EPA 440/1 -75/059d
       Development Document for
Interim Final Effluent Limitations Guidelines
 and New Source Performance Standards
                for the

     CLAY, CERAMIC, REFRACTORY
    AND MISCELLANEOUS MINERALS
                VOL.  Ill


         MINERAL MINING  AND
        PROCESSING  INDUSTRY
         Point Source Category

                4fc
                 M(

 UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY


             OCTOBER 1975

-------
                DEVELOPMENT  DOCUMENT
                         for
          EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS  GUIDELINES
                         and
              STANDARDS  OF PERFORMANCE
       MINERAL MINING AND  PROCESSING INDUSTRY

                     VOLUME  III

Clay, ceramic. Refractory  and  Miscellaneous Minerals
                  Russell  E.  Train
                   Administrator

              Andrew W.  Breidenbach,  Pn.u.
            Actina Assistant Administrator for
           Water and Hazardous  Materials

                  Eckardt  C.  Beck
         Deputy Assistant  Administrator for
            Water Planning and  Standards
                    Allen Cywin
       Director, Effluent Guidelines Division

               Michael W. Kosakowski
                  Project Officer
                    October  1975

            Effluent Guidelines Division
      Office Of Water and  Hazardous  Materials
        U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
              Washington,  D.C.  20460

-------
                          CONTENTS

Section

I        Conclusions

II       Recommendations                                   3

III      Introduction                                      5

IV       Industry Categorization                           39

V        Water Use and Waste. Characterization              43

VI       Selection of Pollutant Parameters                 121

VII      Control and Treatment Technology                  131

VIII     Cost, Energy and Non-Water Quality Aspects        163

IX       Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the         191
           Application of the Best Practicable Control
           Technology Currently Available

X        Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the         205
           Application of the Best Available Technology
           Economically Achievable

XI       New Source Performance Standards and Pretreatment 211
           Standards

XII      Acknowledgements                                  217

XIII     References                                        219

XIV      Glossary                                          221
                          ill

-------
                      LIST OF FIGURES

Figure_No.                                                         N

    1         Supply-Demand Relationships for Clays - 1968        15

    2         Supply-Demand Relationships for Feldspar - 1968     20

    3         Production and Uses of Kyanite and Related          22
                Minerals

    t»         Production and Uses of Talc Minerals                28

    5         Domestic Consumption of Diatomite                   34

    6         fapply-Demand Relationships for Graphite -1968     37

    7         Bentonite Mining and Processing                     47

    8         Fire clay Mining and Processing                     50

    9         Attapulgite Mining and Processing                   53

    10        Montmorillonite Mining and Processing               56

    11        Kaolin (dry) Mining and Processing                  59

    12        Kaolin (wet) Mining and Processing                  61

    13        Ball Clay Mining and Processing                     65

    14        Feldspar (wet)  Mining and Processing                69

    15        Feldspar (dry)  Mining and Processing                75

    16        Kyanite Mining and Processing                       77

    17        Magnesite Mining and Processing                     81

    18        Shale Mining and Processing                         84

    19        Aplite Mining and Processing                        86

    20        Talc (dry)  Mining and Processing                    90

    21        Talc (log washing)  Mining and Processing            92

    22        Talc (wet screening) Mining and Processing          93

    23        Talc (flotation)  Mining and Processing              96

    24        Talc (impure ore)  Mining and Processing             98

-------
25        Pyrophyllite (heavy media) Mining and Processing     99
26        Garnet Mining and Processing                         103
27        Tripoli Mining and Processing                        107
28        Diatomite Mining and Processing                      109
29        Graphite Mining and Processing                       113
30        Jade Mining and Processing                           117
31        Novaculite Mining and Processing                     119
                      Yi

-------
                       LIST OF TABLES

Table_No.

    1         Recommended Limitations for the Clay,        4
              Ceramic, Refractory, and Miscellaneous
              Minerals Segment of the Mineral Mining
              and Processing Industry

    2         Data Base                                    9

    3         1972 Production and Employment Figures       14
              for Minerals in this Segment

    H         Industry Categorization                      41

    5         Settling Characteristics of Suspended        134
              Solids

    6         Comments on Treatment Technologies used      160
              in this Industry
                                                             i*

    7         Present Capital Investment and Energy        165
              Consumption of Wastewater Treatment
              Facilities

    8         Cost for Representative                      171
              Attapulgite Facility

    9         Cost for Representative                      172
              Montmorillonite Facility

    10        Cost for Representative                      173
              Montmorillonite Mine Water

    11        Cost for Representative                      176
              wet Process Kaolin Facility

    12        Cost for Representative                      177
              Ball Clay Facility

    13        Cost for Representative                      180
              Wet Process Feldspar Facility

    14        Cost for Representative                      183
              Kyanite Facility

    15        Cost for Representative                      187
              Wet Process Talc Minerals Facility

    16        Conversion Table                             228
                          vii

-------
                         SECTION I
                        CONCLUSIONS
For purposes of establishing effluent limitations guidelines
and  standards of performance, and for ease of presentation,
the mineral mining industry  has  been  divided  into  .three
segments to be published in three volumes:  minerals for the
construction   industry:   minerals  for  the  chemical  and
fertilizer industries; and  clay,  ceramic,  refractory  and
miscellaneous  minerals.  This division reflects the end use
of the mineral after  mining  and  beneficiation.   In  this
volume covering clay, ceramic, refractory, and miscellaneous
minerals,  the  21  minerals  are grouped into 17 production
subcategories for reasons explained in Section IV.

Based on the  application  of  best  practicable  technology
currently  available,  11 of the 17 production subcategories
under study can be operated with  no  discharge  of  process
generated  waste water pollutants to navigable waters.  With
the best available technology economically achievable, 12 of
the 17 production subcategories  can  be  operated  with  no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste water pollutants to
navigable waters.  No discharge of process  generated  waste
water  pollutants to navigable waters is achievable as a new
source performance standard for all production subcategories
except  kaolin   (wet) ,   feldspar    (wet) ,   talc   minerals
(flotation),   garnet,  and  graphite.   Mine  drainage  and
contaminated plant runoff are considered separately for each
subcategory.

This  study  included  21  clay,  ceramic,  and   refractory
minerals   of   Standard   Industrial  Classification  (SIC)
categories 1452, 1453,  1454,  1459,  1496,  and  1499  with
significant  waste  discharge potential as listed below with
the corresponding SIC code.

-------
1.  Berrtonite  (1452)
2.  Fire Clay  (1453)
3.  Fuller's Earth
    A. Attapulgite
    B. Montmorillonite
4.  Kaolin and Ball Clay  (1455)
5.  Feldspar {1459}
6.  Kyanite  (1459)
7.  Magnesite  (Naturally Occurring)  (1459)
8.  Shale and other Clay Minerals  (1459)
    A. Shale
    B, Aplite
9.  Talc, Soapstone, Pyrophyllite, and Steatite (1496)
10. Natural Abrasives  (1499)
    A. Garnet
    B, Tripoli
11. Diatomite  (1499)
12. Graphite (1499)
13. Miscellaneous Non Metallic Minerals  (1499)
    A. Jade
    B. Novaculite

-------
                         SECTION II
                      RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommended  effluent  limitations  guidelines  and  the
suggested  technologies are listed in Table 1.  pH should be
maintained between 6.0 and 9.0 units at all times.

The pretreatment limitations will not limit total  suspended
solids,  unless  there  is  a  problem of sewer plugging, in
which case  40  CFR  128.131 (c)   applies.   Limitations  for
parameters other than TSS are recommended to be the same for
existing  sources  as  best  practicable  control technology
currently available  and  for  new  sources  as  new  source
performance standards.

-------
                        RecDtnniui.dcxl Limits and  RtutuUirds for the-  Mineral Mlnir.f, raid  rroccBtitm* Jr.

The following  apply to process wnstt* water except where no'ed
Subcategory


Unntonite,
FJro clay,
MontKorillonite ,
Att.ipulglte
Kyanlcc,
Mnr,iic-sitc,
Shale.,
ApHte,
Tripo) J (dry procrsfslns) ,
Matoinit",
Jnde 6,
Kovnculite
Mine drainage
(non-Reid)
Mine drainage
(acid)
Kaolin
Dry processing
W(?t processing


Mine drainage
(ore £lm L'y pulped)
Mini; drainage
(oia dry transporter
Ball Clay
Dry processing
Vet processing
Hir.e drainage
(non-acid)
Mine dralnngn
(acid)
Feldnpar
BPCTCA
nax. ftvg, of 30
consecutive days











No difjchrt


TSS 35 tsg/1
Els Fe 0.3 mg/1

No dlscha
Turbidity 50 JTU
TSS 45 \> /I
Zn 0.25 r,»c/l
Turbidity 50 JTU
TSS 45 mg/1

a;

Ho discli.".
TSS 0,17 ku/kkg


TSS 35 tsg/l
Die FE 0.3 icg/;.


max. for
cny oue day











rge
TSS 35 rag/1**
,
TSS 70 mg/1
Dis Fe 0.6 ran/1

rp,c
Turbidity ICO JTU
TSS 90 mg/1
Zn 0.5C Kg/1
Turl>ldtf.y 100 JTU
TSS 90 RIR/]
TSS 35 mg/1


I'RO
TbS 0.34 kg/tskf;
TSS 35 ng/1

TSS 70 ir.g/1
131s Fe 0,6 tne/1

tiun-Flotu.'.ion (/iaiitd No dischnvge
Flotation pltitts*

Mine drainage
TSS 0,6 kfj'fkf.
f 0.175 kg/kkg

TSS 1.2 kg/V-kj;
F 0,33 kg/UkR
TSS 35 rag/1
BATLA and "iSfS
ffiax. avg. oi 30 Rtax. for
conseculivd days flity O:;K day











No discharge
TSS 35 mg/I

TSS 35 mg /I TSS 70 !"g/l
Bis Fe 0,3 mg/1 Ills "c 0.6 mg/1

Ho discharge
Turbid'lly 50 JTU Turbidity 100 JTli
1SS 45 KB/1 TSS 90 r;g/l
7,n 0,25 nig/1 'S.a. 0,50 raf»/l
Turbidity 50 JIV Turtldlty IOC JTU
TSS 45 1.13/1 TSS 90 mg/1
TSS 35 rag/!


Ro discharge
No dischnrgo
TSS 35 mg/1

TES 35 rrg/1 TSS 70 pg/1
Dig l"e 0.3 ug/1 Dis Fc 0.6 mg/1

No discharge
TSS 0,6 kn/k".;g TSS 1,2 kg/kkg
F 0,13 kc/kl;g F 0,26 kg/kkf,
TSS 35 tag/1
T«lc, Steatite, Soapstono and PyrojihylHte
Dry processing &
Washing plants
Flotation and HMS
plants
Hine drainage
Garnet
HiUE drainage
Graphite (process and
mine drainage



No discharge
TSS 0.3 kg/J;kg


TSS 0.4 kfi/kkg

TSS 10 r,ig/l
Total Fe 1 tng/1
TSS 1.0 fcg/kkg

TSS 35 mg/1
TSS 0.8 kg/kkg
TSS 35 mg/1
TSS 20 mg/1
Tftal Fe 2 tn^/l
rSS 0.3 kfc/kkg 7SS 0.6 kg/kkg

TSS 35 ui[',/l
TSS 0.25 kg/kkg TSS -0.5 kg/kkg'
TSS 35 tag/1
TSS 10 Blg/1 TSS 20 ir.g/1
Total Fe 1 mg/1 Total Fe 2 mg/1
pH  6-9 £ar  all subc
Ko diurluii'^t: ^ )lc> discht'trgi'  of  procrris waste water pollutants
kfj/kl'fi -  kf,  of polJ-iJt,-int /I'.kg of prorlwcc
*kp of |jOllutant/ki:^ of ore  processed
BPCTCA -  Bent practJcfiblc control fcchnolojjy curiently availoblc
BATEA •• Btst available technology octnonically Achievable
NSl'S - Nov source i»cu-fn! trance  sLcinclard.
Dla - UJasolvcd
**Ho TSS  limit (HPCTtA) vecorJncndod for ir.ontmorillon.ttc Bine
                                                                          «t this  eime.

-------
                        SECTION III
                        INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE AND AUTHORITY

The  United  States Environmental Protection Agency  (EPA) is
charged  under  the  Federal  Water  Pollution  Control  Act
Amendments  of  1972  with establishing effluent limitations
which must be achieved by point sources  of  discharge  into
the navigable water of the United States.

Section  301(b)  of  the Act requires the achievement by not
later than July 1, 1977, of effluent limitations  for  point
sources,  other  than  publicly owned treatment works, which
are based on the application of the best practicable control
technology   currently   available   as   defined   by   the
Administrator   pursuant  to  Section  301(b)  of  the  Act.
Section 301(b) also requires the achievement  by  not  later
than  July  1,  1983,  of  effluent  limitations  for  point
sources, other than publicly owned  treatment  works,  which
are   based   on  the  application  of  the  best  available
technology economically  achievable  which  will  result  in
reasonable  further  progress  toward  the  national goal of
eliminating the discharge of all pollutants,  as  determined
in  accordance  with regulations issued by the Administrator
pursuant to Section 304 (b)  to the Act.  Section 306  of  the
Act  requires  the  achievement  by new sources of a Federal
standard of performance providing for  the  control  of  the
discharge  of  pollutants which reflects the greatest degree
of effluent reduction which the Administrator determines  to
be  achievable through the application of the best available
demonstrated  control   technology,   processes,   operating
methods,    or    other   alternatives,   including,   where
practicable,  a  standard   permitting   no   discharge   of
pollutants.    Section   304 (b)   of  the  Act  requires  the
Administrator to publish within one year of enactment of the
Act,   regulations   providing   guidelines   for   effluent
limitations  setting  forth the degree of effluent reduction
attainable through the application of the  best  practicable
control  technology  currently  available  and the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best control measures  and  practices  achievable  including
treatment  techniques,  process  and  procedure innovations,
operation methods and other alternatives.   The  regulations
proposed  herein  set  forth effluent limitations guidelines
pursuant to Section 304(b)  of the Act for the clay, ceramic,
refractory and miscellaneous minerals segment of the mineral
mining  and  processing  industry  point  source   category.

-------
Section  306  of  the Act requires the Administrator, within
one year after a category of sources is included in  a  list
published  pursuant to Section 306 (b)  (1)  (A) of the Act, to
propose  regulations  establishing  Federal   standards   of
performances  for  new  sources within such categories.  The
Administration published in the Federal Register of  January
16,  1973  (38  F.R.  1624), a list of 27 source categories.
Publication of an amended list will constitute  announcement
of  the  Administrator's  intention  of  establishing, under
Section 306,  standards  of  performance  applicable  to  new
sources  within  the mineral mining and processing industry.
The list will be amended when proposed regulations  for  the
mineral  mining and processing industry are published in the
   §£§i Register.
SUMMARY OF METHODS

The effluent limitations guidelines and  standards  of  per-
formance  proposed herein were developed in a series of sys-
tematic tasks.  The Mineral Mining and  Processing  Industry
was  first studied to determine whether separate limitations
and standards are appropriate for different segments  within
a point source category.  Development of reasonable industry
categories  and subcategories, and establishment of effluent
guidelines  and  treatment  standards   requires   a   sound
understanding  and  knowledge  of  the  mineral  mining  and
processing industry, the  processes  involved,  waste  water
generation and characteristics, and capabilities of existing
control and treatment methods.

This  report describes the results obtained from application
of the above  approach  to  the  mining  of  clay,  ceramic,
refractory,   and  miscellaneous  minerals  segment  of  the
mineral mining and processing industry.   Thus,  the  survey
and testing covered a wide range of processes, products, and
types of wastes.

The  products  covered  in this report are listed below with
their Sic designations:

    a.    Bentonite  (1452)
    b.    Fire Clay  (1453)
    c.    Fuller's Earth (1454)
    d.    Kaolin and Ball Clay (1455)
    e.    Feldspar  (1459)
    f.    Kyanite (1459)
    g.    Magnesite  (1459)
    h.    Shale and other clay minerals, N.E.C. (1459)
    i.    Talc, Soapstone and Pyrophyllite (1496)
    j.    Natural abrasives (1499)
    k.    Diatomite mining (1499)
    1.    Graphite  (1499)

-------
    m.    Miscellaneous Non-metallic minerals,
          N.E.C.  (1499)

    Any of the above minerals which are processed only  (3295)
    are also included.

categorization and Waste Load Characterization

The effluent limitation guidelines and standards of perform-
ance proposed herein were developed in the following manner.
The point source category  was  first  categorized  for  the
purpose  of  determining  whether  separate  limitations and
standards are appropriate for different  segments  within  a
point  source  category.   Such  subcategorization was based
upon raw  material  used,  product  produced,  manufacturing
process   employed,  and  other  factors.   The  raw  wastes
characteristics for each subcategory were  then  identified.
This  included  an  analysis of (1) the source and volume of
water used in the process employed and the sources of  waste
and  waste  waters in the facility; and (2) the constituents
of all waste waters including harmful constituents and other
constituents which result in degradation  of  the  receiving
water.   The  pollutants  of  waste  waters  which should be
subject to effluent limitations guidelines and standards  of
performance were identified.

Treatment and Control Technologies

The   full  range  of  control  and  treatment  technologies
existing  within  each  subcategory  was  identified.   This
included  an  identification  of  each control and treatment
technology, including both in facility and  end  of  process
technologies,   which  are  existent  or  capable  of  being
designed  for  each  subcategory.    It  also   included   an
identification   of  the  amount  of  pollutants  (including
thermal) and the  characteristics  of  pollutants  resulting
from  the  application  of each of the treatment and control
technologies.  The problems, limitations and reliability  of
each  treatment and control technology were also identified.
In addition, the non  water  quality  environmental  impact,
such  as the effects of the application of such technologies
upon other pollution problems, including air,  solid  waste,
noise  and  radiation  were  also  identified.   The  energy
requirements  of  each  of   the   control   and   treatment
technologies  were  identified  as  well  as the cost of the
application of such technologies.

Data Base

The data for identification and analyses were derived from a
number of sources.   These  sources  included  EPA  research
information,   published   literature,  qualified  technical

-------
consultation, on site  visits  and  interviews  at  numerous
mining   and  processing  facilities  throughout  the  U.S.,
interviews and meetings with various trade associations, and
interviews and meetings with various regional offices of the
EPA.  All references used in developing the  guidelines  for
effluent  limitations  and  standards of performance for new
sources reported herein are included in Section XIII of this
report.  Table 2 summarizes the data base  for  the  various
subcategories sutdied in this volume.

Facility Selection

The following selection criteria were developed and used for
the selection of facilities.

Qischajrcje ef flU§Qt_ quantities

Facilities  with  low effluent quantities or the ultimate of
no  discharge  of  process  waste  water   pollutants   were
preferred.   This  minimal  discharge may be due to reuse of
water, raw material recovery and recycling,  or  to  use  of
evaporation.   The  significant  criterion was minimal waste
added  to   effluent   streams   per   weight   of   product
manufactured.   The  amounts  of wastes considered here were
those added to waters  taken  into  the  facility  and  then
discharged.   If different processes are used by industry to
achieve   this    low    level    of    pollution    further
subcategorization was considered.
The efficiency of land use was considered.

Air E2llutipn and solid waste control

Exemplary  facilities must possess overall effective air and
solid waste pollution control where relevant in addition  to
water  pollution  control  technology.   Care  was  taken to
insure that all facilities chosen  have  minimal  discharges
into  the  environment  and that these sites do not exchange
one form of pollution for another of  the  same  or  greater
magnitude.

-------
                               TABLE 2

                             DATA BASE
Subcategory

Bentonite
Fire Clay
Fuller's
    Earth
    At-tapulgite
    Montmor.
Kaolin Dry
Kaolin Wet
Ball Clay
Feldspar
    Wet
    Dry
Kyanite
Magnesite
Shale and
Common Clay
Aplite
Talc Minerals
    Dry
    Washing
    HMS,
    Flotation
Natural Abrasives
    Garnet
    Tripoli
Diatomite
Graphite
Misc.  Minerals
    Jade
    Novaculite
No. Plants

37
81
10
4

37 total
12

5
2
129
2

27
2
3
4
Q
1
                    No. Plants
                    Data
          Visited   Available
          2
          9
est,
1
10
2
2
3
1

1
1
          2
          9
4
O
J
4
6
4
5
2
2
1
10
2
12
1
5
3
4
7
4
5
2
o
1
20
2
20
2
2
4
3
1

1
1
                         Verification
                         Sampling
               *
               *
                                   2
                                   3
                                   *
                                   0
                                   0

                                   5
                                   *
                                   *
                                   *
0
*
*
0

*
A
Total
est. 384
          70
          94
               15
*There is no discharge of process waste water in the subcategories
under normal operating conditions.

-------
Effluent -treatment methods a.n.d their effect ivgn.es.s

The  facilities  selected  have  in  use  the best currently
available  treatment  methods,   operating   controls,   and
operational   reliability;    Treatment  methods  considered
included basic  process  modifications  which  significantly
reduce  effluent  loads  as  well  as conventional treatment
methods.

Facility, facilities

All  facilities  chosen  had  all  the  facilities  normally
associated with the production of the specific product (s) in
question.   Typical  facilities  generally  were  facilities
which have all their normal process  steps  carried  out  on
site,

Facility maQageinegt philosophy

Facilities  were  preferred  whose  management  insists upon
effective  equipment  maintenance  and   good   housekeeping
practices.   These  qualities  are best identified by a high
operational factor and facility cleanliness,

Geographic location

Factors which were considered include  facilities  operating
in  close  proximity  to  sensitive vegetation or in densely
populated areas,  other factors such as  land  availability,
rainfall,  and differences in state and local standards were
also considered in so far as  those  locations  with  strict
standards usually result in exemplary facility performance.

Raw materials

Differences in raw materials purities were given strong con-
sideration in cases where the amounts of wastes are strongly
influenced  by  the  purity  of raw materials used.  Several
facilities using different  grades  of  raw  materials  were
considered  for those minerals for which raw material purity
is a determining factor in waste control.

          o£ processes
On the basis  that  all  of  the  above  criteria  are  met,
consideration   was   given   to   installations   having  a
multiplicity  of  manufacturing  processes.   However,   for
sampling  purposes, the complex facilities chosen were those
for which the wastes could be  clearly  traced  through  the
various treatment steps.
                          10

-------
Production

On  the  basis  that other criteria are equal, consideration
was given to the degree  of  production  rate  scheduled  on
water pollution sensitive equipment.

Product purity

For  cases in which purity requirements play a major role in
determining the amounts of wastes  to  be  treated  and  the
degree of water recycling possible, different product grades
were considered for subcategorization.
         GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF INDUSTRY BY PRODUCT

Clays  and  other  ceramic  and  refractory materials differ
primarily because of varying crystal structure, presence  of
significant  non-clay materials, variable rations of alumina
and silica, and variable degrees of hydration and  hardness.
This  industry,  together  with  ore mining and coal mining,
differs significantly from the process industries for  which
effluent   limitation   guidelines   have   previously  been
developed.  The industry is characterized  by  an  extremely
variable  raw waste load, depending almost entirely upon the
characteristics  of  the  natural  deposit.   The  prevalent
pollutant   poblem   is   suspended   solids,   which   vary
significantly in quantity and treatability.

For the purpose of this section we will  define  clay  as  a
naturally occurring, fine-grained material whose composition
is  based  on   one  or  more  clay  minerals  and  contains
impurities.  The basic formula is A12O3SiO3.xH2O.  Important
impurities are  iron,  calcium,  magnesium,  potassium,  and
sodium  which  can  either  be located interstitially in the
hydrous aluminum silicate matrix or can replace elements  in
the  clay  minerals.   As  it  may  be  imagined  there is a
infinite mixture of clay  minerals  and  impurities,  and  a
solution  for  nomenclature  would seem insurmountable.  The
problem is solved somewhat haphazardly by classifying a clay
according to its principal clay mineral  (kaolin-kaolinite),
by  its commercial use (fire clay and fullerfs earth)  or  by
its properties  (plastic  clay).   Much  clay,  however,  is
called  just  common  clay.   Some  of  the  principal  clay
minerals are kaolinite,  montmorillonite,  attapulgite,  and
illite.

Kaolinite   consists   of   alternating   layers  of  silica
tetrahedral   sheets   and   alumina   octahedral    sheets.
Imperfections  and  differences  in  orientation within this
stacking will lead to differences in the kaolinite mineral.

Each unit within the montmorillonite stack  is  composed  of
two   silica   tetrahedral   sheets  sandwiching  a  alumina
                          11

-------
octaheldral sheet.  Because of the unbalanced forces between
sucessive units, polar molecules  such  as water  can  enter
and  distribute the changes.  This accounts for the swelling
properties of montmorillonite bearing clays.   The  presence
of  sodium,  calcium,  magnesium and iron between units will
also affect the degree of swelling.

The unit structure of attapulgite is comprised of two silica
chains liked by octahedral groups of hydroxyls  and  oxygens
containing aluminum and magnesium.  The emperical formula is
(Mg,Al)5 SiBQ2
The   unit   structure   of   illite   resembles   that   of
montmorillonite except that aluminum ions  replace  some  of
the   silicon  ions.   The  resultant  charge  imbalance  is
neutralized by  the  inclusion  of  potassium  ions  between
units.

Most  clays  are  mined from open pits, using modern surface
mining equipment such as draglines, power  shovels,  scraper
loaders,  and  shale  planers.  A few clay pits are operated
using crude hand mining methods.  A  small  number  of  clay
mines   (principally  underclays  in  coal  mining areas) are
underground operations employing mechanized room and  pillar
methods.    Truck   haulage  from  the  pits  to  processing
facilities is most common, but other methods involve use  of
rail transport, conveyor belts, and pipelines in the case of
kaolin.   Recovery is near 100 percent of the minable beds in
open  pit  mines,  and perhaps 75 percent in the underground
operations.  The waste to clay ratio is highest  for  kaolin
(about   7:1)  and  lowest  for  miscellaneous  clay  (about
0.25:1)  .

Processing of clays ranges from very simple and  inexpensive
crushing  and  screening  for  some  common  clays  to  very
elaborate and expensive methods necessary to  produce  paper
coating  clays  and  high  quality  filler  clays for use in
rubber,  paint, and  other  products.   Waste  material  from
processing  consists  mostly  of quartz, mica, feldspar, and
iron minerals.

Clays are classified into six groups by the Bureau of Mines,
kaolin,  ball clay, fire clay, bentonite, fuller's earth, and
miscellaneous clay.  Halloysite is included under kaolin  in
Bureau  of  Mines  statistical  reports.   Specifications of
clays are based on the method  of  preparation  (crude,  air
separated,  water  washed,  delaminated,  air  dried,  spray
dried, calcined, slip, pulp, slurry, or  water  suspension)  ,
in addition to specific physical and chemical properties.
                           12

-------
The  1972  production  and  employment figures for the clay,
ceramic, refractory and  miscellaneous  minerals  industries
were  derived  either  from  the  Bureau of the Census (U.S.
Department of Commerce) publications or the  Commodity  Data
Summaries  (1974)  Appendix I to Mining and Minerals Policy,
Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department  of  the  Interior.   These
figures are tabulated in Table 3.

                    BENTONITE (SIC 1452)

Bentonites  are  fine-grained  clays  containing at least 85
percent montmorillonite.   The  swelling  type  has  a  high
sodium ion concentration which causes a material increase in
volume  when  the  clay  is  wetted  with water, whereas the
nonswelling  types  usually   contain   high   calcium   ion
concentrations.    Standard  grades  of  swelling  bentonite
increase from 15 to 20 times their dry volume on exposure to
water.   Specifications are based on pertinent  physical  and
chemical tests, particularly those relating to particle size
and swelling index.  Bentonite clays are processed using the
following  processes:  weathering, drying, grinding, sizing,
and  granulation.   The  supply-demand   relationships   for
bentonite and other clays for 1968 are shown in Figure 1.

The principal uses of bentonites are drilling muds, catalyst
manufacture,   decolorizing agents, and foundry use.  However
the properties within the bentonite group vary such  that  a
single   deposit   cannot  serve  all  the  above  mentioned
functions.   Because  of  the  high  montmoillonite  content
bentonites  are  an  important  raw  material  in  producing
fuller's earth.  The distinction between these two clays  is
not clearly defined except by end usage.

The  bentonites found in the United states were deposited in
the  Cretaceous  age  as  fine   air-borne   volcanic   ash.
Advancing  salt  water  seas and groundwater had resulted in
cationic exchangead addition of  iron  and  magnesium.   The
placement   of  the relatively large sodium and calcium ions
between  the  silica  and  alumina  sheets  in   the   basic
montimorillonite  lattice  structure are responsible for the
important property of swelling in water.    Sodium  bentonite
is  principally  mines in Wyoming while calcium bentonite is
found in many states, but principally Texas, Mississippi and
Arizona.

                    FIRE CLAY (SIC 1453)

The terms "fire clays" and "stoneware clays"  are  based  on
refractoriness   or   on   the  intended  usage  (fire  clay
indicating potential use for refractories  (hence  they  are
also  called refratory clays), and stoneware clay indicating
use for such items as crocks,  jugs, and jars).    Their  most
                           13

-------
                          TABLE 3
   1972 U.S. Production and Employment Figures For Clay,
      Ceramic, Refractory, and Miscellaneous Minerals
1452
1455

1455

1459

1459

1459
1459

1459

1496
1496
1496
1499
1499

1499
1499

1499

* includes
   Product


   Bentonite

   Fire clay

   Fuller's
   Earth
   Kaolin

   Ball clay

   Feldspar

   Kyanite

   Magnesite
   Aplite

   Crude common
   Clay
   Talc
   Soapstone
   Pyrophyllite
   Abrasives
   Garnet

   Tripoli

   Diatomite

   Graphite
   Jade

   Novaculite

ball clay
Production
kkq L (tgnglL

2,150,000
(2,767,000)
3,250,000
(3,581,000)
896,000
(988,000)
4,810,000
(5,318,000)
612,000
(675,000)
664,000
(732,000)
Est. 108,000
(Est. 120,000)
Withheld
190,000
(210,000)
41,840,000
(46,127,000)

1,004,000
17,200
(19,000)
80,000
(88,000)
522,000
(576,000)
Withheld
107
(118)
Withheld
Employinent


     900

     500

     1,200

     3,900*



     450

     165

     Unknown
     Unknown

     2,600


     950


     Unknown

     Unknown

     500

     54
     Unknown

     15
                            14

-------
  WORLD PRODUCTION
  «/ 350.000
                             KEY

                  Unitf. Thoujona  short lonj
                    J/ e«llmol»
                   S|C Standard tnduilrlal Clo >n Itcs'io
U.S. Kippl j , J.S.iOfnom)
37,529 33,810


Enpor;»
I.SZO
                                                                                           Iron and sti«f
                                                                                         I    (.125

                                                                                         I    Gloit
                                                                                      2 (~1  tf't^if-Jiiit
                                                                                     .u i I     <7T
                                                                                            Paper
                                                                                         I  FOOA- »oni3s
                                                                                               6 SO
iron cfe
 Isictollf
    410
                                                                                   	J
  OlftBf
  1,714
Figure   1.          Supply-Demand Relationships for Clays,  1968.

-------
notable  property  is  their high fusion points.  Fire clays
are principally kaolinitic containing  other  clay  minerals
and  impurities  such as quartz.  Included under the general
term fire clay are the diaspore, burley,  and  hurley  flint
clays.   Fire  clays  are  usually plastic in nature and are
often referred to as plastic  clays,  but  flint  clays  are
exceedingly  hard  due  to  their high content of kaolinite.
The fired colors of fire clays range from reds to buffs  and
grays.   Specifications  are based on pertinent physical and
chemical tests of the clays, and of products made from them.
In general the higher the alumina  content  the  higher  the
fusion  point.   Impurities  such as lime and iron lower the
fusion point.  Fire clays are mined principally in Missouri,
Illinois,   Indiana,   Kentucky,   Ohio,   West    Virginia,
Pennsylvania  and Maryland.  The fire clays are processed by
crushing, calcining and final blending.

                 FULLER'S EARTH  (SIC 1U54)

The term "fuller's earth" is derived from  the  first  major
use of the material, which was for cleaning wool by fullers.
Fuller's   earths   are   essentially   montmorillonite   or
attapulgite for which the specifications are  based  on  the
physical  and chemical tests of the products.  As previously
mentioned  the  distinction  between  fuller's   earth   and
bentonite  is  in  the commercial usage.  Major uses are for
decolorizing oils,  edible  fluids,  and  cat  litter.   The
fuller's  earth  clays are processed by blunging, extruding,
drying, crushing, grinding and finally sizing  according  to
the requirements of its eventual use.

              KAOLIN AND BALL CLAY  (SIC 1455)

Kaolin  is  the  name  applied  to  the broad class of clays
chiefly comprised of the mineral  kaolinite.   Although  the
various  kaolin  clays  do  differ  in chemical and physical
properties  the  main  reason  for  distinction   has   been
commercial  usage.   Both fire clay and ball clay are kaolin
clays.  That portion of the  kaolin  clays  term  kaolin  is
mined  in  South Carolina and Georgia and is used as fillers
and pigments.  Ball clays consist principally of  kaolinite,
but  have  a higher silica to alumina ratio than is found in
most kaolins in addition to  larger  quantities  of  mineral
impurities,    the   presence   of   minor   quantities   of
montmorillonite and, often, much organic material.  They are
usually  much  finer  grained  than  kaolins  due  to  their
sedimentary  origin  and,  in  general set the standards for
plasticity of  clays.   Ball  clays  are  mined  in  western
Kentucky,  western Tennessee and New Jersey.  Specifications
for ball clays are based on methods of  preparation   (crude,
shredded,  air  floated) and pertinent physical and chemical
                          16

-------
tests, which are much the same as  those  for  kaolin.   The
prinicpal use for ball clay is in whitewares  (e.g. china).

                    MISCELLANEOUS CLAYS
The   last  Bureau  of  Mines  category  of  clays,  is  the
miscellaneous clay category.  Miscellaneous clay may contain
some  kaolinite  and  montmorillonite,  but  usually  illite
predominates,  particularly  in  the  shales.   There are no
specific recognized grades based on  preparation,  and  very
little based on usage, although such a clay may sometimes be
referred  to  as  common,  brick,  sewer pipe, or tile clay.
Specifications are based on the physical and chemical  tests
of the products.

Most of the environmental disturbance related to clay mining
and  processing is concerned with miscellaneous clays, which
are used mostly for making heavy clay construction products,
lightweight  aggregates,  and  cement.   The   environmental
considerations   are  significant,  not  because  the  waste
products from clay mining are  particularly  offensive,  but
because  of the large number of operations and the necessity
for locating them in or near heavily  populated  consumption
centers.   The  principal environmental factors involved are
dust,  noise,  and  unsightly  or  incongruous   appearance.
Inadequate long range area planning has often contributed to
the  environmental  disturbance in the past, but the growing
awareness of  the  need  for  orderly  development  of  area
resources should result in improvements in the future.

Environmental  disturbances  in kaolin mining and processing
are of major concern in central Georgia, where most  of  the
high  quality filler grades are produced.  Although the clay
mining for the most part is not in areas of high  population
density, the mined areas are extensive, and large amounts of
materials are generated.  On occasion, flash floods may dump
significant  quantities  of  clay wastes into local streams,
and  although  the  wastes  are  not   reactive,   temporary
overloading of the streams might be harmful to some types of
marine  life.   Steps  are  being  taken  to  alleviate  the
undesirable conditions  by  rapid  rehabilitation  of  mined
areas and by using the waste materials as fill.

                    FELDSPAR (SIC 1459)

Feldspar  is  a  general  term  used to designate a group of
closely related minerals,  especially  abundant  in  igneous
rocks  and  consisting  essentially of aluminum silicates in
combination with varying proportions of  potassium,  sodium,
and  calcium.   The feldspars are the most abundant minerals
in the crust of the earth.  The principal  feldspar  species
                          17

-------
are  orthoclase or microcline (both K20«A12O3«6siO2) ,  albite
(Na20«Al£03«6Si02),   and    anorthite    (CaO«Al2O3«2SiO2).
Specimens   of   feldspar   closely  approaching  the  ideal
compositions are seldom encountered in nature, however,  and
nearly  all potash feldspars contain significant proportions
of soda.  Albite and anorthite are  really  the  theoretical
end  members  of  a continuous compositional series known as
the plagioclase  feldspars,  none  of  which,  moreover,  is
ordinarily without at least a minor amount of potash.

originally,  only the high potash feldspars were regarded as
desirable  for  most  industrial  purposes.    At   present,
however,  in  many  applications  the  potash  and  the soda
varieties, as well as mixtures of the two, are considered to
be about equally acceptable.  Perthite is the name given  to
material   consisting   of  orthoclase  or  microcline,  the
crystals of which are intergrown to a variable  degree  with
crystals of albite.  Most of the feldspar of commerce can be
classified   correctly   as  perthite.   Anorthite  and  the
plagioclase feldspars are of limited commercial importance.

Until a few decades ago virtually all the feldspar  employed
in  industry was material occurring in pegmatite deposits as
massive crystals pure enough to require no  treatment  other
than  hand  cobbing  to  bring  it  to  usable  grade.  More
recently,  however,  stimulated  by  the  often  unfavorable
location  of  the  richer  pegmatite  deposits  relative  to
markets and by the prospect of eventual exhaustion  of  such
sources,  technological advances have created a situation in
which more than 90 percent of  the  total  current  domestic
supply  is  extracted  from  such  feldspar bearing rocks as
alaskite and from beach sands.  A large part of the material
obtained from beach sands is in the form of feldspar  silica
mixtures  that  can  be  used,  with little or no additional
processing, as furnace feed ingredients in  the  manufacture
of   glass.    In  fact,  this  use  is  so  prominant  that
feldspathic sands  are  considered  in  volume  II  of  this
document under industrial sands.

Nepheline  syenite  is  a  feldspathic,  igneous  rock which
contains  little  or  no  free  silica,  but  does   contain
nepheline  (K2O«3Na2O«lA12O3«9SiO2).  The valuable properties
of  nepheline  are  the  same  type  as  those  of feldspar,
therefore, nepheline syenite, being a mixture of the two, is
a desirable  ingredient  of  glass,  whiteware  and  ceramic
glazes  and  enamels.   A  high quality nepheline syenite is
mined in Ontario, Canada, and is  being  imported  into  the
U.S. in ever increasing quantities for ceramics manufacture.
Deposits  of  the mineral exist in the U.S. in Arkansas, New
Jersey, and Montana, but mining  occurs  only  in  Arkansas,
just outside of Little Rock.  There, the mineral is mined in
open  pits  as  a  secondary product to crushed rock.  Since
                          18

-------
this is the only mining of this material in  the  U.S.   and
posses  few  if  any  environmental problems, it will not be
considered further.

Rocks that are high in feldspar and low  in  iron  and  that
have  been  mined  for  the  feldspar  content have received
special names, for instance aplite (found near Piney  River,
Virginia), alaskite (found near Spruce Pine, North Caroline)
and perthite.  The major feldspar producing states are North
Carolina,  Calfironia,  the New England states, Colorado and
South Dakota.

Feldspar and feldspathic materials in general are  mined  by
various  systems  depending  upon the nature of the deposits
being  exploited.   Because  underground  operations  entail
higher  costs,  as  long as overburden ratio will permit and
unless land  use  conflicts  are  a  decisive  factor,  most
feldspathic  rocks  will continue to be quarried by open pit
procedures using drills and  explosives.   Feldspathic  sand
deposits are mined by dragline excavators.

High   grade,   selectively   mined   feldspar  from  coarse
structured pegmatites can be crushed  in  jaw  crushers  and
rolls  and  then  subjected  to  dry  milling in flint lined
pebble mills.

Feldspar ores of the alaskite type are  mostly  beneficiated
by  froth  flotation  processes.   The  customary  procedure
begins with  primary  and  secondary  comminution  and  fine
grinding  in  jaw  crushers,  cone  crushers, and rod mills,
respectively.  The  sequence  continues  with  acid  circuit
flotation  in three stages, each stage preceded by desliming
and conditioning.  The first flotation step  depends  on  an
amine collector to float off and remove mica, and the second
uses sulfonated oils to separate iron bearing minerals.  The
third  step  floats  the  iron-  and mica free feldspar with
another amine  collector,  leaving  behind  a  residue  that
consists chiefly of quartz.

The  supply  demand  relationships  for feldspar in 1968 are
shown in Figure 2.

                     KYANITE (SIC 1459)

Kyanite   and   the   related   minerals   	   andalusite,
sillimanite,    dumortierite,   and  topaz  	  are  natural
aluminum silicates which can  be  converted  by  heating  to
mullite,   a   stable  refractory  raw  material  with  some
interstitial glass also being formed.  Kyanite, and  alusite
and   sillinanite   have   the   basic  formula  Al2O3.SiO2-
Dumortierite contains boron, and  topaz  contains  fluorine,
                          19

-------
WOBLO PRODUCTION
      2,128
        i
I           ™~~~
Conado
10


                                                          jlndyjtf j Jloetu
                                                          1   12/31/68
                                                           I/ SO
                                                                                       fVlo» Clnii
                                                                                   —rj  ISICllM
                                                                                       	1°
                                                                                           ?.oa
                                       Ktr

                          J/   Ejtimolt
                          UNIT! Thautand fon{ IOAI
                          SIC! Standard  intfutlrial clooldcollos
      Figure   2.
Supply-Demand Relationships for Feldspar, 1968
                                       20

-------
both  of  which  vaporize  during  the conversion to mullite
 (3A12O3. 2SiO2) .

With exception of the production of a  small  amount  of  by
product  kyanite  sillimanite  from  Florida  heavy  mineral
operations, the  bulk  of  domestic  kyanite  production  is
derived  from two mining operations in Virginia, operated by
the same company,  and  one  in  Georgia.   The  mining  and
process  methods  used  by these producers are basically the
same.  Mines are open pits in which the hard  rock  must  be
blasted  loose.   The ore is hauled to the nearby facilities
in trucks where the ore  is  crushed  and  then  reduced  in
rodmills.  Three stage flotation is used to obtain a kyanite
concentrate.   This  product  is further treated by magnetic
separation to remove most of the magnetic  iron  in  a  high
iron  fraction  which is wasted.  Some of the concentrate is
marketed as raw kyanite, while the balance is further ground
and/or calcined to produce mullite.

Florida beach sand deposits are worked primarily for  zircon
and  titanium  minerals,  but  the  tailings from the zircon
recovery units contain appreciable quantities of sillimanite
and  kyanite,  which  can  be  recovered  by  flotation  and
magnetic  separations.   Production and marketing of Florida
sillimanite kyanite concentrates started in 1968.

The kyanite producers are located in areas of low population
density, and since the waste minerals  generated  by  mining
and  processing  of  kyanite  ore  are relatively inert, and
settle rapidly, they present  no  appreciable  environmental
problem.   The  land  area involved in kyanite operations is
not extensive.

The production and uses of kyanite and related minerals  are
shown in Figure 3.

                    MAGNESITE (SIC 1459)

Magnesium  is the eighth most plentiful element in the earth
and, in its many forms, makes up about 2.06 percent  of  the
earth's crust.  Although it is found in 60 or more minerals,
only  four,  dolomite,  magnesite, brucite, and olivine, are
used  commercially  to  produce  its  compounds.   Currently
dolomite  is  the  only  domestic  ore used as principal raw
material for  producing  magnesium  metal.   Sea  water  and
brines are also principal sources of magnesium, which is the
third   most   abundant  element  dissolved  in  sea  water,
averaging 0.13 percent magnesium by weight.   Extraction  of
magnesium  from  sea water is so closely associated with the
manufacture of refractories that it will be discussed in the
clay and gypsum products category.
                          21

-------
WORLD PRODUCTION
     .t/ 340
       I
                             stockpile t>aEnr>c«	5
US supply
J/ KO
5

Eio
—4 -71
                                      KEY
                                KyoniJa
                             Jy Synthetic mulllla
                             SIC Stond'jrd Industrial
                             Unit: TSousand ificfl lent
-1'



~
-t
-t
~i
-i

iroa snj site)
fi/C )3!>l
y so
P'imory noiifsrrouS
rnilij Is
f J/c jsj/tjajfj
A/ '5

Sfcc.nJo'yrciierraui
ir.!lolj
C:X-f JJ
-------
Dolomite, the double carbonate of magnesium and calcium  and
a  sedimentary  rock  commonly  interbedded  with limestone,
extends  over  large  areas  of  the  United  States.   Most
dolomites  are probably the result of replacement of calcium
by magnesium in preexisting limestone beds.  Magnesite,  the
natural  form  of  magnesium  carbonate,  is found in bedded
deposits, as deposits in veins, pockets, and shear zones  in
ferro-magnesium   rocks,   and   as  replacement  bodies  in
limestone  and  dolomite.   Significant  deposits  occur  in
Nevada,  California,  and  Washington.  Brucite, the natural
form  of  magnesium  hydroxide,  is  found  in   crystalline
limestone  and  as  a  decomposition  product  of  magnesium
silicates associated with serpentine,  dolomite,  magnesite,
and  chromite.  Olivine, or chrystolite, is a magnesium iron
silicate usually found in  association  with  other  igneous
rocks  such  as  basalt  and  gabbro.   It  is the principal
constituent of a rock known as dunite.  Commercial  deposits
are in Washington, North Carolina, and Georgia.

