United States Office of Research and EPA/600/R-99/006
Environmental Protection Development January 1999
Agency Washington, DC 20460
Research and Development
A Lexicon of Cave and Karst
Terminology with Special
Reference to Environmental
Karst Hydrology
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EPA/600/R-99/006
January 1999
A LEXICON OF CAVE AND KARST TERMINOLOGY
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO ENVIRONMENTAL KARST HYDROLOGY
National Center for Environmental Assessment-Washington Division
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460
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DISCLAIMER
The document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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CONTENTS
PREFACE iv
AUTHOR AND REVIEWERS v
INTRODUCTION 1
GLOSSARY OF TERMS 3
A 4
B 14
C 24
D 50
E 61
F 66
G 73
H 81
I 88
J 94
K 95
L 101
M 107
N 115
O 118
P 121
Q 135
R 136
S 145
T 171
U 180
V 183
W 186
Y 191
Z 192
REFERENCES 193
in
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PREFACE
The National Center for Environmental Assessment-Washington Division (NCEA-W) has
prepared this document for the benefit of the regional offices and general public to satisfy the need to
understand the terminology common to the field of karst. This document is a glossary of most terms
that have some relationship to the field of environmental karst, as well as specific karst terms. It
includes many foreign terms because much karst research is conducted in foreign countries and
published using local terminology. In many instances common environmental terms are defined in such
a way as to specifically reference karstic phenomena.
The purpose of this document is to serve as a technical guide to regional offices and the public in
general who must read the karst literature or hold discussions with karst researchers. It is intended
that this document remove much of the confusion surrounding many karst terms.
The literature search supporting this lexicon is current to 1998.
IV
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AUTHOR AND REVIEWERS
The National Center for Environmental Assessment-Washington Division within the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency's Office of Research and Development was responsible for the
preparation of this document and provided overall direction and coordination during the production
effort.
Author/Compiler
Malcolm S. Field, Ph.D.
National Center for Environmental Assessment-W
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC
Reviewers
Stephen R. Kraemer, Ph.D.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
National Exposure Research Laboratory
Ecosystems Research Division
Athens, GA
Arthur N. Palmer, Ph.D.
Department of Earth Sciences
State University of New York
Oneonta, NY
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INTRODUCTION
Several attempts to classify karst terminology in an organized manner have been made in the
past. The last few glossaries of karst terminology were organized in the late 1960s and published in
the early 1970s. Since that time, many new terms related to karst have come into use, while other,
older karst terms are seldom used nowadays. In the mid 1990s the British Cave Research Association
(BCRA) published an updated dictionary that covers the general area of karst and caves, but did not
focus on environmental issues.
Many of the more recent karst terms are related to the upsurge in environmentalism and the
recognition among karst cognoscenti that karst terranes are much more sensitive to human-induced
effects on the environment than are other types of landscapes. In an attempt to be as broad as possible
in this glossary, terms related to general hydrology and hydrogeology, common karst rock and mineral
types, and many of the descriptive terms used in speleology, even where they relate to specific
localities, have been included. No attempt was made to exclude foreign karst terms, although many are
no doubt missing. This has led to a much larger manuscript than was originally intended when this
project was initiated, but it has provided for a more comprehensive document.
Because many non-karst professionals, whether working on basic research or on environmental
problems, need to have a general working knowledge of karst terminology, this glossary was
developed to provide an up-to-date reference for more modern definitions of karst terms both currently
in usage and now defunct. As with any undertaking of this sort, numerous omissions will be evident.
In other instances, disagreements regarding definitions will arise. In the event that readers of this
glossary find omissions or incorrect definitions, it would be greatly appreciated if the necessary
corrections be forwarded to this office so that the glossary may be updated in the future.
As a final note, it should be pointed out that a list of references for the definitions is included at
the back of this glossary and citations provided when appropriate. In many instances duplication of
definitions from previous glossaries was employed to avoid changing the original definitions.
However, efforts were not always attempted to cite the exact source for each definition, as this would
have greatly lengthened this already excessively long manuscript; secondary citations have been
provided. Exact citations would also have resulted in confusion where several previous definitions
1
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were utilized in the writing of a single clear definition for any particular term. In no instance was it
intended that the work of others be appropriated, only that this glossary be as comprehensive and clear
as possible while avoiding excessive clutter. Also, where definitions were deemed to be incorrect or
poorly worded, alternatives were written.
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
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abime. (French.) 1. An abyss. 2. A wide,
deep shaft, in limestone, the walls of which
are vertical or overhanging[10].
ablation. The wearing away of ice or snow
through the process of evaporation[16].
abris sous roche (French.) See rock shelter.
absorption. The process by which substances
in gaseous, liquid, or solid form dissolve or
mix with other substances[22].
abyss. Extremely great depth[16].
accelerated corrosion. A localized
concentration of solution intensity,
produced by factors favoring greater
aggressivity of the water in certain parts of
the karstland creating differential solution
rates and thereby a marked unevenness in
the overall erosion of the karstland[19]. See
also corrosion; alluvial corrosion.
accessory mineral. Mineral constituents of a
rock occurring in very small amounts[16].
acclivity. Ascending a slope[16].
accretion. Land addition by sediment
deposition of a stream[16].
accumulation. Building of new land by
addition of sedimentary deposits[16].
acid. Any chemical compound containing
hydrogen capable of being replaced by
positive elements or radicals to form salts.
In terms of dissociation theory, it is a
compound which, on dissociation in
solution, yields excess hydrogen ions.
Acids lower the/>H. Examples of acids or
acidic substances are hydrochloric acid,
tannic acid, and sodium acid
pyrophosphate[6].
acidity. The property of water having a pH
below 4.5 that is caused by the presence of
mineral acids. Usually expressed in
equivalent amounts of calcium carbonate[16].
See also alkalinity; pH.
acid mine drainage. Acid waters originating
from surface or underground mine
workings[16].
acoustic log. Geophysical borehole log
measuring the speed of sound in rocks to
determine porosity[16].
acoustic resistance. The product of wave
velocity and rock density indicating the
reflective power of a boundary between two
strata[16].
activated charcoal, activated carbon. A
granular material usually produced by the
roasting of cellulose base substances, such
as wood or coconut shells, in the absence of
air. It has an extremely porous structure
and is used in water conditioning as an
adsorbent for organic matter and certain
dissolved gases[6]. It is especially useful for
adsorbing tracer dyes.
active cave. 1. Cave containing a running
stream. 2. Cave in which speleothems are
growing. (Less common and less desirable
usage.) Compare live cave[W\
active glacier. Glacier in the stage of actively
enlarging and moving as a result of
accumulation of precipitation that exceeds
the rate of ablation.
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active water. Water with corrosive
properties[16].
adiabatic. The property of thermodynamic
process with no heat exchange[16].
adjusted stream. Stream flowing parallel to
the strike of underlying beds[16].
adsorption. Adherence of gas molecules,
ions, or molecules in solution to the surface
of solids[22].
adsorption isotherm. A graphical
representation of the relationship between
the bulk activity of adsorbate and the
amount adsorbed at constant
temperature[22].
advection. 1. The process whereby solutes
are transported by the bulk mass of flowing
fluid[6]. 2. Phenomenon of a cool air mass
intruding and interrupting evaporation and
causing condensation due to heat loss[16].
See also convective transport.
aeolianite. See eolian calcarenite.
aeration. The process of bringing air into
intimate contact with water, usually by
bubbling air through the water to remove
dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide or to oxidize dissolved
materials such as iron compounds161.
aeration, zone of. See zone of aeration.
aerial photograph Photograph of the
landscape taken from an airplane. Synonym
air photo. See also stereo aerial
photographs.
aerobic. A property of aquatic life forms that
can exist only in the presence of oxygen.
See also anaerobic.
age of caves. The ages of individual caves
may vary enormously. In most regions the
youngest cave passages have reached their
present dimensions during the past 10,000
years, or since the last Pleistocene glacial
retreat. In higher latitudes most caves can
be related to erosion during the later
Pleistocene climatic variations of the past
million years, and older caves have largely
been removed by continuing surface
lowering. In tropical regions less
interrupted erosion conditions have
encouraged survival of older caves; the
Mulu caves of Sarawak include large
passages at least two million years old.
Relict caves hundreds of millions of years
old may survive in some buried limestones,
but are commonly filled with younger
sediments (see neptunian deposits),
minerals or, very rarely, igneous rocks.
These fill materials may themselves be
dateable, either on the basis of contained
fossil material (including pollen), by
comparison with similar rock types that
occur at the surface, or by isotopic age
determination methods identical to those
applied to suitable surface rock materials.
See also dating of cave sediments[9\
aggradation. Land addition through sediment
deposit! on[16].
aggrading river. A river that is actively
elevating its bed by deposition of
sediments[16].
aggregate. Grain mixture loosely held
together1161.
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aggregation. The formation of aggregates.
In drilling fluids, aggregation results in the
stacking of the clay platelets face to face; as
a result, viscosity and gel strength
decrease[6].
aggressive water. 1. Water having the ability
to dissolve rocks. In the context of
limestone and dolomite, this term refers
especially to water containing dissolved
carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid or,
rarely, other acids. 2. Quality of waters
that attack metals and concrete chemically
by dissolution1101.
aggressiveness. A measure of the relative
capacity of water to dissolve rock material.
In the context of karstification and
speleogenesis this usually concerns the
dissolution of limestone or dolomite by the
action of dissolved carbon dioxide
(carbonic acid), though other acids may
also be involved[9].
aguada. (Spanish for "watering place.") In
Yucatan, shallow depression generally
covering several hectares used for water
supply[10].
A-horizon. The topmost eluviated horizon of
a soil profile[16].
aile. See aisle.
air pocket, air bell. 1. An enclosed air space
between the water surface and the roof of a
cave[10]. 2. Part of a flooded passage where
the ceiling rises above the water level to
create an air pocket isolated from the rest
of the cave[9].
air separating tank. A tank in which
desorbed gases are separated from a liquid
and evacuated by pumping[16].
air-space ratio. The ratio of (a) the volume
of water that can be drained from a
saturated soil or rock under the action of
force of gravity to (b) the total volume of
voids[22].
aisle. An elongated high narrow traversable
passage in a cave[10]. See also crawl,
crawhvay; corridor, passage. Synonyms:
(French.) aisle, aile; (German.) Kluft;
(Greek.) farangothes ipoyios thiavasis;
(Russian.) hod; (Spanish.) laminador
vertical; (Turkish.) dar gecit;
(Yugoslavian.) nisa.
albedo. The ratio of reflected radiation to
total radiation on a natural surface[16].
algal limestone. Type of limestone formed by
calcium-secreting algae[16].
alkali flat. A salt-covered or heavily saline
depression in an arid environment^61.
alkaline. Any of various soluble mineral salts
found in natural water and arid soils having
a/>H greater than 7. In water analysis, it
represents the carbonates, bicarbonates,
hydroxides, and occasionally the borates,
silicates, and phosphates in the water[6].
alkalinity. The property of water to
neutralize acids. Usually expressed in terms
of calcium carbonate equivalents1161. See
also acidity; pH.
allochthonous. Said of material originating
from a different locality than the one in
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which it has been deposited[16]. See also
autochthonous.
allochthonous drainage. Less common
synonym for allogenic drainage[9\
allogene stream. A surface-water course
flowing over a karst terrane, but fed by a
spring (or springs) issuing from a nonkarst
terrane[20]. Synonyms: (French.) riviere
allogene (cours d'eau); (German.)
allochthoner Fluss (all. Wafierlauf);
(Greek.) allothigenes ryax, or potamos;
(Italian.) cor so d'acqua allogeno;
(Spanish.) rio aloctono; (Turkish.) karst
disi kokenli akarsu; (Yugoslavian.) alogena
rijeka, alogena reka.
allogenic. Formed or generated elsewhere,
usually at a distant place[1]. See also
autogenic; recharge, allogenic; recharge,
autogenic.
allogenic drainage. Underground karst
drainage that is derived entirely from
surface runoff that originates on adjacent
nonkarstic, generally impermeable rocks.
Also allochthonous drainage. See also
autogenic drainage^.
allogenic valley. A karst valley incised by a
watercourse originating on impervious rock
with a volume sufficient for it to traverse a
limestone area on the surface. The valley is
incised from the limestone contact, and with
the passage of time the river is increasingly
likely to pass underground as the waters
enlarge joints. Occasionally such a valley
may represent the large-scale collapse of
the cavern system along a subterranean
stream or the enlarging of a series of karst
windows[19].
alluvial. Pertaining to or composed of
alluvium or deposited by a stream or
running water[6]. Also applies to material
lining the floor of a cave and deposits at the
mouth of a spring.
alluvial apron. A fanlike plain from the
deposition of glacial outwash[16].
alluvial channel. River or stream channel bed
composed of unconsolidated alluvial
material1161.
alluvial corrosion Greater intensity of
solution, caused by the passage of water
through unconsolidated deposits rich in
carbon dioxide, thus increasing
aggressivity[19]. See also corrosion,
accelerated corrosion.
alluvial fan. A fanlike deposit of detrital
material from steep mountain slopes[16].
alluvial plain. A plain formed by the
deposition of waterborne sediments[16].
alluvial veneer. A very thin cover of
waterborne sediments[16].
alluvium. A general term for clay, silt, sand,
gravel, or similar unconsolidated material
deposited during comparatively recent
geologic time by a stream or other body of
running water as a sorted or semisorted
sediment in the bed of the stream, or on its
floodplain or delta, or as a cone or fan at
the base of a mountain slope[6].
alpine karst. 1. Karst formed at high latitude,
or in polar regions regardless of altitude. 2.
Almost synonymous with glaciokarst, but
restricted to areas of high altitude and
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relief191. Synonyms: glaciokarst; nivalkarst.
alternative. Adjective used to designate an
intake or resurgence operating only during
rainy seasons; in some areas reversible;
equivalent to intermittent. Also used as a
noun[10].
alveolar. 1. Consisting of a honeycomb
shape[16]. 2. A specific erosional pattern
resulting in a cellular structure[16]. See also
alveolization.
alveolization. (From the Latin word
"alveolatus," meaning hollowed out.)
Pitting of a rock surface produced by wind
loaded with sand, by water charged with
carbonic acid, or by plant roots[10]. See also
alveolar. Synonyms: (French.)
alveolisation; (German.) Aeolisation
Wabenverwitterung; (Greek.) kypselothis
epiphania; (Italian.) alveolizzazione;
(Spanish.) alveolizacion; (Turkish.)
cukurla^ma; (Yugoslavian.) alveolizacija.
ammeter. A meter used to measure the flow
of water in a stream channel. Synonym:
current meter[l6\
amorphous silica. Silica with no definite
crystalline structure1161.
analysis, chemical. Laboratory procedure in
water quality determination to identify
chemical constituents[16].
analysis, complete chemical analysis
Chemical analysis of a water sample for
physical, chemical, and bacteriological
constituents[16].
analysis, core. Petrophysical analysis of a
rock core acquired through the process of
boring a hole in rock with the intention of
producing a core of rock as opposed to
chips[16].
analysis, morphometric A geodetic and
geometric description of basin, stream
network, or sinkhole plain, the purpose of
which is to determine the frequency and
hierarchy of occurrences[16].
analysis, sieve. Mechanical grain size analysis
by sieving an unconsolidated material
through a series of sieves[16].
anastomosis. 1. The development of a
network of branching, intersecting, and
rejoining channels in a two-dimensional
system. Anastomosing tubes, or cave
anastomoses, which are generally formed
due to dissolution by slow, poorly directed
phreatic flow along a bedding-plane parting
or fracture in limestone, represent an
important element in the early stages of
cave development. Individual anastomoses
most commonly have a diameter of
approximately 100 mm, and networks may
contain hundreds of tubes. Most
anastomoses are abandoned when one
channel offers preferential flow conditions
so that it increases in size at the expense of
others. Such abandoned or relict
anastomoses are commonly exposed only by
subsequent wall or roof collapse[32]. 2. A
network of tubular passages or holes in a
cave or in solution-sculptured rock. A
complex of many irregular and repeatedly
connected passages19' 21]. Synonym:
labyrinth; (French.) anastomose; (German.)
Labyrinth; (Greek.) anastomosis; (Italian.)
anastomosi; (Russian.) labirint; (Spanish.)
anastomosis; (Turkish.) gegit §ebekesi;
(Yugoslavian.) splet kanala.
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anastomotic cave pattern A type of maze
cave consisting of tubular passages or holes
in a cave or in a solution-sculptured rock.
A complex of many irregular and repeatedly
connected passages. Synonym: labyrinth.
anchor ice, ground ice. Ice that is
temporarily attached to the bottom of a
river[16].
anemolite. A helictite in which the
eccentricity is ascribed to the action of air
currents[10]. The word is derived from
wind-control theory of helictite formation[9].
anemometer. A device used to measure wind
speeds[16].
angle of contact, wetting angle The angle
between the liquid phase and solid
boundary measured through the liquid
phase[16].
angle of repose. The natural slope of
unsupported granular material[16].
anglesite. A cave mineral — PbSO4[11].
angular. The property of unconsolidated
grains with sharp edges[16].
angular unconformity. A geological
unconformity with marked difference in dip
of the superimposed series[16].
anhydride. Anhydrous calcium sulfate,
CaSO4[16].
anion. A negatively charged ion that migrates
to an anode, as in electrolysis[6].
anion exchange. Ion exchange process in
which anions in solution are exchanged for
other anions from an ion exchanger[6].
anisotropic. The property of aquifer systems
displaying different hydrological properties
in different directions1161. See also
anisotropy; anisotropic mass.
anisotropic mass. A mass having different
properties in different directions at any
given point[22].
anisotropic steering. Anisotropic structures
(anisotropies) in rock, such as schistosity,
inclusions, and fractures, which can deviate
or "steer" the direction of fractures
subsequently developed.
anisotropy. The condition of having different
properties in different directions[22].
annual frost zone. The top layer of ground
subject to annual freezing and thawing[16].
annual mean. The mean value taken over all
events that have occurred during a year,
such as precipitation, river stages, or water-
table levels[16].
annulus. The annular space between drill pipe
and casing or between casing and the
borehole wall[16].
anomaly. The deviation from normally
expected findings, especially in exploration
geophysics, indicating a change in
subsurface environmental conditions[16].
antecedent precipitation index. A
precipitation index that is based on the
amount of previous precipitations[16].
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antecedent-soil moisture The degree of
water saturation in the soil prior to a
precipitation event[16].
antecedent stream. A stream having
established its course before occurrence of
orogenic events that would later alter the
general drainage pattern[16].
anthodite. 1. Radiating crystals of aragonite,
mostly sharp needles 1-20 mm long. They
occur sporadically in some caves but may
also be spectacularly abundant, with clean
white crystals growing all over the rock and
calcite surfaces. Carlsbad Caverns (USA)
and Grotte de Moulis (France) have fine
anthodite displays[9]. 2. A cave formation
composed of feathery or radiating masses of
long needlelike crystals of gypsum or
aragonite, which radiate outward from a
common base[10]. See also cave flower.
anthropocentric definitions. Definitions of
caves or parts of caves that include
accessibility by human explorers as one of
their limiting conditions. Most well known
among these is the definition published by
the International Speleological Union, that
"A cave is a natural underground opening in
rock that is large enough for human entry"
(see proto-caves)[9\
anticlinal valley. A valley that is established
along the axis of an eroded anticline[16].
anticline. Upfolded stratum[16].
aphthitalite. A cave mineral —
(K,Na)3Na(S04)2[11].
apparent ground-water velocity. See
specific discharge.
approach segment That part of a
hydrograph curve before onset of
precipitation1161. See also hydrograph.
apron. A smooth bulging mass of flowstone
covering sloping projections from walls of
caves or limestone cliffs[10].
aqueduct. A conduit to convey water, usually
above ground[16].
aquiclude. A formation which, although
porous and capable of storing water, does
not transmit it at rates sufficient to furnish
an appreciable supply for a well or spring.
See also confining unit[22\
aquifer. 1. A formation, group of formations,
or part of a formation that contains
sufficient saturated permeable material to
yield significant quantities of water to wells
and springs[6]. 2. A ground-water reservoir.
3. Pervious rock that is completely
saturated and will yield water to a well or
spring. Historically the term has been
applied to beds favoring early cave
development, probably synonymous with
some inception horizons[18].
aquifer, artesian. A confined aquifer where
the potentiometric surface rises above the
top of the aquifer bed[16].
aquifer, coastal. An aquifer in a coastal
region open to salt-water intrusions1161.
aquifer, flowing artesian. An artesian
aquifer in which the water, under
hydrostatic pressure, rises above the land
surface.
aquifer, karst. An aquifer in which the flow
of water is or can be appreciable through
10
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one or more of the following: joints, faults,
bedding-plane partings, and cavities, any or
all of which have been enlarged by
dissolution1181.
aquifer, leaky. An aquifer overlain or
underlain by semipermeable strata from or
into which water will flow[16].
aquifer stimulation A type of development
that is done in semiconsolidated and
completely consolidated formations to alter
the formation physically to improve its
hydraulic properties161.
aquifer storage. Gas storage in an aquifer[16].
aquifer system. A body of permeable and
poorly permeable material that functions
regionally as a water-yielding unit; it
comprises two or more permeable beds
separated at least locally by confining beds
that impede ground-water movement but do
not greatly affect the regional hydraulic
continuity of the system; includes both
saturated and unsaturated parts of
permeable material[22].
aquifer test. A test to determine hydrologic
properties of the aquifer involving the
withdrawal of measured quantities of water
from or addition of water to a well and the
measurement of resulting changes in head in
the aquifer both during and after the period
of discharge or additions161.
aquifere epikarstique. See epikarst zone.
aquifuge. A formation that has no
interconnected openings or interstices and
therefore neither stores nor transmits
water[22]. See also confining unit.
aquitard. A confining bed that retards but
does not prevent the flow of water to or
from an adjacent aquifer; a leaky confining
bed. It does not readily yield water to wells
or springs, but may serve as a storage unit
for ground water[22]. See also confining
unit.
aragonite. 1. A relatively rare form of
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), chemically
identical to the more common calcite but of
orthorhombic crystal form. Its pure form is
metastable in the cave environment, where
calcite forms preferentially. It is relatively
abundant in some caves owing to the
presence of impurities, notably strontium,
that distort the carbonate lattice and favor
aragonite growth. The commonest form
seen in caves is small radiating crystals
(anthodites) that develop in humid caves,
where surfaces are covered by a moisture
film but not by flowing water. 2. A mineral
composed of calcium carbonate, CaCO3,
like calcite but differing in crystal form[10].
3. An unstable orthorhombic carbonate
mineral, CaCO3[16].
ardealite. A cave mineral —
Ca2(SO4)(HPO4)-4H2O[11].
area of influence of a well. The area
surrounding a pumping or recharging well
within which the potentiometric surface has
been changed[22].
arete and pinnacle karst. A landscape of
naked reticulated raw-topped ridges having
almost vertical slopes and a relief of as
much as 120 meters. The ridges rise above
forest- covered corridors and depressions.
Found in New Guinea at elevations of 2,000
meters and more[10]. Both pinnacle karst
and arete karst are varieties of limestone
11
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landscape formed under equatorial rain
forest cover. They are characterized by
vertical-sided blades of bare rock fretted by
dissolution191.
argillaceous. The
containing clay
proportions[16].
property of rocks
in non-negligible
argillaceous limestone. Limestone containing
considerable amounts of clay[16].
arid. The property of dry climates and
regions with a net deficiency of moisture[16].
arrival time. 1. In subsurface flow tracing,
the time for the first tracer pulse to arrive at
a discharge location. 2. In geophysics, the
time of arrival for the first seismic wave to
arrive at a geophone[16].
artesian. Synonymous with confined.
artesian aquifer. Synonymous with confined
aquifer. See aquifer, artesian.
artesian flow. Flow through a confined
aquifer where the elevation of the overlying
aquiclude is locally depressed so that the
entire aquifer is saturated and the flow is
under hydrostatic pressure. Some maze
cave development in cavernous limestones
may be due to artesian flow, which is
commonly related to synclinal fold
structures191.
artesian spring. See spring, artesian.
artesian well. A well deriving its water from
a confined aquifer in which the water level
stands above the ground surface[6].
Synonym '.flowing artesian well.
artificial discharge. The discharge of ground
water by pumping wells[16].
artificial recharge. Recharge at a rate greater
than natural, resulting from deliberate or
incidental human activities[6].
ascender. A mechanical device, used by
cavers who are ascending or descending
through a vertical opening in a cave (e.g.,
vadose shaft), that uses a cam to grip a rope
while downward pressure is being applied
to the device[13]. See also mechanical
ascender, prusiking; prusik knot.
atmometer. An instrument used to measure
evaporation intensities[16].
atmosphere. A gaseous envelope of the earth
that contains and transports air and water in
vapor and condensed form[16].
attapulgite clay. A colloidal, viscosity-
building clay consisting of hydrous
magnesium aluminum silicates and used
principally in salt-water drilling fluids[6].
attrition. The wearing away of rocks by
friction[16].
auger. A rotary drilling device where the dry
cuttings are removed continuously by
helical grooves on the drill pipe[16].
aurichalcite A cave
(Zn,Cu)5(C03)2(OH)6.
mineral —
autochthonous. Property pertaining to
sedimentary material originating and
deposited at about the same location[16].
See also allochthonous.
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autochthonous drainage Less common
synonym for autogenic drainage^.
autogenic, authigenic Formed or generated
in place[1]. See also allogenic; recharge,
autogenic; recharge, allogenic.
autogenic drainage. Underground karst
drainage that is derived entirely from
absorption of meteoric water into the karst
rock surface[9]. Synonym: autochthonous
drainage. See also allogenic drainage.
available water. The water available to
plants in the soil zone as defined by the
interval between field capacity and wilting
point[16].
aven. 1. A hole in the roof of a cave passage
that may be either a rather large blind roof
pocket or a tributary inlet shaft into the
cave system. A feature described as an
aven when seen from below may equally be
described as a shaft when seen from above,
and the naming of such a feature commonly
depends purely upon the direction of
exploration. Many avens close upwards to
impenetrable fissures but may still be
important hydrological routes; few caves
are without them. In parts of France, aven
is equivalent to the British term pothole[9\
2. (French.) A vertical or highly inclined
shaft in limestone, extending upward from
a cave passage, generally to the surface;
smaller than an abime. Commonly related
to enlarged vertical joints. Compare
cenote;naturalwell;pothole. 3. (British.) A
vertical extension from a shaft in a passage
or chamber roof that tapers upward rather
like a very elongated cone[10]. Compare
dome pit.
average interstitial velocity See velocity,
average interstitial.
azonal soil. Soils without distinct layering in
horizons[16].
azurite. A cave mineral —
Cu(C03)2(OH)2[11].
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B
backflooding. 1. Temporarily rising water
level in a cave caused by a downstream
passage being too small to pass an
abnormally high discharge. The excavation
and reexcavation of some caves is ascribed
to the enlargement of a passage at or near
the water table by gravity flow alternating
with periods of calcite precipitation1101. 2.
Flooding due to backup of excess flow
behind a constriction in a major conduit.
Water that is ponded in tributary passages
and proto-caves upstream of the
constriction may contribute to the
enlargement of maze caves[9].
background noise. The level of intensity of
signals due to normal activities other than
the specific signal emission[16].
backwater. The accumulated water above the
normal level of a water course due to
impoundment at a point downstream[16].
backwater curve. Water surface profile in a
stream or channel above a constriction or
impoundment^61.
bacon. Thin, elongated, translucentflowstone
having parallel colored bands on or
projecting from roofs and walls of some
caves[10]. See also blanket; curtain;
drapery.
bactericide. A substance used to destroy
bacteria (e.g., iron bacteria)[6].
bailer. 1. A cylindrical container used to
withdraw a sample of water from a well. 2.
A cylindrical container with a bottom valve
for the clearing of drill cuttings from the
bottom of a borehole[16].
bailing line. Cable operating a bailer[16].
Synonym: sand line.
balcony. Any projection on the wall of a cave
large enough to support one or more
persons[10].
bank. Ascending slope bordering a river[16].
bank erosion. Erosion of a river bank[16].
bank storage. 1. Subsurface conduit water
that has been driven back up into older,
higher karst levels and into the surrounding
rock matrix during a high flow period. 2.
River water that has infiltrated river banks
during a high flow period and been retained
in temporary storage[16].
bare karst. A type of karst landscape lacking
soil cover and where dissolution of
carbonate rocks to form karst landforms
occurs primarily on the exposed bedrock
surface[9]. See naked karst.
barite. 1. A cave mineral — BaSO4. 2. A
natural finely ground barium sulfate used
for increasing the density of drilling fluids[6].
barograph. A pressure recorder[16].
barometer. An indicator of barometric
pressure[16].
barometric efficiency. The ratio of water
level change to atmospheric pressure
change in a well[16].
barrier. A geological formation or part of a
formation having become impervious to
ground-water flow because of a facies
change[16].
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barrier, freshwater. Barrier of freshwater
injected into an aquifer to stop the inflow of
seawater into a coastal aquifer[16].
barrier, hydrologic. Lithologic formation
preventing horizontal movement of ground
water[16].
barrier, permeability A geologic or
petrographic feature in a bed obstructing
free flow[16].
barrier spring. See spring, barrier.
base exchange. The displacement of a cation
bound to a site on the surface of a solid, as
in silica-alumina clay-mineral packets, by a
cation solution[6].
base flow. 1. That part of the stream
discharge that is not attributable to direct
runoff from precipitation or melting snow;
it is usually sustained by ground-water
discharge1221. 2. Sustained fair-weather
runoff161.
base level. Lowest level of erosion by a
stream[16].
base level of erosion
level of surface
erosion1
[16]
The lowest theoretical
to be achieved by
base level, karst. See karst base level.
base line. 1. An arbitrary line from which
deflections of self potential are read[16]. 2.
Shale line[16].
baseline monitoring. The establishment and
operation of a designed surveillance system
for continuous or periodic measurements
and recording of existing and changing
conditions that will be compared with future
observations1221.
base of karstification. Level below which
karstification has not occurred. See also
karst base level.
base width. The width of the hydrograph as
determined by a line parallel to the time axis
cutting through the points where the rising
limb starts and where the recession curve
ends[16].
basin. Hydrogeographic unit receiving
precipitation and discharging runoff in one
point[16].
basin characteristics. The physiographic,
geologic, and ecologic characteristics of a
basin[16].
basin, closed. Drainage basin with no surface
flow outlet[16].
basin, drainage. The area contributing to
runoff which sustains streamflow[16]. See
also drainage basin.
basin, experimental. A basin chosen for the
thorough study of hydrological
phenomena[16].
basin, ground-water. The area throughout
which ground water drains towards the
same point. It can be larger than the
associated drainage basin if permeable
layers extend outside of the topographical
divide[16]. In karst terranes, the ground-
water basin often does not resemble the
drainage basin.
basin, infiltration. Basin in which water is
spread for recharge[16].
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basin, intermontane. A basin lying between
two mountain ranges[16].
basin method. A recharge method in which
water is spread in shallow basins[16].
basin mouth. The point at which runoff
leaves a basin[16].
basin perimeter. The circumference of a
basin following the divide[16].
basin relief, maximum The elevation
difference between basin mouth and the
highest point within a basin perimeter[16].
basin, settling. A basin used for the settling
out of solids from suspension1161.
bathyphreatic zone. Seephreas.
bathometer. An instrument for measuring
water depths in wells[16].
beach. A shore consisting of sand or gravel
deposits1161.
beachrock. 1. Rock composed of sand
grains and/or sand-sized shell fragments
cemented by calcium carbonate, commonly
formed very rapidly on some beaches in
tropical and subtropical areas. Beachrock
generally occurs as thin beds between
bedding planes that dip seawards at angles
similar to those of the beach slope[9]. 2. A
friable to indurated rock consisting of sand
grains of various minerals cemented by
calcium carbonate; occurs in thin beds
dipping seaward at less than 15°. Also
known as beach sandstone[10].
bed. 1. A layer in sedimentary rocks; a
stratum[10]. 2. A sedimentary deposit of
relatively small thickness and great areal
extent, separated by bedding planes from
over- and underlying deposits[16].
bed load. See bedload.
bed, lower confining. An impermeable bed
underlying an aquifer[16].
bed, marker. Bed with characteristic features
that can be followed over large areas for
identification purposes[16].
bed, mortar. Secondary calcium carbonate
cementations in the lower part of a soil
profile[16]. Synonym: hardpan.
bed, river. The channel of a river covered by
water[16].
bed roughness. The roughness of a channel
or river bed[16].
bed, stream. The bottom of a stream covered
by water[16].
bed, upper confining Impermeable bed
overlying an aquifer[16].
bedding. Applies to rocks resulting from
consolidation of sediments and exhibiting
surfaces of separation (bedding planes)
between layers of the same or different
materials (e.g., shale, sandstone, limestone,
etc).
bedding cave. See bedding-plane cave.
bedding grike. Term used to describe the
occurrence of the dissolution and widening
(similar to that which occurs in joints) of
nearly vertical bedding in karst terranes[8].
Synonym: (German.) Schichtfugenkarren.
16
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bedding joint. A joint in rocks that runs
parallel to or on a bedding plane[16].
bedding plane. 1. A primary depositonal
lamination in sedimentary rocks that may be
preserved, though possibly with different
properties, in metamorphic rocks. These
laminations may be clearly visible where
lithologies change or where depositional
cycles were completed/initiated, or they
may be effectively invisible to the naked
eye, marking subtle changes in depositional
conditions. Most bedding planes were
originally horizontal or very slightly
inclined, but more steeply inclined bedding
planes developed in rocks deposited in
deltaic or sand dune environments or in
marine reefs. When rocks are folded the
bedding planes provide an indication of the
degree of deformation. Bedding planes
play a crucial role in the inception and
ongoing development of most caves and
many surface karst features[3]. 2. A plane
that separates two strata of differing
characteristics^01. See also parting.
bedding-plane cave 1 Bedding planes are
widespread and very significant features
within most carbonate rocks, and cave
passages are commonly guided by them.
Their structure, their distribution, and the
chemical contrasts that some bedding
planes provide may be the major influence
during the earliest phases of development of
a cave system. The term bedding-plane
cave is strictly applied to a passage that has
not enlarged by growth into a maj or tube or
canyon, but has remained almost entirely on
the bedding plane. A famous example is
Hensler's Passage, in Gaping Gill,
Yorkshire, which is over 400 m long, nearly
5 m wide and nowhere higher than 1 m[9].
2. A passage formed along a bedding plane,
especially when there is a difference in
susceptibility to corrosion in the two
beds[10]. 3. A cave whose location is
controlled by the bedding of the enclosing
formation or formations[20]. Synonyms:
(French. }grotte de stratification; (German.)
schichtgebundene Hohle; (Greek.)
strosigenes speleon; (Italian.) grotta di
interstrato; (Russian.) pescera v ploakosti
naplastovanija; (Spanish.) cueva adaptada
a pianos de estratificacion; (Turkish.)
tabakalanma magarasi; (Yugoslavian.)
slojnapecina.
bedding-plane parting. See bedding plane
and par ting.
bedeckter karst. See covered karst.
bedload. The part of the total stream load
that is moved on or immediately above the
stream bed, such as the larger or heavier
particles (boulders, pebbles, gravel)
transported by traction or saltation along
the bottom; the part of the load that is not
continuously in suspension or solution[6].
bedrock. Solid rock underlying
unconsoli dated material[16].
bench mark. A relatively permanent mark,
natural or artificial, furnishing a survey
point at a known elevation in relation to an
adopted datum[16]. Bench marks, or marked
points, connected by precise leveling,
constitute the control of land-surface
settlement in subsidence studies[21].
bend. Curve in a water course[16].
bentonite. A colloidal clay, largely made up
of the mineral sodium montmorillonite, a
hydrated aluminum silicate[6].
17
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B-horizon. Illuvial horizon in which soluble
material from the overlying A-horizon has
been deposited1161.
belay. A safety rope tied around a caver that
is played out or taken in by a second person
as the caver moves. The purpose of the
belay is to prevent the caver from falling
more than a few feet[13].
beudantite. A cave mineral —
PbFe3(As04)(S04)(OH)6[11].
bicarbonate. A salt containing the radical
HCCV1, such as Ca(HCO3)2[10].
bifurcation. The forklike separation of a
water course into two arms[16].
bifurcation ratio. The ratio of the number of
stream segments of a given order to the
number of segments of next higher order[16].
biomicrite. A microscopic-textured limestone
composed of skeletal grains in a matrix of
micrite; micrite is a finely crystalline
carbonate sediment with the upper
crystalline diameter being 4 microns[20].
Synonyms: (French.) biomicrite; (German.)
Biomicrite; (Greek.) micrite; (Italian.)
biomicrite; (Spanish.) biomicrita;
(Turkish.) biyomikrit; (Yugoslavian.)
biomikrit. See also micrite; peloid.
biospeleology. The study of subterranean
living organisms, particularly in karst caves
and other openings in rock formations[9'21].
Synonyms: (French.) biospeleologie,
biospeologie; (German.) Biospeldologie;
(Greek.) biospeleology; (Italian.)
biospeleogia; (Russian.) biospeleologija;
(Spanish.) biospeleologia; (Turkish.)
biyospeleoloji, magara canhlan bilimi;
(Yugoslavian.) biospeleologija.
biphosphammite.
NH4H2PO4[11].
A cave mineral
birnessite. A cave mineral —
(Na,Ca)Mn7O14-3H2O[11].
blade. In a cave, a thin sharp projection
jutting out from roof, wall, or floor, of
which it is an integral part; generally the
remains of a partition or bridge[10].
blanket. A thick layer of dripstone, not
translucent[10]. See also bacon; curtain;
drapery.
blind chimney. See chimney.
blind valley. 1. A karst valley abruptly
terminated by the passage underground of
a watercourse that has hitherto resisted the
karst processes and remained at the surface.
An intermediate type, the half-blind valley,
exists in which the valley form continues
downstream from the sinkhole used under
conditions of normal river flow. The
watercourse only flows here intermittently
and the valley may (except for its use as a
flood conduit) be fossil in that it represents
the section abandoned by the river as it
sought progressively higher swallow
holes[19]. 2. A karst valley with no evident
downstream continuation, and one in which
the water drains and disappears
underground into one or more ponors[20]. 3.
A valley that terminates abruptly at a point
where its stream sinks, or once sank,
underground. As sinks develop higher up
the blind valley, the original valley
termination may be dry under most flow
conditions[9]. Related to marginal polje.
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Synonyms: (French.) vallee aveugle;
(German.) Blindtal (Kesseltal); (Greek.)
kliste karstike kilas; (Italian.) valle cieca,
valle chiusa; (Russian.) slepaja dolina;
(Spanish.) valle ciego; (Turkish.) kor vadi;
(Yugoslavian.) slijepa dolina, sepa dolina.
See also half-blind valley, marginalpolje.
bloedite. A cave mineral —
Na2Mg(S04)2-4H2)[11].
blowhole. 1. Opening in the roof of a cave or
cavern through which air is expelled
vigorously. In coastal areas the
phenomenon is usually due to compression
of air within the cave by incoming tides or
waves[20]. 2. Clifftop entrance to a sea
cave, also known as a geo, gloop, or
gloup[9]. 3. (Australian.) A small hole in the
surface of the Nullarbor Plain through
which air blows in and out with observable
force, sometimes audibly[10]. Related to
breathing hole. Synonyms: (French.) trou
souffleur; (German.) Windhohle; (Greek.)
ope ekphysosa; (Italian.) bocca soffiante;
(Spanish.) soplador; (Turkish.) uflenme
agzi; (Yugoslavian.) vjetrenica, veternica,
puhaljka, pihalnik, dihalnik. See also
steam hole.
blowing cave. A cave out of which or into
which a current of air flows
intermittently1101.
blowing well. A well or borehole into which
air is sucked and from which air is blown
(often with considerable velocity) because
of changes in barometric pressure or in
water level. The phenomenon indicates that
the well or borehole is in communication
with an underground air-filled cavity.
Synonyms: (French.) puits souffleur;
(German.) Windkamin; (Greek.) ekphysosa
ope; (Italian.) pozzo soffiante; (Russian.)
dujmcij kolokec; (Spanish.) sondeo
soplador; (Turkish.) ufleg kuyu. See also
steam hole.
blowout. An uncontrolled escape of drilling
fluid, gas, oil, or water from a well caused
by the formation pressure being greater than
the hydrostatic head of the fluid in the
hole[6].
blue hole. 1. Deep resurgence pool, notably
in Jamaica and Florida, that may have a blue
color due to the presence of algae. Also, a
deep submarine cave of the Bahamas. The
latter type are large flooded shafts cut into
the limestones of the shallow reefs and
lagoon floors. Many are 100 m in diameter
and some are 100 m deep. Opening from
the shafts are flooded cave passages at
various depths, some of which have been
explored subhorizontally for more than 1
km. Their origins are complex. Extensive
stalagmite deposits show that large old
caves were drained when sea levels were
1 ow during the PI ei stocene (when water was
held in ice sheets). They are now being
modified by marine dissolution, notably at
the interface between fresh and salt waters
(sea littoral zone) and by powerful tidal
flows between connected holes[9]. 2.
(Jamaican.) A major emergence where
water (artesian spring) rises from below
without great turbulence. 3. (Bahamas.) A
drowned solution sinkhole[10]. 4. Caribbean
expression for a major quiet up-welling
karst spring inland or along the coast. The
blue color is due to the scattering of
sunlight by water molecules, although in
some cases it may be attributed to the
presence of calcareous algae[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) source bleue (Jura), bleu-fon
(South of France); (German. )Blaue Grotto;
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(Greek.) galapo speleo. See also boiling
spring.
Bodenbedeckter karst. See subsoil karst.
bog Swamp[16].
bogaz. 1. (Slavic.) An elongated depression in
limestone or karst terrain; thus it embraces
a defile, a blind valley, or a ravine leading to
a ponor. It can be considered as a giant
grike. This meaning is based on the Serbian
use[20]. 2. A variable-discharge artesian
spring in which hydrostatic pressure is great
enough to cause a turbulent or even
fountain-like discharge. 3. A long narrow
chasm enlarged by solution of the
limestone[10]. 4. Large linear fissure or box
valley through a karst block. Effectively a
giant grike, perhaps 50 m deep and 1 km
long, formed by dissolution on a fault or
joint in very massive limestone[9].
Synonyms: (French.) defile, bogaz;
(German.) Doline, Karstgasse, Blindtal,
Zangon; (Greek.) faragothis doline;
(Spanish.) zanjon; (Turkish.) bog ~az;
(Yugoslavia.) bogaz. See also canyon;
gorge; grike; corridor; struga; zanjon.
boiling spring. See spring, boiling.
bone-breccia. Cave breccia including much
bone[10].
bone cave. A cave recognized particularly for
its contained deposits of animal bones. The
bones may be the remains of animals that
fell into the cave, as in the Joint Mitnor
Cave, Devon, or in many other pitfall or
fissure sites. Alternatively the bones may
be of animals that originally lived in the
cave - and these may include man, as at
Niah Cave, Sarawak, or at Russell Cave,
USA. A third, and most important, type of
bone cave is the ancient animal den, into
which scavengers such as hyaenas dragged
the remains of many other animals, as for
example at Kirkdale Cave in North
Yorkshire131.
borehole. 1. Boring into unconsolidated and
consolidated materials for the purpose of
subsurface hydrogeological investigations.
2. Synonym for a well-developed phreatic
tube passage[9].
botryoid, botryoidal speleothem 1
Generally sub-spherical or globular calcium
carbonate deposits ranging in size between
tiny beads and masses up to 1 m across.
Botryoidal describes a form resembling a
bunch of grapes[9]. 2. A grapelike deposit
of calcium carbonate generally found on
walls of caves[10]. Synonyms: clusterite;
grape formation. See coralloid
speleothem.
bottom hole. The lowest part of a drilled hole
where the drilling bit cuts into the rock[16].
bottomland. A lowland along an alluvial river
plain[16].
boulder clay. See glacial till.
boundary spring. See spring, boundary.
bourne. (British.) 1. A stream that appears in
a normally dry valley, particularly on the
Chalk outcrop in southern England, during
wet conditions[9]. 2. Intermittent stream in
a normally dry valley in chalk country[10].
boxwork. 1. A three-dimensional network of
thin sheets of mineral projecting from a
cave wall. The boxwork is vein fillings
20
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etched from the cave wall by dissolution of
the host limestone and consists mostly of
calcite and quartz. It is not common, but
spectacular displays occur in Wind Cave,
South Dakota, USA[9]. 2. Network of thin
blades of calcite or gypsum etched out in
relief on the limestone walls and ceiling of
a cave[10].
brackish water. Water containing from 1000
to 10,000 ppm of total dissolved solids[16].
braided stream. A stream that divides into or
follows an interlacing or tangled network of
several small branching and reuniting
shallow channels separated from each other
by branch islands or channel bars,
resembling in plan the strands of a complex
braid[6].
brake bar. A round bar approximately 21/2 x
% inches that is placed on rappel racks or
carabiners so that rope can be threaded
through the rack or carabiners for
rappelling[13].
branchwork cave pattern. 1. A cave system
that has been formed by the intersection of
tubular or canyonlike conduits as tributaries
in the downflow direction. 2. A dendritic
cave system of subterranean watercourses
having many incoming branches and no
visible outgoing ones[10].
breakdown. See cave breakdown.
breakthrough. A quantum jump in erosional
activity that is associated with the transition
from dominantly laminar to dominantly
turbulent flow conditions191. See turbulent
threshold.
breakthrough curve 1 A plot of relative
concentration versus time, where relative
concentration is defined as C/Co with C as
the concentration at a point in the
groundwater flow domain and Co as the
source concentration[22]. 2. A plot of tracer
concentration, C, versus time, t, for a
groundwater tracing study in karst conduit
for the purpose of quantitatively
determining how much tracer mass was
recovered, mean time of travel, mean tracer
flow velocity, and related hydraulic flow
and geometric parameters. Synonyms:
recovery curve; tracer-breakthrough curve;
tracer-recovery curve.
breakthrough time. The time required to
develop a conduit large enough (usually 5-
10 mm in diameter) to support turbulent
flow[9].
breathing cave. Air movement through a
cave is described as breathing when it
reverses more frequently than the seasonal
reversal of a through-draught in a cave with
higher and lower entrances. Slow breathing
occurs in response to barometric pressure
changes when the volume of cave air is
forced to change. It is notoriously strong in
large caves of the Australian Nullarbor
Plain. More rapid wind reversals or
oscillations, as in Breathing Cave, Virginia,
are a resonance phenomenon, similar to the
effect produced by air passing over the neck
of a bottle. In the cave environment the
resonant frequency is relatively low and
periodic air flow reversals occur, rather
than the sound waves observed at the
higher frequencies met in the bottleneck
example[9].
breathing hole. Opening in the roof of a
cave, cavern, or other underground void
21
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through which air is sucked in and expelled
in a rhythmic manner similar to inhalation
and exhalation of breath[20]. Related to
blow hole and steam hole. Synonyms:
(French.) trou souffleur; (German.)
Luftloch; (Greek.) anapneousa opispileou;
(Spanish.) respirador; (Turkish.) esintili
delik.
breccia. 1. Angular fragments of rock,
commonly but not inevitably cemented by
finer-grained materials including silica, iron
minerals, and calcite to form a new rock.
Many fault planes are marked by zones of
broken rock, either loose or re-cemented,
forming a fault breccia[9]. 2. Rock
composed of angular fragments1161.
bridge. 1. May be a natural bridge of bedrock
normally formed outside a cave entrance by
partial collapse leaving an isolated roof
segment, as in the famous examples of
Rakov Skocjan, Slovenia. Rock bridges
may also occur inside caves through either
surrounding phreatic dissolution or collapse
between superimposed passages. Another
common type inside a cave is a span of false
floor where sediment is washed from
below, as at The Bridge in GB Cavern in
the Mendip Hills[9]. 2. In a cave, a residual
rock span across a passage[10]. 3. In water
wells, an obstruction in the drill hole or
annulus. A bridge is usually formed by
caving of the wall of the well bore, by the
intrusion of a large boulder, or by filter
pack materials during well completion.
