  1972,  Bureau  of  the
    Census,  U.S.  Department  of  Commerce, U.S. Government
    Printing Office, Washington, D.C. MIC72 (PJ-14A-1 through
    MIC72(P)-14E-4.

11. "Commodity Data Summaries, 1974, Appendix  I  to  Mining
    and  Minerals  Policy," Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department
    of  the  Interior,  U.S.  Government  Printing   office,
    Washington, D.C.

12. Davison,  E.K,,  "Present  status  of  Water   Pollution
    Control  Laws  and  Regulations," 57th Annual Convention
    National Sand and Gravel Association, 1973.

13. Day, R.W., "The Hydrocyclone in  Process  and  Pollution
    Control," Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 69, No. 9,
    1973, pp. 67-72.
                           269

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14. "Dictionary of  Mining,  Mineral,  and  Related  Terms,"
    Bureau  of  Mines, D.S. Department of the Interior, U.S.
    Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1968.

15. "Engineering and Mining Journal,"  McGraw-Hill,  October
    1974.

16, Groom, F., "Vacuum Filtration - An  Alternative  to  the
    Use   of   Large  Settling  Ponds  in  Sand  and  Gravel
    Production,"  National  Sand  and   Gravel   Association
    Circular No. 117.

17. Haden, W.,  Jr.,  and  Schwint,  I.,  "Attapulgite,  Its
    Properties and Applications," Industrial and Engineering
    Chemistry, Vol. 59, No. 9, September 1967, pp. 57-69.

18. "Indiana   Limestone   Handbook,"   Indiana    Limestone
    Institute  of  America,  Inc.,  January  1973,  Bedford,
    Indiana.

19. Krenkel,  P.A.,   "Principles   of   Sedimentation   and
    Coagulation  As Applied to the Clarification of Sand and
    Gravel  Process  Water,"  National   Sand   and   Gravel
    Association Circular No. 118.

20. Levine,   S,,   "Liquid/Solids   Separation   Via    Wet
    Classification,"  Rock  Products,  September  1972,  pp.
    84-95.

21. Little, A.D., "Economic Impact Analysis  of  New  Source
    Air  Quality  Standards  on the Crushed Stone Industry,"
    EPA Draft Report, 1974.

22. Llewellyn, C.M,, "The Use of Flocculants  in  the  James
    River   Estuary,"   Miscellaneous   Paper,   Lone   Star
    Industries.

23. Llewellyn, C.M., "Maintenance of  Closed  Circuit  Water
    Systems,"  National  Crushed  Stone Association Meeting,
    Charlotte, N.C., 1973.

24. Locke, S.R., Ozal, M.A., Gray, J.,  Jackson,  R.E.,  and
    Preis, A.,  "Study  to  Determine  the Feasibility of an
    Experiment to Transfer Technology to the  Crushed  Stone
    Industry,"  Martin  Marietta  Laboratories, NSF Contract
    C826, 1974,

25. Maier,  F.J.,   "Defluoridation   of   Municipal   Water
    Supplies," Journal AWWA, August 1953, pp.  879-888.
                           270

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26. May, E.B., "Environmental Effects of Hydraulic  Dredging
    in  Estuaries," Alabama Marine Resources Bulletin No, 9,
    April 1973, pp. 1-85.

27. McNeal, W., and Nielsen, G., "International Directory of
    Mining  and   Mineral   Processing   Operations,"   E/MJ,
    McGraw-Hill, 1973-1974.

28. "Minerals  Yearbook,  Metals,   Minerals,   and   Fuels,
    Vol. 1,"   U.S.   Department   of   the  Interior,  u * S.
    Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.C,,  1971,
    1972.

29. "Mining  Engineering,  Publication  of  the  Society  of
    Mining  Engineers of AIME, Annual Review for 1973," Vol.
    25, No. 1, January  1973;  Vol. 26,  No. 3,  March  1974
    through Vol. 26, No. 8, August 1974.