Evaporites  are  deposits  formed  by precipitation of salts
from saline solutions.  They are found both on  the  surface
and  underground.   The  Carlsbad, New Mexico, and the Great
Salt  Lake  evaporite  deposits  are  sources  of  magnesium
compounds.    The  only  significant  commercial  source  of
magnesium  compounds  from  well  brines  is  in   Michigan,
although  brines  are  known  to  occur in many other areas.
This form  of  mining  is  included  in  the  clay,  gypsum,
ceramics  and refractory products report since it is closely
related to refractories manufacturing.

Selective open-pit mining methods are  being  used  to  mine
magnesite at Gabbs, Nevada.  This facility is the only known
U.S.   facility   that   produces  magnesia  from  naturally
occurring magnesite ore.

Magnestie and brucite ore are delivered from  the  mines  to
gyratory  or  jaw  crushers where it is reduced to a minus 5
inch size.  It is further crushed to minus  2.5  inches  and
conveyed  to  storage  piles.   Magnesite ore is either used
directly or beneficiated by heavy media separation or  froth
flotation.   Refractory  magnesia  is  produced by blending,
grinding and briquetting various grades  of  magnesite  with
certain   additives  to  provide  the  desirable  refractory
product.  The deadburning takes place in rotary kilns  which
develop  temperatures  in  the range of 1490-1760°C (2700 to
3200°F) .

When the source of magnesia is sea water or well brine,  the
waters  are  treated with calcined dolomite or lime obtained
from oyster shell by calcining, to precipitate the magnesium
as magnesium hydroxide.  The magnesium hydroxide  slurry  is
filtered  to  remove  water,  after  which it is conveyed to
                           23

-------
rotary kilns fired to temperatures that may be  as  high  as
1850°C     (3,360°F).     The   calcined   product   contains
approximately 97 percent MgO.

The principal uses for magnesium compounds follow:

Compound and grade                     Use
Magnesium oxide:
    Refractory grades

    Caustic-calcined
    U.S.P. and technical
    grades
Precipitated magnesium
carbonate
Magnesium hydroxide
Magnesium chloride
Basic refractories.

Cement, rayon, fertilizer,
insulation, magnesium metal,
rubber, fluxes, refractories,
chemical processing and manu-
facturing, uranium processing,
paper processing.
Rayon, rubber (filler and
catalyst),  refractories, medi-
cines, uranium processing,
fertilizer, electrical insula-
tion, neoprene compounds and
other chemicals, cement.
Insulation, rubber, pigments
and paint, glass, ink, ceramics,
chemicals, fertilizers.

Sugar refining, magnesium oxide,
Pharmaceuticals.

Magnesium metal, cement, ceramics,
textiles, paper, chemicals.
Basic  refractories  used  in  metallurgical  furnaces   are
produced  from  magnesium  oxide  and  accounted for over 80
percent ot total domestic  demand  for  magnesium  in  1968.
Technological  advances  in steel production required higher
temperatures which were  met  by  refractories  manufactured
from   high   purity   magnesia   capable   of  withstanding
temperatures above 1930°C  (3,500°F).

      SHALE AND OTHER CLAY MINERALS N.E.C.  ( SIC 1459)

-------
                           SHALES

Shale is a soft laminated  sedimentary  rock  in  which  the
constituent  particles  are predominantly of the clay grade.
Just as clay possesses varying properties and uses, the same
can be said of shale.  Thus, the word shale does not connote
a single mineral, inasmuch as  the  properties  of  a  given
shale  are  largely  dependent  on  the  properties  of  the
originating clay species.

Mining of shales depends  on  the  nature  of  the  specific
deposit  and  on  the  amount  and nature of the overburden.
Some deposits are mined underground, however,  the  majority
of shale deposits are worked as open quarries.

Shales  and  common  clays  are  used interchangeably in the
manufacture of formed and fired  ceramic  products  and  are
frequently  mixed  prior  to  processing for optimization of
product properties.  This type of product consumes about  70
percent  of  shale  production.   Certain impure shales (and
clays)  have the property of expanding  to  a  cellular  mass
when  rapidly  heated  to 1000 - 1300°C.  On sudden cooling,
the melt forms a porous slag like material which is screened
to produce a lightweight concrete aggregate  (60-110lb/ft.3).
Probably 20 25 percent of the total market  for  shale  goes
into aggregate production.

                           APLITE

Aplite  is  a  granitic  rock of variable composition with a
high proportion of  soda  or  lime  soda  feldspar.   It  is
therefore  useful  as  a raw material for the manufacture of
container glass.   Processing of the ore is primarily for the
purpose of obtaining sufficient particle size reduction  and
for  removing  all but a very small fraction of iron bearing
minerals.

Aplite of sufficient quality is produced in  the  U.S.  from
only  two mines,  both in Virginia (Nelson County and Hanover
County).   The  aplite  rock  in  Hanover  County  has  been
decomposed  so completely that it is mined without resort to
drilling and/or blasting.

   TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE AND PYROPHYLLITE (SIC 1496)

The mineral talc is  a  soft,  hydrous  magnesium  silicate,
3MgO»USiO2»HjO.   The talc of highest purity is derived from
sedimentary magnesium carbonate rocks; less pure  talc  from
ultra basic igneous rocks.
                           25

-------
Steatite  has  been  used to designate a grade of industrial
talc that is especially pure  and  is  suitable  for  making
electronic  insulators.   Block  steatite  talc is a massive
form of talc that can be readily machined, has a uniform low
shrinkage in all directions, has a low absorption when fired
at high temperature, and gives proper electrical  resistance
values   after  firing.   Phosphate  bonded  talc  which  is
approximately   equivalent   to   natural   block   can   be
manufactured in any desired amount.  French chalk is a soft,
massive variety of talc used for marking cloth.

Soapstones  refer  to the sub steatite, massive varieties of
talc and mixtures of  magnesium  silicates  which  with  few
exceptions  have  a  slippery  feeling  and can be carved by
hand.

Pyrophyllite is a hydrous aluminum silicate similar to  talc
in  properties  and in most applications, and its formula is
A12.Oj«4SiO2»HjO.  It is principally found in North  Carlina.
Wonderstone  is  a  term  applied  to  a massive block pyro-
phyllite from the Republic of South  Africa.   The  uses  of
pyrophyllite   include   wall  tile,  refractories,  paints,
wallboard, insecticides, soap, textiles, cosmetics,  rubber,
composition battery boxes and welding rod coatings.

During  1968  talc  was  produced  from 52 mines in Alabama,
California, Georgia, Maryland, Montana,  Nevada,  New  York,
North  Carolina, Texas, and Vermont.  Soapstone was produced
from 13 mines in  Arkansas,  California,  Maryland,  Nevada,
Oregon, Virginia, and Washington.  Pyrophyllite was produced
from  10  mines  in California and North Carolina.  Sericite
schist, closely  resembling  pyrophyllite  in  physical  and
chemical   properties,  was  produced  in  Pennsylvania  and
included with pyrophyllite statistics.

The facility size breakdown is as follows:
   Numbers of                        Production
     Facilitigs	                         tons/Y£	

       6                              < 1,000
      22                             1,000 - 10,000
      20                            10,000 - 100,000
       3                           100,000 - 1,000,000

Slightly more than half of  the  industrial  talc  is  mined
underground  and  the  rest  is quarried as is soapstone and
pyrophyllite.  Small  quantities  of  block  talc  also  are
removed  by  surface  method.   Underground  operations  are
usually entirely within the ore body and thus require timber
supports that must be carefully placed  in  talc  operations
because of the slippery nature of the ore.
                           26

-------
Mechanization  of  underground  mines  has  become common in
recent years, especially in North  Carolina  and  California
where  the  ore  body ranges in thickness from 10 to 15 feet
and dips 12 to 19 degrees from horizontal.  In  those  mines
where  the  ore  body  suffers  vein dips of greater than 20
degrees, complex switch backs are introduced to provide  the
gentle  slopes  needed  for easier truck haulage of the ore.
At one quarry in Virginia, soapstone for  decorative  facing
is  mined  in large blocks approximately 1.2 by 2.U by 3.0 m
(4 by 8 by 10 ft)  which are cut into  slices  by  gang  saws
with blades spaced about 7.6 cm (3 in) apart.  In the mining
of  block  talc  of  crayon grade, a minimum of explosive is
used to avoid shattering the ore; extraction of  the  blocks
being  accomplished  with  hand equipment to obtain sizes as
large as possible.

When mining ore of different grades within the same deposit,
selective mining and hand sorting must be used.   Operations
of  the  mill  and  mine are coordinated, and when a certain
specification is to be produced at  the  mill,  the  desired
grade  of  ore is obtained at the mine.  This type of mining
and/or hand sorting is commonly used for assuring the proper
quality of the output of crude talc group minerals.

Roller mills, in closed circuit with air separators, are the
most satisfactory for fine grinding (100  to  325  mesh)   of
soft  talcs  or pyrophyllites.  For more abrasive varieties,
such as New York  talc  and  North  Carolina  ceramic  grade
pyrophyllite,  grinding  to  100  to 325 mesh is effected in
quartzite  or  silex  lined  pebble  mills,  with  quartzite
pebbles as a grinding medium.  These mills are ordinarily in
closed  circuit  with air separators but some times are used
as batch grinders, especially if reduction to finer particle
sizes is required.

Talc and pyrophyllite are amenable to processing in an addi-
tional   microgrinding    apparatus.     Microgrinding    or
micronizing is also done in fluid system with subsequent air
drying of the product.

The  production and uses of talc, soapstone and pyrophyllite
are shown in Figure U.

                NATURAL ABRASIVES (SIC 1499)

Abrasives consist of materials of extreme hardness that  are
used  to  shape  other  materials  by  grinding  or abrading
action.  Such materials may be classified as either  natural
or  synthetic  (manufactured).   Of  interest  here  are the
natural abrasive minerals which include cleamorid, corundum,
emery, pumice, tripoli and garnet.   Of  lesser  importance,
other  natural  abrasives  include feldspar,  calcined clays.
                           27

-------
CC
                  WORLD  PRODUCTION
                         4,738
                            1
                   I
                 Jcpcn
                 1,833
               U.S.S.R.
               £/  408
                  IS4
i
United States
958

F^c ncs
.2/232

*/\zl

Cur.cda
78

0 , •, _ _



5 Imports 1
_ji-'«j- K i U^m<.
24 r i
i
jj
I
JL|
i
~ I industrv n?osks 1
                                 iGS
                                                               Ceromic*
                                                              21
                                                           3Z69)
                                                                248
                                            Industry stocks
                                                12/31/68
                                                 161
 ! /1 / S 3     f
V 13!	
                                                     U.S.demand
                                                        886
                                                          KEY
                                                 *Lt Estlmote
                                               SIC  Slandcrd  IndastricJ Classification
                                              Units:  Thousand short  tons
                                                                              Paint
                                                                            IS 1C 285II
                                                                               I 70
                                                                Roofing
                                                              (SIC295Z)
                                                                 65
                                                                                                              Insecticides
                                                                                                                (SIC 2879)
                                                                                                                   69
                                                                              Paper
                                                                           (SIC 26£U
                                                                               39
                                                                                                               Refractories
                                                                                                                ISIC 3Z35)
                                                                                                                   34
                                                                              RuOber
                                                                            (SIC306SJ
                                                                         Toilef preparations
                                                                            (SIC2844}
                                                                               35
                                                                                                                  Other
                                                                                                                  182
                       Figure 4.
   Supply-Demand Relationships for Talc, Soapstone, and Pyrophyllite, 1968

-------
chalk and silica in its many forms such as sandstones, sand,
flint and diatomite.

                          CORUNDUM

Corundum  is  a   mineral   with   the   composition   A1203
crystallized  in  the  hexagonal  system which was formed by
igneous and metamorphic processes.

Abrasive grade corundum has not been  mined  in  the  United
States  for  more  than  60  years.  There is no significant
environmental problem posed by the processing of some  2,360
kkg   of   corundum   per  year   (1968  data);  and  further
consideration will be dropped.

                           EMERY

Emery consists of an intimate  admixture  of  corundum  with
magnetite or hematite, and spinel.

The  major  domestic use of emery involves its incorporation
into aggregates as a rough ground product for use  as  heavy
duty  non  skid  flooring  and  for skid resistant highways.
Additional quantities (25 percent of total consumption)  are
used in general abrasive applications.

Recent  statistics  show  the continuing down turn in demand
for emery resulting from  the  increasing  competition  with
such  artificial  abrasives as A12OJ and SIC.  Production is
estimated to be 11,000 kkg/yr (10,000 tons/yr).   Emery  was
not  considered  further  in  this report because it was not
deemed  economically  significant   and   no   environmental
problems were noted.

                          TRIPOLI

Tripoli  is  the  generic  name  applied to a number of fine
grained, lightweight, friable,  minutely  porous,  forms  of
decomposed siliceous rock, presumably derived from siliceous
limestones or calcareous cherts.  Tripoli is often confused,
in  both the trade and technical literature, with tripolite,
a diatomaceous earth (diatomite), found  in  Tripoli,  North
Africa.

The  two  major working deposits of tripoli are those in the
Seneca,  Missouri  area  and  in  southern  Illinois.    The
Missouri  ore  resembles tripolite and was incorrectly named
tripoli.  The  name  has  persisted  and  now  has  definite
physical  and  trade  association  with  the  ore  from  the
Missouri Oklahoma field.  The  material  from  the  southern
Illinois  area  is often refered to as "amorphous11 or "soft"
silica.  In both cases the ore contains  97  to  99  percent
                          29

-------
S1OI2  with  minor additions of alumina, iron, lime, soda and
potash.  The rottenstone obtained from  Pennsylvania  is  of
higher  density  and  has  a  composition  approximately  60
percent silica, 18 percent alumina, 9 percent iron oxides, 8
percent alkalies and the remainder lime and magnesia.

Tripoli mining involves two different processes depending on
the nature of  the  ore  and  of  the  overburden.   In  the
Missouri    Oklahoma   area,   the   small   overburden   of
approximately six feet in  thickness  coupled  with  tripoli
beds  ranging  from  0.6  to 1.3m (2 to 14 ft)  in thickness,
lends itself to open pit mining.  The tripoli is first  hand
sorted  for  texture  and color, then piled in open sheds to
air dry (the native ore is saturated with water)   for  three
to  six  months.   The dried material is subsequenly crushed
with hammer mills and rolls.

In the southern Illinois field, due to the terrain  and  the
heavy  overburden, underground mining using a modified room-
and-pillar  method  is  practiced.   The  resulting  ore  is
commonly  wet milled after crushing to 0.63 to 1.27 cm (0.25
to 0.50 in) sizing, the silica is fine ground in tube  mills
using  flint  linings  and flint pebbles in a closed circuit
system with  bowl  classifiers.   The  resulting  accurately
si2ed product is thickened, dried and packed for shipment.

Tripoli is primarily used as an abrasive or as a constituent
of abrasive materials for such uses as polishing and buffing
of  such  materials as copper, aluminum, brass and zinc.   In
addition,  the pulverized  product  is  widely  used  as  the
abrasive  element in scouring soaps and powders, in polishes
for the metal  working  trades  and  as  a  mild  mechanical
cleaner  in  washing  powders  for  fabrics.  The pure white
product from  southern  Illinois,  when  finely  ground,   is
widely  used  as  a  filler  in  paint.  The other colors of
tripoli are often used as  fillers  in  the  manufacture  of
linoleum,  phonograph records, pipe coatings and so forth.

Total  U.  S. production of tripoli in  1971 was of the order
of 68,000  kkg,  some  70  percent  of  which  was  used  as
abrasive,  the remainder as filler.

                           GARNET

Garnet  is  an  orthosilicate  having  the  general  formula
3BO«X2O3»3SiO2 where the bivalent element R may be  calcium,
magnesium,  ferrous iron or manganese; the trivalent element
x, aluminum,  ferric  iron  or  chromium,  rarely  titanium;
further, the silicon is occasionally replaced by titanium.
                           30

-------
The  members  of  the  garnet  group  of minerals are common
accessory minerals in a large variety of rocks, particularly
in gneisses and schists.  They are  also  found  in  contact
metamorpnic deposits, in crystalline limestones; pegmatites;
and in serpentines.  Although garnet deposits are located in
almost  every state of the United states and in many foreign
countries, practically the  entire  world  production  comes
from New York and Idaho.  The Adirondack deposit consists of
an  alamandite  garnet  having  incipient  lamellar  parting
planes which cause it to  break  under  pressure  into  thin
chisel  edge  plates.   Even  when crushed to very fine size
this material still retains this sharp silvery grain shape—
—a feature of particular importance in the coated  abrasive
field.

The  New  York  mine is a surface site worked by open quarry
methods.  The ore is quarried in benches about  10.7  m  (35
ft)   in  height,  trucked  to  the  mill and dumped on a pan
conveyor feeding a 61 - 91 cm (2U x 36 in)  jaw crusher.  The
secondary crusher which is a standard 4 feet Symonds cone is
in closed circuit with a 1-1/2 inch screen.  The  minus  3.8
cm (1 1/2 in)  material is screened on a 10 mesh screen.  The
oversize  from  the  screen goes to a heavy media separation
facility while the undersize is classified and  concentrated
on  jigs.   The  very fine material is treated by flotation.
The combined concentrates, which have a  garnet  content  of
about  98 percent, are then crushed, sized and heat treated.
It has been found that heat treatment, to about 700 to  800°
C  will improve the hardness, toughness, fracture properties
and color of the treated garnets.

The only other significant  production  of  garnets  in  the
United  States  is  situated  on  Emerald  Creek  in Benewah
County, Idaho.  This  deposit  is  an  alluvial  deposit  of
alamandite  garnets  caused  by  the  erosion  of  soft mica
schists in which the garnets have a maximum  grain  size  of
about  4.8 mm (3/16 in).  The garnet bearing gravel is mined
by drag line,  concentrated on trommels and jigs then crushed
and screened into various sizes.   This garnet is used mainly
for sandblasting and as filtration media.

Approximately 45 percent of the garnet marketed is  used  in
the  manufacture of abrasive coated papers, about 35 percent
in the glass and optical industries with the  remainder  for
sand blasting and miscellaneous uses.

                    DIATOMITE (SIC 1499)

Diatomite  is siliceous rock of sedimentary origin which may
vary in the  degree  of  consolidation  but  which  consists
mainly  of  the  fossilized remains of the protective silica
shells  formed  by  diatoms,  single  celled  non  flowering
                          31

-------
microscopic  facilities.   The  size, shape and structure of
the   individual   fossils   and    their    mass    packing
characteristics result in microscopic porous material of low
specific gravity.

There  are numerous sediments which contain diatom residues,
admixed  with  substantial  amounts   of   other   materials
including  clays,  carbonates or silica; these materials are
classified as diatomaceous silts, shales or mudstones;  they
are  not  properly  diatomite,  a  designation restricted to
material of such quality that it is suitable for  commercial
uses.   The  terms  diatomaceous  earth  and  kieselgur  are
synonymous with diatomite; the terms  infusorial  earth  and
tripolite are considered obsolete.

Diatomaceous  silica  is the most appropriate designation of
the principal component of diatomite; that is, the substance
of the fossil silica  shell  is  the  major  constituent  of
beneficiated  diatomite  of processed diatomaceous products.
Commercially useful deposits of diatomite show Si02  concen-
tration  ranging  from a low of 86percent  (Nevada) to a high
of 90.75 percent  (Lompoc, California) for the United  States
producers;  the  SiO£ content of foreign sources is somewhat
lower.  The  remainder  consists  of  alumina,  iron  oxide,
titanium   oxide,   and   lesser  quantities  of  phosphate,
magnesia, and the alkali metal oxides.  In  addition,  there
is  usually  some  residual  organic  matter as indicated by
ignition losses which are typically of the order of 4  to  5
percent.

The  formation of diatomite sediments was dependent upon the
existence of the proper  environmental  conditions  over  an
adequate period of time to permit a significant accumulation
of   the  skeletal  remains.   These  conditions  include  a
plentiful supply  of  nutrients  and  dissolved  silica  for
colony  growth  and  the  existence  of relatively quiescent
physical  conditions  such  as  exist  in  protected  marine
estuaries  or  in  large  inland  lakes.  In addition, it is
necessary that these conditions existed in relatively recent
times in order that subsequent metamorphic  processes  would
not  have altered the diatomite to the rather more indurated
materials such as porcelanite and the opaline cherts.

The upper tertiary period was the period of  maximum  diatom
growth  and  subsequent  deposit  formation.  The great beds
near Lompoc, California are upper Miocene and lower Pliocene
(about 20 x 10* years old); formations of similar origin and
age occur along the California coast line from north of  San
Francisco  to  south  of  San  Diego.   Most of the dry lake
deposits of California, Nevada, Oregon and Washington are of
freshwater origin formed in later  tertiary  of  Pleistocene
(less than 12 x 10* years old.)
                          32

-------
Currently,  the  only  significant  production  of diatomite
within the U.S. is in the western  states,  with  California
the   leading  producer,  followed  by  Nevada,  Oregon  and
Washington.  Commonly, beds of  ordinary  sedimentary  rocks
such   as  shales,  sandstones,  or  limestone  overlie  and
underlie the diatomite beds, thus the first step  in  mining
requires  the  removal  of the overburden (which ranges from
zero to about 15 times the thickness of the  diatomite  bed)
by  ordinary  earth moving machinery.  The ore is ordinarily
dug by power  shovels  without  the  necessity  of  previous
fragmentation   by   drilling   or  blasting  although  such
operations may be carried out.

Initial processing of the ore involves size reduction  by  a
primary  crusher  followed  by  further  size  reduction and
drying (some diatomite ores contain up to 60 percent  water)
in  a  blower  hammer mill combination with a pneumatic feed
and discharge system.  The suspended particles  in  the  hot
gases pass through a series of cyclones and a baghouse where
they are separated into appropriate particle size groups.

The  uses  of  diatomite  result  from  the size (from 10 to
greater than 500  microns  in  diameter),  shape  (generally
spiny  structure  of  intricate  geometry)   and  the packing
characteristics  of  the  diatom  shells.   Since   physical
contact  between  the individual fossil shells is chiefly at
the outer points of the irregular  surfaces,  the  resulting
compact  material is microscopically porous with an apparent
density of only 5 to 16 pounds per  cubic  foot  for  ground
diatomite.  The processed material has dimensional stability
to  temperatures  of  the  order  of  400°  C.  The domestic
consumption of diatomite is shown in Figure 5.

                    GRAPHITE  (SIC 1499)

Natural graphite is the mineral form  of  elemental  carbon,
crystallized predominately in the hexagonal system,  found in
silicate minerals of varying kind and percentage.  The three
principal  types  of  natural  occurrence  of  graphite  are
classified as  lump,  amorphous  and  crystalline  flake;  a
classification based on major differences in geologic origin
and occurrence.

Lump  graphite  occurs  as  fissure filled veins wherein the
graphite is typically massive  with  particle  size  ranging
from  extremely fine grains to coarse, platy intergrowths or
fibrous to acicular aggregates.  The  origin  of  vein  type
deposits   is   believed   to   be  either  hydrothermal  or
pneumatolytic  since  there  is  no  apparent   relationship
between  the veins and the host rock.  A variety of minerals
generally in the form of isolated pockets or  grains,  occur
                           33

-------
            J/ /, 7* 30
;   (j. s. s./e.
    ITALY
    &  3-52
                                                                        -70
                                              (J.S.
                          Mey:
                            SJ
                                                                                    r~
                                                                                            237
   /-.' A !
                                                                                       I
SZ.3
                       Figure  5.        Supply-Demand Relationships for Dictcrrme,  1968

-------
with  graphite,  including feldspar, quartz, mica, pyroxene,
zircon, rutile, apatite and iron sulfides.

Amorphous graphite, which is fine grained, soft, dull black,
earthy looking and ususally somewhat porous,  is  formed  by
metamorphism of coalbeds by nearby intrusions.  Although the
purity  of  amorphous  graphite  depends  on  the  purity of
coalbeds from which it was derived, it is usually associated
with sandstones, shales, slates and limestones and  contains
accessory minerals such as quartz, clays and iron sulfides.

Flake  graphite,  which  is  believed to have been formed by
metamorphism from sedimentary carbon inclusions  within  the
host  rocks,  commonly  occurs  disseminated  in  regionally
metamorphosed sedimentary rocks such  as  gneisses,  schists
and marbles.

The  only  domestic  producer  is located near Burnet, Texas
and, mines the flake graphite by open pit methods  utilizing
an  5.5  m  (18 ft)  bench pan.  The ore is hard and tough and
thus requires much secondary blasting.  The  broken  ore  is
hauled by motor trucks to the mill.

Because  of  the  premium placed upon the mesh size of flake
graphite, the problem in milling is one of grinding to  free
the  graphite  without  reducing the flake size excessively;
this is difficult  because  during  grinding,  the  graphite
flakes  are  cut by quartz and other sharp gangue materials,
thus rapidly reducing the flake size.  However, if the flake
can be removed from most  of  the  quartz  and  other  sharp
minerals  soon  enough,  subsequent  grinding  will  usually
reduce the size of the remaining gangue, with little further
reduction in the size of  the  flake.   Impact  grinding  or
essentially  pure  flake  in  a ball mill reduces flake size
rather  slowly,  the  grinding  characteristics   of   flake
graphite  under  these  conditions being similar to those of
mica.

Graphite floats readily and does not  require  a  collector;
hence,   flotation   has  become  the  accepted  method  for
beneficiating disseminated ores.  Although  high  recoveries
are  common,  concentrates  with acceptable graphitic carbon
content are difficult to attain and indeed  with  some  ores
impossible.   The  chief problem lies with the depression of
the gangue minerals since relatively pure grains of  quartz,
mica, and other gangue minerals inadvertently become smeared
with  fine  graphite, making them floatable resulting in the
necessity for  repeated  cleaning  of  the  concentrates  to
attain   high   grade   products.     Regrinding   a  rougher
concentrate reduces the number of cleanings needed.  Much of
the natural flake either has a siliceous skeleton (which can
be observed when the carbon is burned) or is composed  of  a
                          35

-------
layer  of  mica  between  outer layers of graphite making it
next to  impossible  to  obtain  a  high  grade  product  by
flotation.   The  supply  demand  relationships for 1968 are
shown at Figure 6,

        MISCELLANEOUS NON-METALLIC MINERALS, N.E.C.
                         (SIC 1499)

                            JADE

The term jade is  applied  primarily  to  the  two  minerals
jadeite  and nephrite, both minerals being exceedingly tough
with color varying from white to green.  Jadeite, which is a
sodium  aluminum  silicate  (NaAlSi2O6)   contains   varying
amounts  of  iron,  calcium  and  magnesium is found only in
Asia.  Nephrite is a tough compact variety  of  the  mineral
tremolite  (Ca2Mg5Si8O.2_2 (OH) 2)  which is an end member of an
isomorphous series where in iron may replace the  magnesium.
In  the  U.S.  production  of  jade  minerals is centered in
Wyoming, California and Alaska.

                         NOVACULITE

Novaculite is a  generic  name  for  massive  and  extensive
geologic    formations   of   hard,   compact,   homogenous,
microcrystalline silica  located  in  the  vicinity  of  Hot
Springs, Arkansas.  There are three strata of novaculite 	
lower, middle, and upper.   The upper strata is not compacted
and  is  a  highly  friable  ore which is quarried, crushed,
dried and air classified prior to packaging.  Chief uses are
as filler in plastics, pigment in paints, and  as  a  micron
sized metal polishing agent.

                         WHETSTONE

Whetstones,   and  other  sharpening  stones,  are  probably
produced in small volume across the U.S.  wherever  deposits
of  very  hard  silaceous  rock occur.  However, the largest
center  of  sharpening  stone  manufacture  is  in  the  Hot
Springs,  Arkansas,  area.    This  area  has  extensive out-
cropping deposits of very hard and quite pure silica, called
"Novaculite", which are mined and processed into whetstones.
Most of the mining and processing is done on  a  very  small
scale by individuals or very small companies.

The  total  production  in  1972 of all special silica stone
products  (grinding pebbles,  grindstones,  oilstones,  tube-
mill  liners,  and  whetstones)  was  only  2,910 kkg (3,240
tons), with a value of $670,000.  This production and  value
is  neither economically nor environmentally significant and
will not be treated further in this report.
                           36

-------
                                     V.'CS-D
UJ
                                               W"X;CO     L—55.'SO-.J    :^50'1i   	j       fTnc^Xy ~n-  !
                                                                                           71.7JO   I
                                                                                   S'.C S-lanscfi btfutlrial
                                                                                   yniJ: 3ho-r tans
                                                                                   Gcv: Stocv.piic aaiar.ee.	,43,653
                                                                                  (A) Mcfejasy crySicJIiic flake...... 25,829
                                                                                                iilifie fit.£:.„.„ 7, 206
                                                                                  EC! Ceylo-i Q.TSf&hous Ji.mp	 "5,
                                                                                  CO) Ct
                                     Figure  6.           Supply-Demand Relationships for Nahira! Graphife, 1968

-------

-------
                         SECTION IV


                  INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
INTRODUCTION

In the development of effluent  limitations  guidelines  and
recommended  standards  of  performance for new sources in a
particular  industry,  consideration  should  be  given   to
whether  the  industry  can  be  treated  as  a whole in the
establishment of uniform and equitable  guidelines  for  the
entire  industry or whether there are sufficient differences
within the industry to justify its division into categories.
For this  segment  of  the  mineral  mining  and  processing
industry,  which  includes  21  mineral types, the following
factors  were  considered  as  possible  justifications  for
industry categorization and subcategorization:

1)  manufacturing processes;

2)  raw materials

3)  pollutants in effluent waste waters;

H)  product purity;

5)  water use volume;

6)  facility size;

7)  facility age; and

8)  facility location.

INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION

The first categorization step was  to  segment  the  mineral
mining  and  processing  industry  according to product use.
Thus, Volume I is "Mining of Minerals for  the  Construction
Industry," Volume II is "Mining of Minerals for the Chemical
and  Fertilizer Industries," and this volume. Volume III, is
"Mining  of  Clay,  Ceramic,  Refractory  and  Miscellaneous
Minerals."

The  reason  for  this  division  is  twofold.   First,  the
industries in each volume  generally  have  the  same  waste
water  treatment  problems.  Secondly, this division results
in development documents that are not so big that the reader
                          39

-------
may really forget earlier points as he reads from section to
section,

The first cut in  subcategorization was made on a  commodity
basis.   This  was  necessary because of the large number of
commodities and in order to avoid insufficient study of  any
one  area.   Furthermore,  the  economics  of each commodity
differs and an individual assessment is necessary to  insure
that  the  economic  impact  is  not  a  limiting  factor in
establishing effluent treatment technologies.  Table 4 lists
the 17 subcategories in this report.
FACTORS CONSIDERED

Manufacturing Processes

Each commodity can be further subcategori2ed into three very
general classes - dry crushing and  grinding,  wet  crushing
and  grinding  (shaping),  and  crushing  and  beneficiation
(including flotation, heavy media,  et  cetera,  where  such
differences  exist.  Each of these processes is described in
detail in Section V of this report, including  process  flow
diagrams  pertinent  to  the  specific  facilities using the
process.

Raw Materials

The raw materials used  are  principally  ores,  which  vary
across  this  segment of the industry and also vary within a
given deposit,.  Despite these variations, differences in ore
grades do not generally affect the ability  to  achieve  the
effluent  limitations.   In  cases  where it does, different
processes  are  used,  as  is  the  case  for  feldspar  and
subcategorization  is  better  applied  by  process  type as
described in the preceeding paragraph.

Product Purity

The mineral extraction  processes  covered  in  this  report
yield  products  which  vary  in  purity  from what would be
considered a chemical  technical  grade  to  an  essentially
analytical   reagent   quality.    Product  purity  was  not
considered to be a viable criterion  for  categorization  of
the  industry.   Pure  product manufacture usually generates
more waste than the production of lower grades of  material,
and  thus could be a basis for subcategorization.  As is the
case  for  variation  of  ore  grade  discussed  under   raw
materials above,  pure products usually result from different
beneficiation  processes,  and  subcategorization is applied
more advantageously there.
                          40

-------
                          TABLE 4
Commodity

Bentonite
Fire clay
Fuller's earth

Kaolin and ball
  clay
  Industry
SIC Code	SubcategoicY
Feldspar
Kyanite
Magnesite
Shale 6 Common
  Clay, NEC
Talc Minerals
  Group
    1452
    1453
    1454

    1455
    1459
    1459
    1459
    1459

    1496
Natural Abrasives

Diatomite
Graphite
Misc. Minerals,
  Not elsewhere
  classified
    1499

    1499
    1499
    1499
No further subeategorization
No further subeategorization
Attapulgite
MontmorilIonite
Dry Kaolin Mining
  and Processing
Kaolin Mining and
  Wet Processing for
  High-Grade Product
Ball Clay - Dry
  Processing
Ball Clay - Wet
  Processing
Feldspar Wet
  Processing
Feldspar Dry
  Processing
No further subeategorization
No further subeategorization
Shale
Aplite
Talc Minerals Group,
  Dry Process
Talc Minerals Group,
  Ore Mining & Washing
Talc Minerals Group,
  Ore Mining, Heavy Media
  and Flotation
Garnet
Tripoli
No further subeategorization
No further subeategorization
Jade
Novaculite
                            41

-------
Facility Size

For this segment of the industry, information  was  obtained
from  more than 90 different mineral mining sites.  Capacity
varied from as little as 2 to 6,800 kkg/day.   The  variance
of  this factor was so great that facility size was not felt
to be useful in categorizing this segment of  the  industry.
Furthermore  setting standards based on pounds pollutant per
ton production minimizes the differences in facility  sizes.
The  economic  impact  on  plant  size  will be addressed in
another study.

Facility Age

The newest facility studied was less than a year old and the
oldest was 90 years old.  There is  no  correlation  between
facility age and the ability to treat process waste water to
acceptable  levels of pollutants.  Also the equipment in the
oldest facilities either operates on the same  principle  or
is   identical  to  equipment  used  in  modern  facilities.
Therefore, facility age was not an acceptable criterion  for
categorization.

Facility Location

The  locations  of  the  more  than  90  mineral  mining and
processing sites studied are in  twenty states  spread  from
coast  to  coast  and  north  to south.  Some facilities are
located in arid regions of the country, allowing the use  of
evaporation ponds and surface disposal on the facility site.
Other  facilities  are  located  near  raw  material mineral
deposits which are highly localized in certain areas of  the
country.   In  general  the principal factor within facility
location affecting  effluent  quantity  or  quality  is  the
amount   of   precipitation  and  evaporation.   Appropriate
consideration of these factors was taken  where  applicable,
most notably mine pumpout and storm runoff.
                          42

-------
                         SECTION V


            WATER USE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
INTRODUCTION

This  section discusses the specific water uses in the clay,
ceramic, refractory, and miscellaneous minerals  segment  of
the  mineral mining and processing industry, and the amounts
of process waste materials contained in these  waters.   The
process  water  raw  waste  loads  are  given  in  terms  of
kilograms per metric ton of either product produced  or  ore
processed.  The specific water uses and amounts are given in
terms  of  liters  per metric ton of product produced or ore
mined.  For each of the facilities contacted in this  study.
The  treatments used by the mining and processing facilities
studied are specifically described and the amount  and  type
of   water   borne   waste   effluent   after  treatment  is
characterized.

The  verification  sampling  data   measured   at   specific
facilities  for  each subcategory is included in this report
where industry data and data from other sources is lacking.

SPECIFIC WATER USES

Waste water originates in the mineral mining and  processing
industry from the following sources.

(1) Non-contact cooling water
(2) Process generated waste water
                    wash water
                    transport water
                    scrubber water
                    process and product consumed water
                    miscellaneous water
(3) Auxiliary processes water

(U) Storm and ground water - mine water
                             storm runoff

Non-contact  cooling  water is that cooling water which does
not come into direct contact with any raw  material,  inter-
mediate  product, by-product or product used in or resulting
from the process or any process water.  Such water  will  be
regulated   by   general   limitations   applicable  to  all
industries.
                          43

-------
Process generated waste water is that water  which,  in  the
mineral  processing  operations  such  as  crushing, washing
beneficiation,  comes  into  direct  contact  with  any  raw
material,  intermediate  product, by-product or product used
in or resulting from the process.

Auxiliary process water is that used for processes necessary
for the manufacture of a  product  but  not  contacting  the
process    materials.     For   example,   water   treatment
regeneration is an auxiliary process.  Such  water  will  be
regulated   by   general   limitations   applicable  to  all
industries.

The quantity of water usage  for  facilities  in  the  clayf
ceramic,  refractory  and  miscellaneous minerals segment of
the mineral mining and processing industry generally  ranges
from  zero  to  2,200,000  I/day (0 to 580,000 gal/day).  In
general, the facilities using very large quantities of water
use it for heavy media separation  and  flotation  processes
and, in some cases, wet scrubbing and non-contact cooling.

Non-Contact cooling Water

The largest use of non-contact cooling water in this segment
of  the  mineral  mining  industry  is  for  the  cooling of
equipment, such as kilns, pumps and air compressors.

Contact cooling Water

Insignificant quantities of contact cooling water is used in
this segment of the mineral mining industry.  When used,  it
usually  either  evaporates  immediately or remains with the
product.

Wash water

This water is process water because  it  comes  into  direct
contact with either the raw material, reactants or products.
Examples  are  ore  washing  to remove fines and filter cake
washing.  Waste  effluents  can  arise  from  these  washing
sources,  due  to  the  fact  that the resultant solution or
suspension may contain impurities or may  be  too  dilute  a
solution to reuse or recover.

Transport Water

Water  is  widely  used  in  the  mineral mining industry to
transport ore to and between various process  steps.   water
is  used  to  move  crude  ore  from  mine to facility, from
crushers to grinding mills  and  to  transport  tailings  to
final retention ponds.  Transport water is process water.
                          44

-------
Scrubber Water

Particularly  in  the dry processing of many of the minerals
in this industry, wet scrubbers are used for  air  pollution
control.   These  scrubbers  are  primarily  used on dryers,
grinding mills, screens, conveyors and packaging  equipment.
Scrubber water is process water.

Process and Product Consumed Water

Process  water  is  primarily  used  in this industry during
blunging, pug milling, wet  screening,  log  washing,  heavy
media  separation and flotation unit processes.  The largest
volume of  water  is  used  in  the  latter  two  processes.
Product  consumed  water is often evaporated or shipped with
the product as a slurry or wet filter cake.

Miscellaneous Water

These water uses  vary  widely  among  the  facilities  with
general  usage for floor washing and cleanup, safety showers
and eye wash stations  and  sanitary  uses.   The  resultant
streams   are  either  not  contaminated  or  only  slightly
contaminated  with  wastes.   The  general  practice  is  to
discharge  such  streams  without  treatment or combine with
process water prior to treatment.

Another miscellaneous water use in  this  industry  involves
the  use  of  sprays  to  control dust at crushers, conveyor
transfer points,  discharge  chutes  and  stockpiles.   This
water  is  usually  low  volume  and is either evaporated or
absorbed in the  ore.   The  water  uses  so  described  are
process waters.

Auxiliary Processes Water

Auxiliary  process  water  include  blowdowns  from  cooling
towers, boilers and water treatment.  The  volume  of  water
used  for  these  purposes  in  this  industry  is  minimal.
However, when they are  present,  they  usually  are  highly
concentrated in waste materials.

Storm and Ground Water

Water  will   enter the mine area from three natural sources
direct  precipitation,  storm  runoff   and   ground   water
intrusion.   Water  contacting  the exposed ore or disturbed
overburden will become contaminated.

Storm water and runoff can also become contaminated  at  the
processing  site  from  storage piles, process equipment and
dusts that are emitted during processing.
                         45

-------
— a
PROCESS WASTE CHARACTERIZATION

The  mineral  products  are  discussed   in   the   Standard
Industrial  Classification  Code  numerical sequence in this
section.  For each mineral product the following information
is given:

            a short description of the processes at the
            facilities studied and pertinent flow diagrams;

         — raw waste load data per unit weight of product
            or raw material processed;

         — water consumption data per unit weight of product
            or raw material processed;

         — specific facility waste effluents found and the
            post-process treatments used to produce them.

                    BENTONITE  (SIC 1452)

Process Description

Bentonite is mined in dry, open  pit  quarries.   After  the
overburden  is  stripped  off,  the bentonite ore is removed
from the pit using bulldozers, front end loaders, and/or pan
scrapers.  The ore is hauled  by  truck  to  the  processing
facility.   There,  the  bentonite is crushed, if necessary,
dried, sent to a roll  mill,  stored,  and  shipped,  either
packaged or in bulk.

Dust  generated  in  drying,  crushing,  and  other facility
operations  is  collected  using  cyclones  and  bags.    In
facility  3030  this  dust  is  returned to storage bins for
shipping.  A general process flowsheet is given in Figure 7.

Raw Waste Load

Waste is generated in the mining of bentonite in the form of
overburden, which must be removed  to  reach  the  bentonite
deposit.   Waste  is  also  generated  in  the processing of
bentonite as dust from drying, crushing, and other  facility
operations.

Water Use

There  is  no  water  used  in  the  mining or processing of
bentonite.
                 46

-------
OPEN PiT
 QUARRY
         CRUSHER
                     VENT

DRYER


ROLL MILL


STORAGE
BINS
                SCREENS
                            	I
                                                _J
PRODUCT
                           FIGURE 7.
            BENTONITE  MINING AND PROCESSING

-------
Waste Water Treatment,

Since  there  is  no  water  used  in  bentonite  mining  or
processing, no waste water is generated.

Effluent and Disposal

There  is  no  discharge  of  any waste water from bentonite
operations.  The solid overburden  removed  to  uncover  the
bentonite  deposit  is  returned  to mined-out pits for land
disposal and eventual land reclamation.  Dust collected from
processing operations is either returned to storage bins  as
product or it is land-dumped.
                          48

-------
                    FIRE CLAY  (SIC 1H53)

Fire  clay  is  principally  kaolinite  but usually contains
other minerals such  as  diaspore,  boehmite,  gibbsite  and
illite.   It  can also be a ball clay, a bauxitic clay, or a
shale.  Its main use is in refractory  production  and  only
the  mining  is  covered here.  Due to the similarity in all
types of clay mining,  this  section  will  also  serve  for
common clay mining and processing

Process Description

Fire  clay  is  obtained from open pits using bulldozers and
front-end loaders for removal  of  the  clay.   Blasting  is
occasionally  necessary  for removal of the hard flint clay.
The clay is then transported by truck to  the  facility  for
processing.   This  processing includes crushing, screening,
and  other  specialized  steps,  for  example,  calcination.
There is at least one case (facility 30U7)  where the clay is
shipped  without processing.   However, most of the fire clay
mined is used near the mine site for producing refractories.
A general process diagram is given in Figure 8.

Raw Waste Load

The solid waste generated in fire clay mining is  overburden
which is used as fill to eventually reclaim mined-out areas.
Mine pumpout is the only other waste in this subcategory.

water Use

There is no water used in fire clay mining.  However, due to
rainfall  and ground water seepage, there can be water which
accumulates in the pits and must be removed.   Mine  pumpout
is  intermittent  depending  on  frequency  of  rainfall and
geographic  location.   Flow   rates   are   not   generally
available.   In many cases the facilities provide protective
earthen dams and ditches to prevent  intrusion  of  external
storm  runoff in the clay pits.  No process water is used in
the mine.

Waste Water Treatment

There is no process waste water.  In  some  cases,  settling
ponds  are employed to reduce the amount of suspended solids
in the mine pumpout before discharge.  Usually, mine pumpout
is discharged to a nearby body of water, to a watershed,  or
is evaporated on-land.
                         49

-------
1
OPEN
PIT


CRUSH


SPRFFM



REFRACTORY
OPERATIONS
                                                                                  •PRODUCT
Cn
O
                                                CALCINE
PRODUCT

                                                                                   PRODUCT
                                              FIGURE  8.
                                  FIRE CLAY MINING AND PROCESSING

-------
Effluent and Disposal

There is no discharge of process waste waters.  Mine pumpout
is  discharged  either  after settling or with no treatment.
The effluent quality of mine pumpout at a few mines  are  as
follows:
Mine


3083
3084
Treatment


Pond
Lime 6 Pond
pH


7.25
6.5
TSS
mg/1

3
26.4
Total
Fe
mg/1


3087
3300
lime, combined
with other
waste streams
   None
            6.0-6.9
3301
3302
None
None
               6.9
               8.3
2
30
3303
3307
None
None
               7.0
               9.2
1
5
3308
3309
Pond
Pond
               5.0
               4.2
16
20
80
3310
None
               3.0
16
                          51

-------
                 FULLER'S EARTH (SIC 1454)

Fuller's  Earth  is  a clay, usually high in magnesia, which
has decolorizing and absorptive properties.  Production from
the  region  that  includes  Decatur  County,  Georgia,  and
Gadsden  County,  Florida,  is composed predominantly of the
distinct clay mineral attapulgite.   Most  of  the  Fuller's
Earth  occurring  in  the  other  areas of the U.S. contains
primarily  montmorillonite.   Six  facilities,  representing
83 percent  of  the total U.S. production of Fuller's Earth,
provided the data for this section.

                        ATTAPULGITE

Process Description

Attapulgite  is  mined  from  open  pits,  with  removal  of
overburden  using  scrapers and draglines.  The clay is also
removed using scrapers and draglines and is trucked  to  the
facility  for  processing.   Processing consists of crushing
and grinding, screening and air classification, pug  milling
(optional),  and  a heat treatment that may vary from simple
evaporation of excess water to thermal alteration of crystal
structure.  A general process diagram is given in Figure 9.