Bridging can also occur in the formation
during well development1161. See also
natural bridge.
bridging effect. The forming of arches in a
packing of materials[16].
brine. Water containing more than 100,000
ppm of total dissolved solids[16].
brittle deformation. The sudden failure of a
rock with complete loss of cohesion across
a plane.
brochantite. A cave mineral —
Cu4(S04)(OH)6[nl
brushite. A cave
CaHP(X-2H,O[11].
mineral
bubble gage. A stage recorder based on the
principle of equating a gas pressure to
water level[16].
bucket. A measuring reservoir in liquid
gaging instruments[16].
buffered solution. A solution that resists
changes in the pH value upon addition of
acids or bases[16].
buildup. The vertical distance the water table
or potentiometric surface is raised, or the
increase of the pressure head due to the
addition of water[22].
buried karst. Karst topography entirely
buried by relatively younger post-rock or
sediments and not part of the contemporary
landscape[17]. Synonyms: fossil karst;
(French.) karst convert, karst fossile,
paleokarst; (German.) bedeckter Karst,
Urkarst; (Greek.) kaymeno paleokarst;
(Italian.) carso sepolto; (Spanish.) karst
soterrado; (Turkish.) gomulu karst;
(Yugoslavian.)pokriveni krs See also cov-
ered karst; paleokarst; subsoil karst.
buried valley. An ancient valley buried by
recent, often glacial deposits[16].
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burst. 1. Periods of heavy rainfalltl6]. 2. An
explosive breaking of brittle rock material
(e.g., rock burst in a deep mine tunnel).
23
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c
caballing. The mixing of two water masses to
produce a blend that sinks because it is
denser than its original components. This
occurs when two water masses have the
same density but different temperatures and
salinities.
cable ladder. A ladder used in vertical caving
that is made of two parallel cables with
metal rungs held in place with metal tubes
crimped to the cables[13].
cable way. A cable stretched across a river
from which a cable car is suspended to
allow for stream discharge
measurements[16].
caisson. A protective chamber for the
excavation of water-submerged
unconsolidated sediments[16].
calanque. (French.) 1. Cove or small bay. 2.
A valley excavated in limestone or formed
by collapse of the roof of a cave and
subsequently submerged by a rise in sea
level[10].
calc-. Prefix meaning "limy"; containing
calcium carbonate[10].
calcarenite. 1. Limestone or dolomite
composed of coral or shell sand or of grains
derived from the disintegration and erosion
of older limestones. Size of particles ranges
from 1/16 to 2 millimeters™. 2. A
carbonate rock that consists predominantly
(>50%) of sand-sized calcite (or dolomite)
particles. Many of the particles are the
angular or degraded fragments of fossil
shells[9].
calcareous. 1. Containing calcium
carbonate[10]. 2. Descriptive of a rock that
contains calcium carbonate[9].
calcareous tufa. See sinter.
calcification. Replacement of the original
hard parts of an animal or plant by calcium
carbonate[10].
calcilutite. 1. Clastic limestone or dolomite in
which the grains have an average diameter
of less than 1/16 millimeter; calcareous
mudstone[10]. 2. A carbonate rock that
consists predominantly (>50%) of silt
and/or clay size calcite (or dolomite)
particles[9].
calcirudite. A fragmental limestone in which
the particles are generally larger than 2
millimeters[10].
calcite. 1. The commoner, more stable
mineral form of calcium carbonate, CaCO3.
It is the dominant component of all
limestones and, owing to its dissolution and
reprecipitation by natural waters at normal
temperatures, it is also the dominant mineral
of chemical cave deposits, including
stalactites and stalagmites. It is white or
colorless when pure but may be stained,
most commonly to yellows and browns, by
included impurities such as iron oxides. Its
uninterrupted growth in a pool may allow
development of good crystals, shaped as
elongate scalenohedral pyramids of trigonal
habit. Growth in stalactites and stalagmites
is either in masses of fine parallel or
radiating needles, or in a mosaic of larger
rhombic crystals, easily identified by their
well-developed cleavage surfaces. Calcite
is also the dominant vein mineral in
limestones[9]. 2. A mineral composed of
24
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calcium carbonate (CaCO3), like aragonite
but differing in crystal form; the principal
constituent of limestone and other
speleothems[10].
calcite bubble. A hollow sphere formed by
the deposition of calcite around a gas
bubble; the interior is smooth and the
exterior consists of small jagged crystals[10].
calcite flottante. (French.) See floe calcite.
calcite raft. A veneer of reprecipitated calcite
forming a sheet over all or part of the
surface of a static cave pool in conditions
favoring the release of carbon dioxide[19].
calc-sinter. See sinter.
calcium carbonate. Naturally occurring
compound with the chemical formula
CaCO3. It occurs commonly as the mineral
calcite and less commonly as aragonite, and
is the major component of carbonate rocks
including limestone and marble. It also
forms the matrix or cement that holds
together many sandstones and other
sedimentary rocks[9]. See also dolomite.
calcrete. (South African.) See caliche.
calibration. The experimental evaluation of
the scale readings of an instrument against
an absolute standard[16].
caliche. 1. (Chilean and Peruvian.) A natural
deposit of nitrates and other salts
precipitated at the soil surface. 2. (Mexico
and South we stern United States.) Indurated
calcium carbonate and other salts found in
the soil at the surface in arid and semiarid
regions, generally formed by evaporation of
lime-bearing waters drawn to the surface by
capillary action. 3. In some areas, refers to
hardpan resulting from concentration of
carbonate in the soil by downward leaching
and reprecipitation[10]. 4. A deposit of
precipitated minerals, mainly calcite or
gypsum or both, formed in the soil or near-
surface layers in arid and semi-arid zones at
the horizon where ascendant capillary water
evaporates and salts held in solution are
deposited. 5. A similar deposit, formed by
precipitation of salts leached from near-
surface material and reprecipitated at
shallow depths from downward moving
waters[20]. Synonyms: (French.) croute;
(German.) Kalkkruste, Ca-Horizont;
(Greek.) apothema orikton aldton; (Italian.)
caliche; (Spanish.) caliche; (Turkish.)
kalici. See also hardpan; havara; kqfkalla;
kankar; kunkar; nari; calcrete.
callow. (English.) Top or rubble bed of a
quarry.
canal seepage loss. Water lost to the
subsurface by seepage through the channel
bottom or walls[16].
canale. (Italian.) Long drowned valley on the
Dalmatian coast. Some canali may be
drowned poljes[10].
cano. (Spanish.) Stream. See also stream.
canopy. 1. Overhanging flowstone that
projects from a cave wall. It may be a
remnant of a once continuous false floor or
a mass of flowstone that has built steadily
outwards to create its own overhang[9]. 2.
A compound cave formation consisting of
flowstone hanging from a sloping wall
projection and forming a fringe of shawls or
stalactites on the outer edge[10].
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canyon. 1. A steep-walled chasm, gorge, or
ravine cut by running water. 2. A chasm
that has been formed by a cave stream. 3.
A valley formed by collapse of the roof of a
long fairly straight cave; a karst valley[10].
Related to corridor. Synonyms: (French.)
canyon, gorge, canon; (German.) Schlucht,
Canyon; (Greek. )pharangi; (Italian.X/orra,
gola, orrido, canyon; (Russian.) kanjon;
(Spanish.) canon;, garganta; (Turkish.)
bogaz; (Yugoslavian.) klanac, sutjeska,
soteska, vintgar. See also bogaz; chasm;
gorge; ravine.
canyon passage. 1. A tubular passage (cave)
that is formed by underground streams
following gently tilted bedding-plane
partings or fractures and are eroding
channels downward through the rock.
Their ceiling heights are greater than their
widths. They are similar to surface
canyons, but they possess roofs and are
generally the same distance apart at the top
as they are at the bottom. In Mammoth
Cave, most are narrow and winding and
may achieve dimensions of 50 feet wide by
100 feet high. If a canyon passage begins
forming on an old tube passage, then a
keyhole passage may result[15]. 2. Also
known as vadose canyons, these are cave
passages, most commonly formed by
continued floor entrenchment or incision,
by a free-flowing vadose stream. The
passage width at any particular level is
determined by the flow of the formative
stream, the rate of its downcutting, and the
effects of any subsequent collapse. Canyon
height reflects the stream's downcutting
history. It depends upon the vertical
distance available for erosional descent to
the local base level and the time that
erosional downcutting has been active, as
well as upon the more obvious but less
important influences of flow rate and
erosional capacity. Vadose canyons
commonly twist and meander sharply, while
maintaining roughly parallel vertical sides.
In contrast to some meanders in surface
streams, underground meanders must
generally be imprinted on a bedding plane
before entrenchment of the canyon begins.
Narrow canyon passages, commonly less
than 1 m wide and more than 20 m high, are
a particular feature of deep alpine caves.
Perhaps the largest canyon passage in the
world is that in Skocjanske Jama, Slovenia,
which is over 100 m high and 50 m wide[9].
See paragenetic cave. See also keyhole
passage; passage; tubular passage; vertical
shafts.
capacity. The ability to contain a certain
volume or mass[16].
capacity, carrying. The capacity of a
watercourse to transport solids[16].
capacity curve. A graphic presentation of the
rate of discharge in a pipe or conduit or
through porous material[16].
capacity, entrance. The property of a soil to
let water infiltrate[16].
capacity, field; field-carrying; capillary.
Soil moisture retained by capillarity and not
removable by gravity drainage[16].
Synonym: specific retention.
capacity, ground-water. 1. The ability of soil
or rock materials to hold water. The yield
of a pump, well, or reservoir.
capacity, hydraulic. The ability of a current
of water or wind to transport detritus, as
26
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shown by the amount measured at a point
per unit of time.
capacity, infiltration. The maximum rate at
which a soil can absorb precipitation for
given conditions[16].
capacity, self-cleaning The capacity of a
river to clean its water from pollutants over
a given length of water course[16].
capacity, specific. The ratio of well discharge
to corresponding discharge1161.
capacity, storage. 1. The ability of an aquifer
to store water[16]. 2. The capacity of rivers
to store water in their own channel s[16].
capacity, total. The maximum rate of yield of
awell[16].
capacity, transmission The property of a
porous medium to conduct fluid[16].
capacity, well. The rate at which a well will
yield water[16].
capillarity. The action by which a fluid, such
as water, is drawn up (or depressed) in
small interstices or tubes as a result of
surface tension.
capillary action. The movement of water in
the interstices of a porous medium due to
capillary forces[22]. Synonymous with
capillarity, capillary flow, and capillary
migration.
capillary attraction. The adhesive force
between a liquid and a solid in capillarity.
capillary condensation. The formation of
rings of pendular water around point
contacts of grains, when the rings around
adjacent contacts become large enough to
touch.
capillary conductivity. 1. The property of an
unsaturated porous medium to transmit
liquid[22]. 2. Coefficient that expresses the
extent to which an unsaturated permeable
medium allows flow of water through its
interstices, under a unit gradient of capillary
potential1221.
capillary fringe. The lower subdivision of the
unsaturated zone immediately above the
water table in which the interstices are filled
with water under pressure less than that of
the atmosphere, being continuous with the
water below the water table but held above
it by capillary forces[22].
capillary fringe zone. The zone above the
free water elevation in which water is held
by capillary action.
capillary head. The potential, expressed in
head of water, that causes the water to flow
by capillary action[22].
capillary interstice. An interstice small
enough to hold water by surface tension at
an appreciable height above a free water
surface, yet large enough to prevent
molecular attraction from extending across
the entire opening.
capillary migration. See capillary action.
capillary movement. The rise of water in the
subsoil above the water table by capillarity.
capillary percolation. See imbibition.
27
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capillary potential. The scalar quantity that
represents the work required to move a unit
mass of water from the soil to a chosen
reference location and energy state[22].
capillary pressure. The difference in pressure
across the interface between two immiscible
fluid phases] ointly occupying the interstices
of a porous medium caused by interfacial
tension between the two phases[22].
capillary rise. The height above a free water
surface to which water will rise by capillary
action[22]. Synonymous with height of
capillary rise.
capillary stalagmite. Hollow stalagmite
formed by saturated karst water pushed up
through capillaries and small cracks in a
sinter crust covering permeable fluvial
deposits on the floor of a cave; first
reported from Cuba, where such stalagmites
are composed of aragonite[10].
capillary tension. See moisture tension.
capillary water. 1. Water held in the soil
above the phreatic surface by capillary
forces[22]. 2. Soil water above hydroscopic
moisture and below the field capacity[22].
carabiner. An oval of steel or aluminum with
a movable spring-loaded gate on one side.
A locking carabiner is one where the gate is
threaded and has a ring that can be threaded
over the gate to prevent it from opening[13].
carbide, calcium carbide A compound
(CaC2) of grayish color that reacts with
water to produce acetylene gas and calcium
hydroxide [Ca(OH)2][13]. Commonly used
by cavers and miners earlier in this century
as a means of providing light in caves or
mines. Some cavers still prefer carbide
lights over electric lights. See also carbide
lamp.
carbide lamp. A carbide lamp, also known as
a miners' carbide lamp or acetylene lamp
was introduced into mine use in about
1897. It consists of two chambers, a water
tank above and a removable carbide canister
below with a connection valve to permit
controlled seepage of water into the calcium
carbide. The carbide and water react to
generate calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] and
acetylene gas. The gas is passed through a
filter into a tube and through a tiny burner-
tip orifice designed for the optimum mixture
of air and acetylene. Once ignited, it burns
with a brilliant yellow-white flame produced
by the incandescence of tiny carbon
particles. A reflector concentrates the light
in a particular direction1131.
carbonate. 1. A salt or ester of carbonic acid;
a compound containing the radical CO3"2,
such as calcium carbonate, CaCO3. 2. A
rock consisting mainly of carbonate
minerals, such as limestone or dolomite[10].
carbonate-fluorapatite A cave mineral —
Ca5(PO4,CO3)3F[11].
carbonate hardness. Hardness of water due
to presence of dissolved bicarbonates of
calcium and magnesium that can be
removed by boiling, hence the term
"temporary hardness." Synonyms:
(French.) durete tempomire; (German.)
tempordre Hdrte, Carbonathdrte; (Greek.)
parothiki sklipotis anthrakiki sklirotis;
(Italian.) durezza temporanea; (Russian.)
karbonatnaja zestkostj; (Spanish.) dureza
temporal, (Turkish.) karbonat sertligi;
(Yugoslavian.) turdooa, trdota.
28
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carbonate-hydroxylapatite A cave mineral
— Ca5(PO4,CO3)3(OH)[11].
carbonate rock. A rock that consists of one
or more carbonate minerals. Carbonate
rock successions (or sequences) are those in
which carbonate rock is dominant, but
which also contain rocks of other
lithology[9].
carbonic acid dissolution. Dissolution of
calcium carbonate by carbon dioxide in
aqueous solution, loosely termed carbonic
acid, is the dominant reaction in karst
processes, including speleogenesis. The
reaction can be considered in several ways
but it is most simply represented as:
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O ^ Ca(HCO3)2
cascading water. In reference to wells,
ground water that trickles or pours down
the casing or uncased borehole above the
water level in the well through cracks or
perforations[22].
casing. Permanent liner of a well[16].
casing joint. Welded or threaded connection
for tubular casing[16].
casing, surface. That part of a well casing
that extends above land surface[16].
catch basin. 1. A reservoir or basin into
which surface water may drain. 2. A basin
to collect and retain material from a street
gutter that would not readily pass through
a sewer system.
catchment. (Great Britain.) 1. An area into
which surface water may drain. 2. A
depression that collects rainwater (e.g.,
reservoir).
cation. An ion having a positive charge and,
in electrolytes, characteristically moving
towards a negative electrode[6].
cation exchange. Ion exchange process in
which cations in solution are exchanged for
other cations from an ion exchanger[6].
cation exchange capacity. The sum total of
exchangeable cations that a porous medium
can absorb. Expressed in moles of ion
charge per kilogram of soil (or of other
exchanges such as clay)[22].
causse. (French.) A limestone plateau in the
southeastern part of the central massif of
France characterized by closed depressions,
caves, and avens (jamas); a number of such
plateaus in and around the basin of the river
Tarn constitute Les Grandes Gausses. This
region was considered by Cvijic to
exemplify karst development intermediate -
between holokarst and merokarst[10].
Synonym: (French.) causse; (German.)
Kalkstein Plateau, Causse; (Greek.)
karstikon oropedion; (Italian.) altopiano
carsico; (Russian.) izvestnjakovoje
karstovoje plato; (Spanish.) altiplano
carstico; (Turkish.) kiregta^i duzlugu;
(Yugoslavian.) krskiplato, kraski plato.
cave. 1. "A natural hole in the ground, large
enough for human entry" is probably the
most useful definition. This covers the
enormous variety of caves that do occur but
eliminates the many artificial tunnels and
galleries incorrectly named caves. The size
criterion is arbitrary and subjective, but
practical, as it eliminates narrow openings
irrelevant to explorers but very significant
29
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hydrologically, that may be better referred
to asproto-caves, sub-conduits, or fissures.
A cave may be a single, short length of
accessible passage, or an extensive and
complex network of tunnels as long as the
hundreds of kilometers in the Flint
Mammoth Cave System. Most caves are
formed by dissolution in limestone, but
sandstone caves, lava caves, glacier caves
and tectonic caves also occur. Marginal
candidates for use of the name "cave"
include riverbank undercuts and rock
shelters of various origins. In some
countries a cave is regarded as being a
horizontal opening, as opposed to a
pothole, which is a vertical opening. This
usage is common in England but is not
ubiquitous[9]. 2. A natural opening formed
in the rocks below the surface of the ground
large enough for a human to enter. It may
consist of a single connected opening or a
series of small or large chambers connected
by galleries[20]. 3. A similar artificial
opening[10]. Related to cavern. Synonyms:
(French.)grotte, caverne; (German.)Hohle,
Grotte; (Greek.) speleon; (Italian.) caverna,
grotta; (Russian.) pescera; (Spanish.)
cueva; (Turkish.) magara; (Yugoslavian.)
pecina. pec, pester a, spilja, zijjalka, jama.
See also active cave; bedding cave; cave
system; grotto; sea cave.
cave balloon. See cave blister.
cave blister. 1. A small pimplelike cave for-
mation, roughly oval in shape, generally
loose, and having a core of mud[10]. 2. A
partly or completely hollow hemispherical
to nearly spherical speleothem, usually of
gypsum or hydromagnesite, attached to a
cave wall. Synonym: cave balloon.
cave breakdown. 1. Enlargement of parts of
a cave system by fall of rock masses from
walls and ceiling. 2. Heaps of rock that
have collapsed from the walls and ceiling of
a cave, generally called cave breccia[W\ 3.
Synonym for the collapse of caves, or, in
American usage, for the debris produced by
collapse[18].
cave breathing. A resonance phenomenon in
which air currents throb back and forth
through constricted passages in a cave with
periodicity of a few seconds to a few
minutes. Synonyms: (French.) passage
re spirant; (German.) Grotte mitResonanz;
(Greek.) anapneousa ope; (Italian.) grotta
a soffio alterno; (Spani sh.) gruta resonante;
(Turkish.) magara esintisi. See also
blow ing cave.
cave breccia. Angular fragments of rock
forming a fill in a cave, either cemented
together by dripstone or in a matrix of cave
earth[10]. See also solution breccia.
cave bubble. A nonattached hollow sphere,
usually of calcite, that has formed around a
gas bubble on the surface of a cave pool.
cave coral. A rough, knobby growth of cal-
cite resembling coral in shape, generally
small; found on the floor, walls, or ceiling
of a cave[10]. Synonym: botryoid; coral for-
mation; cave popcorn. See also knobstone.
cave cotton. Thin flexible filaments of
gypsum or epsomite projecting from a cave
wall. Synonym: gypsum cotton. See also
gypsum flower.
cave development. The inception of cave
development in carbonate rocks begins if
water can move through the bedrock and
30
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commence dissolution. The earliest water
movement may be due to mechanisms
(including ground-water pumping and ionic
diffusion effects) unrelated to those
dominating later development. Similarly,
inception may include physical and chemical
dissolution (involving removal of
carbonates and mineral impurities by water
and by strong acids), as well as by the
carbonic acid dissolution that dominates
later cave growth. Initial water movement
can be along primary pores in the rock (in
coarse raffle limestones, oolites, or chalk),
along relatively thin noncarbonate beds
within the succession, or along incipient or
open fissures (joints, faults, and bedding
planes). These potential water routes are
initially very narrow and water movement
is severely restricted and laminar, allowing
only very slow dissolutional growth (see
gestation), until enlargement beyond the
turbulent threshold (breakthrough) permits
faster flow and accelerated cave growth.
After establishment of turbulent flow
conditions, the effects of dissolution are
augmented by mechanical abrasion and
collapse, which expose new rock. During
the early development stages a network of
narrow openings is formed. Subsequently,
geological factors guide the preferential
expansion of favorable routes, which
capture more of the local flow and enlarge,
at the expense of less favorable openings, to
form caves. The less favorable fissures are
relegated to a subordinate role in
transmitting percolation water or, more
rarely, in carrying elements of overflow
water during floods. Also during the early
stages, all voids are water filled, but as
permeability increases and true hydraulic
flow conditions are establish ed, the upper
voids drain freely, forming a water table.
Almost all caves therefore originate under
phreatic conditions, but the overall passage
morphology is modified during later growth
into vadose or phreatic caves, enlarged
from the original phreatic imprint, above or
below the water table. Ultimately, cave
development evolves toward efficient
drainage close to the water table. Passage
enlargement then becomes regressive as
collapse increases. The stage of a cavernous
karst collapsing extensively is relatively
rare, being overtaken at high latitudes and
high altitudes by surface lowering, but such
collapse can contribute to the chaotic
landforms of tropical karst[9].
cave earth, cave fill. Insoluble deposits of
clay, silt, sand, or gravel flooring or filling
a cave passage. In a more restricted sense,
cave earth includes only the finer fractions:
clay, silt, and fine sand deposits[10].
Synonym: cave soil.
cave flower. An elongate curved deposit of
gypsum or epsomite on a cave wall in which
growth occurs at the attached end[10].
Synonyms: gypsum flower, oulopholite.
See also anthodite; cave cotton.
cave formations. 1. Secondary mineral de-
posits formed by the accumulation, drip-
ping, or flowing of water in a cave[10]. 2.
Unsatisfactory term used to include all
varieties of calcite, gypsum and other, rarer,
mineral cave deposits; therefore a synonym
for the equally unwieldly "speleothem" or
the colloquial term "stall"[9]. See also
sinter; speleothem.
cave group. A number of caves or cave
systems, not interconnected but geo-
graphically associated in some relief feature
or particular geological outcrop[10]. See
also cave series.
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cave guano. Accumulations of dung in caves,
generally from bats; in some places partially
mineralized[10].
cave ice. Ice formed in a cave by natural
freezing of water. Loosely but incorrectly
applied to calcium carbonate dripstone and
flowstone[10].
cave-in. 1. The collapse of the ceiling or side
walls of a cave or of the land surface into a
subterranean passage as a result of
undermining or of pressure from above[10].
2. The partial or complete collapse of earth
material into a large underground opening,
such as an excavation or a mine. 3. The
sudden slumping of wall material into a pit.
4. A place where material has collapsed or
fallen in or down.
cave-in lake. A shallow body of water whose
basin is produced by collapse of the ground
following thawing of ground ice in regions
underlain by permafrost. Synonym:
thermokarst lake.
cave pearl. 1. Carbonate concretion, usually
of calcite, that is spherical or irregular in
shape, with an internal structure of
concentric banding round a central grain.
Pearls form in pools of saturated water
disturbed by dripping water, so that they are
commonly found beneath high avens.
Individual pearls may be 1 mm or many
centimeters in diameter. Movement of the
larger ones may become impossible and
they can then become cemented to the pool
floor. Some caves contain spectacular
displays of cave pearls; in Jackson's Bay
Cave, Jamaica, they cover large areas of
passage floor behind low gour barriers[9]. 2.
Small concretion of calcite or aragonite
formed by concentric precipitation around
a nucleus[10]. Synonyms: pisolite; pisolith;
(French.) perle des cavernes; (German.)
Hohlenperlen; (Greek.) speleomargarites;
(Italian.) perle di grotta; (Russian.)
pescernij zemcug; (Spanish.) per la de
caverna; (Turkish.) magara incisi;
(Yugoslavian.) pecinski biseri, jamski
biseri.
cave lake. Any underground lake. The water
can be in a partially drained phreatic cave,
and may then be the entrance to a sump, or
it can be open over its entire surface. In
vadose caves lakes are most commonly
formed by ponding behind banks of
sediment or, in rarer cases, behind very
large gour barriers[9].
cave marble. Banded deposit of calcite or
aragonite capable of taking a high polish[10].
See alsoflowstone; onyx marble.
cave of debouchure. Outflow cave.
cave onyx. See onyx marble.
cave pisolite. See cave pearl.
cave popcorn. See cave coral.
caver. (American.) 1. A slang term for one
who engages in the hobby of cave
exploration, or caving[9' 21]. 2. A person
who explores caves in a safe manner while
showing respect for the cave (all aspects of
the cave), other cavers, and the land above
the cave[13]. Synonym: spelunker; (British.)
potholer. See also speleologist.
cave raft. A thin mineral film, usually of
calcite, floating on a cave pool.
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Cave Research Foundation (CRF.) An
organization of cavers united primarily for
scientific exploration and study of caves[13].
cavern. 1. Underground opening in soluble
rock similar to a cave. When used as a
noun, it refers to large openings, but when
used as an adjective it tends to refer to rock
texture and so to small openings. However,
in some countries (e.g., Russia) "cavern"
refers to small openings in a rock[20]. 2. A
synonym of "cave" with the implication of
large size. 3. A system or series of caves or
cave chambers. 4. A cave, often used
poetically or to connote larger-than-average
size[10]. Synonyms: (French.) caverne;
(German.) Hohle, Kaverne; (Greek.)
speleon; (Italian.) caverna, grotta;
(Russian.) kaverna; (Spanish.) caverna,
cueva; (Turkish.) kovuk; (Yugoslavian.)
kaverna. See also cave.
cavern breakdown The process of cave
enlargement, which depends upon the
mechanical failure and eventual collapse of
sections of the cavern walls and ceiling[22].
cavern flow. Movement, often turbulent, of
ground-water flow through caves, coarse
sorted gravel, or large open conduits, either
by gravity or under pressure.
cavernous. Adjective used to describe a rock
texture in which the rock contains openings
generally of a small size[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) caverneux; (German.) kavernos;
(Greek.) speleothes; (Italian.) con grotte;
(Russian.) kavernoznij; (Spanish.)
cavernoso; (Turkish.) kovuklu;
(Yugoslavian.) kavernozan. See also
cavern.
cavernous karren. Pitted, rubbly limestone
most commonly found in relatively recent
and Tertiary limestones of the humid
tropics[3]. See also covered karren, karren.
cavernous permeability.
permeability.
See conduit
cavernous rock. Any rock that has many
cavities, cells, or large interstices (e.g., a
cliff face pitted with shallow holes resulting
from cavernous weathering).
cavernous weathering Chemical and
mechanical weathering on a cliff face, in
which grains and flakes of rock are
loosened so as to enlarge hollows and
recesses.
cavern porosity. A pore system having large,
cavernous openings. The lower size limit,
for field analysis, is practically set at
approximately the smallest opening that an
adult person may enter.
cavern system. See cave system.
cave series. A group of caves of similar
morphology in a particular district[10]. See
also cave group.
cave shield. A semicircular plate of
reprecipitated calcite located beneath joints
in a cavern ceiling and believed to be
formed by the seepage of hydrostatic water
along the joint. Two shields form beneath
one joint, descending from each side of the
opening[22].
cave soil. See cave earth.
cave spring. See spring, cave.
33
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cave system. 1. An underground network of
passages, chambers, or other cavities. 2.
The caves in a given area related to each
other hydrologically, whether continuous or
discontinuous from a single opening[10].
Synonyms: (French.) reseau souterrain;
(German.) Hohlensystem; (Greek.)
speleothes systema, thiction; (Italian.)
sistema carsico sotterraneo; (Russian.)
sistema podzemnih pescer; (Spanish.)
sistema de cavidades; (Turkish.) magara
sistemi, serisi; (Yugoslavian.) pecinski
(spiljski) sistem, amski sistem. See also
cave; cave group; cave series; cavern.
caving. The sport of exploring caves.
Synonyms: (British.) potholing; spelunking.
2. A method of mining in which the ore is
allowed to cave or fall[10].
cavings. Rock fragments that fall from the
walls of a borehole and contaminate the
well cuttings or block the hole. These
fragments must be removed by drilling or
circulation of drilling fluids before the
borehole can be deepened.
cavitation. 1. The collapse of bubbles in a
fluid, caused by static pressure being less
than the fluid vapor pressure. 2. A
phenomena of cavity formation, or
formation and collapse, especially in regard
to pumps, when the absolute pressure
within the water reaches vapor pressure
causing the formation of vapor pockets[6].
cavity. A solutional hollow in a limestone
cave.
cavity dweller. A coelobitic organism.
ceiling block. Roughly cubical joint-bounded
large block, which has fallen from the
ceiling of a cave[10]. See also cave
breakdown; ceiling slab.
ceiling cavity. Solutional concavity in the
ceiling of a cave. The orientation is
determined by joints or a bedding plane[10].
ceiling channel. Sinuous channel developed
in the ceiling of a cave, presumably during
the phreatic phase of cave development1101.
ceiling meander. A winding upside-down
channel in a cave ceiling[10].
ceiling pocket. See pocket.
ceiling slab, roof slab A thin but extensive
piece of rock that has fallen from the ceiling
of a cave in roughly horizontal limestone[10].
See also cave breakdown; ceiling block.
ceiling tube. A half tube remaining in the
ceiling of a cave[10].
celestite. A cave mineral — SrSO4[11].
cement. A microscopic textured nonskeletal
void-filling material precipitated on an
intragranular or intrasedimentary free
surface that holds the material together[20].
Synonyms: (French.) ciment; (German.)
Zement; (Greek.) tsimento; (Italian.)
cemento; (Spanish.) cemento; (Turkish.)
cimento; (Yugoslavian.) vezivo cement.
cementation. The process of binding granular
material together by deposition of
cementing material at contact points of
[16]
grams'
cement grout. Cement slurry of pumpable
consistency
[16]
34
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cement slurry. Liquid cement suspension[16].
cementing. See grouting.
cenote. (Spanish, after Mayan tzonet or
dzonot.) 1. Steep-walled natural well that
extends below the water table; generally
caused by collapse of a cave roof. Term
used only for features in Yucatan[10]. 2.
Steep or vertical-sided collapse doline
floored by a lake whose surface is at the
regional water table. The term originates
from the many cenotes in the low karst
plateau of Mexico's Yucatan, but has been
applied to flooded dolines in Florida and
elsewhere. Probably the most famous
cenote is the sacred well of Chichen Itza,
Yucatan; it has vertical sides and is 60 m in
diameter, 30 m deep, and half full of
water[9]. Synonyms: (French.) cenote;
(German.) cenote; (Greek.) voulismeno
speleven. See ahojama; natural well.
centrifuge moisture equivalent See
moisture equivalent.
cerussite. A cave mineral — PbCO3[11].
chain gage. Water level measuring device[16].
chalk. 1. Used as a proper noun, "chalk"
describes a rock unit of Cretaceous age that
consists predominately of relatively soft,
white, porous limestone with beds of marl
and bands or nodules of flint. The term is
used without its initial capital to describe
any rock with similar appearance and
properties. Generally chalk has a relatively
high primary permeability and so rarely
develops caves of explorable size, though
conduit-water flow does occur. Some
harder chalks in northern France and
southeastern England hold explorable active
and relict caves, which extend for many
hundreds of meters[9]. 2. Soft poorly
indurated limestone, generally light in color;
commonly composed of the tests of floating
microorganisms in a matrix of very finely
crystalline calcite[10].
chalcanthite. A
CuSO4-5H2O[11].
cave mineral
chamber. (American.) 1. An enlargement in
a cave passage or system, commonly
formed at a junction of passages, or locally
in a single passage, where erosion has been
enhanced by collapse exposing more rock
to dissolution. Maximum chamber size is
controlled by the strength and shape of the
limestone ceiling. The largest chamber
currently known, Sarawak Chamber in
Lubang Nasib Bagus, at Mulu, Sarawak, is
over 700 m long, up to 400 m wide, and
nowhere less than 70 m high. It has formed
where a large stream eroded sideways as it
cut obliquely across the included bedding in
unusually massive limestone. It is doubtful
whether a much larger chamber could exist
without collapse of its roof191. 2. The
largest order of cavity in a cave or cave
system; it has considerable length and
breadth but not necessarily great height. 3.
(British.) A room in a cave[10]. Synonyms:
(French.) salle; (german.) Halle, Kammer,
Dom; (Greek.) ypoyios aethousa; (Italian.)
sala; (Russian.) zal; (Spanish.) sala, salon;
(Turkish.) oda; (Yugoslavian.) dvorana.
See also room; passage.
chandelier. Large variety of gypsum flower,
with branching crystal structure that may
hang many meters from a cave ceiling.
Very rare, except in Lechuguilla Cave of
New Mexico[9].
35
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channel. Natural or artificial watercourse
bounded by banks[16].
channel characteristics Hydraulic
properties of stream channel[16].
chasm. 1. A deep, fairly narrow breach in the
earth's surface; an abyss; a gorge; a deep
canyon. 2. A deep, wide, elongated gap in
the floor of a cave[10]. Related to canyon,
corridor. Synonyms: (French.) gouffre,
fracture ouverte; (German.)Kluft; (Greek.)
chasma; (Italian.) fattura beante, canyon;
(Spanish.) canon, taso; (Turkish.) derin
yarwti; (Yugoslavian.)provalija. See also
ravine.
chemical carbonate rock Carbonate rock
formed by the precipitation of mineral
matter in situ by chemical or biological
processes.
chemical deposit. A sediment precipitated
out of solution by chemical action[16].
chemical erosion. Processes partially
synonymous with chemical dissolution, but
including any other form of rock
breakdown accelerated by chemical changes
of the constituent mineral s[9].
chemical equivalent. The expression of
water characteristics such as hardness or
alkalinity resulting from several ions in
solution in terms of only one equivalent
concentration[16].
chemical mobility. The tendency of an
element to move in a given
hydrogeochemical environment^61.
chemical oxygen demand (COD) The
measure of readily available oxidizable
material contained in a water sample[16].
chert, chert nodule. 1. Black, brown, or gray
rock, consisting of very fine-grained silica,
that occurs as horizons of nodules and
discontinuous bands, generally less than 200
mm thick, within many limestones. It is
very hard and almost insoluble in water, so
it commonly proj ects from cave wall s where
it forms passage or shaft ledges and
waterfall lips[9]. 2. Light-cream or gray to
black rock composed of silica, found as
nodules or layers in limestone, or as a
replacement of limestone[10].
Chezy equation. An equation used to
compute the velocity of uniform flow in an
open channel: mean velocity of flow (V)
equals the Chezy coefficient © times the
square root of the product of hydraulic
radius in feet (R) times the slope of the
channel[1]. See also Froude number;
Manning equation; Reynolds number.
chimney. 1. Nearly circular shaft rising
upwards from the ceiling of a cave towards
the surface of the ground; if it does not
reach the surface it is termed a blind
chimney. If the chimney is formed mainly
by solution, it is related to a dome-pit; if
formed mainly by collapse of the roof along
bedding planes, it is related to a cenote[20].
2. A narrow vertical shaft in the roof of a
cave, generally smaller than an aven; a
domepit[10]. Synonyms: (French.)cheminee
(aven); (German.) Schlot, Kamin; (Greek.)
kapnothochos; (Italian.) camino; (Russian.)
truba; (Spanish.) chimenea; (Turkish.)
baca; (Yugoslavian.) dimnjak.
36
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chockstone. A rock wedged between the
walls of a cave passage[10].
choke. 1. A blockage of inwashed mud,
sand, or boulders in a cave passage. Most
boulder chockes are formed by collapse of
a passage roof and may have an open
chamber or shaft above them; others are
formed by collapse and inwashed debris
where a large old passage is cut by a
hillside. A passable route through a choke
may be opened by excavation, and thereby
lead to discovery of new passage, as was
done so successfully in Ogof Agen
Allwedd[9]. 2. Rock debris or cave fill
completely blocking a passage[10].
C-horizon. Zone of weathered parent
material in a soil profile[16].
chute. An inclined channel or trough in a
cave[10].
cienaga. (Spanish.) Wetland. See also
wetland.
Rijeka, mainly in Slovenia with some parts
in Italy and Croatia[9].
clastic. Pertaining to a rock or sediment
composed principally of broken fragments
that are derived from pre-existing rocks or
minerals and that have been transported
some distance from their places of original
clastic carbonate rock. Carbonate rock that
is made up of carbonate grains (e.g., shells,
shell fragments, oolites).
clastic rock; detrital rock. A sedimentary
rock derived from fragmentated other
preexisting rock or organic structures[16].
clastokarst. Karst phenomena in clastic rocks
composed of detrital carbonate material[20].
Synonyms: (French.) clastokarst; (German.)
Klastokarst; (Greek.) clastokarst; (Italian.)
carsismo clastico; (Russian.) klastokarst;
(Spanish.) clastokarst; (Turkish.) klastik
karst; (Yugoslavian.) klastokfs klastokras,
klastokarst.
cimolite. A cave mineral —
Al4(Si02)9(OH)12[nl
cistern. A small water reservoir used to
collect surface and rain water[16].
classical karst. Originally the region called
Kras in Slovenia, which gave its name to
the karst landscape. Used in this sense,
about 95% of classical karst lies in
Slovenia, with the remaining 5% extending
to Italy. A slightly different area was
covered by descriptions of early
investigations of karst phenomena, when
the name classical karst was applied to a
region between Ljubljana, Gorizia, and
clay. 1. A rock or mineral fragment or a
detrital particle of any composition smaller
than a very fine silt grain, having a diameter
less than 1/256 mm (4 microns, or 0.00016
in., or 8 phi units.) This size is
approximately the upper limit of particles
that can show colloidal properties. 2. A
loose, earthy, extremely fine-grained natural
sediment or soft rock composed primarily
of clay-size or colloidal particles and
characterized by a considerable content of
clay minerals and subordinate amounts of
finely divided quartz, decomposed feldspar,
carbonates, ferruginous matter, and other
impurities. It forms a plastic, moldable
mass when finely ground and mixed with
water, but retains its shape on drying, and
37
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becomes firm, rocklike, and permanently
hard on heating or firing. 3. A term that is
commonly applied to any soft, adhesive,
fine-grained deposit (such as loam or
siliceous silt) and to earthy material,
particularly when wet (such as mud). 4. A
term used by the International Society of
Soil Science for a rock or mineral particle in
the soil, having a diameter less than 0.002
mm (2 microns).
clay ball, clayball. A chunk of clay released
by erosion of a clayey bank and rounded by
wave action.
clay boil. A mud circle that suggests a
welling-up or heaving of the central core.
clay colloid. 1. A clay particle having a
diameter less than 1 micron (0.001 mm). 2.
A colloidal substance consisting of clay-size
particles.
clay fill. Dry or wet clay that fills a cave
passage[10].
clay filling. Time interval between end of
phreatic solution of a cave and beginning of
deposition of flowstone[10].
clayey sand. 1. An unconsolidated sediment
containing 50%-90% sand and having a
ratio of silt or clay less than 1:2. 2. An
unconsolidated sand containing 40%-75%
sand, 12.5%-50% clay, and 0%-20% silt.
clayey silt. 1. An unconsolidated sediment
containing 40%-75% silt, 12.5%-50% clay,
and 0%-20% sand. 2. An unconsolidated
sediment containing more particles of silt
size than of clay size, more than 10% clay,
and less than 10% of all other coarser sizes.
clay loam. A soil containing 27%-40% clay,
20%-45% sand, and the remainder silt.
clay marl. 1. A whitish, smooth, chalky clay.
2. A marl in which clay predominates.
clay mineral. One of a complex and loosely
defined group of finely crystalline,
metacolloidal, or amorphous hydrous
silicates, essentially of aluminum.
clupein. A dense, heavy, relatively
impervious subsurface soil layer that owes
its hardness to a relatively higher clay
content than that of the overlying material
from which it is separated by a sharply
defined boundary.
clay parting. 1. Clayey material between a
vein and its wall. 2. A seam of hardened
carbonaceous clay between or in beds of
coal, or a thin layer of clay between
relatively thick beds of some other rock
(e.g., sandstone).
clay plug. Fine flood deposits in a cut-off
river meander[16].
clean sand
content[16].
Sand with little or no clay
cleavage. The tendency to cleave or split
along definite parallel planes, which may be
highly inclined to the bedding. It is a
secondary structure and is ordinarily
accompanied by at least some
recrystallinization of the rock.
climatic factor. A factor influencing
hydrologic parameters due to the local
climate[16].
38
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clint. (British.) 1. Flat or sloping bare
limestone outcrops (limestone pavements)
weathered into straight-sided or furrowed
blocks and ridges of limestone which are
separated by deep clefts or solutionally
widened joints (grikes) that often
crisscross[20]. 2. Slabs of limestone, parallel
to the bedding, forming a pavement.
Widened joints, or grikes, isolate individual
clints[10]. Synonym: (French.) lapiaz;
(German.) Flachkarren, Karrenfeld;
(Greek.) pethion amaxotrochion
thactyloglyphon; (Italian.) campo
carreggiato; (Russian.) karrovoe pole;
(Spanish.) campo de lapiaz, lenar;
(Turkish.)purtuklu, oluklu; (Yugoslavian.)
skrapari, skraplje. See also grikes;
karrenfeld; lapies; limestone pavement.
clog, to. The action of blocking fluid flow
paths, especially around a well bore[16].
closed depression, closed basin 1 Any
karst hollow with internal drainage,
including dolines, uvalas, poljes, cockpits,
and all varieties of blind karst valleys of
both small and large scales[9]. 2. A general
term for any enclosed topographic basin
having no external drainage, regardless of
origin or size[10].
closed karst. A karst terrane that is covered
by sediments. Synonyms: (Russian.) skrytyl
karst or zakrytyl karst. See also buried
karst; interstratal karst; mantled karst.
cloud. Large masses of coralloid or
botryoidal calcite, deposited under water,
with each mass reaching 200-800 mm in
diameter. Famous examples hang above the
Lake of the Clouds in Carlsbad Cavens,
New Mexico[9].
clusterite. See botryoid.
coarse. Composed of or constituting
relatively large particles.
coarse sand. 1. A geologic term for a sand
particle having a diameter in the range of
0.5-1 mm (500-1000 microns, or 1 to zero
phi units.) 2. An engineering term for a sand
particle having a diameter in the range of 2
mm. 3. A soil term used in the U.S. fora
sand particle having a diameter in the range
of 0.5-1 mm (the diameter range recognized
by the International Society of Soil Science
is 0.2-2 mm).
coarse silt. A geologic term for a silt particle
having a diameter in the range of 1/32 to
1/16 mm (31-62 microns, or 5 to 4 phi
units).
cockpit. (Jamaican.) 1. Any closed depression
having steep sides. 2. A star-shaped
depression having a conical or a lightly
concave floor. The surrounding hill slopes
are steep and convex. Cockpits are the
common type of closed depressions in a
kegelkarst[W].
cockpit karst. (Jamaican.) 1. Term describing
an area containing numerous scattered, yet
closely spaced dolines; generally a tropical
karst land form. The corresponding
Yugoslav term may more accurately be
translated as "pock-marked" karst. 2.
Tropical karst topography containing many
closed depressions surrounded by steep-
sided conical hills. Divided by French and
German geographers into several types
depending on shape of hills[10]. Synonyms:
(French.) karst cockpit; (German.)
Turmkarst, Kegelkarst; (Greek.)
dolinovritheskarst; (Italian.) campo carsico
39
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a doline; (Spanish.) karst esponja;
(Turkish.) dudenli karst; (Yugoslavian)
boginjavi krs, kozavi kras. See also cone
karst; Halbkugelkarst; Kegelkarst;
Spitzkegelkarst; tower karst.
coefficient of compressibility
Compressibility is the aptitude of the soil to
be deformed. It is expressed by means of a
coefficient, which is the ratio between a
void ratio decrease from e0 to e and an
increase in effective stress. The value \ =
e0-eAp represents the coefficient of
compressibility for the range p0 to p0 + p.
Units are usually cm2/kg[21]. See also
coefficient of volume compressibility.
coefficient of permeability An obsolete
term that has been replaced by the term
hydraulic conductivity^.
coefficient of storage. See storage
coefficient.
coefficient of transmissivity; coefficient of
transmissibility. An obsolete term
replaced by the term transmissivity.
coefficient of volume compressibility. The
compression of a clay (aquitard) per unit
thickness, due to a unit increase of effective
stress, in the load range exceeding
preconsolidation stress. It is expressed by
the equation
a
m =
in which e0 is the initial void ratio. Units
are usually cm2/kg[21]. See also coefficient
of compressibility.
cohesion. Shear resistance at zero normal
stress. An equivalent term in rock
mechanics is intrinsic shear strength.
coliform organism. A microorganism, the
concentration of which is used as an
indication of the degree of biological
pollution of water[16].
collapse breccia. A mass of rock composed
of angular to rounded fragments of
limestone or dolomite that has formed as
the result of the collapse of the roof of a
cave, of an underlying cave, or of an
overhanging ledge[10]. See also solution
breccia.
collapse chamber. An underground chamber
containing notable quantities of collapsed
material. The term is commonly abused in
describing the origin of cave chambers
floored by collapse debris. Though wall
and roof collapse are common modifying
processes in larger chambers, it is important
to remember that such collapse cannot form
a chamber, as it can only take place into a
pre-existing cavity[9].
collapse sink; collapse sinkhole 1 A variety
of closed depression that forms by collapse
of the rock above an existing cave passage
or chamber[9]. 2. A closed depression
formed by the collapse of the roof of a
cave[10]. See also doline.
collapse of caves. Collapse and breakdown of
cave walls and ceilings are continuing
aspects of cave development and
modification. Massive unfractured
limestone can easily span a void of over 100
m, but thinly bedded, closely jointed,
faulted, or poorly lithified limestone may
collapse into very small passages. Collapse
40
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is a significant component of cave erosion.
As well as simple falls of unsupported rock
forming connections between passages, the
collapse process exposes more rock surface
area for potential dissolution. As rates of
collapse are measured on a geological time
scale, collapse in natural caves offers a
negligible threat to explorers, in comparison
to the dangers of roof collapse in mines[9].
collector well. A central well with horizontal
sections of screened collector pipe arranged
radially to increase yield[16].
colloid. Extremely small solid particles,
0.0001 to 1 micron in size, that will not
settle out of solution. It is intermediate
between a true dissolved particle and a
suspended solid, which will settle out of
solution[6].
column. 1. A subsurface dripstone formation
produced by the union of a stalactite and a
stalagmite in a cave[20]. 2. A flowstone
formation, generally cylindrical, formed by
the union of a stalactite and stalagmite[10].
Not to be confused with "pillar."
Synonyms: (French.) colonne, pillier
stalamitique; (German.) Tropfstein-Sdule;
(Greek.) stalaktitike stele; (Italian.) colonna
(stalagmitica o stalattitica) (Russian.)
kolonna; (Spanish.) columna; (Turkish.)
sutun; (Yugoslavian.) stup, steber, stolpic
See also pillar.
comminution. The reduction of a substance
to a fine powder; pulverization; trituration.
compaction. A decrease in the volume of a
mass of sediments from any cause. In
general, compaction may be regarded as the
decrease in the thickness of sediments, as a
result of an increase in vertical compressive
stress, and is synonymous with "one-
dimensional consolidation," as used by
engineers. The term "compaction" is
applied both to the process and to the
measured change in thickness. In thick fine-
grained beds, compaction is a delayed
process involving the slow escape of pore
water and the gradual transfer of stress
from neutral to effective. Until sufficient
time has passed for excess pore pressure to
decrease to zero, measured values of
compaction are transient1211. See also
compaction, residual; compaction, specific.
compaction, residual Compaction that
would occur ultimately if a given increase in
applied stress were maintained until steady-
state pore pressures were achieved, but had
not occurred as of a specified time because
excess pore pressures still existed in beds of
low diffusivity in the compacting system. It
can also be regarded as the difference
between (1) the amount of compaction that
will occur ultimately for a given increase in
applied stress, and (2) that which has
occurred at a specified time[21]. See also
compaction; compaction, specific.
compaction, specific. The decrease in
thickness of deposits, per unit of increase in
applied stress, during a specific period of
time[21]. See also compaction; compaction,
residual.
complete well penetration, fully
penetrating. 1. The property of a well that
penetrates an aquifer completely from the
upper confining bed or water table to the
lower confining bed[16]. 2. A well that is
completed over the whole thickness of the
aquifer to allow radial production over its
entire completed length[16].