30. "Modern Mineral Processing Flowsheets," Denver Equipment
    Company, 2nd Ed., Denver, Colorado

31. Monroe,  R.G.,  "Waste  water   Treatment   Studies   in
    Aggregate   and  Concrete  Production,"  EPA  Technology
    Series EPA-R2-73-003, 1973.

32. Newport, B.D., and Moyer, J.E., "State-of-the-Art:  sand
    and    Gravel    Industry,"    EPA   Technology   Series
    EPA-660/2-74-066, 1974.

33. Oleszkiewicz, J.A., and Krenkel, P.A., "Effects of  sand
    and  Gravel  Dredging  in  the  Ohio  River," Vanderbilt
    University Technical Report No. 29, 1972.

34. Patton,  T.C.,   "Silica,   Macrocrystalline,"   Pigment
    Handbook  Vol..  !,  J.  Wiley  and Sons, Inc., 1973,~pp.
    157*159.

35. Popper,   H.,   Modern   Engineering   cost   Techniques,
    McGraw-Hill, New York, 1970.

36. Price, W.L., "Dravo Dredge No. 16,"  National  Sand  and
    Gravel Association Circular No. 82, 1960.

37, "Product Directory of the Refractories Industry  in  the
    U.S.," The Refractories Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa. 1972.

38, Resource Consultants, Inc., Engineering  Report,  "Waste
    water   Treatment   for  Dixie  Sand  and  Gravel  Co.,"
    Chattanooga, Tenn., 1972.
                           271

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39. Robertson, J.L. , "Washer/Classifier System   Solves   Clay
    Problem  at  Sand  and  Gravel Facility," Rock  Products,
    March 1973, pp. 50-53.

40. Slabaugh, W.H., and Culbertsen, J.L., J. Phys.  Chenu,55,
    744, 1951.

41. Smith, C.A.,  "Pollution  Control  Through   Waste   Fines
    Recovery," National Sand and Gravel Association Circular
    No. 110.

42, State Directories of the Mineral Mining Industry from 36
    of 50 States.

43. Trauffer,  W.E.,  "New  Vermont  Talc   Facility    Makes
    High-Grade  Flotation Product for Special Uses," Pit and
    Quarry.December 1964, pp. 72-74, 101.

44, Walker,  S., "Production of Sand and  Gravel,"   J.   Amer.
    Concrete Inst.., Vol. 26, No. 2, 1954, pp. 165-178.

45. Williams, F. J., Nezmayko, M., and  Weintsitt,   D.J.,  J.
        ^ Chem.., 57, 8, 1953.
                           272

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                        SECTION XIV
                          GLOSSARY
Aeration  •*  the  introduction  of  air  into  the pulp in a
    flotation cell in order to form air bubbles.

Aquifer - an underground stratum that yields water,

Baghouse - chamber in which exit gases are filtered  through
    membranes (bags) which arrest solids.

Bench  -  a  ledge,  which,  in open pit mines and quarries,
    forms a single, level of operation above which mineral or
    waste materials are excavated from a contiguous bank  or
    bench face.

Berm   -  a  horizontal  shelf  built  for  the  purpose  of
    strengthening and increasing the stability of a slope or
    to catch  or  arrest  slope  slough  material;  berm  is
    sometimes used as a synonym for bench.

Cell,  cleaner  - secondary cells for the retreatment of the
   . concentrate from primary cells.

Cell, rougher - flotation cells in which  the  bulk  of  the
    gangue is removed from the ore.

Clarifier  -  a  centrifuge, settling tank, or other device,
    for separating suspended solid matter from a liquid.

Classifier, air -  an  appliance  for  approximately  sizing
    crushed minerals or ores employing currents of air.

Classifier,   rake   -  a  mechanical  classifier  utilizing
    reciprocal rakes on an inclined plane to separate coarse
    from fine material contained in a water pulp.