Raw Waste Load

Dusts and fines are  generated  from  drying  and  screening
operations at facility 3060.  This slurried waste is sent to
worked-out  pits which serve as settling ponds,  in the last
year the ponds have been enlarged and modified to allow  for
complete  recycle  of  this waste water.  The ponds have not
yet totally filled,however      the company  anticipates  no
problems.   There  is  no  discharge at this time of process
water.  At facility 3058 waste is generated  from  screening
operations  as fines which until presently were slurried and
pumped to a settling pond.  With  the  installation  of  new
reconstituting  equipment these fines are recycled and there
is no discharge of process water.   The settling pond however
is  maintained  in  event  of  breakdown  or  the  excessive
generation  of  fines.   Facility  3088  also  has installed
recycle ponds recently and anticipates no trouble.  Facility
3089 uses a  dry  inicro-pulsair  system  for  air  pollution
control,  therefore  there is no discharge of process water.
According to the company they are within state air pollution
requirements.
                         52

-------
Ul
u>
WftTER 	 & SCRUBBERS KiLN

OPEN t
PITS
WATER—

VENT T
! 1
CRUSHING ROTAW
9 AND W riOYPR<;
SCREENING DRYtHb
f ,*
1 «
1 I
1
PUG _j
MSLL — — —
f

I 1
_____ g
1

1 H
— ©^ MILLS *«— >lM SCREENS
n
1
WCTER 	 BS|
?

? POND

POND " I
&
LEGEND:
--}.
1 EFFLUENT
1
EFFLUENT
.TEftNATE RJCX^SS ROUTES
                                          FIGURE  9.
                             FULLER'S  EARTH        AND
                                         (ATTAPULGITE)

-------
Water Use

No water is used in the mining , but rain and ground water do
collect in the pits, particularly during the  rainy  season.
This  type  of  clay  settles  rapidly  and  mine pumpout is
generally clear except when overburden gets into the  water.
Only one company, 3089, uses settling ponds for treatment of
dry weather mine pump-out.  No company attempts to treat wet
weather  mine  pump-out  or surface runoff.  Untreated creek
water serves as source and make-up for facilities  3058  and
3060.   Water  is  used  by  facility  3058 for cooling, pug
milling,  and  during  periodic  overload  for  waste  fines
s lurrying.    This   slurrying   has   not   occurred  since
installation of a fines reconstitution system.   However  it
is  maintained as a back-up system.  Facility 3060 also uses
water for cooling and pug milling, and,  in  addition,  uses
water in dust scrubbers for air pollution control.  There is
no  recycle  of  process water at either facility, all being
evaporated, sent to  ponds,  and/or  eventually  discharged.
Typical flows are:

                        1/kkg of_produgt
                        3058           3060

Intake:
  Make-up               460 (110)           total unknown
                        includes average
                        intermittent needs

Use:
  cooling               184 (44)            unknown amount
  waste disposal        230 (55)            345-515
  and dust collection     intermittent      (82-122)

  pug mill              46  (11)             42  (10)

Consumption:
  cooling water
  discharge             none                unknown
  process discharge     none                none
  evaporation           230 (55)            42  (10)

Total                   460 (110)           unknown

Waste water Treatment

Mine  pumpout  at  facilities  3060  and  3058 is discharged
without treatment.  Facility 3089 uses two settling ponds in
series to treat mine pumpout, however they do not attempt to
treat wet weather mine pumpout.  Bearing  cooling  water  at
facility  3060 is pumped directly back to the creek, with no

-------
treatment, while water used in pugging and kiln  cooling  is
evaporated  in the process.  Scrubber waters are directed to
settling ponds before recycle to the scrubber.  At  facility
3058  cooling  and  pug  mill  water  is  evaporated  in the
process.

Effluent and Disposal

Facilities 3060 and 3088 at the present  time  have  recycle
ponds.   However,  due  to  evaporation and possibly seepage
little or no actual recycling is  occurring  at  this  time.
Facilities 3058 and 3087 use dry air pollution equipment and
fines reconstituters; therefore they have no discharge.

                      MONTMORILLONITE

Montmorillonite wastes present more of a settling problem in
water  than  attapulgite  wastes.  The information presented
below is based on 3 of 4  facilities  in  this  subcategory.
This  represents over 80 percent of the U.S. montmorillonite
production.

Process Description

Montmorillonite is mined  from  open  pits.   Overburden  is
removed  by  scrapers  and/or  draglines,  and  the  clay is
draglined and  loaded  onto  trucks  for  transport  to  the
facility.  Processing consists of crushing, drying, milling,
screening,  and,  for  a portion of the clay, a final drying
prior to packaging and shipping.  A general process  diagram
is given in Figure 10.

Raw Waste Load

Solid   waste   generated   in   mining  montmorillonite  is
overburden which is used as fill to reclaim worked-out pits.
Waste is generated in processing  as  dust  and  fines  from
milling,  screening,  and  drying  operations.  The dust and
fines which are  gathered  in  bag  collectors  from  drying
operations  are  hauled,  along  with  milling and screening
fines, back to the pits as fill.  Slurry from  scrubbers  is
sent  to  a  settling  pond  with the muds being returned to
worked-out pits after recycling the  water.   There  are  no
data available on the amount of these solid wastes.

Water Use

There  is  no water used in the mining operations.  However,
rain water and ground water collect in the  pits  forming  a
murky  colloidal  suspension  of  the  clay.   This water is
pumped to worked-out pits where it  settles  to  the  extent
possible  and  is discharged intermittently to a nearby body
                          55

-------
Ul
         PIT
CRUSHING
                              -qs
DRYER AND COOLER
WATER•
LEGEND;
  	  ALTERNATE AIR
        POLLUTION TREATMENTS
                                    SCRUBBERS
                                        I
                                RECYCLE  !
                                      POND
                                    CLAY SLUDGE
                                      TO MINE
 MILL
 AND
SCREEN
                                             CYCLONES
—&J
                               BAG
                           COLLECTORS
                                                       t
                             DUST AND FINES TO MINE
                                                                             .$»
                                                           ROTARY
                                                           DRYER
                                                            AND
                                                           COOLER
                                                                                           •PRODUCT
                                               FIGURE  10.
                                FULLER'S EARTH  MIMING  AND PROCESSING
                                           (MONTOORiLUDMTE)

-------
of water, except in the case of  facility   3073  which   uses
this  water as scrubber water makeup.  The  estimated  flow  is
up to 1140 I/day  (300 gpd).
Water is used in processing only in dust scrubbers.   Typical
flows are:

                   l^lSlSi-Br.Qduct jgal/ton^
Facility           3059           3072           3073

Intake             1,930  (460)     500  (120)      143  (34)
Use:
Dust Scrubbers     1,930  (460)     500  (120)      143  (34)
Consumption:
Discharge          none           150  (36)        none
Evaporation plus
Landfill of Solid  1,930  (460)     350  (84)        143  (34)
Wastes

Facilities 3059 and 3073 recycle essentially  100 percent   of
the scrubber water.

Waste Water Treatment

Facilities  3059 and 3073 recycle essentially  100 percent  of
the scrubber water, while facility 3072 recycles only  about
70 percent.   Scrubber  water  must  be kept neutral because
sulfate values in the clay become concentrated,  making  the
water  acidic  and  corrosive.   Facilities  3059 and 3073 use
ammonia  to  neutralize  recycle  scrubber  water,    forming
ammonium  sulfate.  Facility 3072 uses lime  (Ca(OH)2), which
precipitates as calcium sulfate in the  settling  pond.    To
keep   the  scrubber  recycle  system  working,  some  water
containing a build-up of calcium sulfate is discharged to  a
nearby creek.  However, facility 3072 intends to recycle all
scrubber water by mid-1975.  Mine pumpout presents a greater
problem  for  montmorillonite producers than for attapulgite
producers, due  to  the  very  slow  settling  rate  of  the
suspended clay.  Accumulated rain and ground water is pumped
to abandoned pits for settling to the extent possible and  is
then  discharged.   A mine pumpout sample from facility  3059
(Versar data) had a TSS of 215 mg/1.  At facility  3073  the
pit water is used as makeup for the scrubber water.

Effluent and Disposal

There is no process discharge from facilities 3059 and 3073.
Facility  3072  discharges  a small amount of scrubber water
after settling and lime treatment.  This  effluent  contains
0.2 percent  suspended  solids  and  has  a  pH  of 8.  This
effluent  corresponds  to  an  average  TSS  of   0.3 kg/kkg
product.  The settling pond muds at all three facilities are
landfilled in worked-out pits.
                          57

-------
                     KAOLIN (SIC 1455)

Kaolin  is  produced  in  mines  in   17  states with Georgia
accounting for the bulk (75%)  of the U.S.  production.   Six
kaolin  mines and facilities distributed between eastern and
western U.S. were contacted representing 48 percent  of  the
total  kaolin  production in the U.S.  Facilities were found
having different water  usages,  so  two  subcategories  are
established  for  kaolin  processing;  wet  for  high  grade
product, and dry, tor general purpose use.

                        DRY PROCESS

Process Description

The clay is mined in open pits using shovels,  caterpillars,
carry-alls  and pan scrapers.   Trucks haul the kaolin to the
facility for processing.  At facilities 3035, 3062, 3063 the
clay is  crushed,  screened,  and  used  for  processing  to
refractory  products.   Processing at facility 3036 consists
of grinding, drying, classification and storage.  A  general
dry process diagram is given in Figure 11.

Raw Waste Load

There  is  no  waste  generated  in the mining of the kaolin
other than overburden, and in the processing, solid waste is
generated from classification.  No data is available on  the
amount of this waste.

Water Use

There is no water used in the mining or processing of kaolin
at  these  four  facilities.   There is rainwater and ground
water which accumulates in the pits and must be pumped  out.
The quantity of this mine pumpout is unknown.

Waste Water Treatment

There is no process waste water generated at any of the four
facilities,  but the mine pumpout is normally sent through a
series of small settling ponds before discharge.

Effluent and Disposal

The solid waste generated is land-disposed  on-site.   There
is  no process effluent discharged.  The mine pumpout is, in
most instances, sent through a series of settling  ponds  to
reduce the suspended solids.
                          58

-------
                            ,TRUCK
Ut
\D
OPEN PIT






DRYING
AND
CLASSIFICATION
Lp-^ RAINWATER
I GROUND WATER
t 1
SETTLING
PONDS



SOI
WA<
f
JO
3TE
                                                                    • PRODUCT TO SHIPPING
                                                                    *TO ON-SITE REFRACTORY
                                                                    MANUFACTURING
               EFFLUENT
                                          FIGURE n
                              DRY KAOLIN MINING  AND PROCESSING
                                  FOR GENERAL PURPOSE  USE

-------
                        WET PROCESS

Process Description

Sixty  percent  of  the U.S. production of kaolin is by this
general process.

Mining of kaolin is an open pit operation using draglines or
pan scrapers.  The clay is then trucked to the facility  or,
in the case of facility 3025, some preliminary processing is
performed  near  the  mine  site  including  blunging or pug
milling, degritting, screening and  slurrying  to  pump  the
clay to the main processing facility.  Subsequent operations
are  hydroseparation  and classification, chemical treatment
(principally bleaching with zinc hydrosulfite),  filtration,
and  drying  (via tunnel dryer, rotary dryer or spray dryer).
For special properties, other steps can  be  taken  such  as
magnetic  separation,  delamination  or  attrition (facility
3024).  Also, facility 3025 ships part of the kaolin product
as slurry (705J solids) in tank cars.  A general wet  process
diagram is given in Figure 12.

Raw Waste Load

Waste  is  generated in kaolin mining as overburden which is
stripped off to expose the kaolin deposit.

In the processing, waste  is  generated  as  underflow  from
hydroseparators  and  centrifuges   (facility 3024), and sand
and muds from filtration and  separation  operations.   Zinc
ion  is  carried  through  to waste water from the bleaching
operations.   The raw waste loads  at  these  two  facilities
are:

                             kg/kkg_groduct_Jlb/1000 lb)_
Waste_Material               3024           3025~

zinc                         0.37           0.5

dissolved solids             8              10

suspended solids             35             100

The  dissolved  solids are principally sulfates and sulfites
and the suspended solids are ore fines and sand.

Water Use

Water is used in wet processing of kaolin for  pug  milling,
blunging,  cooling,  and slurrying.  At facility 3024, water
is obtained from deep wells, all of which is chlorinated and
most of which is used as  facility  process  water  with  no
                          60

-------
                WATER
 OPEN
  PIT
  PIT
PUMPOUT
                     ZINC
                  HYDROSULF1TE
BLUNGING
AND/OR
PUG MILLING


DEGRiTTING
AND
CLASSIFICATION

1
BLEACHING
AND/OR
CKEMiCAL
TREATMENT

                               *
FILTRATION
 WATESBORN'E
 TAILINGS TO
SETTLING POND
OR BY-PRODUCT
  RECOVERY
                                             I	I
                                                              LIME - 6>
                                                                   POND
                                                                  EFFLUENT
PRODUCT
                                                    KAOLIN
                                                      1
                                                                               BULK
                                                                              SLURRY
                                                                 70%
                                                                SLURRY
                                                                PRODUCT
           FIGURE  12.
                          PROCESSING
    FOR HIGH GRADE PRODUCT
                           WET KAOLIN MINING AND

-------
recycle.   Facility  3025  has  a company-owned ground water
system as a source and also incoming  slurry  provides  some
water  to  the  process  none of which is recycled.  Typical
water flows are:
                                            3025

water intake            4,250  (1,020)       4,290  (1030)

process waste water     3,400  (810)         4,000  (960)

water evaporated, etc.  850  (210)           290  (70)

These facilities do not  recycle  their  process  water  but
discharge  it  after  treatment.   Recycle  of this water is
claimed to  interfere with the chemical treatment.

Waste Water Treatment

Open pit mining  of  kaolin  does  not  utilize  any  water.
However,  when  rainwater and ground water accumulate in the
pits it must be pumped out  and  discharged.   Usually  this
pumpout  is  discharged  without treatment, but, in at least
one case, pH adjustment is necessary prior to discharge.

The facilities treat the ponds with lime to  adjust  pH  and
remove  excess zinc which has been introduced as a bleaching
agent.  This treatment effects  a  99.89J  removal  of  zinc,
99. 9 %  removal  of  suspended  solids,  and  80%  removal of
dissolved solids.

These  facilities  are  considering  the   use   of   sodium
hydrosulfite as bleach to eliminate the zinc waste.

Facilities  with  large  ponds and a high freeboard have the
capability of discontinuing discharge for one or  more  days
to   allow  unusual  high  turbidities  to  decrease  before
resuming a discharge.

Effluent and Disposal

solid wastes generated in kaolin mining and  wet  processing
are   land-disposed   with   overburden  being  returned  to
mined-out  pits,  and  dust,  fines,  and  other  solids  to
settling ponds.

Waste waters are in all cases sent to ponds where the solids
settle out and the water is discharged after lime treatment.
A  statistical analysis was performed on five Georgia kaolin
treatment systems.  Based on a 99 percent  confidence  level
                          62

-------
on the better fitting distribution of normal and logarithmic
normal the following turbidities were achieved.

Facility                     Turbidity,  JTU  or   NTU
              long term           daily          monthly
               average            maximum        average
                                                 maximum

3024          26.4                48.2           
-------
                    BALL CLAY (SIC 1455)

Ball  clay  is a plastic, white-firing clay used principally
for bonding in  ceramic  ware.   Four  ball  clay  producers
representing  40 percent  of total U.S. ball clay production
provided data for this section.   There are twelve facilities
in this category.

Process Description

After  overburden  is  removed,   the  clay  is  mined  using
front-end loaders and/or draglines.  The clay is then loaded
onto   trucks  for  transfer  to  the  processing  facility.
Processing consists of shredding,  milling,  air  separation
and  bagging  for  shipping.   Facilities 5684 and 5685 have
additional processing steps including  blunging,  screening,
and  tank  storage  for sale of the clay in slurry form, and
rotary  drying  directly  from  the  stockpile  for  a   dry
unprocessed  ball  clay.  A general process diagram is given
in Figure 13.

Raw Waste Load

Ball clay mining generates  a  large  amount  of  overburden
which  is  returned to worked-out pits for land reclamation.
The processing of ball clay generates dust  and  fines  from
milling  and  air  separation  operations.   These fines are
gathered  in  baghouses  and  returned  to  the  process  as
product.   At  the  facilities  where  slurrying  and rorary
drying  are  done,  there  are  additional  process   wastes
generated.   Blunging  and  screening  the  clay  for slurry
product  generates  lignite  and  sand  solid  wastes  after
dewatering.   The  drying operation uses wet scrubbers which
result in a slurry of dust and  water  sent  to  a  settling
pond.   There  are no data available on the amount of wastes
generated in producing the slurry or the  dry  product,  but
the  waste  materials are limited to fines of low solubility
minerals.

Water Use

There is no water used in ball clay  mining,  however,  when
rain  and  ground  water  collects  in the mine, there is an
intermittent discharge.  Mine pumpout is  either  discharged
without  treatment,  or  pumped  to  a  settling pond before
discharge to a nearby body of water.  There is usually  some
diking  around  the mine to prevent run-off from flowing in.
There are no flow rates or water quality data  available  on
mine pumpout.
                             64

-------

PiTS

-i-

SHRED



STOCKPILE
HC
Al
«
)T
R
i


HAMMER
MiLL

CYCLONES


i
I
___*
BAG
HOUSE
I
i
AIR SEPARATOR
i



LEGEND:
          ALTERNATE PROCESS ROUTES
                   CHEMICALS	B»-

                      WATER	1
BLUNGER
                                  SCREEN
                                SOLID VWSTE
                                (LIGNITE, SAND)
                                                ROTARY
                                                DRYER
                                                          WATER
                                                   SCRUBBERS
                                                                                                         BAGGED
                                                                                                         PRODUCT
                                                                        BULK
                                                                        PRODUCT
                                                          	^ SLURRY
                                                                    ^^ PRODUCT
                   EFFLUENT
                                                 FIGURE  13.
                                   BALL CLAY MINING  AMD PROCESSING

-------
In ball clay processing, two of the facilities visited use a
completely dry process.  The others produce a slurry product
using  water for blunging, a product dried directly from the
stockpile with water used for wet scrubbers, and/or the  dry
process  product.   Well  water serves as the source for the
facilities which use water  in  their  processing.   Typical
flows are:
                   5680.

Intake             total          1,130          4,300
                   unknown        (270)           (1,030)
Use:
 Blunging          unknown        42  (10)        none
 Scrubber          88 (21)        1,080          4,300
                                  (260)           (1,030)

Water  used  in  blunging  operations  is  consumed  both as
product and evaporated from water material.  Scrubber  water
is  impounded  in  settling ponds and eventually discharged.
Facilities 5685 and 5689 use water scrubbers for  both  dust
collection  from  the rotary driers and  for in-facility dust
collection.  Facility 5684 has only the  former.

Waste Water Treatment

Mine pumpout is discharged either after  settling in  a  pond
or sump or without any treatment.
Scrubber  water  at  these  facilities  is  sent to settling
ponds.  In addition, facilities  5684  and  5689  treat  the
scrubber  water  with  a  flocculating  agent which improves
settling of suspended solids in the pond.  Facility 5689 has
three ponds of a total of 1.0 hectare  (2.5 acres) area.

Effluent and Disposal

There  are  no  data  available  on  the  quality   of   the
intermittent   mine  pumpout  from  any  of  the  ball  clay
producers visited.

Effluent discharged from the settling pond at facility  5685
has  the  following  parameters:   a  pH  of 6.4  and TSS of
400 mg/1.  Total suspended solids at facility 5689  averages
less  than  40 mg/1.  No data are available on effluent from
facility 5684.
                          66

-------
The amounts of process wastes discharged by these facilities
are calculated to be:
              discharge,
              l/kkg_of_Broduct         kg/kkg of product
                                       Ilb/1000_lbJ_
5684          88  (21)                  	

5685          1,080  (260)              0.13

5689          834  (1,030)              0.17

There are two significant types of operations in  ball  clay
manufacture insofar as water use is concerned:  those having
wet scrubbers, which have a waste water discharge, and those
without wet scrubbers, which have no process waste water.

There is a discrepancy in discharge flow rates since not all
the  production  lines  in each facility have wet scrubbers.
Baghouses are also employed by this industry.

Insofar  as  facilities  having  scrubbers   is   concerned,
facility  5689  is exemplary in its treatment, discharging a
low concentration of TSS and a moderate total amount.
                         67

-------
                          FELDSPAR

Feldspar mining and/or processing has  been  sub-categorized
as follows:

(1)  flotation - dry quarries - flotation processing
(2)  non-flotation - dry quarries - dry crushing and  classi-
    fication

Feldspathic  sands  are  included  in  the Industrials Sands
category in Volume I of this report.

                    FELDSPAR - FLOTATION

This  subcategory  of  feldspar  mining  and  processing  is
characterized   by  dry  operations  at  the  mine  and  wet
processing in the facility.   This  is  the  most  important
subcategory of feldspar, since about 73 percent of the total
tonnage  of  feldspar  sold  or used in 1972 was produced by
this process.

Wet processing is carried out in five  facilities  owned  by
three  companies.   Data was obtained from all five of these
facilities  (3026, 3054, 3065,  3067,  and  3068).   A  sixth
facility  is now coming into production and will replace one
of the above five facilities in 1975.

Process Description

At all five facilities, mining techniques are quite similar:
after overburden is removed, the ore is 'drilled and blasted,
followed by loading of ore onto trucks  by  means  of  power
shovels,  draglines,  or  front end loaders for transport to
the facility.  In some cases, additional break-up of ore  is
accomplished  at the mine by drop-balling.  No water is used
in mining at any location.

The first step in processing the ore is  crushing  which  is
generally   accomplished   at   the  facility,  but  may  be
accomplished at the mine  (Facility 3068).  Subsequent  steps
for  all  wet  processing facilities vary in detail, but rhe
basic flow sheet, as given in Figure 14,  contains  all  the
fundamentals of these facilities.

By-products  from  flotation  include  mica,  which  may  be
further processed for sale  (Facilities 3054, 3065, 3067, and
3068), and quartz or sand  (Facilities 3026, 3054, and 3066).
At Facilities 3065 and 3067, a portion of the total flow  to
the  third flotation step is diverted to dewatering, drying,
guiding, etc., and is sold as a feldspathic sand.
                          68

-------
                                     WATER
     QUARRY
CRUSHER
  AND
 MILLS
 WASHER
   OR
SCRUBBER
vo
                                                  WATER
                                         FLOTATION
                                          AGENTS
                                                    CLASSIFICATION,
                                                     CCMDITiONiNG,
                                                       FLOTATION!
                                                    (3 REPETITIONS )
                                                        I
                                                       IRON
                                                       SOLID
                                                       WASTE
                                                   WASTE
                                                  SLURRIES
                                                    TO
                                                   POND
                                                                             VENT
DEWATERiNG
   AND
  DRYING
                                                                               9
                                                                             WASTE
                                                                             WATER
                                                     FIGURE 14.
                                         FELDSPAR MINING  AMD  PROCESSING
                                                         (WET)
                                                                                              BALL
                                                                                              MILL
 MAGNETIC
SEPARATION I
                                                                                  J
                                                                                       •PRODUCT
PRODUCT
                                                                                       BY -PRCCU3T
                                                                                       M!CA  FX-OV,
                                                                                     -a»FiRST FLOAT
                                                                                       • BY-PRODUCT
                                                                                        SAi^O FRG.M
                                                                                        THIRD FLOAT

-------
Raw Waste Loads

Mining operations at the open pits result in  overburden  of
varying   depth.    The   overburden   is  applied  to  land
reclamation of nearby worked-out mining areas.

Waste recovery and handling at the processing facilities  is
a  major  consideration,  as  large  tonnages  are involved.
Waste varies from a  low  of  26 percent  of  mined  ore  at
Facility 3065 to a high of 53 percent at Facility 3067.  The
latter  value  is  considerably  larger due to the fact that
this facility does not  sell  the  sand  from  its  feldspar
flotation.   Most  of  the other facilities are able to sell
all or part of their  by-product  sand.   Typical  flotation
reagants   used   in  this  production  subcategory  contain
hydrofluoric acid, sulfuric acid, sulfonic  acid,  frothers,
amines and oils.

The  raw  waste data calculated from information supplied by
these facilities are:

                        kg/kkg_of_ore
                        procgssed^Ilb/1Q Q 0 _lb^
facility      ore tailings and slimes       fluoride

3026               270                      0.22

3054               410                      0.2U

3065               260                      0.20

3067               530                      est. 0.25

3068               350                      est. 0.25

These raw wastes are generally settled in ponds or  sent  to
thickeners.   The  bulk  of the solids and adsorbed organics
would then be separated from the liquid containing dissolved
fluoride and some suspended solids.

Water Use

Water is not used in the quarrying of  feldspar.   There  is
occasional  drainage  from  the  mine,  but  pumpout  is not
generally practiced.

Wet processing of feldspar does result in the use  of  quite
significant  amounts  of  water.  At the facilities visited,
water was obtained from a nearby lake, creek, or  river  and
used   without  any  pre-treatment.   Recycle  of  water  is
minimal, varying  from  zero  at  several  facilities  to  a
maximum  of  about 17 percent at Facility 3026.  The primary
                          70

-------
reason for little or no water recycle is the possible build-
up of undesirable soluble organics and fluoride ion  in  the
flotation  steps.   However,  some water is recycled in some
facilities to the initial washing and  crushing  steps,  and
some  recycle  of  water  in  the fluoride flotation step is
practiced at facility 3026.

Total water use at these facilities  varies  from  7,000  to
22,200 1/kkg  of  ore  processed  (1,680  to 5,300 gal/ton).
Most of the  process  water  used  in  these  facilities  is
discharged.   Some  water  is  lost  in tailings and drying.
This is of the order  of  1 percent  of  the  water  use  at
facility 3065.

The  use of the process water in the flotation steps amounts
to at least one-half of the total water use.  The water used
in the fluoride reagent flotation step  ranges  from  10  to
25 percent of the total flow depending on local practice and
sand-to-feldspar  ratio.   Only two of these five facilities
use any significant recycling of water.  These are:

         facility 3026  -  17  percent  of  intake   (on  the
         average)

         facility 3067 - 10 percent of intake

Waste Water Treatment

Treatment at three facilities (3054, 3065, 3068)  consists of
pumping  combined  facility  effluents into clarifiers, with
polymer added to aid in flocculation.  Both polymer and lime
are  added  at  one  facility  (3065).   At  the  other  two
facilities,   (3026,  3067)   there  are two settling ponds in
series, with one facility adding alum (3026).

Measurements by EPA's contractor on the performance  of  the
treatment  system  at facility 3026, consisting of two ponds
in  series  and  alum  treatment,   showed   the   following
reductions in concentration (mg/1):

                             TSS       Fluoride

waste water into system      3,790          14
discharge from system        21             1.3

Effluents and Disposal

The  process  water  effluents after treatment at these five
facilities    have    the    following    average    quality
characteristics:
                         71

-------
facility         p.H

3026          6.5-6.8   21*                 8
3054          6.8       45                  15*
3065          10.8*     349                 23*
3067          7.5-8.0   35*                 34*
3068          7-8       40-150              32

The  asterisked  values  are  Versar measurements in lieu of
facility-furnished data not available.  Facility  3065  adds
lime  to  the  treatment, which accounts for the higher than
average pH.

The average amounts of the  suspended  solids  and  fluoride
pollutants   present   in   these   waste  effluent  streams
calculated from the above values are given in the  following
table together with the relative effluent flows.

              2r.s_p_rocessed_ basis
                       "       ~
              1/kka
facility      Igai/tonL iIb/l°PJLIbl   -Ol2/1000_lbl
3026          14,600         0.31      0.12
              (3,500)

3054          12,500         0.56      0.18
              (3,000)

3065          11,000         1.1       0.25
              (2,640)

3067          6,500          0.23      0.22
              (1,560)

3068          18,600         0.7-2.8   0.6
              (4,460)

The  higher  than  average  suspended  solids content of the
effluents from 3065 and 3068 is caused by a  froth  carrying
mica  through the thickerners to the discharges.  Therefore,
the waste treatment systems in these two facilities are  not
performing  in  an  exemplary  fashion.   Facility  3026  is
exemplary in regard -to  the  levels  of  discharge  of  both
suspended  solids and fluoride.  The fluoride content of the
discharge is almost one-half of the raw waste load,  whereas
the  other  facilities discharge nearly all the fluoride raw
waste.  This  facility  uses  alum  to  coagulate  suspended
solids, which may be the cause of the reduction in fluoride.
Alum  has  been  found  in municipal water treatment studies
(references 4 and 12) to reduce fluoride by binding into the
sediment.  The effectiveness of the  treatment  at  3026  to
                          72

-------
reduce  suspended solids is comparable to that at facilities
3051 and 3067.  All three of these facilities have exemplary
suspended solids discharge levels for this subcategory.

The treatment at facility  3054  results  in  little  or  no
reduction  of  fluoride,  but  good  reduction  of suspended
solids.  Nothing known about  this  treatment  system  would
lead to an expectation of fluoride reduction.

The  treatment  at  facility 3067 apparently accomplishes no
reduction of fluoride, but its suspended solids discharge is
significantly  lower  than  average  in  both   amount   and
concentration.

Based  on  these  conclusions, facility 3026 is exemplary in
regard to both suspended solids and fluoride discharges.  In
addition,  facilities  3054  and  3067   exhibit   exemplary
reduction of suspended solids only.

Solid wastes are transported back to the mines as reclaiming
fill,   although  these  wastes  are  sometimes  allowed  to
accumulate at the facility for long periods before removal.

                  FELDSPAR - NOW-FLOTATION

This  subcategory  of  feldspar  mining  and  processing  is
characterized  by completely dry operations at both the mine
and the facility.  Only two such facilities  were  found  to
exist  in  the  U.S.  and  both were visited.  Together they
represent approximately 8.5 percent of total  U.S.  feldspar
production.   However,  there  are two important elements of
difference between these two operations as follows:

All of facility 3032 production of feldspar is sold for  use
as  an  abrasive  in scouring powder.  At facility 3064, the
high quality orthoclase  (potassium  aluminum  silicate)  is
primarily sold to manufacturers of electrical porcelains and
ceramics.

Process Description

Underground  mining  is  accomplished at Facility 3032 on an
intermittent, as-needed, basis using drilling  and  blasting
techniques.   A  very small amount of water is used for dust
control during drilling.  At Facility 3064,  the  techniques
are  similar, except mining is in an open pit and is carried
on for 2-3 shifts/day and 5-6 days/week depending on product
demand.   Hand  picking  is  accomplished  prior  to   truck
transport of ore to the facility.
                           73

-------
At   the   two  facilities  ore  processing  operations  are
virtually  identical.   They  consist  of   crushing,   ball
milling,  air classification, and storage prior to shipping.
Product:  grading  is  a  function  of   air   classification
operation.  A schematic flow sheet is shown in Figure 15.

Raw Waste Loads

At  Facility  3032,  there are no mine wastes generated, and
only a small quantity of high-silica solids emanate from the
facility.   The  quantity  of  waste  is  unknown,  and  the
material  is  used  as land fill.  At Facility 3064, rejects
from hand picking are used as  mine  fill.   There  is  very
little waste at the facility.

Water Use

At  the  Facility  3032 mine, water is used to suppress dust
while drilling.  It is spilled on the ground and is  readily
absorbed; volume is only about 230 I/day  (about 60 gpd).  No
water  is  used  in  facility  processing  at  the mine.  At
Facility 3064, no water is used at the mine.  Facility water
is used  at  a  daily  rate  of  <1,900 I/day  (500 gpd)  to
suppress  dust in the crushers.  No pre-treatment is applied
to water used at either facility.

Waste water Treatment

Any waste water is spilled on the ground  (Facility 3032)  or
is  evaporated  off  during  crushing and milling operations
(Facility 3064).  There  is  no  waste  water  treatment  at
either facility.

Effluents and Disposal

There   are  no  effluents  from  either  mine  or  facility
locations.
                              74

-------
QUARRY


I^DI ICUCDC
UKUontKo


BALL
MILLS


AIR
CLASSIFICATION
                                          •PRODUCT
          FIGURE 15.
FELDSPAR MINING AND PROCESSING
              (DRY)

-------
                          KYANITE

Kyanite is produced in the U.S. from 3 open pit.  mines,  two
in  Virginia and one in Georgia.  In this study two of these
three mines were  visited,  one  in  Virginia,  and  one  in
Georgia,  representing  approximately 75 percent of the U.S.
production of kyanite.

Process Description

Kyanite is mined in dry open  quarries,  using  blasting  to
free  the  ore.  Power shovels are used to load the ore onto
trucks which then haul the ore to the  processing  facility.
Processing  consists of crushing and milling, classification
and deslirning, flotation to remove impurities,  drying,  and
magnetic  separation.   Part  of the kyanite is converted to
mullite via high temperature firing at  15UO°-1650°C   (2800-
3000°F)  in  a  rotary  kiln.   A general process diagram is
given in Figure 16.

Raw Waste Load

wastes are generated in the processing of  the  kyanite,  in
classification,    flotation    and    magnetic   separation
operations.  These wastes consist of pyrite tailings, quartz
tailings, flotation reagents, muds, sand and iron scalpings.
These wastes are greater than 50 percent of the total  mined
material.
                             l£3/!£kg_of_kv.anite_Jlb/1000_lb

facility 3015 tailings            2,500

facility 3028 tailings            5,700


Water Use

Water   is   used   in   kyanite  processing  in  flotation,
classification, and slurry transport of  ore  solids.   This
process water amounts to:
                           76

-------
WATER

QUARRY





• i
CRUSHING
WATER
RECYCLE ,.,,
1YJ
!




i
FLOTATION
REAGENTS
™ 1 VENT
CLASSIFICATION, uArMr-nr
FLOTATION SEPARATIO^


UNDERFLOW
TAILINGS SCfl
™ WASTE
POND

m ^^ KYANITI
' " 	 '" "" "" •• PRODUCT
1
	 fc ROTARY 	 fc MULLITI
KILN PRODuC
LPINGS
          FIGURE  16.
KYANITE  MINING  AND PROCESSING

-------
facility 3015           29,200 (7,000)

facility 3028           87,600 (21,000)

The  process  water  is  recycled,  and  any  losses  due to
evaporation and  pond  seepage  are  replaced  with  make-up
water.  Make-up water for facility 3028 is used at a rate of
4,200,000 I/day    (0.288 mgd)   and  facility  3015  obtains
make-up water from run-off draining into the  settling  pond
and also from an artesian well.

Waste Water Treatment

Process  water  used  in  the several beneficiation steps is
sent to settling ponds from which clear water is recycled to
the process.  There is total recycle of  the  process  water
that is not lost through evaporation and pond seepage.

Effluent and Disposal

There  is  no  deliberate  discharge  of  process water from
facility 3015.  The only time pond overflow has occurred  at
facility   3015  was  after  an  unusually  heavy  rainfall.
Facility  3028  has  occasional   pond   overflow,   usually
occurring in October and November.

The   solid   waste   generated  in  kyanite  processing  is
land-disposed  after  removal  from  settling   ponds.    An
analysis  of  pond  water at facility 3015 showed low values
for BOD5 (2 mg/1)  and  oil  and  grease   (4  mg/1).   Total
suspended  solids  were  11  mg/1 and total metals 3.9 mg/1,
with iron being  the  principal  metal.   No  analyses  were
available on the occasional overflow at facility 3028.
                          78

-------
                         MAGNESITE

There is only one known U.S. facility that produces magnesia
from  naturally  occurring  magnesite  ore.   This facility,
facility 2063, mines and  beneficiates  magnesite  ore  from
which  caustic  and  dead burned magnesia are produced.  The
present facility consists of open  pit  mines,  heavy  media
separation  (HMS) and a flotation facility.

Process Description

All  mining  operations  are  accomplished  by  the open pit
method.  The deposit is  chemically  variable,  due  to  the
interlaid horizons of dolomite and magnesite, and megascopic
identification  of  the  ore  is difficult.  The company has
devised a selective quality control  system  to  obtain  the
various grades of ore required by the processing facilities.
The pit is designed with walls inclined at 60°, with 6 m  (20
ft)  catch  benches  every  15 m  (50 ft) of vertical height.
The crude ore is loaded by front end loaders and shovels and
then trucked to the primary crusher.  The quarry is  located
favorably  so that there is about 2 km  (1.25 mi) distance to
the primary crusher.  About 2260 kkg/day  (2500 tons/day)  of
ore   are   crushed  in  the  mill  for  direct  firing  and
beneficiation.   There  is  about  5 percent  waste  at  the
initial crushing operation which results from a benefication
step.   The  remainder  of  the  crusher  product is further
processed   thru   crushing,   sizing   and    beneficiating
operations.

The  flow  of  material  through  the  facility,  for direct
firing, follows two major  circuits:  (1)   the  dead  burned
magnesite  circuit,  and  (2)   the  light  burned  magnesite
circuit.  In the dead burned magnesite circuit, the  ore  is
crushed to minus 1.9 cm (3/4 in)  in a cone crusher.  The raw
materials  are  dry  ground  in  two  ball mills that are in
closed circuit with an air classifier.  The  minus  65  mesh
product  from the classifier is transported by air slides to
the blending silos.  From the silos the dry material is  fed
to  pug  mills  where water and binding materials are added.
From the pug mills the material is  briquetted,  dried,  and
stored  in  feed  tanks  ahead  of rotary kilns.  The oil or
natural gas fired kilns convert  the  magnesite  into  dense
magnesium   clinker   of   various   chemical  constituents,
depending upon the characteristics desired in  the  product.
After  leaving  the  kiln,  the  clinker is cooled by an air
quenched rotary or grate type coolers,  crushed  to  desired
sizes, and stored in large storage silos for shipment.

In the light burned magnesite circuit, minus 1.9 cm (3/4 in)
magnesite is fed to two Herreshoff furnaces.   By controlling
the  amount  of  liberated  CO2 from the magnesite a caustic
                           79

-------
oxide is produced from these furnaces.  The magnesium  oxide
is cooled and ground in a ball mill into a variety of grades
and sizes, and is either bagged or shipped in bulk.

Magnesite  is  beneficiated at facility 2063 by either heavy
media separation (HMS)  and/or froth flotation  methods.   In
the  HMS  facility,  the feed is crushed to the proper size,
screened, washed  and  drained  on  a  vibratory  screen  to
eliminate  the fines as much as possible.  The screened feed
is fed to the separating cone which contains a suspension of
finely  ground  ferro-silicon  and/or  magnetite  in  water,
maintained  at  a predetermined specific gravity.  The light
fraction floats and is continuously removed by overflowing a
weir.  The heavy particles sink and are continuously removed
by an airlift.

The float weir overflow and sink airlift discharge go  to  a
drainage  screen where 90 percent of the medium carried with
the float and sink drains through the screen and is returned
to the separatory cone.  The "float" product passes from the
drainage section of the screen to the washing section  where
the fines are completely removed by water sprays.  The solid
wastes  from  the  wet screening operations contain -0.95 to
+3.8 cm  (-3/8 to +1-1/2in) material which is primarily  used
for  the  construction  of settling pond contour.  The fines
from the spray screen operations, along with the "sink" from
the separating cone, are sent into  the  product  thickener.
In  the flotation facility, the feed is crushed, milled, and
classified and then sent into the cyclone clarifier.   Make-
up   water,  along  with  the  process  recycled  water,  is
introduced into the cyclone classifier.  The  oversize  from
the classifier is ground in a ball mill and recycled back to
the  cyclone.   The  cyclone  product  is distributed to the
rougher flotation and the floated product is then routed  to
cleaner  cells  which  operate  in  series.   The  flotation
concentrate is then sent into the  product  thickener.   The
underflow  from this thickener is filtered, dried, calcined,
burned, crushed, screened and bagged for shipment.

The tailings from the flotation operation and  the  filtrate
constitute  the  waste  streams  of these facilities and are
sent into the tailings thickener for  water  recovery.   The
overflows   from  either  thickener  are  recycled  back  to
process.   The  underflow  from   the   tailings   thickener
containing  about  40  percent  solids  is  impounded in the
facility.  A simplified flow diagram for  this  facility  is
given in Figure 17.

Raw Waste Loads

The  raw  waste from this facility consists of the underflow
from  the  tailings  thickeners  and   it   includes   about
                          80

-------
          ORE

          J_
        CRUSHERS
00
       0/0
      FINES
       TO
      WftSTE
 15%
 TO
KILN
        x50'
                     -30
                                           RECYCLED
                                             WATER
HEfl/Y
CRU5HFR — — rin MEDIA
LKUoMUt — • €» SEPARATION
PLAMT
I )/o -a
SOLID
WASTE


FLOTATION
AGENT
>% 1
                              MAKE-UP WATER
                                                UNDERFLOW
                                          40% SOLIDS
                                        TO SETTLING POND

                                                      FIGURE  17
                                         MAGNESITE  MINING AND PROCESSING
                                                                                    VENT
                                                                                     BAG
                                                                                   HOUSE
CRUSHERS
ROD MILLS
AND
CLASSIFIERS
'
1 L_


OVERFLOW

»
ROUGHER
AND
CLEANER
CELLS

!
— — ®s
1?
CONCENTRATE
THICKENER
RECYCLE

TAILS^GS
THICKENER
_j
ICffll , - , - i - r--i -- -



VACUUM
FILTERS
1
FILTRATE




DRY NG,
CALC1 v';M3,
BUH?' IN 3,
CRUSHING,
SCrtEENING

                                                                                                KACf.'ESfA
                                                                                                PRODUCT

-------
40 percent  suspended  solids  amounting  to  590,000 kg/day
(1,300,000 Ib/day) .

Facility Water Use

This facility's fresh water  system  is  serviced  by  eight
wells.  All wells except one are hot water wells, 50 to 70°c
(121°  to  160°F) .  The total mill intake water is 2,200,000
I/day (580,000 gal/day), 88 percent of which is cooled prior
to usage.  The hydraulic load  of  this  facility  is  given
below:
 .,
process "water ™o~ref ine the
 product                          163,000  (U3,000)
road dust control                 227,000  (60,000)
sanitary                           11,360  ( 3,000)
tailing pond evaporation          492,000  (130,000)
tailing pond percolation          757,000  (200,000)
evaporation in water sprays,
  Baker coolers & cooling towers  545,000  (144,000)

No  process  waste waters are discharged out of the property
at this facility.  There is no mine water  pumpout  at  this
facility.

Waste Water Treatment.

The  waste  stream  at this facility is the underflow of the
tailings thickener which contains large quantities of  solid
wastes.   To  aid  the  flow, make-up water is added to this
waste stream and then discharged  into  the  tailings  pond.
The  estimated  area of this pond is 15 hectares  (37 acres) .
The estimated evaporation at  this  area  is  21  cm/yr  (54
in/yr)  and the annual rainfall is 2.4 cm/yr (6 in/yr) .  The
waste  water  is,  therefore,  lost  about  40  percent   by
evaporation  and about 60 percent by percolation.  No stream
discharge from the mill is  visible  in  any  of  the  small
washes  in  the  vicinity of the tailings pond, and also, no
green vegetative patches, that would indicate  the  presence
of  near  surface run-off s, were visible.  The tailings pond
is located at the  upper  end  of  an  alluvial   fan.   This
material  is  both coarse and angular and has a rapid perco-
lation rate.  This could account for the lack of  run-off and
the total recharge of the basin.

Effluent

As all process waters at facility 2063 are  either  recycled
or  lost by evaporation and percolation, there is no process
water effluent discharge out of this property.
                          82

-------
                           SHALE

Shale is a consolidated sedimentary rock composed chiefly of
clay minerals, occurring in  varying  degrees  of  hardness.
Shales  and  common  clays are for the most part used by the
producer in fabricating  or  manufacturing  structural  clay
products   (SIC  3200) so only shale mining and processing is
discussed here.  Less than  10 percent  of  total  clay  and
shale  output  is  sold  outright.  Therefore, for practical
purposes, nearly all such mining is captive  to  ceramic  or
refractory  manufactures.  Shale is mined in open pits using
rippers, scrapers, bulldozers,  and  front-end  loaders  for
removal  of  the  shale from the pit.  Blasting is needed to
loosen very hard shale deposits.  The shale is  then  loaded
on  trucks  or  rail  cars  for  transport  to the facility.
There, primary  crushing,  grinding,  screening,  and  other
operations  are  used  in  the manufacture of many different
structural clay products.   A  general  process  diagram  is
given  in  Figure  18.   Solid  waste  is generated in shale
mining as overburden  which  is  used  as  fill  to  reclaim
mined-out pits.  Since ceramic processing is not covered, no
processing waste is accounted for.

Water Use

There  is  no  water  used  in shale mining, however, due to
rainfall and ground water seepage, there can be water  which
accumulates  in the mines and must be removed.  Mine pumpout
is  intermittent  depending  on   rainfall   frequency   and
geographic  location.   In many cases, facilities will build
small earthen dams or ditches  around  the  pit  to  prevent
inflow  of rainwater.  Also shale is, in most cases, so hard
that run off water will  not  pickup  significant  suspended
solids.   Flow  rates  are  not generally available for mine
pumpout.

Waste Water Treatment

There is no waste water treatment necessary for shale mining
and processing since there is no process water  used.   When
there  is  rainfall or ground water accumulation, this water
is generally pumped out and discharged to abandoned pits  or
streams.