41
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compressibility. The relative change in
volume with pressure of water or aquifer
matrix[16].
compressive stress. Normal stress tending to
shorten the body in the direction in which it
acts.
compromise boundary 1 A plane interface
between two crystals that evolved by
mutual interference of their respective
growing faces. This interface is a face of
neither crystal. 2. A microscopic texture[20].
concentration gradient. The change in
solute concentration per unit distance in
solute. Concentration gradients cause
Fickian diffusion (spreading) of solutes
from regions of highest to regions of lowest
concentrations. In slowing moving ground
water, this is the dominant mixing
process[22].
concretion. The localized deposition of
mineral matter going out of solution in
sediments or tuffs, usually nodular or
irregular in shape[16].
condensation. The transition from vapor to
liquid state[16].
condensation nucleus. A small solid particle
around which condensation occurs[16].
condensation water. Atmospheric moisture
deposited inside caves when the surface
temperature of the exposed rock falls below
the dew point of circulating air[19].
conduit; karst conduit. Relatively large
dissolutional voids, including enlarged
fissures and tubular tunnels; in some usage
the term is restricted to voids that are
water-filled. Conduits may include all voids
greater than 10 mm in diameter, but another
classification scheme places them between
arbitrary limits of 100 mm to 10 m.
Whichever value is accepted in a particular
context, smaller voids are commonly termed
subconduits[9]. Synonyms: (French.)
conduite forcee; (German.) Druckleitung
(Leitung); (Greek.) siphon; (Italian.)
condotta forzata; (Spanish.) conducto
saturado; (Turkish.) yeraltisu yolu, mecra.
See also pressure flow tube; stream tube;
siphon.
conduit flow; karst conduit flow.
Underground water flow within conduits.
Conduit flow is generally turbulent, but can
also be laminar[9].
conduit permeability. Sometimes referred
to as cavernous permeability, this is a
measure of the efficiency with which a
particular aquifer transmits water through
conduits (see permeability)[9].
conduit porosity. That part of the porosity
within an aquifer (usually a karst aquifer)
that is a function of the presence of
conduits [9].
cone of depression. A depression of the
potentiometric surface in the shape of an
inverted cone that develops around a well
that is being pumped. It defines the area of
influence[6]. Synonym: cone of pressure
relief (applied to artesian aquifers only).
cone of impression. A rise of the
potentiometric surface in the shape of a
cone that develops around an injection
well[22].
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cone karst. 1. A karst landscape dominated
by low conical (or hemispherical) hills that
forms only in wet tropical climates. The
type example is Gunung Sewu in Java.
Individual hills are remarkably uniform,
each some few hundred meters in diameter
and around 50 m high. Between them lie
broken valleys, dolines, or cockpits,
draining into sinkholes. Erosion that seems
to be initiated in valley systems develops in
such a way that the valleys break up into
dolines, but the mechanisms leading to
uniform shaping of the hills are not fully
understood. The widespread cone karst in
China is mostly known as fengcong, and its
hills are generally more conical than
hemispherical in profile[9]. 2. A type of
karst topography, common in the tropics,
characterized by star-shaped depressions or
dolines at the feet of many steep-sided
cone-shaped hills; narrow steeply-walled
valleys may be present10'20]. A variety of
Kegelkarst. Synonyms: (French.) karst a
pi tons; (German.) Kegelkarst, Turmkarst;
(Greek.) konoethes karst; (Italian.) carso di
torri, carsismo con forme residuali
coniche; (Russian.) karst s koniceskimi
ostancami; (Spanish.) karst de conos;
(Turkish.) konili karst; (Yugoslavia.)
stozastikrs, cokasti kras stozcsti, kras. See
also cockpit karst. Compare: cupola karst,
pinnacle karst, and tower karst.
confined. A modifier that describes a
condition in which the potentiometric
surface is above the top of the aquifer[22].
Synonymous with artesian.
confined aquifer. 1. An aquifer bounded
above and below by confining units of
distinctly lower permeability than that of the
aquifer itself. 2. An aquifer containing
confined ground water. Generally, a
confined aquifer is subject to pressure
greater than atmospheric[6].
confined water. Water separated from the
atmosphere by impermeable rock
stratum[16].
confining bed. A body of impermeable or
distinctly less permeable material
strati graphically adjacent to one or more
aquifers[22]. Synonymous with confining
unit.
confining unit. 1. A hydrogeologic unit of
impermeable or distinctly less permeable
material bounding one or more aquifers and
is a general term that replaces aquitard,
aquifuge, aquiclude[22]. 2. Means a body of
impermeable or distinctly less permeable
material strati graphically adjacent to one or
more aquifers[22]. Synonymous with
confining bed.
confining zone. A geological formation,
group of formations, or part of a formation
that is capable of limiting fluid movement
above an injection zone[22]. See confining
unit.
confluence. Junction point of streams[16].
conformal mapping The transposition and
solution of plane flow problems in a
complex plane[16].
conglomerate. Rock consisting of large well
rounded waterworn particles[16].
conical wall niche. See meander niche.
conjugate joints or faults Two sets of joints
or faults that are formed under the same
stress conditions (usually shear pairs).
43
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conjunctive use. The use of both surface
water and ground water[16].
connate water. Water entrapped in the
interstices of a sedimentary or extrusive
igneous rock at the time of its deposit!on[22].
consequent river. A river flowing down the
original slope of geologic beds or general
slope of topography[16].
consolidation. 1. The binding of grains by
cementing material to solid matrix[16]. 2.
The gradual reduction in the water content
(void ratio) of a saturated soil, as a result of
an increase in the pressure acting on it,
because of the addition of overlying
sediments or the application of an external
load. A laboratory test commonly known
as a one-dimensional consolidation test
(odometric test) is performed on soil
samples to evaluate consolidation. From
such a test, the coefficient of consolidation,
cv, usually expressed in cm2/sec, is
calculated as the ratio
c =
K • I
where K is the hydraulic conductivity, mv is
the coefficient of volume compressibility,
and YW is the unit weight of water. The
theory of consolidation leads to a relation
between degree of consolidation and time:
cv • t
U% = —
In this expression U is the degree of
consolidation or the percentage of total
consolidation occurring in some time t, cv is
the coefficient of consolidation, and H is
half of the sample's thickness when the
odometric test is performed1211.
consolidated rock. Rock that has become
hard and coherent through compression and
lithification[16].
constructive waterfall. A large rimstone dam
on a surface stream[10]. See rimstone dam.
Synonyms: (French.) chute incrustante;
(German.) Waft erf all, inkrustierender,
Sinter, Sinterbecken; (Greek.) katarrdktis;
(Italian.) (vasche d'incrostazione);
(Spanish.) digue travertinico; (Turkish.)
du§um; (Yugoslavian.) slap, precaga.
consumptive use. The quantity of water used
annually by crops or natural vegetation due
to transpiration, tissue building, and
evaporation from adjacent soil[16].
contact load. The solid material in sliding or
rolling contact with a stream bed[16].
contact spring. See spring, contact.
contaminant. 1. An undesirable substance
not normally present or an unusually high
concentration of a naturally occurring
substance in water or soil[22]. 2. Any
physical, chemical, biological, or
radiological substance or matter in water[22].
See also pollutant.
contaminant plume An elongated body of
ground water containing contaminants,
emanating and migrating from a point
source within a hydrogeologic unit(s)[22].
contaminate. To introduce a substance that
would cause (a) the concentration of that
substance in the around water to exceed the
maximum contaminant levels; or (b) an
44
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increase in the concentration of that
substance in the ground water where the
existing concentration of that substance
exceeds the maximum contaminant
levels[22]. See also pollutant.
contamination. The addition to water of any
substance or property preventing the use or
reducing the usability of the water. There is
no specific limits, since the degree of
permissible contamination depends upon the
intended end use, or uses, of the water[6].
Sometimes considered synonymous with
pollution.
continuous stream A stream that is
continuous in space from source to
discharge point[16].
contributing region. That region which
contributes to well discharge in inclined
water-table flow[16].
control. The combined effect of channel
characteristics (area, shape, slope,
roughness) on rating curve[16].
conulite. A hollow, cone-shaped speleothem
formed when a conical depression is drilled
in cave mud by falling water. Subsequent
erosion may remove the mud, isolating the
calcite lining of the depress!on[10].
convective diffusion
dispersion, coefficient.
See mechanical
convective transport. The component of
movement of heat or mass induced by
thermal gradients in ground water[22]. See
also advection.
convection. The process whereby heat is
carried along with the flowing ground
water[22].
convergence. Net horizontal inflow of
[16]
moisture per unit area1
cooling water. Water used only for cooling
purposes[16].
cool spring. Spring water temperature below
mean annual surface temperature[16].
coprolite. The fossilized excrement of
vertebrates such as fishes, reptiles, and
mammals, larger than a fecal pellet,
measuring up to 20 cm in length,
characterized by an ovoid to elongate form,
a surface marked by annular convolutions,
and a brown or black color, and often
composed largely of calcium phosphate;
petrified excrement[1].
coquina. Porous limestone composed of
broken shell fragments[16].
coralloid speleothem. Any variety of
microcrystalline, coralloid or botryoidal
calcite deposit that is distinguished by
curved outer surfaces and curved internal
structures. Large examples, including
clouds, are formed under water. Smaller
varieties, also known as cave coral and cave
popcorn, are splash deposits, or are
precipitated onto cave passage walls from
mists or thin surface films of saturated
water[9].
corrasion. Abrasion of the rock floor and
walls of a stream channel by rock debris
carried in the water[9], or mechanical
erosion performed by such moving agents
as water, ice, and wind, especially when
45
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armed with rock fragments[10]. See also
corrosion.
coupole. (French.) Cupola or hemispheric
corridor. 1. Long, narrow chasm enlarged by
action of water and into which surface
runoff or stream may flow; may be located
along a fault plane, fissure, joint or between
two beds. Struga (Slavic) refers to such a
corridor along a bedding plane in a
carbonate formation[20]. 2. Relatively
narrow passageway permitting travel
between two larger areas. 3. A fairly level
and straight passage that links two or more
rooms or chambers in a cave. 4. Inter-
secting linear depressions on the surface of
the land, related to joints or dikes[10]. See
also bogaz; struga; zanjon. Related to
chasm; bogaz. Synonyms: (French.)
gouffre absorbant; (German.) Karstgasse;
(Greek.) apocheteftikos karstikos agogos;
(Italian.) dolina allongata; (Russian.)
condor, hod; (Spanish.) callejon; (Turkish.)
koridor; (Yugoslavian.) struga, bogaz.
corrosion. 1. Chemical action of water
containing carbonic acid (also humidic,
nitric, and other acids) on limestones and
dolomites causing partial solution and
related chemical changes in the rocks[20]. 2.
Erosion by solution or chemical action[10].
3. The act or process of dissolving or
wearing away metals[6]. See also
accelerated corrosion; alluvial corrosion;
corrasion; solution. Compare aggressive
water. Synonyms: (French.) corrosion;
(German.) Korrosion; (Greek.) chemeke
thiavroses; (Italian.) dissoluzione,
corrosione; (Russian.) korrozija; (Spanish.)
corrosion; (Turkish.) eritme, yenme,
kemirilme; (Yugoslavian.) korozija.
corrosive. Property of aggressive water.
cove. (Southern Appalachians.) Narrow
steep-sided karst valley flanking limestone
plateaus[10].
covered karren. Any karren that is covered
by soil. Draining water is oversaturated
with respect to CO2 so that corrosion is
extensive[3]. See also wave karren; root
karren; cavernous karren.
covered karst. 1. A fossil or currently
developing karst in karst limestone which
underlies superficial deposits or other rock,
and which may produce landforms at the
surface which reflect subsurface
karstification[19]; contrasted with naked
karst, which is soil free. See also buried
karst; interstratal karst; mantled karst;
subsoil karst; sulfate-reduction karst. 2. A
generally subdued karst landscape
developed where carbonate rocks are
affected by dissolutional processes beneath
a soil cover (see bare karsf)[9\ Synonyms:
(French.) karst convert; (German.)
Bedeckter karst; (Greek.) kekalymenon
karst; (Italian.) carso coperto; (Russian.)
pokrytyl karst, pokritij karst; (Spanish.)
karst cubierto; (Turkish.) ortulu karst;
(Yugoslavian.) pokriveni krs, pokriti kras.
crack. 1. Tight joint[16]. 2. A small fracture
(i.e., small with respect to the scale of the
feature in which it occurs).
crandallite. A cave mineral —
CaAl3(P04)2(OH)5-H20[11].
crawl, crawlway. A cave passage that is
large enough to be negotiated on hands and
46
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knees[10] or so small as to require a caver to
squeeze through on his/her back or belly[13].
creek, brook. Watercourse of lesser volume
than a river.
crescentic wall niche. See meander niche.
crest line. Line connecting crests[16].
crest segment.
hydrograph[16].
The top part of a
crest-stage indicator. A mechanical gage
that preserves the indication of highest
water level rise[16].
crevice. Opening in a rock formation or
glacier[16].
crevice karst. An intricate irregular crevice
system that has formed by solution
widening of closely spaced joints. Crevices
may be as much as 6 meters across and 20
meters deep. Especially well developed
near rivers in lowland New Guinea[10].
critical depth. The depth of flow in open
channels when specific energy is
minimum[16].
critical depth flume. Venturi or Parshall
flume for discharge measurements[16].
critical flow. Open channel flow with Froude
number equal to unity[16]. See also Froude
number.
crooked hole. Borehole deflected from the
vertical1161.
cross bedding. Oblique deposition of thin
beds with respect to the main planes of
stratification1161.
cross fault. A geologic fault that is oblique or
at right angles to the strike direction of the
beds.
cross section. Vertical section of a geologic
profile[16].
crust stone. A fragile layer of flowstone
covering portions of walls of caves; looks
like a flaky crust. Found in some Kentucky
caves[10].
cryokarst. 1. A nonkarstic term. Land
surface with closed depression (usually
small and shallow) formed by alternate
freezing and thawing of permafrost or
ground-ice overlying different rock,
including limestone. The term "cryokarst"
is more common in Europe while the term
"thermokarst" is used in America[20]. 2. A
karstlike peri glacial, or formerly periglacial,
landscape superimposed upon
unconsolidated, superficial deposits.
Cryokarst is characterized by small
depressions or pits that develop through
settlement of overlying deposits into voids
formed by the melting of entrapped ice.
Also known as thermokarst[9]. Synonyms:
(French.) cryokarst, thermokarst;
(German.) Thermokarst, Cryokarst;
(Greek.) thermokarst; (Italian.)
criocarsismo; (Russian.) temokarst,
criokarst; (Spanish. )criokarst, thermokarst;
(Turkish.) don karsti; (Yugoslavian.)
toplotni kfs temokarst.
cryptokarst. A karst term used to describe
(a) the result of subsurface removal of
limestone taking place beneath permeable
47
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loess resulting in a loss of limestone and
subsequent slow subsidence of the loess
without noticeable surface expression, (b)
the initial effects of intergranular solution of
rock when there is practically no movement
of water from microcavity to microcavity,
(c) the karst that develops in chalk beneath
a mantle of its residual clay and chert, and
(d) pockets in limestone that are filled with
terra rossa or other residual material and
that may be actively forming, arrested in
development, or "inherited." Because this
term has been used for at least four
different meanings, it is recommended that
it be abandoned[17].
crystal cave. A cave in which much of the
surface of the roof, walls, and floor is
covered with well-formed mineral
crystals™.
crystal pool. In caves a pool, generally
having little or no overflow, containing
crystals™.
cuesta, hogback. A nonsymetrical ridge due
to a gently dipping stratum[16].
cueva. (Spanish.) Cave, especially one that is
horizontal or nearly so[10].
cul-de-sac; dead end. A subterranean pas-
sage having only one entry[10].
cumulative production. The sum total of
volumetric discharge of a well since
production began[16].
cupola. A hemispheric hill of limestone[10].
See also cone karst; cupola karst; mogote;
pinnacle karst; tower karst. Synonyms:
(French.) cupole; (German.) Halbkugel.
cupola karst. A type of karst topography
common in the tropics in which the residual
hills rise in hemispherical or dome-capped
mounds from intervening depressions or
sinkholes[20]. See also cone karst; cupola;
pinnacle karst; tower karst. Synonyms:
(French.) karst a cupules, coupole;
(German.) Kegelkarst; (Greek.) konoidhes
karst; (Italian.) carsismo con forme
residuali a cupola; (Spanish.) karst de
cupulas; (Turkish.) kubbeli karst;
(Yugoslavian.) kupolni kfs(kras).
current marking. Shallow asymmetrical
hollows, caused by turbulent waterflow,
that are distributed in rather regular fashion
over limestone surfaces™. See also
scallop.
current meter, current counter. A device
used to measure the current velocity
directly at a given point[16]. Synonym:
ammeter.
curtain. 1. Sinuous, thin sheet (or sheets) of
dripstone formed on the roof or walls of a
cave or behind a waterfall[20]. 2. A wavy or
folded sheet of flowstone hanging from the
roof or projecting from the wall of a cave;
often translucent and resonant™. See also
bacon; blanket; drapery. Related to
helictite and speleothem. Synonyms:
(French.) draperie stalagmitique;
(German.) Sinterfahne; (Greek.)
parapetasma stalaktitikon; (Italian.) cortina
stalattitica; (Russian.) zanavesj; (Spanish.)
bander a, cortina; (Turkish.) perde;
(Yugoslavian.) sigasta zavjesa, sigasta
zavesa.
curve, backwater. A water surface profile in
a stream or channel above a constriction or
impoundment™.
48
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curve, concentration. The rising limb on a
hydrograph curve[16].
curve, desorption. Curve of moisture content
versus soil moisture tension[16].
curve, drawdown. A plot of drawdown with
radial distance from a well[16].
curve fitting. The fitting of experimental data
points to a theoretical type curve[16].
cutter. 1. (Tennessee.) Solution crevice in
limestone underlying residual phosphate
deposits. 2. A karren-like groove formed
beneath the soil, more commonly referred
to as subsoil karren[10]. See also karren.
cuttings. Rock chips loosened from the
bottom of a borehole by drilling1161.
cyanotrichite. A cave mineral —
Cu4Al2(S04)(OH)12-2H20[11].
cycle. Regular periodic occurrence of an
event[16].
49
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D
dam. A structure across a watercourse that
impounds water; may be natural or
artificial1161.
damping. The process of gradually reducing
amplitude of a periodic event such as
acoustic oscillations in velocity logging[16].
dar gecit. See aisle.
Darcian velocity; seepage velocity See
specific discharge.
Darcy's law. An empirical law given as
Q= -KA
dL
which states that the average volumetric
discharge of flow through a porous medium
is directly proportional to the hydraulic
gradient assuming that the flow is laminar
and inertia can be neglected. Note:
Q=discharge, K=hydraulic conductivity,
A=cross-sectional area, dh/dL=gradient,
and a minus sign is attached as a convention
to indicate that flow occurs in the direction
of decreasing head[5].
Darcy unit. A practical unit for the measure
of intrinsic permeability[16].
Darcy-Weisbach equation. An empirical
equation given as
Q = -
A
SRgdh
f dL
flow is directly proportional to the square
root of the driving force and that the
friction loss is equal to the hydraulic head[5].
Note: Q=discharge, A=cross-sectional area,
R=hydraulic radius of the conduit,
g=gravitational acceleration, f=some
friction factor, dh/dL=gradient, and I have
attached a negative sign to indicate that
ground-water flow occurs in the direction
of decreasing head. In most instances, a
negative sign is not included because it is
not possible to take the square root of a
negative number.
dating of cave sediments. Determination of
the age of development of caves is normally
impossible. Only the sediments they contain
can be dated, and these must necessarily be
younger than the containing passage.
Geomorphological correlations may allow
more accurate dating of the cave erosion.
The most useful dating method in current
use is based upon a knowledge of the rates
of decay of radioactive isotopes of uranium
to thorium in stalagmites. This technique
allows measurement of ages in material up
to 350,000 years old. Dating of stalagmites
has confirmed that many cave ages lie
beyond this range. Electron spin resonance
(ESR) measures the cumulative effects of
radiation that are partly a function of time
and can give stalagmite ages back to about
900,000 years. Palaeomagnetism may
recognize events up to 2 million years old,
but a sequence of palaeomagnetically dated
sediments is required to allow identification
of the actual ages[9].
datum plane. A reference level to which
topographic or water levels in wells are
related[16].
which states that in contrast to laminar
flow, the average volumetric discharge of
50
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daylight hole. A hole in the roof of a cave,
reaching the surface[10].
dead cave. A dry cave in which all solution
and precipitation has ceased[10].
dead end. See cul-de-sac.
dead water. Standing, stagnant water[16].
debris. 1. Any material found to have been
washed into a cave from some other
locality. 2. Coarse rock fragments resulting
from erosion and disintegration of
bedrock[16].
debris karren. These are pinnacles that form
in limestones with a thin sheet structure that
soon fall into smaller fragments[3]. See also
pinnacles.
decalcification. Removal by solution of the
calcium carbonate constituents from a rock
or sediment, leaving a residuum of
noncalcareous material19' 21]. Synonyms:
(French.) decalcification; (German.)
Losungsruckstand (Entkalkung); (Greek.)
exasvestoses; (Italian.) decalcificazione;
(Russian.) dekaljcifikacija; (Spanish.)
decalcificacion; (Turkish.) karbonatwi
giderme; (Yugoslavian.) dekalcifikacijd.
Deckenkarren. (German.) Solutional pendant
features in cave ceilings[10].
declogging. The cleaning of clogged well
surface or screens[16].
decoration. Cave features due to secondary
precipitation of calcite, aragonite, gypsum,
and other rarer minerals.
deep percolation. The drainage of soil water
downward by gravity below the maximum
effective depth of the root zone toward
storage in subsurface strata[22].
deflocculation. The breakup of floes of gel
structures by use of a thinner[6].
deformation. Changing of form, volume, and
relative position of rock masses[16].
degradation. 1. Geological action of wearing
down a surface[16]. 2. The process of
degrading water quality in an aquifer by the
addition of contaminants, either naturally or
artificially. 3. The process by which various
chemicals are altered to form new
chemicals; breakdown.
degree of cementation. The degree to which
a rock has been solidified through
cementation[16].
degree of karstification The ratio of the
volume of openings to the total volume of
a soluble massif, expressed as a percentage.
It is the sum of the activity indices from the
initiation of karstification, and so is
normally applied only to carbonate rocks
with little or no primary porosity[20].
Related to corrosion and solution.
Synonyms: (French.) tauxde karstification;
(German.) Ausmass (Grad) der
Verkarstung; (Greek.) vathmos
karstikiiseos; (Italian.) grado di
carsificazione; (Spanish.) grado de
karstificacion; (Turkish.) karstla^ma
derecesi; (Yugoslavian.) stupanj krskog
procesa, stopnja zakrasevanja, stepen
karstifikacije.
degree of saturation. See percent saturation.
51
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delay. The lapse time between signal emission
and signal reception in seismic logging[16].
delta. A triangular deposit of sediments at the
inflow of a river into an ocean or lake[16].
demand. The rate of draft from an aquifer or
reservoir to meet a certain demand[16].
demineralization. The removal of mineral
matter from water[16].
dendritic. Treelike pattern[16].
dendritic drainage pattern. A drainage
pattern in which the streams branch
randomly in all directions and at almost any
angle, resembling in plan the branching
habit of certain trees. It is produced where
a consequent stream receives several
tributaries which in turn are fed by smaller
tributaries. It is an indicative of insequent
streams flowing across horizontal and
homogeneous strata or complex crystalline
rocks offering uniform resistance to
erosion. This pattern may form on top of
the land surface or below the land surface in
karst aquifers with anastomoses forming the
smaller tributaries.
density. The mass of water per unit volume,
usually stated in grams per cubic centimeter
(gm/cm3), but may also be measured in
pounds per gallon (Ib/gal), pounds per cubic
foot (Ib/ft3), and kilograms per cubic meter
(kg/m3.) Density of fresh water is taken to
be 1.0.
density current. A gravity-induced flow of
one current through, over, or under
another, owing to density differences.
Factors affecting density differences include
temperature, salinity, and concentration of
suspended particles.
denudation. The wearing away of overlying
loose rock to top of bedrock[16].
denuded karst. Subsoil karst or interstratal
karst that has been exposed by erosion of its
cover[17]. See also exposed karst;
interstratal karst; subsoil karst. Synonyms:
(French.) karst denude; (German.) nackter
Karst, oberfldchlicher Karst; (Greek.)
apogymnomenon karst; (Italian.) carso
denudato, carso nudo; (Russian.) golij
karst, otkritij karst; (Spanish.) karst
denudado; (Turkish.) belirgin karst;
(Yugoslavian.) ogoljeli kfs(krds), goli kfs
(krds), razkriti kras.
depletion. The withdrawal of water at a
greater rate than replenishment1161.
deposition factor. The factor that describes
the settling of suspended solids within pore
space[16].
depression. A small hollow in a surface[16].
depression spring. See spring, depression.
depth gage. 1. Any device used to measure
depths such as water level in wells[16]. 2.
Specific gage for measuring river stage[16].
depth of penetration. In electrical resistivity
surveys, it is the depth to which an electrical
field penetrates into the subsurface as a
function of electrode spacing[16].
desalinization. The process of salt
removal[16].
52
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desander. A device used to separate sand
from well water[16].
are of lake origin but the largest are
marine1
16]
desert. 1. Region where precipitation is less
than 10 inches per year. 2. Region where
the net moisture inflow is too small to
support vegetation[16].
desiccation. The removal of moisture by
evaporation or drying[16].
desiccation crack. A crack formed in soil as
a result of shrinkage to a drying volume[16].
desorption. The reverse process of
sorption[22]. See also sorption.
detritus. Loose material originating from
disintegrated and weathered rock[16].
development. The act of repairing damage to
the formation caused by drilling procedures
and increasing the porosity and permeability
of the materials surrounding the intake
portion of the well[6].
deviation. Deflection of a recording from a
base line (e.g., the deviation from vertical of
a borehole)[16].
dew-point. The point at which dew formation
starts for given temperature and humidity
conditions[16].
D-horizon. The zone of bedrock in a soil
horizon[16].
diagenesis. Postdepositional physical and
chemical changes in sediment[16].
diatomaceous earth. A light-colored, soft,
siliceous earth composed of the shells of
diatoms, a form of algae. Some deposits
differential water capacity. The absolute
value of the rate of change of water content
with soil water pressure. The water
capacity at a given water content will
depend on the particular desorption or
adsorption curve employed. Distinction
should be made between volumetric and
specific water capacity[22].
diffuse circulation; diffuse flow. Circulation
of ground water in karst aquifers (or other
aquifers) under conditions in which all, or
almost all, openings (primary and
secondary) in the karstified rock
intercommunicate and are full of water but
have not been selectively enlarged in
specific zones by dissolution, and so no
concentration of ground water occurs in
restricted conduits19'21]. The ground-water
flow is generally slow-moving, may be
laminar, and have a uniform discharge and
slow response to storms. It is being
replaced by the term "slow flow" because of
significant confusion regarding its usage,
especially when thought of in terms of
porous-media flow. Synonyms: (French.)
circulation diffuse; (German.) Diffuse
Grundwafierbewegung; (Greek.)
thiacheomenon ydhor; (Italian.)
circolazione Corsica diffusa; (Spanish.)
circulacion saturada difusa; (Turkish.)
yaygw dola^vn; (Yugoslavian.) difuzno
tecenje.
diffusion. Process whereby ionic or
molecular constituents move under the
influence of their kinetic activity in the
direction of their concentration gradient[22].
53
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diffusion coefficient.
diffusion, coefficient.
diffusion, convective.
dispersion, coefficient.
See molecular
See mechanical
diffusivity, soil water The hydraulic
conductivity divided by the differential
water capacity (care being taken to be
consistent with units), or the flux of water
per unit gradient of moisture content in the
absence of other force fields[22].
diffusivity, hydraulic The ratio of
transmissivity divided by the storage
coefficient or the hydraulic conductivity
divided by the specific storage[22].
dike. 1. A wall or embankment protecting
lowlands from being flooded[16]. 2. A
subsurface sheet-like igneous intrusion into
bedrock fractures[16].
Dinaric Karst. The extensive expanse of
karst landscape stretching from Italy, across
the whole of southern Slovenia and Croatia,
into parts of south-west Bosnia and across
Montenegro, ultimately extending into
Albania and Greece[9].
dip. 1. The angle between an inclined bedding
plane in a rock sequence and the horizontal.
The dip value includes an inclination and a
direction and the two components are
generally quoted in this order and in the
format 10° ENE or 10° towards 025°
magnetic (etc). The dip direction is down
the slope. True dip is the maximum dip
value of a given bedding plane; other, lesser
values, obliquely down the same bedding
plane, are referred to as apparent dips. The
direction at rightangles to the true dip,
where the dip value is zero, is known as the
strike[9]. 2. Maximum plunge of sloping
planar features (e.g., bedding, fractures)
within a geological formation measured
perpendicularly to the strike of the features.
See also strike; hade.
dipmeter survey. A geophysical borehole
logging method where the dip of the
penetrated strata is measured[16].
diphenyl brilliant flavine 7GFF, direct
yellow 96. A yellowish dye initially
developed to color tennis balls and
subsequently shown to be useful in
environmental tracing studies. Dye type:
Stilbene. See also fluorescent dyes.
discharge. The volumetric flow of water
through a given cross section[16].
discharge area. An area in which ground
water is discharged to the land surface,
surface water, or atmosphere[22].
discharge, evaporation The direct discharge
of ground water to the atmosphere by
evaporation1161.
discharge, hydraulic. The discharge of
ground water through springs or wells[16].
discharge, maximum. The maximum
discharge of a river or spring during high
flow conditions[16].
discharge, natural. The discharge of water
into surface water bodies or springflow[16].
discharge hydrograph A graph showing the
discharge of water as a function of time[16].
discharge pipe. A pipe through which a
pump discharges[16].
54
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discharge pressure. The pressure at which a
certain discharge takes place[16].
discharge velocity. The rate of discharge of
water through a porous medium per unit of
total area perpendicular to the direction of
flow.
disconformity. A geological unconformity
between parallel beds, often with some
series missing[16].
discontinuity. 1. A point where a
mathematical function becomes
nondefmed[16]. 2. An unconformity in which
the bedding planes above and below the
break are basically parallel, indicating a
significant hiatus in the orderly sequence of
sedimentary rocks. 3. A surface at which
seismic-wave velocities abruptly change.
discontinuity surface. Any surface across
which some property for a rock mass is
discontinuous. This includes fracture
surfaces, weakness planes, and bedding
planes, but the term should not be restricted
to mechanical continuity.
dispersion. The spreading and mixing of
chemical constituents in ground water
caused by diffusion and mixing due to
microscopic variations in velocities within
and between pores[6].
dispersion coefficient. 1. A measure of the
spreading of a flowing substance because of
the nature of the porous medium, with its
interconnected channels distributed at
random in all directions[22]. 2. The sum of
the coefficients of mechanical dispersion
and molecular diffusion in a porous
medium[22].
dispersion, longitudinal. Process whereby
some water molecules and solute molecules
travel more rapidly than the average linear
velocity and some travel more slowly,
which results in spreading of the solute in
the direction of the bulk flow[22].
dispersion, mechanical
dispersion.
See mechanical
dispersion, transverse. Spreading of the
solute in directions perpendicular to the
bulk flow[22].
dispersion zone. A zone of intermixing in
miscible flow or in sea water encroachment.
See also transition zone[l6\
dispersivity. A geometric property of a
porous medium that determines the
dispersion characteristics of the medium by
relating the components of pore velocity to
the dispersion coefficient1221.
displacement. 1. The process of replacing
one fluid in a porous medium by another[16].
2. A change in position of a material point.
See also miscible displacement.
disposal well. A well used for the disposal of
waste into a subsurface stratum. See also
injection welfi22\
dissociation. A chemical process that causes
a molecule to split into simpler groups of
atoms, or ions. For example, the water
molecule (H2O) breaks down spontaneously
into FT and OH' ions[6].
dissolution. See solution.
dissolution of limestone. The solubility of
calcite (and hence of limestone) in pure
55
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water is very low, but is vastly increased in
the presence of carbon dioxide. This gas,
dissolved in water to produce carbonic acid,
permits dissociation of calcium carbonate,
and dissolution rates and loads are therefore
directly related to carbon dioxide content.
This accounts for the importance to
limestone dissolution of plant growth; soil
water contains much more carbon dioxide
than stream waters. Further dissolution
occurs through mixing of saturated waters
of different carbon dioxide content (see
Mischungskorrosiori), because of a
nonlinear relationship between carbonate
saturation and carbon dioxide content. This
process is of major significance to
continued dissolution within the phreas.
Cold water can dissolve more carbon
dioxide but, with respect to cave
development, this climatic factor is
overwhelmed by the higher organic activity
producing more carbon dioxide in warmer
environments. Loss of carbon dioxide, by
diffusion into open air, causes water to
precipitate calcite as speleothems.
Limestone dissolution may also be achieved
by organic acids or by strong acids,
particularly sulphuric acid, though such
effects are normally far less than that of
carbon dioxide. Strong acid dissolution is
probably involved in the inception of most
underground drainage. Dissolution by
sulphuric acid formed by oxidation of
sulfide minerals or gases may be a major
cave-forming process in some regions, and
was largely responsible for the enlargement
of Carlsbad Caverns and Lechuguilla Cave,
New Mexico[9].
dissolution zone. A laterally extensive zone
where extensive dissolution of bedrock has
occurred.
distortion. A change in shape of a solid body.
distribution coefficient. The quantity of the
solute, chemical, or radionuclide sorbed by
the solid per-unit weight of solid divided by
the quantity dissolved in the water per unit
volume of water[22].
distribution, frequency Distribution of the
number of occurrences of a variate.
disturbance. In geology, any change of the
original position of rocks by folding[16].
disturbed sample. A sample disturbed with
respect to its original mode of packing and
sedimentation (e.g., a drill core)[16].
divide. 1. A line connecting the highest
topographic elevations or ground-water
crests that separate one drainage basin from
another[16]. 2. A ridge in the water table or
potentiometric surface from which the
ground water represented by that surface
moves away in both directions. Water in
other aquifers above or below, and even in
the lower part of the same aquifer, may
have a potentiometric surface lacking the
ridge, and so may flow past the divide. See
also ground-water divide; water-table
divide. Synonyms: ground-water divide;
ground-water ridge; water-table divide. 3.
(a) The line of separation, or the ridge,
summit, or narrow tract of high ground,
marking the boundary between two
adjacent drainage basins or dividing the
surface waters that flow naturally in one
direction from those that flow in the
opposite direction; the line forming the rim
of or enclosing a drainage basin; a line
across which no water flows. 3. (b) A tract
of relatively high ground between two
56
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streams; a line that follows the summit of an
interfluve[1]. See also drainage divide.
DNAPL. Abbreviation for dense nonaqueous
phase liquid. Liquids falling into this
category have specific gravities greater than
water (the specific gravity for water is
usually taken to be 1), are relatively
immiscible with water, and tend to migrate
downwards through the vadose and
phreatic zones in a relatively unimpeded
manner. See also LNAPL; immiscible;
NAPL.
dog-tooth crystal; dog-tooth spar. A variety
of calcite in the form of sharp-pointed
crystals™.
doline; sinkhole. A basin- or funnel-shaped
hollow in limestone, ranging in diameter
from a few meters up to a kilometer and in
depth from a few to several hundred
meters. Some dolines are gentle grassy
hollows; others are rocky cliff-bounded
basins. A distinction may be made by direct
solution of the limestone surface zone
(solution dolines), and those formed by
collapse over a cave (collapse dolines), but
it is generally not possible to establish the
origin of individual examples[10]. Solutional
enlargement is either circular in plan, if
there is one dominant vertical joint, or
otherwise irregular if there are several, and
can achieve dimensions of up to 1,000
meters in diameter and 100 meters deep.
Where a karst bedrock is covered by
superficial deposits, solutional enlargement
permits the latter to subside into vertical
fissures, creating subsidence cones or
alluvial dolines, whose slopes are unstable
because of the unconsolidated nature of the
surface material. The bedrock remains
covered in the first instance. Dolines are
also formed by large-scale subsidence
caused by cave roof-collapse of near-
surface caverns; in this instance, the
collapse doline, the sides are clifflike and
the floor composed of the irregular blocks
from the fragmented roof. Cave roof
collapse is considered a relatively rare
phenomenon. Closed depressions receiving
a stream are known as swallow holes or
stream sinks. A doline that is largely
dependent upon snow for solution
enlargement is known as a kotlici or
Schneedoline[19]. In America most dolines
are referred to as sinks or sinkholes. See
ahojama; pit; ponor; sink, sinkhole; stream
sink; swallet; swallow hole; sumidero.
Synonyms: (French.) doline; (German.)
Dolinen, Karsttrichter; (Greek.) tholene;
(Italian.) dolina,pozzo naturale; (Russian.)
karstovaja voronka, karstovaja kotlovina;
(Spanish.) dolina; (Turkish.) duden,
kokurdan, huni; (Yugoslavian.) vrtaca,
ponikva, dolac, do, duliba, kotlic, konta.
doline lake. A small karst lake occupying a
doline or closed depression in limestone.
The term implies that the doline is at or near
the ground-water table and in hydrological
continuity with it, or that the base of the
doline is sealed with an impermeable layer
such as clay[20]. See also sinkhole pond.
Synonyms: (French.) lac de doline;
(German.) Dolinensee; (Greek.) limni
dholina; (Italian.) lago di dolina, lago
carsico; (Russian.) karstovoe ozero;
(Spanish.) dolina laguna, torca laguna;
(Turkish.) obruk golii; (Yugoslavian.)
krskojezero, kraskojezero.
dolomite. 1. The pure mineral dolomite has
the composition CaMg(CO3)2 and has
properties very similar to those of calcite.
The rock dolomite consists mainly of the
57
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mineral dolomite, with subordinate calcite,
and has properties very similar to those of
limestone. The natural dissolution of
dolomite is generally slower than that of
limestone. Hence, dolomite karst is
generally less well developed than limestone
karst, though exceptions do occur in areas
such as northwest Canada. Large, deep
caves can form in dolomite, as in the Rand
of South Africa[9]. 2. A mineral composed
of calcium magnesium carbonate,
CaMg(CO3)2. 2. Rock chiefly composed of
the mineral dolomite[10]. Also called
dolostone.
dolomitic limestone. A limestone containing
a significant proportion of the mineral
dolomite but in which calcite is more
abundant (e.g., 10%-45% dolomite, 90%-
55% calcite). Many dolomitic limestones
originate as calcite limestone that is
subsequently affected by magnesium-rich
water that replaces part of the calcite with
dolomite[9].
dolomitic flour (sand). A loose mealy rock
or residuum, produced by the disintegration
of dolomitic limestones under the processes
of karstification[20]. Synonyms: (French.)
sable dolomitique; (German. }Dolomitsand,
Dolomitasche; (Greek.) dholomitikon
alevron; (Spanish.) arena dolomitica;
(Turkish.) dolomit kumu; (Yugoslavian.)
dolomitni pijesak, d. pesak, d. pesek.
dolomitization. The process whereby
limestone becomes dolomite by the sub-
stitution of magnesium carbonate for part of
the original calcium carbonate[10].
dome. A high shaft in a room or passage
formed by solution[13]. See also dome pit.
dome pit. 1. American term defined by Davis
(1930): "Mammoth Cave possesses several
extraordinary vertical cavities of which the
arched tops are called domes and the deep
bottoms are called pits. The combined
name, dome pits, is here used for them." 2.
A deep shaft in a cave, intersected by a
passage at or near its mid-section[20]. See
oven. Synonyms: (French.) evorsion,
marmite inversee; (German.) Deckenkolk;
(Greek.) vathis lakkos me tholon; (Italian.)
marmitta inversa; (Spanish.) marmita
inversa; (Turkish.) kemerli obruk.
double brake bars. A rappel device used by
cavers that consists of two carabiners with
a brake bar on each and connected together
with another carabiner or a metal ring[13].
downwarping. A down bending of stratum to
form a depression or syncline[16].
drag. The resistance force of flowing fluid on
a solid boundary[16].
drainage area. A horizontal projection of an
area drained by a particular river system[16].
drainage basin. The land area from which
surface runoff drains into a stream channel
or system of stream channels, or to a lake,
reservoir, or other body of water[6]. In a
karst setting, subsurface drainage (internal
drainage) may have boundaries defined on
the basis of comprehensive ground-water
tracing studies. See also ground-water
basin.
drainage density. A ratio of total channel
segment length cumulated for all orders to
basin area[16].
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drainage ditch. A small channel through
which surface water can drain[16].
drawdown curve. A plot of drawdown with
radial distance from a well[16].
drainage divide. The rim of a drainage
basin[16]. See also divide; ground-water
divide; water-table divide.
drainage network. A system of streams and
rivers draining a given basin[16].
drainage pattern. A geometric arrangement
of stream segments in a drainage system[16].
drainage ratio. A ratio of runoff to
precipitation1161.
drainage system. A network of streams and
tributaries1161.
drainage well. 1. A well installed to drain
surface water, storm water, or treated
waste water into underground strata[22]. 2.
A water well constructed to remove
subsurface water or to reduce a
hydrogeologic unit's potentiometric
surface[22].
drain tile; french drain A porous pipe used
for collection of excess ground water[16].
drapery. A thin sheet of dripstone, equivalent
to curtain[10]. See also bacon; blanket;
curtain.
draw. A natural depression or small valley[16].
drawdown. 1. The vertical distance the water
elevation is lowered, or the reduction of the
pressure head due to the removal of
water[22]. 2. The decline in potentiometric
surface at a point caused by the withdrawal
of water from a hydrogeologic unit[22].
driphole. 1. Hole in rock or clay produced by
fast-dripping water. 2. Hollow space
surrounded by precipitated material, such as
the bottom of a stalactite[10].
dripstone. Calcium carbonate deposited from
water dripping from the ceiling or wall of a
cave or from the overhanging edge of a
rock shelter; commonly refers to the rock in
stalactites, stalagmites, and other similar
speleothems; in some places composed of
aragonite or gypsum[10]. Synonyms:
(French.) concretions; (German.)
Tropfstein, Stalagmit, Stalaktit; (Greek.)
stalaktitis, stalagmitis; (Italian.)
concrezione; (Russian.) kapeljnik;
(Spanish.) concrecion (estalagmitjca o
estalactitica); (Turkish.) damlata^i;
(Yugoslavian.) sige, smugori. See also
flow stone.
drowned karst. Karst topography that is
submerged by a change in sea level or lake
level. Synonym: karst noye. See also
subaqueous karst.
drowned spring. See spring, drowned.
drought. A period of moisture deficiency and
absence of water for plant growth[16].
dry cave. A cave without a running stream[10].
See also dead cave.
dry hole. A hole not obtaining any
production. A nonproducing well[16].
dry valley. 1. Valley that lacks a permanent
surface stream. Dry valleys are common on
carbonate rocks with good primary
59
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permeability and occur on other permeable
rocks such as sandstone. Dry valleys on
cavernous limestone were formed when
streams flowed on the surface, either before
secondary permeability and cave systems
developed, or when caves were blocked by
ground ice in periglacial climates. The
valleys became dry when underground
drains formed or were reopened, capturing
first part and then all of the surface
drainage[9]. 2. A valley that lacks a surface
water channel; common in the chalk of
southern England[10]. 3. Elongated recesses
and valleys at the bottom of which are
dolines, jamas, and caves. 4. A valley form
of fluvial or periglacial origin in which
surface drainage is intermittent or totally
absent. Fossil, usually with steep scree
slopes, it is variously identifiable as a
product of nival processes or higher water
tables subsequently lowered by allogenic
valley[19]. Synonyms: (French.) vallee
seche; (German.) Trockental; (Greek. )xera
kilas; (Italian.) valle morta, valle asciutta;
(Russian.) suhaja dolina; (Spanish.) valle
seco; (Turkish.) kuru vadi; (Yugoslavian.)
suha dolina.
duck; duck-under. 1. A place where water
reaches the cave roof for a short distance
and can be passed by quick submergence
without swimming. 2. In cave diving, a
longer stretch of passage where the water is
so close to the roof that crawling or
swimming beneath the water surface is
needed to pass[10].
dug well. A hand-excavated well[16].
Dupuit's assumption A simplifying
assumption for the solution of a free surface
well flow problem[16] (e.g., a water-table
aquifer.) It is based on the assumption that
the slope of the phreatic surface is
negligibly small so that the equipotential
lines are vertical and flow is essentially
horizontal.
duration curve. A cumulative frequency
curve of a continuous time series of
hydrologic parameters1161.
Durchgangshohle. (German.) See through
cave.
dye test. Determination of direction and rate
of flow of streams by marking them with
dye at the infiltration area and then
identifying and timing the reappearance of
color at lower-lying springs, in river beds,
and elsewhere in a cave system[20].
Synonyms: (French.} coloration; (German.)
Fdrbung, Fdrbversuch; (Greek.) chrostike
ichnithetesis; (Italian.) tracciamento con
colorante; (Russian.) method krasjascih,
indikatorov; (Spanish.) coloracion;
(Turkish.) boya deneyi; (Yugoslavian.)
bojenje, barvanje. See also tracer.
dynamic similarity. A scaling procedure of
model and prototype where the relationship
of dynamic parameters is retained[16].
dynamometer. A device used to measure the
momentum force of a stream velocity[16].
dune limestone.
calcarenite.
(Australian.) See eolian
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ebb-and-flow spring; ebbing-and-flowing
well. See spring., ebb-and-flow.
eccentric. Adjective or noun implying
abnormal shape in speleothems, such as
helictites[10].
eccentric well. A well that is not in the center
of the radius of influence[16].
eddy. A nonlaminar circulation of fluid at
boundaries of flow separation[16].
effective abstractions The difference
between total precipitation and effective
precipitation1161.
effective diameter. A 10 percentile size (i.e.,
10% diameter smaller than this diameter)[16].
effective hydraulic conductivity.
hydraulic conductivity., effective.
See
effective porosity. See porosity, effective.
effective precipitation That part of
precipitation that contributes entirely to
direct runoff.
effective rainfall. Effective precipitation
when only rainfall is involved[16].
effective size. The 90%-retained size of a
sediment as determined from a grain-size
analysis; therefore, 10% of the sediment is
finer and 90% coarser[6].
effluent. 1. The discharge of water or other
fluids from a spring. 2. A waste liquid
discharge from a manufacturing or
treatment process, in its natural state or
partially or completely treated, that
discharges into the environmental
effluent cave. See outflow cave.
effluent stream. See gaining stream.
elastic limit. The point on a stress/strain
curve at which transition from elastic to
inelastic behavior takes place.
elastic properties. The properties describing
deformation of a solid[16].
elasticity. The property of a material that
allows the material to return to its original
form or condition after the applied force has
been removed.
electric lamp. As used in caving, generally a
helmet-mounted headpiece (bulb, reflector,
and lens) with a wire running to a battery
carried elsewhere on the person[13].
electro-chemical gaging. Flow measurement
based on electric detection of electrolyte
tracer flow[16].
electrolyte. A chemical that dissociates into
positive and negative ions when dissolved in
water, increasing the electrical
conduct vity[6].
elutriation. A washing process by
decantation with water[16].
embankment. A natural or artificial lateral
boundary of a river[16].
emergence. A general term for the
outflowing water, for the opening or for the
area of outflow of a karst spring; includes
exsurgence and resurgence[20]. Synonyms:
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(French.) emergence; (German.)
Ausflufitelle, Karstquelle; (Greek.)
pighdzon ythor (or kephalari); (Italian.)
risorgenza; (Russian.) vihodkarstovih vod;
(Spanish.) fuente, manantial, surgencia;
(Turkish.) yuzeye eri^im; (Yugoslavian.)
krsko vrelo, krski izvor, obrh. See also
exsurgence; resurgence; rise.
encroachment. 1. The landward
advancement of saline waters into coastal
aquifers[16]. 2. The displacement of clean
water by pollutants[16].
end effect. A disturbance introduced by the
inflow and outflow sections in a flow
experiment^61.
endellite A cave
Al2Si2O5(OH)4-2H2O[11].
mineral —
endogenic. 1. Pertaining to, or living in, the
zone immediately beneath the earth's
surface (see epigean and hypogean)[9]. 2.
Pertaining to geological process originating
within the earth[16].
endokarst. The part of a vertically layered
karst system that is beneath the surface.
Endokarst includes the full spectrum of
underground voids and the dissolutional
features that are present on the rock
surfaces surrounding them[9]. See also
exokarst.
energy head. Hydraulic head plus velocity
head[16].
enthalpy. Heat content[16].
entrance capacity. The property of a soil to
allow water to infiltrate (the maximum
value of this property)[16].
entrenchment. Erosion of an existing cave
floor by a freely flowing stream to form a
canyon passage that is commonly narrower
than the original passage. Where the
stream entrenches an originally tubular
phreatic passage a characteristic keyhole-
shaped profile develops. Also known as
vadose entrenchment or incision^.
entropy. The degree of thermodynamic
disorder[16].
eolian calcarenite. A terrestrial limestone
formed by the cementation by carbonates of
calcareous coastal dune sand. Often
shorted to "eolianite." Synonym:
dune-limestone; aeolianite. Compare
beachrock.
eolian deposit. Sediment material deposited
by wind action[16].
ephemeral stream. A stream flowing only in
direct response to precipitation[16].
epigean. Pertaining to, or living on, the
surface of the earth. See endogean and
hypogean.
epikarst; epikarst zone. A relatively thick
(the thickness may vary significantly, but 15
to 30 meters thick is a good generalization)
portion of bedrock that extends from the
base of the soil zone and is characterized by
extreme fracturing and enhanced solution.