Classifier, spiral - a classifier for  separating  fine-size
    solids  from  coarser solids in a wet pulp consisting of
    an interrupted-flight screw conveyor,  operating  in  an
    inclined trough.

Collector - a heteropolar compound chosen for its ability to
    adsorb  selectively  in  froth  flotation and render the
    adsorbing surface relatively hydrophobic.
                           273

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Conditioner - an apparatus in  which  the  surfaces  of  the
    mineral  species  present  in  a  pulp  are treated with
    appropriate chemicals to influence their reaction during
    aeration.

Crusher, cone - a machine for reducing the size of materials
    by means of a truncated cone revolving on  its  vertical
    axis  within  an outer chamber, the anular space between
    the outer chamber and cone being tapered.

Crusher, gyratory  -  a  primary  crusher  consisting  of  a
    vertical  spindle,  the  foot  of which is mounted in an
    eccentric bearing  within  a  conical  shell.   The  top
    carries  a conical crushing head revolving eccentrically.
    in a conical maw.

Crusher, jaw - a primary crusher designed to reduce the size
    of materials by impact or crushing between a fixed plate
    and an oscillating  plate  or  between  two  oscillating
    plates, forming a tapered jaw.

Crusher,  roll  -  a reduction crusher consisting of a heavy
    frame on which two rolls  are  mounted;  the  rolls  are
    driven  so that they rotate toward one another.  Rock is
    fed in from above and nipped between the  moving  rolls,
    crushed, and discharged below.

Depressant  -  a  chemical  which  causes substances to sink
    through a froth, in froth flotation.

Dispersant - a substance (as a polyphosphate)  for  promoting
    the  formation  and stabilization of a dispersion of one
    substance in another.

Blunge - to mix thoroughly.

Burden - valueless material overlying the ore.

Dragline - a type of excavating equipment  which  employs  a
    rope-hung bucket to dig up and collect the material.

Dredge,  bucket  -  a  two-pontooned  dredge  from which are
    suspended buckets which- excavate material at the  bottom
    of  the  pond and deposit it in concentrating devices on
    the dredge decks.

Dredge, suction - a centrifugal pump mounted on a barge.

Drill, churn - a drilling rig utilizing a blunt-edged chisel
    bit suspended from a cable  for  putting  down  vertical
    holes in exploration and quarry blasting.
                           274

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Drill, diamond - a drilling machine with a rotating, hollow,
    diamond-studded  bit that cuts a circular channel around
    a core which when recovered provides a  columnar  sample
    of the rock penetrated.

Drill,  rotary - various types of drill machines that rotate
    a rigid, tubular string of rods to which is  attached  a
    bit for cutting rock to produce boreholes.

Dryer,  flash  - an appliance in which the moist material is
    fed into a  column  of  upward-flowing  hot  gases  with
    moisture removal being virtually instantaneous.

Dryer,  fluidized bed - a cool dryer which depends on a mass
    of particles being fluidized by passing a stream of  hot
    air  through  it.   As  a  result  of  the fluidization,
    intense turbulence is created in the  mass  including  a
    rapid drying action.

Dryer, rotary - a dryer in the shape of an inclined rotating
    tube used to dry loose material as it rolls through.

Electrostatic  separator  -  a vessel fitted with positively
    and negatively charged conductors  used  for  extracting
    dust  from  flue gas or for separating mineral dust from
    gangues.

Filter, pressure - a machine utilizing pressure to  increase
    the removal rate of solids from tailings.

Filter,  vacuum  -  a  filter  in  which the air beneath the
    filtering material is exhausted to hasten the process.

Flocculant - an agent that induces or promotes gathering  of
    suspended particles into aggregations.

Flotation  -  the  method  of  mineral separation in which a
    froth created in water by a variety of  reagents  floats
    some  finely  crushed  minerals,  whereas other minerals
    sink.

Frother - substances used in flotation to make  air  bubbles
    sufficiently  permanent, principally by reducing surface
    tension,

Grizzly - a device for the coarse screening or  scalping  of
    bulk materials.