Effluent and Disposal

Mine  pumpout  is discharged without treatment.  There is no
other effluent.
                          83

-------
                                                       COARSE
oo
*«
SHALE
p|T


PRIMARY
CRUSHER


GRIND


SCREEN
1
PIT
PUMPOUT
                                                                                 PRODUCTS
                                           FIGURE  18.

                                  SHALE MINING AND PROCESSING

-------
                           APLITE

Aplite is found in quantity in the U.S. only in Virginia and
is mined and processed by only two facilities, both of which
are discussed below.

Process Description

The deposit mined by facility 3016 is  relatively  soft  and
the  ore  can  be  removed  with  bulldozers,  scrapers, and
graders, while that mined by facility 3020 requires blasting
to loosen from the quarry.  The ore is then loaded on trucks
and hauled to the processing facility.

Facility 3016  employs  a  wet  process  consisting  of  wet
crushing  and grinding, screening, removal of mica and heavy
minerals via a series of  wet  classifiers,  dewatering  and
drying,  magnetic  separation  and  final  storage  prior to
shipping.
Facility 3020 processing is dry, consisting of crushing  and
drying,  more  crushing,  screening, magnetic separation and
storage for  shipping.   However,  water  is  used  for  wet
scrubbing  to control air pollution.  A process flow diagram
is given in Figure 19 depicting both processes.

Raw Waste Load

Mining waste is overburden and mine pumpout.  The processing
wastes are dusts and fines  from  air  classification,  iron
bearing  sands  from  magnetic  separation, and tailings and
heavy minerals  from  wet  classification  operations.   The
latter wastes obviously do not occur at the dry facility.
              Materials            ton/r]_       iib/100()_!b.l_

facility 3016 tailings and        136,000        1,000
(wet)         heavy minerals      (150,000)
              and fines

facility 3020 dust and fines      9,600          175
(dry)                             (10,600)

Other,   non-waterbome   wastes   come  from  the  magnetic
separation step at facility 3020.
                          85

-------
00
LEGEND.















— DRY
PWITFCC
— WET PROCESS



— .»










PRI
UFO

t
!
•i
i
i
i
i


ICUUU
joMirji





FN
J

I
j






SCREENING



i
i 	
1
1
A







P|L

t

avikio
UK i ii'tv?


— .fie















CYCLONE
1
1
t




W«TrP _ 	 ,*»_


t

CRl
CPC
OOP



—

JSH
EEh




NG
1 i » t ^



cpoi iRprrpc

§ 	







t r\ i




CLASSIFY -
-*

^<>
4.O









DUST, FINES

QiCY
Oir 1






VENT
DRYii'JG
AND
SCREENING






.

MAGNETiC


SEPARATION

f ! !
i
i
i
i
• *











1 & IRON SANDS



1
T TO LANDFILL


- 	 -y flp; ITF
"^ PRODUCT
.^.flp- A?L!TE
PRODUCT





£ | OR BEACH SAND £
...If, 	 . H
POND
1
	 |
POND
                                                                                       [
                                             FIGURE 19.
                                    APLITE MINING AND PROCESSING
                                                                                     EFFLUENT

-------
Water Use

Water is used at facility 3020  (dry process)  only  for  wet
scrubbers  which  cut down on airborne dust and  fines.  This
water totals 1,230,000 I/day  (321,000 gpd) with  no  recycle.
There is occasional mine pumpout.

Water  is  used at facility 3016 for crushing, screening and
classifying at a rate of  38,000,000 I/day  (10,000,000 gpd)
which  is  essentially 100% recycled.  Dust control requires
about 1,890,000 I/day  (500,000 gpd) of water which  is  also
recycled.   Any  make-up  water  needed  due  to evaporation
losses comes from the river.  The amount was not disclosed.
There  is  no  mine pumpout at facility 3016 and any  surface
water which accumulates drains to a nearby river.

The facility water use in this industry can be summarized:
process use;

 scrubber or dust
 control
 crush, screen,
 classify

net discharge  (less
 mine pumpout)
mine pumpout
make-up water
intake
1/kkg product
3016

3,600 (870)

12,700 (3,010)


approx.  0

0
not given
                                            3020

                                            5,900  (1,420)

                                            0


                                            5,900  (1,120)

                                            not given
                                            5,900  (1,420)
Waste Water Treatment

The waste water generated in these aplite operations is sent
to tailings ponds where solids are allowed to  settle.   The
scrubber  water  from  facility  3020  is  discharged  after
settling while the occasional  mine  pumpout  is  discharged
without  settling.   The water from the wet process facility
3016 is essentially 100% recycled to the process.  Every few
years, when the pond level becomes excessive, facility  3016
discharges  from the pond to a river.  When this occurs, the
pond is treated with alum to lower suspended  solids  levels
in  the  discharge.   Likewise, when suspended solids levels
are excessive for recycle purposes, the pond is also treated
with alum.  There is no other water loss from facility  3016
except for evaporation and pond seepage.
                          87

-------
Effluent and Disposal

Facility  3020 discharges effluent arising from wet scrubber
operations to a creek after allowing settling  of  suspended
solids  in  a  series  of  ponds.   Aplite clays represent a
settling problem in that a portion of the clays settles  out
rapidly  but  another portion stays in suspension for a long
time, imparting a milky appearance  to  the  effluent.   The
occasional  mine  pumpout  due  to  rainfall  is  discharged
without treatment.

Facility 3016 recycles water from the settling ponds to  the
process  with  only  infrequent  discharge to a nearby river
when pond levels become  excessive   (every  2  to  3 years).
This  discharge  is state regulated only on suspended solids
at 649 mg/1 average, and 1000 mg/1 for any one day.   Actual
settling pond warer analyses have not been made.

The   solid   wastes   generated   in  these  processes  are
land-disposed, either in ponds or as  land-fill,  with  iron
bearing sands being sold as beach sand.
                          88

-------
         TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE AND PYROPHYLLITE

There  are  33  known facilities in the U.S. producing talc,
steatite, soapstone and pyrophyllite.  Twenty-seven of these
facilities use dry  grinding  operations,  producing  ground
products,   two   utilize  log  washing  and  wet  screening
operations producing either crude talc or  ground  talc  and
four are wet crude ore beneficiation facilities, three using
froth flotation and one heavy media separation techniques.

Process Description of Dry Grinding Operations

In  a  dry grinding mill, the ore is batched in ore bins and
held until a representative ore sample is  analyzed  by  the
laboratory.   Each  batch is then assigned to a separate ore
silo, and subsequently  dried  and  crushed  in  a  crushing
circuit.   The  ore,  containing  less  than 12X moisture is
reclaimed from these storage silos  and  sent  to  fine  dry
grinding circuits in the mill.  In the pebble mill (Hardinge
circuit), which includes mechanical air separators in closed
circuit,  the  ore  is ground to minus 200 mesh rock powder.
Part of  the  grades  produced  by  this  circuit  are  used
principally  by  the ceramic industry; the remainder is used
as feed to other grinding or classifying circuits.  In a few
facilities, some of this powder is introduced into the fluid
energy mill to  manufacture  a  series  of  minus  325  mesh
products for the paint industry.

Following  grinding  operations,  the  finished  grades  are
pumped, in dry state, to product bulk  storage  silos.   The
product is reclaimed from these silos, as needed, and either
pumped  to bulk hopper cars or to the bagging facility where
it is packed in bags for shipment.   A  generalized  process
diagram for a dry grinding mill is given in Figure 20.

There   is   no  water  used  in  dry  grinding  facilities;
therefore, there is no generation of water-borne  pollutants
by   these  facilities.   Bag  housed  collectors  are  used
throughout this industry for dust control.  The fluid energy
mills use steam.  The steam generated in boilers is used  in
process  and vented to atmosphere after being passed through
a baghouse dust collector to remove dust  product  from  the
steam.    The   waste  streams  emanating  from  the  boiler
operations originate from  conventional  hot  or  cold  lime
softening   process  and/or  zeolite  softening  operations,
filter  backwash,  and  boiler  blowdown  wastes  which  are
addressed  under  general  water guidelines in Section IX of
this report.

Even though these facilities  do  not  use  water  in  their
process,  some  of  them  do  have mine water discharge from
their underground mine workings.
                           89

-------
    TALC ORE"
JAY/
AND
CONE
CRUSHERS


WET
ORE
BIN


FINE
CRUSHING
AND DRYING
CIRCUIT


DRY
ORE
SILOS
                                                                                 PEBBLE
                                                                                   MILL
                                                                                 GRINDING
                                                                                 CIRCUIT
COARSE ->
MATERIAL
       •^PRODUCT
  STEAM
   OR
COMPRESSED
   AIR
vo
o

                                                                                       FLUID
                                                                                      ENERGY
                                                                                      GRINDING
                                                                                      CIRCUIT
                                                                                        i
                                                                                    DRY
                                                                                 COLLECTOR
          "RODUCTS
          •PRODUCT
                                                FIGURE  20.
                TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE AND PYROPHYLLITE  MINING AND PROCESSING
                                                    (DRY)

-------
Process Description of Log Washing and Wet Screening

At   log   washing   facility   2034   and   wet   screening
facility 2035,  the  water  is  used  to wash fines from the
crushed ore.  In either facility, the washed product is next
screened, sorted  and  classified.   The  product  from  the
classifier  is  either  shipped  as  is  or  it  is  further
processed in a  dry  grinding  mill  to  various  grades  of
finished product.

At facility 2034 wash water is sent into a hydroclone system
for  product  recovery.   The slimes from the hydroclone are
then discharged into a settling  pond  for  evaporation  and
drying.  At facility 2035, the wash water, which carries the
fines, is sent directly into a settling pond.

The  wet facilities in this subcategory are operational on a
six-month per year basis.  During  freezing  weather,  these
facilities  are  shut  down.  Stockpiles of the wet facility
products are accumulated in summer and  used  as  source  of
feed  in  the  dry  grinding facility in winter.  Simplified
diagrams for facilities 2034 and 2035 are given  in  Figures
21 and 22 respectively.

Raw Waste Loads

The raw waste from facility 2034 consists of the slimes from
the  hydroclone  operation,  that  of  facility  2035 is the
tailings emanating from the wet screening operation and  the
slimes  from the classifiers.  Neither company keeps records
on the quantity of the wastes, since no water is discharged.

Facility Water Use

Both  facilities  are  supplied  by  water  wells  on  their
property.   Essentially  all  water  used  is process water.
Facility  2034  has  a   water   intake   of   182,000 I/day
(48,000 gal/day)   and  facility  2035  has a water intake of
363,000 I/day (96,000 gal/day).

Waste Water Treatment

The waste streams emanating from the washing operations  are
sent   into   settling   ponds.   The  ponds  are  dried  by
evaporation and seepage.  In facility 2035, when  the  ponds
are  filled with solids, they are harvested for reprocessing
into saleable products.

Effluent

There is no discharge out of these properties.
                          91

-------
to
                   ORE
                 WATER
                               LOG
                             WASHER
VIBRATING
 SCREEN
                                            OVERSIZE TO
                                             STOCKPILE
                                            AND MILLiNG
  SCREW
CLASSIFIER
                                                                   - FINES
                                                             HYDROCLONE
                     ?
                  SLIMES TO
                SETTLING FCfCD
-«> PRODUCT
                                               FIGURE  21.
               TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE AND  PYROPHYLLITE MINING AND PROCESSING
                                       (LOG WASHING  PROCESS)

-------
CRUDE ORE -—CJ
VO
OJ
                                    WATER
                                    WET
                                  SCREENING
                                                  CLASSIFICATION
                                 TAILINGS TO POND
                                                            SORTING
SLIMES  OVERSIZE
TO POND   TO DUMP
                      STOCKPILES
                         AND
                        MILLS
PRODUCT
                                              FIGURE  22.
               TALC,  STEATITE,  SOAPSTONE AND PYROPHYLLITE MINING  AND PROCESSING
                                      (WET SCREENING  PROCESS)

-------
Mine Water Discharge

Underground mine workings intercept  numerous  ground  water
sources.   The  water from each underground mine is directed
through ditches and culverts to sumps at  each  mine  level.
The  sumps  serve  as sedimentation vessels and suctions for
centrifugal pumps which discharge this water to upper  level
sumps  or to the.surface.  In some mines, a small portion of
the pump discharge is diverted for use as drill  wash  water
and  pump  seal  water;  the  remainder is discharged into a
receiving waterway.  The disposition and quantities of  mine
discharges are given as follows:

                             Liguid
                             I/day"
2037
2038
2039
2040
2041
2042
2043
ES        ID9/1

8.3       4, 9
7.8
8.1
7.2-8.5   15
8.7
7.8
7.6
28
1,020,000
(270,000)

878,000
(232,000)

1,900,000
(507,000)

1,100,000
(300,000)

49,200
(13,000)

496,000
(131,000)

76,000
(20,000)
                         Pumped to a
                         swamp

                         Pumped to a
                         swamp

                         Open ditch
Settling basin
than to a brook

Settling basin
then to a brook

Settling basin
then to a brook

Settling basin
then to a river
Mine Water Treatment
In mines 2040, 2041, 2042 and 2043, the water from each mine
is  directed  through  ditches and culverts to sumps at each
mine level.  The sumps serve as  sedimentation  vessels  and
suctions for centrifugal pumps which discharge this water to
upper  level  settling  basins.   The  overflows  from these
basins  are  discharged  into  a  receiving   stream.    The
remaining  mines  employ  no  surface  settling basins.  The
water from the underground sump is directly discharged  into
a   receiving   ditch,  waterway  or  mine  without  further
settling.
                            94

-------
Effluent Composition

No information was available on mines 2037  and  2038.   The
significant  constituents,  however,  in  the remaining mine
effluents are reported to be as follows:

Waste Material
Mine Number             2036           2039
TSS, mg/1               9              3         <20
Iron, mg/1              0.08           0.05      	
pH min-max              7,5-7.8        7.0-7.3   7.2-8.5

Process Description of Flotation and Heavy Media  Separation
Facilities

All four facilities in this subcategory use either flotation
or  heavy  media  separation  techniques  for  upgrading the
product.  In two of the facilities (2031 and 2032)   the  ore
is  crushed,  screened, classified and milled and then taken
by a bucket elevator to  a  storage  bin  in  the  flotation
section.   From  there it is fed to a conditioner along with
well and recycled  water.   The  conditioner  feeds  special
processing  equipment, which then sends the slurry to a pulp
distributor.  In facility 2031, the distributor  splits  the
conditioner  discharge  over three concentrating tables from
which the concentrates, the gangue material, are sent to the
tailings pond.  The talc middlings from the tables are  then
pumped  to  the  flotation  machines.   However, in facility
2032,  the  distributor  discharges  directly  into  rougher
flotation  machines.   A  reagent is added directly into the
cells and the floated product next goes to  cleaning  cells.
The  final  float  concentrate  feads a rake thickener which
raises the solids content of the flotation product  from  10
to  35 percent.  The product from thickener is next filtered
on a rotary vacuum filter and water from  the  filter  flows
back  into the thickener.  The filter cake is then dried and
the  finished  product  is  sent  into  storage  bins.   The
flotation  tailings, along with thickener overflow, are sent
to the tailings pond.  A simplified flow diagram is given in
Figure 23.

Facility 2033 processes ores which contain mostly  clay  and
it  employs  somewhat  different  processing steps.  In this
facility, the ore is scrubbed with the  addition  of  liquid
caustic to raise the pH, so as to suspend the red clay.  The
scrubbed  ore  is  next  milled and sent through thickening,
flotation and tabling.  The product from  the  concentrating
tables  is  acid  treated  to dissolve iron oxides and other
possible impurities.  Acid treated material is  next  passed
through  the  product  thickener,  the  underflow from which
contains the finished product.  The thickener  underflow  is
                          95

-------
TALC ORE



CRUSHiNG,
DSYIN'G,
GRihiDJNG




—


WATER
I
CONDITIONER
*


1
1
[
-W
1
I
!



PL'LP
DISTRIBUTOR
AND
CONCENTRATING
TA3LES
1


I
-*

FLOTATION
REAGENTS
J
DiSTRSSUTOR
AND
FLOTATION
CELLS
1



^




THICKENER
AND
FILTER
1



-




DRYER

                                          •PRODUCT
                                      I	I
LEGEND:
          ALTERNATE PROCESSES
                               i
                                                       TAILINGS BASIN
CLARIFICATION
   EASiNS
    T
                                                          EFFLUENT
                                             FIGURE  23.
                                    TALC  MINING AND PROCESSING
                                        (FLOTATION PROCESS)

-------
filtered,  dried,  ground  and  bagged.   The  waste streams
consist of the flotation tailings,  the  overflow  from  the
primary  thickener  and  the  filtrate.   A generalized flow
diagram is given in Figure 24.

Facility 2044 uses heavy media  separation   (HMS)  technique
for  rhe  benef iciation  of  a portion of their product.  At
this facility, the ore is  crushed  in  a  jaw  crusher  and
sorted.   The  minus 2 inch material is dried before further
crushing and screening operations whereas the plus 5.1 cm  (2
in) fraction is crushed, screened  and  sized  as  recovered
from  the  primary  crushing  stage.  The minus 3 to plus 20
mesh material resulting from the final  screening  operation
is  sent  to  HMS  facility for the rejection of high silica
grains.  The minus 20 mesh fraction is next  separated  into
two sizes by air classification.

Facility 2044 uses a wet scrubber on their #1 drier for dust
control.  On drier #2 (product drier)  a baghouse is used and
the  dust  recovered is marketed.  A simplified process flow
diagram for this facility is given in Figure 25.

Raw Waste Loads

In facilities 2031 and 2032, the raw waste consists  of  the
mill   tailings  emanating  from  the  flotation  step.   In
facility 2033, in addition to the mill tailings,  the  waste
contains  the  primary  thickener  overflow and the filtrate
from the product filtering operation.   In facility 2044  the
raw  waste  stream  is the composite of the HMS tailings and
the process waste stream from  the  scrubber.   The  average
values given are listed as follows:

Waste Material     JS9/lS}£eLof_fi°£ation_p^oduct__{lb/1000
            N          2031  ~                      204
TSS                 1800     1200-1750   800       26

Facility Water Use

The  flotation  mill at facility 2031 consumes water, on the
average, 25,400  1/kkg  (6,070 gal/ton)   of  product.   This
includes  200 1/kkg  product  of  non-contact  cooling water
(48 gal/ton)  which is used in cooling the bearings of  their
crushers.

Facility  2032 consumes 17,200 1/kkg  (4150 gal/ton) product;
40 percent of which may be recycled back to  process,  after
clarification.   Recycled  water is used in conditioners and
as coolant in compressor  circuits  and  for  several  other
miscellaneous needs.
                           97

-------
CRUDE CRE«
LIOUiD
CA'JSTIC
                               WATER
                               AND
                             REAGENTS
TAILINGS
SULFUROUS
  ACID
1
BALL WILL. ! 	 »
THiCKENER j
f 20%
CONDITIONER

i
m
t
*3>

FLOTATION
CELLS

RECYCLE 1 «
V*
LiWE 	 f£r<

-<.
*
TABLES
r
SUMP
-*

FILTERS '
'1



                                                                                              DRYER,
                                                                                              GRINDER,
                                                                                              BAGGER
                                                            -PRODU'
                                             TO SETTLING POND
                                                  RGURE 24.
                                        TALC  MINING  AND PROCESSING
                                                (IMPURE  ORE)

-------
VJ5



WATER 	 B>
PRIMARY
CRUSHER
1
DRYER
1
WET
SCRUBBER
I
SETTLING
POND
1






CRUSHING
AND
SCREENING

1
|
PEBBLE
MILLS


AIR
CLASS
IF1ER
-^ PYROPHYLLITI
| PRODUCT
WATER
A


HEAVY
MEDIA
PLANT
\
?
SCREENING
AKD
SCREW
CLASSIFIERS



CRUSHING
SCREENING
WET SAND
BY-PRODUCT
	 ANDALUSiTE
— " BY-PRODUCT
^ PYROPHILLITE
** BY-PRODUCT
                  EFFLUENT
                                                     WASTE
                                                  TO SETTLING POND
                                           FIGURE 25.
                              PYROPHYLLITE  MINING AND PROCESSING
                                    (HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION)

-------
Facility  2033 consumes 16,800 1/kkg (4000 gal/ton) product;
20 percent of which is recycled back  to  process  from  the
primary  thickener operation.  Facility 2041 consumes on the
average 1/kkg (1,305 gal/ton) total product.  The  hydraulic
load of these facilities is summarized as follows:
Consumption
at Facility No.    2031       2032            2033      2034

Process         730,000    2,200,000     757,000   1,135,000
consumed       (192,000)     (583,000)   (200,000)   (300,000)

Non-contact      37,000       ---         54,000    ---
cooling          (9,600)                 (14,000)

Facility Waste Treatment

At  facility  2031, th?. mill tailings are pumped into one of
the three available settling ponds.  The overflow from these
settling ponds enters by gravity into a common clarification
pond.  There is no point discharge from  this  clarification
pond.   The  tailings  remain  in the settling ponds and are
dried by natural evaporation and seepage.

At facility  2032,  the  mill  tailings  are  pumped  uphill
through  3000  feet  of  pipe  to  a  pond  of   34,000,000  1
(9,000,000 gal)  in  capacity  for  gravity  settling.   The
overflow  from  this  pond  is  treated  in a series of four
settling lagoons.   Approximately  40 percent  of  the  last
lagoon  overflow  may  be  sent  back  to  the  mill and the
remainder is discharged to a brook near the property.

In facility 2033, the filtrate, with a pH  of  3.5-4.0,  the
flotation  tailings  with  a  pH  of 10-10.5 and the primary
thickener overflow are combined, and the  resulting  stream,
having  a  pH  of  4.5-5.5,  is  sent to a small sump in the
facility for treating.  The effluent pH is adjusted by  lime
addition  to  a  6.5-7.5  level  prior to discharge into the
settling pond.  The lime is added by metered pumping and the
pH is controlled manually.  The effluent from  the  treating
sump  is  routed to one end of a "U" shaped primary settling
pond and is discharged into a  secondary  or  back-up  pond.
The  total  active pond area is about 0.8 hectare (2 acres).
The  clarification   pond   occupies   about   0.3   hectare
(0.75 acres) .    The   back-up   pond  (clarification  pond)
discharges to an open ditch running  into  a  nearby  creek.
The non-contact cooling water in facilities 2031 and 2033 is
discharged  without  treatment.   Facility  2044  uses a 1.6
hectare (4 acres) settling pond to treat  the  waste  water;
the  overflow  from  this pond is discharged into the river.
It has been estimated that the present settling pond will be
                          100

-------
filled within two years' time.  This company  has  leased  a
new piece of property for the creation of a future pond.

Effluent Composition

As  all process water at facility 2031 is impounded and lost
by evaporation, there is no process water  effluent  out  of
this property.  Facility 2035 a washing facility also has no
discharge.

At facilities 2032, 2033, and 2044, the effluent consists of
the overflow from their clarification or settling pond.  The
significant constituents in these streams are reported to be
as follows:

Waste_Materia^
                            2032 ___________ 2033         2044
pH                       7.2-8.5        5.6          7.0
TSS, mg/1                <20(26)*       80  (8)**     100

*Contractor verification
**More recent data by contractor

The  average  amounts  of  TSS discharged in these effluents
were calculated from the above data to be:
                   product

    2032           <0.34
    2033            0.29
    2044            0.50

Exemplary performance of waste water treatment was  attained
by  facilities  2032  and  2044.   Also  facility  2031 is a
special case in that  it  has  no  discharge  by  virtue  of
evaporation and seepage of all waste water.
                          101

-------
                     NATURAL ABRASIVES

Garnet  and tripoli are the major natural abrasives mined in
the U.S.  Other  minor  products,  e.g.  emery  and  special
silica-stone  products,  are  of  such low volume production
(2,500-3,000 kkg/yr)  as to be economically insignificant and
pose no significant environmental problems.  They  will  not
be considered further,

                           GARNET

Garnet  is  mined  in  the  U.S. almost solely for use as an
abrasive   material.     Two   garnet   abrasive   producers,
representing   more   than  80 percent  of  the  total  U.S.
production, provided the data for this section.  There are 4
facilities in the U,   S.  producing  garnet,  one  of  which
produces it only as a by-product.

Process Description

The  two  garnet  operations studied are in widely differing
geographic locations, and so the garnet deposits differ, one
being a mountain schists  (3071), and the other  an  alluvial
deposit (3037).

Facility  3071  mines  by  open  pit  methods  with standard
drilling and blasting equipment.  The ore is  trucked  to  a
primary  crushing  facility  and  from there conveyed to the
mill where additional crushing and  screening  occurs.   The
screening  produces  the  coarse  feed  to  the  heavy-media
section and a fine feed for flotation.

The heavy-media section produces a coarse tailing  which  is
dewatered  and stocked, a garnet concentrate, and a middling
which  is  reground  and  sent  to  flotation.   The  garnet
concentrate is then dewatered, filtered/ and dried.

Facility   3037  mines  shallow  open  pits,  stripping  off
overburden, then using a dragline to feed the garnet-bearing
earth to a trumble (heavy rotary screen).  Large stones  are
recovered  and used for road building or to refill The pits.
The smaller stones are trucked to a jigging operation,  also
in the field, where the heavier garnet is separated from all
impurities except some of the high density kyanite.  The raw
garnet is -then trucked to the mill.  There the raw garnet is
dried,  screened,  milled, screened and packaged.  Figure 26
gives the general flow diagram for these operations.
                          102

-------
                                  WATER —p»
                                COARSE
QUARRY


CRUSHiNG
                           HEAVY
                           f.'.EDIA
                           PLANT
WATER-
       .RECYCLE
            TRUM1LE
         LAHGE
         STQK'ES
          FOR
          FILL
     WATER-
JIG
                SETTLING
                  POND
                 EFFLUENT
                                 A  • RECYCLE
                                            DEIWERSNG
                                              SCREEN

                                                            WATER
                        COARSE TASLIMGS       I
                       SOLD AS ROAD GRAVEL    A
DRYING
                                                             FLOTATION

                                                                        RECYCLE
                                          THICKENER
                                                             SETTLING
                                                               PONDS
                                                              EFFLUENT
                                                    FIGURE 26.
                                        GARNET MINING  AMD PROCESSING
                                                                                            •PRODUC
                                                                                              SCREENING

-------
Raw Waste Load

Solid waste is generated  in  garnet  mining  as  overburden
which  is used for reclaiming worked-out pits.  Large stones
recovered from in-the-field screening operations at facility
3037 are also used to refill pits or for road building.

In the processing of the garnet ore, solid waste in the form
of  coarse  tailings  is  generated  from  the   heavy-media
facility  at  facility 3071.  These tailings are stocked and
sold as road gravel.  The flotation  underflow  at  facility
3071 consisting, of waste fines, flotation reagents and water
is  first  treated to stabilize the pH and then is sent to a
series of tailings ponds.  In these ponds, the solids settle
and are removed intermittently by a  dragline  and  used  as
landfill.

The  categories  of raw wastes generated at these facilities
are therefore:

                        3037           3071

large stones and        yes                 yes
coarse tailings

flotation fines and     no                  yes
reagents

fine tailings           yes                 no

Water Use

Untreated surface water is pumped to the  pits  at  facility
3037  for  initial  washing and screening operations and for
make-up.  This pit water.is recycled and none is  discharged
except  as ground water.  Surface water is also used for the
jigging operation, but is discharged after passage through a
settling pond.  No data is available regarding the  quantity
of water used in these operations.

At  facility  3071,  water is collected from natural run-off
and mine drainage into surface reservoirs, and it is used in
both the  heavy  media  facility  and  in  flotation.   This
process   water   amounts   to  approximately  380-760 1/min
(100-200 gpm) and is about 50 percent recycled.

Effluent flow varies seasonally from a springtime maximum of
570 1/min  (150 gpm) to a minimum in summer and fall.
                             104

-------
The summarized average water flow data given below is  based
on 50 percent recycle at facility 3071:
                   3037

washing and screening   amount not known      none
heavy media separation
and flotation           none                  24,600 (5,900)
jigging                 amount not known      none

discharge of wastes.     jigging water only    12,300 (3,000)

Waste Water Treatment

Facility 3037 recycles untreated pit water used in screening
operations,  and  sends  water  from jigging operations to a
settling pond before discharging it back into the creek.

Waste water from flotation underflow  at  facility  3071  is
first  treated  with  caustic  to stabilize the 'pH which was
acidified from flotation reagents.  Then  the  underflow  is
sent  to  a series of tailings ponds.  The solids settle out
into the ponds and the final effluent is discharged.   Water
from  the  dewatering  screen is recycled to the heavy media
facility.

Effluent and Disposal

Effluent arising from flotation underflow at  facility  3071
is  discharged.   The  pH is maintained at 7.  The suspended
solids content averaged 25 mg/1.

Effluent  from  jigging  operations  at  facility  3037   is
discharged after passage through a settling pond.
                          105

-------
                          TRIPOLI

Tripoli  encompasses a group of fine-grained, porous, silica
materials which have similar  properties  and  uses.   These
include tripoli, amorphous silica and rottenstone.  All four
producers of tripoli provided the data for this section.

Process Description

Amorphous   silica   (tripoli)    is   normally   mined  from
underground   mines   using   conventional   room-and-pillar
•techniques.   There  is  at  least one open-pit mine  (5688) .
Trucks drive into the mines  where  they  are  loaded  using
front-end  loaders.   The  ore  is  then  transported to the
facility for processing.  Processing consists  of  crushing,
screening,   drying,   milling,  classifying,  storage,  and
packing for shipping.  A general process diagram is given in
Figure 27.  At one facility only a special grade tripoli   (a
minor   portion   of  the  production,  value  approximately
$250,000/year)  is made by a unique process using wet-milling
and scrubbing.

Raw Waste Load

Both facilities report no significant waste  in  processing.
Any   dust   generated  in  screening,  drying,  or  milling
operations is gathered in cyclones and dust  collectors  and
returned to the process as product.

Mining  generates  a  small  amount  of  dirt which is piled
outside the mine and gravel which is used to build roads  in
the  mining  areas.   The  product  itself is of a very pure
grade so no other mining wastes are generated.

Water Use

There is no water used in mining, nor is  there  any  ground
water or rain water accumulation in the mines.

The standard process is a completely dry process.
                         106

-------
                               BAG
                              HOUSES
                         CYCLONES
MINE


j
CRUSH
                            I
                           AIR
                         CLASSIFY
                                       PRODUCT
 FIGURE 27.
TRIPOLI
 BY THE
MINING
AND  PROCESSING
 STANDARD PROCESS

-------
                      DIATOMITE MINING

There are nine diatomite mining and processing facilities in
the  U.S.  The data from three are included in this section.
These three facilities produce roughly one-half of the  U.S.
production of this material.

Process Description

After the overburden is removed from the diatomite strata by
power-driven  shovels,  scrapers  and  bulldozers, the crude
diatomite is dug from the ground  and  loaded  onto  trucks.
Facilities  5504  and 5505 haul the crude diatomite directly
to the mills for processing.  At facility  5500  the  trucks
carry  the crude diatomite to vertical storage shafts placed
in the formation at locations above a tunnel system.   These
shafts  have  gates through which the crude diatomite is fed
to an electrical  rail  system  for  transportation  to  the
primary crushers.

At  facility  5500,  after  primary  crushing, blending, and
distribution, the material moves to  different  powder  mill
units.  For "natural" or uncalcined powders, crude diatomite
is  crushed  and  then  milled and dried simultaneously in a
current of heated air.  The dried  powder  is  sent  through
separators  to  remove waste material and is further divided
into coarse and fine  fractions.   These  powders  are  then
ready for packaging.  For calcined powders, high temperature
rotary  kilns are continuously employed.  After classifying,
these  powders  are  collected  and  packaged.   To  produce
flux-calcined  powders, particles are sintered together into
microscopic clusters, then classified, collected and bagged.

At facilities 5504 and 5505,  the  ore  is  crushed,  dried,
separated  and classified, collected, and stored in bins for
shipping.  Some of the diatomite  is  calcined  at  facility
5505 for a particular product.  Diagrams for these processes
are given in Figure 28.

One  facility surface-quarries an oil-impregnated diatomite,
which is crushed, screened, and calcined to  drive  off  the
oil.   The  diatomite  is then cooled, ground, and packaged.
In the future, the material  will  be  heated  and  the  oil
vaporized and recovered as a petroleum product.

Raw Waste Load

Wastes  from  these operations consist of the oversize waste
fraction from the classifiers and of fines collected in dust
control equipment.  The amount is estimated to be 20 percent
of the mined material at facility  5500,  16-19  percent  at
                          108

-------
                                               *
                                                             VENT
                             WATER	»
o
vc
       MINE
-»a
CRUSH
   LEGEND:
             GENERAL PROCESS FLOW
             ALTERNATE PROCESS

             ROUTES
                     SCRUBBERS
                                            I
                                   BAG HOUSE
                                                               &
•BB
DRY
                                                                 DUST
                                                                                 BINS
                                                     J
                                                                                           •^PRODUCT
AIR CLASSIFY
                                                                                REAGENT
                                   ROD MILL
                                                |	I
                                                                               CALCINE
                                                                                                 CLASSIFY
                                                                                                               •PRODUCT
                                                                                                               •PRODUCT
                                      t
                                                                         WATER
                                                                           I
                                   CYCLONE

                                    TRAPS
                                                         I
                                                      MILL
                                                     T
                                                                        1



                                                                      LANE
                                            WASTE TO LAND DISPOSAL

                                     FIGURE 28.

                        D1ATOMITE MINING AND  PROCESSING

-------
facility  5504  and  5-6  percent,  solids  as  a slurry from
scrubber operations at facility 5505.
Facility 5500, oversize,          200
    dust fines

Facility 5504, sand, rock,        175
    heavy diatoms

Facility 5505, dust               45
    fines (slurry)

Water Use

Water is used by facility 5500 in the principal process  for
dust   collection  and  for  preparing  the  waste  oversize
material for land disposal.  In addition, a small amount  of
bearing cooling water is used.  Water is used in the process
at  facility 5505 only in scrubbers used to cut down on dust
fines in processing, which is recycled from  settling  ponds
to  the  process.   The only loss occurs through evaporation
with make-up water added to the system.  Water  is  used  in
the  process  at  facility 5504 to slurry wastes to a closed
pond.  This water  evaporates  and/or  percolates  into  the
ground.  As yet there is no recycle from -the settling pond.

                   l/kkg_or e_B roces s ed
                                  Jgallgn/ton).
                   5500                5505™         5504

Intake;
 make-up water     2f800               880            3,800
                   (670)               (210)          (910)

Use:
 dust collection   2,670               8,700          3,800
 and waste disposal (640J               (2,090)        (910)

 bearing cooling   125-160 (30-38)     ----           ----

Consumption :
 evaporation       2,800               B80            3,800
 (pond and process) (670)               (210)          (910)

The  much  lower  consumption of water at 5505 is due to the
use of recycling from the settling pond to the scrubbers.
                           110

-------
Waste Water Treatment

All  waste  water  generated  in  diatomite  preparation  at
facility 5500  is  evaporated  on the land.  Facilities 5504
and 5505 send waste water to settling ponds with water being
recycled to the process at facility 5505 and evaporated  and
percolated to ground water at facility 5504.

Effluent and Disposal

The  only  waste  water  at facility 5500 is land-evaporated
on-site.  There  is  no  process  water,  cooling,  or  mine
pumpout discharge.

At  facilities 5504 and 5505, the waste water from scrubbers
and waste fines slurrying is sent  to  settling  ponds.   At
facility  5505,  the  water  is decanted and recycled to the
process, while facility 5504 currently impounds the water in
a closed pond and the  water  evaporates  and/or  percolates
into the ground.  But in late 1974 a pump is being installed
to enable facility 5504 to decant and recycle the water from
the  pond  to  the  process.   Thus,  all of these diatomite
operations have no discharge of any waste water.

The oversize fraction and dust fines  waste  is  land-dumped
on-site  at  facility  5500.   The  solids  content  of this
land-disposed waste is silica (diatomite) in the  amount  of
about 300,000 mg/1.

The  waste slurries from facilities 5504 and 5505 consisting
of scrubber fines and dust are land-disposed with the solids
settling into ponds.  The solids content of  these  slurries
is  24,000  mg/1  for  facility  5505  and  146,000 mg/1 for
facility 5504.
                           Ill

-------
                          GRAPHITE

There is one producer of  natural  graphite  in  the  United
States  and  data  from  this  operation is presented in the
following sections.

Process Description

The  graphite  ore  is  produced  from  an  open  pit  using
conventional   mining  methods  of  benching*  breakage  and
removal.  The ore is properly sized for flotation by passing
through a 3-stage dry crushing and sizing system and then to
a wet grinding circuit consisting of a rod  mill  in  closed
circuit with a classifier.  Lime is added in the rod mill to
adjust  pH  for optimum flotation.  The classifier discharge
is pumped to the flotation circuit where water additions are
made and various reagents added at different points  in  the
process   flow.    The   graphite  concentrate  is  floated,
thickened, filtered  and  dried.   The  underflow  or  waste
tailings  from  the  cells  are  discharged as a slurry to a
settling pond.  The process flow diagram for the facility is
shown in Figure 29.

Raw waste Loads

There  are  three  sources  of  waste  associated  with  the
facility   operation.    They  are  the  tailings  from  the
flotation circuit, (36,000 kg/kkg  product  low  pH  seepage
water  from  the  tailings pond  (19,000 1/kkg product (4,500
gal/ton) under normal operating and weather conditions,  and
an  intermittent  seepage  from  the  mine.   The  flotation
reagents used in this process are alcohols and pine oils.

Water Use

The source of the intake water  is  almost  totally  from  a
lake.   The  exceptions are that the drinking water is taken
from a well and a minimal volume for  emergency  or  back-up
for the process comes from an impoundment of an intermittent
flowing  creek.  Some recycling of water takes place through
the reuse of thickener overflow, filtrate  from  the  filter
operation and non-contact cooling water from compressors and
vacuum pumps.
                          112

-------
GRAPHITE ORE-
    CRUSHING
      AND
   SCREENING
                                 LIME       WATE

                                  1	1
                                           MAKE-UP
                            WATER  REAGENTS   WATER
   GRINDING
     AND
CLASSIFICATION
	(   SEEPAGE

|   MINE   ! 2
|   PITS   |
I	I
                                    LIME
                                   TREAT
FLOTATION
                                                  TAILINGS
                                                   SUMP
                                                       - TAILINGS
                                                  TAILINGS
                                                   POND
C2a
DRYER
                                                                                          RLTRATE
                                                                                  GRINDING
                     PRODOC
                                                                                  PRODUC
                                               PLANT EFFLUENT
                                                     FIGURE 29.
                                        GRAPHITE MINING AND  PROCESSING

-------
total intake                 159,000 (38,000)

process waste discharge      107,000 (26,000)

consumed (process, non-
contact cooling, sani-       52,000    (12,000)
ta-tion)

Waste water Treatment

The   waste   streams  associated  with  the  operation  are
flotation tailings and seepage water.  The  tailings  slurry
at  about  20 percent  solids  and  at  a  near  neutral  pH
(adjustment made for optimum flotation) is discharged  to  a
partially  lined  8 hectare  (20  acre)  settling pond.  The
solids settle rapidly and the overflow is  discharged.   The
seepage  water  from  the tailings pond, mine and extraneous
surface waters are collected through the use of an extensive
network of ditches, dams and  sumps.   The  collected  waste
waters  are  pumped  to  a  treatment facility where lime is
addad to neutralize the acidity and precipitate  iron.   The
neutralized  water  is pumped to the tailings pond where the
iron floe is deposited.  The  acid  condition  of  the  pond
seepage  results from the extended contact of water with the
tailings which dissolve some  part  of  the  contained  iron
pyrites.

Effluent

There  is  one  effluent stream from this operation which is
the overflow from the tailings pond.  It is discharged  into
a  stream that flows into the lake that serves as the intake
water source for the  facility.   The  effluent  composition
falls within the limits established by the Texas State Water
Quality  Board for the following parameters: flow; pH; total
suspended solids; volatile solids; BOD; COD;  manganese  and
iron.    Facility   measurements   compared   to  the  state
limitations are:
                          114

-------
                                       State Standards

Flow I/day
(gal/day)
total solids
TSS
Volatile
Solids
Mn
Total Fe
BOD
COD
PH
facility
average
mg/1

750
10
1
0.1
0,1
9
20
7.3-8.5
24 hr.
maximum
1,160,000
(300,000)
1600
20
10
0.5
2
15
20
6.8
monthly
average
1,820,000
(480,000)
1380
10
0.2
-
1
10
15
7.5
This  facility  has  no  problem  meeting  this  requirement
because  of  a  unique  situation  where the large volume of
tailings entering the pond assists the settling of suspended
solids more than that normally expected from a well designed
pond.
                          115

-------
                            JADE

The jade industry in the U.S. is very small.   One  facility
representing   55 percent  of  total  U.S.  jade  production
provided the data for this section.

Process Description

The jade is mined in an open pit  quarry,  with  rock  being
obtained  by pneumatic drilling and wedging of large angular
blocks.  No explosives are used on the jade itself, only  on
the  surrounding host rock.  The rock is then trucked to the
facility for processing.  There the rock is  sawed,  sanded,
polished   and  packaged  for  shipping.   Of  the  material
processed only a small amount (3 percent)  is  processed  to
gems  and  17 percent is processed to floor and table tiles,
grave markers, and artifacts.  A general process diagram  is
given in Figure 30.

Raw Waste Load

Approximately  50 percent  of  the rock taken each year from
the quarry is unusable or unavoidably wasted in  processing,
amounting   to 29.5  ton/yr).   There  is  no  mine  pumpout
associated with this operation.

Water Use

Well water is used in the process for the wire saw, sanding,
and  polishing  operations.   This  water  use  amounts   to
190 I/day (50 gpd) of which none is recycled.

Waste Water Treatment

Waste  waters  generated  from  the  wire  saw, sanding, and
polishing operations, are sent to settling tanks  where  the
tailings  settle  out  and  the water is discharged onto the
facility lawn where it  evaporates  and/or  seeps  into  the
ground.   There is no other water treatment employed.  Solid
wastes in the form of tailings  which  collect  in  settling
tanks are eventually land-disposed as fill.
                           116

-------
QUARRY
                                                                             WATER
                                                                              AND
                                                                            POLISHING
fATER
t
4
SiC OIL WATER SiC AGENTS
1 L- \ \ L.

r 1
WIRE
t SAW
i
1


|~" RECYCLE
DIAMOND
SAW


r i
| SETTLING
TANK
I
i
V
'ATER
TO
ROUND
TAIL
T
LAND

SETTLING
TANK




1 JL J~"
t t V


i V
^\RE
AG
PC
I
:N3S TAILINGS
0 TO
FILL LANDFILL
PRODUCT
                                                                                       RECYCLE POLISHING
                                                                                       AGENTS TO EXTENT
                                                                                       POSSIBLE
                                         FIGURE  30.
                               JADE  MINING AND  PROCESSING

-------
                         NOVACULITE

Novaculite,  a generic name for large geologic formations of
pure, microcrystalline silica, is mined only in Arkansas  by
one  facility.   Open  quarries  are  mined  by drilling and
blasting,  with  a  front-end  loader  loading  trucks   for
transport  to  covered  storage  at the facility.  Since the
quarry is worked for only about 2 weeks per year, mining  is
contracted out.  Facility processing consists essentially of
crushing,  drying, air classification and bagging.  Normally
silica will not require drying but novaculite is hydrophilic
and will absorb water up to 9 parts per 100  ore.   Part  of
the  air  classifier  product  is diverted to a batch mixer,
where organics are reacted with  the  silica  for  specialty
products.  A general process diagram is given in Figure 31.

Raw waste Load

Wastes  generated  in the mining of novaculite remain in the
quarry as reclaiming fill,  and  processing  generates  only
scrubber  fines  which  are  settled  in  a holding tank and
eventually used for land-fill.  There is no  data  available
on  the  amount  of  this material.  However, a new facility
dust scrubber will be installed with recycle of  both  water
and fines.

Water Use

No  water  is used in novaculite mining and the quarry is so
constructed that no water accumulates.  Total water usage at
the facility for  bearing  cooling  and  the  dust  scrubber
totals approximately 18,900 I/day  (5,000 gpd) of city water.
Of this total amount 7,300-1U,500 I/day (1,900-3,800 gpd)  is
used for bearing cooling and an equivalent amount is used as
make-up water to the dust scrubber.

Waste Water Treatment

Water from the scrubber is sent to a settling tank and clear
water  is  recycled  to  the  scrubber.   cooling  water  is
discharged onto the facility lawn with no treatment.

Effluent and Disposal

Dust from the scrubber is currently land-disposed.  However,
with the installment of a new dust scrubber both  the  water
and muds will be recycled to the process.  Scrubber water is
recycled  to  the  process after settling out of solids in a
tank.  Cooling water is discharged  onto  the  lawn  at  the
facility and it either seeps into the ground or evaporates.
                          118

-------
QUARRY
                                  VENT

CRUSHER


DRYER
\-r^     A1R
*****  CLASSIFY
                                             PEBBLE
                                             MILL
                                                              DRY
                                                              MIX
SPECIALTY
PRODUCTS
 PRODUCT
                                  RGURE rj.
                     NOVACULITE  MINING AND PROCESSING

-------

-------
                         SECTION VI
             SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
INTRODUCTION

The  waste  water constituents of pollution significance for
this segment of the mineral mining and  processing  industry
are  based  upon those parameters which have been identified
in the untreated wastes from each subcategory of this study.
The waste water constituents are further divided into  those
that  have  been selected as pollutants of significance with
the rationale for their selection, and those  that  are  not
deemed significant with the rationale for their rejection.