It is separated from the phreatic zone by an
inactive, relatively waterless interval of
bedrock that is locally breached by vadose
percolation. Significant water storage and
transport are known to occur in this zone.
Synonym for subcutaneous zone.
epikarstic flow. See subcutaneous flow.
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epilimnion. Upper layer of stratified water[16].
epiphreas, epiphreatic zone. The zone in a
cave system, immediately above the
phreatic zone, affected morphologically and
hydrologically by floods too large for the
cave to absorb at once[10].
epsomite. A cave mineral —
MgSO4-7H2O[11].
equation of hydrologic equilibrium Amass
balance for a ground-water basin[16].
equipotential line or surface 1 A contour
line on the potentiometric surface along
which the pressure head of ground water in
the aquifer is the same. Fluid flow is
normal to these lines in the direction of
decreasing fluid potential[6]. 2. Line (or
surface) along which the potential is
constant[22].
equivalent per million The number of
equivalent weights in a million parts per
weight solution[16].
erodible. Susceptible to erosion[16].
erosion. 1. The general process or group of
processes whereby the materials of the
earth's crust are moved from one place to
another by running water (including
rainfall), waves and currents, glacier ice, or
wind[6]. 2. The sequence of processes of
disintegration and transportation of rock
material1161.
erosion surface. The land surface resulting
from the action of erosion[16].
erosiveness. The capacity to erode[16].
escarpment. A steep slope, often the result of
faulting[16].
estavelle. (French.) An intermittent
resurgence or exsurgence, active only in
wet seasons. May act alternatively as a
swallow hole and as a rising according to
ground-water conditions[10]. Opening in
karstic terrane that acts as a discharge
spring during high potentiometric surface
and as a swallet during low potentiometric
surface. Sea estavelles are known to
exist[20]. Synonyms: (French.) estavelle;
(German.) Estavelle; (Greek.) estavella;
(Italian.) estavella; (Russian.) estavella;
(Spanish.) estavela; (Turkish.) su batar
fikan; (Yugoslavian.) estavela, ponor-
rigalo.
esker. A stratified fluvioglacial deposit in the
form of a winding ridge[16].
etched pothole. See solution pan.
estuary. The lower course of a river
discharging into the sea and subject to tidal
currents[16].
evaporate. A sedimentary rock formed by
evaporation and precipitation of saline
waters[16].
evaporation. The changing or water from the
liquid or solid states into the gaseous state
through heat exchange[16].
evaporation loss. The loss of precipitated
water that is discharged to the atmosphere
by evaporation1161.
evaporation opportunity. The amount of
water made available for discharge into the
atmosphere[16].
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evaporation pan. An open tank used to
measure evaporation[16].
evaporation reduction The rate control of
escape of water vapor from an open
surface[16].
evaporation suppression. The complete
prevention of evaporation by mechanical or
physico-chemical means (e.g.,
monomolecular layer)[16].
evaporite. Rock formed by precipitation of
minerals from evaporating water, usually
from sea water. As sea water evaporates
the least soluble mineral contents
precipitate first; these include calcium
carbonate that is deposited as fine-grained
limestone. If evaporation continues, first
gypsum, then halite, and finally a number of
other sulfates and chlorides are deposited[9].
evaporativity. Evaporative power[16].
evapotranspiration. 1. The combined loss of
water from a given area and during a
specified period of time, by evaporation
from the land and transpiration from
plants[22]. 2. The return of water in vapor
form to the atmosphere through the
combined actions of evaporation, plant
transpiration, and sublimation[16].
evorsion. Mechanical erosion by whirling
water that may carry sand and gravel;
pothole erosion[10]. Mechanical erosion by
rotating or whirling water carrying sand,
gravel, cobbles, or boulders in suspension
or as bedload[20]. Synonyms: (French.)
evorsion; (German.) (Auswaschung),
Auskolkung; (Greek.) mihaniki diavrosis;
(Italian.) evorsione; (Spanish.) evorsion;
(Turkish.) dev kazam a^mdirmasi;
(Yugoslavian.) vrtlozna erozija.
exchange capacity. 1. The amount of
exchangeable ions measured in moles of ion
change per kilogram of solid material at a
given pH. Synonymous with ion exchange
capacity[22\ 2. The total ionic charge of the
adsorption complex active in the adsorption
of ions[22]. See also cation-exchange
capacity.
exhumed karst. A karstic outcrop that has
been exposed by the erosion of an
allochthonous cover; there is an implication
that karstification (partial or complete) had
preceded the removal of the cover[20].
Mantled karst or buried karst that has been
divested of its cover. It is the reexposed
portion of a former landscape1171. See also
buried karst; exposed karst; mantled karst.
Synonyms: (French.) karst denude;
(German.) wiederaufgedeckter Karst;
(Greek.) gymnothen karst; (Italian.) carso
riesumato; (Spanish.) karst exhumado;
(Turkish.) acik karst; (Yugoslavian.)
ogoljeli krs (kras).
exogenic. Pertaining to processes on or near
the surface of the earth[16].
exokarst. All features that may be found on a
surface karst landscape, ranging in size
between tiny karren forms and extensive
projes, belong to the exokarst[9]. See also
endokarst.
experimental basin. A basin chosen for the
thorough study of hydrological
phenomena[16].
exposed karst. A general term for bare
karstic rocks outcropping at the surface of
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the ground. It embraces karst areas without
any initial cover (naked karst) or exposed
by erosion of the residuum and soil
(denuded karst) or of the allochthonous
cover (exhumed karst)[20]. Karst
topography in which cover is absent[17].
Synonyms: (French.) karst expose;
(German.) nackter Karst, oberflachlicher
Karst, wiederaufgedeckter Karst; (Greek.)
akalypton karst; (Italian.) carso denudato;
(Russian.) golij karst, otkritij karst;
(Spanish.) karst subaero; (Turkish.)
belirgin karst; (Yugoslavian.) ljuti krs. See
also denuded karst; exhumed karst; naked
karst.
extensometer. An instrument used for
measuring vertical deformation of fine-
grained beds in the subsoil under stress.
Vertical extensometers commonly are
installed when land subsidence follows
ground-water withdrawal. Extensometers
also are used to measure small horizontal
displacements™.
external loads. External loads causing water
level fluctuations in wells.
exsurgence. 1. A term used to explain the
reemergence at the surface, as a stream, of
meteoric water that has fallen entirely upon
and percolated through a calcareous
massif1191. 2. A spring or seep in karstic
terrane not clearly connected with swallets
at a higher level. Synonyms: (French.)
exsurgence; (German.) Karstquelle,
Austrittfitelle; (Greek.) karstiki pighi;
(Italian.) risorgente Corsica; (Russian.)
karstovij istocnik; (Spanish.) exsurgencia;
(Turkish.) yuzeyde blirme; (Yugoslavian.)
vrelo, obrh. See also emergence;
resurgence.
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fabric. The orientation in space of the
elements composing a rock substance.
facet. See scallop.
facies. The lithologic appearance of a rock[16].
facies change. The change in appearance that
occurs when one lithologic unit ends and a
new one is encountered.
failure. In rocks, failure means exceeding the
maximum strength of a rock or exceeding
the stress or strain requirement of a specific
design.
fall. The gross slope of a river[16].
false floor. A remnant of a sheet of
flowstone, originally deposited on clastic
sediments that were subsequently washed
out from beneath. False floors may survive
as a complete bridge between passage walls
or just as projecting ledges. They may be
thin and easily broken or thick and very
strong[9].
farangothes ipoyios thiavasis. See aisle.
fathometer
device[16].
A water depth measuring
fault. 1. A fracture in the earth's crust,
across which relative rock movement has
taken place, or continues to take place.
Fault planes commonly guide vertical or
subvertical shafts in caves, as well as
guiding subhorizontal or oblique passages
within the confines of the fault plane[9]. 2.
A fracture or fracture zone along which
there has been displacement of the two
sides relative to one another parallel to the
fracture[6]. This displacement may be of a
few centimeters or many kilometers. See
also joint fault set; joint fault system.
fault breccia. The assemblage of broken rock
fragments frequently found along faults.
The fragments may vary in size from inches
to feet.
fault cave. A cave developed along a fault or
fault zone[10].
fault gouge. A claylike material occurring
between the walls of a fault as a result of
the movement along the fault surfaces.
fault line. The intersection of a fault with the
surface of the earth or any other plane of
reference[16].
fault plane. A plane on which dislocation and
relative movement has taken place[16].
fault scarp. An elevation formed by
movement of blocks along a fault plane[16].
fault zone. A zone with numerous small
parallel faults[16].
feeding tube. In karst terrane, a more or less
straight and waterbearing underground
gallery of regular cross-section. Synonyms:
(French.) tunnel; (German.) Sfrmungsrohr,
Karstgerinne; (Greek.) karstikos ypoyios
agogos; (Spanish.) tubo; (Turkish.) akarsu
mecrasi; (Yugoslavian.) vodonosni rov.
See also stream tube.
feldspars. A very common group of rock-
forming minerals[16].
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fengcong; fengcong karst. (Chinese.) 1. A
karst, conspicuous in China, that is
identified by its clustered limestone hills.
Fengcong (pronounced "fungston"), which
translates as "peak cluster," is a mature
karst normally developed during long
uninterrupted periods of rapid dissolution in
wet tropical environments with high levels
of biogenic soil carbon dioxide. The
Chinese classify karst by the hill or peak
density, in contrast to the Western
classification by hill shape. Fencong is
almost the equivalent of cone karst; its
closely packed hills are conical rather than
hemispherical, with intervening dolines and
disjointed valleys. The major occurrences
are in Guizhou and Guangxi, in southern
China. Some cones in Guangxi are so steep
that they have been termed fengcong tower
karst, but this concept is best avoided[9]. 2.
Tower karst characterized as peak cluster
because the individual karst towers appear
to be grouped together in clusters. Closed
depression among the peaks are common[4].
See also fenglin; fungling; mogote; tower
karst.
fenglin; fenglin karst. (Chinese.) 1. A karst,
conspicuous in China, that is identified by
its isolated limestone hills. Fenglin
(pronounced "funglin") translates from
Chinese as "peak forest," and is
distinguished from fengcong. Both fenglin
and fengcong are mature karst normally
developed only by long uninterrupted
periods of rapid dissolution in wet tropical
environments with high levels of biogenic
soil carbon dioxide. The Chinese classify
karst by the hill or peak density, in contrast
to the Western classification by hill shape.
Fenglin is therefore almost the equivalent of
tower karst; its hills have very steep or
vertical walls, and may have a height/width
ratio greater than four. The limestone hills
rise above level, alluviated plains, and the
finest fenglin karst around Yangshuo,
Guangxi, in southern China, is one of the
world's most dramatic landscapes. The
classification by hill density means that low
residual cones scattered across a plain are
also referred to as fenglin by the Chinese[9].
2. Tower karst characterized as peak forest
because the individual towers appear as
isolated groups on a plain. Dry valley
networks separate individual towers[4]. See
also fengcong; fungling; mogote; tower
karst.
ferghanite. A cave mineral —
U3(V04)2-6H20[11].
ferric oxide. Rust; hematite (Fe2O3)[16].
ferrito zone. Zone of iron oxide accumulation
in soil under humid climate conditions[16].
Fickian diffusion. The spreading of solutes
from regions of highest to regions of lower
concentrations caused by the concentration
gradient. In slow moving ground water,
this is the dominant mixing process[22].
field capacity; field moisture capacity. See
specific retention.
field survey. Measurements taken in the
field[16].
field test. A test run in the field under normal
field conditions[16].
field velocity of ground water. Actual
interstitial velocity of ground water[16].
fill terrace. An elevated valley surface formed
by aggregation1161.
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fine gravel. Rock aggregates of 1 - 2 mm
diameter[16].
fine sand. A silicon dioxide material with a
grain diameter of 0.1 - 0.25 mm[16].
finite difference method. A numerical
method used to approximate the solution of
partial differential equations1161.
finite element method. A numerical method
used to approximate the solution of partial
differential equations.
firn. Compacted granular snow[16].
firstkarren. (Austrian.) See Rillenkarren.
fissure. Any discontinuity within the rock
mass that is either initially open or capable
of being opened by dissolution to provide a
route for water movement. Fissures in this
sense, applied generally in karst, therefore
include the primary sedimentary bedding
planes as well as tectonic faults and joints.
More specifically, the term has been used to
describe voids with average dimensions
from 10 to 100 mm[9] (an open joint or
crack in rocks)[16]. See also conduit;
fracture.
fissure cave. A narrow vertical cave or cave
passage along a fissure. Fissures widen out
to become wells or vertical shafts[W\ See
also vertical shaft.
Flachkarren. (German.) See dint.
flank. Alimbofafold[16].
flash flood. A relatively short but very intense
flood[16].
flattener. A cave passage, which though
wide, is so low that movement is only
possible in a prone position[10]. See also
crawl.
flexure. A bend in a stratum with one flank or
limb only[16].
flint. A concretionary form of silica, similar to
chert, that occurs in chalk as tabular sheets
and layers of irregularly shaped nodules.
Being very hard and relatively insoluble,
flint tends to stand out from chalk cliffs.
Flint-rich horizons may also influencer the
inception of bedding-related dissoluational
conduits in chalk[9].
float gage. A device that indicates or records
water levels with a float[16].
floating pan. An evaporation pan floating in
a water body with drum floats[16].
floe calcite. Very thin film of pure calcium
carbonate floating on the surface of a
subterranean pool of very calm water[10].
flood. A high river flow overtopping banks.
flood crest. The peak of a flood wave[16].
flooding method. A recharge method by
flooding a recharge area[16].
floodmarks. The marks left on fixed objects
by flood waters[16].
flood plain. The surface or strip of relatively
smooth land adjacent to a river channel,
constructed by the present river and
covered with water when the river
overflows its banks. It is built of alluvium
carried by the river during floods and
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deposited in the sluggish water beyond the
influence of the swiftest current[6].
flood profile. A continuous line representing
the water surface for a given rate of flow[16].
flood water. Water that has overflowed its
confines; the water of a flood[1].
flood-water zone. See epiphreas.
flood wave. A rise in the stage of a stream
that culminates in a crest before receding[1].
floor pocket. See pocket.
flow, base. See base flow.
flow, creep. Flow with a creeping motion
where inertial terms have been dropped[16].
flow, critical. See critical flow.
flow duration curve. A curve of cumulative
streamflow versus the corresponding per
centoftime[16].
flow gage. A gage used to measure flow
rate[16]. See also gage.
flow-mass curve. 1. A mass curve with
runoff discharge as a hydrologic quantity[16].
2. The integral of the curve of a
hydrograph[16].
flow line. The general path that a particle of
water follows under laminar flow
conditions1221. Flow lines are usually drawn
perpendicular to equipotential lines. See
also equipotential lines.
flow net. 1. A graphical representation of
flow lines and equipotential lines for
two-dimensional, steady-state ground-water
flow[22]. 2. A net of orthogonal streamlines
and equipotential lines applied in the
graphical solution of Laplace's equation[16].
flow path. The subsurface course a water
molecule or solute would follow in a given
ground-water velocity field.
flow rate. Volumetric rate of flow[16].
flow, steady. A characteristic of a flow
system where the magnitude and direction
of specific discharge are constant in time at
any point[22]. See also/low, unsteady.
flow, uniform. A characteristic of a flow
system where specific discharge has the
same magnitude and direction at any
point[22].
flow, unsteady. A characteristic of a flow
system where the magnitude and/or
direction of the specific discharge changes
with time. Synonymous with nonsteady
flow. See also flow, steady.
flow velocity. See specific discharge.
flower. A cave flower is a group of crystals,
commonly of gypsum or mirabilite, that
grow by accretion at their bases on a cave
wall. As the crystals grow, curve and splay,
their form mimics that of a flower[9].
flowing artesian well. A well with its
potentiometric surface above the ground
surface[16].
flowmeter. An instrument for measuring
volumetric flowrate[16].
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flowstone. Deposits of calcium carbonate,
gypsum, and other mineral matter that have
accumulated on the walls or floors of caves
at places where water trickles or flows over
the rock[10]. Layered deposits of calcium
carbonate precipitated on rocks from water
trickling over them[20]. (French.) coulee
stalagmitique; (German. } Sinter/all^ Sinter;
(Greek.) asvestolithikon epiphlioma;
(Italian.) colata stalagmitica, deposito,
concrezione, stalagmite; (Russian.) nateki;
(Spanish.) colada estalagmitica; (Turkish.)
akmata^i; (Yugoslavian.) kaskade. See also
dripstone.
fluid potential. The mechanical energy per
unit mass of a fluid at any given point in
space and time with regard to an arbitrary
state and datum [22].
fluorapatite
A cave mineral —
fluorite. A cave mineral — CaF2[11].
flume. A channel supported on or above
ground[16].
fluorescein. A reddish-yellow crystalline
compound that imparts a brilliant green
fluorescent color to water in very dilute
solutions; used to label underground water
for identification of an emergence[10]. Also
commonly known as uranine. Dye type:
Xanthene.
fluorescent dyes. Material used in
environmental tracing studies that may be
detected and measured in small
concentrations («10"12 mg/L). Such dyes
are inexpensive, relatively nontoxic, and
relatively miscible with the water being
traced.
flushed zone. In geophysical well logging, the
zone around the well bore completely
invaded by the mud filtrate[16].
flute. See scallop.
fluviokarst. 1. A karst landscape where the
dominant landforms are valleys cut by
surface rivers. Such original surface flow
may relate either to low initial permeability
before caves (and hence underground
drains) had developed, or to reduced
permeability due to ground freezing in a
periglacial environment. In both cases the
valleys become dry as karst development
improves underground drainage[9]. 2.
Mixed terranes characterized by both
shallow karst and erosional landscape[20]. 3.
A predominantly karst landscape in which
there is much evidence of past or present
fluvial activity[10]. Synonyms: (French.)
fluviokarst; (German.) Fluviokarst;
(Greek.) fluviokarst; (Italian.)
fluviocarsimo; (Spanish.) fluviokarst;
(Turkish.) akarsu karsti; (Yugoslavian.)
fluviokrs, fluviokras, fluviokarst.
flux. See specific discharge.
foaming agent. See surfactant.
foiba. (Italian.) 1. A deep wide vertical cavity
or the swallow point of a river at the
beginning of its underground course. 2. A
natural vertical shaft in soluble rock,
tending toward cylindrical shape; it may or
may not reach the surface. A dome pit[10].
fold. A bend in a geologic stratum with two
flanks, often in anticlinal and synclinal
sequence.
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formation. The fundamental unit in
rock-stratigraphic classification, consisting
of a distinctive mappable body of rock[10].
See also cave formation; speleothem.
formation stabilizer. A sand or gravel placed
in the annulus of the well between the
borehole wall and the well screen to
provide temporary or long-term support for
the borehole[6].
formation temperature. The prevailing
temperature in a given subsurface
formation1161.
form factor. A factor indicating the shape
and form of mineral aggregates influencing
their hydrodynamic properties1161.
fossil cave. A fossil cave is an underground
cavity that formed when a carbonate
succession was undegoing karstification but
subsequently buried. Most fossil caves
have been infilled by younger sediments.
See neptunian deposits., palaeokarst, and
relict cave.
fossil karst. Seepaleokarst.
fossile karst. (French.) See buried karst.
fouling. The process in which undesirable
foreign matter accumulates in a bed of filter
media or ion exchanger, clogging pores and
coating surfaces and thus inhibiting or
retarding the proper operation of the bed[6].
fountain. A free-flowing well or spring[16].
See also artesian well; spring, artesian.
fracture. 1. A break or secondary
discontinuity in the rock mass, whether or
not there has been relative movement
across it. Faults, thrusts, and joints are all
fractures, but bedding planes, which are
primary features, are not. In a more strictly
hydrogeological context the term has been
used to classify voids in the size range 0.1
to 10 mm[9]. 2. Breakage of rock strata[16].
3. The general term for any mechanical
discontinuity in the rock; it is, therefore, the
collective term for joints, faults, cracks, etc.
See also conduit; fissure.
fracture pattern. The spacial arrangement of
a group of fracture surfaces.
fracture spring. See spring, fracture.
fracturing. A formation of breaks in a rock
due to folding or faulting[16].
francoanellite. A cave mineral —
H6K3A15(P04)8-13H20[11].
free-surface stream. In a cave, a stream that
does not completely fill its passage[10].
free water. See gravitational water.
free water elevation. See water table.
freezing point.
solidifies[16].
The point at which a liquid
fresco. A half-section of a stalactite on the
wall of a cave.
fresh water. Water that contains less than
1,000 milligrams per liter (mg/L) of
dissolved solids; generally more than 500
mg/L is undesirable for drinking and many
industrial uses[22].
freshwater lens. 1. Body of fresh ground
water found typically beneath permeable
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limestone islands or peninsular land masses
in the tropics. The lens-shaped water body
is bounded above by a water table and
below by a mixing zone between fresh and
saline ground water along the halocline. In
the center of the lens freshwater extends
below sea level, and another set of springs
exists where dissolutional conduits
associated with the lower limit of the lens
intersect the rock surface below sea level[9].
2. A lenticular form of a freshwater body
under oceanic coasts[16].
friction head. Head loss due to energy
dissipation by friction[16].
Froude number. A dimensionless numerical
quantity used as an index to characterize
the type of flow in a hydraulic structure that
has the force of gravity (as the only force
producing motion) in conjunction with the
resisting force of inertia. It is the ratio of
inertia forces to gravity forces, and is equal
to the square of a characteristic velocity
(mean, surface, or maximum velocity) of
the system divided by the product of a
characteristic linear dimension (e.g.,
diameter or depth) and the gravity constant,
acceleration due to gravity, all of which are
expressed in consistent units in order that
the combinations will be dimensionless.
The number is used in open-channel flow
studies or where the free surface plays an
essential role in influencing motion[1] such
as in karst conduits that are not necessarily
flowing at pipe-full conditions. See also
Chezy equation; Manning equation;
Reynolds number.
fullflow spring. See spring, full/low.
fungling; fungling karst (Chinese ) Isolated
limestone hill in alluvial plain, probably
similar to mogote[10]. See also fencong;
fenglin; mogote; tower karst.
funicular regime. The distribution of
continuous liquid phase along pore walls
with gaseous phase at the pore center[16].
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G
gage well. A stilling well in which stage
measurements are performed1161.
gage station. The point at which stage
measurements are performed1161.
gaining stream. A stream or reach of a
stream whose flow is being increased by
inflow of ground water[22].
galena. A cave mineral — PbS[11].
gallery. A rather large, nearly horizontal
passage in a cave[10].
galvanometer. A sensitive current meter[16].
gas-expansion method The measurement of
porosity based on the Boyle-Mariotte's gas
laws[16].
geo. See blowhole.
geochemistry. The science of the qualitative
and quantitative identification of the
elements and their distribution in the
earth[16].
geode. Hollow globular bodies varying in size
from a few centimeters to several
decimeters, coated on the interior with
crystals™.
geodesy. The science of measuring the
geometrical properties of the earth[16].
geohydrologic system. The geohydrologic
units within a geologic setting, including
any recharge, discharge, interconnections
between units, and any natural on
man-induced processes or events that could
affect ground-water flow within or among
those units[22]. See also ground-water
system.
geohydrologic unit. An aquifer, a confining
unit, or a combination of aquifers and
confining units comprising a framework for
a reasonably distinct geohydrologic
system[22].
geohydrology. The branch of hydrology
relating to the quantitative treatment of
ground-water occurrence and flow[16].
geological column. A vertical cross section
through a sequence of formations™.
geological organ. A cylindrical or funnel-
shaped cavity in relatively soluble bedrock
that typically has a vertical orientation and
is partly or wholly filled with material
similar to the overlying sediment cover.
They are produced by solution of bedrock
and concomitant subsidence of its
sedimentary cover. Most have a diameter
of 25 cm to 7 m and a depth of 2 to 30 m,
but some may be much larger. A
depth/diameter ratio of 5 to 20 may be
considered representative. In actuality,
geological organs are a type of subsidence
doline that develops under a cover of
younger rock or sediment[17]. Synonyms:
(French.) Orgue geologigue, poche de
dissolution., puits naturel; (Belgian.)
abannet, cavite de dissolution; (German.)
geologische Orgel, Orgel, unterirdische
Doline, Verwitterungssacke, naturlicher
Schacht, Erdorgel, Erdpfeife, Riesentoph,
Bodenkarren; (British.) sand pipe, sand-
gall, gravel-pipe,pipe,pocket deposit, gull,
(Italian.) organo geologico; (Roumanian.)
orgile geologice; (Czech.) geologicke
varhany; (Polish.) organy geologiczne;
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(Russian.) organ truba, kamin; (Serbo-
Croatian.) geoloske orgulje; (Slavic)
geoloske orglje, zapolvje jaski; (Dutch.)
geologische orgelpijp, aardpijp.
geological section. A vertical section through
a sequence of rock masses or strata[16].
geologic control. The influence of geologic
factors on hydrogeologic features[16].
geologic correlation. The correlation of
geologic formations as shown in geologic
logs over a given area[16].
geologic log. A vertical cross section of the
lithologic column indicating geologic and
petrographic data[16].
geologic similarity.
length ratio[16].
A model-prototype
geomorphic process. The process
responsible for the formation and alteration
of the earth's surface[16].
geomorphology. The science of the origin
and evolution of land forms[16].
gestation. The gestation phase of
speleogenesis follows the inception phase,
and the two in combination are essentially
equivalent to the more commonly used term
"initiation." The transition from inception
to gestation may correspond to the
establishment of gravitational laminar flow
conditions, and gestation is complete when
turbulent flow is achieved[9].
Ghyben-Herzberg conditions. Equilibrium
condition at the interface of immiscible
freshwater bodies and saltwater bodies in
coastal aquifers[16].
glacial deposit. Sedimentary deposits due to
transport by glaciers[16].
glacial drift. Sediment material contained,
transported, and deposited by glaciers[16].
glacial groove. A groove cut into bedrock by
rock fragments at the bottom of a moving
glacier[16].
glacial till. An unassorted mixture of glacial
drift[16]. Synonym: boulder clay; till.
glaciation. A covering of the land surface by
glacier ice[16].
glacier. An extensive body of ice covering the
land surface[16].
glacier cave. 1. A cave carved out of the ice
inside a glacier, not to be confused with an
ice cave. Passages are formed by meltwater
descending from the glacier surface via
crevasses, or by melting on the glacier base.
Through caves may connect sinkholes
(sometimes called moulins) to glacier snout
resurgences, but due to ice movement most
glacier caves are ephemeral. The most
extensively explored glacier caves were the
Paradise Caves on Mount Rainier, USA,
whose passages extended for many
kilometers, before the glacier wasted away
and the caves were destroyed[9]. 2. Cave in
ice formed within or at the base of a
glacier[10].
glaciofluvial. Pertaining to the meltwater
streams flowing from wasting glacier ice
and especially to the deposits and landforms
produced by such stream s[6].
glaciokarst. 1. A karst landscape that was
glaciated during the cold periods of the
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Pleistocene and displays major landforms of
relict glacial origin. Bare rock scars, locally
with glacial striations, and limestone
pavements are characteristic, due to the
lack of rapid soil formation on the
limestones since glacial stripping. Dolines
within a glaciokarst are mostly small and
immature, as are caves, except where pre-
glacial passages are intercepted.
Glaciokarst is almost synonymous with
alpine karst, and some of the finest is
developed on the high plateaus of the
Calcareous Alps, south of Salzburg,
Austria[9]. 2. A glaciated limestone region
possessing both glacial and karst
characteristics^01. (French.) karst glaciaire;
(German.) Gebiet mil karst und Glazial-
Formen; (GrQQk.)pagheto-karst; (Spanish.)
glaciokarst; (Turkish.) buzul karsti;
(Yugoslavian.) glaciokfs, glaciokras,
glaciokarst. See also alpine karst; nival
karst.
glade. 1. (Jamaican.) An elongate depression,
having steep sides, in which a generally flat
floor is divided into small basins separated
by low divides. 2. (Tennessee.) Limestone
pavement having extensive growth of cedar
trees[10]. See also uvala.
globularite. Small crystals of calcite tipped
with spheres composed of radiating
fibers[10].
gloop. Synonym for blow hole. Also spelled
gloup.
goethite. A cave mineral — FeO(OH)[11].
golyi karst. (Russian.) See naked karst.
gooseneck. The part of a winding valley
resembling in plan the curved neck of a
goose. Normally found as part of an
entrenched meander[1].
gorge. A narrow passage or canyon in a
mountain system[16]. See also canyon.
gour. Flowstone deposit, normally of calcite,
built up along the edge of a pool due to
precipitation from a thin film of overflow
water. Once initiated, by calcite-saturated
water overflowing from floor hollows,
development is self-enhancing, and the
gours can grow into large dams many
meters high and wide. Inside the gour pool,
more calcite may be precipitated as crystals
or pearls. Large flights of gours occur in
many caves, with spectacular and well
known examples around the Hall of
Thirteen in the Gouffre Berger, France.
Large travertine, gours can form in the open
air, as at Band-i-Amir, Afghanistan[9]. See
also rimstone barrage; rimstone barrier;
rims tone dam.
graben. A depression formed by a fault block
moving downward on the two bounding
faults[16].
gradation. The leveling of a surface to a
common level[16].
grade. Inclination or slope[16].
graded. An engineering term pertaining to a
soil or an unconsolidated sediment
consisting of particles of several or many
sizes or having a uniform or equable
distribution of particles from coarse to
fme[6].
gradient. The change in hydraulic head over
some given distance (dh/dL) with ground-
water flow usually occurring in the direction
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of decreasing hydraulic head which requires
by convention, the attaching of a minus sign
to any equation utilizing a gradient for flow.
The maximum value of the directional
derivative[16].
grain packing. The spatial arrangement of
grains forming porous medium[16].
grain per gallon (gpg.) A common basis for
reporting water analyses in the water-
treatment industry in the United States and
Canada. One grain per U.S. gallon equals
17.12 milligrams per liter[6].
grain shape. The geometrical aspect of
grains[16].
granular. Of structure clearly showing grain
shape[16].
granule. Small rounded grain or rock
fragment1161.
grape formation. See botryoid.
gravel. Waterworn rounded rock grains and
fragments[16].
gravimetric moisture content. The ratio of
water weight to the weight of solid
particles[16].
gravitational head. The component of total
hydraulic head related to the position of a
given mass of water relative to an arbitrary
datum[22].
gravitational water. Water that moves into,
through, or out of the soil or rock mass
under the influence of gravity[22].
gravity component. The component acting in
the direction of gravitation[16].
gravity drainage. The flow of water towards
a well under its own weight[16].
gravity spring. See spring, gravity.
grike. (British.) 1. A solutionally enlarged
vertical or steeply inclined joint in the
surface of a karstland, extending for up to a
few meters into the limestone[10]. 2. A
vertical or subvertical cleft in a limestone
pavement developed by solution along a
joint or system of crisscrossing joints[20].
Grikes separate clints from one another.
Synonyms: (British.) gryke; (French.)
lapiaz; (German.) Kluftkarren. See also
dint; bogaz; limestone pavement.
grotto. 1. Hole in small cave or cavern that
has eroded in the wall of a main cave. 2.
Widely open and shallow cave within a
vaulted roof. 3. A cave or chamber
preceded by a narrower passage[20]. 4. A
small cave, natural or artificial. 5. A room,
in a cave system, of moderate dimensions
but richly decorated[10]. A grotto is often
intricately decorated, and may occur above,
at, or below sealevel[20]. Synonyms:
(French.)grotte, baume, balme; (German.)
Hohle, Grotte; (Greek.) speleon; (Italian.)
grotta; (Russian.) grot; (Spanish.) gruta;
(Turkish.) magarauk; (Yugoslavian.) nisa.
ground air. See soil air.
ground slope. The inclination of the land
surface with the horizontal^61.
ground water, phreatic water 1 The part
of the subsurface water that is in the
phreatic zone[10]. Its lower limits are the
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zone of rock flowage or the lowest fully
confining bed; its upper limits are the
uppermost fully confining bed or the water
table[16]. 2. Used loosely and incorrectly by
some to refer to any water beneath the
surface. See also phreas; phreatic water,
phreatic zone.
ground-water artery. A tubular body of
permeable water-filled material surrounded
by confining beds[16].
ground-water barrier. Rock or artificial
material that has a relatively low
permeability and that occurs below the land
surface, where it impedes the movement of
ground water and consequently causes a
pronounced difference in the potentiometric
surface on opposite sides of it[22].
ground-water basin. 1. A general term used
to define a ground-water flow system that
has defined boundaries and may include
permeable materials that are capable of
storing or furnishing a significant water
supply; the basin includes both the surface
area and the permeable materials beneath
it[22]. 2. The area throughout which ground
water drains toward the same point; it can
be larger than the accompanying surface
water drainage basin if permeable layers
extend outside of the topographic divide[16].
See also drainage basin.
ground-water cascade. The flow of ground
water over a subsurface barrier[16].
ground-water cement. A cementing material
precipitating at the water table[16].
ground water, confined. Ground water
under pressure significantly greater than
atmospheric and whose upper limit is the
bottom of a confining unit[22]. See also
confined; confining unit; confined aquifer.
ground-water dam. A geological stratum
serving as a subsurface dam[16].
ground-water discharge. 1. Flow of water
from the zone of saturation[22]. 2. The
water released from the zone of
saturation1221.
ground-water divide. 1. A ridge in the water
table or other potentiometric surface from
which ground water moves away in both
directions normal to the ridge line[22]. 2. A
dividing line between two ground-water
basins. 3. In well hydraulics, the streamline
with no flow representing the boundary of
the aquifer region contributing to well
discharge[16]. See also divide. Synonyms:
divide; water-table divide.
ground-water flow. The movement of water
in the zone of saturation1221.
ground-water flux. The rate of ground-water
flow per unit area of porous or fractured
media measured perpendicular to the
direction of flow[22]. See also specific
discharge.
ground-water inventory The complete
quantitative accounting for all volumes of
ground water[16].
ground-water mound. A raised area in a
water table or other potentiometric surface
created by ground-water recharge[22].
ground water, perched Unconfmed ground
water separated from an underlying body of
ground water by an unsaturated zone. Its
water table is a perched water table.
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Perched ground water is held up by a
perching bed whose permeability is so low
that water percolating downward through it
is not able to bring water in the underlying
unsaturated zone above atmospheric
pressure[22]. See also perched ground
water.
ground-water pumping 1 Directed or
oscillatory ground-water movement, along
incipient fissures in the rock, that occurs
due to very small but significant relative
movements of the rocks themselves, maybe
as a diurnal, tidal process. It may be one of
the driving mechanisms of the earliest,
inception, phase of speleogenesis[9]. The
pumping of a water well to provide water
for drinking, irrigation, and manufacturing.
but may also be conducted for dewatering
purposes.
ground-water recharge The process of
water addition to the saturated zone or the
volume of water added by this process[22].
ground-water reservoir. A reservoir in the
void space beneath the water table[16].
ground-water system. A ground-water
reservoir and its contained water. Also, the
collective hydrodynamical and geochemical
processes at work in the reservoir[22].
ground-water table. The surface between
the zone of saturation and the zone of
aeration. Also, the surface of an
unconfmed aquifer[6]. Synonym: water
table.
ground-water travel time 1 The
time-required for ground water to travel
between two locations[22]. 2. The time
required for a unit volume of ground water
to travel between two locations. The travel
time is the length of the flow path divided
by the velocity, where velocity is the
average ground-water flux passing through
the cross-sectional area of the geologic
medium through which flow occurs,
perpendicular to the flow direction, divided
by the effective porosity along the flow
path. If discrete segments of the flow path
have different hydrologic properties, the
total travel time will be the sum of the travel
times for each discrete segment[22].
ground water, unconfined. Water in an
aquifer that has a water table. Synonymous
with phreatic ground water[22].
grout. A fluid mixture of cement and water
(neat cement) of a consistency that can be
forced through a pipe and placed where
required. Various additives, such as sand,
bentonite, and hydrated lime may be
included in the mixture to meet certain
requirements. Bentonite and water are
sometimes used for grout[6].
grout curtain. The filling of void spaces in
rocks to prevent the flow of water into and
through the rock; most commonly
associated with dams.
grouting. The operation by which grout is
placed between the casing and the sides of
a well bore to a predetermined height above
the bottom of the well. This secures the
casing in place and excludes water and
other fluids from the well bore[6].
griinkarst. See subsoil karst.
gryke. See grike.
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guano. An accumulated deposit of animal
excrement. In caves it is most commonly
associated with bat colonies, but cave-
dwelling birds such as swifts may also
contribute. Guano is abundant only in
tropical regions and may be dry and
powdery, or a foul, wet sludge — as in the
Niah Caves of Sarawak. It is a vital food
source for many troglobites. Consisting
mainly of phosphates and nitrate, it is
valued as a fertilizer or an ingredient of
explosives and has commonly been mined.
Over 100,000 tons of bat guano have been
extracted from Carlsbad Caverns, USA[9].
See also cave guano.
guano cave. A cave containing large amounts
of guano[13]. See also cave guano.
gulf. Steep-walled closed depression having a
flat alluviated bottom; in some gulfs a
stream flows across the bottom[10].
gull. A widened fissure formed by land
slipping along valley sides, generally where
massive beds such as limestone overlie
weaker rocks[9]. See also tectonic cave;
windypit.
gully. A deep erosional channel[16].
gushing spring. See spring, vauclusian.
gypsum. 1. White or colorless mineral or
rock composed of hydrated calcium sulfate,
CaSO4.2H2O. Gypsum rock is an evaporite
precipitated from sea water and is therefore
soluble in water and may contain
dissolutional caves. Mineral gypsum is
formed in some caves by reactions between
the host limestone and sulfates (including
sulphuric acid) derived from oxidized
sulfide minerals (see pyrite). Gypsum, also
referred to as selenite, commonly occurs as
transparent crystals, blades, needles, or
fibers in cave clay deposits. A more
spectacular form is as fibrous or curved
crystals that may develop into cave flowers
on cave walls and ceilings, as for example in
parts of the Flint Mammoth Cave System,
USA, or grow into large, hanging
chandeliers, as in Lechuguilla Cave, New
Mexico[9]. 2. A mineral composed of
hydrous calcium sulfate[10], CaSCy2H2O.
gypsum cave. Both vadose and phreatic
caves can form in gypsum, which is very
soluble in water, but they are uncommon
because gypsum rock rarely survives total
dissolution in the near-surface environments
associated with explorable caves. Gypsum
caves certainly exist at depth within buried
evaporate sequences. In areas of wet
climate, gypsum caves are generally seen
only if encountered by man-made
excavations. In contrast, gypsum caves are
more common and more extensive in areas
that have experienced a long period of
dominantly arid climate. The most
spectacular gypsum caves are in the Podolie
region of the Ukraine, where joint guided
maze-cave systems are very extensive —
Optimisticeskaja has around 180 km of
passsage[9].
gypsum flower. See cave flower.
gypsum karst. A karst landscape developed
on, or perhaps above, gypsum or similar
evaporite rock sequences. Dissolution of
gypsum by ground water in buried
interstratal situations is common, and the
effects of such dissolution may be expressed
at the land surface in the form of subsidence
depressions. There are extensive areas of
gypsum karst in North America and the
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Ukraine, but British examples are limited to
rare caves exposed by quarrying, and
subsidence depressions above dissolved
gypsum beds, such as those around Ripon,
Yorkshire191.
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H
hade. The angle of inclination of a fault (or
joint) plane measured relative to the
vertical[9]. See also dip.
Hagen-Poiseuille equation The equation
used to define the laminar flow of water in
either fractures or tubes and is given as
0 = -
dh
12// dL
for laminar flow in fractures
and
o = -
dh
dL
for laminar flow in tubes which states that
the average volumetric discharge of flow
through either type of opening is directly
proportional to the type, shape, and
dimensions of a particular pore and the
hydraulic gradient[5]. Note: Q=discharge,
w=width of the fissure, b=open portion of
the long dimension of the fissure, r=radius
of the tube, y and // are the specific weight
and dynamic viscosity of water respectively,
dh/dL=gradient, and a minus sign is
attached to the equations to indicate that
flow occurs in the direction of deceasing
hydraulic head.
Halbhohle. (German.) See rock shelter.
Halbkugelkarst. (German.) Tropical karst
topography containing dome-shaped
residual hills surrounding depressions, a
kind of Kegelkarst. Also called
Kugelkarst[10].
half-exposed karren Patches of soil on
otherwise bare limestone that attack the
rock by means of biogenic CO2[3].
half-blind valley. Blind valley in which the
stream overflows in floodtime when the
swallow hole can not accept all the
water[10].
half tube; half-tube. 1. An inverted channel
with semicircular cross section seen in cave-
passage ceilings, most clearly where the
ceiling is an uneroded bedding surface. The
half tube originates as part of a phreatic
tube guided by the bedding plane, and the
lower half is subsequently removed by
vadose enlargement. The presence of half
tubes provides important evidence of early
phreatic-cave developmental 2. Trace of a
tube remaining in the roof or wall of a
cave[10]. See also tube.
halite. The mineral form of sodium chloride
(NaCl), or rock salt. Halite occurs,
sometimes to considerable thicknesses, in
many buried-rock successions, from which
it has been extracted both by mining and by
redissolving it in water pumped from and
back to the surface. The existence of brine
springs indicates that natural water
movement occurs through buried halite
sequences, presumably through voids that
could be thought of as caves. Although
distinctive halite (or salt) karst features are
known in some arid areas, a range of
features analogous to those found on
karstic rocks such as limestone are unlikely
to form, and less likely to be preserved,
because of halite's relative weakness and
very high solubility. In Britain expressions
of salt karstification are limited to relatively
subdued surface features. The "flashes" of
the Cheshire area are hollows, sometimes
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transformed into water-filled meres, formed
by subsidence of overlying rocks and
superficial deposits where salt has been
dissolved from buried halite beds of Triassic
age[9].
hall. In a cave, a lofty chamber which is much
longer than it is wide[10]. See also gallery.
halocline. A locally steep salinity gradient
along the interface between fresh ground
water and saline ground water, such as is
found at the base of the fresh-water lens
common beneath many limestone islands in
the tropics. Water mixing and microbial
activity are important influences on
dissolution along the halocline, as shown
for instance in blue holes[9].
halomorphic soil. Saline and alkali soils.
hanging blade. A blade projecting down
from the ceiling[10]. See also blade.
hannayite. A cave mineral —
(NH4)2Mg3H4(P04)4-8H20[11].
hardening. The process of induration[16].
hardness. 1. Property of water that prevents
lathering because of the presence of cations,
mainly calcium and magnesium, which form
insoluble soaps[10]. 2. The sum of calcium
and magnesium ions expressed as the
equivalent amount of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3)[16]. 3. The property to form
insoluble salts of fatty acid (soap)[16].
hardpan. This develops when there are
secondary calcium carbonate cementations
in the lower part of the soil profile[16].
Synonym: mortar bed. See also caliche;
havara; nari.
havara. Name given in Cyprus to a soft
porous carbonate formation, up to several
meters thick, found capping many
formations and containing fragments and
minerals derived from older rocks; it is
probably a type of hardpan or caliche[20].
See also caliche; kafkalla.
haystack hill. (Puerto Rican.) In the tropics,
rounded conical hill of limestone developed
as a result of solution. Term replaced by
mogote[W\ Synonyms: (French.) mogote;
(German.) Mogote; (Italian.) mogote,
rilievo carsico residuo; (Spanish.) mogote;
(Turkish.) konik kirecta^i tepesi;
(Yugoslavian.) hum. See also mogote.
head. The energy contained in a water mass,
produced by elevation, pressure, or
velocity[6].
head loss. That part of head energy which is
lost because of friction as water flows[6].
head, static. The height above a standard
datum of the surface of a column of water
(or other liquid) that can be supported by
the static pressure at a given point. The
static head is the sum of the elevation head
and the pressure head[22].
head, total. The total head of a liquid at a
given point is the sum of three components:
(a) the elevation head, which is equal to the
elevation of the point above a datum, (b)
the pressure head, which is the height of a
column of static water that can be
supported by the static pressure at the
point, and (c) the velocity head, which is the
height to which the kinetic energy of the
liquid is capable of lifting the liquid[22].
head water. The upper reach of a stream[16].
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heat of condensation The heat released in
transforming a substance from its vapor to
its liquid state[16].
heat of vaporization. The heat necessary to
change water from the liquid to the gaseous
state[16].
heel-print karren. See Trittkarren.
helictite. 1. Generally small variety of
stalactitic calcite growth that is twisted and
contorted with no apparent regard for
gravity. Helictites form on cave walls,
ceilings, and stalactites. The growth
develops as seepage water loses carbon
dioxide from near its tip, having been
supplied to that point by capillary action
through a fine central canal. The helictite
shape is created by crystal lattice distortion
and crystal form changes within the calcite,
but what causes these is uncertain.
Impurities may play a role, and rare groups
of parallel growing helictites may be wind-
guided[9]. 2. Irregular, twiglike, crystalline
growths with varying orientations but often
in crystal continuity, formed in caves by
precipitation from bicarbonate solutions1201.
3. A curved or angular twiglike lateral
projection of calcium carbonate having a
tiny central canal, found in caves[10]. Also
known as eccentric anemolite[20]; eccentric
stalactite. Synonyms: (French.)
excentrique; (German.) exzentrisch
gekriimmter, Tropfstein, Excentriques;
(Greek.) stalaktits akanonistos; (Italian.)
stalattiti anomale, eccentiche; (Spanish.)
estalactita excentrica; (Turkish.) duzensiz
sarkit; (Yugoslavian.) heliktit. Related to
curtain, dripstone., speleothem.
heligmite. An eccentric growing upward
from a cave floor or from a shelf in a cave.
A curved or angular thin stalagmite[10].
hematite. A cave mineral — Fe2O3[11].
hemimorphite. A cave mineral —
Zn4Si2O7(OH)2-H2O[11].
heterogeneity. A characteristic of a medium
in which material properties vary from point
to point1
22]
heterogeneous. The unequal spacial
distribution of aquifer properties1161.
hexahydrite. A cave mineral —
MgSO4-6H2O[11].
hibbenite. A cave mineral
Zn7(PO4)4(OH)2-7H2O[11].
hod. See aisle.
holokarst. 1. Karst area with little or no
surface runoff or streams; it is underlain by
thick carbonate rocks and is characterized
by well-developed karst surface topography
from karren to poljes and extensive
subsurface karst features like caves,
caverns, galleries, chimneys, etc[20]. 2.
Cvijic's term for a karst area like that of the
Dinaric Karst of Slovenia. Such areas have
bare surfaces on thick deposits of limestone
that extend below sea level, well-developed
karren, dolines, uvalas, poljes, deep ponors,
and extensive cave systems; they have little
or no surface drainage[10]. Synonyms:
(French.) holokarst; (German.) Holokarst;
(Greek.) holokarst; (Italian.) olocarsismo,
carsismo, maturo; (Spanish.) holokarst;
(Turkish.) tarn karst; (Yugoslavian.)
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potpuni kfs (kras), holokarst. Contrast
causse, merokarst.
homogeneity. A characteristic of a medium in
which material properties are identical
every where[22].
homogeneous. The even spacial distribution
of aquifer properties1161.
homogeneous fluid. A fluid that occurs in a
single phase[16].
hook gage. A gage for the precise position
measurement of liquid levels[16].
hopeite. A cave mineral —
Zn3(P04)2-4H20[11].
horst. A block having been uplifted along its
boundary faults[16].