HMS - Heavy Media Separation

Hydraulic Mining - mining by washing sand and dirt away with
    water which leaves the desired mineral.
                           275

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Hydrocyclone - a cyclone separator in which a spray of water
    is used.

Hydroclassifier  - a machine which uses an upward current of
    water to remove fine particles from coarser material.

Humphrey spiral -  a  concentrating  device  which  exploits
    differential  densities  of mixed sands by a combination
    of  sluicing  and  centrifugal  action.   The  ore  pulp
    gravitates  down -through a stationary spiral trough with
    five turns.  Heavy particles stay on the inside and  the
    lightest ones climb to the outside.

Jumbo  -  a  drill  carriage  on  which  several  drills are
    mounted.

JTU - Jackson Turbidity Unit

Kiln, rotary - a kiln  in  the  form  of  a  long  cylinder,
    usually inclined, and slowly rotated about its axis; the
    kiln is fired by a burner set axially at its lower end.

Kiln,  tunnel  -  a long tunnel-shaped furnace through which
    ware is generally moved on cars,  passing  progressively
    through zones in which the temperature is maintained for
    preheating, firing and cooling.
                                                          or
Launder  -  a chute or trough for conveying powdered ore,
    for carrying water to or from the crushing apparatus.

Log washer - a slightly slanting trough in which revolves  a
    thick  shaft or log, earring blades obliquely set to the
    axis.  Ore is fed in at the  lower  end,  water  at  the
    upper.  The blades slowly convey the lumps of ore upward
    against   the   current,  while  any  adhering  clay  is
    gradually disintegrated and floated out the lower end.

Magnetic separator - a device used to separate magnetic from
    less magnetic or nonmagnetic materials.

Mill,  ball  -  a  rotating  horizontal  cylinder  in  which
    non-metallic materials are ground using various types of
    grinding  media such as quartz pebbles, porcelain balls,
    etc.

Mill, buhr - a stone disk mill,  with  an  upper  horizontal
    disk rotating above a fixed lower one.

Mill,  chaser  -  a cylindrical steel tank lined with wooden
    rollers revolving 15-30 times a minute.
                          276

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Mill, hammer - an impact process facility  consisting  of  a
    rotor,  fitted  with  movable  hammers, that is revolved
    rapidly in a vertical plane  within  a  closely  fitting
    steel casing.

Mill,   pebble  -  horizontally  mounted  cylindrical  mill,
    charged with flints or selected lumps of ore or rock.

Mill, rod - a process facility for fine  grinding,  somewhat
    similar  to  a  ball mill, but employing long steel rods
    instead of balls to effect the grinding.

Mill, roller -  a  fine  grinding  process  facility  having
    vertical  rollers running in a circular enclosure with a
    stone or iron base.

Neutralization - making neutral or inert, as by the addition
    of an alkali or an acid solution.

Outcrop - the part of a rock formation that appears  at  the
    surface  of  the  ground or deposits that are so near to
    the surface as to be found easily by digging.

Overburden  -  material  of  any  nature,  consolidated   or
    unconsolidated,   that  overlies  a  deposit  of  useful
    materials, ores, etc.

Permeability - capacity for transmitting a fluid.

Raise - an inclined opening driven upward from  a  level  to
    connect  with  the  level above or to explore the ground
    for a limited distance above one level.

Reserve - known ore bodies that may be worked at some future
    time.

Ripper -» a tractor accessory used to loosen compacted  soils
    and soft rocks for scraper loading.

Room   and . Pillar  -  a  system  of  mining  in  which  the
    distinguishing feature is the winning of  50 percent  or
    more  of the ore in the first working.  The ore is mined
    in rooms separated by narrow ribs  (pillars); the ore  in
    the  pillars  is  won by subsequent working in which the
    roof is caved in successive blocks.

Scraper - a tractor-driven surface  vehicle  the  bottom  of
    which  is fitted with a cutting blade which when lowered
    is dragged through the'soil.
                           277

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Scrubber, dust - special apparatus used to remove dust  from
    air by washing.