The  basis  for selection of the significant pollutant para-
meters was:

(1) toxicity to humans, animals, fish and aquatic organisms;
(2) substances  causing  dissolved   oxygen   depletion   in
    streams;
(3) soluble constituents that result in  undesirable  tastes
    and odors in water supplies;
(4) substances that result in eutrophication  and  stimulate
    undesirable algae growth;
(5) substances  that   produce   unsightly   conditions   in
    receiving water; and
(6) substances that result in sludge deposits in streams.

SIGNIFICANCE  AND  RATIONALE  FOR  SELECTION  OF   POLLUTION
PARAMETERS

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Biochemical  oxygen  demand (BOD) is a measure of the oxygen
consuming capabilities of organic matter.  The BOD does  not
in  itself  cause direct harm to a water system, but it does
exert an indirect effect by depressing the oxygen content of
the water.  Sewage and other organic effluents during  their
processes  of  decomposition  exert  a BOD, which can have a
catastrophic effect on the ecosystem by depleting the oxygen
supply.  Conditions are reached frequently where all of  the
oxygen  is  used and the continuing decay process causes the
production of noxious gases such  as  hydrogen  sulfide  and
methane.   Water  with  a high BOD indicates the presence of
decomposing organic matter  and  subsequent  high  bacterial
counts that degrade its quality and potential uses.
                          121

-------
Dissolved  oxygen  (DO)  is a water quality constituent that,
in appropriate concentrations, is essential not only to keep
organisms living but also to sustain  species  reproduction,
vigor,   and  the  development  of  populations.   Organisms
undergo stress at reduced DO concentrations that  make  them
less  competitive  and  able to sustain their species within
the  aquatic   environment.    For   example,   reduced   DO
concentrations  have  been  shown  to  interfere  with  fish
population through delayed hatching of  eggs,  reduced  size
and  vigor  of  embryos, production of deformities in young,
interference with  food  digestion,  acceleration  of  blood
clotting,  decreased tolerance to certain toxicants, reduced
food  efficiency  and  growth  rate,  and  reduced   maximum
sustained  swimming speed.  Fish food organisms are likewise
affected adversely in conditions with suppressed DO.   Since
all  aerobic  aquatic  organisms  need  a  certain amount of
oxygen, the consequences of total lack of  dissolved  oxygen
due  to  a high BOD can kill all inhabitants of the affected
area.

If a high BOD is  present,  the  quality  of  the  water  is
usually  visually  degraded  by  the presence of decomposing
materials and algae blooms due to  the  uptake  of  degraded
materials that form the foodstuffs of the algal populations.
BOD  was  not  a  major  contribution  to  pollution in this
industry.

Fluorides

As the most reactive non-metal, fluorine is never found free
in nature but as a constituent  of  fluorite  or  fluorspar,
calcium fluoride, in sedimentary rocks and also of cryolite,
sodium  aluminum fluoride, in igneous rocks.  Owing to their
origin only in certain types of rocks  and  only  in  a  few
regions,  fluorides  in high concentrations are not a common
constituent of natural surface waters, but they may occur in
detrimental concentrations in ground waters.

Fluorides are used as insecticides, for disinfecting brewery
apparatus, as a  flux  in  the  manufacture  of  steel,  for
preserving  wood and mucilages, for the manufacture of glass
and enamels, in chemical industries,  for  water  treatment,
and for other uses.

Fluorides  in  sufficient quantity are toxic to humans, with
doses of 250 to 450 mg giving  severe  symptoms  or  causing
death.
                          122

-------
There  are  numerous  articles  describing  the  effects  of
fluoride- bearing waters on dental enamel of children; these
studies lead to the  generalization  that  water  containing
less  than  0.9  to  1.0 mg/1  of fluoride will seldom cause
mottled enamel in children, and for  adults,  concentrations
less  than  3  or  U mg/1  are  not  likely to cause endemic
cumulative  fluorosis  and   skeletal   effects.    Abundant
literature  is  also  available describing the advantages of
maintaining 0.8 to 1.5 mg/1  of  fluoride  ion  in  drinking
water  to  aid  in the reduction of dental decay, especially
among children.

Chronic fluoride poisoning of livestock has been observed in
areas  where  water  contained  10  to   15 mg/1   fluoride.
Concentrations of 30-50 mg/1 of fluoride in the total ration
of  dairy cows is considered the upper safe limit.  Fluoride
from waters apparently does not accumulate in soft tissue to
a significant degree and it is transferred to a  very  small
extent  into  the milk and to a somewhat greater degree into
eggs.  Data for fresh  water  indicate  that  fluorides  are
toxic  to  fish  at  concentrations  higher  than  1.5 mg/1.
Fluoride is found in one industry in this segment,  feldspar
mining by the wet process.

Iron

Iron is considered to be a highly objectional constituent in
public  water  supplies,  the permissible criterion has been
set at 0.3 mg/1.  Iron is found in significant quantities in
graphite mining and other categories.

Manganese

Manganese in various  dissolved  forms  may  be  present  in
significant  amounts  in  the waste water from the mining of
graphite.  A permissible criterion  of  0.05 mg/1  has  been
proposed for public waters.

Oil and Grease

Oil  and grease exhibit an oxygen demand.  Oil emulsions may
adhere to the gills of fish or coat  and  destroy  algae  or
other  plankton.   Deposition of oil in the bottom sediments
can  serve  to  exhibit   normal   benthic   growths,   thus
interrupting the aquatic food chain.  Soluble and emulsified
material  ingested  by fish may taint the flavor of the fish
flesh.  Water soluble components may exert toxic  action  on
fish.   Floating oil may reduce the re-aeration of the water
surface and in conjunction with emulsified oil may interfere
with photosynthesis.  Water insoluble components damage  the
plumage  and  costs  of  water  animals  and fowls,  oil and
grease  in  a  water  can  result  in   the   formation   of
                          123

-------
objectionable  surface  slicks preventing the full aesthetic
enjoyment of the water.  Oil spills can damage  the  surface
of  boats  and  can destroy the aesthetic characteristics of
beaches and shorelines.

Acidity and Alkalinity

Acidity and alkalinity are  reciprocal  terms.   Acidity  is
produced   by  substances  that  yield  hydrogen  ions  upon
hydrolysis and alkalinity is  produced  by  substances  that
yield  hydroxyl  ions.  The terms "total acidity" and "total
alkalinity" are often used to express the buffering capacity
of a solution.  Acidity  in  natural  waters  is  caused  by
carbon dioxide, mineral acids, weakly dissociated acids, and
the  salts  of  strong  acids and weak bases.  Alkalinity is
caused by strong bases and the salts of strong alkalies  and
weak acids.

The term pH is a logarithmic expression of the concentration
of  hydrogen  ions.  At a pH of 7, the hydrogen and hydroxyl
ion concentrations are essentially equal and  the  water  is
neutral.   Lower  pH  values  indicate  acidity while higher
values indicate alkalinity.  The relationship between pH and
acidity and alkalinity is not necessarily linear or direct.

Waters with a pH below 6.0  are  corrosive  to  water  works
structures,   distribution  lines,  and  household  plumbing
fixtures and can thus  add  such  constituents  to  drinking
water as iron, copper, zinc, cadmium and lead.  The hydrogen
ion concentration can affect the "taste" of the water.  At a
low  pH  water  tastes  "sour".   The bactericidal effect of
chlorine  is  weakened  as  the  pH  increases,  and  it  is
advantageous  to  keep  the  pH  close  to  7.  This is very
significant for providing safe drinking water.

Extremes  of  pH  or  rapid  pH  changes  can  exert  stress
conditions  or  kill  aquatic  life  outright.   Dead  fish,
associated algal blooms, and  foul  stenches  are  aesthetic
liabilities  of  any  waterway.   Even moderate changes from
"acceptable11 criteria limits of pH are deleterious  to  some
species.   The  relative  toxicity  to  aquatic life of many
materials  is  increased  by  changes  in  the   water   pH.
Metalocyanide  complexes  can  increase  a  thousand-fold in
toxicity with a drop of 1.5 pH units.  The  availability  of
many  nutrient  substances  varies  with  the alkalinity and
acidity.  Ammonia is more lethal with a higher pH.

The  lacrimal  fluid  of  the  human  eye  has   a   pH   of
approximately  7.0  and  a deviation of 0.1 pH unit from the
norm  may  result  in  eye  irritation  for   the   swimmer.
Appreciable irritation will cause severe pain.
                             124

-------
Total Suspended Solids

Suspended   solids   include   both  organic  and  inorganic
materials.  The inorganic components include sand, silt, and
clay.  The  organic  fraction  includes  such  materials  as
grease, oil, tar, animal and vegetable fats, various fibers,
sawdust,  hair  and  various  materials  from sewers.  These
solids may settle out rapidly and bottom deposits are  often
a  mixture  of  both  organic  and  inorganic  solids.  They
adversely affect fisheries by covering  the  bottom  of  the
stream  or lake with a blanket of material that destroys the
fish-food bottom fauna  or  the  spawning  ground  of  fish.
Deposits  containing  organic  materials  may deplete bottom
oxygen  supplies  and  produce  hydrogen   sulfide,   carbon
dioxide, methane, and other noxious gases.

In  raw  water  sources for domestic use, state and regional
agencies generally specify that suspended solids in  streams
shall  not  be  present  in  sufficient  concentration to be
objectionable  or  to  interfere   with   normal   treatment
processes.   Suspended  solids  in  water may interfere with
many industrial processes, and cause foaming in boilers,  or
encrustations  on  equipment exposed to water, especially as
the temperature rises.  Suspended solids are undesirable  in
water  for  textile  industries;  paper and pulp; beverages;
dairy  products;  laundries;  dyeing;  photography;  cooling
systems,  and  power  facilities.   Suspended particles also
serve as a transport  mechanism  for  pesticides  and  other
substances  which  are  readily  sorbed  into  or  onto clay
particles.

Solids may be suspended in water for a time, and then settle
to the bed of the stream or lake.  These  settleable  solids
discharged   with   man's   wastes   may  be  inert,  slowly
biodegradable materials, or rapidly decomposable substances.
While in suspension, they  increase  the  turbidity  of  the
water,    reduce    light   penetration   and   impair   the
photosynthetic activity of aquatic facilities.

Solids in suspension are  aesthetically  displeasing.   When
they  settle  to  form sludge deposits on the stream or lake
bed, they are often much more damaging to the life in water,
and they  retain  the  capacity  to  displease  the  senses.
Solids,  when  transformed  to  sludge  deposits,  may  do a
variety of damaging things, including blanketing the  stream
or  lake  bed  and  thereby destroying the living spaces for
those benthic organisms  that  would  otherwise  occupy  the
habitat.   When  of  an  organic  and therefore decomposable
nature, solids use a portion or all of the dissolved  oxygen
available  in  the  area.  Organic materials also serve as a
seemingly inexhaustible  food  source  for  sludgeworms  and
associated organisms.
                          125

-------
Turbidity  is  principally  a measure of the light absorbing
properties of suspended solids.  It is frequently used as  a
substitute  method of quickly estimating the total suspended
solids when the  concentration  is  relatively  low.   Total
suspended  solids  are  the  single most important pollutant
parameter found in this segment of the  mineral  mining  and
processing industry.

Zinc

Occurring  abundantly  in  rocks  and  ores, zinc is readily
refined into a stable pure metal and is used extensively for
qalvanizing, in alloys, for electrical purposes, in printing
plates, for dye- manufacture and for dyeing  processes,  and
for  many other industrial purposes.  Zinc salts are used in
paint   pigments,    cosmetics,    Pharmaceuticals,    dyes,
insecticides,  and  other  products  too  numerous  to  list
herein.  Many of these salts (e.g., zinc chloride  and  zinc
sulfate)   are  highly  soluble  in  water; hence it is to be
expected that some zinc might be found  in  natural  waters.
On  the  other  hand,  some zinc salts  (zinc carbonate, zinc
oxide, zinc sulfide) are insoluble in water and consequently
it is to be expected that some zinc will precipitate and  be
removed readily in most natural waters.

In  zinc  mining  areas,  zinc  has  been found in waters in
concentrations as high as  50 mg/1  and  in  effluents  from
metal-plating  works and small-arms ammunition facilities it
may occur in significant concentrations.   In  most  surface
and  ground  waters,  it  is  present only in trace amounts.
There is some evidence that zinc ions are adsorbed  strongly
and  permanently  on  silt, resulting in inactivation of the
zinc.

Concentrations of zinc in excess of 5 mg/1 in raw water used
for drinking water supplies cause an undesirable taste which
persists through conventional treatment.  Zinc can  have  an
adverse effect on man and animals at high concentrations.

In  soft  water,  concentrations of zinc ranging from 0.1 to
1.0 mg/1 have been reported to be lethal to fish.   Zinc  is
thought  to  exert  its  toxic  action  by forming insoluble
compounds with the mucous that covers the gills,  by  damage
to the gill epithelium, or possibly by acting as an internal
poison.   The  sensitivity  of  fish  to  zinc  varies  with
species, age and condition, as well as with the physical and
chemical characteristics of the water.  Some acclimatization
to the presence of zinc  is  possible.   It  has  also  been
observed  that  the effects of zinc poisoning may not become
apparent   immediately,   so   that   fish   removed    from
zinc-contaminated  to  zinc-free  water   (after U-6 hours of
exposure to zinc) may die 48 hours later.  The  presence  of
                          126

-------
copper in water may increase the toxicity of zinc to aquatic
organisms,  but  the  presence  of  calcium  or hardness may
decrease the relative toxicity.

Observed values for the distribution of zinc in ocean waters
vary widely.  The  major  concern  with  zinc  compounds  in
marine  waters  is  not one of acute toxicity, but rather of
the long-term sub-lethal effects of the  metallic  compounds
and  complexes.   From  an  acute  toxicity  point  of view,
invertebrate marine animals seem to be  the  most  sensitive
organisms  tested.   The  growth  of  the  sea  urchin,  for
example, has been retarded by as little as 30 mu/1 of  zinc.
Zinc  sulfate  has  also  been  found  to  be lethal to many
facilities, and it could impair agricultural uses.  Zinc  is
found  in  the  effluent  from one process in this industry,
high-grade kaolin.
SIGNIFICANCE  AND  RATIONAL  FOR  REJECTION
PARAMETERS
OF
POLLUTION
A number of pollution parameters besides those selected were
considered,  but  were  rejected  for  one or several of the
following reasons:

1)  insufficient data on facility effluents;
2)  not usually present in quantities  sufficient  to  cause
    water quality degradation;
3)  treatment does not "practicably" reduce  the  parameter;
    and
4)  simultaneous  reduction   is   achieved   with   another
    parameter which is limited.

Toxic Materials

Although   arsenic,   antimony,   barium,   boron,  cadmium,
chromium,  copper,  cyanide  ion,  mercury,  nickel,   lead,
selenium,  and  tin  are  harmful  pollutants, they were not
found to be present in quantities sufficient to cause  water
quality degradation.

Dissolved Solids

The  cations A1+3, Ca+2, Mg+2, K+ and Na+, the anion Cl~ and
the  radical  groups  CO3~2,  NO3-,  NO2-,  phosphates,  and
silicates  are  commonly  found in all natural water bodies.
Process water, mine water and storm runoff  will  accumulate
quantities  of  the  above constituents both in the form  of
suspended and dissolved solids.  Limiting  suspended  solids
and  dissolved  solids, where they pose a problem, is a more
practicable approach to limiting these specific ions.
                          127

-------
Temperature

Temperature is one of the  most  important  and  influential
water quality characteristics.  Temperature determines those
species  that  may  be present; it activates the hatching of
young,  regulates  their   activity,   and   stimulates   or
suppresses  their  growth  and development; it attracts, and
may kill when the water becomes too hot or  becomes  chilled
too    suddenly.     colder   water   generally   suppresses
development.  Warmer water  generally  accelerates  activity
and  may  be  a  primary cause of aquatic facility nuisances
when other environmental factors are suitable.

Temperature is a prime regulator of natural processes within
the water environment.  It governs  physiological  functions
in   organisms   and,   acting  directly  or  indirectly  in
combination  with  other  water  quality  constituents,   it
affects  aquatic  life  with  each  change.   These  effects
include  chemical  reaction  rates,   enzymatic   functions,
molecular   movements,   and   molecular  exchanges  between
membranes within and between the physiological  systems  and
the organs of an animal.

Chemical  reaction rates vary with temperature and generally
increase as the temperature is increased.  The solubility of
gases in water varies with temperature.  Dissolved oxygen is
decreased by the decay or decomposition of dissolved organic
substances and the decay rate increases as  the  temperature
of  the  water  increases  reaching  a maximum at about 30°C
(86°F).   The  temperature  of  stream  water,  even  during
summer,   is  below  the  optimum  for  pollution-associated
bacteria.  Increasing the water  temperature  increases  the
bacterial   multiplication  rate  when  the  environment  is
favorable and the food supply is abundant.

Reproduction  cycles  may  be   changed   significantly   by
increased  temperature  because  this  function  takes place
under restricted temperature ranges.  Spawning may not occur
at all because temperatures are  too  high.   Thus,  a  fish
population  may  exist  in  a  heated area only by continued
immigration.   Disregarding   the   decreased   reproductive
potential,  water  temperatures need not reach lethal levels
to decimate a species.  Temperatures that favor competitors,
predators, parasites, and disease can destroy a  species  at
levels far below those that are lethal.

Fish  food  organisms are altered severely when temperatures
approach or exceed 90°F.  Predominant algal species  change,
primary  production  is  decreased,  and  bottom  associated
organisms may be depleted or altered drastically in  numbers
and  distribution.   Increased  water temperatures may cause
                          128

-------
aquatic facility nuisances when other environmental  factors
are favorable.

Synergistic  actions of pollutants are more severe at higher
water  temperatures.   Given  amounts  of  domestic  sewage,
refinery  wastes,  oils, tars, insecticides, detergents, and
fertilizers more rapidly deplete oxygen in water  at  higher
temperatures,  and  the  respective » toxicities are likewise
increased.

When water  temperatures  increase,  the  predominant  algal
species  may change from diatoms to green algae, and finally
at high temperatures to blue-green algae, because of species
temperature  preferentials.   Blue-green  algae  can   cause
serious  odor  problems.   The  number  and  distribution of
benthic organisms decreases as water  temperatures  increase
above  90°F,  which  is close to the tolerance limit for the
population.  This could seriously affect certain  fish  that
depend on benthic organisms as a food source.

The  cost  of fish being attracted to heated water in winter
months may be considerable, due to fish mortalities that may
result when the fish return to the cooler water.

Rising temperatures stimulate the decomposition  of  sludge,
formation  of  sludge  gas,  multiplication  of  saprophytic
bacteria and fungi (particularly in the presence of  organic
wastes),  and  the  consumption  of  oxygen  by putrefactive
processes, thus affecting the  esthetic  value  of  a  water
course.

In  general,  marine  water  temperatures  do  not change as
rapidly or range as widely as those of freshwaters.   Marine
and  estuarine  fishes,  therefore,  are  less  tolerant  of
temperature variation.  Although this limited  tolerance  is
greater  in  estuarine  than  in  open water marine species,
temperature changes are more important to  those  fishes  in
estuaries  and  bays  than  to  those  in open marine areas,
because of the nursery and replenishment  functions  of  the
estuary   that   can   be   adversely  affected  by  extreme
temperature changes.

Excess thermal load, even in non-contact cooling water,  has
not  been and is not expected to be a significant problem in
this segment of the mineral mining and processing industry.
                          129

-------

-------
                        SECTION VII
              CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION

Water-borne  wastes  from  the  mining  of  clay,   ceramic,
refractory  and  miscellaneous minerals consist primarily of
suspended solids.  These are usually composed of  chemically
inert  and  very  insoluble  sand,  clay  or rock particles.
Treatment technology is well  developed  for  removing  such
particles  from  waste water and is readily applicable when-
ever space requirements or economics do  not  preclude  uti-
lization.

In  a  few instances dissolved substances such as fluorides,
metal salts, acids, alkalies, chemical  additives  from  ore
processing  and  organic  materials  may  also  be involved.
Where they are present,  dissolved  material  concentrations
are  usually  low.   Treatment  technology for the dissolved
solids is also well-known, but may often be limited  by  the
large  volumes  of waste water involved and the cost of such
large scale operations.

The control and treatment of the usually simple  water-borne
wastes  found  in the mineral mining and processing industry
are complicated by several factors:

(1) the large volumes of waste water involved  for  many  of
    the mining operations,

(2) variable waste water amount and composition from day  to
    day,  as  influenced  by  rainfall and other surface and
    underground water contributions,

(3) differences in waste water compositions arising from ore
    or raw material variability,

(4) geographical location:  e.g., waste water can be handled
    differently  in   dry   isolated   locations   than   in
    industrialized wet climates.

Each   of  these  points  are  discussed  in  the  following
sections.
                         131

-------
PROBLEM POLLUTANTS

Three significant waste water problem areas have been  found
in these industries:

(1) High suspended solids levels in discharged waste  waters
    caused in some cases by formation of colloidal clay sus-
    pensions which are difficult to settle.  This problem is
    encountered in several segments of the industry;

(2) In at least one subcategory of  this  industry  problems
    are encountered with water-borne fluoride wastes;

(3) In  the  bleaching   of   some   clay   products,   zinc
    hydrosulfite  is  sometimes  employed.   The use of this
    material invariably leads to  a  waste  water  discharge
    containing zinc salts.

Below  are  given brief discussions of each of these problem
areas.

The principal pollutant encountered in this segment  of  the
minerals  mining  industry  has  been  found to be suspended
solids which arise from two sources:

(1) underground or surface mine pumpouts;

(2) processing washwaters and scrubber waters.

Mine water pumpout was found to be  intermittent  in  nature
and  to  be  characterized  by TSS loadings of from a few to
several thousand mg/1 of suspended solids prior to settling.
Installation of settling areas for such waters generally has
the effect reducing TSS loadings to less  than  20 mg/1  for
most  materials.  It should be pointed out that mine pumpout
waters from montmorillonite clay mining facilities appear to
be an exception to the above statement.  This type  of  clay
forms  colloidal  suspensions  in  waste water that are very
difficult to settle.  These  colloidal  suspensions  can  be
flocculated   by   addition  of  soluble  calcium  salts  at
concentrations of about 100 milliequivalents of calcium salt
per 100 grams of suspended montmorillonite (1,2).  For other
clays  which  settle  more  readily,   flocculation   occurs
generally  at  lower  concentrations  of added calcium salt.
This  approach  apparently  has  yet  to  be  tried  in  the
industry.   Other  approaches  mentioned  in the literature,
such as treatment of clays with alkyl ammonium  salts  (3,4)
are  not  likely  to be applicable to this situation because
their use would  cause  worse  environmental  problems  than
those already present.
                          132

-------
Process  water  discharge  is  encountered in several of the
product subcategories.  For  readily  settleable  materials,
settling  lagoons  were  found  to  be effective in reducing
suspended solids loadings  to  less  than  20 mg/1  in  most
instances.   For  a  few  of  the  clay  materials,  such as
montmorillonite and fire clays, pond effluent concentrations
after simple settling tend  to  be  at  least  an  order  of
magnitude  higher  in  TSS.   For  one  specific case with a
montmorillonite facility, scrubber waste waters  were  found
with  a  TSS  loading of 25,000 mg/1 before settling.  After
settling with a retention time of less than five days  in  a
small  lagoon,  TSS  loadings of about 2,000 mg/1 were still
present.  Table 5 shows the settling characteristics of some
of the materials treated in  this  volume.   Application  of
available   flocculation  and  clarification  technology  is
needed in this area.

The processing of feldspar ores involves a flotation step in
which hydrofluoric acid is added.  This  gives  rise  to  an
acidic  fluoride  bearing waste water stream which, prior to
treatment, can contain 50 mg/1 fluoride  ion.   At  present,
treatment  of  such  waste  waters  has  been only partially
practiced.   current  fluoride  effluent  concentrations  at
feldspar producing facilities range from 8 to about 40 mg/1.
This  is another area where improved treatment technology is
needed.

In the bleaching of kaolin, solutions of  zinc  hydrosulfite
are  generally  employed.   This  gives rise to waste waters
containing 25 mg/1 zinc ion prior to treatment.   Technology
already  in  use  in  the  pigments  and inorganic chemicals
industries is available to reduce effluent  levels  to  less
than 25 mg/1.  This will be discussed later in this section.

CONTROL PRACTICES

Control  practices  such as selection of raw materials, good
housekeeping,  minimizing  leaks  and   spills,   in-process
changes,  and segregation of process waste water streams are
not as important in the minerals mining industry as they are
in  more  process-oriented  manufacturing  operations.   Raw
materials are fixed by the composition of the ore available;
good  housekeeping  and  small  leaks and spills have little
influence on the waste  loads;  and  it  is  rare  that  any
non-contact  water,  such  as  cooling water, is involved in
minerals and mining processes.

There are a number of areas, however, where control is  very
important.  These include:
                          133

-------
                                                                 Table  5
                                               Settling Character rstfes of Some Suspended Materials
u,

Product
FJre Cloy



Montmorf I lonf re



Kaolin


Ball Cloy




Feldspar


Talc




Stream
mine
seepage,
runoff, &
cooling
scrubber

pit
pumpout
plant
raw
effluent
scrubber

scrubbers


plant
raw
effluent
mine
pumpout



Plant
3087



3072

3073

3024


5685

5689


3026


2041,
2042,
2043,
2044
Input to Pond
(mg/Hter)
unknown



25,000

unknown

10,300
includes sand

unknown

unknown


3,800


200



Retention Time,
Condition
0.25 hour
soda ash added


4.1 days,
lime added
variable

unknown,
lime added

1-2 months.
simple settling
1 month,
flocculant,
3 ponds
unknown,
alum added,
2 ponds
unknown



Outflow
(mg/liter)
45



2,000

215

6


400

40


21


<20




-------
(1) waste water containment:

(2) separation and control of mine water, process water,
    and rain water

(3) monitoring of waste streams.
Containment

The majority of waste water treatment and control facilities
in the minerals and mining industry use one or more settling
ponds.   often  the  word  "pond" is an euphemism for swamp,
gully, or other low spot which will collect water.  In times
of heavy rainfall these "ponds" often and the settled solids
may be swept out.  In many other cases, the identity of  the
pond may be maintained during rainfall but its function as a
settling  pond is significantly impaired by the large amount
of water flowing through it.  In addition  to  rainfall  and
flooding  conditions,  waste  containment  in  ponds  can be
troubled with seepage through the ground around and  beneath
the  pond,  escape  through  pot  holes, faults and fissures
below the water surface and physical failure  of  pond  dams
and dikes.

In  most  instances  satisfactory  pond  performance  can be
achieved by proper design.  In instances  where  preliminary
laboratory   tests   indicate   that  insufficient  land  is
available to achieve satisfactory suspended solids  removal,
alternative  treatment  methods can be utilized: thickeners,
clarifiers,   tube   and   lamella   separators,    filters,
hydrocyclones, and centrifuges.

Separation and control of Waste water

In  these industries waste water may be separated into three
different categories:

(1)  MiQ§ drainage water.  For many mines this  is  the  only
    water ""effluent?Usually it is low in suspended solids,
    but may contain dissolved minerals.

(2)  Process water*  This is water involved in  transporting,
    classllying7~wasning, beneficimting, and separating ores
    and  other  mined  materials.   when present in minerals
    mining operations  this  water  usually  contains  heavy
    loads  of  suspended  solids and possibly some dissolved
    materials.
                          135

-------
(3)  Rain water runoff.   Since  minerals  mining  operations
    often  involve  large surface areas, the rain water that
    falls on the mine or mine property surface constitutes a
    major portion of the overall waste  water  load  leaving
    the  property.   This  runoff  entrains  minerals, silt,
    sand, clay, organic matter and other suspended solids.

The relative amounts and compositions  of  the  above  waste
water streams differ from one mining category to another and
the  separation, control and treatment techniques differ for
each.

Process water and mine drainage are normally controlled  and
contained   by   pumping  or  gravity  flow  through  pipes,
channels, ditches and ponds.   Rain  water  runoff,  on  the
other  hand,  is  often  uncontrolled  and  may  contaminate
process and mine drainage water.   Rain  water  runoff  also
increases  suspended  solid  material  in  rivers,  streams,
creeks or other surface water used for process water supply.

Control technology, as discussed in  this  report,  includes
techniques  and practices employed before, during, and after
the actual mining  or  processing  operation  to  reduce  or
eliminate  adverse  environmental effects resulting from the
discharge  of  mine  or  process   facility   waste   water,
Effective  pollution-control  planning  can reduce pollutant
contributions from active mining and  processing  sites  and
can  also  minimize  post-operational  pollution  potential.
Because pollution potential may not cease with closure of  a
mine  or  process  facility,  control measures also refer to
methods  practiced  after  an   operation   has   terminated
production  of ore or concentrated product.  The presence of
pits, storage areas for spoil (non-ore material, or  waste) ,
tailing ponds, disturbed areas,  and other results or effects
of  mining  or processing operations necessitates integrated
plans for reclamation, stabilization, and control to  return
the  affected areas to a condition at least fully capable of
supporting the uses which it was capable of supporting prior
to any mining and to achieve  a  stability  not  posing  any
threat  of  water  diminution,  or pollution and to minimize
potential hazards associated with closed operations.

Mining Techniques
Mining  techniques  can  effectively   reduce   amounts   of
pollutants coming from a mine area by containment within the
mine  area or by reducing their formation.  These techniques
can  be  combined  with  careful  reclamation  planning  and
implementation   to   provide  maximum  at-source  pollution
control.
                          136

-------
Several  techniques  have   been   implemented   to   reduce
environmental  degradation  during  strip-mining operations.
Utilization  of  the  box-cut  technique  in  moderate-  and
shallow-slope  contour mining has increased recently because
more stringent environmental controls are being implemented.

A box cut is simply a contour strip mine in which a low-wall
barrier is maintained.  Spoil may be piled on the  low  wall
side.   This  technique  significantly reduces the amount of
water discharged from  a  pit  area,  since  that  water  is
prevented from seeping through spoil banks.  The problems of
preventing  slides,  spoil  erosion,  and  resulting  stream
sedimentation are still present, however.

Block-cut mining  was  developed  to  facilitate  regrading,
minimize  overburden  handling,  and  contain  spoil  within
mining areas.  In block-cut  mining,  contour  stripping  is
typically accomplished by throwing spoil from the bench onto
downslope  areas.   This  downslope  material  can  slump or
rapidly erode and must be moved upslope to the mine site  if
contour  regrading  is  desired.   The land area affected by
contour strip mining is substantially larger than  the  area
from  which  the  ores  are extracted.  When using block-cut
mining, only material from the first  cut  is  deposited  in
adjacent low areas.  Remaining spoil is then placed in mined
portions  of the bench.  Spoil handling is restricted to the
actual pit area for all  areas  but  the  first  cut,  which
significantly reduces the area disturbed.

Pollution-control   technology   in  underground  mining  is
largely restricted to at-source methods  of  reducing  water
influx   into   mine  workings.   Infiltration  from  strata
surrounding the workings is the primary source of water, and
this water reacts with air and sulfide minerals  within  the
mines  to  create  acid pH conditions and, thus, to increase
the potential for  solubilization  of  metals.   Underground
mines  are, therefore, faced with problems of water handling
and mine-drainage treatment.  Open-pit mines, on  the  other
hand, receive both direct rainfall and runoff contributions,
as well as infiltrated water from intercepted strata.

Infiltration  in  underground  mines  generally results from
rainfall  recharge  of  a  ground-water   reservoir.    Rock
fracture  zones,  joints, and faults have a strong influence
on ground-water flow patterns since  they  can  collect  and
convey  large  volumes of water.  These zones and faults can
intersect any portion of an underground mine and permit easy
access of ground water.  In  some  mines,  infiltration  can
result  in  huge  volumes  of water that must be handled and
treated.   Pumping  can  be  a  major  part  of  the  mining
operation  in  terms of equipment and expense—particularly,
in mines which do not discharge by gravity.
                          137

-------
Water-infiltration control techniques,  designed  to  reduce
the  amount  of  water  entering the workings, are extremely
important in underground mines located  in  or  adjacent  to
water-bearing  strata.   These techniques are often employed
in such mines to decrease  the  volume  of  water  requiring
handling  and  treatment,  to make the mine workable, and to
control  energy  costs  associated  with  dewatering.    The
techniques  include  pressure grouting of fissures which are
entry points for water into  the  mine.   New  polymer-based
grouting  materials have been developed which should improve
the effectiveness of such grouting  procedures.   In  severe
cases,  pilot  holes  can  be drilled ahead of actual mining
areas to determine  if  excessive  water  is  likely  to r be
encountered.   When water is encountered, a small pilot hole
can be  easily  filled  by  pressure  grouting,  and  mining
activity may be directed toward non-water-contributing areas
in  the  formation.   The  feasibility  of such control is a
function of the structure of  the  ore  body,  the  type  of
surrounding rock, and the characteristics of ground water in
the area.

Decreased  water  volume, however, does not necessarily mean
that waste water pollutant loading will also  decrease.   In
underground  mines,  oxygen,  in  the  presence of humidity,
interacts with minerals on  the  mine  walls  and  floor  to
permit  pollutant  formation  e.g.,  acid  mine water, while
water flowing through the mine transports pollutants to  the
outside.   If  the volume of this water is decreased but the
volume  of  pollutants  remains  unchanged,  the   resultant
smaller   discharge   will   contain   increased   pollutant
concentrations, but approximately the same  pollutant  load.
Rapid  pumpout  of the mine can, however, reduce the contact
time and significantly reduce the formation of pollutants.

Reduction of mine discharge volume can reduce water handling
costs.  In cases of acid mine  drainage,  for  example,  the
same amounts of neutralizing agents will be required because
pollutant  loads  will remain unchanged.  The volume of mine
water to be treated, however, will be reduced significantly,
together with  the  size  of  the  necessary  treatment  and
settling  facilities.   This cost reduction, along with cost
savings which can be attributed to decreased pumping volumes
(hence,  smaller  pumps,  lower  energy  requirements,   and
smaller   treatment   facilities),   makes   use   of  water
infiltration-control techniques highly desirable.

Water entering underground mines may pass vertically through
the mine roof from rock formation above.  These  rock  units
may have well-developed joint systems (fractures along which
no movement occurs), which tend to facilitate vertical flow.
Roof collapses can also cause widespread fracturing in over-
lying  rocks, as well as joint separation far above the mine
                          138

-------
roof.   Opened  joints  may  channel  flow  from   overlying
aquifers   (water-bearing  rocks),  a  flooded mine above, or
even from the surface.

Fracturing of overlying strata is reduced by  employing  any
or  all of several methods:   (1) Increasing pillar size; (2)
Increasing support of the roof; (3) Limiting the  number  of
mine entries and reducing mine entry widths; (4) Backfilling
of the mined areas with waste material.

Surface  mines  are  often  responsible  for  collecting and
conveying large quantities of surface water to  adjacent  or
underlying  underground mines.  Ungraded surface mines often
collect water in open pits when no surface  discharge  point
is available.  That water may subsequently enter the ground-
water  system  and  then percolate into an underground mine.
The influx of water to underground mines from either  active
or  abandoned  surface  mines  can  be significantly reduced
through implementation of a well-designed reclamation plan.

The  only  actual  underground  mining  technique  developed
specifically  for  pollution control is preplanned flooding.
This technique is primarily one of mine design, in  which  a
mine  is  planned  from  its  inception  for  post-operation
flooding or zero discharge.   In  drift  mines  and  shallow
slope  or shaft mines, this is generally achieved by working
the mine with the dip of the rock  (inclination of  the  rock
to  the horizontal)  and pumping out the water which collects
in the shafts.  Upon completion of  mining  activities,  the
mine   is   allowed  to  flood  naturally,  eliminating  the
possibility of acid formation caused by the contact  between
sulfide  minerals  and  oxygen.   Discharges, if any, from a
flooded  mine  should  contain  a   much   lower   pollutant
concentration.  A flooded mine may also be sealed.

Surface-Water Control

Pollution-control  technology  related to mining areas, ore-
beneficiation  facilites,  and   waste-disposal   sites   is
generally  designed  for  prevention of pollution of surface
waters (i.e., streams, impoundments,  and  surface  runoff).
Prior planning for waste disposal is a prime control method.
Disposal  sites  should  be  isolated from surface flows and
impoundments to prevent or minimize pollution potential.  In
addition, several techniques are practiced to prevent  water
pollution:

    (1)   Construction of a  clay  or  other  type  of  liner
         beneath  the planned waste disposal area to prevent
         infiltration of surface  water  (precipitation)  or
         water  contained in the waste into the ground-water
         system.
                          139

-------
    (2)   Compaction   of   waste    material    to    reduce
infiltration.

    (3)   Maintenance of uniformly sized  refuse  to  enhance
         good   compaction  (which  may  require  additional
         crushing).

    (U)   Construction of a clay liner over the  material  to
         minimize  infiltration.   This is usually succeeded
         by placement of topsoil and seeding to establish  a
         vegetative  cover for erosion protection and runoff
         control.

    (5)   Excavation of  diversion  ditches  surrounding  the
         refuse disposal site to exclude surface runoff from
         the  area.   These  ditches  can  also  be  used to
         collect seepage from refuse piles, with  subsequent
         treatment, if necessary.

Surface  runoff  in  the  immediate  area  of  beneficiation
facilities presents  another  potential  pollution  problem.
Runoff  from  haul  roads,  areas  near  conveyors,  and ore
storage piles is a potential source of pollutant loading  to
nearby  surface  waters.  Several current industry practices
to control this pollution are:

    (1)   Construction of ditches surrounding  storage  areas
         to  divert  surface runoff and collect seepage that
         does occur.

    (2)   Establishment of a vegetative cover of  grasses  in
         areas  of  potential  sheet  wash  and  erosion  to
         stabilize the  material,  to  control  erosion  and
         sedimentation, and to improve the aesthetic aspects
         of the area.

    (3)   Installation  of  hard  surfaces  on  haul   roads,
         beneath  conveyors,  etc.,  with  proper  slopes to
         direct drainage to a sump.  Collected waters may be
         pumped  to  an  existing  treatment  facility   for
         treatment.

Another  potential  problem  associated with construction of
tailing-pond  treatment  systems  is  the  use  of  existing
valleys  and  natural drainage areas for impoundment of mine
water or process facility process waste water.  The capacity
of these impoundment systems freguently is not large  enough
to  prevent  high discharge flow rates—particularly, during
the late  winter  and  early  spring  months.   The  use  of
ditches, flumes, pipes, trench drains, and dikes will assist
in  preventing  runoff  caused  by  snowmelt,  rainfall,  or
streams from entering impoundments.  Very often, this runoff
                           140

-------
flow is  the  only  factor  preventing  attainment  of  zero
discharge.   Diversion  of  natural  runoff from impoundment
treatment systems, or construction of  these  facilities  in
locations   which  do  not  obstruct  natural  drainage,  is
therefore, desirable.

Ditches may be constructed upslope from the  impoundment  to
prevent  water  from entering it.  These ditches also convey
water away and reduce the total volume of water  which  must
be  treated.   This may result in decreased treatment costs,
which could offset the costs of diversion.

Sea££3a£i9.Q Q£ Combination  of  Mine  and  Process  Facility.
Wastewaters

A  widely  adopted  control  practice  in the ore mining and
dressing industry is the use of mine water as  a  source  of
process  water.   In  many areas, this is a highly desirable
practice, because it serves as a water-conservation measure.
Waste constituents may thus be concentrated into  one  waste
stream   for  treatment.   In  other  cases,  however,  this
practice results in  the  necessity  for  discharge  from  a
process facility-water impoundment system because, even with
recycle  of  part of the process water, a net positive water
balance results.

At several sites visited as part of this study,  degradation
of  the mine water quality is caused by combining the waste-
water streams for treatment at.  one  location.   A  negative
effect  results  because  water  with  low pollutant loading
serves to dilute water of higher  pollutant  loading.   This
often   results   in  decreased  water-treatment  efficiency
because concentrated waste streams can often be treated more
effectively than dilute waste streams.  The  mine  water  in
these  cases  may  be  treated by relatively simple methods;
while the volume of  waste  water  treated  in  the  process
facility impoundment system will be reduced, this water will
be treated with increased efficiency.

There  are  also  locations  where  the use of mine water as
process water has resulted in an improvement in the ultimate
effluent.  Choice of the options  to  segregate  or  combine
waste  water treatment for mines and process facilities must
be made on an individual  basis,  taking  into  account  the
character of the waste water to be treated  (at both the mine
and   the  process  facility),  the  water  balance  in  the
mine/process facility system, local climate, and topography.
The ability of  a  particular  operation  to  meet  zero  or
reduced  effluent levels may be dependent upon this decision
at each location.

Reqrading
                          141

-------
Surface mining may often require removal of large amounts of
overburden to expose the ores to  be  exploited.   Regrading
involves  mass movement of material following ore extraction
to achieve a more desirable land configuration.  Reasons for
regrading strip mined land are:

    (1)  aesthetic improvement of land surface
    (2)  returning usefulness to land
    (3)  providing a suitable base for revegetation
    (4)  burying pollution-forming materials, e.g. heavy metals
    (5)  reducing erosion and subsequent sedimentation
    (6)  eliminating landsliding
    (7)  encouraging natural drainage
    (8)  eliminating ponding
    (9)  eliminating hazards such as high cliffs and deep pits
   (10)  controlling water pollution
Contour regrading  is  currently  the  required  reclamation
technique  for many of the nationsfs active contour and area.
surface mines.  This technique involves regrading a mine  to
approximate  original  land contour.  It is generally one of
the most favored and aesthetically pleasing regrading  tech-
niques  because the land is returned to its approximate pre-
mined state.  This technique is also favored because  nearly
all   spoil   is   placed   back  in  the  pit,  eliminating
oversteepened downslope spoil banks and reducing the size of
erodable reclaimed area.  Contour regrading facilitates deep
burial of pollution-forming materials and minimizes  contact
time  between  regraded  spoil  and  surface runoff, thereby
reducing erosion and pollution formation.

However, there are also  several  disadvantages  to  contour
regrading  that  must  be  considered.   In area and contour
stripping, there may be  other  forms  of  reclamation  that
provide  land configurations and slopes better suited to the
intended uses of the land.  This can  be  particularly  true
with  steepslope contour strips, where large, high walls and
steep  final  spoil  slopes  limit  application  of  contour
regrading.   Mining  is, therefore, frequently prohibited in
such areas, although there may be other regrading techniques
that could be  effectively  utilized.   In  addition,  where
extremely   thick  ore  bodies  are  mined  beneath  shallow
overburden, there  may  not  be  sufficient  spoil  material
remaining to return the land to the original contour.

There  are  several  other reclamation techniques of varying
effectiveness which have been utilized in  both  active  and
abandoned  mines.   These techniques include terrace, swalef
swallow-tail, and Georgia  V-ditch,  several  of  which  are
quite similar in nature.  In employing these techniques, the
                          142

-------
upper  high-wall  por-tion  is  frequently  left,  exposed  or
backfilled  at  a  steep  angle,  with  the  spoil  outslope
remaining  somewhat  steeper  than the original contour.  In
all cases, a terrace of some form remains where the original
bench was located, and  there  are  provisions  for  rapidly
channeling  runoff  from  the spoil area.  Such terraces may
permit more effective utilization of surface-mined  land  in
many cases.

Disposal  of  excess  spoil material is frequently a problem
where contour backfilling is not  practiced.   However,  the
same  problem  can also occur, although less commonly, where
contour regrading is in use.  Some types of overburden rock-
particularly,   tightly   packed   sandstones—substantially
expand  in  volume  when  they  are blasted and moved.  As a
result, there may be a large volume of spoil  material  that
cannot  be  returned  to  the  pit  area,  even when contour
backfilling is employed.  To solve  this  problem,  head-of-
hollow fill has been used for overburden storage.  The extra
overburden  is  placed  in  narrow,  steep-sided  hollows in
compacted layers 1.2 to 2.4 meters (4 to 8 feet)   thick  and
graded to control surface drainage.

In  this  regrading  and  spoil  storage  technique, natural
ground is cleared of woody vegetation, and rock  drains  are
constructed  where  natural  drains  exist,  except in areas
where inundation has occurred.  This  permits  ground  water
and   natural   percolation  to  leave  fill  areas  without
saturating the fill, thereby  reducing  potential  landslide
and  erosion  problems.   Normally,  the face of the fill is
terrace graded to minimize erosion  of  the  steep  outslope
area.

This technique of fill or spoil material deposition has been
limited  to  relatively narrow, steep-sided ravines that can
be adequately  filled  and  graded.   Design  considerations
include  the  total number of acres in the watershed above a
proposed head-of-hollow fill, as well as the drainage, slope
stability, and prospective land use.    Revegetation  usually
proceeds  as  soon  as erosion and sil«tation protection have
been completed.  This technique is avoided  in  areas  wnere
under-drainage  materials  contain  high  concentrations  of
pollutants,  since  the  resultant  drainage  would  require
treatment to meet pollution-control requirements.

lEQsign Control

Although  regrading  is  the most essential part of surface-
mine  reclamation,  it  cannot   be   considered   a   total
reclamation  technique.   There  are  many  other  facets of
surface-mine  reclamation  that  are  equally  important  in
achieving  successful  reclamation.   The effectivenesses of
                          143

-------
regrading and other control techniques  are  interdependent.
Failure  of any phase could severly reduce the effectiveness
of an entire reclamation project.