Horton number. Expresses the relative
intensity of erosion process in a drainage
basin[16].
hot-seat rappel. A method of rappelling in a
cave with the rope running under one leg,
up across the opposite shoulder and
controlled with a hand. The friction of the
rope on the body creates a lot of heat,
hence its name[13].
hoya, hoyo. (Spanish.) A very large closed
depression. Used in Puerto Rico for doline,
in Cuba forpoljelw\
hum. 1. Karst inselberg. Residual hill of
limestone on a fairly level floor, such as the
isolated hills of limestone in poljes. In some
tropical areas, used loosely as synonym for
mogote[10]. 2. Yugoslavian term for an
isolated residual hill on the bottom of a
polje[20]. Synonyms: (French.)butte temoin;
(German.) (Karstinselberg), Hum; (Greek.)
karstiki martyree lophi; (Italian.) testimoni
carsici; (Russian.) karstovij ostanec;
(Spanish.) hum; (Turkish.) karst adatepesi;
(Yugoslavian.) hum. See also karst
inselberg; mogote.
humidity, absolute. The moisture content by
weight per unit volume of air[16].
humus-water grooves. This is a special type
of meandering karren or wall karren in
which the water originated in humus
covering. Water originating from a humus
cover has an excess of CO2 and is therefore
very aggressive and can dissolve large
amounts of limestone. Thus humus-water
grooves can be very deep but after
approximately 2-3 meters, the grooves
flatten out and continue as normal meanders
or wall karren[3]. See also meander karren;
wall karren.
huntite. A cave mineral — CaMg3(CO3)4[11].
hydration. The act by which a substance
takes up water by absorption and/or
adsorption[6].
hydraulic barrier. A general term referring
to modifications of a ground-water flow
system to restrict or impede movement of
contaminants1221.
hydraulic conductivity. 1. A proportionality
constant relating hydraulic gradient to
specific discharge, which for an isotropic
medium and homogeneous fluid equals the
volume of water at the existing kinematic
viscosity that will move in unit time under a
unit hydraulic gradient through a unit area
measured at right angles to the direction of
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flow[22]. 2. The volume of water that will
move through a medium in a unit of time
under a unit hydraulic gradient through a
unit area measured perpendicular to the
direction of flow[22]. 3. The ability of a rock
unit to conduct water under specified
conditions[10]. It is typically expressed as
gpd/ft2, ft/day, or m/day.
hydraulic conductivity, effective. The rate
of flow of water through a porous medium
that contains more than one fluid, such as
water and air in the unsaturated zone, and
which should be specified in terms of both
the fluid type and content and the existing
pressure.
hydraulic diffusivity
hydraulic.
See diffusivity,
hydraulic discharge The discharge of
ground water through springs or wells[16].
hydraulic fracturing. The formation of
artificial fractures in rock systems around a
well by high pressure fluid injections1161.
hydraulic gradient. 1. The change in static
head per unit of distance in a given
direction. If not specified, the direction
generally is understood to be that of the
maximum rate of decrease in head[22]. 2.
Slope of the water table or potentiometric
surface[22]. 3. A chance in the static
pressure of ground water expressed in
terms of the height of water above a datum,
per unit of distance in a given directon[22].
hydraulic head. The height above a datum
plane (such as sea level) of the column of
water that can be supported by the
hydraulic pressure at a given point in a
ground-water system. For a well, the
hydraulic head is equal to the distance
between the water level in the well and the
datum plane[22].
hydraulic jump 1 A standing surge of
water passing from below critical depth in
open channel flow[16]; often occurs in caves.
2. An abrupt depth variation in rapidly
varying channel flow[16].
hydraulic profile. A vertical section of the
potentiometric surface[16].
hydraulic radius. The ratio of the filled
cross-sectional area to wetted perimeter[16].
hydrochemical facies. Distinct zones that
have cation and anion concentrations of
diagnostic chemical character of water
solutions in hydrologic systems that are
describable within defined composition
categories'
22]
hydrocompaction. The process of volume
decrease and density increase that occurs
when moisture-deficient deposits compact
as they are wetted for the first time since
burial[21]. Synonym: shallow subsidence.
hydrogeologic. Those factors that deal with
subsurface waters and related geologic
aspects of surface waters.
hydrograph, characteristic. A hydrograph
based on the unit step process.
hydrodynamic dispersion. 1. The spreading
(at the macroscopic level) of the solute
front during transport resulting from both
mechanical dispersion and molecular
diffusion[22]. 2. The dynamic dispersion of
fluid particles in flow through a porous
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medium due to velocity changes in the pore
channels1161.
hydrodynamic dispersion, coefficient of.
See dispersion coefficient.
hydrogeochemistry. The geochemistry of
water as related to the occurrence of
subsurface water[16].
hydrogeologic. Those factors that deal with
subsurface waters and related geologic
aspects of surface waters[6].
hydrogeologic unit. 1. Any soil or rock unit
or zone which by virtue of its hydraulic
properties has a distinct influence on the
storage or movement of ground water[22].
2. Means a soil or rock unit or zone which
by virtue of its porosity or permeability, or
lack thereof, has a distinct influence on the
storage or movement of ground water[22].
hydrogeology. The study of subsurface
waters in their geological context[16].
hydrograph. 1. A graph relating stage, flow,
velocity, or other characteristics of water
with respect to time[22]. 2. A time record of
stream discharge at a given cross section of
the stream or of the stream surface
elevation at a given point[16].
hydrograph separation. The separation of a
hydrograph into its different components to
analyze flow contributions[16].
hydrography. The geographical description
of water bodies on the earth's surface[16].
hydrologic barrier. See barrier, hydrologic.
hydrologic budget. The quantitative
accounting of all water volumes and their
changes over time for a given basin or
province[16].
hydrologic properties. Those properties of a
rock that govern the entrance of water and
the capacity to hold transmit, and deliver
water, such as porosity, effective porosity,
specific retention, permeability, and the
directions of maximum and minimum
permeabilities[22].
hydrology. The study of atmospheric,
surface, and subsurface waters and their
connection with the water cycle[16].
hydromagnesite. A cave mineral —
Mg5(C03)4(OH)2-4H20[11].
hydrometeorology. Meteorology dealing
with water in the atmosphere[16].
hydrometric station. A station at which
there usually are a number of hydrometric
measurements being performed[16].
hydrometry. The science of water
measurements[16].
hydrophilic. Having a great affinity for
water[16].
hydrophobic. The repelling of water[16].
hydrophyte. A plant requiring large amounts
of moisture for growth[16].
hydroscopic coefficient. The amount of
absorbed water on the surface of soil
particles in an atmosphere of 50% relative
humidity at 25 °C[16].
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hydroscopic water. Condensed water at a
solid surface[16].
hydrosphere. That part of the earth that
contains liquid or solid water[16].
hydrostratigraphic unit See hydrogeologic
unit.
hydroxylapatite A cave mineral —
Ca5(P04)3(OH)[nl
hydrozincite A cave mineral —
hyetograph. A graph of rainfall intensity
against time[16].
hygrometer. Apparatus for the direct
measurement of the relative humidity in the
atmosphere[16].
hygroscopic nucleus. Small solid particles
around which water condensates (cloud
formation)1161.
hypolimnion. A deep layer in stratified
water[16].
hypogean. Pertaining to, or living in, regions
deeper than the endogean zone. See also
epigean.
87
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ice. Crystallized water formed below the
freezing point (H2O)[16].
ice cave. 1. Any cave in rock that is partly
filled with ice. The term should not be
applied to glacier caves. The ice may form
in massive icicles and flows, when
percolation water from unfrozen rock seeps
into a cave containing freezing air drawn in
from outside. This is a seasonal situation in
many alpine caves, and if winter freezing
exceeds summer melting the ice may
become permanent, as in Austria's
Dachstein and Eisriesenwelt caves.
Alternatively water vapor may crystallize
out as hoar frost, commonly forming large
hexagonal ice crystals that line the walls of
a freezing cave, as in Grotte Valerie,
northern Canada[9]. 2. A cave, generally in
lava or limestone, in which the average tem-
perature is below 0°C., and which
ordinarily contains perennial ice. Ice may
have the form of stalactites, stalagmites, or
flowstone[10]. (French.)glaciere; (German.)
Eishohle; (Greek.) paghomenon spileon;
(Italian.) ghiacciata natumle, grotta
ghiacciata; (Russian.) ledjanaja pescera;
(Spanish.) cueva helada, cueva de hielo;
(Turkish.) buz magarasi; (Yugoslavian.)
ledena pecina, ledenjdca, ledena jama.
See glacier cave.
illite. A clay mineral.
imbibition. 1. The absorption of a fluid,
usually water, by a granular rock or other
porous material, under the force of capillary
attraction, and in the presence of pressure.
2. Fluid displacement in porous media as a
result of capillary forces only[16]. 3.
Absorption of water by plants. Synonym:
capillary percolation.
immiscible. 1. Two or more liquids that are
not readily soluble[22]. 2. The chemical
property of two or more phases that, at
mutual equilibrium, cannot dissolve
completely in one another, e.g., oil and
water[22]. 3. The quality of liquids
exhibiting a clear interface where they are in
contact; not miscible[16].
impermeable. A characteristic of some
geologic materials that limits their ability to
transmit significant quantities of water
under the pressure differences ordinarily
found in the sub surf ace[22].
impervious. Not permitting the flow of
water[16].
impervious lens. An impermeable, lens-
shaped body of sediment in an otherwise
permeable aquifer[16].
imported water. Water coming from outside
the ground-water basin under
consideration[16].
impound. The collecting of water by
damming[16].
inception. The earliest stage of speleogenesis.
The start of the inception phase marks the
transition from "rock with no caves" (in the
widest sense) to "rock with caves," and
extends through whatever time interval is
required for gravitational laminar flow
conditions to be established in a given
situation (see gestation and initiation)^.
inception horizon. A part of a rock
succession that is particularly susceptible to
-------
the effects of the earliest cave-forming
processes and hence is critical to the origin
of most nontectonic caves. By virtue of
physical, lithological, or chemical deviation
from the predominant carbonate facies
within the sequence, it passively or actively
favors the localized inception of
dissolutional activity[9]. See also inception.
incision. See entrenchment.
initiation. The early parts of speleogenesis,
generally up to the point of breakthrough
from laminar to turbulent flow, at an
average conduit diameter of 10 mm.
Initiation includes, but is not the same as,
inception[9].
inclinometer. An instrument to measure the
inclination of surfaces[16].
incoherent material.
material1161.
Unconsolidated
incrustation. 1. Deposition of a crust (of
calcite, etc.) upon an object by precipitation
from water oversaturated with salts
(calcium bicarbonate, etc.)[20]. 2. The
deposition of mineral matter by water[16].
Synonyms: (French.) incrustation;
(German.) Krustenbildung; (Greek.)
epiphlioma; (Italian.) incrostazione;
(Russian.) obrazovanie natecnih kor;
(Spanish.) incmstcion; (Turkish.) kabuk
baglama, kabukla^ma; (Yugoslavian.)
inkrustacija.
induced activity. The activity or response of
a system that has been subjected to an
artificial excitation[16].
induced infiltration. An increase in
infiltration from a surface water body by the
lowering of the original water table[16].
induced recharge. A method of withdrawing
ground water at strategic points to induce
natural recharge[16].
indurated rock. A rock that has been
hardened and solidified by diagenetic
processes1161.
infiltrability. The ease of infiltration[16].
infiltration. The downward entry of water
into the soil or rock[22].
infiltration basin. A basin in which water is
spread for recharge.
infiltration capacity The maximum rate at
which a soil or rock is capable of absorbing
water or limiting infiltration[22].
infiltration gallery. A horizontal conduit for
the purpose of intercepting ground water[16].
infiltration index. The average rate of
infiltration throughout a given rain storm[16].
infiltration rate. 1. The rate at which a soil
or rock under specified conditions absorbs
falling rain, melting snow, or surface water,
expressed in depth of water per unit time[22].
2. A characteristic describing the maximum
rate at which water can enter the soil or
rock, under specified conditions, including
the presence of an excess of water. It has
the dimensions of velocity[22].
infiltrometer. Apparatus for measuring the
amount of infiltration[16].
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inflow cave, influent cave. Cave into which
a stream flows or formerly entered[10].
influent stream. See losing stream.
initial abstraction. The maximum amount of
rainfall absorbed without producing
runoff™.
inject, to. 1. The introduction of pressurized
fluids into a porous subsurface format!on[16].
2. The introduction of tracer materials (e.g.,
fluorescent dyes) into the subsurface.
injection head. A swivel head connector
through which drilling fluid is injected into
the drill pipe[16].
injection well. Well used for emplacing fluids
into the sub surface[22].
injection zone. A geological "formation,"
group of formations, or part of a formation
receiving fluids through a well.
injectivity. The capacity of a well or
formation to accommodate pumped-in
liquid[16].
inlet cave. A cave developed beneath a
swallow hole where a surface watercourse
first passes underground in karst
limestone[19].
input point. Points where water enters an
underground drainage route or aquifer. An
obvious type of input point is a surface sink
or swallow hole, where allogenic drainage
has direct access to a conduit system within
a carbonate aquifer. Less obvious are
points where drainage enters a potential
carbonate conduit-system from adjacent
noncarbonate strata (such as a porous
sandstone aquifer) or where water utilizes a
fracture system to pass through otherwise
relatively impermeable beds and into the
carbonate aquifer[9].
in-situ density. The density of water
measured at its actual depth[22]. See also
potential density.
insulated stream. A stream neither receiving
nor abstracting water from a ground-water
body because of an impermeable bed[16].
insurgence. A term proposed to describe a
point of inflow for surface water into
subsurface conduits. It has not gained wide
usage and is not recommended for use.
Diffuse insurgence may be used to describe
the slow percolation of water through
overburden and tight pores in the rock.
Confluent insurgence may be applied to
water entering the rock via identifiable
streams sinking into the subsurface while a
confluent insurgence complex would apply
to a cluster of insurgences. Abandoned
insurgences is the term applied to inflow
points no longer used by infiltrating water.
An overflow insurgence is the term used to
describe insurgences utilized only during
periods of high flow[12].
intake area, recharge area The surface area
in which water is absorbed into an aquifer,
eventually to reach the zone of
saturation[10].
interaquifer flow. The flow that occurs
between aquifers through fracture openings
or through the wellbore[16].
interbedded. Pertaining to beds or
sedimentary material intercalated in a
parallel fashion into a main stratum[16].
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interbedding. A bed between layers of
different material[16].
interception. The abstraction of direct
rainfall on vegetation cover[16].
interception loss. That part of rainfall
retained by the aerial portion of vegetative
cover[16].
interdigitation. The lateral interlocking of
sedimentary series[16].
interface. 1. The contact zone between two
materials of different chemical or physical
composition[22]. 2. The contact plane of
two immiscible liquids[16].
interference. The condition occurring when
the area of influence of a water well comes
into contact with or overlaps that of a
neighboring well, as when two wells are
pumping from the same aquifer or are
located near each other[6].
interflow. Subsurface runoff1161.
intergranular stress The stress between
grains in a solid matrix[16].
intergranular voids. Generally primary or
secondarily enhanced voids within rocks,
with average dimensions of 0.001 to 0.1
mm. Such voids, or pores, may provide
interconnected porosity in many karst rocks
and allow early water movement under
laminar flow conditions[9].
intermittent spring. See spring, intermittent.
intermittent stream, intermittent river. 1.
A stream or river that flows only in direct
response to precipitation or to intermittent
discharge of a spring; not confined to karst
areas, but not uncommon in them[20]. 2. A
stream or river that flows at irregular
intervals[16]. Synonyms: (French.) cours
d'eau intermittent; (German.)
intermittierender Fluss, episodischer
periodischer Fluss; (Greek.) dialipon
potamos; (Italian.) torrents intermittente;
(Spanish.) corriente intermitente; (Turkish.)
kesintili akarsu; (Yugoslavian.) sus ica,
suvaja. Contrast with interrupted river.
intermontane basin. A basin lying between
two mountain ranges[16].
internal drainage. Drainage in a closed basin
and not reaching the sea[16]. It is common in
maturely karsted terranes where surface
water bodies are relatively nonexistent.
interrupted river, interrupted stream 1 A
river that flows for part of its course on the
surface, and part underground in caves[20].
2. A stream interrupted over space[16]. 3. A
discontinuous stream[16]. Synonyms:
(French.) riviere interrompue; (German.)
periodischer Fluss, Karstfluss,
versickernder Fluss; (Greek.)
thiakekomenos potamos; (Russian.)
peresihauchajreka, syhajareka; (Spanish.)
rio sumente; (Turkish.}yeryer akan nehir;
(Yugoslavian.) susica, suvaja, periodicka
rijeka (reka). See also lost river;
intermittent stream.
interstice. 1. An opening in a rock or soil that
is not occupied by solid matter[22]. 2. An
opening or space that may be occupied by
air, water, or other gaseous or liquid
material[22]. Synonymous with void, pore.
See also pore; pore space; porosity;
porosity, effective; porosity, primary;
porosity, secondary.
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interstitial ice. Ice occurring below the
surface in soil pores[16].
interstitial water. Water held in small wedge
like interstices at grain contact[16].
interstratal karst; interstratal
karstification. 1. Features formed by the
dissolutional removal of all or part of a
buried rock unit. Interstratal-karst features
are common within highly soluble evaporite
rocks such as gypsum and halite, and may
be equally common, but less readily
recognized, within the preserved remnants
of carbonate successions. Interstratal karst
should not be confused with buried karst.
The finest interstratal karst in Britain is the
extensive cave development in the
limestones beneath the Namurian Millstone
Grit plateaux of South Wales, where the
large collapse dolines in the Millstone Grit
are interstratal-karst landforms[9]. 2. The
process of karstification of highly soluble
rocks (e.g., gypsum, anhydrate, and salt)
that are overlain by less soluble rocks (e.g.,
shales), but are still selectively dissolved by
circulating ground water[10].
interstratal karst. Karst topography that is
covered by and developed beneath pre-karst
rock or sediment and may or may not be
part of the contemporary landscape. It is
younger than its cover and is formed by the
solution of soluble rock in the subsurface,
most commonly beneath relatively insoluble
rock such as sandstone or chert. The term
refers to areal solution rather than to cave
development but is also applicable to
rejuvenated mantled karst and rejuvenated
buried karst. Subsoil karst is transitional to
interstratal karst[17]. Synonyms: (French.)
karst sous-jacent; (German.) unterirdisches
Karstphdnomen; (Greek.) kalymenon karst;
(Italian.) carso coperto; (Spanish.) karst
interstradal; (Turkish.) tabakalar arasi
karst. See also buried karst; denuded karst;
covered karst.
inter-permafrost karst. See permafrost
karst; sub-permafrost karst.
intrinsic permeability. See permeability,
intrinsic.
inundation. The covering of an area by flood
waters[16].
invaded zone. In geophysical well logging,
the zone in which an appreciable amount of
mud filtrate has penetrated[16].
invasion. In geophysical well logging, the
penetration of a fluid into the porous
medium[16].
invasion depth. The depth to which drilling
mud filtrate penetrates into a formation1161.
inverted siphon. See water trap.
ion. An element or compound that has gained
or lost an electron so that it is no longer
neutral electrically and now carries a
charge[6].
ion mobility. The ease with which ions move
in an electrolytical solution[16].
irreducible saturation The lowest water
saturation obtainable by mechanical
reduction methods[16].
irrigation. The artificial watering of fields for
crop production1161.
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irrigation requirement. The water needed
for crop production exclusive of
precipitation1161.
irrigation return flow. The part of artificially
applied water that is not consumed by
evapotranspiration and that migrates to an
aquifer or surface water body[22].
irrotation flow. Potential flow or flow with
no rotational component1161.
isobath. A line of equal depth[16].
isochrone. A line connecting water levels in
observation wells for a given instant in
time[16].
isohyet. A line of equal rainfall[16].
isopiestic line. A contour on a piezometric
surface connecting points of equal static
level[16].
isopleth. A line of equal distance from the
point of outflow of a basin[16].
isopotal line. A line of equal infiltration
capacity[16].
isotherm. A line of equal temperatures[16].
isotope tracer. Tracer that is an isotope of an
element present in the water; it may be
artificial (added to water) or natural
(present in the water)[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) traceur isotopique; (German.)
Markierung durch radioaktive Isotopen;
(Greek.) isotopicos ichnithetis; (Italian.)
tracciante isotopico; (Russian.) izotopnij
indikator; (Spanish.) trazador isotopico;
(Turkish.) izotop izleyicisi; (Yugoslavian.)
izotopni traser.
isotropic. Equal properties in all directions.
isotropic mass. A mass having the same
property or properties in all direct!ons[22].
isotropy. The condition in which the property
or properties of interest are the same in all
directions[22].
izdan. A general Yugoslavian term for a
ground-water reservoir from which ground
water may readily be extracted; it is not
specifically a karst term[20].
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jama. 1. (Slavic.) Vertical or steeply inclined
shaft in limestone, known as abime or aven
in France and as pothole in England. 2.
Any cave[10]. Synonyms: (French.) jama;
(German.) Abgrund, Schacht, Schlund;
(Greek.) karstikonphrear; (Italian.) abisso,
foiba,pozzo, voragine; (Russian.) karstovij
kolodec, karstovaja sahta; (Spanish.) sima,
pozo, avenc; (Turkish.) obruk;
(Yugoslavian.) bezdan, japaga, zvekara,
pekel, brezno,prepad.,propast. Related to
cenote, doline, obmk,pit, shaft, shake hole.
jarosite. A cave
KFe3(S04)2(OH)6[nl
mineral
joint. 1. A break of geological origin in the
continuity of a body of rock occurring
either singly, or more frequently in a set or
system, but not attended by a visible
movement parallel to the surface of the
discontinuity. 2. A junction or connection
of mechanical elements such as drill pipe[16].
See also fracture.
joint diagram. A diagram constructed by
accurately plotting the strike and dip of
joints to illustrate the geometrical
relationship of the joints within a specified
area of geologic investigation.
joint or fault set. A group of more or less
parallel joints or faults.
joint or fault system. A system consisting of
two or more joint or fault sets or any group
of joints or faults with a characteristic
pattern (e.g., radiating, concentric, etc.).
joint pattern. A group of joints that form a
characteristic geometrical relationship, and
that can vary considerably from one
location to another within the same
geologic formation.
joint-plane cave. A cavity high in relation to
width developed along steeply dipping joint
planes[10].
juvenile water. Water that has not been part
of the hydrosphere before and is derived
from the earth's interior[16].
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K
kafkalla. A term used in Cyprus for the
hardened upper portion of crust of
havara[20]. See also caliche; havara.
kame. A stratified glacial sand and gravel
deposit forming a small, conical hill[16].
Kamenica, Kamenitza. (German, possibly of
Slavic origin; plural, Kamenice.) A small
depression (a few meters in diameter and
several centimeters deep) in a level
calcareous surface, enlarged by the solution
effect of water collecting between slight
undulations. It is developed vertically at
first by stagnant water; the steep sides thus
evolved then induce the flow of water,
which flutes the slope and so eventually
widens the basin. Sediments and low
orders of plant life frequently collect on the
even floor, the latter aiding further solution
by reactivating the pH of the water[19].
Synonyms: (French.) kamenice; (German.)
Opferkessel; (Greek.) lakouva,ythrolakkos;
(Russian.) bljudoe; (Spanish.) cuenco,
tinajita; (Turkish.) crime tavasi;
(Yugoslavian.) kamenica, skalne kotlice,
scalba, skalnica. See also solution pan;
water pot.
kankar; kunkar. (Australian.) See caliche.
Kannelierungen.
Rillenkarren.
(German.) See
kaolin. A common clay mineral[16].
Karren. (German.) Channels or furrows,
caused by solution on massive bare
limestone surfaces; they vary in depth from
a few millimeters to more than a meter and
are separated by ridges. In modern usage,
the terms are general, describing the total
complex of superficial solution forms found
on compact pure limestone. Classified into
several kinds, the most common of which
are: Rillenkarren - shallow channels sepa-
rated by sharp ridges 2-3 centimeters apart;
Rinnenkarren - flat-bottomed grooves
several centimeters apart; Kluftkarren -
joints enlarged by solution; Spitzkarren -
large deep grooves extending down from
steep spires or pinnacles; meandering karren
{Mdanderkarren) - small winding or
meandering channels; round karren
(Rundkarren) - karren having rounded
channels and intervening rounded ridges,
probably reexhumed after formation under
soil or peat; Flachkarren - equivalent to the
English clint; Bodenkarren - karren formed
beneath the soil[10]. Synonyms: (French.)
lapies; (German.) Karren, Schratten;
(Greek.) thaktyloglyphae, amaxotrochiae;
(Italian.) campo solcato; (Russian.) karri;
(Spanish.) lapiaz; (Turkish.) erime olugu;
(Yugoslavian.) skrape, skripovi, grizine,
zlebici, skraplje.
Karren, free. Bare karst; water flows
unhindered over the limestone surface[3].
Karrenfeld; Karren field. (German.) An
area of limestone dominated by karren[10].
These appear as bare karst and consist of
the sum of exposed and half-exposed
karren, occasionally also of covered karren
that have become exposed. They range in
size from a few hectares to a few hundred
square kilometers[3]. Synonym: (Turkish.)
erime olugu alam. See also clint; grike.
karst. (Internationally used term, originally
the German form of the Slavic word "kras"
or "krs," meaning a bleak waterless place; it
is the German name for a district east of
95
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Trieste having such terrane.) A terrane,
generally underlain by limestone or
dolomite, in which the topography is chiefly
formed by the dissolving of rock, and which
may be characterized by sinkholes, sinking
streams, closed depressions, subterranean
drainage, and caves[10]. The term karst
unites specific morphological and
hydrological features in soluble (mostly
carbonate) rocks. Morphological features
include karren, dolinas (sinkholes), jamas,
ponors, uvalas, poljes, caves, caverns, etc.
Hydrological features include basins of
closed drainage, lost rivers, estavelles,
vauclusian springs, submarine springs, more
or less individualized underground streams,
and incongruity of surface and underground
divides. Karst is understood to be the result
of natural processes in and on the earth's
crust caused by solution and leaching of
limestones, dolomites, gypsum, halite, and
other soluble rocks[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) karst; (German.) Karst; (Greek.)
karst; (Italian.) carso, carsismo; (Russian.)
karst; (Spanish.) karst; (Turkish.) karst;
(Yugoslavian.) krs, kras. See also buried
karst; cone karst; covered karst; exhumed
karst; Halbkugelkarst; Holokarst;
Kegelkarst; Merokarst; microkarst; naked
karst; paleokarst;pseudokarst; relict karst;
Spitzkegelkarst; subjacent karst; syngenetic
karst; thermokarst; tower karst.
karst aquifer. See aquifer, karst.
karst barre (French.) 1. A karst terrane of
limited area completely surrounded by
rocks of low permeability[10]. 2. Term for
karst areas whose lower part is enclosed
and bordered by more or less impervious
rocks which impedes ground-water flow
out of the karst area. Synonyms: (French.)
karst barre; (German.) Riegelkarst;
(Greek.) phragmenon karst; (Spanish.)
karst cerrado; (Turkish.) setli karst;
(Yugoslavian.) zagaceni krs (kras), zajezeni
kras.
karst base level. Level below which
karstification does not or has not taken
place[10]. Synonyms: base level of
karstification[20]; (French.) niveau de base
karstique; (German.) Korrosionsniveau;
(Greek.) basis apokarstoseos, or better
"patomaapokarstoseos"; (Italian.) livellodi
base della attivitd carsica; (Spanish.) nivel
de base kdrstico; (Turkish.) karstla^ma
tabani; (Russian.) bazis karsta;
(Yugoslavian.) baza krskogprocesa, baza
karstifikacije, baza zakrasevanja.
karst breccia. See collapse breccia; solution
breccia.
karst bridge. A natural bridge or arch in
limestone[10].
karst couvert. (French.) See covered karst.
karst fens. 1. Marshes developed in sinkhole
terrain; swampy solution fens[10]. 2. Marsh
or swamp formed by plants overgrowing a
karst lake or seepage. Synonyms: (French.)
marais karstique; (German.) Karstsumpf;
(Greek.) karstikon elos; (Italian.) palude o
acquitrinio carsico; (Russian.) karstovoje
boloto; (Spanish.) laguna karstica;
(Turkish.) karst batakhgi; (Yugoslavian.)
lokva, kal.
karst fenster. See karst window.
karst fossile. (French.) See buried karst.
karst hydrology. 1. The branch of hydrology
dealing with hydrological phenomena on
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and in regions and areas composed totally
or in part of rocks that are soluble in water,
such as limestones, dolomites, gypsum, and
halite[20]. 2. The drainage phenomena of
karstified limestones, dolomites, and other
slowly soluble rocks[10]. Synonyms:
(French.) hydrologie karstique; (German.)
Hydrologie des Karsts; (Greek.) karstike
hydrologia; (Italian.) idrologia Corsica;
(Russian.) gidrologija karsta; (Spanish.)
hidrologia kdrstica; (Turkish.) karst
hidrolojisi; (Yugoslavian.) krska (kraska)
hidrologijd.
karst inselberg. A residual hill of soluble
rock in a polje[20]. Synonyms: (French.)
inselberg karstique; (German.)
Karstimelberg (Hum, Mogote); (Greek.)
karstiki martyres lophi; (Italian.) rilievo
carsico residue; (Russian.) karstovij
ostanec; (Spani sh.) relieve kdstico residual,
(Turkish.) karst tepesi; (Yugoslav! an.) hum.
karst lake. 1. Lakes on karst surface,
frequently connected with ground water;
lakes in subterranean hollows (caves and
caverns)[20]. 2. A large area of standing
water in extensive closed depression in
limestone[10]. Synonyms: (French.) lac de
karst; (German. )Karstsee; (Greek.) karstiki
limni; (Italian.) lago carsico; (Russian.)
karstovoe ozero; (Spanish.) lago karstico;
(Turkish.) karstik golu; (Yugoslavian.)
krsko (krasko)jezero.
karst margin plain. A plain generally on
limestone between higher country of
limestone on one side and of less pervious
rocks on the other, but having a cover of
impervious detritus, which allows surface
drainage[10].
karst noye. (French.) See drowned karst.
karst nu. (French.) See exposed karst.
karst plain. 1. Large flat surface in karst
formed by erosion and corrosion[20]. 2. A
plain on which closed depressions,
subterranean drainage, and other karst
features may be developed. Also called
"karst plateau"[10]. Synonyms: (French.)
plateau karstique; (German.) Karstebene,
Karstrandebene, Korrosionsfldche;
(Greek.) karstikonpedhion; (Italian.)piano
carsico; (Russian.) karstovaja ravnina;
(Spanish.) llanurakdrstica; (Turkish.) karst
ovasi; (Yugoslavian.) krskazaravan,povrs,
kraski ravnik. See also marginalpolje.
karst polje See polje.
karst pond. Closed depression in a karst area
containing standing water[10].
karst river. 1. A river (or stream) flowing in
a karstic area, either on the surface of the
ground or through an underground cave
system[20]. 2. A river that originates from a
karst spring[10]. Synonyms: (French.)
riviere karstique; (German.) Karstfluss;
(Greek.) karstikospotamos; (Italian.) corso
d'acqua carsico; (Russian.) karstovaja
reka; (Spanish.) rio karstico; (Turkish.)
karst nehiri; (Yugoslavian.) krska rijeka,
kraska reka.
karst seep. Place where karst ground water
oozes out at the surface of the ground;
sometimes overgrown and then forming a
karstfen[20]. Synonyms: (French.}suitement
karstique; (German.) Karstgrundwafier-
Austritt; (Greek.) karstiki thiaroi;
(Russian.) visacivanie karstovih vod;
(Spanish.) zona de absorcion; (Turkish.)
karst sizwtisi; (Yugoslavian.) mocilo.
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karst shaft. A vertical or steeply sided
natural opening a few tens to a few hundred
meters deep, formed by solution or erosion
of vertical or subvertical fractures or
fissures by downflowing surface water.
Such a pit, formed from above, may
connect with a chimney formed from below.
Synonyms: (French.) karst shaft; (German.)
Schacht, Schaft; (Greek.) karstikos lakkos;
(Italian.) voragine, inghiottitoio; (Russian.)
karstovaja sahta; (Spanish.) sima;
(Turkish.) karst bacasi; (Yugoslavian.)
jama. Related to dolina Jama., obruk, pit.
karst sous-jacent. (French.) See interstratal
karst.
karst spring. See spring, karst.
karst topography. Topography dominated
by features of solutional origin[10].
Geomorphically, the dominant features
usually but not always obviously present are
sinkholes and caves. In tropical regions,
karst towers (e.g., mogotes) may also
dominate the landscape.
karst valley. 1. Valleys in karst are normally
distinctive because of the lack of integrated
surface drainage. Most are either blind
(due to being closed where the drainage
sinks underground), headless or pocket
(where a river emerges from a spring), or
dry (where surface flow has been lost
through underground capture). The
exception is the allogenic valley, where a
river completely traverses a karst, normally
because underground conduits at or below
valley floor level are immature. Fine
examples of allogenic karst valleys are
Dove Dale in the Peak District and France's
Tarn Gorge[9]. 2. Elongated solution valley
in limestone[20]. 3. Valley produced by
collapse of a cavern roof™. Synonyms:
(French.) vallee karstique; (German.)
Karsttal, Karstgasse; (Greek.) Karstiki
kilds; (Italian.) voile carsica; (Russian.)
karstovaja dolina; (Spanish.) voile kdrstico;
(Turkish.) karst vadisi; (Yugoslavian.)
krska (kraska) dolina.
karst vert. See subsoil karst.
karst water. Water discharged from karst
springs that possesses characteristics,
primarily that of calcium content, indicating
solution during the passage of that water
across and through karst limestone. That
part of karst spring water which is derived
from watercourses sinking into the rock
(and therefore originates mainly on
impermeable rock) is said to be allogenic;
that which derives from precipitation over
the karst area alone is said to be
autochthonous - the distinction between
resurgence and exsurgence waters[19].
karst well. Term applied to features that
result from the solution enlargement and
rounding of joints (grikes) to produce
cylindrical pits[8]. See also grike; joint.
karst window. 1. Depression revealing a part
of a subterranean river flowing across its
floor, or an unroofed part of a cave. 2. A
small natural bridge or arch that can be seen
through[10]. 3. A through opening in natural
limestone walls, formed by the joining of
karst grottos as a result of dissolution
processes[20]. Synonyms: (French.)fenetre
karstique; (German. )Karstfenster; (Greek.)
karstikon parathyron; (Italian.) fmestra
carsica; (Russian.) karstovoe okno;
(Spanish.) dolina en ventana; (Turkish.)
karst penceresi; (Yugoslavian.) krsko
(krasko) okno.
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karstic. Occasionally used as the adjective
form of karst[10] and pertaining to karst
landforms or processes1191.
karstification. 1. The processes of solution
and infiltration by water, mainly chemical
but also mechanical, whereby the surface
features and subterranean drainage network
of a karstland are developed to form a karst
topography, including such surface features
as dolines, karren, and mogotes and such
subsurface features as caves and shafts. An
area currently or formerly undergoing
karstification, and thus characterized by
karst landforms, is said to be karstified[19].
2. The process by which karst is formed.
The term has been given a wide range of
meaning, from almost a synonym for
corrosion of soluble rocks by water to a
term comprising all processes responsible
for the development of karst features
including, besides corrosion, such
phenomena as mechanical erosion, jointing,
and faulting[20]. Synonyms: (French.)
karstification; (German.) Verkarstung;
(Greek.) apokarstosis; (Italian.)
cars ifi c a z i o n e ; (Russian.)
karstoobrazovanie; (Spanish.)
karstificacion; (Turkish.) karstla^ma;
(Yugoslavian.) okrsavanje, zakrasevanje,
karstifikacija.
karstland. A region characterized by karst
topography[10].
Karstrandebene. (German.) See karst
mar gin plain.
katavothron. (Greek.) A closed depression
or swallow hole[10].
Kegelkarst. (German.) A general term used
to describe several types of tropical humid
karst characterized by numerous, closely
spaced cone-, hemispherical-, or
tower-shaped hills having intervening closed
depressions and narrow steep-walled karst
valleys or passageways[10]. See also cockpit
karst; cone karst; Halbkugelkarst; tower
karst.
keld. See rising.
keyhole passage; keyhole. 1. This very
descriptive name derives from the cross-
sectional shape of a cave passage that
consists of a phreatic tube with a vadose
canyon cut in its floor. It is the classic
example of a two-phase cave passage that
originated and began its development in the
phreas and was then modified by vadose
entrenchment. As this sequence is the result
of water table lowering by normal surface
erosion, keyholes are common. Some
keyholes are so small that the lower slot is
impassable and the caver has to squeeze
along the upper tube; others are very large.
Spectacularly long is the 5 km of keyhole
forming the Fissures in Castleguard Cave,
Canada. A tube 6m in diameter tops an
irregular tapering canyon 15m deep that
must be traversed on sloping ledges at mid-
level[9]. 2. A small passage or opening in a
cave; in cross section, rounded at the top,
constricted in the middle, and rectangular or
flared out below[10]. They appear as
keyholes when viewed in cross section.
They are formed when underground
streams flowing in a tubular passage begin
downcutting to form a canyon passage[15].
See also canyon passage; passage; tubular
passage; vertical shaft.
klinkenberg effect. The slip of gas molecules
at the pore wall giving apparently higher
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permeability than would be obtained by
liquid measurements1161.
Kluft. See aisle.
Kluftkarren. (German.) See grike.
knobstone. Speleothem, larger, more
pronounced, and more widely separated
than cave coral[10].
knots. Various methods of securing or tying
ropes or webbing material together by
cavers[13]. See alsoprusik knot., prusiking.
kras; krs. A slavic word meaning "bleak,
waterless place," from which the term
"karst" is derived[10]. See also karst.
Kugelkarst. See Halbkugelkarst.
kunker. See caliche.
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laboratory coefficient of permeability,
standard coefficient of permeability
Permeability defined for controlled
temperature conditions (60°F) as gallons
per day per square foot (gpd/ft2) under a
unit gradient[16]. See also Meinzer unit.
labyrinth. See network, maze cave.
lacustrine formation A sedimentary
formation of lacustrine origin.
lag time. A time lapse between the onset of a
given event and the produced results[16].
lagoon. A body of relatively shallow water
near a sea shore, with or without a direct
connection to the sea[16].
lake. 1. As used in speleology, a body of
standing water too deep to walk across[10].
2. A body of fresh inland water[16].
laminar flow. Flow in which the head loss is
proportional to the first power of the
velocity[22]. Water flowing in a laminar
manner will have streamlines that remain
distinct and the flow direction at every
point remains unchanged with time.
Synonymous with streamline flow, viscous
flow.
lamination. The layering or very thin bedding
of sedimentary rocks[16].
landfill. A general term indicating a disposal
site for refuse, dirt from excavations,
junk[6], and hazardous wastes.
land-form. A topographic feature of the
earth's surface[16].
land pan. An evaporation pan used to
measure evaporation from a land surface;
the pan is usually mounted at the land
surface[16].
landslide. The sliding down of earth and rock
on a slope[16].
land subsidence. The subsidence of a surface
due to a loss of support[16]. Often occurs as
a result of overpumping underlying aquifers
or as a result of mining activities. In karst
terranes, subsidence can occur as a result of
man-made changes to the natural
hydrologic system (ground-water
withdrawals or storm-water injection) or as
a consequence of the natural dissolution
process. Subsidences may be sudden or
progress slowly over time.
land surface. That part of the lithosphere
usually not covered by water[16].
land-use. A particular utilization of a land
surface especially with respect to its
influence on the hydrologic cycle[16].
lapies (French; sometimes spelled lapies or
lapiaz.) Term for a region with outcrops of
small regular pillars, cones, or blocks of
carbonate rock[20]. Synonyms: (French.)
lapies; (German.) Karren; (Greek.) lapiaz,
lenar; (Italian.) lapia, solcato, carregiato;
(Russian.) karri; (Spanish.) lenar;
(Turkish.) erime olugu, lapya;
(Yugoslavian.) skrapa, grizine, bridine,
zlebici. See karren, rock-rill, grikes.
lateral moraine. A glacial deposit at the flank
of a glacier, often constituted by debris
from valley walls[16].
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laterite. A tropical ferruginous clay soil[16].
lateritic soil. A red-colored soil with high
iron oxide content[16].
lava bed. A lava flow of considerable areal
extent and relatively small thickness[16].
lava cave, lava tube. 1. A cave that formed
in a partly cooled, broadly basaltic or
phonolitic lava, not by erosion but by
molten material flowing away. In most
cases, an initial active lava conduit is
formed when a flowing surface lava stream
has a roof grow over it by accretion of
chilled solidified material. Insulated inside
its conduit, the lava can continue to flow
and develop an airspace above it, which is
preserved as an explorable cave when
completely cooled. Most lava caves are
just very long tubes, though branching and
multiple levels may occur as dictated by
flow patterns and re-invasions of older
tubes. On Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii, the
Kazumura Cave is 47 km long and descends
888m, but its tubes, mostly 5m in diameter,
lie less than 20 m beneath the sloping
surface of the lava[9]. 2. A cave in a lava
flow, generally formed by gas blistering the
surface or by lava flowing out from beneath
a solidified crust, forming a tube or tun-
nel[10]. 3. An empty tubular supply channel
from which liquid lava has drained[16]. See
also lava karst; pseudokarst.
lava karst. A nonkarst term. Subsurface
openings formed in lava flows due to
outflow of liquid lava from beneath a
solidified crust or due to gas blisters.
Tubes or tunnels are formed with such
pseudokarst features as lava stalactites and
also collapse structures and basins of closed
drainage. Lava karst does not arise through
solution of the rock by circulating water
and thus is not a true karst[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) pseudo-karst; (German.)
(Vulkanischer Karst)., Lava-Karst,
Pseudokarst; (Greek.) pseudokarst;
(Italian.) pseudocarsismo vulcanico;
(Spanish.) volcanokarst (general), tubo
volcanico (tube, tunnel), jameo (collapse
structure), malpafs (topographic feature
similar to lapies); (Turkish.) lav karsti, a
Idatici karst. See also lava cave;
pseudokarst.
layer. A sheetlike deposit of sediment[16].
Bed or stratum of rock[16].
leachate. 1. Materials removed by the process
of leaching[22]. 2. A liquid that has
percolated through soil rock or waste and
has extracted dissolved or suspended
materials[22].
leaching. 1. The removal of materials in
solution from soil, rock, or waste[22]. 2.
Separation or dissolving out of soluble
constituents from a porous medium by
percolation of water[22].
leak. An opening in an aquiclude that permits
penetration of water from other formations
into the main aquifer[16].
leakage. 1. The flow of water from one
hydrogeologic unit to another. The leakage
may be natural, as through semi-impervious
confining layer, or manmade, as through an
uncased well[22]. 2. The natural loss of
water from artificial structures as a result of
hydrostatic pressure[22].
leakage factor. The factor describing leakage
flow into or out of a leaky aquifer[16].
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leakance. 1. The ratio K'/b', in which K' and
b' are the vertical hydraulic conductivity
and the thickness, respectively, of the
confining beds[22]. 2. The rate of flow
across a unit (horizontal) area of a
semipervious layer into (or out of) an
aquifer under one unit of head difference
across this layer. Synonymous with
coefficient of leakage[22\
leaky aquifer. Aquifers, whether artesian or
water-table, that lose or gain water through
adjacent less permeable layers[22].
lecontite. A cave mineral —
(NH4,K)Na(SO4)-2H2O[11].
leucophor. One of a family of optical
brightening agents that have been used with
some degree of success in water-tracing
experiments. It has no color, but is readily
detected by its distinctive fluorescence
under ultraviolet light[9].
levee. An artificial bank to prevent overbank
flow of a river[16].
level. 1. Within a cave, a group of passages
developed in the same horizontal plane[10].
2. The altitudinal relation of a cave floor to
an outside surface[10]. 3. The surface of
water in a well or standing reservoir[16].
lift. The vertical pumping distance between
the water level in a well to the land
surface[16].
light hole. (Jamaican.) 1. A hole in the roof
of a cave through which light enters;
sometimes a nonfunctioning swallow
hole[20]. 2. Fossil or abandoned swallow
hole[10].
lime. Calcium oxide, CaO; used loosely and
incorrectly in referring to limestone[10].
lime sink. See sinkhole.
limestone. Sedimentary rock containing at
least 50% calcium carbonate by weight.
The purer limestones consist almost entirely
of calcite; less pure rocks may be referred
to as, for example, muddy limestone. Some
limestones are porous with diffuse
permeability; these rarely become truly
cavernous, though some fissure flow may
occur. Where ground-water flow in less
porous rocks is restricted to bedding-related
fissures and secondary fractures it can, even
when moving very slowly, corrode the
almost entirely soluble rock and lead to true
cave development191.
limestone pavement. 1. A level, or gently
inclined, bare limestone surface scored and
fretted by karren. The stripping of soil or
cover rocks to expose the bare rock
pavement is a glacial process, and the
development of the karren — both the
dissolutional enlargement of the joints and
also the dissolutional carving of runnels —
is largely postglacial. Limestone pavements
are characteristic features of glaciokarst and
occur extensively in the north of England, in
the Burren of County Clare in Ireland, and
on many high alpine limestones[9]. 2. A bare
plane surface of limestone, parallel to the
bedding, commonly divided into blocks
(clints, Flachkarren) by solutionally widened
joints (grikes, Kluftkarren), and pitted by
solution pans[10]. 3. A glaciokarstic
landform, produced on a glacially planed
limestone surface that has subsequently
become dissected into blocks (clints or
dalles) by solution enlargement of vertical
joints[19]. 3. Horizontal or sloping platforms
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of bare limestone whose surface usually
coincides with bedding-plane partings of the
rock; often eroded into clint and grikes rock
forms[20]. Synonyms: (French.)plateforme
calcaire; (German.) Kalk Plattform,
Limestone Pavement; (Greek.) karstikon
lithostroton; (Spanish.) lapiaz
entrecruzado; (Turkish.) kirecta^i
do^emesi. See also dints; grikes;
Karrenfeld.
limestone sink. See sinkhole.
limnology. The study of lakes[16].
line of seepage. See seepage line.
lineation. The parallel orientation of
structural features that are lines rather than
planes. Some examples are parallel
orientation of the long dimensions of
minerals, long axes of pebbles, striae on
slickensides, and cleavage-bedding plane
intersections.
liquid. An incompressible or nearly
incompressible fluid.
lithologic factor. The factor influencing
composition, texture, and sequence of rock
types[16].
lithology. 1. The physical characteristic of a
rock, including composition, grain size,
texture, degree of cementation (or
lithification) and structure, that determine
the rock type[9]. 2. The physical properties
and aspect of a rock[16].
lithosol. A rocky soil[16].
lithosphere. That part of the earth's crust
containing solid rocks[16].
lithostratigraphy. A formal naming system
that allows the description of rock
successions in terms of recognizable defined
units on a local scale. The units, which
comprise supergroups, groups, formations,
members, and beds in decreasing order of
size, are described on the basis of
observable characteristics^.
littoral zone. The coastal strip where rocks
that are above sea level are in contact with
rocks that are generally below sea level.
Where suitable aquifer conditions occur
across the littoral zone, notably around
relatively young carbonate islands, fresh
ground water interfaces with saline ground
water at the halocline and dissolutional
processes are enhanced by mixing water
and, possibly, by microbial effects[9].
live cave. Cave in which there is river action
or active deposition of speleothems.
Compare active cave[W\
LNAPL. Abbreviation for light nonaqueous
phase liquid. Liquids falling into this
category have specific gravities that are less
than water (the specific gravity for water is
usually taken to be 1), are relatively
immiscible with water, and tend to migrate
downwards through the vadose and to float
on top of the water table. See also LNAPL;
immiscible; NAPL.
loam. Calcareous clay[16].
localized circulation. Circulation in karst
aquifers in which the water moves in certain
preferred zones and does not occupy all or
most of the openings below this level[10].
Synonyms: (French.) circulation
preferentielle; (German.) Ortlich begrenzte
Karstwafier-Zirkulation; (Italian.)
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circolazione Corsica parziale; (Spanish.)
circulation localizada; (Turkish.) yersel
dola^im; (Yugoslavian.) lokalizirana
(lokalna) cirkulacija. Compare diffuse
circulation.
lodgement till. Glacial till deposited from
slowly melting ice at the base of a
glacier[16].
loess. Fine-grained and poorly consolidated
windblown sediment, mainly of silt. Great
thicknesses of loess are found in areas
marginal to hot and cold deserts, where the
prevailing wind deposits fine dust particles
blown from the desert basins or out of
glaciofluvial sediments. Loess is a common
allogenic component of soils on limestones.
Large numbers of artificial caves have been
excavated in the hillsides of soft loess in
central China[9].
longitudinal fault. A fault having the same
direction of strike as the surrounding
strata[16].
loosest packing. The three-dimensional
arrangement of particles with the highest
possible void volume per unit cell[16].
losing stream. A stream or reach of a stream
in which water flows from the stream bed
into the ground[22]. In karst terranes, losing
streams may slowly sink into fractures or
completely disappear down a ponor.
Synonym: influent stream. See also ponor;
stream sink.
lost circulation. The result of drilling fluid
escaping from a borehole into the formation
by way of crevices within the formation[6].