Scrubber,  ore  -  device  in which coarse and sticky ore is
    washed   free   of   adherent   material,   or    mildly
    disintegrated.

Shuttle-car  - a vehicle which transports raw materials from
    loading machines in trackless areas of  a  mine  to  the
    main transportation system.

Sink-float  - processes that separate particles of different
    sizes or composition on the basis of specific gravity.

Skip - a guided steel hoppit used in  vertical  or  inclined
    shafts for hoisting mineral.

Slimes   -   extremely  fine  particles  derived  from  ore,
    associated rock, clay or altered rock.

Sluice - to cause water  to  flow  at  high  velocities  for
    wastage,  for  purposes  of excavation, ejecting debris,
    etc.

Slurry - pulp not thick enough to consolidate  as  a  sludge
    but sufficiently dewatered to flow viscously.

Stacker  -  a  conveyor  adapted  to piling or stacking bulk
    materials or objects.

Stope - an excavation from which ore has been excavated in a
    series of steps.

Stripping ratio - the unit amount  of  spoil  that  must  be
    removed  to  gain access to a similar unit amount of ore
    or mineral material.

Sump - any excavation in a mine for the collection of  water
    for pumping.

Table, air - a vibrating, porous table using air currents to
    effect gravity concentration of sands.

Table, wet - a concentration process whereby a separation of
    minerals  is effected by flowing a pulp across a riffled
    plane surface inclined  slightly  from  the  horizontal,
    differentially  shaken in the direction of the long axis
    and washed with an even flow of water at right angles to
    the direction of motion.
                          278

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Thickener - an apparatus  for  reducing  the  proportion  of
    water in a pulp.

TSS - total suspended solids.

Waste    - the barren rock in a mine or the part of the  ore
    deposit that is too low in grade to be of economic value
    at the time.

Weir - an obstruction placed across a stream for the purpose
    of channeling the water through a notch or an opening in
    the weir itself.

Wire  saw  ~  a saw consisting of one- and three-strand wire
    cables, running over pulleys as a belt.  When fed  by  a
    slurry  of  sand  and  water  and  held  against rock by
    tension, it cuts a narrow channel by abrasion.
                          279

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                                                              TABLE 24
to
                      Multiply (English Units)




                        ENGLISH UNIT     ABBREVIATION
   METRIC UNITS






 CONVERSION TABLE




      by                 To obtain (Metric units)




CONVERSION      ABBREVIATION    METRIC UNIT
acre
acre - Feet
British Thermal Unit
British Thermal Unit/
pound
cubic feet/minute
cubic feet/second
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic inches
degree Fahrenheit
feet
gallon
gallon/minute
horsepower
Inches
Inches of mercury
pounds
million gallons/day
mile
pound/square Inch
(gauge)
square feet
square Inches
tons (short)
yard
ac
ac ft
BTU

BTU/lb
cfm
cfs
cu ft
cu ft
cu in
Fo
ft
gal
gpm
hp
in
in Hg
Eb
mgd
mi

pslg
sq ft
sq in
t
y
0.405
1233.5
0.252

0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555 (°F-32)*
0.3048
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
3,785
1.609

(0.06805 psig+1)*
0.0929
6.452
0.907
0.9144
ha
cu m
kg cal

kg cal/kg
cu m/min
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kg
cu m/day
km

atm
sq m
sq cm
kkg
m
hectares
cubic meters
kilogram - calories

kilogram calories/kilogram
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters/ minute
cubic meters
liters
cubic centimeters
degree Centigrade
meters
liters
liters/second
killowatts
centimeters
atmospheres
kilograms
cubic meters/day
kilometer

atmospheres (absolute)
square meters
square centimeters
metric tons (1000 kilograms)
meters
                      * Actual conversion/ not a multiplier

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                                                                             POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (A-107)                       ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460                                                                     EPA-335

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