The most important auxiliary reclamation procedures employed
at  regraded  surface  mines  or  refuse  areas  are   water
diversion  and  erosion and runoff control.  Water diversion
involves collection of water before it enters  a  mine  area
and  conveyance  of  that  water  around  the  mine site, as
discussed previously.  This procedure decreases erosion  and
pollution  formation.  Ditches are usually excavated upslope
from a mine site to collect and convey  water.   Flumes  and
pipes  are  used  to carry water down steep slopes or across
regraded areas.  Riprap and dumped rock are  sometimes  used
to reduce water velocity in the conveyance system.

Diversion and conveyance systems are designed to accommodate
predicted  water volumes and velocities.  If the capacity of
a ditch is exceeded, water erodes the sides and renders  the
ditch ineffective.

Water  diversion  is  also employed as an actual part of the
mining procedure.  Drainways at  the  bases  of  high  walls
intercept  and  divert discharging ground water prior to its
contact   with   pollution-forming   materials.    In   some
instances,  ground  water  above the mine site is pumped out
before it enters  the  mine  area,  where  it  would  become
polluted   and   require   treatment.    Soil   erosion   is
significantly reduced on regraded areas by  controlling  the
course  of surface-water runoff, using interception channels
constructed on the regraded surface.

Water that reaches a mine site, such as direct rainfall, can
cause  serious   erosion,   sedimentation,   and   pollution
problems.    Runoff-control   techniques  are  available  to
effectively deal with this water, but these  techniques  may
conflict   with   pollution-control  measures.   Control  of
chemical pollutants forming at a  mine  frequently  involves
reduction  of  water  infiltration, while runoff controls to
prevent erosion usually  increase  infiltration,  which  can
subsequently increase pollutant formation.

There   are   a  large  number  of  techniques  in  use  for
controlling runoff, with highly variable costs  and  degrees
of effectiveness.  Mulching is sometimes used as a. temporary
measure  which  protects  the  runoff  surface from raindrop
impacts and reduces tha velocity of surface runoff.

Velocity reduction is a critical facet  of  runoff  control.
This is accomplished through slope reduction by terracing or
grading;  revegetation;  or  use of flow impediments such as
dikes,  contour   plowing,   and   dumped   rock.    Surface
                          144

-------
stabilizers have been utilized on the surface to temporarily
reduce  erodability  of the material itself, but expense has
restricted use of such materials in the past.
Establishment of good vegetative cover on  a  mine  area  is
probably the most effective method of controlling runoff and
erosion.   A  critical  factor  in  mine revegetation is the
quality of the soil or spoil material on the  surface  of  a
regraded  mine.   There  are  several  methods  by which the
nature  of  this  material  has  been  controlled.   Topsoil
segregation  during  stripping  is mandatory in many states.
This permits topsoil to be replaced on  a  regraded  surface
prior  to  revegetation.   However, in many forested, steep-
sloped  areas,  there  is  little  or  no  topsoil  on   the
undisturbed   land   surface.   In  such  areas,  overburden
material is segregated in a manner that will allow the  most
toxic  materials  to  be  placed at the base of the regraded
mine, and the best spoil material  is  placed  on  the  mine
surface.

Vegetative cover provides effective erosion control; contri-
butes  significantly  to chemical pollution control; results
in  aesthetic  improvement;   and   can   return   land   to
agricultural,  recreational, or silvicultural usefulness.  A
dense ground cover stabilizes the  surface   (with  its  root
system),  reduces  velocity  of  surface runoff, helps build
humus on the surface, and can virtually  eliminate  erosion.
A  soil  profile begins to form, followed by a complete soil
ecosystem.  This soil profile acts  as  an  oxygen  barrier,
reducing the amount of oxygen reaching underlying materials.
This,   in   turn,  reduces  oxidation,  which  is  a  major
contributing factor to pollutant formation.

The soil profile also tends to act as a sponge that  retains
water  near  the  surface,  as opposed to the original loose
spoil   (which  allowed  rapid  infiltration).   This   water
evaporates  from  the mine surface, cooling it and enhancing
vegetative growth.  Evaporated  water  also  bypasses  toxic
materials   underlying   the   soil,   decreasing  pollution
production.   The  vegetation  itself  also  utilizes  large
quantities  of water in its life processes and transpires it
back to the atmosphere, again reducing the amount  of  water
reaching underlying materials.

Establishment of an adequate vegetative cover at a mine site
is  dependent  on a number of'related factors.  The regraded
surface of many spoils  cannot  support  a  good  vegetative
cover  without  supplemental treatment.  The surface texture
is often too irregular,  requiring  the  use  of  raking  to
                          145

-------
remove  as much rock as possible and -to decrease the average
grain size of -the remaining material.   Materials  toxic  to
plant  life,  usually  buried during regrading, generally do
not appear on or near the  final  graded  surface.   If  the
surface  is  compacted,  it  is usually loosened by discing,
plowing, or  roto-tilling  prior  to  seeding  in  order  to
enhance plant growth.

Soil  supplements  are  often  required  to establish a good
vegetativte cover on surface-mined lands  and  refuse  piles,
which are generally deficient in nutrients.  Mine spoils are
often acidic, and lime must be added to adjust the pH to the
tolerance  range  of  the  species to be planted.  It may be
necessary  to  apply  additional  neutralizing  material  to
revegetated   areas   for  some  time  to  offset  continued
pollutant generation.

several potentially effective soil supplements are currently
undergoing research and experimentation.  Flyash is a  waste
product  of  coal-fired  boilers  and  resembles  soil  with
respect to certain physical and chemical properties.  Flyash
is  often  alkaline,  contains  some  plant  nutrients,  and
possesses    moisture    retaining   and   soil-conditioning
capabilities.  Its main function is that  of  an  alkalinity
source  and  a soil conditioner, although it must usually be
augmented with lime and fertilizers.   However,  flyash  can
vary  drastically  in quality—particularly, with respect to
pH—and may contain leachable materials capable of producing
water  pollution.   Future  research,   demonstration,   and
monitoring  of  flyash supplements will probably develop the
potential use of such materials.

Limestone screenings are also an effective long-term neutra-
lizing agent  for  acidic  spoils.   Such  spoils  generally
continue  to produce acidity as oxidation continues,  use of
lime for direct planting upon these surfaces  is  effective,
but  it  provides  only  short-term alkalinity.  The lime is
usually consumed after several  years,  and  the  spoil  may
return to its acidic condition.  Limestone screenings are of
larger   particle   size  and  should  continue  to  produce
alkalinity on a decreasing scale for many years, after which
a vegetative cover should be well-established.  Use of large
quantities  of  limestone  should  also  add  alkalinity  to
receiving  streams.  These screenings are often cheaper than
lime, providing larger quantities of alkalinity for the same
cost.  Such applications of limestone  are  currently  being
demonstrated in several areas.

Use  of digested sewage sludge as a soil supplement also has
good   possibilities   for    replacing    fertilizer    and
simultaneously  alleviating  the problem of sludge disposal.
Sewage sludge is currently being utilized  for  revegetation
                          146

-------
in  strip-mined  areas  of  Ohio.  Besides supplying various
nutrients, sewage sludge can reduce  acidity  cr  alkalinity
and  effectively  increase  soil  absorption  and  moisture-
retention  capabilities.   Digested  sewage  sludge  can  be
.applied  in liquid or dry form and must be incorporated into
the spoil surface.  Liquid sludge applications require large
holding ponds or tank trucks, from which  sludge  is  pumped
and sprayed over the ground, allowed to dry, and disced in-i-o
the  underlying  material.   Dry sludge application requires
dryspreading machinery and must be followed by discing.

Limestone,  digested  sewage  sludge,  and  flyash  are  all
limited  by  their availabilities and chemical compositions.
Unlike commercial fertilizers, the chemical compositions  of
these materials may vary greatly, depending on how and where
they  are  produced.   Therefore,  a  nearby supply of these
supplements may be  useless  if  it  does  not  contain  the
nutrients  or pH adjusters that are deficient in the area of
intended application.  Flyash, digested sewage  sludge,  and
limestone   screenings  are  all  waste  products  of  other
processes and  are,  therefore,  usually  inexpensive.   The
major  expense related to utilization of any of these wastes
is the cost of transporting and applying the material to the
mine area.  Application may be  quite  costly  and  must  be
uniform to effect complete and even revegetation.

When  such  large  amounts of certain chemical nutrients are
utilized, it may also be necessary to institute controls  to
prevent  chemical pollution of adjacent waterways.  Nutrient
controls may consist of preselection of vegetation to absorb
certain chemicals, or of construction of berms and retention
basins in which runoff can be collected and  sampled,  after
which it can be discharged or pumped back to the spoil.  The
specific soil supplements and application rates employed are
selected  to  provide  the  best possible conditions for the
vegetative species that are to be planted.

Careful consideration should be given to  species  selection
in surface-mine reclamation.  Species are selected according
to  some  land-use  plan, based upon the degree of pollution
control to be achieved ana the site  environment.   A  dense
ground cover of grasses and legumes is generally planted, in
addition  to  tree  seedlings,  to rapidly check erosion and
siltation.  Trees are frequently planted in  areas  of  poor
slope  stability  to  help  control  landsliding.   Intended
future use of the land is an  important  consideration  with
respect to species selection.  Reclaimed surface-mined lands
are  occasionally  returned  to high-use categories, such as
agriculture, if the land has potential  for  growing  crops.
However,  when  toxic  spoils  are encountered, agricultural
potential is greatly reduced, and only a  few  species  will
grow.
                          147

-------
Environmental     conditions—particularly,     climate—are
important  in  species  selection.   Usually,  specie?   are
planted  that  are  native to an area—particularly, species
that have been successfully established on nearby mine areas
with similar climate and spoil conditions.

Revegetation of arid and semi-arid  areas  involves  special
consideration   because   of   the   extreme  difficulty  of
establishing vegetation.  Lack of rainfall  and  effects  of
surface   disturbance   create  hostile  growth  conditions.
Because mining  in  arid  regions  has  only  recently  been
initiated   on   a   large   scale,  there  is  no  standard
revegstation technology.  Experimentation and  demonstration
projects  exploring  two  general  revegetation techniques—
moisture  retention  and  irrigation--are  currently   being
conducted to solve this problem.

Moisture  retention  utilizes entrapment, concentration, and
preservation of water within a  soil  structure  to  support
vegetation.   This  may  be  obtained utilizing snow fences,
mulches, pits, and other methods.

Irrigation can be achieved by pumping or by gravity, through
either pipes or ditches.  This technique  can  be  extremely
expensive,  and  acquisition  of  water rights may present a
major  problem.   Use  of  thesa  arid-climate  revegetation
techniques    in   conjunction   with   careful   overburden
segregation and regrading should permit return of arid mined
areas to their natural states.

IxElQIltign, 5§¥§i°E!D§Qt• §J2<§ Pilot-Scale Operations

Exploration activities commonly employ  drilling,  blasting,
excavation,  tunneling,  and  other  techniques to discover,
locate,  or  define  the  extent  of  an  ore  body.   These
activities  vary  from  small-scale  (such ag a single drill
hole) to large scale (such as excavation of an open  pit  or
outcrop face).  Such activities frequently contribute to the
pollutant  loading  in  waste water emanating from the site.
Since available facilities (such as power sources)  and ready
accessibility of special equipment and  supplies  often  are
limited,  sophisticated treatment is often not possible.  In
cases where exploration activity is being carried  out,  the
scale  of such operations is such that primary water-quality
problems involve the presence of  increased  suspended-solid
loads  and  potentially  severe pH changes.  Ponds should be
provided for settling and retention of waste water, drilling
fluids, or runoff from the  site.   Simple,  accurate  field
tests  for  pH can be made, with subsequent pH adjustment by
addition of lime (or other neutralizing agents).
                          148

-------
Protection of receiving waters will  thus  be  accomplished,
with  the  possible additional benefits of removal of metals
from solution—either in connection with solids  removal  or
by precipitation from solution.

Development  operations frequently are large-scale, compared
to exploration activities,  because  they  are  intended  to
extend  already  known  or  currently  exploited  resources.
Because these operations are associated with facilities  and
equipment  already  in  existence,  it  is necessary to plan
development activities to minimize pollution potential,  and
to  use  existing  mine  or  process  facility treatment and
control methods and facilities.   These  operations  should,
therefore,  be subject to limitations equivalent to existing
operations with respect to effluent treatment and control.

Pilot-scale operations often  involve  small  to  relatively
large  mining  and beneficlarion facilities even though they
may not be currently operating at full capacity  or  are  in
the  process of development to full-scale.  Planning of such
operations should be undertaken with treatment  and  control
of  waste  water  in mind to ensure that effluent limitation
guidelines and standards of performance for the category  or
subcategory  will be met.  Although total loadings from such
operations and facilites are not at the levels expected from
normal operating conditions, the compositions of wastes  and
the  concentrations  of waste water parameters are likely to
be  similar.   Therefore,  implementation   of   recommended
treatment and control technologies must be accomplished.
Mine and Process Facility, Closure

Mine  Closure .(Underground),.   Unless well-planned and well-
designed   abatement   techniques   are   implemented,    an
underground   mine  can  be  a  permanent  source  of  water
pollution.

Responsibility   for   the   prevention   of   any   adverse
environmental   impacts  from  the  temporary  or  permanent
closure of a deep mine should rest  solely  and  permanently
with  the  mine  operator.   This  constitutes a substantial
burden; therefore, it behooves the operator to make  use  of
the  best  technology  available  for dealing with pollution
problems associated with mine closure.  The  two  techniques
most  frequently  utilized  in deep-mine pollution abatement
are treatment and mine  sealing.   Treatment  technology  is
well   defined   and   is  generally  capable  of  producing
acceptable mine effluent  quality.   If  the  mine  operator
chooses this course, he is faced with the prospect of costly
permanent treatment of each mine discharge.
                          149

-------
Mine  sealing  is an attractive alternative to the prospects
of perpetual treatment.   Mine  sealing  requires  the  mine
operator to consider barrier and ceiling-support design from
the  perspectives of strength, mine safety, their ability to
withstand  high  water  pressure,  and  their  utility   for
retarding  groundwater  seepage.   In the case of new mines,
these considerations should be included in the  mine  design
to cover the eventual mine closure.  In the case of existing
mines, these considerations should be evaluated for existing
mine barriers and ceiling supports, and the future mine plan
should  be  adjusted to include these considerations if mine
sealing is to be employed at mine closure.

Sealing eliminates the mine discharge and inundates the mine
workings, thereby reducing or terminating the production  of
pollutants.  However, the possibility of the failure of mine
seals  or outcrop barriers increases with time as the sealed
mine workings gradually became inundated by ground water and
the hydraulic head increases.  Depending upon  the  rate  of
ground-water influx and the size of the mined area, complete
inundation  of  a  sealed  mine may require several decades.
Consequently, the maximum anticipated hydraulic head on  the
mine  seals may not be realized for that length of time.  In
addition, seepage through, or failure  of,  the  barrier  or
mine  seal  could  occur  at any time.  Therefore,  the mine
operator should be  required  to  permanently  maintain  the
seals,  or  to  provide treatment in the event of seepage or
failure.

Mine  Closure  .(Surface)..     The   objectives   of   proper
reclamation"  management   of   closed   surface  mines  and
associated workings are to (1) restore the affected lands to
a condition at least fully capable of  supporting  the  uses
which  they  were capable of supporting prior to any mining,
and (2)  achieve a stability which does not pose  any  threat
to  public  health, safety, or water pollution.  With proper
planning and management  during  mining  activities,  it  is
often  possible  to minimize, the amount of land disturbed or
excavated at any one time.  In preparation for the  day  the
operation  may cease, a reclamation schedule for restoration
of existing affected areas, as well as those which  will  be
affected,  should  be  specified.   The  use  of  a  planned
methodology such as this will return the workings  to  their
premined  condition  at  a  faster rate, as well as possibly
reduce the ultimate costs to the operator.

To accomplish the  objectives  of  the  desired  reclamation
goals,  it  is  mandatory  that  the  surface-mine  operator
regrade and revegetate the disturbed area  during,  or  upon
completion   of,   mining.    The   final  regraded  surface
configuration is dependent upon the ultimate land use of the
specific site,  and  control  practices  described  in  this
                          150

-------
report,  car.  be  incorporated  into  -the  regrading  plan to
minimize erosion and  sedimentation.   The  operator  should
establish  a  diverse  and  permanent vegetative cover and a
plant succession at least equal in extent, of  cover  to  the
natural  vegetation  of the area.  To assure compliance with
these requirements and permanence of vegetative  cover,  the
operator  should  be held responsible for successful revege-
tation and effluent water quality for a period of five  full
years after the last year of augmented seeding.  In areas of
the  country where the annual average precipitation is 64 cm
(26   in.)    or   less,   the   operator's   assumption   of
responsibility  and  liability should ex-tend for a period of
ten full years after the last  year  of  augmented  seeding,
fertilization, irrigation, or effluent treatment.
Br.o.c.§§§   Utility.   Ci2§H££-    As  with  closed  mines,  a
beneficiation facility's potential  contributions  to  water
pollution  do  not  cease  upon  shutdown  of  the facility.
Tailing  ponds,  waste  or  refuse  piles,  haulage   areas,
workings,  dumps, storage areas, and processing and shipping
areas  often  present  serious  problems  with  respect   to
contributions  to water pollution.  Among the most important
are tailing ponds, waste piles, and dump areas.  Failure  of
tailing  ponds  can  have  catastrophic  consequences,  with
respect to both immediate safety and water quality.

To protect against catastrophic occurrences,  tailing  ponds
should  be  designed  to  accommodate,  without overflow, an
abnormal storm which is observed every 25 years.   Since  no
waste  water is contributed from the processing of ores  (the
facility being closed) ,  the  ponds  will  gradually  become
dewatered   by   evaporation  or  by  percolation  into  the
subsurface.  The structural integrity  of  the  tailing-pond
walls  should  be  periodically  examined and, if necessary,
repairs  made.   Seeding  and  vegetation  can   assist   in
stabilizing  the  walls,  prevent erosion and sedimentation,
lessen the probability of structural  failure,  and  improve
the aesthetics of the area.

Refuse,  waste,  and tailing piles should be recontoured and
revegetated to return the topography as near as possible  to
the  condition  it  was  in before the activity.  Techniques
employed in surface-mine regrading and  revegetation  should
be  utilized.  Where process facilities are located adjacent
to mine workings, the mines can be refilled  with  tailings.
Care  should  be  taken  to  minimize  disruption  of  local
drainage and to ensure that erosion and  sedimentation  will
not  result.   Maintenance of such refuse or waste piles and
tailing-disposal areas should be performed for at least five
years  after  the  last  year  of  regrading  and  augmented
seeding.   In  areas of the country where the annual average
precipitation is 6U cm (26  in.)  or  l^ss,  the  operator *s
                          151

-------
assumption  of  responsibility should extend for a period of
ten full years after the last  year  of  augmented  seeding,
fertilization, irrigation, or effluent treatment.

Monitoring

Since  most  waste  water  discharges  from these industries
contain suspended solids as the principal pollutant, complex
water analyses are not usually required.  On the other hand,
many of "these industries today do little or no monitoring on
waste water  discharges.   In  order  to  obtain  meaningful
knowledge  and  control  of  their waste water quality, many
mines and minerals processing facilities need  to  institute
routine  monitoring  measurements of the few pertinent waste
parameters.

SUSPENDED SOLIDS REMOVAL

The treatment technologies available for removing  suspended
solids from minerals and mining waste water are numerous and
varied,  but a relatively small number are used widely.  The
following shows the approximate breakdown of usage  for  the
various techniques:

                                  percent_of_treatment_facidities
removal_technigue                 usinc[_technology_

settling ponds (unlined)               95-97
settling ponds (lined)                 <1
chemical flocculation  (usually         2-5
with ponds)
thickeners and clarifiers              1-2
hydrocyclones                          <1
tube and lamella settlers              <1
screens                                <1
filters                                <1
centrifuges                            <1

Settling Ponds

As  shown  above,  the  predominant  treatment technique for
removal of suspended solids involves one  or  more  settling
ponds.   Settling  ponds  are versatile in that they perform
several waste-oriented  functions including:

(1) Solids removal.  Solids settle to  the  bottom  and  the
    clear water overflow is much reduced in suspended solids
    content.
                          152

-------
 (2) Equalization and  water  storage  capacity.   The  clear
    supernatant  water layer serves as a reservoir for reuse
    or for controlled discharge.

 P) Solid waste storage.  The settled  solids  are  provided
    with long term storage.

This  versatility,  ease  of construction and relatively low
cost, explains the wide application  of  settling  ponds  as
compared  to  other  technologies.  The performance of these
ponds depends primarily on the settling  characteristics  of
the solids suspended, the flow rate through the pond and the
pond  size.  Settling ponds can be used over a wide range of
suspended solids levels.  Often a series of ponds  is  used,
with   the   first  collecting  the  heavy  load  of  easily
settleable material and the following ones  providing  final
polishing  to reach a desired final suspended level.  As the
ponds fill with settled solids they can be either dredged to
remove  these  solids  or  left   filled   and   new   ponds
constructed.   The  choice often depends on whether land for
additional new ponds is available.   When  suspended  solids
levels  are  low and ponds large, settled solids build up so
slowly  that  neither  dredging  nor  pond  abandonment   is
necessary, at least not for a period of many years.

Settling  ponds  used in the minerals industry run the gamut
from small pits, natural  depressions  and  swamp  areas  to
engineered  thousand  acre structures with massive retaining
dams and legislated construction design.  The performance of
these ponds varies from  excellent  to  poor,  depending  on
character  of  the  suspended  particles,  and pond size and
configuration.  In general the suspended solids levels  from
the  final  pond  can  be  reduced  to 10 to 30 mg/1.  Waste
waters  containing  significant   amounts   of   hydrophilic
colloids,  such as montmorillonite, are especially difficult
to clarify.

Much of the poor performance exhibited by the settling ponds
employed by -che minerals industry is due  to   the  lack  of
understating  of  settling techniques.  This is demonstrated
by the construction of ponds without prior determination  of
settling  rare  and detention time.  In some cases series of
ponds  have  been  claimed  to   demonstrate   a   company's
mindfullness  of  environmental control when in fact all the
component ponds are so  poorly  constructed  and  maintained
that  they  could  be replaced by one pond with less surface
area than the total of the series.

The chief problems experienced by settling ponds  are  rapid
fill-up, insufficient retention time and the closely related
short  ciruciting.  The first can be avoided by constructing
a series of ponds as mentioned above.  Frequent dredging  of
                          153

-------
the  first  if  needed  will  reduce  the need to dredge the
remaining  ponds.   The  solution  to  the  second  involves
additional  pond  volume  or  use of flocculants.  The third
problem,  however,  is  almost  always  overlooked.    Short
circuiting  is  simply  the  formation  of currents or water
channels from pond influent to effluent whereby whole  areas
of  the  pond are not utilized.  The principles of clarifier
construction apply here.  The object is to achieve a uniform
plug flow from pond  influent  to  effluent.   This  can  be
achieved  by  proper  inlet-outlet  construction that forces
water to  be  uniformly distributed at those points, such as
a weir.  Frequent dreding or insertion of baffles will  also
minimize channelling.  The EPA report "Waste water Treatment
Studies in Aggregate and Concrete Production"  (reference 25)
in detail lists the procedure one should follow in designing
and building settling ponds.

Clarifiers and Thickeners

An alternative method of removing suspended  solids  is  the
use  of Clarifiers or thickeners which are essentially tanks
with  internal  baffles,  compartments,  sweeps  and   other
directing  and  segregating  mechanisms to provide efficient
concentration  and  removal  of  suspended  solids  in   one
effluent stream and clarified liquid in the other.

Clarifiers  differ  from thickeners primarily in their basic
purpose.  Clarifiers are used when the main  purpose  is  to
produce  a  clear  overflow  with  the solids content of the
sludge underflow being of secondary importance.  Thickeners,
on the other hand, have the basic  purpose  of  producing  a
high  solids  underflow  with the character of the clarified
overflow being of secondary importance.  Thickeners are also
usually smaller in size but more massively constructed for a
given throughput.  Clarifiers and thickeners have  a  number
of distinct advantages over ponds:

(1) Less  land  space  is  required.   Area-for-area   these
    devices  are  much  more  efficient in settling capacity
    than ponds .

(2) Influences of rainfall are much less than for ponds.  If
    desired  the  Clarifiers  and  thickeners  can  even  be
    covered.

(3) Since  the  external  construction  of  Clarifiers   and
    thickeners  consists  of  concrete or steel tanks ground
    seepage and rain water runoff influences do not exist.
                          154

-------
On the other hand, clarifiers  and  thickeners  suffer  some
distinct disadvantages as compared with ponds:

(1) They have more mechanical parts and maintenance.

(2) They have  only  limited  storage  capacity  for  either
    clarified water or settled solids.

(3) The internal sweeps  and  agitators  in  thickeners  and
    clarifiers  require  more power and energy for operation
Clarifiers and thickeners are usually used  when  sufficient
land for ponds is not available or is very expensive.

Hydrocyclones

While hydrocyclones are widely used in the separation, clas-
sification  and  recovery  operations  involved  in minerals
processing, they are used only infrequently for waste  water
treatment.   Even  the  smallest  diameter  units  available
(stream velocity  and  centrifugal  separation  forces  both
increase  as  the  diameter  decreases)  are ineffective when
particle size is less than 25-50 microns.   Larger  particle
sizes are relatively easy to settle by means of small ponds,
thickeners or clarifiers or other gravity principle settling
devices.  It is the smaller suspended particles that are the
most  difficult  to  remove  and it is these that can not be
removed by hydrocyclones but may  be  handled  by  ponds  or
other   settling  technology.   Also  hydrocyclones  are  of
doubtful effectiveness when flocculating agents are used  to
increase settling rates.

Hydrocyclones  are  used  as scalping units to recover small
sand or o-ther mineral particles  in  the  25  to  200 micron
range, particularly if the recovered material can be sold as
product.   In this regard hydrocyclones may be considered as
converting part of the waste load to useful product as  well
as providing the first step of waste water treatment.  Where
land  availability  is a problem a bank of hydrocyclones may
serve in place of a primary settling pond.

Tube and Lamella Settlers

Tube and  lamella  settlers  require  less  land  area  than
clarifiers  and  thickeners.   These  compact  units,  which
increase gravity settling efficiency  by  means  of  closely
packed  inclined  tubes  and  plates, can be used for either
scalping or waste water polishing  operations  depending  on
throughput and design.
                          155

-------
Centrifuges

Centrifuges  are  not  widely used for minerals mining waste
water treatment.  Present  industrial-type  centrifuges  are
relatively  expensive  and  not particularly suited for this
purpose.   Future  use  of  centrifuges   will   depend   on
regulations,  land space availability and the development of
specialized units suitable for minerals mining operations.

Flocculation

Flocculating agents  increase  the  efficiency  of  settling
facilities  and  they  are  of two general types:  ionic and
polymeric.  The ionic types such as  alum,  ferrous  sulfate
and  ferric  chloride function by neutralizing the repelling
double layer ionic charges around  the  suspended  particles
and thereby allowing the particles to attract each other and
agglomerate.   Polymeric  types function by forming physical
bridges  from  one   particle   to   another   and   thereby
agglomerating  the  particles.  Flocculating agents are most
commonly  used  after  the  larger,  more  readily  settled,
particles   (and loads) have been removed by a settling pond,
hydrocyclone   or    other    such    scalping    treatment.
Agglomeration,  or  flocculation,  can then be achieved with
less reagent and less settling load on the polishing pond or
clarifier.

Flocculation agents can be used with minor modifications and
additions to existing treatment systems, but the  costs  for
the  flocculating  chemicals  are  often significant.  Ionic
types are used in 10 to 100 mg/1 concentrations in the waste
water while the higher priced polymeric types are  effective
in  the  2 to 20 mg/1 concentrations.  Flocculants have been
used by several segments within the minerals  industry  with
varying   degrees   of  success.   The  use  of  flocculants
particularly for the hard to settle solids is more of an art
than a science, since it  is  frequently  necessary  to  try
several flocculants at varying concentrations.

Screens

Screens  are  widely  used in minerals and mining processing
operations    for    separations,    classifications     and
beneficiations.   They  are similar to hydrocyclones in that
they are restricted to removing the larger  (<50-100 micron)
particle size suspended solids of the waste water, which can
then  often  be  sold  as  useful  product.  Screens are not
practical for removing the smaller suspended particles.
                           156

-------
Filtration

Filtration is accomplished by passing the waste water stream
through solids-retaining screens,  cloths,  or  particulates
such  as  sand,  gravel,  coal  or  diatomaceous earth using
gravity,  pressure  or  vacuum   as   the   driving   force.
Filtration  is  versatile in that it can be used to remove a
wide range of suspended particle sizes.  The  large  volumes
of  many  waste  water  streams  found  in  minerals  mining
operations require large filters.  The cost of  these  units
and  their  relative complexity, compared to settling ponds,
has  restricted  their  use  to  a  few  industry   segments
committed to complex waste water treatment.

DISSOLVED MATERIAL TREATMENTS

Dissolved   materials   are  a  problem  only  in  scattered
instances in the industries covered herein.  Treatments  for
dissolved   materials  are  based  on  either  modifying  or
removing the undesired materials.   Modification  techniques
include  chemical  treatments  such  as  neutralization  and
oxidation-reduction reactions.  Acids,  alkaline  materials,
sulfides and other toxic or hazardous materials are examples
of  dissolved  materials modified in this way.  Most removal
of   dissolved   solids   is   accomplished   by    chemical
precipitation.   Techniques  such  as  ion  exchange, carbon
adsorption, reverse osmosis and evaporation are rarely  used
in  the  minerals  mining industry.   Chemical treatments for
abatement of water-borne wastes  are  common.   Included  in
this   overall  category  are  neutralization,  pH  control,
oxidation-reduction     reactions,     coagulations,     and
precipitations.

Neutralization

Some of the waste waters of this srudy, often including mine
drainage  water,  are  either  acidic  or  alkaline.  Before
disposal to surface water or other medium excess acidity  or
alkalinity needs to be controlled to the range of pH 6 to 9.
The  most  common  method  is  to  treat acidic streams with
alkaline materials such as limestone,  lime,  soda  ash,  or
sodium  hydroxide.   Alkaline streams are treated with acids
such as sulfuric.  Whenever possible, advantage is taken  of
the availability of acidic waste streams to neutralize basic
waste streams and vice versa.  Neutralization often produces
suspended  solids which must be removed prior to waste water
disposal.
                          157

-------
pH Control

The control of pH may be equivalent to neutralization if the
control point is at or close to  pH 7.   Sometimes  chemical
addition to waste streams is designed to maintain a pH level
on   either  the  acidic  or  basic  side  for  purposes  of
controlling solubility.  Examples of pH control  being  used
for precipitating undesired pollutants are:
 (1) Fe+a + 3OH- = Fe(OH)3

 (2) Mn+z + 2OH- = Mn (OH) 2. = MnO2 + 2H+ + 4e~

 (3) Zn+2 + 20H- = Zn (OH) 2

 (4) Pb+z + 2 (OH)- = Pb(OH)2

 (5) Cu * 20H- = Cu(OH)2-

Reaction   (1)  is  used  for  removal  of iron contaminants.
Reaction  (2)  is used for removing manganese from  manganese-
containing  water-borne wastes.  Reactions  (3),  (4), and  (5)
are used on waste water containing copper,  lead,  and  zinc
salts.

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

The  modification or destruction of many hazardous wastes is
accomplished by chemical oxidation or  reduction  reactions.
Hexavalent  chromium is reduced to the less hazardous triva-
lent form with sulfur dioxide or bisulfites.  Sulfides, with
large COD values, can be oxidized  with  air  to  relatively
innocuous  sulfates.   These  examples  and  many others are
basic to the modification of inorganic chemical  water-borne
wastes  to  make  them  less  troublesome.  In general waste
materials requiring oxidation- reduction treatments  are  not
encountered in these industries.

Precipitations

The  reaction  of two soluble chemicals to produce insoluble
or precipitated products is  the  basis  for  removing  many
undesired  water-borne  wastes.   The  use of this technique
varies  from  lime  treatments  to   precipitate   sulfates,
fluorides,  hydroxides  and  carbonates  to  sodium  sulfide
precipitations of copper, lead and other toxic heavy metals.
Precipitation reactions  are  particularly  responsible  for
heavy  suspended  solids  loads.  These suspended solids are
removed  by  settling  ponds,  clarifiers  and   thickeners,
filters, and centrifuges.
                          158

-------
The  following  are examples of precipitation reactions  used
for waste water treatment:
 (1) S04= + Ca(OH)2 = CaSOjl + 2OH-

 (2) 2F- + Ca(OH)2 = CaF2 + 2OH~

 (3) Zn++ + Na2CO3 = ZnCO3 + Na+

SUMMARY OF TREATMENT  TECHNOLOGY  APPLICATIONS,  LIMITATIONS
AND RELIABILITY

Table   6  summarizes  comments  on  the  various  treatment
technologies as they  are  utilized  for  the  minerals  and
mining industry.  Estimates of the efficiency with which the
treatments  remove  suspended or dissolved solids from waste
water, given in Table  6  need  to  be  interpreted  in  the
following context.  These values will obviously not be valid
for all circumstances, concentrations or materials, but they
should provide a general guideline for treatment performance
capabilities.   Several  comments may be made concerning the
values:

 (1) At  high  concentrations  and  optimum  conditions,  all
    treatments  can  achieve 99 percent or better removal of
    the desired material;

 (2) At low concentrations, the removal efficiency drops off.

 (3) Minimum concentration ranges achievable will not hold in
    every  case.   For  example,  pond  settling   of   some
    suspended   solids  might  not  achieve  less  than  the
    100 mg/1 level.  This is  not  typical,  however,  since
    many  such  pond  settling  treatments can achieve 10 to
    20 mg/1 without  difficulty.   Failure  to  achieve  the
    minimum  concentration  levels listed usually means that
    either the wrong treatment methods have been selected or
    that an additional treatment step is necessary (such  as
    a second pond or filtration) .

PRETREATMENT TECHNOLOGY

Mineral   mining   operations   are   usually  conducted  in
relatively isolated regions where  there  is  no  access  to
publicly-owned  activated  sludge  or trickling filter waste
water treatment facilities.  In areas  where  publicly-owned
facilities  could  be  used,   pretreatment  would  often  be
required to reduce the heavy suspended solids load.  In  the
relatively  few  instances  where  dissolved  materials  are
serious, pH control and some reduction  of  hazardous  cons-
tituents  such  as  fluorides  and  heavy  metals  would  be
                          159

-------
Table 6.  Summary of Technology,  Applications,  Limitations  &  Reliability
w«t.
Wottr
Const! tuonti
MWi



i
1




Solid,

TMta*.
(l)Pond
{•tiling
(7) Ckrlfltr
(3) Hydrc-
tycfonet
(•fl Tuba and
la**Ha
Sottlin
(5)ScnMn
(o)lolory
Vccuun
Nlrm
(7) Solid twl
(QUoTond
PrtBuro
(9)C«lrldg.
ond Condi.
Flrlm
PO)Sondond
M«flo
Fltttn
(1) KUulroll-
kolFofl ond
pH Control
(7) Pftetptfa-
Hon

Uwdforotl
Ui.d for oil
pa/ttd« tim
famoval of vnoll.r
porticlo ll'««
lumval of lo>B«
partlcll lll«
Mainly far iludaM
ond oth.r hloh
luipandod lolfdi
Molnly (or lludgos
and othar high
Uiod over wioo
conctntratlon
rong.
Mainly for polic-
ing filtrotlom of
•uipflndcd saiidi
Mainly Tor polTrfw
ing flltrotioni of
iuip«nd«d loll^fl
G.iwrat
Iroodly ui»d to
f.movc tolubl.l
•mint
Solid.
Removal
»0-»9
tO-99
*"
•0-99
SM,
90-99
40-99
90-99
30-W
50-W
79
50-99
Concen-
tration
wn
5-200
5-1000
' -
-
-
5-1000
-
10-100
2-10
2-50
NA
0-20
Inofion
5-30
S-30
-
-
-
>»

5-30
MO
2-TO
NA
0-10
Avallo-
bJlity
o/
awnt
nono
roodlly
toaoV
avoilobl.
roadlly

•opro*.
10' « ICC
approii.
10' .10
appro..
10' , 10'
mall
W «20- or
Un
unall
Vf «70'
Molrt.o-
anc«
lUqulrnl
VMll
nonlnal
mall
mall
nominal
nomlnaE
noirrinal
undl
moll
»1I
minor
minor
Sontltlvlty
to
Lood,
mill
Mmltlv4
uroltlv*
MniEtlvo
mall
lornltlva
Mmltlvi
i.mlllv.
itmitlv«
wmltlva
nominal
I.mlllv.
(frocr.
of
ond
Startup
wall
nominaE
mall
nominal
urDll
nominal
tmall
•noil
mall
mall
mill
imall
Emrgy
Rooulro-
m«r)tt
mil
nominal
moll
moll
Mall
nomlrol
nomlnol
HUH
mil
imcll
moll
"""
                                 160

-------
required.  Lime treatment will  usually  be  sufficient  for
reductions of both categories.

NON-WATER  QUALITY  ENVIRONMENTAL  ASPECTS, INCLUDING ENERGY
REQUIREMENTS

The effects of these treatment and control  technologies  on
air  pollution,  noise  pollution, and radiation are usually
small and not of any significance.  Large amounts  of  solid
waste in the form of both solids and sludges are formed as a
result  of  all  suspended  solids  operations  as  well  as
chemical treatments for neutralization, and  precipitations.
Easy-to-handle,  relatively  dry  solids are usually left in
settling ponds or dredged out periodically and  dumped  onto
the  land.   Since  mineral  mining  properties  are usually
large, space for such dumping is often  available.   Sludges
and  difficultly  settled  solids are most often left in the
settling pond, but may in some instances be landfilled.

For those waste materials  considered  to  be  non-hazardous
where  land  disposal  is the choice for disposal, practices
similar  to  proper  sanitary  landfill  technology  may  be
followed.   The  principles  set  forth  in  the  EPA's Land
Disposal of Solid Wastes Guidelines (CFR Title  UO,  Chapter
1;  Part  241)   may  be used as guidance for acceptable land
disposal techniques.

For  those  waste  materials  considered  to  be  hazardous,
disposal  will  require  special  precautions.   In order to
ensure  long-term  protection  of  public  health  and   the
environment,  special  preparation  and  pretreatment may be
required prior to disposal.   If  land  disposal  is  to  be
practiced, these sites must not allow movement of pollutants
such  as fluoride and radium-226 to either ground or surface
water.  Sites should be selected that have natural soil  and
geological  conditions  to prevent such contamination or, if
such  conditions  do  not  exist,  artificial  means   (e.g.,
liners)   must  be provided to ensure long-term protection of
the   environment   from   hazardous    materials.     Where
appropriate,  the  location  of  solid  hazardous  materials
disposal  sites  should  be  permanently  recorded  in   the
appropriate  office  of  the legal jurisdiction in which the
site is located.  In summary, the solid wastes  and  sludges
from  the mineral mining industry waste water treatments are
very large in quantity, but the industry, having  sufficient
space and earth-moving capabilities, manages it with greater
ease than could most other industries.

For   the  best  practicable  control  technology  currently
available the added annual energy requirements are estimated
at 1.6 x 108 kcal.  This would increase the  present  energy
                          161

-------
use  for pollution control in this industxy by less than one
percent.
                          162

-------
                        SECTION VIII
      1N ERG Yx WASTE, REDUCTION BENEFITS ..AND NON-WATER, ASPECTS
           OF'TREATMENT AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
SUMMARY

The clay, ceramic,  refractory  and  miscellaneous  minerals
segment  of  the  mineral  mining and processing industry is
characterized  by  individuality  of   facilities.    Unlike
manufacturing   operations,  where  raw  materials  for  the
process may be selected and  controlled  as  to  purity  and
uniformity,  mining  and  minerals processing operations are
themselves largely controlled by the purity  and  uniformity
of  the  ores or raw materials involved.  Operations have to
be located, at or near the mineral deposits.  This  lack  of
control over raw material quality and location, coupled with
the fact that both mines and ore beneficiation processes may
have waste water effluents, leads to several basic treatment
costing differences from those for manufacturing operations:

(1)      In  order  to   achieve   reasonable   homogeneity,
         industries have to be segregated into subcategories
         such as wet mines, dry mines, dry processes and one
         or more wet processes.

(2)      Solid waste loads  vary  widely  depending  on  ore
         composition.

(3)      Types  of  water-borne  waste  vary  with  ore  and
         process.   Processes  are modified according to ore
         composition.

(<4)      Treatment costs  often  vary  widely  depending  on
         character   of   pollutants   involved.   The  most
         widespread example is particle size and composition
         variation of suspended solids.  Deposits with large
         particle sized  wastes  have  high  settling  rates
         while  small  or  colloidal suspended particles are
         slow  and  difficult  to  settle,  requiring  large
         ponds,  thickeners,  flocculating treatments, other
         devices  for  removing  suspended  solids  in  many
         cases.

In  general,  facility size and age have little influence on
the type of waste effluent.  The amounts and costs for their
treatment and disposal are readily scaled from facility size
and are not greatly affected by facility age.
                          163

-------
Geographical location is important.   Mines  and  processing
facilities located in dry western areas rarely require major
waste water treatment or have subsequent disposal problems.

Terrain  and  land availability are also significant factors
affecting  treatment  technology   and   costs.    Lack   of
sufficient  flat  space  for  settling  ponds  often  forces
utilization  of  mechanical   thickeners,   clarifiers,   or
settlers.   On  the  other hand, advantage is often taken of
valleys,  hills,   swamps,   gullies   and   other   natural
configurations  to  provide  low  cost  pond and solid waste
disposal facilities.

In view of the  large  number  of  mines  and  beneficiation
facilities and the significant variables listed above, costs
have  been developed for representative mines and processing
facilities rather than specific  exemplary  facilities  that
may   have   advantageous   geographical,   terrain  or  ore
composition.

A summary of cost and energy  information  for  the  present
level  of  waste water treatment technology for this segment
is given in Table 7.  Present capital investment  for  waste
water   treatment  in  the  clay,  ceramic,  refractory  and
miscellaneous minerals segment is estimated at $7,500,000.
COST REFERENCES AND RATIONALE

Cost information contained  in  this  report  was  assembled
directly  from  industry,  from waste treatment and disposal
contractors,   engineering   firms,   equipment   suppliers,
government  sources,  and  published  literature.   Whenever
possible,  costs  are  taken  from   actual   installations,
engineering  estimates  for projected facilities as supplied
by contributing  companies,  or  from  waste  treatment  and
disposal  contractors quoted prices.  In the absence of such
information, cost estimates have been developed  insofar  as
possible  from  facility-supplied  costs  for  similar waste
treatments and disposal for other facilities or industries.

Interest Costs and Equity Financing Charges

Capital investment estimates for this study have been  based
on  10 percent  cost  of  capital,  representing a composite
number for interest paid or return on investment required.

Time Basis for Costs

All cost estimates are based on August 1972 prices and  when
necessary  have  been  adjusted  to  this  basis  using  the
chemical engineering facility cost index.
                          164

-------
                                        TABLE 7
CAPITAL INVESTMENTS AND ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF PRESENT WASTEWATER
TREATMENT FACILITIES
Capital Spent
Subcategory Dollars
Present Energy
Use -
KcalxlCT
Total Annual
Costs -$/kkg
Produtjgd
 Bentonite
 Fire Clay
 Attapulgite     )
 Montmorillonite)
 Kaolin (dry process)
 Kaolin (wet process)
 Ball Clay
 Feldspar (dry  process)
 Feldspar (flotation)
 Kyanite
 Magnesite
 Shale
 Aplite
 Talc minerals  (dry)
 Talc minerals (wet
  washing)
 Talc minerals  (heavy
  media flotation)
Abrasives, Garnet
Abrasives, Tripoli
 Diatomite
 Graphite
 Jade
 Novaculite

 TOTAL
  335,000

  450,000
  370,000

  500,000
 <100,000
    1,000
  negligible

7,500,000
               No Waste Water
               No Waste Water
$ 330,000

2,670,000
335,000

1,000,000
375,000
300,000

695,000

180
No Waste Water
6,875
825
No Waste Water
4,950
830
small
No Waste Water
2,230
No Waste Water
0.22

0.29
0.26

1.65
2.83
0.19

0.69

  1,670
1.09
  2,500               1.09
  1,250               5.88
No Waste Water (except one scrubber)
  small                0.27
  small               $20-25
negligible            negligible
negligible            negligible

21,300
                                      165

-------
Useful Service Life

The useful service life of treatment and disposal  equipment
varies  depending on the nature of the equipment and process
involved, its usage pattern, maintenance care  and  numerous
other factors.  Individual companies may apply service lives
based  on their actual experience for internal amortization.
Internal  Revenue  Service  provides  guidelines   for   tax
purposes   which   are   intended   to  approximate  average
experience.   Based  on  discussions   with   industry   and
condensed  IRS  guideline  information, the following useful
service life values have been used:
(1)  General process equipment     10 years
(2)  Ponds, lined and unlined      20 years
(3)  Trucks, bulldozers, loaders
    and other such materials
    handling and transporting
    equipment.                     5 years

Depreciation

The economic value of treatment and disposal  equipment  and
facilities  decreases  over its service life.  At the end of
the useful life, it is usually assumed that the  salvage  or
recovery  value  becomes  zero.   For  IRS  tax  purposes or
internal  depreciation   provisions,   straight   line,   or
accelerated  write-off schedules may be used.  straight line
depreciation was used solely in this report.