It is a common occurrence in most karst
aquifers because of the existence of large
subsurface voids that are sometimes
intersected during a drilling program.
lost river. 1. A surface river or stream
flowing onto or over karst that then
di sappears completely underground through
a swallow hole (ponor) and which may or
may not rise again and flow as a resurgent
surface river or stream[20]. 2. In a karst
region, a surface stream that enters an
underground course[10]. Synonyms:
(French.) perte de riviere; (German.)
Flufiversickerung, Flufichwinde; (Greek.)
chanomenos potamos; (Russian.)
iscezajuscaja reka; (Spanish.) rio sumente;
(Turkish.) kayip nehir; (Yugoslavian.)
ponornica, ponikalnica. See also
ponornica; sinking stream. Compare
intermittent river.
lower confining bed. An impermeable bed
underlying an aquifer[16].
lower course. The part of a water course near
a discharge point[16].
low flow. The lowest sustaining flow during
base runoff conditions of a river[16].
Lycopodium spores. 1. The spores of a club
moss, with individual structures about 0.03
mm in diameter. Easily transported by and
almost indestructible in cave water, the
spores can be dyed a variety of colors, and
offer a valuable water-tracing technique.
Preparation and collection of the spores is
very tedious, and the method lacks the
convenience of using simple dyes[9]. 2.
Spores of Lycopodium clavatum, which can
be used in natural or dyed color as a label in
studying ground-water movement in karst
areas'
[10]
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lysimeter. A device for measuring percolation
and leaching losses from a column of soil
under controlled conditions1221.
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M
Ma. Internationally accepted abbreviation for
million years, commonly applied to
measurements of geological time. This
abbreviation is currently used in preference
to My[9].
macrokarst. Karst area with large
morphological features. The term is not
easily defined because it lacks limits[20].
Synonym; (Italian.) merocarsismo.
Compare microkarst.
macropore. A pore with dimensions such that
capillary forces become less important
during flow[16].
magnesian limestone. Common but loose
synonym for dolomitic limestone or
dolomite rock. The magnesian limestone of
northern England is a rock sequence of
Permian age that includes a locally variable
number of beds of dolomitic limestone[9].
magnesite. A cave mineral — MgCO3[11].
malachite. A cave mineral —
Cu2(C03)(OH)2[11].
manatial. (Spanish.) Spring. See aho spring.
Manning equation. An equation used to
compute the velocity of uniform flow in
open channel: V=l.486/n R2/3 S1/2, where V
is the mean velocity of flow (in cfs units), R
is the hydraulic radius in feet, S is the slope
of the channel or sine of the slope angle,
and n is the Manning roughness
coefficient^1. See also Chezy equation;
Froude number; Reynolds number.
manometer. A pressure measuring device for
determining the hydraulic head developed
by a flowing fluid[16].
mantled karst. Karst topography that is
wholly or partly covered by a relatively thin
veneer of post-karst rock or sediment and is
part of the contemporary landscape1171. See
also buried karst; covered karst.
marble. 1. Metamorphosed and recrystallized
carbonate rock that is generally capable of
supporting cave development. For
example, much of the Antro del Corchia in
Italy and many caves in the South Nordland
area of Norway have formed in marble[9]. 2.
Limestone recrystallized and hardened by
heat and pressure. 3. Commercially, any
limestone that will take a high polish[10].
marginal polje. 1. Flat plain surrounded by
higher limestone country on all except one
side, which consists of impermeable ridges
or hills. Such a feature is normally found
on the edge of a karst area or region[20]. 2.
Flat limestone plain that is surrounded by
higher country but is bordered on one side
by impervious rock[10]. Synonyms:
(French.) polje marginal; (German.)
Randpolje., Semipolje; (Greek.)
perithoriakon 'polje'; (Italian.) polje
marginale; (Spanish.) polje marginal;
(Turkish.) kenar golova; (Yugoslavian.)
rubno polje, robno polje. See Randpolje.
Compare blind valley.
marine water. Ocean water having invaded
coastal aquifers[16].
marker bed. A bed with characteristic
features that can be followed over large
areas for identification purposes[16].
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marl. Unconsolidated sedimentary rock
consisting largely of calcium carbonate and
clay; usage varies from calcareous clay to
earthy limestone, and in some parts of the
United States, the term has been used for
any unconsolidated sedimentary rock
containing fossil shells[10].
mass curve. A graph of cumulative values of
a hydrological quantity against time[16].
mass density. Mass per unit volume of a
substance[16].
mass flowmeter. A measuring device for
mass flow rates[16].
massive structure. A homogenous structure
without any oriented features[16].
master cave. Best defined as a low-level
trunk streamway cave with many
tributaries. The old concept of the master
cave being formed at the water table should
be disregarded. The Leek Fell Master
Cave, in the Yorkshire Dales, is 2 km long,
partly a vadose canyon, partly a drained
phreatic tube, and partly a submerged tube.
Part of it therefore lies below the water
table while elsewhere its presence controls
the water table. The French equivalent,
"collecteur," is more descriptive of the
master cave's true role. The depth to a
currently active master cave is dictated by
interactions among local topography,
stratigraphical factors, and geological
structure. In the low hill karst of England
and Kentucky, active master caves lie at
depths of around 100 m, but in Monte
Canin, Italy, and the Hautla Plateau,
Mexico, they lie at depths of 1000 m. The
collecteur of the Gouffre Berger, France, is
met just 250 m down but can be followed
to a depth of over 1000 m, down the
dipping limestone beds, thus emphasizing
the local dominance of stratigraphical over
topographical factors[9].
match point. A common point in the
superposition of a type curve over
measured data in aquifer test analyses.
matric potential. The energy required to
extract water from a porous medium to
overcome the capillary and adsorptive
forces[22].
matrix. The solid framework of a porous
system[22].
maximum basin relief. The elevation
difference between basin mouth and highest
point within a basin perimeter[16].
maze cave. A cave with an essentially
horizontal network of interconnecting and
mainly contemporaneous passage loops.
Three broad types of maze cave have been
described — anastomotic, network, and
spongework — and these may be
subdivided on the basis of how they
developed: by slow-moving water,
restricted to a confined artesian aquifer, or
by water that is ponded from backflooding.
A mechanism of potentially great
importance, particularly in the context of
the inception of network maze caves, is
multiple, diffuse input from adjacent,
permeable but noncavernous rocks.
Spectacular joint-guided maze caves such
as Knock Fell Caverns and the Devis Hole
Mine Caverns occur in the thin Yoredale
limestones of the northern Pennines, but the
most extensive mazes are in the Black Hills
of Dakota, USA (including Jewel Cave) and
in the Ukrainian gypsum karst (including
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Optimisticeskaja)[9]. See also maze cave
pattern.
maze cave pattern. A cave system that
consists of a labyrinth of intersecting
passages of rather uniform character that
form closed loops. See also anastomotic
cave pattern; maze cave; network cave
pattern; spongework cave pattern.
mean deviation. A linear mean of absolute
deviations1161.
mean value. The statistical average or
measure of central tendency[16].
meander. 1. Overdeveloped and self-
exaggerated bend in a stream course either
on the surface or underground, caused by
more erosion on the outside than on the
inside of a bend through natural wash of the
flow. Undergound meanders commonly
originate within bedding-plane-guided
elements of the phreas, where a single
dominant tube has gathered drainage from
the surrounding area. Following uplift and
the onset of vadose conditions, any stream
that utilizes the meandering tube incises
rapidly and the imposed meander course is
entrenched into the underlying rocks. Such
incision or entrenchment produces
characteristic tall, narrow, twisting vadose
canyons, to such an extent that the French
describe them as "meandres." Canyons may
meander more at their lower levels because
of enlargement during incision[9]. 2. A
loop-like bend in a river due to lateral
erosion activities1161. 3. In a cave, an
arcuate curve in a channel formed by lateral
shifting of a cave stream[10]. See ceiling
meander; meander niche.
meander belt. A zone within which
meandering of a stream occurs[16].
meandering karren. These are small grooves
cut directly into the rock surface, generally
a few centimeters wide and deep. Their
size remains the same or decreases
downslope and they usually exhibit small
meanders with typical undercut slopes and
slip-off slopes. They frequently appear in
the bottom of larger grooves such as
rinnenkarren[3]. See also wall karren;
humus-water grooves. Synonym:
(German.) Mdanderkarren.
meander niche. A conical or crescent-shaped
opening in the wall of a cave, formed by the
downward and lateral erosion of a stream
on the floor of a passage[10].
measuring flume. An artificial channel used
for discharge measurements.
measuring weir. A device used to measure
flow rates indirectly through a weir head.
mechanical ascender. A mechanical device
that is the same as an ascender, but is used
to clarify the use of a mechanical device
instead of a rope ascender knot[13]. See also
ascender.
mechanical cover. A mechanical covering of
a free water surface to prevent evaporation.
mechanical dispersion The process whereby
solutes are mechanically mixed during
advective transport caused by the velocity
variations at the microscopic level.
Synonymous with hydraulic dispersion^™
,[22]
mechanical dispersion, coefficient. The
component of mass transport flux of solutes
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caused by velocity variations at the
microscopic level. Synonymous with
convective diffusion[22\
median. A value dividing frequency of
varieties into two equal portions[16].
medicinal spring. See spring, medicinal.
medium sand. Grain particle with a diameter
of0.25to0.5mm[16].
Meinzer unit. A measure of hydraulic
conductivity as gpd/ft2 under a unit
hydraulic gradient[16].
melanterite. A cave mineral —
FeSO4-7H2O[11].
melting. The passage from the solid to the
liquid state due to temperature increases[16].
melting point. The temperature at which a
solid substance is transformed into its liquid
state[16].
meltwater. Water derived from the melting of
snow pack or of a glacier[16].
meniscus. A free surface or interface formed
by liquid in a capillary tube[16].
mercury column. A cylindrical bore in a
manometer filled with mercury[16].
mercury injection method. A measurement
of porosity by mercury injection into a
sample[16].
merokarst. 1. Defined by Cvijic to indicate
imperfect karst topography as found on
thin, impure, or chalky limestone where
surface drainage and dry valleys are present
in addition to some karstic features[10]. 2.
Karst developed in soluble rocks retaining
considerable surface drainage. Synonyms:
(French.) merokarst; (Turkish.)yan karst.
Contrast perfectly formed Holokarst.
Compare causse.
mesh. 1. An opening in a sieve screen[16].
Number of openings per inch[16].
2.
mesophyte. A plant growing under
intermediate moisture conditions[16].
meteoric water. Water recently involved in
atmospheric circulation1161.
meteorology. The science dealing with all
physical phenomena occurring in the
atmosphere[16].
Mexican onyx. See onyx marble.
micrite. A microscopic texture. An
abbreviation of "microcrystalline calcite
ooze," which refers to precipitated finely
crystalline carbonate sediments in grains
from 1 to 4 microns in diameter[20].
Synonyms: (French.) micrite; (Greek.)
micrite; (Italian.) micrite; (Spanish.)
micrita; (Turkish.) mikrit; (Yugoslavian.)
mikrit. See biomicrite, peloid.
microkarren. Very small dissolutional
channels, commonly 1-3 mm across;
parallel, convergent, or randomly
intersecting on a limestone surface. Though
found in all climatic regions, they are most
conspicuous in semiarid and periglacial
environments, where dissolutional processes
are minimal and very slow. The random
patterns of some microkarren may be due to
the effects of condensation water[9].
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microkarst. 1. Karst area with small
morphological features. This term is not
easily applied because it lacks limits[20]. 2.
Karst topography in which all surficial
features are small; an area dominated by
minor karst features[10]. Compare
macrokarst.
microspar. A microscopic texture. Mosaic
of tiny (4 to 10 micron diameters) clear
calcite crystal[20]. Synonyms: (French.)
microsparite; (Greek.) mikrosparitis
(mikroskopikon, mosaikon kristdllon);
(Italian.) microsparite; (Spanish.)
microesparita; (Turkish.) mikrospar.
middens. Accumulations of animal droppings
other than guano and often found in caves;
may be solidified[13]. See also cave guano;
guano cave; coprolite.
migration. The movement of water,
contaminants, or other fluids in the geologic
substratum, mostly by natural causes[16].
mine drainage. Waters coming from or
passing through surface or subsurface mine
workings[16].
mine water. Water accumulating in a mine.
minerals. Mineral components of a rock,
often in macrocrystalline form[16].
mineral spring. See spring, mineral.
mining of ground water. The permanent
depletion of ground-water reserves[16].
minor karst features. See karren; rill;
solution pan.
mirabilite. The natural white mineral form of
hydrated sodium sulfate, Na2SO4-10H2O[9],
which may grow as cave flowers or in
various other forms similar to those of
gypsum.
Mischungskorrosion. (German.) Dissolution
of calcite (and hence of limestone) by
ground water that is derived from the
mixing of two different waters that were
originally saturated with carbon dioxide but
had reached saturation under differing
carbon dioxide partial pressures. The
resultant mixture is undersaturated and
capable of further calcite dissolution,
because the relationship between calcite
solubility and carbon dioxide partial
pressure is nonlinear[9].
miscible. 1. Two or more liquids that are
mutually soluble (i.e., they will dissolve in
each other)[22]. 2. The chemical property of
two or more phases that, when brought
together, have the ability to mix and form
one phase[22].
miscible displacement. 1. The mutual mixing
and movement of two fluids that are soluble
in each other[22]. 2. The displacement of a
fluid saturating a porous medium by another
fluid completely miscible with the first
fluid[16]. Synonymous with miscible-phase
displacement.
mixing length. The length over which mixing
occurs, especially of momentum in turbulent
flow[16].
mixture corrosion. SeeMischungskorrosion.
mode. The most frequently occurring variate
in a frequency distribution[16].
Ill
-------
model. 1. A conceptual, mathematical, or
physical system obeying certain specified
conditions, whose behavior is used to
understand the physical system to which it
is analogous in some way[22]. 2. A
conceptual description and the associated
mathematical representation of a system,
subsystem, components, or condition that is
used to predict chances from a baseline
state as a function of internal and/or
external stimuli and as a function of time
and space[22]. 3. A simplified system
bearing some physical similarity to a
prototype1161.
model technique. A method of solving
complex physical problems through the
application of simplified models[16].
mogote. A steep-sided hill of limestone,
generally surrounded by nearly flat
alluviated plains: karst inselberg. Originally
used in Cuba in referring to residual hills of
folded limestone in the Sierra de los
Organos but now used internationally for
karst residual hills in the tropics[10]. Differs
from cone, cupola, pinnacle, and tower
karst in its shape which reflects its
karstification history[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) mogote; (German.)
(Karstinselberg), Mogote; (Greek.)
"moghotis" (apokrimnos, asvestolofos
perikliomenos apo proschomatikas
pediadas); (Italian.) mogote, rilievo carsico
residuo; (Spanish.) mogote; (Turkish.) karst
kalwti tepesi; (Yugoslavian.) hum. See
also hum; karst inselberg; pepino hill.
moisture content. 1. The ratio, expressed as
a percentage, of either (a) the weight of
water to the weight of solid particles
expressed as moisture weight percentage or
(b) the volume of water to the volume of
solid particles expressed as moisture
volume percentage in a given volume of
porous medium[22]. 2. The gravimetric
water vapor content of air[16]. See also
water content.
moisture deficiency. The quantity of water
required to restore moisture to field
capacity in a desiccated soil[16].
moisture equivalent. The percentage of
water retained in a soil sample 1 cm thick
after it has been saturated and subjected to
a centrifugal force 1000 times gravity for 30
min. Centrifuge moisture equivalent is the
water content of a soil after it has been
saturated with water and then subjected for
1 hour to a force equal to 1000 times that
of gravity[22].
moisture tension. The equivalent negative
pressure of water in an unsaturated porous
medium equal to the pressure that must be
applied to the medium to bring the water to
hydraulic equilibrium through a porous
permeable material with a pool of water of
the same composition. Synonym: capillary
tension[22\
moisture volume percentage The ratio of
the volume of water in a soil to the total
bulk volume of the soil[22].
moisture weight percentage. The moisture
content expressed as a percentage of the
oven-dry weight of a soil[22].
molecular diffusion (diffusion.) The process
whereby solutes are transported at the
microscopic level because of variations in
the solute concentrations within the fluid
phases[22]. The kinetic energy generated by
the transport of ionic or molecular
112
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constituents results in some dispersion of a
chemical.
molecular diffusion, coefficient of. The
component of mass transport flux of solutes
(at the microscopic level) due to variations
in solute concentrations within the fluid
phases. Synonymous with diffusion
coefficient.
molecule. A stable configuration of atomic
nuclei and electrons bound together by
electrostatic and electromagnetic forces. It
is the simplest structural unit that displays
the characteristic physical and chemical
properties of a compound[6].
mollisol A soil layer subject to annual
thawing and freezing, often becoming
mobile upon thawing[16].
monetite. A cave mineral — CaHPO4[11].
monohydrocalcite. A cave mineral —
CaCO3-H2O[11].
monomolecular film. A layer of
monomolecular thickness of a polar
substance spread over a free water surface
to prevent evaporation.
montgomeryite. A cave mineral —
Ca4MgAl4(P04)6(OH)4- 12H20[11].
montmorillonite. A clay mineral containing
magnesium oxide (MgO) in its structure1161.
moonmilk. 1. A white plastic calcareous cave
deposit composed of calcite, huntite, or
magnesite. From Swiss dialect "moon-
milch," elfs milk. Corrupt spelling
"mondmilch" is common[10]. 2. Deposits
consisting mainly of very fine particles of
calcium and magnesium carbonate
precipitated from water in caves and
caverns. When in suspension, they give the
water the appearance of milk. Name
originated in 1714 by M. B. Valentini
(Fenelon)[20]. 3. Moonmilk consists of a
variety of hydrocarbonates, some of which
are associated with particular species of
bacteria. A common mineral in moonmilk
from temperate caves is hydromagnesite;
cold caves yield moonmilk of calcite after
hydrocalcite[20]. Synonyms: (French.)
mondmilch; (German.) Bergmilch,
Montmilch; (Greek.) speleogala; (Italian.)
latte di monte; (Russian.) kamennce
moloko; (Spanish.) mondmilch, leche de
luna\ (Turkish.) dik karstik kahnti;
(Yugoslavian.) gorsko mlijeko (mleko).
Also mountain milk.
moor. A wet peat bog[16].
moulin. The French word for "mill," moulin
has been used to describe partially
dissolutional, partially scoured pockets cut
in rock, particularly the potholes formed in
the beds of surface and underground
streams. In some areas sinkholes in the
surface of glaciers, which may provide
access to glacier caves, are also referred to
as moulins[9].
mountain milk. See moonmilk.
moraine. A mound, ridge, or other distinct
accumulation of unsorted, unstratified
glacial drift, predominantly till, deposited
chiefly by direct action of glacier ice[6].
morphometric analysis. A geodetic and
geometric description of basin and stream
network or to a sinkhole plain[16].
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mud. Water-saturated fine clayey earth
material1161.
mud crack. Desiccation cracks appearing in
drying mud surfaces due to shrinkage[16].
mud stalagmite. 1. Stalagmitic column made
of mud or clay with about 30% calcium
carbonate cement. There may be some
coarse noncalcareous detritus in the core of
such a column[20]. 2. Stalagmite composed
principally of clay or sandy clay and
commonly less than 30% calcium
carbonate[10]. Synonyms: (French.)
stalagmite d'argile; (German.) Stalagmit
aus Tonschlamm; (Greek.) pilostagmitis;
(Italian.) stalagmite di fango; (Spanish.)
ostalagmita de barro; (Turkish.) qamur
dikiti. Related to stalagmite.
mudflow. A flow of water-saturated
unconsolidated debris[16].
multiaquifer formation. A formation with
several aquifers overlying each other[16].
multiaquifer well. A well completed and
tapping several aquifers[16].
My. See Ma.
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Nackter karst. (German.) See exposedkarst.
Nacktkarst. (German.) See exposed karst.
naked karst, bare karst. Karst topography
developed beneath a temporary cover.
Some naked karsts develop beneath a
temporary cover of snow (nival karst) or
water[17]. Synonyms: (French.) karst nu;
(German.) oberfldchlicher nackter Karst;
(Greek.) gymnon karst; (Italian.) carso
nudo; (Russian.) golyl karst or otkrytyl
karst; (Spanish.) karst desnudo; (Turkish.)
q\plak karst; (Yugoslavian.) goli krs. See
also exposed karst.
NAPL. Abbreviation for nonaqueous phase
liquid. This term is used to describe the
physicochemical relationship that exists
between a bulk hydrocarbon and water
which results in the two liquids being
immiscible with one another (i.e., little or
no mixing of the two liquids occurs.) The
interface is a physical dividing surface
between the bulk phases of the two liquids.
NAPLs are divided into two categories;
LNAPLs and DNAPLs. See also DNAPL;
immiscible; LNAPL.
nari. Term used in the countries bordering
the Eastern Mediterranean for caliche or
hardpan[20]. See caliche., sabath.
narrow. A passage of restricted width
between two caves or hollows in the karst
underground; often not readily
traversable[20]. Synonyms: (French.)
etroiture; (German.) Enge; (Greek.) steno
perasma; (Italian.) strettoia; (Russian.) laz;
(Spanish.) laminador, gatera; (Turkish.)
agizgecit; (Yugoslavian.) sutjeska, klisura,
soteska.
native ground water. Original ground
water[16].
natural arch. 1. A residual portion of the
roof of a subsurface karst cavity that has
not collapsed. Such a natural arch may
occur as a surface topographic feature, or
as a part of a cave system[20]. 2. A rock
arch or very short natural tunnel; contrasted
with a natural bridge, which spans a ravine
or valley[10]. Synonyms: (French.) arche
naturelle; (German.) naturlisches Gewolbe,
Naturbrucke, Felsfenster, Felsbrucke;
(Greek.) physike apsitha; (Italian.) arco
naturale; (Russian.) estestvennij arka;
(Spanish.) arco natural; (Turkish.) dogal
kemer; (Yugoslavian.) prirodni svod, luk,
naravni obok. See also natural bridge.
natural bridge. 1. A residual portion of the
roof of a subterranean stream that has not
collapsed and is found bridging a valley.
Normally a surface feature, but may be used
to describe a similar occurrence in a cave
system[20]. 2. A rock bridge spanning a
ravine and not yet eroded away[10].
Synonyms: (French.) pont naturel;
(German.) Naturbrucke., Felsbrucke;
(Greek.) physiki gejyra; (Italian.) ponte
naturale; (Russian.) estestvennij most;
(Spanish.)puente natural; (Turkish.) dogal
kopru; (Yugoslavian.) prirodni most.,
naravni most. See also natural arch.
natural levee. A river bank raised by the
river's own deposit!ons[16].
natural load. Sediment carried by a stable
stream[16].
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natural tunnel. A nearly horizontal cave
open at both ends, generally fairly straight
in direction and fairly uniform in cross
section™.
natural water. Water with a mineral content
occurring under natural conditions.
natural well. (Jamaican.) A vertical shaft in
limestone, open to the surface and having
water at the bottom; similar to a cenote[10].
Synonym: (Italian.) pozzo carsico.
neck. A volcanic pipe filled with lava[16].
neomorphism. A microscopic texture. A
complex of processes whereby a mosaic of
finely crystalline carbonate is replaced by a
coarser (sparry) mosaic without the
development of visible porosity. Dominant
reactions are the wet transformation of
aragonite to calcite and recrystallization.
The process is "porphyroid" where some of
the neomorphic crystals are conspicuously
larger than those that surround them[20].
Synonyms: (French.) neomorphisme;
(German.) Neomorphismus; (Greek.)
neomorphismos; (Spanish.) neomorfismo;
(Turkish.) neomorfizm.
neptunian deposits. Younger sediment or
sedimentary rock that infills preexisting
cavities, such as grikes, dolines, or cave
passages, in older rocks. The most
common form is a fissure fill, known as a
neptunian dike. Neptunian deposits occupy
voids in nonkarstic as well as karstic rocks,
and the combination of void and fill may
subsequently be buried by still younger
rocks. They may thus become part of a
paleokarst[9].
nesquehonite. A cave mineral —
Mg(HCO3)(OH)-2H2O[11].
nested sinkholes. (American.) See uvala.
net radiation. The sum of incident and
reflected sun and sky shortwave radiation
plus incident and reflected atmospheric
long-wave radiation[16].
network cave pattern. A type of maze cave
characterized by a complex pattern of
repeatedly connected passages in a cave
system. In map view, this type of maze
cave appears similar to a city street map. It
is typically formed by solutionally
aggressive water infiltrating through
fractures in an overlying insoluble cap-rock
thus exhibiting a joint-controlled pattern.
Synonym: labyrinth.
neutrality point. The separation point
between acid and basic solution with a pH
of7.0[16].
nip. An undercutting notch in rock,
particularly limestone, along a seacoast
between high and low tide levels along sea
coasts and produced by solution and
erosion. Most common along coasts with
limited tidal variation[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) resserrement, etranglement;
(German.)Kliff, Brandungsmarke; (Greek.)
kdto engopi vrdchou; (Italian.) solco di
battigia; (Spanish.) socavacion marina;
(Turkish.) dalgayangi fentigi.
nfsa. See aisle.
niter. A white orthorhombic mineral —
KNO3. It is a soluble crystalline salt that
occurs as a product of nitrification in most
arable soils in hot, dry regions, and in the
116
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loose earth forming the floors of some
natural caves[1]. Synonyms: saltpeter,
potassium nitrate.
nitrammite. A cave mineral — NH4NO3[11].
nitrocalcite. A cave mineral —
Ca(NO3)2-4H2O[11].
nitromagnesite. A cave mineral —
Mg(NO3)2-6H2O[11].
nival karst. Alpine karst[1].
nivo-karst. A karstlike topography produced
by the differential chemical weathering
beneath snowbanks from snowmelt
containing carbonic acid. It is found mostly
in periglacial areas[1].
node point.
grid[16].
The intersection point on a
nodule. A small, irregularly rounded knot,
mass, or lump of a mineral or mineral
aggregate, normally having a warty or
knobby surface and no internal structure,
and usually exhibiting a contrasting
composition from the enclosing sediment or
rock matrix in which it is embedded (e.g., a
chert nodule in limestone). Most nodules
appear to be secondary structures in
sedimentary rocks; they are primarily the
result of postdepositional replacement of
the rock and are commonly elongated
parallel to the bedding. Nodules can be
separated as discrete masses from the host
material[1].
on the wall thickness, the inside diameter
may be less than or greater than the number
indicated161.
nongraded. An engineering term pertaining
to a soil or an unconsolidated sediment
consisting of particles of essentially the
same size[6].
nonpoint source. 1. Any source, other than a
point source, that discharges pollutants into
air or water[22]. 2. Source originating over
broad areas, such as areas of fertilizer and
pesticide application and leaking sewer
systems, rather than from discrete points[22].
nonrecording gage. A standard rain gage (8
is standard in U.S.)[16].
normal depth. The depth at which uniform
flow occurs in an open channel[16].
normal fault. A fault in which the upper
block appears to have moved downward
relative to the lower block.
noethphreatic flow. A type of conduit flow
that is always laminar[9].
nominal. Used to describe standard sizes for
pipe from V8 inch to 12 inches (3.2 mm to
304 mm.) The nominal size is specified on
the basis of the inside diameter. Depending
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o
oasis. A limited area in a desert supplied with
water[16].
obruk. Turkish form for a vertical or
steepsided depression or shaft in karst,
often formed by collapse of the roof of an
underground cave or cavern. When the
depression contains a lake of pond, it is
known as "sulu obruk" or "obruk golii."
When it is dry, it is called "kuru obruk" or
just "obruk." Synonyms: (French.) obruk;
(German.) Schlot; (Greek.) obruk (kdthetos
karstikos lakkos); (Italian.,) pozzo carsico;
(Spanish.) torca; (Turkish.) obruk;
(Yugoslavian.) jama. See cenote, dolina,
jama, pit, shaft, sinkhole.
obsequent river. A river flowing in a
direction opposite to that of the dip of the
underlying strata[16].
observation well. A well drilled for the
purpose of observations such as water level
or pressure recordings[16].
oceanic water. Sea water with a total salt
content of about 34,500 ppm[16].
ojo, ojo de agua. (Spanish.) An artesian
spring in limestone regions, especially one
forming a small pond; a vauclusian
.[10]
spring1
olivenite A cave
Cu2(AsO4)(OH)[11].
mineral —
onyx marble. Translucent layers of calcium
carbonate from cave deposits, often called
Mexican onyx or cave onyx; used as an
ornamental stone[10].
oolite. A type of limestone that is composed
largely or partly of ooliths. Also known as
oolitic limestone. The best known
examples in Britain, within the Jurassic
limestone sequence of the Cotswolds, are of
only moderate strength, very porous, and
only weakly cavernous. In contrast, oolites
of early Carboniferous age have hosted
extensive cave development beneath
Mymydd Llangattwg and in other parts of
South Wales[9].
oolith. A small ovoid to spherical
accretionary particle, usually composed of
concentric layers of calcium carbonate.
Such ooliths, cemented together by calcium
carbonate, iron salts or other minerals, are
the major constituent of oolite or oolitic
limestone[9].
oolitic. Of spherical or ovoidal shape[16].
opal. A cave mineral — SiO2'nH2O[11].
open system. A system where matter and
energy may cross a system boundary[16].
Opferkessel. See solution pan.
optical brighteners. Material contained in
laundry detergents to make "whites whiter"
and used in environmental tracing studies.
Common types are Tinopal CBS-X, Tinopal
5BM GX, and Phorwite BBH Pure. Dye
type: Stilbene. See also fluorescent dyes.
ore karst. Formation of interstices, caverns,
caves, and other karst forms produced by
solution in water from thermal springs and
ore-bearing solutions[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) karst minier; (German.)
Zwischenrdume, Kavernen, Hohlen im
Karst, gebildet durch Thermahvasser oder
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erzhaltige Losungen; (Greek.)
thermometallikon karst; (Italian.) carsismo
per dissoluzione idrotermale; (Russian.)
rudnij karst; (Spani sh.) karst termomineral;
(Turkish.) cevher karsti; (Yugoslavian.)
rudnikfs (kras).
organic deposit. Deposits of calcareous and
siliceous remains of animals[16].
organic pollution. Contamination originating
from organic sources[16].
orientation. 1. The assignment or imposition
of a definite direction in space; the act of
establishing the correct relationship in
direction, usually with reference to the
points of the compass. Also, the condition
of being in such relationship. 2. In
describing crystal form and symmetry, the
placing of the crystal so that its
crystallographic axes are in the
conventional position. 3. The direction in
which an aerial photograph is turned with
respect to observer or map. A single photo
is best oriented for study when turned so
that the shadows are cast toward the
observer. 4. Directional arrangement of
nonspherical grains in a sand aggregate[16].
original dip. Dip due to deposition of
sediments[16].
original interstice. Interstice formed during
rock formation stage[16].
orographic precipitation Precipitation due
to mechanical lifting of air over a ground
relief™.
orthogonal. Perpendicular.
otkryi karst. (Russian.) See naked karst.
oulopholite. See cave flower.
outcrop. An open exposure of bedrock or
otherwise buried material[16].
outflow cave. Cave from which stream flows
out or formerly did so[10]. Synonym:
effluent cave.
outlet cave. A cave developed at the point of
re-emergence of an underground karst
watercourse[19].
output point. A point where water exists
from an underground drainage route or
aquifer. An obvious output point is a
surface resurgence or exsurgence, where
drainage emerges from a conduit system.
Less obvious are points where drainage
leaves a carbonate aquifer and enters an
adjacent non-carbonate bed, such as a
sandstone aquifer[9].
outwash. Stratified sand and gravel removed
or washed out from a glacier by meltwater
streams and deposited in front of or beyond
the end moraine or the margin of an active
glacier. The coarser material is deposited
nearer to the ice[6].
outwash gravel. Glacial drift material
deposited by streams from a glacier[16].
outwash plain. Plain in front of a glacier that
is composed of outwash material[16]. A
broad, gently sloping sheet of outwash[6].
ouvala. (French.) See uvala.
oven-dry. The degree of dryness of a porous
sample after drying in an oven at a specified
temperature1
,[16]
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overbank area. An area covered by flood
waters overtopping natural or artificial river
banks[16].
overburden. 1. The loose soil, sand, silt, or
clay that overlies bedrock. In some usages
it refers to all material overlying the point
of interest. 2. The total cover of soil and
rock overlying an underground excavation.
overburden pressure The pressure exerted
by weight of the overburden column[16].
overflow spring. See spring, overflow.
overland flow. Surface runoff flowing over
the land surface towards a channel[16].
overthrust. Upthrust fault with a very low
angle of dip and a relatively large net
displacement^61.
oxbow. Abandoned loop of a stream course,
Original usage, applied to surface rivers,
describes short-circuited meander loops,
but in caves the term is applied to dry loop
passages of any shape and origin[9].
oxidation. The combining of an element with
oxygen[6].
oxygen demand. The ability of substances to
utilize dissolved oxygen in water.
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packing. The three-dimensional arrangement
of particles[16].
pahoehoe. (Hawaiian.) Lava flows with a
smooth or billowy surface in which lava
tubes are found[13]. See also lava cave;
pseudokarst.
paleokarst. 1. A karstified rock or area that
has been buried by later sediments; in some
places, ancient caves have been completely
filled by the later sediments[10]. 2. A
decoupled contemporary system that has
experienced tectonic subsidence and lie
unconformably beneath clastic cover rocks,
occasionally becoming exhumed and re-
integrated into the active system[17]. 3. A
karst formed in the past under an earlier
erosion cycle and often in remote geological
times. The karst is preserved by burial or
suspension of karstification processes[20]. 4.
A karstified surface and the karst features
associated with it, such as caves, that have
been buried by younger rocks. Paleokarstic
features at various scales may be
recognized within most carbonate
successions. More rarely they may be re-
exposed (exhumed) by the effects of later
uplift and erosion[9]. Synonyms: (French.)
paleokarst; (German.) Paldokarst,fossiler
Karst; (Greek.) paleokarst; (Italian.)
paleocarsismo, carsismofossile; (Russian.)
paleokarst; (Spanish.) paleokarst;
(Turkish.) eski karst; (Yugoslavian.)
paleokrs, paleokras, paleokarst. See also
buried karst.
paleokarstic surface. A surface, preserved
within a carbonate succession, that was
formed by the effects of karst erosion. The
presence of a paleokarstic surface indicates
that during the deposition of the full rock
sequence the young rocks were exposed to
the effects of surface (sub-aerial) erosion.
During such a nondepositional and
erosional phase a full suite of karst features,
including caves, could develop[9].
paleomagnetism. Natural remanent
magnetization preserved in rock sequences.
During rock deposition magnetic minerals
are aligned according to the direction and
polarity of the earth's contemporary
magnetic field. After movement of the
magnetic poles, or periodic reversals of
polarity, the remanent magnetization is
preserved in the rocks and may be measured
to aid identification of stratigraphical units
and to assess their relative ages[9].
palette. In a cave, a more or less flat
protruding sheet of crystalline calcium
carbonate spared during solution of the
rock on each side of it[10]. See also blade;
shield. Synonym: shield.
palygorskite. A cave mineral —
(Mg,Al)2Si4010(OH)-4H20[11].
pan coefficient. Coefficient to correlate a
high rate of evaporation in a pan to an
evaporation rate from larger water
bodies[16].
panhole. See solution pan.
paragenesis. A type of cave passage
development in which erosion of the
passage floor is inhibited by the presence of
an armoring layer of sediment, such that any
dissolutional enlargement is dominantly
upwards[9]. Generally, an unproven and
unsupported theory.
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paragenetic cave. Cave passage, usually of
canyon form, believed to be created by
paragenesis. Passage formation by
paragenesis is normally very difficult to
prove, as later sediment removal leaves a
passage that looks very similar to the far
more common vadose canyon. It is thought
that some of the larger canyons in the Flint
Mammoth Cave System, USA, may have
formed in this way[9].
parahopeite A cave mineral —
Zn3(PO4)2-4H2O[11].
paraphreatic. A paraphreatic passage has an
air surface under relatively low flow
conditions, when drainage is within the
capacity of its downstream continuation,
but reverts to being water-filled (phreatic)
under conditions of high flow or when the
downstream drainage is temporarily
impeded[9].
parent material. Material from which soil or
sediment was formed[16].
park. (Arizona.) Shallow broad solution
depression[10].
particle. The smallest individual constituent
of an aggregate[16].
particulate transport The movement of
particles in subsurface water[22].
parting. The separation of sedimentary rock
along bedding planes[16]. Synonyms:
bedding-plane; bedding-plane parting. See
also bedding plane.
partition. 1. A nearly vertical residual rock
mass in a cave. 2. A continuous rock span
partitioning function A mathematical
relation describing the distribution of a
reactive solute between solution and other
phases[22].
parts per million. An expression of
concentration (ppm.) The weight per weight
of a solution[16].
passage. 1. Broadly, a passage is any
negotiable part of a cave system, though the
usage is commonly restricted to those
elements that tend towards the horizontal
rather than vertical or subvertical sections.
Cave passages very in size and shape, with
the latter relating to the mode of origin and
providing evidence of the nature of cave
development mechanisms. Perhaps the
largest passage in the world is Deer Cave,
which is up to 170 m wide and 120 m high,
in the Mulu karst of Sarawak[9]. 2. A
comparatively small underground opening
made along fractures, fissures, and bedding-
plane partings by running water but through
which it is possible to pass[20]. 3. In a cave,
the opening between rooms or chambers[10].
Synonyms: (French.) galerie; (German.)
Gallerie, Stollen; (Greek.) ypohios
thiothos; (Italian.) cunicolo, galleria;
(Russian.) hod; (Spanish.) galena;
(Turkish.) ge$it; (Yugoslavian.) galerija.
See also chamber; room.
pathogenic bacteria Disease-inducing
bacteria[16].
pavement. See limestone pavement.
peat. Decomposed matter, mainly
vegetable1161.
pebble. A smooth rounded rock fragment[16].
across a cave1
,[10]
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Peclet number. A relationship between the
advective and diffusive components of
solute transport expressed as the ratio of
the product of the average interstitial
velocity, times the characteristic length,
divided by the coefficient of molecular
diffusion. Small values indicate diffusion
dominance, large values indicate advection
dominance[22].
pearl. See cave pearl.
pediment. An inclined erosion surface
covered with thin fluvial deposits[16].
pellicular water. 1. The film of water left
around each grain or fracture surface of
water-bearing material after gravity
drainage[22]. 2. Water of adhesion[22]. 3.
Water that can be extracted by root
absorption and evaporation but cannot be
moved by gravity or by the unbalanced film
forces resulting from localized evaporation
and transpiration1221.
peloid. A microscopic texture. A
sedimentary grain composed of micrite
carbonate irrespective of origin[20].
Synonyms: (French.) peloi'de; (German.)
mikroskopisches, sedimentdres Gefiige;
(Greek.) piloidis; (Italian.) peloide;
(Spanish.) peloide; (Turkish.) peloit. See
micrite, pelsparite.
pelsparite. A microscopic texture. A
limestone composed of pellets (peloids) in
amatrixofcement[20]. Synonyms: (French.)
pelsparite; (German.) Pelsarite, Kalkstein
gefugtausKiigelchen; (Greek. )pelsparitis;
(Italian.) pelsparite; (Spanish.) pelsparita;
(Turkish.) pelsparit. See peloids.
pendant, rock pendant One of a group of
isolated similarly proportioned projections
surrounded by a complex of connected
cavities in the bedrock ceiling of a cave[10].
Formed by the rapid, differential solution of
the surrounding rock[19].
pendular regime. A saturation regime where
a porous medium has the lowest possible
saturation in the form of pendular rings at
grain contacts[16].
peneplain. A degradation surface without
relief161.
pen trace. Ink, magnetic, or photographic
line traced on the drum of a recording gage
or meter[16].
pepino hill. (Puerto Rican.) 1. Rounded or
conical-shaped hill resulting from tropical
humid karst action. Term generally
replaced in Puerto Rico by mogote. 2.
Elongate hill or ridge capped by
mogotes[10]. See mogote.
percent saturation. The ratio, expressed as
a percentage, of (a) the volume of some
fluid (water, gas, or oil) to (b) the total
volume of intergranular space (voids) in a
given porous medium. Synonymous with
degree of saturation[22\
perched ground water. Ground water
separated from an underlying body of
ground water by an unsaturated zone[6].
See also ground water, perched.
perched karst spring. See spring, perched
karst.
perched water table. Unconfmed ground
water separated from an underlying body of
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ground water by unsaturated soil or rock.
It may be either temporary or permanent.
percolate. To flow through saturated void
space[16]. The act of water seeping or
filtering through soil or rock without a
definite channel[6].
percolation; percolation water. 1. Ground
water moving slowly through the micro-
fissure network of a limestone, most of
which eventually joins a major cave conduit
and flows more rapidly. In most
environments percolation water enters the
limestone through a soil cover. It is
therefore high in carbon dioxide and has a
major influence on limestone dissolution
and later redeposition of calcite
speleothems. Percolation water accounts
for most of the storage in a limestone
aquifer, responds slowly to flooding in
comparison to sinkhole water, and is
normally of high enough quality to provide
a drinking-water supply[9]. 2. The
movement in laminar flow under hydrostatic
pressure of water through the
interconnected, saturated interstices of rock
or soil, excluding movement through large
openings such as caves and solution
channels. 3. The downward movement of
water through the unsaturated zone[22]. 4.
The downward flow of water in saturated
or nearly saturated porous medium at
hydraulic gradients of the order of 1.0 or
less[22]. 5. The movement of water through
saturated interior pore space[16].
percolation water. Autochthonous karst
water that permeates directly through karst
limestone without using a surface
watercourse[19].
perennial spring. See spring, perennial.
perennial yield. Sustained yield[16].
periodic spring. See spring, periodic.
perforation. Holes or openings in well casing
to permit water inflow into a well[16].
permafrost. Ground that is perennially below
the freezing point of water[16].
permafrost karst. A nonkarst term. A
pseudokarst developed in areas of
permafrost because of melting of ice and
frozen ground in a manner superficially
similar to the solution of carbonate material
in water. A general term embracing
intrapermafrost karst, subpermafrost karst,
and suprapermafrost karst[20]. (French.)
karst depermafrost; (German.) Permafrost
Karst, Pseudokarst; (Greek.) karst
monimou paghtou; (Italian.) pseudo-
carsismo dipermafrost; (Spanish.) karst de
permafrost; (Turkish.) aldahci don karsti;
(Yugoslavian.)permafrostkis(kras, karst).
permafrost table
permafrost[16].
The upper limit of
permanent hardness
hardness[16].
Noncarbonate
permanent wilting point Saturation at
which permanent wilting occurs[16].
permeability. See hydraulic conductivity;
permeability, intrinsic.
permeability barrier
permeability.
See barrier,
permeability coefficient The rate of flow of
water through a unit cross-sectional area
under a unit hydraulic gradient at the
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prevailing temperature (field permeability
coefficient) or adjusted to a temperature of
15NC[22].
permeability, effective The observed
permeability of a porous medium to one
fluid phase under conditions of physical
interaction between this phase and other
fluid phases present[22].
permeability, intrinsic. 1. A measure of the
ability of a medium to transmit a fluid
through a porous medium. It is a function
of the medium only and is proportional to
the mean grain size diameter. 2. A measure
of the relative ease with which a porous
medium can transmit a fluid under a
potential gradient, a property of the
medium alone[22]. 3. The property of a
porous medium itself that expresses the
ease with which gases, liquids, or other
substances can pass through it[22].
permeability, relative. 1. The ratio of the
effective permeability for a given flow
phase to the intrinsic permeability of the
porous medium[22]. 2. The ratio of the
effective and specific permeabilities[22]. 3.
The ratio of permeability of one immiscible
phase to intrinsic permeability in multiphase
flow[16].
permeability, specific. The permeability
measured when the rock contains only one
fluid[22].
permeability tensor Permeability in an
anisotropic medium[16].
permeability, transverse Permeability
measured perpendicular to the axis of a
core sample[16].
permeameter. A device used to measure the
permeability of small samples[16].
pervious. Permitting fluids to pass[16].
petrography. The science of describing and
identifying rocks[16].
pH. A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of
a solution, numerically equal to 7 for
neutral solutions, increasing with increasing
alkalinity and decreasing with increasing
acidity. Originally stood for the words
"potential of hydrogen"[6].
phonolite. A type of volcanic rock, common
as lava flows in some areas, that is capable
of supporting the formation of extensive
lava caves, including those on Mount
Suswa in Kenya[9].
photogeology. The interpretation of aerial
photographs for geological purposes[16].
photogrammetry. The preparation of maps
and measurements from stereoscopic aerial
photographs[16].
phreas, phreatic water. (From the Greek
word meaning "well.") 1. The zone of
saturated rock below the water table, within
which all conduits and sub-conduits are
water filled (sometimes referred to as the
flooded, phreatic, or saturated zone).
Commonly the phreatic zone is considered
as being subdivided into an upper (shallow
phreatic) zone and a lower stagnant phreatic
zone[9]. 2. Water in the zone of saturation;
water below the water table[10]. See also
ground water.
phreatic cave. 1. Cave conceived and
developed by dissolution, usually below the
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water table, where all voids are water filled
within the phreas. Phreatic caves may
include loops deep below the water table,
particularly in dipping limestone with
widely spaced bedding-related fissures.
Higher fissure densities, sub-horizontal
geological guidance, or greater karstic
maturity encourage shallow phreatic
development just below the water table.
Progressive abondonment of phreatic caves
is usually in a downward sequence, as
erosionally lowered valley floors intersect
lower levels of the flooded system. Active
phreatic cave segments, left perched for
geological reasons after a general water-
table lowering, are relatively common.
Characteristics of phreatic caves are blind
dissolution pockets on walls and ceilings,
branching and looping of passages, and
overall switchback gradients, as phreatic
flow may be uphill under pressure. The
most common passage form is a tube,
though cross-sectional shape reflects local
geological factors. A classic active phreatic
cave is that behind the Fontaine de
Vaucluse in France, while Holloch,
Switzerland, is a major system consisting
mostly of relict phreatic passages[9].
2. Cave passage developed in the phreatic
zone and still actively forming. Passages
often appear as tubes.
phreatic decline. The downward movement
of the water table[16].
phreatic fluctuation. The fluctuation of the
water table[16].
phreatic lift. An active or abandoned
phreatic conduit that carries or carried
water upwards in a downstream direct!on[9].
phreatic line. See seepage line.
phreatic rise. The upward movement of the
water table[16].
phreatic surface. See water table.
phreatic water. That part of the underground
water in a karst limestone that lies within
the zone of permanently saturated rock -
the phreatic zone. Caves formed within this
zone are known as phreatic caves[19].
phreatic zone. 1. Those parts of the earth's
crust in which all voids are filled with water
under pressure greater than atmospheric[22].
2. That part of the earth's crust beneath the
regional water table in which all voids, large
and small, are ideally filled with water under
pressure greater than atmospheric[22]. When
discussing a karst setting, it is preferable to
use the term "phreatic zone" so as to avoid
confusion regarding chemical saturation.
Synonym: saturatedzone. See also zone of
saturation.
phreatophyte. Desert plants with deeply
penetrating roots reaching the water table
mainly along stream courses[16].
physiography. The science of the origin and
evolution of land forms[16].
phytometer. A device used to measure the
transpiration of plants embedded in soil[16].
piedmont plain. A plain extending outwards
from the base of a mountain system[16].
piezometer. A device used to measure
ground-water pressure head at a point in the
sub surf ace[22].
piezometric head. The sum of the pressure
and elevation head[16].
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piezometric limit. The point within a given
flow path below which the flow direction is
influenced by hydrostatic pressure. In cases
where flow is confined to a planar structure,
the piezometric limit can be identified as a
point where the flow path changes from a
dip-oriented to a strike-oriented trend. The
piezometric limit is determined both by
discharge rate and geometry of the
openings. Used to describe karst aquifers
with a discontinuous piezometric surface[14].
piezometric surface. 1. The imaginary sur-
face to which water from a given aquifer
will rise under its full static head[10]. 2.
Defined by the elevation to which water will
rise in artesian wells or wells penetrating
confined aquifers[16]. See also
potentiometric surface.
pillar. 1. Remnant of bedrock joining the
cave floor and ceiling. Not to be confused
with a column, which is a calcite deposit.
Pillars are common in phreatic caves,
formed by complexly looping ground-water
flow, but may also be left as small oxbow
cores of vadose origin. A spectacular
group of pillars occurs in the ill-named
Chamber of Columns in the Sof Omar cave,
Ethiopia[9]. 2. A column of rock remaining
after solution of the surrounding rock. 3. A
stalactite-stalagmite that reaches from roof
to floor in a cave; more properly termed a
column. 4. A tall thin stalagmite that does
not reach the roof of a cave[10]. See
column; rock pillar.
pinnacle karst. 1. Tropical karst
characterized by vertical rock blades fretted
sharp by dissolution. It is practically
indistinguishable from arete karst and tsingi,
and includes the varieties known as shilin.
The Pinnacles in the Mulu karst of Saraway
have rock blades up to 50 m high proj ecting
through the rain forest canopy[9]. 2. A
tropical landscape of bare reticulated saw-
topped ridges having almost vertical slopes
and a relief of as much as 120 meters. The
ridges rise above forest-covered depressions
and corridors. Found in New Guinea at
elevations or around 2,000 meters[20].
Synonyms: (French.) karst a pinacles;
(German.) Pinnacle Karst; (Greek.) karst
koriphon; (Italian.) carsismo a pinnacoli;
(Turkish.) sivritepeli karst. Compare cone.,
cupola, tower karst.
pinnacles. These are a particularly mature
form of karren. The side walls are grikes
with Rinnenkarren cutting across one
another to form sharp edges and peaks that
can reach several meters in height.
Generally, pinnacles need a long time to
form. They are common in the tropics and
can attain great sizes[3]. Often, they are
covered. See also debris karren.
pipe. 1. A generally small, subcylindrical,
vertical hole developed in an unconsolidated
sedimentary deposit by the washing away of
all or part of its fines content. Some pipes
develop above points on a carbonate-rock
surface, such as joint intersections, where
ground-water seepage is locally
concentrated. Pipes in chalk include
cylindrical and conical masses of clay and
sand that are neptunian fills of dissolutional
dolines, shafts and caves; all shapes and
sizes are commonly referred to as chalk
pipes[9]. 2. Small cylindrical hole in uncon-
solidated sediments, caused by removal of
fine material by water[10]. 3. A closed
tubular conduit for fluid transport1161.
piping. 1. A process whereby a cavity or
small conduit is developed in an
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unconsolidated soil due to progressive
sediment removal by seepage water. The
cavity develops headwards, as the fines are
removed first and the coarser material is
then washed out of the growing cavity[9].
Definition 1 is often incorrectly applied to
the formation of sinkhole development —
the migration of smaller particles through
openings created by larger particles is of no
consequence in terms of sinkhole
development and should not be confused as
such. 2. Formation of a passage by water
under pressure in the form of conduits
through permeable materials when the
hydraulic head exceeds a certain critical
value[10]. 3. The mechanical washout of
caves in gravels, soils, loess, etc., showing
evidence of associated collapse.
pisanite. A cave
(Fe,Cu)SO4-7H2O[11].
mineral
pisolite, pisolith. See cave pearl.
pit. A deep hole, generally circular in outline,
having vertical or nearly vertical walls[10].
See also jama; pothole (definition 2); shaft.
pitch. Vertical or subvertical shaft or cave
waterfall that normally requires rope,
ladder, or equipment to pass; a term used
by British cave explorers[9].
piton. (French.) Limestone hill having sharply
pointed peak[10].
pitot tube. A device used to measure flow
velocity via pressure differences1161.
pitted plain. Plain having numerous small
closely spaced closed depressions1101.
plane of weakness. Surface or narrow zone
with a shear (or tensile) strength lower than
that of the surrounding material.
planimeter. An instrument that automatically
determines irregular areas on a map[16].
plateau. An elevated level land surface[16].
pocket. Solution cavity in ceiling, floor, or
walls of a cave, shaped like the interior of a
round-bottomed kettle; unrelated to joints
or bedding[10]. See also spongework.
pocket valley. 1. The reverse of a blind
valley, extending headwards into the foot of
a calcareous massif. The upstream end is
terminated by a cliff, frequently lunate, from
whose base emerges a subterranean karst
stream meandering across a flat, steep-sided
valley below the resurgence[19]. 2. A valley
that begins abruptly and has no headwaters,
having formed from and below the site of a
spring[9].
pocket storage. Water storage in depressions
on the land surface[16].
podzol. A light colored soil, usually found in
forest regions[16].
point-bar deposit. Sedimentation on the
inside of a meander loop of a river or
stream channel[16].
point of inflection. The point where a curve
changes slope[16].
point source. Any discernable, confined, or
discrete conveyance from which pollutants
are or may be discharged, including, but not
limited to, any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel,
conduit, well, container, rolling stock,
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concentrated animal feeding operation, or
vessel or other floating craft[22].
poise. A measure of viscosity.
pokrytyi karst. (Russian.) See covered
karst.
polarization. The migration and separation of
ions to the electrodes in a direct current
electrolyte process giving rise to higher
overall resistance[16].
polje. (Slavic word for "field.") 1. A large,
flat-floored depression in karst limestone,
whose long axis is developed parallel to
major structural trends and can reach tens
of kilometers in length. Superficial deposits
tend to accumulate on the floor. Drainage
may be by either surface watercourses
(when the polje is said to be open) or
swallow holes (a "closed" polje.) Their
development is encouraged by any
impedance in the karst drainage[19]. 2. Polje
or karst polje signifies the flat-bottomed
lands of closed basins which may extend
over large areas, as much as 1,000 km2.
The flat floor of the polje may consist of
bare limestone, of a nonsoluble formation
(and so with rolling topography), or of soil.
The polje will show complex
hydrogeological characteristics such as
exsurgences, swallow holes, estavelles, and
lost rivers. In colloquial use, the term polje
is applied to flat-bottomed lands that are
overgrown or are under cultivation1201. 3.
Large flat-floored closed karst depression,
with sharp slope breaks between the
commonly alluviated floor and the marginal
limestone. Streams or springs drain into
poljes and outflow is underground through
ponors. Commonly the ponors cannot
transmit flood flows, so many poljes turn
into wet-season lakes. The form of some
poljes is related to the geological structure,
but others are purely the projects of lateral
dissolution and planation. The Dinaric
Karst has many poljes; the Livansko polje is
around 60 km long and 7 km wide. The
word is Slovene (common also to other
Slav languages) for a field, reflecting the
agricultural value of the alluvial polje floor
soils[9]. Synonym: interior valley, (French.)
polje; (German.) Polje; (Greek.) polye;
(Italian.)/?o//e; (Russian.)/?o//e; (Spanish.)
polje; (Turkish.) golova, polye;
(Yugoslavian.) polje. See also karst polje.
pollutant or contaminant. Includes, but is
not limited to, any element, substance,
compound, or mixture including disease-
causing agents, which after release into the
environment and upon exposure, ingestion,
inhalation, or assimilation into any
organism, either directly from the
environment or indirectly by ingesting
through food chains, will or may reasonably
be anticipated to cause death, disease,
behavioral abnormalities, cancer, genetic
mutation, physiological malfunctions
(including malfunctions in reproduction), or
physical deformation in such organisms or
their offspring[22].
polluted water. Water that has become
contaminated by sewage or other
contaminants such that the water quality has
become severely degraded.
pollution. 1. Specific impairment of water
quality by agricultural, domestic, or
industrial wastes (including thermal and
atomic wastes), to a degree that has an
adverse effect upon any beneficial use of
water[22]. 2. The addition to a stored body
of water of any material that diminishes the
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optimal economic use of the water body by
the population it serves, and has an adverse
effect on the surrounding environment^21.
pollution abatement All measures taken to
prevent or to protect against pollution[16].
polygonal karst. 1. A karst area where the
surface is completely pitted with closed
depressions, the divides of which form a
crudely polygonal network. Especially
common in humid tropical cone-karst
terrain, but also found in well-formed
temperate doline-karstterrain[10]. 2. A type
of karst in which numerous closed
depressions are separated by dividing ridges
that impose a crudely polygonal appearance
upon the landscape191.
pond. A small body of surface water[16].
ponded water. Water held in a depression by
a barrier[16], such as breakdown in a cave
system.
ponor. (Slavic.) 1. Hole or opening in the
bottom or side of a depression where a
surface stream or lake flows either partially
or completely underground into the karst
ground-water system. A sea ponor is
where sea-water flows or is drawn into an
opening by a vacuum in karstified rock[20].
2. Hole in the bottom or side of a closed
depression through which water passes to
or from an underground channel[10].
Synonyms: (British.) swallet, swallow hole,
stream sink; (French.)ponor, oven, gouffre,
perte; (German.) Schlund, Saugloch,
Schlinger, Ponor; (Greek.) katavothra;
(Italian.) inghittitoio, capovento; (Russian.)
ponor; (Spanish.) sumidero, ponor,
perdida; (Turkish.) su yutan;
(Yugoslavian.^) ponor, utok, poziralnik,
pivka. See also swallow hole.
ponornica. See lost river.
pool deposit. Crystalline material deposited in
an isolated pool in a cave[10].
pore. Small void space in rock or
unconsolidated material of soil particles.
See also interstice[l6\
pore deposit. Mineral matter deposited on
the interior of a cave from water entering
the cave so slowly through pores and cracks
that it does not form drops[10].
pore entry radius. The radius of a flow
channel at pore entry, usually smaller than
the average pore radius[16].
pore pressure. The pressure of water in
pores of a saturated medium[16].
pore space. 1. The total space not occupied
by solid soil or rock particles[22]. 2. The
space occupied by voids containing gases or
liquids in soil or rock samples[16]. See also
interstice; porosity; porosity, effective;
porosity, primary; porosity, secondary.
pore velocity
interstitial.
See velocity, average
porosimeter. A device used to measure
porosity[16].
porosity. 1. The ratio of the aggregate
volume of interstices in a rock or soil to its
total volume; generally stated as a
percentage[10]. 2. The ratio, usually
expressed as a percentage, of the total
volume of voids of a given porous medium
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to the total volume of the porous
medium[22]. 3. The volume percentage of
the total bulk not occupied by solid
particles[22]. See also porosity, effective;
porosity, primary, porosity, secondary,
porosity, tertiary.
porosity, absolute. Porosity established by
taking into account all interconnected and
nonconnected or isolated void volumes[16].
porosity, effective. 1. The ratio, usually
expressed as a percentage of the total
volume of voids available for fluid
transmission to the total volume of the
porous medium[22]. 2. The ratio of the
volume of the voids of a soil or rock mass
that can be drained by gravity to the total
volume of the mass[22]. 3. The amount of
interconnected pore space and fracture
openings available for the transmission of
fluids, expressed as the ratio of the volume
of interconnected pores and openings to the
volume of rock. See also porosity,
porosity, primary, porosity, secondary,
porosity, tertiary.
porosity, primary. Porosity of some
lithological material that developed while
the rock was forming. See also interstice;
pore; pore space; porosity; porosity,
effective; porosity, secondary.
porosity, secondary. Porosity of some
lithologic material, such as joints and
fractures, that has developed after the rock
was initially formed, and may be capable of
enlargement by dissolution processes. See
also pore; pore space; porosity, effective;
porosity, primary; porosity, tertiary.
porosity, tertiary. Porosity caused by
solutional enlargement of secondary
porosity. See also pore; pore space;
porosity; porosity, effective; porosity,
primary; porosity, secondary.
porous. Having numerous interstices,
whether connected or isolated.
porous medium. Any medium containing
interdispersed void space[16].
porthole. A nearly circular natural opening in
a thin rock wall in a cave[10]. See also
window.
potable water. Water that is suitable for
human consumption1221.
potamology. The study of streams.
potential. Any of several different scalar
quantities, each of which involves energy as
a function of position or of condition; e.g.,
the fluid potential of ground water[22].
potential density. 1. The density of a unit of
water after it is raised by an adiabatic
process to the surface, i.e., determined from
in-situ salinity and potential temperature[22].
2. Density that would be reached by a
compressible fluid if it were adiabatically
compressed or expanded to a standard
pressure[22].
potential drop. The difference in total head
between two equipotential lines[22].
potential evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration occurring under
adequate soil-moisture supply at all times
for given temperature and humidity
conditions1161.
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potential flow. Irrotational flow occurring in
a conservative force field or potential
field[16].
potentiometer. An instrument used to
measure voltage differences1161.
potentiometric field. As used in karst
hydrology, a discontinuous highly irregular
surface representing the static ground-water
head as indicated by the level to which
water rises in a selected piezometer. In
some piezometers, the water-level rise will
be greatly different from other piezometers
(either higher or lower), or may be
nonexistent altogether.
potentiometric surface An imaginary
surface representing the total static head of
ground water and defined by the level to
which water will rise in a piezometer[22].
Replaces the term "piezometric surface."
pothole. 1. A single shaft, or an entire cave
system that is dominantly vertical. It is also
used to describe a single erosional bowl or
moulin, rounded mainly by the swirling
current, in a stream bed[9]. 2. A small
rounded hole pipe worn into the bedrock of
a streambed, or on the coast, or at a
waterfall, by sand, gravel, and stones spun
around by the current in evorsion or mill
action[20]. 3. Term used in England for
vertical or steeply inclined shaft in
limestone[10]. Synonyms: (French.}marmite
de geant, aven; (German.) Kolk,
Strudelloch; (Greek.) strongili opi is
petrothi kitin revmatos; (Italian.) marmitta
del giganti; (Russian.) karstovaja sahta;
(Spanish.) marmita de gigante, pilancon;
(Turkish.) dev kazam; (Yugoslavian.)
erozioni kotas. See ahopit; shaft.
potholer. (British.) Explorer of openings in
karst formations with emphasis on vertical
and steep openings; somewhat of a slang
term[20]. Synonyms: (French.) speleologue;
(German.) Speldologe, Hohlenforscher;
(Greek.) erevna karstikon engelon;
(Italian.) speleologo; (Spanish.)
espeleologo, explorador de simas;
(Turkish.) dev kazanci; (Yugoslavian.)
speleolog, jamar. See speleologist, caver.
potholing. 1. The process of scouring holes
in rock in stream beds or near the strand
line by rapid rotation of trapped pebbles or
cobbles; evorsion[10]. 2. (British.) See
caving.
pozo. (Spanish.) See sima.
precipitation. 1. Water precipitating in liquid
or solid form from the atmosphere[16]. 2.
The growth and development of crystals
from solutions that are supersaturated with
respect to various minerals.
precipitation excess. That part of
precipitation that contributes directly to
runoff161.
precipitation gage. An instrument used to
measure the amount of precipitation per
unit area[16].
pressure. The force exerted across a real or
imaginary surface divided by the area of
that surface.
pressure cell. A pressure measuring and
transducing device[16].
pressure cell. The pressure difference
occurring between two points along a
stream line in a flow system[16].
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pressure flow tube. Gallery with water
flowing under pressure including differential
gravity head and artesian pressure[20].
Synonyms: (French.) galerie en conduite
forcee; (German.) Druckstromungsrohre,
Karstgerinne; (Greek.) ypoghion
ytnatagogos, ypopiesin; (Italian.) condotta
forzata; (Russian.) karstovij kanal s
napornimi vodami; (Spanish.) galeria (o
tubo) saturada; (Turkish.) basingh su
mecrasi; (Yugoslavian.) kanal s vodompod
tlakom. See also conduit; streamtube.
pressure head. Hydrostatic pressure
expressed as the height of a column of
water that the pressure can support at the
point of measurement^21. See also head,
static; pressure, hydrostatic.
pressure, hydrostatic. The pressure exerted
by the weight of water at any given point in
a body of water at rest[22].
prism storage. The storage of water in a
river channel or reservoir in prism above the
original water level[16].
probe. A sensing instrument used to take
measurements at the interior of a relatively
unaccessible system[16].
proto-cave. Natural void that links a potential
input point and an output point within an
aquifer, but which is still too small to be
entered by humans[9].
prusiking. The art of ascending a standing
line (rope) by a caver with prusik knots[13]
as opposed to the use of a mechanical
ascender. See also ascender; knots;
mechanical ascender;prusik knot; standing
line.
prusik knot. A knot tied by looping a smaller
diameter rope around a larger standing line
(rope) that has the property of sliding with
no load on the knot, but will hold when it is
loaded (e.g., when the weight of a caver is
applied)[13]. See also ascender; mechanical
ascender; prusiking; standing line.
pseudokarren. These are karren-appearing
features that form mostly on insoluble
silicate rocks by means of weathering
processes. They appear as a rounded type
of Rinnenkarren and less frequently as an
atypical form of solution pan[3]. See also
karren; Rinnenkarren; solution pan.
pseudokarst. 1. Terrane with features similar
to karst but formed in nonsoluble rocks, as
by melting of permafrost or ground ice,
collapse after mining, and outflow of liquid
lava from beneath its solidified crust[20]. 2.
Karstlike terrane produced by a process
other than the dissolving of rock, such as
the rough surface above a lava field, where
the ceilings of lava tubes have collapsed.
Features of pseudokarst include lava
tunnels, lava tubes, lava stalactites, and lava
stalagmites[10]. 3. A landscape containing
karstlike features such as caves and dolines,
but not formed by bedrock dissolution as in
true karst. Pseudokarst embraces volcanic
landscapes with lava caves, cryokarst, or
thermokarst formed by ground-ice melting
in a permafrost environment, and situations
where mechanical soil piping has occurred,
producing depressions and pipes, as occur
commonly in areas of loess cover[9].
Synonyms: (French.) pseudokarst;
(German.) Pseudokarst; (Greek.)
psevthokarst; (Italian.) pseudocarsismo;
(Russian.) psevdokarst; (Spanish.)
pseudokarst; (Turkish.) aldatici karst;
(Yugoslavian.) pseudoks, pseudokras,
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pseudokarst, navidezni kras. See lava pyrrhotite. A cave mineral — FeS[11].
cave, lava karst, pahoehoe.
pseudo-breccia. A type of limestone
resembling a breccia, in which angular
limestone fragments are cemented together
by limestones of different composition.
Pseudo-breccias are common in many
preserved limestone sequences and may
owe their origin to the dissolutional
removal of originally interbedded and
interstitial sulfate minerals followed by
breakup and redistribution of the residual
carbonate component[9].
psychrometer. Apparatus designed to
measure relative humidity indirectly[16].
puddle. Water collecting in very small surface
depress! ons[16].
pumping test. A test designed to determine
aquifer characteristics by pumping a well
and plotting the drawdown curves of
observation wells for comparison with
theoretical curves.
pycnometer. A bottle with an accurately
determined volume for density
determinations^61.
pyrite. Iron sulfide mineral (FeS2) also known
as iron pyrites and fool's gold. Pyrite
occurs in trace amounts in many
sedimentary rocks. It may be locally
common in dark carbonaceous limestone
and in thin noncarbonate beds such as
shales, coals, and wayboards. Pyrite may
break down spontaneously, with or without
bacterial mediation, to form sulfates,
particularly sulphuric acid, that may be
involved in early speleogensis[9].
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Q
quagmire. A wet unstable land area[16].
quartz. A crystal form of silicon dioxide
(SiO2)[16].
quiet reach. The reach of a river with no
features disturbing the flow pattern[16].
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R
radial flow. 1. Radial flow into or out of a
well under ideal circular boundary
conditions[16]. 2. The flow of ground water
in all directions in response to recharge
entering the subsurface at or near the top of
a ground-water plateau. This condition
occurs most often through point recharge
entering the subsurface via sinkholes in
karst terranes.
radioactive tracer A tracer used in
hydrological direction and velocity
determinations^61. The two most common
types are tritium and deuterium.
radioactivity log. A log measuring
radioactivity in a borehole[16].
radioisotope. An unstable isotope of an
element that decays or disintegrates
spontaneously, emitting radiation[22].
radionuclide. A radioisotope[22].
radionuclide retardation The process or
processes that cause the time required for a
given radionuclide to move between two
locations to be greater than the ground-
water travel time, because of physical and
chemical interactions between the
radionuclide and the geohydrologic unit
through which the radionuclide travels[22].
radius of influence. The radial distance from
the center of a well bore to the point where
there is no lowering of the water table or
potentiometric surface (the edge of its cone
of depression)161.
raft. A thin sheet of crystalline calcite
supported by surface tension on a cave pool
or lake. The calcite is precipitated mainly in
response to evaporation of the pool water,
and rafts are therefore found mainly in
caves in arid regions or caves with powerful
through draughts.
rain. Liquid precipitation of atmospheric
water in the form of droplets[16].
rainfall excess. That portion of rainfall that
contributes directly to runoff1161.
rainfall intensity. The volume or depth of
rainfall per unit time[16].
rain gage. An instrument used to measure the
height of rainfall[16].
rain gage network. An areal distribution of
rain gages[16].
rain intensity. The intensity of rainfall
expressed in depth per time (in/hr)[16].
randpolje. An enclosed plain at the edge of a
karst area receiving surface water from the
nonkarstic area. The water drains out
through underground passages in the karst
area. The plain is thus completely enclosed
by higher ground. Compare blind valley;
karst margin plain[W\
rappel. The art of descending a rope using
some sort of friction between the rope and
the rappeller to control the rate of
descent[13]. See also carabiner.
rappel rack. A long U-shaped steel bar that
holds several brake bars and is used for
rappelling[13]. See also rappel.
rappel spool. One of the devices used to
create friction between a rappeller and the
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rope, consisting of a spool on which the
rope can be wrapped around several
times[13]. See also rappel.
rapid. A stream section with a notably higher
flow velocity than in adjoining parts[16].
rapid flow. Open channel flow with a Froude
number greater than unity[16]. See also
Froude number.
rate of draft. The rate at which water is
required for use (demand)[16].
rate of infiltration. The maximum rate at
which soil can absorb water[16].
rating curve. The graphic relationship of
stage to discharge1161.
rational formula. An equation relating runoff
intensity and area to a runoff coefficient1161.
ravine. A small erosional depress!on[16]. See
chasm.
receiver. That part of a remote measuring
system that receives incoming data or
impulses[16].
receiving surface. A surface receiving
precipitation or radiation[16].
recessional moraine. A moraine deposited by
a retreating glacier[16].
recession curve. The falling limb of a
hydrograph curve[16].
recession flow. The flow that occurs after
rainfall has ended[16].
recession segment. That part of a hydrograph
that represents the withdrawal of water
from storage[16].
recharge. 1. The process of addition of water
to the saturated zone[22]. 2. The artificial
replenishment of a depleted aquifer by
injection or infiltration of water from the
surface[16].
raw sewage. Untreated sewage.
raw water. Untreated water[16].
reaction path modeling. A simulation
approach to studying the chemical evolution
of a (natural) system[22].
rebound. An upward movement of soil as a
consequence of a decrease in effective
stress. In fine-grained soils, rebound is
usually much less than the amount of
compaction, since compaction is mostly
irreversible™.
recharge, allogenic. Recharge derived from
runoff of neighboring or overlying nonkarst
rocks that drains into a karst aquifer.
Diffuse allogenic recharge is used to
describe the slow percolation of recharge
when runoff into direct input points is
reduced in magnitude, whereas
concentrated allogenic recharge is used to
describe the concentrated recharge that
occurs by runoff into large fractures,
sinkholes, and sinking streams.
recharge area. An area in which water
reaches the zone of saturation by surface
infiltration[22]. See also intake area.
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recharge, autogenic. Recharge derived from
precipitation directly onto the karst
landscape. Diffuse autogenic recharge is
used to describe the slow percolation of
recharge through a myriad of small
openings, whereas concentrated autogenic
recharge is used to describe the
concentrated recharge that occurs by flow
into large fractures, sinkholes, and sinking
streams.
recharge capacity. The ability of the soils
and underlying materials to allow
precipitation and runoff to infiltrate and
reach the phreatic zone[22].
recharge line. A series of recharge wells
arranged in linear fashion to approximate a
line source[16].
recharge pit. A large diameter well or shaft
for recharge under gravity[16].
recharge water. Water used for
replenishment of a depleted aquifer[16].
recharge well, absorbing well, diffusion
well, inverted well. A well that is used to
recharge water back into an aquifer.
Commonly used when aquifer depletion,
saltwater intrusion, and contaminant
migration are problems.
recipient. A vessel receiving liquids in
volume measurements[16].
reclamation. To reclaim land after abusive
effects such as strip mining.
recorder. An instrument designed to
continuously or intermittently record
measurements[16].
recovery. The water-level rise in a well
occurring upon the cessation of discharge
from that well or an observation well.
recovery method. A pumping test analysis
method in which both drawdown and
recovery of head after cessation of pumping
are observed and plotted for the same
observation well[16].
recrystallization. A new formation of
crystals from solid rock material[16].
reculee. See pocket valley'.
redox. A chemical reaction in which an atom
or molecule loses electrons to another atom
or molecule. Also known as oxidation-
reduction. Oxidation is the loss of
electrons; reduction is the gain of
electrons161.
redox potential (Eh.) Oxidation-reduction
potential1161.
reef. A dissected ridge of rocks totally or
partially submerged in sea water; often of
organic origin[16].
regelation. The melting of ice under pressure
and subsequent freezing[16].
region of dispersed water The diffuse
interface between fresh water and sea water
caused by mixing in a coastal aquifer[16].
See also transition zone.
regolith. A general term for the layer of
fragmental and unconsolidated rock
material that nearly everywhere forms the
surface of the land and overlies or covers
the bedrock[6].
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regosol. Dry sandy soil[16].
regression line. A curve fitted to all mean
values of one variable[16].
rejuvenation. A process that interrupts an
active erosional or development cycle and
initiates a new cycle. Rejuvenation is most
commonly achieved in the karst and
speleogenesis context by erosional base-
level changes caused by relative uplift (or
sea-level fall) or by local water-table
changes caused by downcutting of surface
valleys intercepting deeper drainage lines[9].
relative humidity of atmosphere The ratio
of absolute humidity to the maximum
possible saturation at given conditions1161.
relative permeability.
relative.
See permeability,
relict cave. Abandoned, inactive cave
segment, left when the water that formed it
is diverted elsewhere, normally through
rejuvenation, continuing cave development
and increasing karstic maturity. Relict
unmodified phreatic passage segments are
abandoned in the vadose zone, where they
may remain dry, retaining a typical phreatic
morphology, or be invaded and modified to
a keyhole profile by new streams. Ages of
relict caves vary greatly and because of a
lack of stream-flow breakdown and
speleothem deposition may become the
dominant processes. Relict caves are
commonly referred to incorrectly as fossil
caves'
[9]
relict karst. A karst area that exists within
the contemporary system, but has been
removed from the situation in which they
developed, usually as a result of base-level
changes.
relief. Elevation differences in topography of
a land surface[16].
relief intensity. The average altitude
difference between the highest point of a
basin and the valley bottom[16].
replenishment. The restoration of water in a
depleted aquifer[16].
resequent river. A river flowing according to
a consequent drainage pattern but at a
lower level than the original slope[16].
reservoir. 1. A recipient for the collection of
small amounts of liquid[16]. 2. A surface
water impoundment^61.
reservoir evaporation. Evaporation from the
free surface of impounded water bodies[16].
reservoir lake.
impoundment
purposes[16].
A lake obtained by the
of water for storage
residual clay. Clay or sandy clay remaining
on a rock surface after removal of calcium
carbonate by solution. Compare terra
rossctw\
residual drawdown. The rise in water level
in a well in response to cessation of
pumping.
residual hill. See emergence.
residue.
evaporation1
Solids remaining after
[16]
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resurgence. 1. Re-emergence of karst ground
water, a part or all of whose waters are
derived from surface inflow into ponors at
higher levels[20]. Point at which an under-
ground stream reaches the surface and
becomes a surface stream. In European
literature, the term is reserved for the re-
emergence of a stream that has earlier sunk
upstream; the term "exsurgence" is applied
to a stream without known surface
headwaters[10]. Synonyms: (French.)
resurgence; (German.) Karstquelle;
(Greek.) kephalari; (Italian.) risorgenza;
(Russian.) vihod karstovih vod; (Spanish.)
resurgencia; (Turkish.) sucikan;
(Yugoslavian.) krski izvor (vrelo), obrh.
See emergence. Compare exsurgence.
retardation factor. The ratio of the average
linear velocity of ground water to the
velocity of the retarded constituent at
C/C0=0.5[22].
retention. 1. The detention of water on
surface depressions or in subsurface void
space. 2. The retention of water in pores
against gravity[16].
reverse fault. A fault where relative
movement of the hanging wall has occurred
in the upward direction[16].
Reynolds number. A numerical quantity
used as an index to characterize the type of
flow in a hydraulic structure in which
resistance to motion depends on the
viscosity of the liquid in conjunction with
the resisting force of inertia. It is the ratio
of inertia forces to viscous forces, and is
equal to the product of a characteristic
velocity of the system (e.g., the mean,
surface, or maximum velocity) and a
characteristic linear dimension, such as
diameter or depth, divided by the kinematic
viscosity of the liquid; all expressed in
consistent units in order that the
combinations will be dimensionless. The
number is chiefly applicable to closed
systems of flow, such as pipes or conduits
where there is a free water surface, or to
bodies fully immersed in the fluid so the free
surface need not be considered[1]. See also
Chezy equation; Froude number; Manning
equation.
rhodamine dye, sulpho rhodamine dye
Orange dyes used in environmental tracing
studies that fluoresce red when held under
a black light. See also fluorescent dyes.
rice paddy. In a cave, a terraced rimstone
pool[10].
ridge. An elongated narrow elevation[16].
rift. 1. A cave passage that is relatively high
and narrow. Generally rifts are straight or
nearly so, reflecting that they are commonly
guided by, and developed along, vertical or
sub vertical fissures, joints, and faults[9]. 2.
A long narrow high cave passage controlled
by joints or faults[10].
rift valley. A surface depression due to the
formation of graben block faulting[16].
rill. 1. Small solution groove on surface ex-
posures of limestone; most common in arid
or semiarid areas[10]. 2. Small channel cut
by flowing water in the floor, wall, or
ceiling of a cave[20]. 3. The smallest
category of stream in any terrane[20].
Synonyms: (French.) traces de
ruissellement; (German.) Rinne, Kerbe;
(Greek.) ridkion; (Italian.) solchi di
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ruscellamento; (Spanish.) arroyuelo;
(Turkish.) kucukdere, oluk, ark.
Rillenkarren. (German.) Solution flutes that
occur only in places where fresh unspent
precipitation is active and end where the
water attains too high a content of lime or
where water is added. Their length
increases with slope, temperature, and
rainfall; eventually reaching 1 m and more
in the tropics, up to 50 cm, and as an
exception, 100 cm in the Alps. Their width
extends from 1 to 3 cm. They lie together
in rows with no space between, with sharp
intermediary ridges of no more than 1 cm in
height. They increase at all freely exposed
peaks and ridges where fresh rainwater
alone is at work. The grooves gradually
flatten out to a smooth surface. Their
theory of origin is unknown.[3]. Synonyms:
(German.) Kannelierungen; solution flute;
andfirstkarren.
Rillenstein. (German.) Microsolution
grooves and pitting on rock surface[10].
rimstone. 1. A wall-shaped deposit around
springs and below cascades which
impounds water in pools. Its formation is
due to precipitation from saturated
bicarbonate waters[20]. 2. Calcareous
deposits formed around the rims of
overflowing basins, especially in caves[10].
Synonyms: (French.) gour; (German.)
Sinterbecken; (Greek.) frdgma,
epiphliomatos; (Italian.) vasche
d'incrostazione; (Russian.) natecnaja
plotina; (Spanish.) dique travertinico;
(Turkish.) sedde, kenarta^i. See
constructive waterfall, rimstone barrage,
rimstone pool.
rimstone barrage, rimstone barrier, rim-
stone dam. A wall-shaped deposit that
impounds pools of water in caves, around
springs, and in cascades of streams
saturated with calcium bicarbonate[10].
Synonym: (French.) gour. See also
rimstone; rimstone pool.
rimstone pool. A pool sited on a cavern floor
and enclosed by a rim of carbonate
reprecipitated from the karst water in the
pool at points locally favoring the release of
carbon dioxide[19]. See also rimstone;
rimstone barrage.
Rinnenkarren. (German.) Solution grooves
that form where runoff water is collected in
streams. If the whole surface is moistened,
the amount of water increases downwards,
with the result that the grooves are widened
and deepened at the bottom. This
distinguishes them from other similar forms.
When the slope is slight they are coiled, but
become straighter with increasing
inclination. They are sometimes interpreted
to be subcutaneous forms that develop
below soil cover, but this is believed to be a
rare occurrence. They are found in all
climates. In arid zones, they exist as relics
of the past when the climate was damper[3].
ripple mark. A wavelike sculpture on water
covered sand surfaces obtained by wave
action[16].
rise. (Jamaican.) Spring rising from fractures
in limestone. Point at which an
underground stream comes to the
surface™.
rise pit. An artesian spring rising up through
alluvium accumulated in an earlier surface
valley phase and often fringed, except on
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the outlet side, by a minor levee deposited
as the force of the vertical discharge
dissipates at the surface[19].
riser. A pipe through which liquid rises in a
river bed. The channel of a river covered by
water[16].
river reach. A particular segment of a
riser pipe. A pipe through which water is
raised in a production well[16].
rising. 1. The resurgence of an underground
watercourse, usually at the base margin of
the calcareous massif, although in the
instance of a blind valley the rising has
eroded headwards for some distance. Each
rising accounts for the collective discharge
of several sinks and in this way has a
relatively high discharge as the sole
drainage outlet for a large area. If the
water issues freely, the rising is said to be
"free-flowing," but if it issues under
pressure, the terms "artesian," "forced," or
"vauclusian spring" are used (after the type-
example of the resurgence of the Sorgue
river at Vaucluse in France)[19]. 2. An issue
of water from massive limestone that
cannot be classed with certainty as either a
resurgence or a spring[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) emergence; (German.)
Ausflufitelle , Karstquelle; (Greek.)
kephalari; (Italian.) sorgente; (Russian.)
vihod karstovih vod; (Spanish.)
emergencia; (Turkish.) yuzeye yukseli§;
(Yugoslavian.) krsko vrelo, krski izvor,
obrh. See also emergence; exsurgence; re-
surgence.
rising segment. That part of a hydrograph
curve that represents a rise in water level as
a result of precipitation[16].
river. A natural water course through which
runoff reaches the sea[16].
river[16].
river swamp. A swamp in lowlands adj oining
a river[16].
river system. The system of a main river that
includes all its branches and tributaries[16].
river terrace. A level land terrace formed in
a valley by fluviatile erosion or
aggradation[16].
rivulet. A very small stream[16].
rock. Consolidated mineral matter of igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic origin[16].
rock fall. See cave breakdown.
rock formation. A lithologically or
structurally distinct part of the
lithosphere[16].
rock-hill. See karren, rill.
rock milk. Less common synonym for
moonmilk[9]. See moonmilk.
rock pendant. See pendant.
rock pillar. A residual isolated mass of
bedrock linking the roof or overhanging
wall and floor of a cave, in contrast with a
column, which to composed of dripstone or
flowstone[10]. See column; pillar.
rock pinnacle. A tall sharp projection of
bedrock rising from the floor of a cave[10].
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rock shelter. 1. Shallow cave under an over-
hanging rock ledge. Many sea caves are
rock shelters. Also found in limestone and
other rock types where streams have
undercut their banks at bends, or where
there has been abrasion by blowing sand.
Common in tropical areas at places where a
secondarily hardened layer of limestone
forms a ledge that projects over
unindurated limestone[10]. 2. A wide but
shallow cavity in any rock; in carbonate
rock often formed below a noncarbonate
layer[20]. Synonyms: (French.) abri sous
roche, balme, baume; (German.)
Halbhohle, weite aber flache Hohle;
(Greek.) kataphyion; (Italian.) riparo sotto
roccia, androne; (Spanish.) abrigo, balma;
(Turkish.) kaya siginagi; (Yugoslavian.)
potkapina, okapina, polupecina, spodmol,
zijalka.
rock system. Rocks deposited during a given
geological time period[16].
rock terrace. A terrace formed by erosional
action and denudation[16].
rock texture. The geometrical aspects and
arrangement of the component particles of
a rock[16].
rockfall. The falling of bedrock from a cliff or
steep slope[16].
roof drainage
roofs.
Precipitation runoff from
romanechite. A
BaMn9016(OH)4[11].
cave mineral
roof crust. Flowstone deposited on ceilings
of caves from thin films of water, which
have crept over the rock from pore or crack
sources'
[10]
roof pocket. Blind upward extension into the
ceiling of a cave passage, commonly
enlarged by dissolution along a transverse
fracture, and less extensive than an aven or
chimney[9].
roof slab. See ceiling slab.
room. A part of a cave system that is wider
than a passage[10]. Synonym: (British.)
chamber.
root karren. These are small, relatively flat
karrens that are formed beneath compact
soils where roots etch into the limestone[3].
See also covered karren; wave karren.
root zone. The zone in a soil profile
penetrated by plant roots[16].
rotating meter. A stream velocity meter that
transforms stream momentum into angular
momentum by vanes and rotor[16].
roughness. An unevenness of surfaces giving
rise to high flow resistances[16].
roughness coefficient. A coefficient that
describes roughness of a channel bed[16].
round karren. See Rundkarren.
roundness. The degree to which a sand grain
approaches spherical shape[16].
rout, to. The action of predicting and
directing of flood waves through a channel
system[16].
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run dry, to. The cessation of flow from a
well or spring[16].
Rundkarren. (German.) 1. Karren forms
with rounded edges; formed by soil water
than cannot flow freely because of the
tightness of soil pores and thus corrodes
away all edges and points. The small karren
forms disappear; grooves and grikes are
widened and deepened. One or two
centuries after being laid bare, the earlier
rounded edge is only just recognizable, so
round karren and their remains provide
evidence of an earlier soil covering[3]. 2.
Karren form comprising rounded channels,
commonly 50-500 mm deep and wide and
separated by rounded ridges. Rundkarren
are the characteristic dissolutional form
created beneath superficial material such as
sandy till, peat or other soil, or beneath a
cover of plants or lichen[9]. Synonym:
round karren. S ee al so Karren.
runoff. 1. The discharge of water through the
surface streams of a drainage basin[16]. 2.
The sum of surface runoff and ground-
water flow that reaches a stream[16].
runoff coefficient. A dimensionless
coefficient to estimate runoff as a certain
percentage of storm rainfall[16].
rupture. That stage in the development of a
fracture where instability occurs. It is not
recommended that the term "rupture" be
used in rock mechanics as a synonym for
"fracture."
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sabath. See hardpan, nari.
safe yield. The amount of water that can be
safely withdrawn from an aquifer without
causing undue effects such as aquifer
depletion.
safe yield of stream. The lowest dry weather
flow of a stream[16].
saline spring. See spring, saline.
saline water. Water that generally is
considered unsuitable for human
consumption or for irrigation because of its
high content of dissolved solids. Generally
expressed as milligrams per liter (mg/L) of
dissolved solids, with 35,000 mg/L defined
as sea water, slightly saline is 1,000-3,000
mg/L, moderately saline is 3,000-10,000
mg/L, very saline is 10,000-35,000 mg/L,
and brine is more than 35,000 mg/L[22].
salinity stratification. The stratification of
water in estuaries because of salinity-
density differences[16].
salt dome. A domelike intrusion of a mobile
salt core into sedimentary rock[16].
salt karst. Areas in which karst landforms are
developed upon halite or halite-rich rock,
which are generally small and limited to arid
regions, are referred to as salt karst.
Except in desert regions, dissolution of rock
salt occurs in buried, interstratal, situations,
and the effects of such dissolution at the
surface include subsidence pipes or wider
subsidence areas, such as those represented
by the meres and "flashes" in the Cheshire
Plain, England[9].
salt lake. A lake containing high salt
concentrations and usually not having any
outflow[16].
salt tolerance. The resistance of crops to salt
concentration1161.
saltation. Solid matter transported by a
stream by the action of leaping movement
over the stream bed. See also saltation
load.
saltation load. The solid matter transported
by streams[16].
saltwater intrusion. The movement of salt
water into fresh water aquifers[22].
sampling. The taking of small quantities of
water or porous media for analysis[16].
sand. Unconsolidated detrital rock
material1161.
sand pipe. See solution pipe.
sand stalagmite. A stalagmite formed on
sand and made of calcite-cemented
sandstone[10].
sandstone caves. Most natural sandstone
caves are surface river-cut notches at the
foot of rock cliffs, or left partway up the
cliff by later downcutting. This origin
accounts for most of the caves once
inhabited by the Pueblo Indians in the
sandstone cliffs of the western USA. True
caves do occur in sandstone, and some of
these appear to be at least partially of
dissolutional origin. Their existence
probably reflects matrix leaching by ground
water moving through zones of especially
high primary porosity and permeability.
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Though sandstones with a calcite matrix
cement are more prone to such
development, even siliceous cement, which
has a very low solubility in water, may be
removed during a sufficiently long time
span. The sandstone caves of the
Sarisarinama Plateau, Venezuela, may be a
special case of this type of development.
These include shafts 300 m in diameter and
200 m deep, and passages up to 500 m
long. They were probably cut in the quartz
sandstone by underground streams, after
early leaching of the cement by
hydrothermal solutions, and the shafts have
been modified by later collapse[9].
saturated flow. Single-phase flow when all
voids are filled[16]. Not to be confused with
chemical saturation.
saturated water. Water that is in chemical
equilibrium with its enclosing media and is
thus nonagressive. Water, at about 25 C,
in contact with calcite and the normal
atmosphere, will contain approximately 30
to 50 ppm of Ca when saturated, variations
being due mainly to differing pH.
Determination of the saturation point of
natural waters is complex[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) eau saturee; (German.)
gesdttigtes Wafier; (Greek.) koresmenon
ydor; (Italian.) acqua satura; (Spanish.)
agua saturada; (Turkish.) doygun su;
(Yugoslavian.) zasicena voda.
saturated zone. Seephreatic zone and zone
of saturation.
saturation regime. A flow regime in
completely saturated porous medium[16].
saturation, zone of. See phreatic zone and
zone of saturation.
scale. 1. A very thin and flat rock fragment[16].
2. The accumulation of precipitated solid
material. 3. The ratio of prototype to
model dimensions.
scaling chip. A thin, small, rather irregular
piece of limestone, commonly crumbly, that
has fallen from the ceiling or wall of a cave.
A form of cave breakdown[10].
scaling factor. The ratio of characteristics of
a model to those of the prototype[16].
scaling plate. A small flat piece of rock of
rectangular or polygonal shape that has
fallen to the floor of a cave. A form of cave
breakdown in thin-bedded impure limestone
cut by closely spaced joints[10].
scallop. 1. A spoon-shaped hollow carved in
a cave wall, floor, or ceiling through
erosion by eddies in flowing water.
Scallops are commonly closely packed,
leaving sharp ridges at the intersects. They
range from 10 mm to 1 m in length, and as
a general rule the smaller they are the faster
flowing was the water that carved them.
The scallops are generally asymmetrical,
with their upstream end steeper than the
downstream end — a useful indicator of
paleo-flow direction in abandoned
passages[9]. 2. Oval hollow having an
asymmetric cross-section along its main
axis. Scallops form patterns on the walls of
caves and in streambeds and may be used to
determine direction of flow of turbulent
water, since they are steeper on the
upstream side. Commonly called "flutes" in
America[10]. Synonyms: (French.)
cannelure, vague d'erosion; (German.) in
Fliefirichtung des Wafiers ausgezogener
Kolk; (Greek.) kilon o-oithes; (Spanish.)
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huella de corriente; (Turkish.) degirmi,
tar ok. See also flute.
scar. (Northern England.) Steep rock cliff in
limestone country often indicating outcrop
of relatively bare and massively bedded
limestone[20]. Synonyms: (French.)
cicatrice, griffure; (German.) Klippe;
(Greek.) ouli; (Spanish.) ceja (in central
Spain); (Turkish.) kirecta^i dikyan.
Schichtfugenkarren. (German.)Seebedding
grike.
scholzite. A cave mineral —
CaZn2(PO4)2-2H2O[11].
scour. The erosive action of running water in
streams[16].
screen, screen pipe. Slotted well casing that
is positioned within the producing horizon
to prevent the inflow of detrital particles
into a well while allowing the inflow of
water. See also well screen.
sea cave. 1. A cave cut in any rock type
where a geological weakness is exploited by
the highly selective erosion power of wave
action. Fingal's Cave, cut in the basalt of
Staffa, Scotland, is a famous example. True
sea caves should not be confused with
dissolutional caves that pre-dated the wave
action but were then intersected and
revealed as a cliff line was eroded back,
such as caves in the Chalk at Beachy Head
in southeast England. In some young
tropical islands, dissolutional voids have
formed below sea level in the mixing zone
between fresh and saline ground water.
Some have subsequently been tectonically
uplifted into a shoreline position, to give the
misleading impression of having developed
due to wave action. Caves of this type on
the coast of Tongatapu, Tonga, have pools
that connect with active dissolutional
cavities below sea level that might be
related to the mixing zone[9]. 2. A cave or
cleft in a sea cliff or coastal karst outcrop
eroded by waves or currents or dissolved by
circulating ground water[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) grotte marine; (German.)
Kiistenhohle, Meereshohle; (Greek.)
thalassion spelson - paraktion spelean;
(Italian.) grotta marina; (Russian.)
morskajapescera; (Spanish.) cueva marina;
(Turkish.) deniz magarasi; (Yugoslavian.)
morskapecina(spi\)a). See cave. Compare
nip. S ee al so littoral zone.
sea estavelle. Submarine or seashore opening
in karst formations that at one season or
period discharges round water (fresh or
brackish) from the aquifer into the seabed
and at another season or period draws sea
water into the aquifer by a vacuum[20].
Synonyms: (French.) estavelle marine;
(German.) submarine Estavelle; (Greek.)
estavelle thalassia (estavella); (Italian.)
Estavella sottomarina, sorgente
sottomarina a flusso alterno; (Spanish.)
estavela marina; (Turkish.) sahil batar
cikan.
sea level. The average height of the surface of
the sea, used as a datum for elevations[16].
sealing-grout, grout. Cement grout injected
between a well casing and the borehole wall
(annular space) to seal off an aquifer from
external contamination.
sea-mill. A mill whose motive power is
derived from the flow of water into (or
possibly out of) a sea estavelle; the classical
example is on the Vinaria Peninsulas, at
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Argostolion, Kephallinia[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) moulin de la mer, moulin
d'Argostoli; (German.) Meermuhle;
(Greek.) thalassomylos; (Spanish.) molino
de mar; (Turkish.) deniz suyu degirmeni;
(Yugoslavian.) morska vodenica. See sea
estavelle.
sea ponor. A submarine opening in karst
formations where seawater flows or is
drawn by a vacuum into the aquifer[20].
Synonyms: (French.) perte sous-marine;
(German.) submariner Ponor; (Greek.)
ypothalassia katavothra; (Italian.)
inghiottitoio sottomarino; (Spanish.)
sumidero marino; (Turkish.) denizalte
suyutam; (Yugoslavian.) morska vodenica,
morski ponor. See ponor.
sea water intrusion. See saltwater intrusion.
secondary interstices. Voids formed in a
rock after the rock had been formed[16].
secondary porosity. Porosity created after
rock formation through fracturing, leaching,
etc.
sedimentation. The deposition of solid
disintegrated rock material by water, wind,
or gravity transport1161.
sediment transport. The transport of eroded
rock material by moving water or wind[16].
seep. 1. An area, generally small, where water
or oil percolates slowly to the land surface.
See seepage and spring12^. 2. To move
slowly through small openings of a porous
material[22].
seepage. 1. The infiltration or percolation of
water through rock or soil to or from the
surface and usually restricted to the very
slow movement of ground water. 2. The
fluid discharged at a seep[22]. 3. The
amount of fluid discharged at a seep[22]. 4.
The slow flow of water through a porous
medium. 5. The movement of water in
unsaturated soil[16].
seepage face. A boundary between the
saturated flow field and the atmosphere
along which ground water discharges, either
by evaporation or movement "downhill"
along the land surface or in a well as a thin
film in response to the force of gravity[22].
seepage force. The frictional drag of water
flowing through voids or interstices in rock,
causing an increase in the intergranular
pressure (i.e., the hydraulic force per unit
volume of rock or soil that results from the
flow of water and that acts in the direction
of flow).
seepage line. 1. The uppermost level at which
flowing water emerges along a seepage
face[22]. 2. The upper free water surface of
the zone of seepage. Synonymous with line
of seepage, phreatic line[22\
seepage path. The trajectory of fluid particles
in seepage flow[16].
seepage rate. The rate of seepage flow[16].
seepage spring; filtration spring
spring, seepage.
See
seepage surface. The outflow surface
between water level and the intersection of
the phreatic surface in a well[16].
seepage velocity. See specific discharge.