Capital Costs

Capital costs are defined  as  all  front-end  out-of-pocket
expenditures  for  providing ' treatment/disposal facilities.
These costs  include  costs  for  research  and  development
necessary   to   establish  the  process,  land  costs  when
applicable,  equipment,   construction   and   installation,
buildings, services, engineering, special start-up costs and
contractor profits and contingencies.

Annual Capital Costs

Most  if not all of the capital costs are accrued during the
year or two prior to  actual  use  of  the  facility.   This
present  worth  sum  can  be converted to equivalent uniform
annual  disbursements  by  utilizing  the  Capital  Recovery
Factor Method:
                          166

-------
    Uniform Annual Disbursement = P i  (1 + ilnth power
                                   (1 + i)nth power - 1

    Where P = present value  (capital expenditure), i =
         interest rate, %/100, n = useful life in years

    The capital recovery factor equation above may be
    rewritten as:

    Uniform Annual Disbursement = P (CR - i% - n)

    Where (CR - i% - n) is the Capital Recovery Factor for
    i% interest taken over "n" years useful life.

Land Costs

Land-destined  solid  wastes  require  removal  of land from
other economic use.  The amount of  land  so  tied  up  will
depend  on  the  treatment/disposal  method employed and the
amount of wastes involved.  Although land is non-depreciable
according to IRS regulations, there are  numerous  instances
where  the market value of tn»e land for land-destined wastes
has been  significantly  reduced  permanently,  or  actually
becomes  unsuitable  for future use due to the nature of the
stored waste.  The general criteria applied to costing  land
are as follows:

(1) If land requirements for on-site treatment/disposal  are
    not significant, no cost allowance is applied.
(2) Where on-site land requirements are significant and  the
    storage  or  disposal  of  wastes-  does  not  affect the
    ultimate  market  value  of  the  land,  cost  estimates
    include only interest on invested money.
(3) For significant  on-site  land  requirements  where  the
    ultimate  market  value  and/or availability of the land
    has been seriously reduced, cost estimates include  both
    capital depreciation and interest on invested money.
(U) off-site treatment/disposal land requirements and  costs
    are  not  considered  directly.  It is assumed that land
    costs are included  in  the  overall  contractor's  fees
    along with its other expenses and profit.
(5) In view  of  the  extreme  variability  of  land  costs,
    adjustments  have  been  made  for  individual  industry
    situations.  In general, isolated,   plentiful  land  has
    been costed at $2,<»70/hectare  ($1,000/acre) .

Operating Expenses

Annual  costs of operating the treatment/disposal facilities
include labor, supervision, materials,   maintenance,   taxes,
insurance  and  power  and energy.   Operating costs combined
with annualized capital  costs  give  the  total   costs  for
                            167

-------
treatment  and  disposal  operations.   No interest cost was
included for operating   (working)  capital.   Since  working
capital  might  be  assumed  to be one sixth to one third of
.annual  operating  costs   (excluding  depreciation) ,   about
1-2 percent  of  total  operating  costs  might be involved.
This is considered to be well within  the  accuracy  of  the
estimates.

Rationale for Representative Facilities

All   facility   costs   are  estimated  for  representative
facilities   rather   than   for   any   actual    facility.
Representative facilities are defined to have a siza and age
agreed  upon  by a substantial fraction of the manufacturers
in the subcategory producing the given mineral, or,  in  the
absence  of  such  a  consensus,  the  arithmetic average of
production size and age for  all  facilities.   Location  is
selected  to  represent the industry as closely as possibly.
For instance, if all facilities are  in  northeastern  U.S.,
typical  location  is  noted  as  "northeastern states".  If
locations are widely  scattered  around  the  U.S.,  typical
location  would  be  not  specified  geographically.  If two
facilities exist, one on the west coast and one on the  east
cost, • typical  location  would  be  M1  east coast - 1 west
coast".  It should be noted that the unit costs to treat and
dispose of hazardous wastes at any  given  facility  may  be
considerably   higher   or  lower  than  the  representative
facility because of individual circumstances.

Definition of Levels of Treatment and Control

Costs  are  developed  for  various  types  and  levels   of
technology:
MiniiTtuin  Jor  basic levelj_ is that level of technology which
is equalled or exceeded by  most  or  all  of  the  involved
facilities.   Usually  money  for  this  treatment level has
already been spent  (in the case of capital investment) or is
being spent  (in the case of operating and overall costs) .

lxCj.DAE --- Levels  are  successively   greater   degrees   of
treatment  with  respect  to  critical pollutant parameters.
Two  or  more  alternative  treatments  are  developed  when
applicable.

Rationale for Pollutant Considerations

(1) All non-contact cooling water is exempted from treatment
     (and  treatment  costs)  provided   that   it   is   not
    contaminated  by process water and no harmful pollutants
    are introduced.
                          168

-------
(2)  Water  treatment,  cooling  tower  and  boiler  blowdown
    discharges   are  not  treated  provided  they  are  not
    contaminated by process water  and  contain  no  harmful
    pollutants.
(3)  Removal  of  dissolved  solids,   other   than   harmful
    pollutants,   is  not  included  because  of  high  cost
    factors.
(4)  Mine  drainage  treatments  and  costs  are   considered
    separately from process water treatment and costs.  Mine
    drainage  costs are estimated for all mineral categories
    for which such costs are a significant factor.
(5)  All solid waste disposal costs are included as  part  of
    the cost development .

Cost Variances

The  effects  of  age,  location,  and  size  on  costs  for
treatment and control have been considered and are  detailed
in subsequent sections for each specific subcategory.

INDUSTRY STATISTICS

Following  are  summarized the estimated 1972 selling prices
for the individual minerals covered in this  report.   These
values  were  taken  from  minerals  industry  yearbooks and
Bureau of Census publications.
    Bentonite                11.70            10.60
    Fire Clay                 9.00             8.15
    Fuller's Earth           25.50            23.00
    Kaolin                   28.40            25.75
    Ball Clay                17.65            16.00
    Feldspar                 22-28            24-31
    Kyanite                  70.50            64.00
    Magnesite                165               150
    Shale 6 Misc. Clay       1.76              1.60
    Aplite                   not known
    Talc Minerals            34               31
    Abrasives, Garnet        114               103
    Abrasives, Tripoli       10                  9
    Diatomite                72                 65
    Graphite                 withheld
    Jade                     22,000           20,000
                              after cutting
    Novaculite               66                 60
                          169

-------
              INDIVIDUAL WASTE WATER TREATMENT
                            COSTS

                         BENTONITE

There is no waste water from the  processing  of  bentonite.
Therefore, there is no treatment cost involved.

                         FIRE CLAY

The only waste water from mining and processing of fire clay
is  mine  water  discharge.   Treatment  costs  for settling
suspended  solids   in   mine   water   are   estimated   at
$0.01-0.05/kkg  of  produced  fire  clay.  Since there is no
process water discharge in  the  production  of  fire  clay,
there are no costs for process waste water treatment.

                       FULLER'S EARTH

Fuller's   earth   was  divided  into  two  subcategories
attapulgite  and  montmorillonite.   Suspended   solids   in
attapulgite mine drainage and process water generally settle
rapidly.   Suspended solids in montmorillonite mine drainage
and process water are more difficult to settle.

Estimates of treatment costs for mine water,  including  use
of  flocculating  agents  to  settle montmorillonite wastes,
range from JO.17 to $0.28/kkg of  montmorillonite  produced,
s=e Table 10.

process  and  air  scrubber  waste water treatment costs are
summarized in Tables 8 and 9.

Cost Variance

Age
In  the  montmorillonite  subcategory,   there   are   three
facilities  ranging in age from 3 to 18 years.  Age is not a
significant factor in cost variance.

There  are  four  facilities  representing  the  attapulgite
subcategory  ranging in age from 20 to 90 years.  Age is not
a significant factor in cost variance.

Location
All the facilities in the  montmorillonite  subcategory  are
located  in Georgia and, thus, location is not a significant
factor in cost variance.

The  attapulgite  facilities  are  located  in  Georgia  and
Florida, in close proximity and therefore, location is not a
significant factor in cost variance.
                          170

-------
      COST
         TABLE  8
           FOR  A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE  CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATE60RY   Attapulgite (Process Water Only)

PLANT SIZE     200,000
             METRIC TONS PER YEAR OF Attapulgite
PLANT  AGE  60  YEARS
      PLANT LOCATION
Georgia-North Florida Region

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 8 M {EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/ METRIC TON Attopulqite

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg /metric ton of )


TSS
PH



RAW
WASTE
LOAD






LEVEL
A
(MINI
71 , 000
8,400
37,400
200
46,000
0.21

0.01-0.02
6-9



B
77,000
9,300
39,800
200
49,300
0.22

0.01
6-9



C
95,000
11,100
39, 1 00
300
50,500
0.23

0
_



D












E












LEVEL  DESCRIPTION:.
  A — pond settling
  B — A plus flocculating agents
  C — B plus recycle to process
                              171

-------
      COST
               TABLE 9
                  FOR A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
      (ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY   Montmorillonite (Process Wafer Only)

PLANT SIZE
182,000
PLANT  AGE  10  YEARS
METRIC TONS PER YEAR  OF Montmorlllonite

              Georgia	
            PLANT LOCATION

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON Moftfomnrillonfff
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/metric ton of montmorilldr


TSS
PH



RAW
WASTE
LOAD
He)






LEVEL
A
(MIN)
60,000
7,000
30,900
200
38,100
0.21

0.3
6-9



B
65,000
7,900
32,900
200
41,000
0.22

0.05
6-9



C
80,000
9,400
32,300
300
43,000
0.24

0
-



D












E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
   A — pond settling of scrubber water
   B — A plus flocculating agents
   C — B plus recycle to process
                               172

-------
      COST
TABLE 10
             FOR  A  REPRESENTATIVE  PLANT
  (ALL COSTS ARE  CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY   Montmorillonite (Mine Wgter Only)	

PLANT SIZE     182,000	METRIC TONS PER YEAR OF Montmorillonite
PLANT  AGE  10  YEARS
        PLANT  LOCATION    Georgia

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS'.
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 & M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TONMontmoriilomte

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kq /metric ton of )


TSS, mg/liter




RAW
WASTE
LOAD






LEVEL
A
(MIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0

200—
5,000




B
60,000
15,800
12,300
3,000
32,300
0.17

2uO—
2,000




c
62,000
16,300
32,300
3,000
51,800
0.28

<50




D












E












LEVEL  DESCRIPTION
   A — no treatment
   B —  pond settling
   C — B plus flocculating agents
                              173

-------
Size
The facilities in the montmorillonite subcategory range from
13,600   to   207,000 kg/yr   (15,000-228,000  ton/yr) '.   The
representative facility is 182,000 kkg/yr  (200,000 ton/yr).

The attapulgite facilities range from 21,800 kkg/yr   (2*4,000
ton/yr)     and    227,000 kkg/yr     (250,000 ton/yr).    The
representative facility is 200,000 kkg/yr  (220,000 ton/yr).

In both these subcategories the cost variance with   size   is
estimated  to  be a 0.9 exponential function for capital and
its related annual  costs,  and  directly  proportional  for
operating  costs  other  than  taxes,  insurance and capital
recovery.

Cost Basis for Table 8.

Capital Costs
    Pond cost, $/hectare  ($/acre): 24,700  (10,000)
    Mine pumpout settling pond area, hectares  (acres):0.1  (0.25)
    Process Settling pond area, hectares  (acres):2  (5)
    Pumps and pipes: $10,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs
    Energy unit cost: $0.01/kwh
    Labor rate assumed; $10,000/yr

Cost Basis for Table 9.

Capital Costs
    Pond cost, I/hectare  ($/acre):2U,700  (10,000)
    Mine pumpout settling pond hectares  (acres):0.1  (0.25)
    Process settling pond area, hectares  (acres):2  (5)
    Pumps and pipes: $10,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs
    Treatment chemicals
         Flocculating agent: $1.50/kg  ($0.70/lb)
    Energy unit cost: $0.01/kwh
    Labor rate assumed: $!0,OCO/yr
                          174

-------
                    KAOLIN AND BALL CLAY

Kaolin and ball clay mining and processing operations differ
widely as to their waste water  effluents.   All  treatments
involve  settling  ponds  for  their  basic technology.  Dry
mines need no  treatment  or  treatment  expenditures.   Wet
mines  (from  rain  water  and  ground seepage) use settling
ponds to reduce suspended solids.  These settling ponds  are
small and cost an estimated $0.01-$0.06/kkg of clay product.

Processing  facilities  may  be  either  wet  or  dry.   Dry
facilities  have  no  treatment  or  treatment  costs.   Wet
processing  facilities  have  process  waste  water from two
primary  sources:  scrubber   water   from   air   pollution
facilities, and process water that may contain zinc compound
from a product bleaching operation.

Scrubber  and  process  water  need  to be treated to reduce
suspended solids and zinc compounds.   costs  for  reduction
are  summarized  in  Tables 11 and 12 for wet process kaolin
and ball clay, respectively.

Cost Variance

Age
The  kaolin  wet  process  subcategory   consists   of   two
facilities  having  ages  of  29 and 37 years.  Age is not a
cost variance factor.

The ball clay subcategory has a range of facility ages  from
15  to 56 years.  Age has not been found to be a significant
factor on costs.

Location
The wet  process  kaolin  operations  are  only  located  in
Georgia,  hence not a variance.

Ball  clay  operations are located in the Kentucky-Tennessee
rural areas and hence location is  not  a  significant  cost
variance factor.

Size
The  two  wet  process  kaolin  facilities  are  300,000 and
600,000 kkg/yr  (330,000  and  650,000 ton/yr)  size.    The
representative  facility is 450,000 kkg/yr (500,000 ton/yr).
Capital costs over this size range are estimated to be a 0.9
exponential function of size, and operating costs other than
taxes, insurance, and capital recovery are estimated  to  be
proportional to size.
                          175

-------
      COST


SUBCATEGORY  Wet Process Kaolin
           TABLE  11
            FOR  A  REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL  COSTS ARE  CUMULATIVE)
PLANT SIZE    450,000
PLANT  AGE   30   YEARS
              METRIC TONS  PER YEAR OF  Kaolin
      PLANT  LOCATION   Georgia-South Carolina

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS.'
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 8 M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON of Kaolin

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(ka /metric ton of Kaolin )


TS5
Dissolved zinc
PH


RAW
WASTE
LOAD

35-100
0.4



LEVEL
A
(MIN)
447,000
49,200
85,000
5,000
1 39, 200
0.31

0.02-0.2
0.001
6-9


B
463,000
51,800
112,000
5,000
168,800
0.38

<0.1
0.001
6-9


C
487,000
55,600
90,000
5,000
152,200
0.34

0
0
—


D












E












LEVEL  DESCRIPTION:
      A — pond settling with lime treatment
      B — A plus flocculating agents
      C — pond settling and recycfe to process (This should be satisfactory for cases where
          only cooling water and scrubber water are present. Process water will build up
          dissolved solids, requiring a purge.)
                                176

-------
      COST
         TABLE  12
            FOR  A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE  CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY	Boll Clay

PLANT SIZE     75,000
PLANT AGE  30  YEARS
             METRIC  TONS PER YEAR OF Ball Clay
      PLANT LOCATION    Kentucky-Tennessee Region

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS:
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 G M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/ METRIC TON of Ball Clay

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg /metric Ion of ball clay )


TS-S
pH



RAW
WASTE
LOAD






LEVEL
A
(M1N)
39,000
9,800
14,000
800
24,600
0.33

0.4-2.0
6-9



B
92,000
10,300
19,000
800
30,100
0.40

0.2
6-9



C
97,000
1 1 , 1 00
15,000
1,100
27,200
0.36

0
-



D












E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
      A — pond settling
      B — A plus flocculating agent
      C — closed cycle operation (satisfactory only for scrubbers and cooling water)
                                L77

-------
The  ball clay facilities range from 3,000 to 113,000 kkg/yr
(3,300 to 125,000 ton/yr)„  The representative  facility  is
68,000 kkg/yr  (75,000 ton/yr).   Capital cost and operating
cost variance factors for size  are  the  same  as  for  wet
process kaolin above.

Cost Basis for Table 11

Capital Costs
    Pond cost, $/hectare  ($/acre):12,350  (5,000)
    Settling pond area, hectares (acres):20  (50)
    Pumps and pipes: $25,000
    Chemical metering equipment*. $10,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs
    Pond dredging: $20,QOO/yr
    Treatment chemicals
         Lime: $22/kkg  (120/ton)
         Flocculating agent: $2.2/kg  ($1/lb)
    Energy unit cost: $0.01/kwh
    Maintenance: $10,000-11,000/yr

cost Basis for Table 12

Capital costs
    Land cost, S/hectare  ($/acre): 12,350  (5,000)
    Settling pond area, hectares  (acres): 20  (50)
    Pumps and pipes: f25,000
    Chemical metering equipment: $10,000

Qperating and Maintenance Costs
    Pond dredging: ?2Q,000/yr
    Treatment chemicals
         Lime: $22/kkg  ($20/ton)
         Flocculating agent: $2.2/kg  ($1/lb)
    Maintenance: $10,000-11,000/yr
                          178

-------
                          FELDSPAR

Feldspar  may  be  produced as the sole product, as the main
product with by-product sand and mica, or as a co-product of
processes  for  producing   mica.    Co-product   production
processes  will  be discussed under mica.  Dry processes  (in
western U.S.) where feldspar is the  sole  product  have  no
water   effluent   and   no  waste  water  treatment  costs.
Therefore, the only subcategory  involving  major  treatment
and cost is wet beneficiation of feldspar ore.

After initial scalpings with screens, hydrocyclones or other
such devices to remove the large particle sizes, the smaller
particle   sizes   are  removed  by  (1)  settling  ponds  or
(2) mechanical thickeners, clarifiers  and  filters.   Often
the  method  selected depends on the amount and type of land
available for treatment facilities.  Where  sufficient  flat
land    is    available   ponds   are   usually   preferred.
Unfortunately, most of  the  industry  is  located  in  hill
country   and   flat  land  is  not  available.   Therefore,
thickeners and filters are often used.  Waste water from the
feldspar  beneficiation  involves  as   primary   pollutants
suspended solids and fluorides.  There is also a solid waste
disposal  problem  for ore components such as mud, clays and
some types of sand, some of which  have  to  be  landfilled.
Fluoride   pollutants   come   from  the  hydrofluoric  acid
flotation reagent.

Treatment and cost options are developed  in  Table  13  for
both  suspended  solids and fluoride reductions.  Successive
treatments for reducing suspended solids and  fluorides  are
shown.

Reduction  of fluoride ion level to less than 10 mg/1 can be
accomplished through segregation and separate  treatment  of
fluoride-containing   streams.   This  approach  is  already
planned by at least one producer, and is a good  example  of
in-process  modification  to  reduce  pollutant  levels.   A
modest reduction of fluoride  of  less  than  50 percent  is
presently  achieved at only one facility with alum treatment
that has been installed  for  the  purpose  of  flocculating
suspended solids.

Cost Variance

Age
The   feldspar   wet   process  subcategory  consists  of  6
facilities raiding in age from 3 to 26 years.  Age is not  a
significant  cost  variance  factor  because  of similar raw
waste loads..

Location
                          179

-------
      COST
             FOR A REPRESENTATIVE  PLANT
(ALL  COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUB CATEGORY   Feldspar, Wer Process	

PLANT SIZE    90,900	  METRIC  TONS  PER YEAR  OF  Feldspar

PLANT  AGE  10   YEARS      PLANT  LOCATION     Eastern U.S.	

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS-
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 6 M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON Feldspar

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg /metric ton of ore )


Suspended Solids
Fluoride
pH


RAW
WASTE
LOAD

26fen
0.22-
0.95
—


LEVEL
A
(MIN)
115,000
18,700
107,500
2,000
128,200
1.41

0.6
0.2
6-9


B
260,000
42,100
132,500
2,000
176,600
1.95

0.3
0.1
6-9


C
375,000
60,800
157,500
2,000
220,300
2.42

0.3
0.03
6-9


D
185,000
30,100
118,500
4,000
152,600
1.68

0.3-3
0.2
6-9


E
415,000
70,800
156,500
6,000
233,300
2.56

0.1-0.3
0.03
6-9


LEVEL  DESCRIPTION:
  A — settling pond for suspended solids removal, no fluoride treatment.
  B — larger settling ponds plus internal recycle of some fluoride-containing water plus
       flocculation agents.
  C — B plus segregation and separate lime treatment of Fluoride water.
  D — present treatment by thickeners and filters plus lime treatment for fluoride.
  E — D plus segregation and separate lime treatment of fluoride water plus improved
       suspended solids treatment by clarifier installation.

-------
The  feldspar  wet  processing  operations  are  located  in
southeastern   and   northeastern  states  in  rural  areas.
Location has  not  been  found  to  be  a  significant  cost
variance factor.

Size
The  feldspar  wet  processing operations range in size from
45,700  to  154,000 kkg/yr    (50,400-170,000 ton/yr).    The
representative- facility  is 90,900 kkg/yr (100,000 ton/yr).
The range of capital  costs  for  treatment  is  $36,800  to
$250,000, and the range of annual operating costs is $18,400
to   $165,000  as  reported  by  the  feldspar  wet  process
producers.

The variance of cost  with  size  is  estimated  to  be  for
    capital: exponent of 0.9 for treatments based on ponds,
    exponent of 0.7 for treatments based on thickeners.

Operating  costs  other  than  taxes,  insurance and capital
recovery are approximately proportional to size.

Cost Basis for Table 13

Capital Costs
    Pond cost, $/hectare ($/acre): 30,600  (12,500)
    Settling pond area, hectares (acres): 0.4-0.8 (1-2)
    Thickeners, filters, clarifiers: 0-$50,000
    Solids handling equipment: $40,000-50,000
    Chemical metering equipment: 0-$50,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs
    Other solid waste disposal costs: 0-$0.5/ton
    Treatment chemicals: $10,000-25,000/yr
    Energy unit cost: $0.01/kwh
    Monitoring: 0-$15,000/yr
                          181

-------
                          KYANITE

Kyanite is produced at three locations.  Two  of  the  threa
facilities  have  complete  recycle  of  process water after
passing through settling  ponds.   A  summary  of  treatment-
technology  costs  is  given  in  Table  14.   Approximately
two-thirds of the cost comes from solid wastes removal  from
the  settling  pond  and  land disposal.  Depending on solid
waste load, costs could vary from approximately $1 to $4 per
metric ton of product.

Cost Variance

Age
The three  facilities  of  this  subcategory  range  in  age
between  10 and 30 years.  There is no significant treatment
cost variance due to this range.

Location
These facilities are in two  southeastern  states  in  rural
locations, not a significant cost variance factor.

Size
The  sizes  range  from  16,000  to 45,000 kkg/yr (18,000 to
50,000 ton/yr).   The  costs   given   are   meant   to   be
representative  over  this  size  range on a unit production
basis, that is, costs are roughly proportional to size.

Cost Basis for Kyanite Category

Capital Costs
    Pond cost, S/hectare (S/acre):  12,300  (5,000)
    Settling pond area, hectares (acres):10 (25)
    Pipes: $28,000
    Pumps: $4,400

Operating and Maintenance Costs
    Pond dredging and solids waste hauling: $82,500/yr
    Pond: $14,600/yr
    Pipes: $3,300/yr
    Energy unit cost: '10.01/kwh
    Pumps: $1,200/yr
    Labor: $3,000/yr
    Maintenance: $16,900/yr
                          is:

-------
      COST


SUBC ATEGORY    Kyanite

PLANT SIZE     45,000
         TABLE  14
           FOR  A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE  CUMULATIVE)
PLANT AGE  15
             METRIC TONS PER YEAR OF Kyanite
      PLANT LOCATION   Southeastern U.S.

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS!
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 Q M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/ METRIC TON of Kyanite

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(ka /metric ton of )

Tailings
TSS-
pH



RAW
WASTE
LOAD
5500





LEVEL
A
(MIN)
80,000
9,700
75,000
1,000
85,700
1.90

3
6-9



B
157,400
19,100
108,100
1,400
128,600
2.83

0
-



C












D












E












LEVEL  DESCRIPTION:
    A — pond settling
    B — A plus recycle

    Note:  Most of the above cost at A level (65-70%) is the cost of removal and disposal
          of solids from ponds.
                               183

-------
                         iMAGNESITE

There is only one known U.S. facility that produces magnesia
from naturally occurring magnesite ore.   This  facility  is
located  in  a  dry  western climate and has no discharge to
surface    water    by    virtue    of     a     combination
evaporation-percolation   pond.    Capital  costs  for  this
treatment are $300,000 with operation/maintenance  costs  of
$15,000/yr plus annual capital investment costs of $35,220.

                   SHALE AND COMMON CLAY

No water is used in either mining or processing of shale and
common  clay.   The  only  water involved is occasional mine
drainage from rain or ground water.  In  most  cases  runoff
does  not  pick up significant suspended solids.  Any needed
treatment costs would be expected to fall in  the  range  of
$0.01 to $0.05/kkg shale produced.

Cost Variance

Age
Shale  facilities  range from 8 to 80 years in age.  This is
not a significant variance factor for  the  costs  to  treat
mine water since the eqiupment is similar.

Location
Shale  facilities  having significant mine water are located
through the eastern half of the U.S.   The  volume  of  mine
water  is  the  only  significant  cost factor influenced by
location.

Size
Shale facilities range from 700 to  250,000 kkg/yr  (770  to
270,000 ton/yr).   Size is not a cost variance factor, since
the mine pumpout is unrelated to production rate.

                           APLITE

Aplite is dry mined produced at two facilities in the U.S.

One facility with a  dry  process  uses  wet  scrubbers  the
discharge  from  which  is ponded to remove suspended solids
and then  discharged.   Waste  water  treatment  costs  were
calculated  to  be $0.4S/kkg product.  The second processing
facility  uses  a   wet   classification   process   and   a
significantly higher water usage per ton of product than the
first  facility.  Except for a pond pumpout every one to two
years, this facility is  on  complete  recycle.   The  total
treatment  costs per kkg of product is $0.78.  The estimated
costs to bring the "dry process" facility to a condition  of
total recycle of its scrubber water are:
                          184

-------
    capital: $9,000
    annual capital recovery:$1,<*70
    annual  operating  and  maintenance, excluding power and
         energy: $630
    annual power and energy: $1,300
    total annual cost:$3,400

Cost Variance

Age
Aplite is produced by two facilities which  are  17  and  41
years  old.  Age has not been found to be a significant cost
variance factor.

Location
Both  aplite  facilities  are  located  in   Virginia   and,
therefore,  location  is  not  a  significant  cost variance
factor.

Size
The aplite facilities are 54,400 kkg/yr (60,000 ton/yr)  and
136,000 kkg/yr   (150,000 ton/yr).    The   costs  per  unit
production are applicable for only the facilities specified.

Cost Basis for Aplite category

Capital Costs
    Pond cost, $/hectare ($/acre):  12,300-24,500
          (5,000-10,000)
    Settling pond area, hectares  (acres):  5.5-32 (14-80)
    Recycle equipment: $9,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs
    Treatment chemical costs: $3,500/yr
    Energy unit cost: $0.01/kwh
    Recycle Q & M cost: $1,900/yr
    Maintenance:$4,500-16» 500/yr
                           185

-------
                    TALC MINERALS GROUP

Suspended solids are the only major  pollutant  involved  in
the  waste water from this category.  In some wet processing
operations pH control through addition of acid and  alkalies
is  practiced.   Neutralization of the final waste water may
be needed to bring the pH into the 6-9  range.   Both  mines
and  processing  facilities  may  be either wet or dry.  Dry
operations have no treatment costs.

Mine Water

Rain water and ground water seepage often make it  necessary
to  pumpout  mine water.  The only treatment normally needed
for this water  is  settling  ponds  for  suspended  solids.
Ponds  are  usually small, one acre or less,  costs for this
treatment are  in  the  range  of  $0.01  to  200  kkg  talc
produced, the large figure representing small mines.

Wet Processes

Wet  processes are conducted in both the eastern and western
U.S.

Eastern Operations

Waste water from wet processes comes from process operations
and/or scrubber water.  The usual  method  of  treating  the
effluent  is  to  adjust pH by addition of lime, followed by
pond settling.

Treatment options, costs and resultant effluent quality  are
summarized  in  Table   15.   Facilities  not  requiring lime
treatment would have somewhat lower costs than those given.

Western Operations

Wet process facilities in the western part of the  U.S.  are
mostly  located in arid regions and can achieve no discharge
through  evaporation.   costs  for  these  evaporation  pond
systems  were  estimated  to  be the same cost as Level B of
Table 15.  The required evaporation pond size in  this  case
is   similar   to   that   needed  for  good  settling  pond
performance.

Cost Variance

Age
Facilities in the talc minerals group range  from  2  to  70
years  of  age.   However,  the  heavy  media separation and
flotation subcategory with  a  discharge  consists  of  only
                          186

-------
      COST
         TABLE   15
            FOR A  REPRESENTATIVE PLANT
(ALL COSTS ARE CUMULATIVE)
SUBCATEGORY   Talc Minerals, Ore Mining, Heavy Madia and Flotation

PLANT SIZE    45,000
PLANT AGE   25  YEARS
     	 METRIC  TONS PER YEAR OF talc minerals

      PLANT LOCATION   Eastern U.S.

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS'.
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 & M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
COST/METRIC TON of products

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg /metric ton of products )


TSS
pH



RAW
WASTE
LOAD

800 to
1800




LEVEL
A
(MIN)
100,000
11,700
27,000
2,000
40,700
0.89

0.3-1.3
6-9



B
150,000
17,600
34,000
3,000
54,600
1.09

0.3
6-9



C












D












E












LEVEL  DESCRIPTION:
    A — lime treatment and pond settling
    B — A plus additional pond settling
                              187

-------
three  facilities  of  10 to 30 years of age.  This is not a
significant treatment cost variance factor.

Location
The  heavy  media  separation  and   flotation   subcategory
facilities  are  located  in rural areas of the eastern U.S.
This location spread is a minor cost variance factor.

Size
Talc minerals  facilities  range  in  size  from  12,000  to
300,000 kkg/yr   (13,000 to 330,000 ton/yr).  The heavy media
separation and flotation subcategory facilities  range  from
12,000  to  236,000 kkg/yr   (13,000 to 260,000 ton/yr).  The
representative  facility  size  selected  is   45,000 kkg/yr
(50,000 ton/yr).   Over  this  range of sizes, capital costs
variance can be estimated by an exponent of 0.8 to size, and
operating costs  other  than  capital  recovery,  taxes  and
insurance are approximately proportional to size.

Cost Basis for Table 15.

Capital Costs
    Land cost, $/hectare ($/acre):  24,500  (10,000)
    Mine pumpout, settling pond area, hectares  (acres):
         up to 0.4 (up to 1)
    Process settling pond area, hectares (acres): 2  (5)
    Pumps and pipes: $15,000
    Chemical treatment equipment:  $35,000

Operating and Maintenance costs
    Treatment chemicals
         Lime: $22/kkg ($20/ton)
    Energy cost: $1,000-2,000/yr
    Maintenance: $5,000/yr
    Labor: $3,000-10,000/yr
                          188

-------
                           GARNET

There  are  three garnet producers in the U.S., two in Idaho
and one in New York State.  Two basic  types  of  processing
are  used:  (1)  wet  washing and classifying of the ore, and
(2) heavy  media   and   froth   flotation.    Washing   and
classifying facilities have already incurred estimated waste
water  treatment  costs  of  $0.16  per metric ton of garnet
produced.  Heavy media and  flotation  process  waste  water
treatment estimated costs already incurred are significantly
higher, $5 to $10/kkg of product.

The   quantity   and  quality  of  discharge  at  the  Idaho
facilities are not known by the manufacturer.  Sampling  was
precluded  by seasonal halting of operations.  The hydraulic
load per ton of product at the Idaho operations is  believed
to  be  higher  than at the New York operation studied.  The
costs to reduce the amount  of  suspended  solids  in  these
discharges  to  that of the New York operation are estimated
to be:

    capital: $100,000
    annual operating costs: $30,000

Cost Variance

Age
There are three garnet producers ranging in age from  10  to
50 years.   Age  has not been found to be a significant cost
variance factor.

Location
Two of the garnet producers are located in Idaho and one  in
New  York State.  The regional deposits differ widely making
different ore processes necessary.  Due to  this  difference
in  processes,  there  is no representative facility in this
subcategory.  Treatment  costs  must  be  calculated  on  an
individual basis.

Size
The  garnet  producers range in size from 5,100 kkg/yr to an
estimated  86,200 kkg/yr   (5,600 ton/yr  to   an   estimated
95,000 ton/yr).    The  differences in size are so great that
there is no representative facility  for  this  subcategory.
Due to process and size differences, treatment costs must be
calculated on an individual basis.
                          189

-------
                          TRIPOLI

There  are  several  tripoli producers in the United States.
The production is dry both at the facilities and the  mines.
One small facility has installed a wet scrubber.

Cost Variance

There  is only one facility in this subcategory that has any
process waste water.  This is only from  a  special  process
producing   10 percent   of   that   facility's  production.
Therefore, there are no cost variances due to age,  location
or size.

                         DIATOMITE

Diatomite  is  mined and processed in the western U.S.  Both
mining  and  processing  are  practically  dry   operations.
Evaporation  ponds are used for waste disposal in all cases.
The selected technology  of  partial  recycle  and  chemical
treatment  is  practiced  at  the  better  facilities.   All
facilities are  currently  employing  settling  and  neutra-
lization.
                          GRAPHITE

There is only one producer of natural graphite in the United
States.    For  this  mine  and  processing  facility,  mine
drainage,  settling  pond  seepage  and  process  water  are
treated  for  suspended  solids,  iron removal and pH level.
The pH level and iron precipitation are controlled  by  lime
addition.   The precipitated iron and other suspended solids
are removed in the settling pond and the treated waste water
discharged.  Present treatment costs are approximately  $20-
25/kkg graphite produced.

                            JADE

The  jade  industry  is  very small and involves very little
waste water.  One facility  representing 55  percent  of  the
total  U.S.  production has only 190 I/day (50 gpd) of waste
water.   Suspended  solids  are  settled  in  a  small  tank
followed  by discharge to the company lawn.  Treatment costs
are considered negligible.

                         NOVACULITE

There is only one novaculite producer in the United  States.
Processing  is a dry operation resulting in no discharge.  A
dust scrubber is utilized and the water  is  recycled  after
passing  through  a  settling  tank.  Both present treatment
costs and proposed recycle costs are negligible.
                          190

-------
                         SECTION IX

         EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
                     APPLICATION OF THE
            BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
                    CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
                        INTRODUCTION

The effluent limitations which must be achieved by  July  I,
1977,   are  based  on  the  degree  of  effluent  reduction
attainable through the application of the  best  practicable
control  technology  currently available.  For the mining of
clay, ceramic, refractory, and miscellaneous materials, this
level of technology was based on the  average  of  the  best
existing  performance  by facilities of various sizes, ages,
and processes within each of the  industry's  subcategories.
In  Section  IV,  this  segment  of  the minerals mining and
processing industry was divided  into  17  major  categories
based  on  similarities  of process.  Several of these major
categories have been further subcategorized and, for reasons
explained in Section IV, each subcategory  will  be  treated
separately  for  the  recommendation of effluent limitations
guidelines and standards of performance.

Best  practicable  control  technology  currently  available
emphasizes   treatment   facilities   at   the   end   of  a
manufacturing  process  but  also   includes   the   control
technology  within  the process itself when it is considered
to be normal practice within an industry.  Examples of waste
management techniques which were considered normal  practice
within these industries are:

a)  manufacturing process controls;
b)  recycle and alternative uses of water; and
c)  recovery and/or resue of some waste water constitutents.

Consideration was also given to:

a)  the total cost of application of technology in  relation
    to  the  effluent reduction benefits to be achieved from
    such application;
b)  the size and age of equipment and facilities involved;
c)  the process employed;
d)  the engineering aspects of the  application  of  various
    types of control techniques;
e)  process changes; and
f)  non-water quality environmental impact (including energy
    requirements).
                           191

-------
The following  is  a  discussion  of  the  best  practicable
control  technology  currently  available  for  each  of the
chemical subcategories, and the proposed limitations on  the
pollutants in their effluents.

GENERAL WATER GUIDELINES

process Water

process  water  is  defined as any water contacting the ore,
processing chemicals, intermediate products, by-products  or
products  of a process including contact cooling water.  All
process water effluents are limited to the pH range  of  6.0
to 9.0 unless otherwise specified.

Process  generated waste water is defined as any water which
in the  mineral  processing  operations  such  as  crushing,
washing  and  beneficiation,  comes into direct contact with
any  raw  material,  intermediate  product,  by-product   or
product used in or resulting from the process.

Where  sufficient  data was available a statistical analysis
of the data was performed to determine a monthly and a daily
maximum.  In most subcategories, where there is an allowable
discharge, an achievable monthly maximum was determined from
the data available.

A detailed analysis of the ratio of daily TSS to monthly TSS
maximum at a  99  percent  level  of  confidence  for  large
phosphate  slime  ponds  indicate that a TSS ratio of 2.0 is
representative of a large settling  pond  treatment  system,
and this ratio was used where there was insufficient data to
predict a daily maximum directly.

A  ratio of 2.0 was also used for parameters other than TSS.
It is judged that  this  is  an  adequate  ratio  since  the
•treatment  systems  for  F,  Zn  and  Fe  for instance, have
controllable variables,  such  as  pH  and  amount  of  lime
addition.   This  is in contrast to a pond treating only TSS
which has few if any operator controllable variables.

Cooling Water

In the minerals mining and processing industry, cooling  and
process  waters  are  sometimes mixed prior to treatment and
discharge.   In  other   situtations,   cooling   water   is
discharged  separately.   Based  on  the application of best
practicable    technology    currently    available,     the
recommendations  for the discharge of such cooling water are
as follows.
                           192

-------
An allowed  discharge  of  all  non-contact  cooling  waters
provided that the following conditions are met:

(a) Thermal pollution be in accordance with  EPA  standards.
    Excessive  thermal  rise  in  once  through  non-contact
    cooling water in the mineral  mining  industry  has  not
    been a significant problem.

(b) All non-contact cooling waters should  be  monitored  to
    detect leaks of pollutants from the process.  Provisions
    should   be   made   for   treatment  to  the  standards
    established for process waste water discharges prior  to
    release in the event of such leaks.

(c) No untreated process waters  be  added  to  the  cooling
    waters prior to discharge.

The  above  non-contact cooling water recommendations should
be considered as interim, since  this  type  of  water  plus
blowdowns  from  water treatment, boilers and cooling towers
will be regulated by EPA as a separate category.

Mine Drainage

Mine drainage is any water drained, pumped or siphoned  from
a mine.

Storm Water Runoff

Untreated  overflow  may  be  discharged  from process waste
water or mine drainage impoundments  without  limitation  if
the  impoundments  are designed, constructed and operated to
contain all process generated waste water or  mine  drainage
and surface runoff into the impoundments resulting from a 10
year  2*4  hour  precipitation  event  as  established by the
National Climatic Center, National Oceanic  and  Atmospheric
Administration  for  the locality in which such impoundments
are  located.   To  preclude   unfavorable   water   balance
conditions   resulting  from  precipitation  and  runoff  in
connection with  tailing  impoundments,  diversion  ditching
should  be constructed to prevent natural drainage or runoff
from mingling with process waste water or mine drainage.
                           193

-------
       PROCESS WASTE WATER GUIDELINES AND LIMITATIONS

                         BENTONITE

There is no control technology needed for the processing  of
bentonite,  because  no water is used in the process.  Hence
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

From  the  data  in  Section V the following limits for mine
drainage and process contaminated runoff are achievable.

Effluent                     Ef fluent_L.imitation
Characteristic
  TSS                          35 mg/1

                         FIRE CLAY

The best practicable control technology  currently available
is no discharge of process generated waste water  pollutants
since no process water is used.

From  the  data  in  Section V the following limits for mine
drainage and process contaminated runoff are achievable.
                             Eff j.uent_LimitatiOQ
Characteristic               Daily_Maximum

  TSS                          35 mg/1

                FULLER'S EARTH - ATTAPULGITE

Based upon the information contained in Sections ill through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  o,f
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable control technology currently available is:
no discharge of process generated  waste  water  pollutants.
This condition is currently met by four facilities.

From  the  data  in  Section V the following limits for mine
drainage and process contaminated runoff are achievable.

Effluent                     Ef fluent_Lijnitation
Characteristic               Daiiy__Maximum

  TSS                          35 mg/1

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the mining and processing of Fuller's Earth  (attapulgite) is
no  discharge  of  process  waste  water.  This is currently
achieved by four facilities.  To implement  this  technology
                           194

-------
at  facilities  not  already  using  the recommended control
techniques would require use of dry  air  pollution  control
equipment  and  reuse  of  waste  fines  or recycle of fines
slurry and scrubber water after settling and pH adjustment.

              FULLER'S EARTH - MONTMORILLONITE

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the  mining and processing of Fuller's Earth-Montmorillonite
is recycle of all process scrubber water.  To implement this
technology at facilities not already using  the  recommended
control  techniques  would require the installation of pumps
and  associated  recycle  equipment.   Two  of   the   three
facilities studied presently use the recommended technology.

                  KAOLIN - DRY PROCESSING

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no  discharge  of  process generated waste water pollutants.
This is feasible since no process waste water is used.

From the data in Section V the  following  limits  for  mine
drainage and process contaminated runoff are achievable.

Ef fj.uent                     Ef_f_luent_Limitation
Characteristic               DaiiY_Maximum

  TSS                          35 mg/1

               KAOLIN MINING - WET PROCESSING

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:

                                 Effluent .Limitation
                      £    Monthly Average  Daily Maximum
  TSS, mg/1                    U5               90
  Turbidity, JTU or FTU        50               100
  Zinc, mg/1                  0.25              0.50
                           195

-------
The  above  limitations  were  based  on   the   performance
attainable  by  the  two  facilities   (3024  and  3025), see
Section V.  In addition other Georgia kaolin producers  have
claimed that these limits are achievable.

From  the  data  in  Section V the following limits apply to
mine drainage from mines not pumping the ore as a slurry  to
the processing facility and process contaminated runoff.

Effluent                     Eff lu§nt_L.imitatign
Characteristic               Daily Maximum

  TSS                          35 mg/1

From  the  data  in  Section V the following limits apply to
mine dewatering from mines pumping the ore as  a  slurry  to
the processing facility.

                                 Effly§nt_Limitatign
Eff_luent_Characteristic    M°nthlY_Ayerage  5.§iiY._Maximuffl

  TSS, mg/1                    45               90
  Turbidity, JTU or FTU        50               100

The  use  of clay dispersants in the slurry necessitates the
use of flocculants and clarification in  larger  ponds  than
would be needed if the ore were transported by dry means.

Best  practicable control technology currently available for
the wet mining and  processing  of  kaolin  for  high  grade
product  is  lime  treatment to precipitate zinc followed by
pond settling to reduce suspended solids.  To implement this
technology at facilities not already using  the  recommended
control  techniques  would  require the installation of lime
treatment facilities and settling ponds.

The recommended technologies are presently being used by  at
least 4 facilities.

                 BALL CLAY - WET PROCESSING

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:

                               Effluent_Limitatign

Eff luent_Char act eristic	Monthly__Ayerage	DailY_Maximum

    TSS                            0.17              0.34
                           196

-------
The  above  limitations  were  based  on   the   performance
demonstrated  at  facility  5689 which employs wet scrubbers
for dust collection.  Other facilities have no wet scrubbers
and hence no process waste water.

From the data in Section V the  following  limits  for  mine
drainage and process contaminated runoff are achievable.

Effluejit                     Effluent Limitation
Characteristic               Daily Maximum

  TSS                          35 mg/1

Best  practicable control technology currently available for
the mining and processing of ball clay is either the use  of
dry bag collection techniques for dust control or, where wet
scrubbers  are employed, the use of settling ponds to reduce
suspended  solids  in  the  effluent.   To  implement   this
technology  at  facilities not already using the recommended
control techniques would require either the installation  of
dry bag collectors or settling ponds.  All of the facilities
contacted  use  either  one  or the other of the recommended
technologies.

                  BALL CLAY-DRY PROCESSING

Where  ball  clay  is  processed  without  the  use  of  wet
scrubbers  for  air  emissions  control  there is no need to
discharge process waste water since it is either  evaporated
or  goes  to  the  product.  Hence, best practicable control
technology currently available is no  discharge  of  process
generated waste water pollutants.

From  the  data  in  Section V the following limits for mine
drainage and process contaminated runoff are achievable.

Effluent                     Effluent,Limitation
Characteristic               Daily,Maximum

  TSS                          35 mg/1

                    FELDSPAR - FLOTATION

Based upon the information contained in Sections ill through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:

                         Effluent_Limitation
                         kg/kkg_j[lb/10^0~lbl._gf_ore
Eff luent Characteristic	Monthly__ Aver age	Da ily_ Maximum
                          197

-------
   TSS                    0.60                 1.2
Fluoride                  0.175                0.35

The above limitations were based on the performance achieved
by  three exemplary facilities for TSS (3026, 305U and 3067)
and one of these three (3026) for fluoride  reduction.   The
fluoride  can  be  achieved by treatment with lime of the HF
flotation process waste water only to 40 mg/1.   This  waste
stream can then be combined with the remaining 75 percent of
the non-HF contaminated water.

From  the  data  in  Section V the following limits for mine
drainage are achievable.

                             Ef^luent_i,ig\itation
                             Daily Maximum

  TSS                          35 mg/1

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the  mining and processing of feldspar by the wet process is
to recycle part of  the  process  waste  water  for  washing
purposes,  then  neutralize  and  settle the remaining waste
water to reduce the suspended solids.  In addition, fluoride
reduction can be accomplished by chemical treatment of waste
water from the flotation circuit and/or partial  recycle  of
the  fluoride  containing  portion of the flotation circuit.
To implement this technology at facilities not already using
the   recommended   control   techniques    would    reguire
installation  of  piping  and pumps for recycle of water and
installation  of  neutralization,  chemical  treatment   and
settling  equipment  or  ponds.   The selected technology of
partial recycle and chemical treatment is practiced  at  the
better  facilities.   All facilities are currently employing
settling and neutralization.

                   FELDSPAR-NON-FLOTATION

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process generated  waste  water  pollutants.
This  technology  for  the processing of feldspar by the dry
process is natural evaporation of dust control water used in
the process.  This is the only water used in the process.

From the data in Section V the  following  limits  for  mine
drainage and process contaminated runoff are achievable.

Effluent                Effluent Limitation
Characteristic          Daily_Maximum
                           198

-------
   TSS                    35 mg/1

                          KYANITE

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

From  the  data  in  Section V the following limits for mine
drainage and process contaminated runoff are achievable.

Effluent                Effluent Limitation
Characteristic          DaiiY_Maximum

   TSS                    35 mg/1

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the mining and processing of kyanite by the standard process
is  recycle  of  process  water  from  settling  ponds.   To
implement this technology at facilities  not  already  using
the    recommended    control   techniques   would   require
installation of  suitable  impoundments  and  recycle  where
required.

One  of  the three facilities in this production subcategory
is currently employing the recommended technologies.

                         MAGNESITE

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the  manufacture  of magnesia (MgO)  from naturally occurring
magnesite is either impoundment or recycle of process  waste
water.    There is one facility in the U.S.  and this facility
currently uses the recommended technology.

                   SHALE AND COMMON CLAY

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process generated  waste  water  pollutants,
since no water is used.
                          199

-------
From  the  data  in  section V the following limits for mine
drainage and process contaminated runoff are achievable.

Effluent                Effluent, Limitation
Characteristic          Daily Max imum

   TSS                    35 mg/1

                           APLITE

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII , a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process generated  waste  water  pollutants.
From  the  data  in  Section V the following limits for mine
drainage and process contaminated runoff are achievable.
Characteristic          D a i ly Max im urn

   TSS                    35 mg/1

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the  mining  and  processing of aplite is ponding of process
waste water to settle  solids  and  recycle  of  water.   To
implement  this  technology  at facilities not already using
the   recommended   control   techniques    would    require
installation of water recycle equipment.

  TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE AND PYROPHYLLITE, DRY PROCESS

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no  discharge  of  process  generated waste water pollutants
because no process water is used.

TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE AND PYROPHYLLITE, WASHING PROCESS

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the  mining  of  talc minerals by the ore mining and washing
processes is total impoundment or recycle of  process  waste
water.    All  facilities  in  this  production  subcategory
currently employ the recommended control technology.
                           200

-------
  TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE AND PYROPHYLLITE, HEAVY MEDIA
                       AND FLOTATION

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:

                                  Ef fluent _ Limit at ion
Ef f_luent_Characteristic      Monthly._Average     Daily_Maximum

    TSS                            0.5                 1.0

The   above   limitations  were  based  on  the  performance
achievable by three facilities  (2032, 2033 and 2044)  and  a
fourth  facility   (2031)  achieving  no discharge of process
waste water.

Best, practicable control technology currently available  for
the processing of talc minerals by heavy media process is pH
adjustment  of  the flotation tailings, gravity settling and
clarification.  To implement this technology  at  facilities
not  already  using the recommended control techniques would
require the installation of  pH  monitoring  and  adjustment
equipment   and   the   installation   of   settling  and/or
clarification ponds.  All facilities in this subcategory are
presently using the recommended technologies.

  TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE, PYROPHYYLLITE, MINE DRAINAGE
              AND PROCESS CONTAMINATED RUNOFF

Based  upon  information   contained   in   section   V,   a
determination  has  been  made  that  the degree of effluent
attainble through the application of  the  best  practicable
control technology currently available is:

                             Ef f lueQt_Limitation
                                  paily__Maximum

         TSS                           30 mg/1

The above limitations are based on the effluent quality from
7 mines.

                           GARNET

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent attainable through  the  application  of  the  best
practicable control technology currently available is:
                           201

-------
                                  EfflufQt Limitation
                             kg/!slsg_ilb/iQOOlibL
Efflugnt^Charactgristic      isn^ElY-Ayerage

    TSS                        0.4                 0.8

The  above  limitations  were  based on an estimated average
process    waste    water    discharge    of    12,500 1/kkg
(3,000 gal/ton)  product  and  an  estimated  TSS  level  of
30 mg/1.  In the two facilities studied, mine water is  used
as process water.

From  the  data  in  Section V the following limits for mine
drainage and process contaminated runoff are achievable.

Effluent                Effluent Lj.mj.tatj.on
                                  mum
   TSS                    35 mg/1

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the  mining and processing of garnet is pH adjustment, where
necessary, and settling of suspended solids.   To  implement
this   technology   at  facilities  not  already  using  the
recommended   control   techniques   would    require    the
installation  of  pH  adjustment equipment, where necessary,
and construction of  settling  ponds.   The  two  facilities
accounting  for  over 80 percent of the U.S.  production are
presently using the recommended technologies.

                          TRIPOLI

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII, a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants
from dry processes, since no process waste water is used.

From  the  data  in  Section V the following limits for mine
drainage and process contaminated runoff are achievable.
                        Ef iuent_Limitati2D
Characteristic
   TSS                    35 mg/1

                         DIATOMITE

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII , a determination has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
                           202

-------
best  practicable  control technology currently available is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

From the data in Section V the  following  limits  for  mine
drainage and process contaminated runoff are achievable.

Effluent                Effluent Limitation
Characteristic          Daily Maximum

   TSS                    35 mg/1

Best  practicable control technology currently available for
the mining and  processing  of  diatomite  by  the  standard
process  is  use  of  evaporation  ponds  and/or  recycle of
process water.  To implement this technology  at  facilities
not  already  using the recommended control techniques would
require the construction of  impoundments  and/or  recycling
equipment.   Three  facilities  (5501, 5505 and 5500)  of this
subcategory  representing  approximately   half   the   U.S.
production utilize this recommended technology.

                          GRAPHITE

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available is:

                             Effluent ^Limitation
                                  mg/1
EffluentCharacterstic
TSS                            10                  20
Total Iron                      1                   2

The above average limitations were based on the  performance
achievable by the single facility in this subcategory.  Both
process   waste   water  and  mine  drainage  are  included.
Concentration was used because of the variable flow of  mine
seepage.

Best  practicable control technology currently available for
the mining and processing of graphite is  neutralization  of
mine  seepage and pond settling.   There is only one facility
in  the  U.S.,  and  this  facility   currently   uses   the
recommended technology.

                            JADE
                          203

-------
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

From  the  data  in  section V the following limits for mine
drainage and process contaminated runoff are achievable.

Effluent                Effluent Limitation
Characteristic          Daily_Maximum

   TSS                    35 mg/1

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the   mining   and   processing  of  jade  is  settling  and
evaporation  of  the  small  volume  of  waste  water.    To
implement  this  technology  at facilities not already using
the   recommended   control   techniques    would    require
installation  of a settling tank and appropriate evaporation
facilities.  The only major U.S.  jade  production  facility
presently employs these techniques.

                         NOVACULITE

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
VIII,  a  determination  has  been  made  that the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently  available  is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

From  the  data  in  Section V the following limits for mine
drainage and process contaminated runoff are achievable.

Effluent                Effluent_Limitation
QhSESStSEiStic          Daily Maximum

   TSS                    35 mg/1

Best practicable control technology currently available  for
the  mining  and  processing  of novaculite by the quarrying
process is total recycle of process scrubber  water.   There
is only one facility in the U.S.  It is presently using this
technology.
                           204

-------
                         SECTION X
         EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
             APPLICATION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE
             TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
INTRODUCTION

The  effluent  limitations which must be achieved by July  1,
1983 are based on the degree of effluent  reduction  attain-
able   through   the   application  of  the  best  available
technology economically achievable.  For  the  mining  clay,
ceramic,  refractory  and  miscellaneous  minerals industry,
this level of technology was based on the very best  control
and treatment technology employed by a specific point source
within  each of the industry's subcategories, or where it  is
readily transferable from one industry process  to  another.
In  Section  IV,  this  segment  of  the  mineral mining and
processing industry was divided  into  17  major  categories
based  on  similarities  of process.  Several of those major
categories have been further subcategorized and, for reasons
explained in Section IV, each subcategory  will  be  treated
separately  for  the  recommendation of effluent limitations
guidelines and standards of performance.

The following  factors  were  taken  into  consideration   in
determining   the  best  available  technology  economically
achievable:

(1) the age of equipment and facilities involved;
(2) the process employed;
(3) the engineering aspects of the  application  of  various
    types of control techniques;
(4) process changes;
(5) cost of achieving the effluent reduction resulting  from
    application of BATEA; and
(6) non-water quality environmental impact (including energy
    requirements).

In contrast to the  best  practicable  technology  currently
available, best available technology economically achievable
assesses   the  availability  in  all  cases  of  in-process
controls  as  well  as  control  or   additional   treatment
techniques  employed  at  the  end  of a production process.
In-process control options available which  were  considered
in  establishing  these  control  and treatment technologies
include the following:

(1)      alternative water uses
                          205

-------
(2)      water conservation
(3)      waste stream segregation
(U)      water reuse
(5)      cascading water uses
(6)      by-product recovery
(7)      reuse of waste water constituents
(8)      waste treatment
(9)      good housekeeping
(tO)     preventive maintenance
(11)     quality control (raw material, product, effluent)
(12)     monitoring and alarm systems.

Those facility processes and control technologies  which  at
the   pilot  facility,  semi-works,  or  other  level,  have
demonstrated both technological  performances  and  economic
viability  at  a  level  sufficient  to  reasonably  justify
investing  in  such  facilities  were  also  considered   in
assessing   the   best   available  technology  economically
achievable.  Although economic  factors  are  considered  in
this  development,  the  costs for this level of control are
intended to be for the top-of-the-line of current technology
subject to limitations imposed by economic  and  engineering
feasibility.   However, this technology may necessitate some
industrially  sponsored  development  work  prior   to   its
application.

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX of this report, the following determinations were made on
the  degree of effluent reduction attainable with the appli-
cation of the best available control technology economically
achievable in the various  subcategories  of  the  inorganic
chemical industry.

GENERAL WATER GUIDELINES

Storm Water Runoff

Untreated  overflow  may  be  discharged  from process waste
water or mine drainage impoundments  without  limitation  if
the  impoundments  are designed, constructed and operated to
contain all process generated waste water or  mine  drainage
and surface runoff into the impoundments resulting from a 25
year  24  hour  precipitation  event  as  established by the
National Climatic Center, National Oceanic  and  Atmospheric
Administration  for  the locality in which such impoundments
are  located.   To  preclude   unfavorable   water   balance
conditions   resulting  from  precipitation  and  runoff  in
connection with  tailing  impoundments,  diversion  ditching
should  be constructed to prevent natural drainage or runoff
from mingling with process waste water or mine drainage.
                           206

-------
 PROCESS WASTEWATER GUIDELINES AND  LIMITATIONS

                     NO  DISCHARGE  GROUP

 The following industry subcategories  are  required  to  achieve
 no discharge of process  generated  waste water  pollutants   to
 navigable   waters   based   on    best  practicable   control
 technology currently available:

         bentonite
         fire clay
         fuller's earth  (montmorillonite  and attapulgite)
         kaolin  (general purpose grade)
         ball clay (dry  process)
         feldspar (non-flotation)
         kyanite
         magnesite
         shale
         aplite
         talc group  (dry process)
         talc group  (washing process)
         tripoli
         diatomite
         jade
         novaculite

 Best available technology economically achievable  is  also  no
 discharge  of  process  waste  water  pollutants   for  these
 subcategories.
                  KAOLIN - WET PROCESSING

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX,  a  determination  has  been  made  that  the  deqree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically  achievable  is   the
same   as   for  the  best  practicable  control  technology
currently available.
Best available technology economically  achievable  for  the
mining  and  processing  of  ball clay is the use of dry bag
collectors where possible or recycle of wet  scrubber  where
wet  scrubbers  are  used.   To implement this technology at
facilities  not  already  using  the   recommended   control
techniques  would require the installation of settling ponds
or equipment and flocculation  plus  piping  and  pumps  for
recycle of scrubber water where used.  Settling of suspended
solids  and recycle of scrubber water is currently practiced
in other portions of this industry.
                           207

-------
                   FELDSPAR - - FLOTATION

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a  determination  has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is:

                        EffluentLimitation
Effluent                &2Zfcki_Jlb/1000_lb£_gr e_ grocessed
Characteristic     M.2D.^illY_Ay.§r.ii9§     Qaily_ Maximum

  TSS                0.6                 1.2

  Fluoride           0.13                0.26

The above limitation for fluoride is based on an improvement
in  exemplary  facility  performance  by  lime  treatment to
reduce  fluorides  to  30  mg/1  in  the   HF   contaminated
segregated  waste water.  The limitation on suspended solids
for best practicable control technology currently  available
is  deemed  also  to  represent  best  available  technology
economically achievable.

Best available technology economically  achievable  for  the
mining  and  processing of feldspar by the wet process is to
recycle  part  of  the  process  waste  water  for   washing
purposes, neutralization to pH 9 with lime to reduce soluble
fluoride  and  settling  to  remove  suspended  solids.   To
implement this technology at facilities  not  already  using
the    recommended    control   techniques   would   require
installation of piping and pumps for recycle of water,  lime
feeding  and neutralization equipment and settling equipment
or ponds.  The selected technology  of  partial  recycle  is
currently practiced at two facilities.  Three facilities are
currently  using lime treatment to adjust pH and can readily
adopt this  technology  to  reduce  soluble  fluoride.   All
facilities are using settling equipment or ponds.

       TALC MINERALS GROUP, HEAVY MEDIA AND FLOTATION

Based upon the information contained in sections III through
IX,  a  determination  has  been  made  that  the  degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is:

                        Effluent Limitation
iifiyent                kg/k&3_!lb/1000_lbj_
Characteristic     Monthly._Ayerage     Dai ly_ axjmuin

  TSS                0.3                 0.6
                          208

-------
The above limitations  were  based  on  performance  of  one
facility  (2032) plus one facility achieving no discharge of
process water  (2031) .

Best available technology economically  achievable  for  the
mining  and  processing  of talc minerals by the ore mining,
heavy media and/or flotation process is the same as for best
practicable  control  technology  currently  available  plus
additional  settling  or  in  one  case, conversion from wet
scrubbing  to  a  dry  collection  method  to  control   air
pollution.   To  implement this technology at facilities not
already  using  the  recommended  control  techniques  would
require  installation of additional ponds or installation of
dry dust collectors.  Two of the  four  facilities  in  this
subcategory  are  presently achieving this level of effluent
reduction using the recommended treatment technologies.

                           GARNET

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a  determination  has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable is:

                        Ef flu§nt_Limitatign
Effluent                kq/kkq j[lb/1000_lb)  product
                   Mgnthly._Ave_rage     Daily_ Maximum
  TSS                0.25                0.5

The  above  limitations  were  based on an estimated average
process  waste  water  discharge  of  12,500  1/kkg    (3,000
gal/ton)  and an estimated TSS level of 20 mg/1.

Best  available  technology  economically achievable for the
mining and processing of garnet is pH adjustment to  achieve
pH 6  to  9,  settling  of  suspended  solids,  and sand bed
filtration where necessary.  To implement this technology at
facilities  not  already  using  the   recommended   control
techniques    would   require   the   installation   of   pH
neutralization  equipment,  settling  ponds,  and  sand  bed
filter equipment.

Two  facilities  accounting  for over 80 percent of the U.S.
production  presently  use  a  portion  of  the  recommended
technologies  and  technology  exists for further removal of
suspended solids.
                          209

-------
                          GRAPHITE

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
IX, a  determination  has  been  made  that  the  degree  of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best  available  technology  economically  achievable is the
same  as  that  recommended  for  best  practicable  control
technology  currently available because no proven technology
option exists to reduce the pollutants further.
                           210

-------
                         SECTION XI
              NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
                 AND PRETREATMENT STANDARDS
INTRODUCTION

This level of technology is to be achieved by  new  sources.
The  term  "new  source"  is defined in the Act to mean "any
source, the construction of which  is  commenced  after  the
publication  of  proposed regulations prescribing a standard
of performance".  This technology is evaluated by adding  to
the  consideration  underlying  the  identification  of best
available    technology    economically    achievable,     a
determination of what higher levels of pollution control are
available  through  the use of improved production processes
and/or  treatment  techniques.    Thus,   in   addition   to
considering  the best in-facility and end-of-process control
technology, new source performance  standards  are  how  the
level  of effluent may be reduced by changing the production
process itself.  Alternative processes, operating methods or
other alternatives were considered.  However, the end result
of the analysis identifies effluent standards which  reflect
levels  of  control  achievable  through the use of improved
production processes (as well as control technology), rather
than prescribing a particular type of process or  technology
which must be employed.

The  following  factors  were  considered  with  respect  to
production processes which were analyzed  in  assessing  the
best demonstrated control technology currently available for
new sources:

a)  the type of process employed and process changes;
b)  operating methods;
c)  batch as opposed to continuous operations;
d)  use of  alternative  raw  materials  and  mixes  of  raw
    materials;
e)  use  of  dry  rather  than  wet   processes   (including
    substitution of recoverable solvents from water); and
f)  recovery of pollutants as by-products.

In addition to the effluent limitations covering  discharges
directly  into  waterways,  the constituents of the effluent
discharge from a facility  within  the  industrial  category
which  would  interfere  with, pass through, or otherwise be
incompatible with a  well  designed  and  operated  publicly
owned  activated  sludge  or  trickling  filter  waste water
treatment facility were  identified.    A  determination  was
                          211

-------
made of whether the introduction of such pollutants into the
treatment facility should be completely prohibited.

GENERAL WATER GUIDELINES

The process water, cooling water and blowdown guidelines for
new  sources  are identical to those based on best available
technology economically achievable.

PROCESS WATER GUIDELINES

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through
X of this report, the following determinations were made  on
the   degree  of  effluent  reduction  attainable  with  the
application  of  new  source  standards  for   the   various
subcategories   of   -the   clay,  ceramic,  refractory,  and
miscellaneous minerals segment of  the  mineral  mining  and
processing industry.

Storm Water Runoff

Untreated  overflow  may  be  discharged  from process waste
water or mine drainage impoundments  without  limitation  if
the  impoundments  are designed, constructed and operated to
contain all process generated waste water or  mine  drainage
and surface runoff into the impoundments resulting from a 25
year  24  hour  precipitation  event  as  established by the
National Climatic Center, National Oceanic  and  Atmospheric
Administration  for  the locality in which such impoundments
are  located.   To  preclude   unfavorable   water   balance
conditions   resulting  from  precipitation  and  runoff  in
connection with  tailing  impoundments,  diversion  ditching
should  be constructed to prevent natural drainage or runoff
from mingling with process waste water or mine drainage.

The  following  industry  subcategories  were  required   to
achieve  no  discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water
pollutants to  navigable  waters  based  on  best  available
technology economically achievable:

         bentonite
         fire clay
         fuller's earth  (montmorillonite and attapulgite)
         kaolin (dry process)
         ball clay
         feldspar (non-flotation)
         kyanite
         magnesite
         shale
         aplite
         talc group (dry process)
         talc group (ore mining and washing process)
                          212

-------
         tripoli
         diatomite
         jade
         novaculite

The  same  limitations  guidelines  are  recommended  as new
source performance standards.

The following industry subcategories are required to achieve
specific effluent limitations  as  given  in  the  following
paragraphs.
                    KAOLIN  (WET PROCESS)

Same as best available technology economically achievable.

                    FELDSPAR  (FLOTATION)

Same as best available technology economically achievable.

       TALC GROUP (HEAVY MEDIA AND FLOATION PROCESS)

Same as best available technology economically achievable

                           GARNET

Same as best available -technology economically achievable

                          GRAPHITE

Same as best available technology economically achievable

PRETREATMENT STANDARDS

Recommended   pretreatment   guidelines   for  discharge  of
facility waste water into public treatment works conform  in
general  with EPA Pretreatment Standards for Municipal Sewer
Works as published in the July 19, 1973 Federal Register and
"Title 40 -  Protection  of  the  Environment,  Chapter 1
Environmental   Protection   Agency,  Subchapter D  -  Water
Programs - Part 128 - Pretreatment Standards"  a  subsequent
EPA publication.  The following definitions conform to these
publications:

Compatible Pollutant

The  term  "compatible  pollutant"  means biochemical oxygen
demand, suspended solids, pH and  fecal  coliform  bacteria,
plus additional pollutants identified in the NPDES permit if
the  publicly  owned  treatment  works was designed to treat
such pollutants, and, in fact, does remove  such  pollutants
                          213

-------
to  a  substantial  degree.   Examples  of  such  additional
pollutants may include:

         chemical oxygen demand
         total organic carbon
         phosphorus and phosphorus compounds
         nitrogen and nitrogen compounds
         fats, oils, and greases of animal or vegetable
              origin except as defined below in
              Prohibited Wastes.

Incompatible Pollutant

The term "incompatible pollutant" means any pollutant  which
is not a compatible pollutant as defined above.

Joint Treatment Works

Publicly  owned  treatment works for both non-industrial and
industrial waste water.

Major Contributing Industry

A major contributing industry is an industrial user  of  the
publicly  owned treatment works if it:  has a flow of 50,000
gallons or more per average work day;  has  a  flow  greater
than  five percent  of  the  flow  carried  by the municipal
system receiving the  waste;  has  in  its  waste,  a  toxic
pollutant  in  toxic  amounts as defined in standards issued
under Section 307 (a) of the Act; or is found by  the  permit
issuance  authority,  in  connection with the issuance of an
NPDES permit to the publicly owned treatment works receiving
the waste, to have significant impact, either singly  or  in
combination  with  other  contributing  industries,  on that
treatment works or upon the quality of  effluent  from  that
treatment works.

Pretreatment

Treatment  of  waste waters from sources before introduction
into the joint treatment works.

Prohibited Wastes

No waste introduced into a publicly  owned  treatment  works
shall  interfere  with  the  operation or performance of the
works.  Specifically, the  following  wastes  shall  not  be
introduced into the publicly owned treatment works:

a.  Wastes which create a fire or explosion  hazard  in  the
    publicly owned treatment works;
                           214

-------
b.  Wastes which will cause corrosive structural  damage  to
    treatment  works,  but in no case wastes with a pH lower
    than 5.0, unless the works are designed  to  accommodate
    such wastes;

c.  Solid or viscous wastes in  amounts  which  would  cause
    obstruction to the flow in sewers, or other interference
    with   the   proper  operation  of  the  publicly  owned
    treatment works, and

d.  Wastes at a flow rate and/or  pollutant  discharge  rate
    which is excessive over relatively short time periods so
    that  there  is a treatment process upset and subsequent
    loss of treatment efficiency.

Recommended Pretreatment Guidelines for Existing Sources

In accordance with the preceding Pretreatment Standards  for
Municipal  Sewer  Works,  the  following are recommended for
Pretreatment Guidelines for the waste water effluents:

a.  No  pretreatment  required  for  removal  of  compatible
    pollutants - biochemical oxygen demand, suspended solids
    (unless  hazardous)  pH and fecal coliform bacteria.  The
    principal pollutant in the mineral industry is suspended
    solids.

b.  Suspended solids containing hazardous pollutants such as
    heavy  metals,  cyanides   and   chromates   should   be
    restricted  to those quantities recommended for the best
    practicable control technology currently  available  for
    existing  sources  and  new source performance standards
    for new sources.

c.  Pollutants such as chemical oxygen demand, total organic
    carbon, phosphorus and  phosphorus  compounds,  nitrogen
    and  nitrogen  compounds and fats, oils and greases need
    not be removed provided  the  publicly  owned  treatment
    works  was  designed  to  treat such pollutants and will
    accept them.  Otherwise levels should be at or below the
    best practicable control technology currently  available
    for   existing   sources   and  new  source  performance
    standards for new sources.

d.  Limitation on dissolved solids is not recommended except
    in cases of water quality violations.
                          215

-------

-------
                        SECTION XII
                      ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The preparation of this report was accomplished through  the
efforts  of  the  staff  of  General  Technologies Division,
Versar,  Inc.,  Springfield,  Virginia,  under  the  overall
direction  of  Dr.  Robert G.  Shaver,  Vice President.  Mr.
Robert C.  Smith,  Jr.,  Chief  Engineer,  Project  Officer,
directed the day-to-day work on the program.

Mr.  Michael  W.  Kosakowski  was  the Project Officer.  Mr.
Allen Cywin, Director,  Effluent  Guidelines  Division,  Mr.
Ernst P.  Hall, Jr., Assistant Director, Effluent Guidelines
Division,  and  Mr.  Harold B.  Coughlin,  Chief, Guidelines
Implementation  Branch,  offered  many  helpful  suggestions
during the program.  Mr. Ralph Lorenzetti assisted with many
facility inspections.

Acknowledgement and appreciation is also given to Linda Rose
and   Darlene  Miller   (word  processors)  of  the  Effluent
Guidelines Division and the secretarial staff of the General
Technologies Division of Versar, Inc., for their efforts  in
the   typing  of  drafts,  necessary  revisions,  and  final
preparation of the effluent guidelines document.

Appreciation is extended to the following trade associations
and  state  and  federal   agencies   for   assistance   and
cooperation rendered to us in this program:

    American Mining Congress
    Asbestos Information Association, Washington, D.C.
    Barre Granite Association
    Brick Institute of America
    Building Stone Institute
    Fertilizer Institute
    Florida Limerock Institute, Inc.
    Florida Phosphate Council
    Georgia Association of Mineral Processing Industries
    Gypsum Association
    Indiana Limestone Institute
    Louisiana Fish and Wildlife Commission
    Louisiana Water Pollution Control Board
    Marble Institute of America
    National Clay Pipe Institute
    National Crushed Stone Association
    National Industrial Sand Association
    National Limestone Institute
    National Sand and Gravel Association
                          217

-------
    New York State Department of Environmental Conservation
    North Carolina Minerals Association
    North Carolina sand. Gravel and Crushed Stone Association
    Portland Cement Association
    Refractories Institute
    Salt Institute
    State of Indiana Geological Survey
    Texas Water Quality Board
    U.S. Bureau of Mines
    U.S. Fish and Wildlife service, Lacrosse, Wisconsin
    Vermont Department of Water Resources

Appreciation is also extended to the many mineral mining and
producing  companies  who  gave us invaluable assistance and
cooperation in this program.

Also, our appreciation is extended to the individuals of the
staff of General Technologies Division of Versar, Inc.,  for
their  assistance  during  this  program.  Specifically, our
thanks to:

    Dr. R. L. Durfee, Senior Chemical Engineer
    Mr. D. H. Sargent, Senior Chemical Engineer
    Mr. E. F. Abrams, Chief Engineer
    Mr. L. C. McCandless, Senior Chemical Engineer
    Dr. L. C. Parker, Senior Chemical Engineer
    Mr. E. F. Rissman, Environmental Scientist
    Mr. J. C. Walker, Chemical Engineer
    Mrs. G. Contos, Chemical Engineer
    Mr. M. W. Slimak, Environmental Scientist
    Dr. I. Frankel, chemical Engineer
    Mr. M. DeFries, Chemical Engineer
    Ms. C. V. Fong, Chemist
    Mrs. D. K. Guinan, Chemist
    Mr. J. G. Casana, Environmental Engineer
    Mr. R. C. Green, Environmental Scientist
    Mr. R. S. Wetzel, Environmental Engineer
    Ms. M.A. Connole, Biological Scientist
    Ms. M. Smith, Analytical Chemist
    Mr. M. C. Calhoun, Field Engineer
    Mr. D. McNeese, Field Engineer
    Mr. E. Hoban, Field Engineer
    Mr. P. Nowacek, Field Engineer
    Mr. B. Ryan, Field Engineer
    Mr. R. Freed, Field Engineer
    Mr. N. O. Johnson, Consultant
    Mr. F. Shay, Consultant
    Dr. L. W. Ross, Chemical Engineer
                           218

-------
                        SECTION XIII
                         REFERENCES
1.  Agnello,  L.f  "Kaolin",  industrial   and
    Chemistry, Vol. 52, No. 5, May 1960, pp7~370-376.

2.  "American Ceramic  Society  Bulletin,"  Vol. 53,  No.  1,
    January 1974, Columbus, Ohio.

3.  Bates, R.  L.,  Geology,  of  the  Industrial  Rocks  and
    Minerals, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1969.    "~

4.  Boruff,  C.S.,  "Removal  of  Fluorides  from   Drinking
    Waters,"  Industrial and Engineering Chemistry,, Vol. 26,
    No. 1, January T?347 pp. 69-71.

5.  Brown, W.E., U.S. Patent 2,761,835, September 1956.

6.  Brown, W.E., and Gracobine, C.R., U.S. Patent 2,761,841,
    September 1956.

7.  "Census of Minerals Industries",  1972,  Bureau  of  the
    Census,  U.S.  Department  of  Commerce, U.S. Government
    Printing  Office,   Washington,   D.C.    MIC72(P)-14A-1
    through MIC72 (P)-14E-4.

8.  "Commodity Data Summaries, 1974, Appendix  I  To  Mining
    and  Minerals Policy," Bureau of Mines, U.S., Department
    of  the  Interior,  U.S.  Government  Printing   Office,
    Washington, D.C.

9.  "Dictionary of  Mining,  Mineral,  and  Related  Terms,"
    Bureau  of  Mines, U.S.  Department of the Interior, U.S.
    Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1968.

10.  "Engineering and Mining Journal,"  McGraw-Hill,  October
    1974.   1974.

11.  Haden, W.,  Jr.,   and  Schwint,  I.,  "Attapulgite,  Its
    Properties and Applications," Ifidustrial and Engineering
    Chemistry^ Vol. 59, No.  9, September T967, pp.~57-69.~

12.  Maier,  F.J.,   "Defluoridation   of   Municipal   Water
    Supplies," Journal AWWA, August 1953, pp.  879-888.

13.  McNeal, W., and Nielsen, G., "International Directory of
    Mining  and  Mineral   Processing   Operations,"   E/MJ,
    McGraw-Hill, 1973-1974.
                          219

-------
14.  "Minerals  Yearbook,  Metals,   Minerals,   and   Fuels,
    Vol.  1,"   U.S.     Department   of  the  Interior,  U.S.
    Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.C.,  1971,
    1972.

15.  "Mining  Engineering,  Publication  of  the  Society  of
    Mining  Engineers  of  AIME,  Annual  Review  for 1973;"
    Vol.  25, No. 1,  January 1973; Vol. 26, No. 3, March 1974
    through Vol. 26, No. 8, August 1974.

16.  "Modern Mineral Processing Flowsheets," Denver Equipment
    Company, 2nd Ed., Denver,  Colorado
17.  Patton,  T.C.,   "Silica,   Microcrystalline, "
    Handbook   Voli_1x   J.  Wiley  and  Sons,  Inc.,  1973,
    pp. ~T 57- 15 97

18.  Popper,  H.,   Modern   Engineering   Cost   Techniques,
    McGraw-Hill, New York, 1970.

19.  "Product Directory of the Refractories Industry  in  the
    U.S.," The Refractories Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa. 1972.
20. Slabaugh, W.H., and Culbertsen, J.L.,  J._  Phys^  Chem..,
    55, 744, 1951.
21.  State Directories of the Mineral Mining Industry from 36
    of 50 States.

22.  Trauffer,  W.E.,  "New  Vermont  Talc   Facility   Makes
    High-Grade  Flotation Product for Special Uses," Pit and
    Quarry, December 1964, pp. 72-74, 101.

23.  Williams, F.J., Nezmayko, M. , and Weintsitt,  D.J.,  $J.
    Phys. Chem.A 57X 8r 1953..

24.  "Standard Industrial Classification  Manual",  Executive
    Office  of  the  President,  Office  of  Management  and
    Budget, U. S, Government Printing Office, 1972.
                          220

-------
                        SECTION XIV


                          GLOSSARY
Aeration - the introduction  of  air  into  the  pulp  in  a
    flotation cell in order to form air bubbles.

Aquifer - an underground stratum that yields water.

Baghouse  - chamber in which exit gases are filtered through
    membranes (baqs)  which arrest solids.

Bench - a ledge, which, in  open  pit  mines  and  quarries,
    forms a single level of operation above which mineral or
    waste  materials are excavated from a contiguous bank or
    bench face.

Berm  -  a  horizontal  shelf  built  for  the  purpose   of
    strengthening and increasing the stability of a slope or
    to  catch  or  arrest  slope  slough  material;  berm is
    sometimes used as a synonym for bench.

Blunge - to mix thoroughly.

Burden - valueless material overlying the ore.

Cell, cleaner -  secondary cells for the retreatment  of  the
    concentrate  from primary cells.

Cell,  rougher  -  flotation  cells in which the bulk of the
    gangue is removed from the ore.

Clarifier - a centrifuge, settling tank,  or  other  device,
    for separating suspended solid matter from a liquid.

Classifier,  air  -  an  appliance  for approximately sizing
    crushed minerals or ores employing currents of air.

Classifier,  rake  -  a  mechanical   classifier   utilizing
    reciprocal rakes on an inclined plane to separate coarse
    from fine material contained in a water pulp.

Classifier,  spiral  - a classifier for separating fine-size
    solids from  coarser solids in a wet pulp  consisting  of
    an  interrupted-flight  screw  conveyor, operating in an
    inclined trough.
                           221

-------
Collector - a heteropolar compound chosen for its ability to
    adsorb selectively in froth  flotation  and  render  the
    adsorbing surface relatively hydrophobic.

Conditioner  -  an  apparatus  in  which the surfaces of the
    mineral species present  in  a  pulp  are  treated  with
    appropriate chemicals to influence their reaction during
    aeration.

Crusher, cone - a machine for reducing the size of materials
    by  means  of a truncated cone revolving on its vertical
    axis within an outer chamber, the anular  space  between
    the outer chamber and cone being tapered.

Crusher,  gyratory  -  a  primary  crusher  consisting  of a
    vertical spindle, the foot of which  is  mounted  in  an
    eccentric  bearing  within  a  conical  shell.   The top
    carries a conical crushing head revolving  eccentrically
    in a conical maw.

Crusher, jaw - a primary crusher designed to reduce the size
    of materials by impact or crushing between a fixed plate
    and  an  oscillating  plate  or  between two oscillating
    plates, forming a tapered jaw.

Crusher, roll - a reduction crusher consisting  of  a  heavy
    frame  on  which  two  rolls  are mounted; the rolls are
    driven so that they rotate toward one another.  Rock  is
    fed  in  from above and nipped between the moving rolls,
    crushed, and discharged below.

Depressant - a chemical  which  causes  substances  to  sink
    through a froth, in froth flotation.

Dispersant  - a substance (as a polyphosphate) for promoting
    the formation and stabilization of a dispersion  of  one
    substance in another.

Dragline  -  a  type of excavating equipment which employs a
    rope-hung bucket to dig up and collect the material.

Dredge, bucket -  a  two-pontooned  dredge  from  which  are
    suspended  buckets which excavate material at the bottom
    of the pond and deposit it in concentrating  devices  on
    the dredge decks.

Dredge, suction - a centrifugal pump mounted on a barge.

Drill, churn - a drilling rig utilizing a blunt-edged chisel
    bit  suspended  from  a  cable for putting down vertical
    holes in exploration and quarry blasting.
                          222

-------
Drill, diamond - a drilling machine with a rotating, hollow,
    diamond-studded bit that cuts a circular channel  around
    a  core  which when recovered provides a columnar sample
    of the rock penetrated.

Drill, rotary - various types of drill machines that  rotate
    a  rigid,  tubular string of rods to which is attached a
    bit for cutting rock to produce boreholes.

Dryer, flash - an appliance in which the moist  material  is
    fed  into  a  column  of  upward-flowing  hot gases with
    moisture removal being virtually instantaneous.

Dryer, fluidized bed - a cool dryer which depends on a  mass
    of  particles being fluidized by passing a stream of hot
    air through  it.   As  a  result  of  the  fluidization,
    intense  turbulence  is  created in the mass including a
    rapid drying action.

Dryer, rotary - a dryer in the shape of an inclined rotating
    tube used to dry loose material as it rolls through.

Electrostatic separator - a vessel  fitted  with  positively
    and  negatively  charged  conductors used for extracting
    dust from flue gas or for separating mineral  dust  from
    gangues.

Filter,  pressure - a machine utilizing pressure to increase
    the removal rate of solids from tailings.

Filter, vacuum - a filter  in  which  the  air  beneath  the
    filtering material is exhausted to hasten the process.

Flocculant  - an agent that induces or promotes gathering of
    suspended particles into aggregations.

Flotation - the method of  mineral  separation  in  which  a
    froth  created  in water by a variety of reagents floats
    some finely crushed  minerals,  whereas  other  minerals
    sink.

Frother  -  substances used in flotation to make air bubbles
    sufficiently permanent, principally by reducing  surface
    tension.

Grizzly  -  a device for the coarse screening or scalping of
    bulk materials.

Hydraulic Mining - mining by washing sand and dirt away with
    water which leaves the desired mineral.
                           223

-------
Hydrocyclone - a cyclone separator in which a spray of water
    is used.

Hydroclassifier - a machine which uses an upward current  of
    water -to remove fine particles from coarser material.

Humphrey  spiral  -  a  concentrating  device which exploits
    differential densities of mixed sands by  a  combination
    of  sluicing  and  centrifugal  action.   The  ore  pulp
    gravitates down through a stationary spiral trough  with
    five  turns.  Heavy particles stay on the inside and the
    lightest ones climb to the outside.

Jumbo -  a  drill  carriage  on  which  several  drills  are
    mounted.

Kiln,  rotary  -  a  kiln  in  the  form of a long cylinder,
    usually inclined, and slowly rotated about its axis; the
    kiln is fired by a burner set axially at its lower end.

Kiln, tunnel - a long tunnel-shaped  furnace  through  which
    ware  is  generally moved on cars, passing progressively
    through zones in which the temperature is maintained for
    preheating, firing and cooling.

Launder - a chute or trough for conveying powdered  ore,  or
    for carrying water to or from the crushing apparatus.

Log  washer - a slightly slanting trough in which revolves a
    thick shaft or log, earring blades obliquely set to  the
    axis.   Ore  is  fed  in  at the lower end, water at the
    upper.  The blades slowly convey the lumps of ore upward
    against  the  current,  while  any  adhering   clay   is
    gradually disintegrated and floated out the lower end.

Magnetic separator - a device used to separate magnetic from
    less magnetic or nonmagnetic materials.

Mill,  ball  -  a  rotating  horizontal  cylinder  in  which
    non-metallic materials are ground using various types of
    grinding media such as quartz pebbles, porcelain  balls,
    etc.

Mill,  buhr  -  a  stone disk mill, with an upper horizontal
    disk rotating above a fixed lower one.

Mill, chaser - a cylindrical steel tank  lined  with  wooden
    rollers revolving 15-30 times a minute.
                           224

-------
Mill,  hanuner - an impact mill consisting of a rotor, fitted
    with movable hammers, that  is  revolved  rapidly  in  a
    vertical plane within a closely fitting steel casing.

Mill,   pebble  -  horizontally  mounted  cylindrical  mill,
    charged with flints or selected lumps of ore or rock.

Mill, rod - a mill for fine grinding, somewhat similar to  a
    ball  mill,  but  employing  long  steel rods instead of
    balls to effect the grinding.

Mill, roller - a fine grinding mill having vertical  rollers
    running  in  a  circular  enclosure with a stone or iron
    base.

Neutralization - making neutral or inert, as by the addition
    of an alkali or an acid solution.

Outcrop - the part of a rock formation that appears  at  the
    surface  of  the  ground or deposits that are so near to
    the surface as to be found easily by digging.

Overburden  -  material  of  any  nature,  consolidated   or
    unconsolidated,   that  overlies  a  deposit  of  useful
    materials, ores, etc.

Permeability - capacity for transmitting a fluid.

Raise - an inclined opening driven upward from  a  level  to
    connect  with  the  level above or to explore the ground
    for a limited distance above one level.

Reserve - known ore bodies that may be worked at some future
    time.

Ripper - a tractor accessory used to loosen compacted  soils
    and soft rocks for scraper loading.

Room   and  Pillar  -  a  system  of  mining  in  which  the
    distinguishing feature is the winning of  50 percent  or
    more  of the ore in the first working.  The ore is mined
    in rooms separated by narrow ribs (pillars); the ore  in
    the  pillars  is  won by subsequent working in which the
    roof is caved in successive blocks.

Scraper - a tractor-driven surface  vehicle  the  bottom  of
    which  is fitted with a cutting blade which when lowered
    is dragged through the soil.
                          225

-------
Scrubber, dust - special apparatus used to remove dust  from
    air by washing.

Scrubber,  ore  -  device  in which coarse and sticky ore is
    washed   free   of   adherent   material,   or    mildly
    disintegrated.

Shuttle-car  - a vehicle which transports raw materials from
    loading machines in trackless areas of  a  mine  to  the
    main transportation system.

Skip  -  a  guided steel hoppit used in vertical or inclined
    shafts for hoisting mineral.

SIC - standard industrial classification, see reference 2U.

Sink-float - processes that separate particles of  different
    sizes or composition on the basis of specific gravity.

Stacker  -  a  conveyor  adapted  to piling or stacking bulk
    materials or objects.

Slimes  -  extremely  fine  particles  derived   from   ore,
    associated rock, clay or altered rock.

Sluice  -  to  cause  water  to  flow at high velocities for
    wastage, for purposes of  excavation,  ejecting  debris,
    etc.

Slurry  -  pulp  not thick enough to consolidate as a sludge
    but sufficiently dewatered to flow viscously.

Stope - an excavation from which ore has been excavated in a
    series of steps.

Stripping ratio - the unit amount  of  spoil  that  must  be
    removed  to  gain access to a similar unit amount of ore
    or mineral material.

Sump - any excavation in a mine for the collection of  water
    for pumping.

Table, air - a vibrating, porous table using air currents to
    effect gravity concentration of sands.

Table, wet - a concentration process whereby a separation of
    minerals  is effected by flowing a pulp across a riffled
    plane surface inclined  slightly  from  the  horizontal,
    differentially  shaken in the direction of the long axis
    and washed with an even flow of water at right angles to
    the direction of motion.
                           226

-------
Thickener - an apparatus  for  reducing  the  proportion  of
    water in a pulp.

TSS - Total suspended solids.

Waste    - the barren rock in a mine or the part of the  ore
    deposit that is too low in grade to be of economic value
    at the time.

Weir - an obstruction placed across a stream for the purpose
    of channeling the water through a notch or an opening in
    the weir itself.

Wire  saw  -  a saw consisting of one- and three-strand wire
    cables, running over pulleys as a belt.  When fed  by  a
    slurry  of  sand  and  water  and  held  against rock by
    tension, it cuts a narrow channel by abrasion.
                          227

-------
Multiply (English Units)




  ENGLISH UNIT    ABBREVIATION
  TABLE  16




   METRIC UNITS






 CONVERSION TABLE




      by                 To obtain (Metric units)




CONVERSION      ABBREVIATION    METRIC UNIT





K>
ro
00





B-
c
•JS
c
0
<•
&
a
x:
£
P!
y.
H
T
I
7.
H
1
O
''I
?•.
CT
O
r
^
§

acre
acre - feet
British Thermal Unit
British Thermal Unit/
pound
cubic feet/minute
cubic feet/second
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic inches
degree Fahrenheit
feet
gallon
gallon/minute
horsepower
inches
inches of mercury
pounds
million gallons/day
mile
pound/square inch
(gauge)
square feet
square inches
tons (short)
yard
ac
ac ft
BTU

BTU/lb
cfni
cfs
cu ft
cu ft
cu in
F°
ft
ga!
gpm
hp
in
in Hg
Ib
mgd
mi

psig
sq ft
sq in
t
y
0.405
1233.5
0.252

0.555
0,028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555 (°F-32)*
0.3043
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
3,785
1.609

(0.06805 psig +1)*
0.0929
6.452
0.907
0.9144
ha
cu m
kg cal

kg ca I/ kg
cu m/m?n
cu m/min
cu m
!
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kg
cu rr/day
km

arm
sq m
sq cm
kkg
m
hectares
cubic meters
kilogram - calories

kilogram caicries/kiiogram
cubic me tars/mi n Lite
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters
liters
cubic centimeters
degree Centigrade
meters
liters
liters/second
kiilowatts
centimeters
atmospheres
kilograms
cubic rr.eters/day
kilometar

atmospheres (absolute)
square meters
square centimeters
metric tons (1000 kilograms)
meters
*Actual conversion, nor a multiplier

-------