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selenite. Bladelike crystals of gypsum[9].
self-cleaning capacity. The capacity of a
river to clean its water of pollutants over a
given length of water course[16].
selenite needles. A sulfate speleothem having
the shape of a needle that grows from
gypsiferous cave soils[13]. See also
speleothem.
semiconfined aquifer. See leaky aquifer.
sepiolite. A cave mineral —
Mg4Si6015(OH)2-6H20[11].
series. A subdivision of rock according to age
at which they were laid down in a geologic
epoch[16].
setting of cement. The process of hardening
ofcement[16].
settling basin. A basin used for the settling
out of solids from suspension[16].
settling velocity. The terminal velocity at
which a particle will fall through a fluid[16].
sewage. Domestic and municipal wastes[16].
shaft. 1. Vertical, or steeply inclined, sections
of a cave passage, of enormously varied
size. The world's deepest known shaft is
the entrance shaft of Brezno pod Velbom
on the Kanin plateau, Slovenia; it is 501 m
deep, with no ledges. Much debate
surrounds statistics on the depths of fully
underground shafts, which may be broken
by ledges, but among the deepest is a shaft
about 430 m deep in Italy's Abisso di
Monte Novegno[9]. 2. A cylindrical tube,
generally steep sided, that forms by solution
and (or) collapse[10]. 3. A vertical passage
in a cave[10]. 4. A vertical and usually large
diameter hole penetrating geologic
formations for access of subsurface
points[16]. See jama, karst shaft. See also
pit; pothole (definition 2).
shake; shakehole. (England; sometimes
spelled shackhole.) 1. Term used mainly by
cavers to indicate a doline, especially one
formed by subsidence. 2. Hole formed by
solution, subsidence, and compaction in
loose drift or alluvium overlying beds of
limestone[10]. 3. Small subsidence or
suffosion doline formed in the glacial till
overlying limestones in the northern
Pennies. Seejama.
shall sand. Sand containing considerable
amounts of clay and shale[16].
shawl. Simple triangular-shaped curtain[10].
shear plane. A plane along which failure of
material occurs by shearing.
shear stress. See stress, shear.
sheet. A thin coating of calcium carbonate
formed on walls, shelves, benches, and
terraces by trickling water[10].
sheet erosion. Erosion occurring over
widespread tabular sedimentary or effusive
rock[16].
sheet jointing. Fracturing of tensile
character, mostly in granitoid rocks, parallel
to the land surface. Sheet jointing is
developed either by load release or
temperature differences.
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shield; cave shield. 1. A thin circular disc of
calcite projecting from a cave wall at any
upward inclination, commonly a meter or
more in diameter and with the underside
draped with stalactites and curtains. The
shield is actually a double disc with a thin
central crack that acts as the continuation of
a wallrock fracture. It grows by water
moving up the crack under pressure and
depositing calcite on both sides of its outer
rim. Shields are rare, but Lehman Cave,
Nevada, has more than a hundred of
them[9]. 2. A disk-shaped speleothem
standing edgewise at a high angle[10]. 3. A
geologically stable and undisturbed
continental block[16].
shilin. A type of pinnacle karst formed on
low plateau of gently dipping limestone; it
is distinguished by densely packed pinnacles
up to 25m high, fluted by sharp
Rillenkarren. Known only in southern
China, shilin (pronounced sherlin) translates
as "stone forest"[9].
shore. The zone of separation between land
and moving water[16].
sieve analysis. The determination of the
particle-size distribution of a soil, sediment,
or rock by measuring the percentage of the
particles that will pass through standard
sieves of various sizes[6].
sieve opening. The opening between the
mesh wires of a sieve[16].
sieve retention. The material retained on a
sieve1
,[16]
silicate rock. Rock containing silica in
predominant proportions[16].
silicic acid. H4SiO4 monomeric acid[16].
silicon dioxide. Silica (SiO2.) See also quartz.
Silikatkarren. (German.) Granites and
related rocks that possess small outcrop
sculpturing such as rounded runnels. They
are best developed in the humid tropics
such as Malaysia[8].
silt. A grain particle with a diameter that
ranges between 0.005 to 0.05 mm[16].
silting. The deposition of silt in wells, caves,
or reservoirs[16].
sima. (Spanish.) Natural well that has vertical
sides[10].
similarity criteria. The conditions indicating
under what circumstances a model and
prototype are similar[16].
simple hydrograph
hydrograph[16].
A single-peaked
single outlet. A stream cutting through a
divide (tributary basin) or outflow to the sea
(major basin)[16].
sink; sinkhole. (American.) 1. A point where
a stream or river disappears underground.
The sinking water may filter through a
choke that excludes cavers, or may flow
into an open horizontal cave or vertical
shaft, and while active all of these may be
termed sinkholes. The flow of water may
be very small, but in full flood many
sinkholes swallow flows of tens of cubic
meters per second. The character of sink
water (or swallet water, as it is commonly
termed by hydrologists), flowing directly
and rapidly into an open cave, distinguishes
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it from percolation water[9]. 2. General
terms for closed depressions. They may be
basin, funnel, or cylindrical shaped[10]. See
also closed depression; doline; ponor;
stream sink; sumidero; swallet; swallow
hole.
sinkhole plain. (American.) Plain on which
most of the local relief is due to closed
depressions and nearly all drainage is
subterranean1101.
sinkhole pond. (American.) Small lake in
closed depression in limestone, due to an
impervious clay floor or to intersection of
depression with the water table[10]. See
doline lake.
sinking river, sinking stream. A small
stream that disappears underground[10]. See
also lost river; doline; ponor; sink;
sinkhole; stream sink; sumidero; swallet;
swallow hole.
sinter. 1. A rock or deposit formed by
precipitation from natural water, often from
a hot or cold spring. Calcareous sinter is
calcium carbonate and is also known as
tufa, travertine, and onyx marble. Siliceous
sinter is silica and is also known as geyserite
and fiorite[20]. 2. A mineral precipitate
deposited by a mineral spring, either hot or
cold. Siliceous sinter, consisting of silica,
may be called geyserite and fluorite; cal-
careous sinter, consisting of calcium
carbonate, may be called tufa, travertine,
and onyx marble[10]. Synonyms: (French.)
concretion; (German.) Sinter., Kalktuff,
Travertin; (Greek.) asvestolithikos toffos;
(Italian.) concrezione; (Russian.) otlozenija
istocnikov; (Spanish.) concrecion;
(Turkish.) kaynak tufu; (Yugoslavian.)
travertin, sedra, bigar, lehnjak. Related to
travertine.
siphon. 1. Synonym for a sump, or a section
of flooded cave passage, in common
parlance. True siphons, where water flows
first up and then down, are rare in caves, as
the fractures in limestone tend to disrupt the
required hydraulics. They are, however, the
origin of such intermittent springs as the
Fontestorbes spring in France and the
Ebbing and Flowing Well at Giggleswick,
Yorkshire. Both flow in regular pulses
when the siphon is full and working, only to
cease when the siphon input is broken by
air, as the upstream reservoir level drops.
Their operation depends on critical flows,
and both operate only in favorable weather
conditions[9]. 2. Gallery in form of an
inverted U with water moving only under
pressure when the siphon has completely
filled up; the water head at the input end
being higher than at the drainage point[20].
3. In speleology, a cave passage in which
the ceiling dips below a water surface[10].
Synonyms: (French.) siphon; (German.)
Siphon; (Greek.) siphon; (Italian.) sifone;
(Russian.) sifon; (Spanish. ) sifon; (Turkish.)
sifon; (Yugoslavian.) sifon, smrk. See also
water trap.
site characterization. Means the program of
exploration and research, both in the
laboratory and in the field, undertaken to
establish the geologic conditions and the
ranges of those parameters relevant to a
particular site. Site characterization
includes borings, surface excavations,
excavation of exploratory shafts, limited
subsurface lateral excavations and borings,
and in situ testing at depth needed to
determine the suitability of the site for a
geologic repository, but does not include
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preliminary borings and geophysical testing
needed to decide whether site
characterization should be undertaken[22].
skin effect. The effect of the zone of reduced
permeability immediately around the
borehole on transient flow phenomena in
pumping tests[16].
skrytyi karst, zakrytyi karst (Russian.) See
closed karst.
skylight. A hole in the roof of a cave passage
through to the ground surface. It may be
an inlet shaft, a section of collapse, or a
breach due to surface lowering[9].
slickenside. 1. A polished, commonly striated
rock surface within a fault plane, produced
by friction during fault movement. The
striae give an indication of the fault
movement direction191. 2. A polished fault
plane with grooves from relative motion of
fault blocks[16].
sliding. 1. The relative displacement of two
bodies along a surface, without loss of
contact between the bodies. 2. The
downslope movement of rock and earth
material1161.
slocker. Local term used in the eastern
Mendip Hills, England, for a swallet or
stream sink[9].
slope. The inclination of a surface[16].
slump pit. A hollow in the clay fill of a cave
floor caused by erosion beneath the fill[10].
smithsonite. A cave mineral — ZnCO3[11].
snow. Solid crystalline form of water[16].
snow cover; snowpack. The accumulated
height of snow covering a given area[16].
snow line. A line connecting elevations above
which snowpack remains throughout the
year[16].
snow sampler. A tube used for the taking of
cylindrical snow samples through a snow
profile[16].
snowdrift. Snow accumulation due to wind
transport1161.
sod. Root system in a soil[16].
soda straw. 1. Proto-stalactite in which water
flows down through the center of the straw.
Upon entering a vadose cave passage, the
change in the partial pressure of carbon
dioxide causes CO2 degassing and the slow
precipitation of CaCO3. The straw grows
downwards as a result; water also flows
down the outside of the straw, causing the
stalactite to grow outwards around the
straw. 2. American name for straw
stalactitem.
soddy karst. See subsoil karst.
sodium. A naturally occurring element (Na).
soil aggregate. Loosely cemented cluster of
soil particles[16].
soil air. The air that fills soil and rock
interstices above the zone of saturation1101.
soil bulk density. The mass of dry soil per
unit bulk soil[22].
soilcover. A layer of soil material covering
bedrock[16].
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soil-covered karst. See subsoil karst.
soil mechanics. The science of dealing with
the mechanical properties of soils[16].
soil moisture. Subsurface liquid water in the
unsaturated zone, expressed as a fraction of
the total porous medium volume occupied
by water. It is less than or equal to the
porosity[22].
soil-moisture meter. A device used to record
soil moisture in situ[16].
soil-moisture suction The negative pore
pressure exerted by capillary forces[16].
soil profile. A vertical section of the soil
mantle, usually with distinguishable soil
horizons[16].
soil sample. A sample of soil on which soil
properties are to be determined1161.
soil swelling. The volume increase of soil due
to swelling of unsaturated clay particles
when in contact with water[16].
soil water. See soil moisture.
soil-water pressure. The pressure (positive
or negative), in relation to the external gas
pressure on the soil water, to which a
solution identical in composition with the
soil water must be subjected in order to be
in equilibrium through a porous permeable
wall with the soil water[22].
soilwater zone. The upper portion of the
zone of aeration containing soil water[16].
solid matrix. An assembly of interconnected
solid mineral grains surrounded by voids[16].
solid volume. The volume of solid particles in
a porous sample[16].
solifluction. The slow flowage of mud
streams in arctic regions.
solubility. The total amount of solute species
that will remain indefinitely in a solution
maintained at constant temperature and
pressure in contact with the solid crystals
from which the solutes were derived[22].
solum. The top layers of a soil profile[16].
solute. The substance present in a solution in
the smaller amount. For convenience,
water is generally considered the solvent
even in "concentrated" solutions with water
molecules in the minority[22].
solute transport. The net flux of solute
through a hydrogeologic unit controlled by
the flow of subsurface water and transport
mechanisms[22].
solution. 1. Synonym for dissolution, except
that the product of the solution (or
dissolution) process is also termed a
solution, this being a combination of liquid
and nonliquid (solid or gaseous)
components that exists as a liquid[9]. 2. A
homogeneous mixture of two or more
components. In ideal solutions, the
movement of molecules in charged species
are independent of each other; in aqueous
solutions charged species interact even at
very low concentrations, decreasing the
activity of the solutes[22]. 4. The change of
matter from a solid or gaseous state to a
liquid state by combination with a liquid[10].
5. The result of such change; a liquid
combination of a liquid and a nonliquid
substance[10]. See corrosion.
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solution breccia. A mass of rock composed
of angular to rounded fragments of rock
that have accumulated by solution of
surrounding or underlying carbonate. See
also collapse breccia.
solution flutes. See rillenkarren.
solution lake. A lake whose origin is
attributed largely to solution of underlying
rock.
solution notch. These form wherever humic
soil borders on a very steep or vertical
limestone surface. The rock becomes
undercut by water rich in biogenic CO2. In
the cone karst of the humid tropics, foot
caves occur, which are oversized
enlargements of solution notches[3].
solution pan. Shallow solution basin or
closed depression formed on bare
limestone, generally characterized by flat
bottom and overhanging sides[10]. The
initial form is a closed hollow created by a
humus patch. It may have overhanging side
walls and a flat floor covered by algae and
small pieces of broken rock. Diameters are
rarely greater than 15 cm[3]. Synonyms:
(German.) Kamenitza or Kamenica,
opferkessel; (British.) panhole; (Spanish.)
tinajita. See Kamenica.
solution pipe. A vertical cylindrical hole
attributable to solution, often without
surface expression, filled with debris, such
as sand, clay, rock chips, and bones[10].
Synonym: sand pipe. See also geologic
organ.
solution runnel. See Rinnenkarren.
solution scarp. Escarpment formed by more
active solution of lower area or by
corrosional undercutting of the base of the
escarpment[10].
solution subsidence 1 Any subsidence due
to solution of underlying rock, but par-
ticularly the subsidence of parts of a
formation into hollows or pockets of an
immediately underlying soluble
formation[10]. 2. A craterlike doline in rock
other than karst limestone, formed by
surface subsidence above solutionally
enlarged fissures in a subsurface karst
limestone stratum[19]. Synonyms: (French.)
affaissement par dissolution; (German.)
Losungstaschen, Losungstrichter; (Greek.)
katakdthisma thid thialiseos; (Italian.)
subsidenzaper dissoluzione, subsidenzaper
suberosione; (Russian.) prosedanie
vsledstvie rastvorenija; (Spanish.)
subsidencia por disolucion; (Turkish.)
erime alcalvm; (Yugoslavian.) korozivno
urusavanje.
sorption. 1. A general term used to
encompass the process of absorption and
adsorption[22]. 2. All processes that remove
solutes from the fluid phase and concentrate
then on the solid phase of the medium[22].
sotano. (Spanish for cellar or basement.)
Term used in Mexico for deep vertical
shafts in limestone, which may or may not
lead to a cave[10].
spangolite. A cave mineral —
Cu6Al(SO4)(OH)12-3H2O[11].
specific capacity. The rate of discharge of
water from a well per unit of drawdown. It
is commonly expressed as gpm/ft or
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m3/day/m and varies with pumping test
duration[6].
spelean. Of, pertaining to, or related to
caves'
[10]
specific conductance. A measure of the
ability of water to conduct an electrical
current expressed in micromhos per
centimeter at 25 °C[22].
specific discharge. The rate of discharge of
ground water per unit area of a porous
medium measured at right angle to the
direction of flow. Synonyms: Darcy
velocity; seepage velocity.
specific drawdown The amount of
drawdown per unit discharge in a well[16].
specific gravity. The weight of a particular
volume of water that a given body of rock
or soil will hold against the pull of gravity
to the volume of the body itself. It is
usually expressed as a percentage161.
specific retention, water retaining capacity.
The ratio of the volume of water that a
given body of rock or soil will hold against
the pull of gravity to the volume of the
body itself. It is usually expressed as a
percentage161.
specific storage. The volume of water
released from or taken into storage per unit
volume of the porous medium per unit
change in head[6].
specific surface. The ratio of grain particle
surface to the volume of grain particles[16].
specific yield. The ratio of the volume of
water that a given mass of saturated rock or
soil will yield by gravity to the volume of
that mass. This ratio is stated as a
percentage[6].
speleogen. A secondary cave structure
formed by dissolving, such as a dome pit or
a scallop[10].
speleogenesis. Although the term literally
means the birth, origin, or mode of
formation of caves, the full extent of
speleogenesis includes all the changes that
take place between the inception and the
eventual destruction of an underground
drainage system. It includes development
phases during which the active drainage
voids are too small to be considered caves
as normally defined, as well as phases when
the cave no longer functions as a drain, is
enlarging only by collapse and, eventually,
is being totally removed[9].
speleogenetics. The totality of all processes
that affect the creation and development of
natural underground cavities. These
comprise corrosion, erosion, and incasion,
but are also influenced by lithology,
tectonics, and climate.
speleologist. 1. A scientist engaged in the
study and exploration of caves, their
environment, and their biota[10]. 2. Explorer
of caves, caverns, and other underground
openings, especially in karst. "Caver" and
"potholer" are slang terms[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) speleologue; (German.)
Hohlenforscher, Spelaologe; (Greek.)
speleologos; (Italian.) speleologo;
(Russian.) speleology (Spanish.)
espeleologo; (Turkish.) speleolo,
magambilimci; (Yugoslavian.) speleolog,
spiljarjamar.
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speleology. 1. Scientific study of caves,
including aspects of sciences, such as
geomorphology, geology, hydrology,
chemistry, and biology, and also the many
techniques of cave exploration191. 2. The
scientific study, exploration, and description
of caves, cave organisms, and related
features[10]. 3. The branch of knowledge
dealing with the study and exploration of
underground caves[20]. 4. Study,
exploration, and description of caves,
caverns, and other underground cavities in
karst and, rarely, in lavas or ice[20].
Synonyms: (French.) speleologies
(Germ an.) Hohlenforschung, Hohlenkunde;
(Greek.) speleologhia; (Italian.)
speleologia; (Russian.) speleologija;
(Spanish.) espeleologfa; (Turkish.)
speleoloji, magarabilim; (Yugoslavian.)
speleologija, pecinarstvo, jamarstvo.
speleothem. 1. General term for all cave
mineral deposits, embracing all stalactites,
flowstone, flowers, etc. Most are formed
of calcite, whose precipitation processes,
related mainly to carbon dioxide levels in
the water, are the direct reverse of the
dissolution of limestone. Climatic
influences on dissolution processes ensure
that speleothems are generally larger and
more abundant in the caves of the wet
tropics, which are typified by thick
stalactites and massive stalagmites, in
contrast to the straws and flowstones of
alpine caves[9]. 2. General term for
stalactites, stalagmites, moonmilk,
helictites, and other secondary mineral
deposits in caves and caverns[20]. 3. A
secondary mineral deposit formed in caves,
such as stalactite or stalagmite[10].
Synonyms: (French.) concretions
cavernicoles; (German.)Hohlenformation;
(Greek.) speleolithoma; (Italian.)
concrezione; (Russian.) natecnia
obrazovanija; (Spanish.) concrecion
(estalagmitica o estalactftica); (Turkish.)
magara olu^ugu; (Yugoslavian.) sige. See
also cave formation.
spelunker. See caver.
spelunking. See caving.
spencerite. A cave mineral —
Zn4(P04)2(OH)2-3H20[11].
sphalerite. A cave mineral — ZnS[11].
spillway. A device that allows for the escape
of excess water[16].
Spitzkarren. (German.) These are isolated
proj ections that may be of a beehive form or
may be sharply pointed and tend to lie
between grikes and the strike ribs of
bedding grikes[8]. See also grike; bedding
grike; dint.
Spitzkegelkarst. (German.) Tropical karst
topography containing sharply pointed
residual limestone hills[10].
splash cup. The shallow concavity in the top
of a stalagmite[10].
spongework. 1. Randomly shaped cavities
created by undirected phreatic dissolution in
a massive, essentially homogeneous
limestone. Fine examples occur in Carlsbad
Caverns, New Mexico[9]. 2. An
arrangement of partitioned depressions
found in cave ceilings and walls, and
attributed to the differential solution of
submerged karst limestones. Larger and
more isolated hollows are known as
"pockets"[19].
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spongework cave pattern A complex maze
cave pattern consisting of irregular
interconnecting cavities with intricate
perforation of the rock. The cavities may
be large or small. All spongework patterns
are nonbranching in development and
contain profuse travertine. In map view,
these caves often appear as an irregular
inkblot.
spontaneous potential. See self-potential.
spore tracer. Dye spores of the fern
Lycopodium clavatum, used to label ground
water in karstic terranes. Synonyms:
(French.) traceur marqueur; (German.)
Sporenmarkiemng; (Greek.) lycopodium
ichnithetis; (Italian.) tracciante vegetale;
(Spanish.) trazador de esporas; (Turkish.)
spor izleyici. See isotope tracer,
Lycopodium spores.
spring. 1. Point where underground water
emerges onto the surface, not exclusive to
limestone, but generally larger in cavernous
rocks. The image of a trickle of water
springing from a hillside hardly matches that
of a vast cave pouring forth a river, but
both are called springs. Among the world's
largest is the Dumanli spring, Turkey, with
a mean flow of over 50 cubic meters per
second. Springs may be exsurgences or
resurgences, depending upon the source of
their water, and also may be vauclusian in
character[9]. 2. A natural outflow of water
(or other liquid or gas) at the surface of the
land or into surface water. In some usages.
"spring" is restricted to the water that
outflows, in other usages the word can refer
to the water, the outlet, or to the locality of
the outflow[20]. 3. Any natural discharge of
water from rock or soil onto the surface of
the land or into a body of surface water[10].
4. A discrete place where ground water
flows naturally from a rock or the soil onto
the land surface or into a body of surface
water[22]. Synonyms: (French.) source;
(German.) Quelle; (Greek.)pighi; (Italian.)
sorgente; (Russian.) istocnik; (Spanish.)
fuente; (Turkish.) kynak. See also seep.
spring, artesian. Water flowing under
artesian pressure with the potentiometric
surface above the land surface[16].
spring, barrier. A subsurface barrier forcing
water to rise to ground surface and
discharge as a spring[16].
spring, boiling. 1. An uncommon type of
vauclusian spring, where the flow is large
enough in a constricted site to form
turbulence on the surface of the resurgence
pool[9]. 2. (Jamaican.) A. variable-discharge
artesian spring in which hydrostatic
pressure is great enough to cause a
turbulent or even fountainlike discharge[19].
See also blue hole.
spring, boundary. A spring located at the
boundary between a permeable formation
overlying an impermeable substratum[16].
spring, cave. A spring rising in a cave[10].
spring, contact. A spring formed at the
intersection of the land surface and a
permeable water-bearing formation
overlying a less permeable formation1161.
spring, depression. A spring originating at
the intersection of the land surface with the
water table[16].
spring, drowned. A spring that continues to
function as a spring after it has become
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submerged by rising sea or lake levels or by
subsidence of the ground[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) source sous-aquatique, source
noye; (German.) submarine Quelle,
sublacustre Quelle; (Greek.) vethisthesa
pigi; (Italian.) sorgente sommersa;
(Russian.) subakvaljnij istocnik; (Spanish.)
fuente subacudtica; (Turkish.) batik
kaynak; (Yugoslavian.) potopljen izvor,
potopljeno vrelo, potopljen izvir (vrelec).
Related to spring, sub lacustrine, spring,
submarine.
spring, ebb-and-flow; ebbing-and-flowing
well. A spring (flowing well or borehole)
exhibiting periodic variation in volume of
flow; this variation, which may be regular
or irregular, is often attributed in karst
regions to siphonic action. Ebb-and-flow
springs differ from intermittent springs
because the latter can be related to seasonal
variations in rainfall[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) source intermittente; (German.)
intermittierende Quelle; (Greek.) pighi
ambotidos kai palirrias; (Italian.) sorgente
Corsica intermittente; (Russian.) sifonnij
istocnik; (Spanish.) manatial intermittente,
fuente intermittente; (Turkish.) sogultkan
kaynak; (Yugoslavian.) periodicni ixvor,
periodicni izvir. See also spring, periodic.
Related to intermittent spring.
spring, drowned. A spring that continues to
function as a spring after it has been
submerged by rising sea or lake levels or by
subsidence of the ground[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) source sous-aquatique, source
noye; (German.) submarine Quelle,
sublacustre Quelle; (Greek.) vethisthesa
pigi; (Italian.) sorgente sommersa;
(Russian.) subakvaljnij istocnik; (Spanish.)
fuente subacudtica; (Turkish.) batik
kaynak; (Yugoslavian.) potopljen izvor,
potopljeno vrelo, potopljen izvir (vrelec).
Related to sublacustrine spring, submarine
spring.
spring, fracture. A spring with its outflow
openings consisting of fractures[16].
spring, fullflow. A spring that is the sole
drain of an area.
spring, gravity. A spring flowing as a result
ofgravity[16].
spring head alcove The arcuate cliff
surrounding many risings, formed by
progressive headward sapping and cavern
collapse. The rapidity of their formation is
increased by the cliff-line, which frequently
exists already at the lower margin of the
karst area[19].
spring, intermittent. 1. A karst spring with
a pulsating flow, caused by the presence
within the rock of cavities and siphons fed
by a subterranean watercourse. When the
cavity is full, the siphon is complete and
causes a pulse of water to issue from the
spring. This diminishes or empties the
water supply in the cavity, and no further
water is discharged from the spring until the
system is reactivated. The discharge is said
to be a reciprocating spring when a reduced
level of flow is maintained between
pulses[19]. 2. A spring flowing at irregular
intervals[16]. Synonyms: (French.) source
temporaire, source intermittente; (German.)
intermittierende Quelle, periodische
Quelle; (Greek.) thialepousapege; (Italian.)
sorgente temporanea, sorgente
intermittente; (Russian.)peremezajuscijsja
istocnik; (Spanish.) fuente intermitente,
fuente temporal; (Turkish.) kesintili
kaynak; (Yugoslavian.) periodicko vrelo,
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potajnica, obdobni izvir. Related to spring,
ebb-and-flow; spring, periodic.
spring, karst. A spring emerging from
karstified limestone[10]. See also
emergence; exsurgence; resurgence; rise.
spring, medicinal. A spring with healing
properties[16].
spring, mineral. A spring having a high
mineral content.
spring, overflow. A spring that is part of a
distributary but that drains only at the level
above base flow.
spring, perched karst. The emergence of
underground water somewhere above the
basement of a calcareous massif caused by
the interbedding of an impermeable or
intermittent perched water table by
restricting the vertical movement of water,
which instead issues from the contact[19].
spring, perennial. Stream flowing above land
surface throughout the year[16].
spring, periodic. A spring that shows
variation in flow that is either regular or
irregular. It may be due to siphonic
action[20]. Synonyms: (French.) source
periodique; (German.)Periodische Quelle,
intermittierende Quelle; (Greek.)
periodhiki piyi; (Italian.) sorgente
periodica; (Spanish.) fuente periodica;
(Tur\dsh.)periyodikkaynak; (Yugoslavian.)
periodiclni izvor (izvir). See ebb-and-flow
spring. Related to intermittent spring.
spring, saline. Spring water having a high
salt content[16].
spring, seepage. A spring where surface
discharge occurs from numerous small
openings[16]. Synonym: filtration spring.
spring, subaqueous. A spring that discharges
below the surface of a water body (e.g.,
ocean, lake, river, or stream)[16].
spring, sublacustrine A spring emerging in
the bed of a lake predominantly in karst
areas[20]. Synonyms: (French.) source sous
lacustre; (German.) Unterw after quelle,
sublacustre Quelle; (Greek.) ypovrichios
pighi; (Italian.) sorgente sublacustre;
(Russian.) istocniknadne ozera; (Spanish.)
fuente sublacustre; (Turkish.) golalti
kaynagi. See spring, drowned.
spring, submarine. 1. A spring emerging in
a sea or lagoon predominantly in karst
terranes. This is a descriptive term
generally corresponding to the genetic term
"drowned spring [20]. 2. Large offshore
emergence, generally from cavernous lime-
stone, but in some areas from beds of
lava[10]. Synonyms: (French.) source sous
marine; (German.) Untermeeresquelle,
Grundquelle, submarine Quelle; (Greek.)
ypothalassia pighi; (Italian.) sorgente
sottomarina; (Russian.) submarinnij
istocnik; (Spanish.) fuente submarina;
(Turkish.) denizalti kaynagi; (Yugoslavian.)
vrulja. See spring, drowned.
spring, thermal. A spring with temperature
of the spring water above the average
temperature of superficial rock[16].
spring, tubular. A spring issuing from a
round channel such as a tubular passage[16].
spring, unconformity. A spring issuing at the
contact of an aquifer with an unconformity.
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spring, underflow. A spring that is part of a
distributary but is at lower elevation and
preferentially drains base flow. Between it
and an overflow spring there may be several
underflow-overflow springs.
spring, valley. Springs occurring at valley
sides where the water table intersects the
land surface.
spring, vauclusian; rising, vauclusian 1 A
type of rising or spring where direct
drainage from the phreas flows up a flooded
cave passage under pressure to emerge in
daylight. The term is best applied where
water rises from a vertical or very steep
bedrock passage. Such risings are named
after the Fontaine de Vaucluse in southern
France. The River Sorgue rises from the
Fontaine with a mean flow of 26 cubic
meters per second. Its upper part is steeply
inclined, but at depth it is vertical. A diver
has reached a depth of 200 m, and a robot
reached 243 m, below which the flooded
shaft continues191. 2. Large karst spring
(name by Fournet, after la Sorgue en
Vaucluse, France) characterized by a stream
surging up as from a siphon. Also applied
to karst springs with artesian
characteristics^01. 3. A large spring or
exsurgence of an underground river, gen-
erally from limestone, that varies greatly in
output and is impenetrable except with
diving apparatus[10]. Synonym: (American.)
gushing spring; (French.) source
vauclusienne, bouillidou (South of France);
(German.) Vauclusequelle, (Riesenquelle);
(Greek.) kephalari/vauclusiana pighi;
(Italian.) sorgente valchiusana; (Russian.)
vokljuz; (Spanish.)fuente vauclusiana, ojo,
heryidero; (Turkish.) baswcch kaynak;
(Yugoslavian.) voklisko vrelo, obrh. See
also gushing spring.
squeeze. A narrow passage or opening just
passable with effort. Differs from flattener
in that there is little spare space in any
direction1101.
staff gage. A fixed graduated scale[16].
stage. Water surface elevation at a point
along a stream, river, lake, etc., above an
arbitrary datum[16].
stage-discharge relation. See rating curve.
stage hydrograph. The elevation of stage
plotted against time[16].
stage record. Stage discharge relations
presented in tabulated form[16].
stagmalite. A general term including sta-
lactite and stalagmite. Superseded by
dripstone™.
stagnation point. The foremost point on a
streamline dividing an area of pumping
depression from a zone of influence in a
tilted aquifer being pumped by a well[16].
stalactite. 1. Speleothem, generally of calcite,
formed by dripping water and hanging from
a cave roof. Stalactites embrace an
enormous variety of sizes and shapes. They
form where percolation water seeps from a
cave ceiling and becomes saturated with
respect to cal cite because of loss of carbon
dioxide into the cave air. Calcite is
precipitated round the rim of the water
droplet and continued deposition creates a
hollowtubular straw stalactite (soda straw).
Additional deposition of calcite on the
outside of the initial cylinder creates an
ordinary tapering stalactite. Almost infinite
variation in shape may be influenced by
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changes in water flow, cave air chemistry,
evaporation, temperature or dissolved
impurities, and by crystal growth blocking
flow paths. They are the most common
speleothem. Though the single 7 m long
stalactite in Ireland's Poll an lonain is not
the world's longest, it is uniquely
spectacular against the dark chamber
walls[9]. 2. Conical deposit of calcite or
aragonite, often with a hollow center
hanging from the roof of a cave or cavern
formed by precipitation of carbonate due to
escape of CO2 from hanging water beads
and to evaporation of part of the water[20].
3. A cylindrical or conical deposit of
minerals, generally calcite, formed by
dripping water, hanging from the roof of a
cave, generally having a hollow tube at its
center. From Greek word meaning "exude
drops"[10]. Synonyms: (French.) stalactite;
(German.) Tropfstein, Stalaktit; (Greek.)
stalaktitis; (Italian.) stalattite; (Russian.)
stalaktit; (Spanish.) estalactita; (Turkish.)
sarkit (Yugoslavian.) mosur, vised kapnik,
stalaktit.
stalagmite. 1. Speleothem, normally of
calcite, formed by upward growth from a
cave floor, and therefore the complement of
a stalactite. Stalagmites form when
dripwater that is still saturated falls from a
cave roof or stalactite and, when or after it
lands, loses more carbon dioxide to the
cave air, causing precipitation of calcite.
They vary in size and shape, from tall thin
towers to wide domes that grade into
flowstone, the main controls being drip rate
and height, and saturation levels of the
water. The stalagmites of Aven Armand,
France, are of the multiple splash-cup
variety, being notably slender and up to 30
m tall. Spectacularly massive stalagmites
occur in the Carlsbad and Cottonwood
Caves of New Mexico[9]. 2. Columnar or
partly irregular deposit of calcite or
aragonite on the floor of a cave or cavern
formed by the precipitation of carbonates
due to escape of CO2 from water dripping
from the roof1201. 3. A deposit of calcium
carbonate rising from the floor of a
limestone cave, formed by precipitation
from a bicarbonate solution through loss of
CO2. The water drops on the stalagmite
from above. From Greek word meaning
drip[10]. Synonyms: (French.) stalagmite;
(German.) Bodenzapfen, Stalagmit;
(Greek.) stalagmitis; (Italian.) stalagmite;
(Russian.) stalagmit; (Spanish.)
estalagmita; (Turkish.) dikit;
(Yugoslavian.) dulak, stojeci kapnik,
stalagmit. See also dripstone.
stalagmite, capillary.
stalagmite.
See capillary
standard deviation. A measure of variability
of the square of individual deviations from
their mean[16].
standing line. A rope of approximately
0.4375 inches or 11 mm in diameter that is
tied to a solid anchor and is used for
descending and ascending[13]. See also
ascender; knot; mechanical ascender;
prusik knot; pmsiking.
state of solution. The degree to which a
mineral or rock has gone into solution[16].
static head. See head, static.
static water level. The level of water in a
well that is not being affected by withdrawal
of ground water[6].
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steady flow. Flow where the velocity at a
point remains constant with respect to
time[16].
steam hole. An opening from a cavity
through which a current of air charged with
vapor blows upwards and condenses at the
orifice to appear as steam. Such openings
are an occasional feature in karst
terranes[20]. Synonyms: (French.) puits a
vapeur, puits fumant; (German.)
Dampfschlot; (Greek.) atmotrypa;
(Spanish.) cavidad fumante; (Turkish.)
buhar deligi.
steep. The property of inclination with a very
steep gradient[16].
steephead. A deeply cut valley, generally
short, terminating at its upslope end in an
amphitheater, at the foot of which a stream
may emerge[10].
stemflow. Rain water flowing down the stem
ofplants[16].
stereo aerial photographs. Aerial
photographs shot in sequence over a
landscape so that when adj oining photos are
viewed at the proper interpupillary spacing,
features may be seen in three dimensions.
stereogram. A block diagram or three-
dimensional diagram[16].
stilling well. A well connected to a flowing
stream or spring through a bottom conduit
permitting elevation measures to be taken in
quiescent water[16].
stomatal transpiration The transpiration by
escape of water through pores (stomata) of
leaves[16].
stone forest. See shilin.
stoping. The upward migration of the ceiling
in a passage or room by the action of slabs
falling[13].
storage capacity. 1. The ability of an aquifer
to store water[16]. 2. The capacity of rivers
to store water in their own channel[16].
storage coefficient. 1. The volume of water
an aquifer releases from or takes into
storage per unit surface area of the aquifer
per unit change in head[22]. In a confined
aquifer, the water is derived from storage,
with decline in head resulting from an
expansion of the water and compression of
the aquifer. Similarly, water added to
storage with a rise in head is accommodated
partly by compression of the water and
partly by expansion of the aquifer. In an
unconfmed aquifer, the amount of water so
released or accepted is generally negligible
compared to the amount involved in gravity
drainage or filling of pores, hence, in an
unconfmed aquifer, the storage coefficient
is virtually equal to the specific yield. 2.
The volume of water an aquifer releases
from or takes into storage per unit surface
area of the aquifer per unit change in head
(virtually equal to the specific yield in an
unconfmed aquifer.) 3. The volume of water
a confined hydrogeologic unit releases from
or takes into storage per unit subsurface
area of the hydrogeologic unit per unit
change in head.
storage gage. A precipitation gage for
collecting and storing the total amount of
inflowing water to be read at long
intervals1161.
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storage in depressions. Water retention in
surface depress!ons[16].
storativity. See storage coefficient.
storm. 1. A disturbance of average
meteorological conditions and usually
connected with precipitation[16]. 2. A
period of precipitation over a specific
drainage basin[16].
strath terrace. An erosional remnant of an
elevated broad river valley[16].
stratification. 1. A depositional structure of
sedimentary rocks in beds and layers[16]. 2.
The separation into nondiscrete layers of
water as a result of chemical, saline, or
temperature differences which in turn create
density differences in the water.
stratigraphic column A graphic means of
representing the various rock types of an
area in a geologic report[13].
stratigraphic sequence. The sequence of
rock types in an area[13].
stratum. A sedimentary bed or layer[16].
straw stalactite; straw. 1. The simplest form
of stalactite — a fragile, thin-walled tube,
normally of calcite, which is the diameter of
the drops of water that hang from its end
and continue its growth. Though only
about 5 mm in diameter, straw stalactites
(or straws) may grow to great length in
clusters of spectacularly dense profusion,
more commonly in caves of cooler climates.
The length record may be held by a 6 m
straw in Easter Cave, Western Australia.
Also known as "straw stalactite" or "soda
straw"[9]. 2. Thin tubular stalactite,
generally less than a centimeter in diameter
and of very great length (examples as long
as 4 meters); also called soda straw[10]. See
also soda straw; stalactite.
stream. A body of flowing water[16].
stream bed. The bottom of a stream covered
by water[16].
stream development The ratio of actual
tortuous stream length between two points
on a straight line connecting these points[16].
stream flow. The total runoff confined in a
stream and its channel[16].
stream frequency. Channel frequency; the
number of stream segments per unit area[16].
stream order. The hierarchic order of stream
segments according to tributaries1161.
stream profile. The elevation of the main
stream bed as a function of distance from
outflow.
stream sink. Point at which a surface stream
sinks into the ground[10]. See also doline;
ponor; sink; sinkhole; sumidero; swallet;
swallow hole.
streamtube. 1. A cave passage completely
filled, now or in the past, with fast-moving
water and whose ceiling and walls normally
show scallops[10]. 2. The imaginary space
formed between two adj acent streamlines in
which flow is constant (assuming steady
flow conditions). Synonyms: (French.)
conduiteforcee; (German.)Druckflufirohr;
(Greek.) ypoghios siranx; (Italian.)
condotta forzata; (Spanish.) tubo (o
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conducto) freatico; (Turkish.) akarsu
mecrasi. See conduit, pressure flow tube.
streamline. A curve that is everywhere
tangent to the specific discharge vector and
indicates the direction of flow at every point
in a flow domain.
may also be regarded as the difference
between geostatic and neutral stress[21].
stress, geostatic. The total load per unit area
of sediments and water above some plane of
reference. It is the sum of the effective
stress and the neutral stress[21].
strength. The maximum stress that a material
can resist without failing for any given type
of loading.
stress. The force acting across a given surface
element divided by the area of the element.
stress, applied. The downward stress
imposed at an aquifer boundary. It differs
from effective stress in that it defines only
the external stress tending to compact a
deposit rather than the grain-to-grain stress
at any depth within a compacting deposit[21].
stress, effective. Stress (pressure) that is
borne by and transmitted through the grain-
to-grain contacts of a deposit, and thus
affects its porosity or void ratio and other
physical properties. In one-dimensional
compression, effective stress is the average
grain-to-grain load per unit area in a plane
normal to the applied stress. At any given
depth, the effective stress is the weight (per
unit area) of sediments and moisture above
the water table, plus the submerged weight
(per unit area) of sediments between the
water table and the specified depth, plus or
minus the seepage stress (hydrodynamic
drag) produced by downward or upward
components, respectively, of water
movement through the saturated sediments
above the specified depth. Thus, effective
stress may be regarded as the algebraic sum
of the two body stresses, gravitational
stress and seepage stress. Effective stress
stress, neutral. Fluid pressure exerted equally
in all directions at a point in a saturated
deposit by the head of water. Neutral
pressure is transmitted to the base of the
deposit through the pore water, and does
not have a measurable influence on the void
ratio or on any other mechanical property of
the deposits[21].
stress, preconsolidation. The maximum
antecedent effective stress to which a
deposit has been subj ected, and which it can
withstand without undergoing additional
permanent deformation. Stress changes in
the range less than the preconsolidation
stress produce elastic deformations of small
magnitude. In fine-grained materials, stress
increases beyond the preconsolidation stress
produce much larger deformations that are
principally inelastic (nonrecoverable)[21].
stress, seepage. When water flows through a
porous medium, force is transferred from
the water to the medium by viscous friction.
The force transferred to the medium is
equal to the loss of hydraulic head. This
force, called seepage force, is exerted in the
direction of flow[21].
stress, shear. Stress directed parallel
(tangential) to the surface element across
which it acts.
strike. The direction or azimuth of a
horizontal line in the plane of an inclined
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stratum, joint, cleavage plane, or other
planar feature within a rock mass.
strike valley. A valley following the strike of
underlying strata[16].
structure. One of the larger features of a
rock mass (e.g., bedding, foliation, jointing,
cleavage, brecciation, etc.) Also the sum
total of such features as contrasted with
texture. In a broader sense, it refers to the
structural features of an area such as
anticlines or synclines.
structural factor. Features modifying or
interrupting the continuity of rock types[16].
structural geology. That part of geology
dealing with structures formed in rocks[16].
struga. (Slavic.) A corridor formed along a
bedding plane in karst country[10].
stylolite. An irregular suturelike boundary
developed along some bedding planes in
limestones, probably caused by dissolution
under pressure and possibly related in some
cases to subsequent inception of
speleogenesis[9].
subaqueous spring. See spring, subaqueous.
subaqueous karst. A karst terrane that is
covered by a discrete body of water[17]. See
also drowned karst; sub fluvial karst;
submarine karst.
subartesian well. An artesian well with
insufficient head to raise water above the
land surface[16].
sub-conduit. Any void, whether of tectonic
or dissolutional origin, that is smaller than
the accepted defined size of a conduit. Sub-
conduits originate under inception
conditions and enlarge during gestation, but
many fail to achieve larger dimensions when
drainage later becomes concentrated along
preferred routes. In most cases, however,
they will continue to function as part of the
microfissure, or percolation, system within
the rock mass. Sub-conduits are an
essential part of a continuum of void sizes
that extends between microscopic
discontinuities and the largest tube
passages'
[9]
subcutaneous drain Discrete percolation
drains contained within the epikarst zone
and leading to the transitions zone. See
also epikarst zone; subcutaneous flow;
subcutaneous zone; transition zone.
subcutaneous flow. Lateral and vertical flow
that occurs within the epikarst zone under
saturated conditions. Lateral flow distances
can exceed hundreds of meters and several
meters per day while vertical flow within
discrete percolation drains (subcutaneous
drains) may allow flow rates in excess of
several hundred meters per hour. See also
epikarst zone; subcutaneous drain;
subcutaneous zone; transition zone.
subcutaneous zone. Synonym for epikarst
zone.
subfluvial karst. Karst topography
developed beneath a river. See also
subaqueous karst.
subjacent karst. Karst landscape in
noncarbonate rocks due to presence of
karstified rocks beneath the surface
formation[10]. Synonyms: (French.) karst
sous-jacent; (German.) unterirdisches
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Karstphdnomen; (Greek.) ypokimenon
karst; (Russian.) pokritij karst; (Spanish.)
karst subyacente; (Turkish.) gizli karst;
(Yugoslavian.)pokriven krs(kras). See also
interstratal karst.
subkutan karst. See subsoil karst.
sublacustrine spring
sub lacustrine.
See spring,
sublimation. The direct conversion of water
from its solid state to the vapor phase[16].
submarine karst. Karst topography
developed below the tidal zone. See also
subaqueous karst.
submarine spring. See spring, submarine.
subpermafrost karst. Underground karst in
areas of permafrost. Karstification is due to
the solvent action of subpermafrost (or
intrapermafrost) water[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) karst sous-permafrost; (German.)
Pseudokarst; (Greek.) karst ypomonimou
paghetou; (Italian.) carsismo di
subpermafrost; (Russian.) podmerzlonij
karst, mezmerzlotnij karst; (Spanish.) karst
de subpermafrost, karst de intrapermafrost;
(Turkish.) don alam yeralti harsh. See
permafrost karst. S ee al so intrapermafrost
karst.
subpermafrost water. Ground water below
the permafrost[16].
subsequent river. 1. A river flowing along
the strike of a weak formation[16]. 2. A
tributary to a consequent river[16].
subsidence. Lowering of the surface of the
ground because of removal of support.
Caused in karst areas by subterranean
solution or collapse of caves[10].
subsidence doline. A closed karst depression
formed by local subsidence of the surface
rocks and/or soil into cavities formed by
widespread dissolution or local collapse of
caves. The type of subsidence doline
formed by downwashing of the soil cover is
better described as a suffosion doline[9].
Also known as sinkhole.
subsidence/head-decline ratio. The ratio
between land subsidence and hydraulic head
decline in the coarse-grained beds of the
compacting aquifer system[21].
subsoil karst. Karst covered by soil, usually
residual soil[17]. Synonyms: (British.) soddy
karst; (French.) karst vert, karst subcutane;
(German.) bedeckterKarst, bodenbedeckter
Karst, grukarst, subkutan karst; (Greek.)
ypethaphikon karst; (Russian.)
zadernovannyl karst; (Spanish.) karst
subcutdneo; (Turkish.) toprakalti karsti;
(Yugoslavian.) pokriveni kfs(kras). See
also covered karst.
subsurface divide. See underground divide.
subsurface flow. See subsurface runoff.
subsurface runoff, storm seepage,
subsurface flow, subsurface storm flow
Runoff due to infiltrated precipitation
moving laterally under the surface.
subsurface water. All water that occurs
below the land surface[22].
subterranean. Beneath the land surface[16].
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subterranean cut-off. The diversion
underground of a surface watercourse
beneath a surface meander neck, marked by
a swallow hole on the upstream side and a
spring on the downstream side[19]. See also
stream piracy.
subterranean river, subterranean stream
Underground stream of flowing water in
caves and caverns, but not necessarily
large[10]. See also underground stream.
suction. See moisture tension.
suffosion. Undermining through removal of
sediment by mechanical and corrosional
action of underground water[20]. Synonyms:
(French.) soutirage karstique; (German.)
Anzapfung; (Greek.) ypoghion thiavrosis;
(Russian.) suffozija; (Spanish.) sufosion;
(Turkish.) karstik yeraltisuyu kazvnasi;
(Yugoslavian.) sufozija.
suffosion doline. More accurate synonym for
a type of subsidence doline, indicating
formation by the suffosion, or
downwashing, of the soil into an underlying
fissure[9]. Also known as shakehole.
sulfate. A mineral compound characterized
by the sulfate radical SO42". Anhydrous
sulfates, such as barite, BaSO4, have
divalent cations linked to the sulfate radical;
hydrous and basic sulfates, such as gypsum,
CaSO4.2H2O, contain water molecules[1].
sulfate minerals. Minerals containing the
SO42" radical, formed by precipitation from
water. The most common are the
anhydrous and hydrated calcium sulfates,
anhydrite (CaSO4) and gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O). Sulfates are deposited as a
generally minor component of most
carbonate successions, but because of their
high solubility they may not survive
subsequent dissolution by ground water.
Even if they survive subsequent dissolution
by ground water. Even if they survive at
depth, they tend to dissolve as they are
raised nearer to the surface following uplift
and erosion of overburden. Removal of
sulfates by dissolution may contribute to the
early establishment of secondary
permeability in limestone sequences. Sulfate
solutions have a limited corrosional effect
upon calcium carbonate, but may also be
oxidized to produce sulphuric acid, which is
highly corrosive of limestone.
sulfate-reduction karst Karst topography
developed in the subsurface where solution
of bedrock is chiefly a result of sulfate
reduction by petroleum hydrocarbons aided
by bacterial processes that oxidize
hydrocarbons to yield carbon dioxide.
Little, if any, of the water that dissolves the
rock is meteoric[17].
sulfide. A mineral compound characterized by
the linkage of sulfur with a metal or
semimetal, such as galena, PbS, or pyrite,
FeS2[1]. See also gypsum and pyrite.
sulfide minerals. Minerals that are composed
of one or more metals combined with
sulphur. The most common is pyrite. They
are believed to be produced by the
metabolic action of microorganisms and are
found in many sedimentary rocks, usually in
trace amounts.
sulfuric acid. An acid (H2SO4).
sumidero. (Spanish.) 1. A swallow hole. 2.
In Latin America, any closed depression
caused by solution[10].
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summation curve. A curve of cumulated
values[16].
summit. The highest point of a physiographic
feature[16].
sump. 1. In caves a sump is a section of
flooded passage. This may be a perched
sump, probably quite short, within a vadose
cave and created by a local reverse passage
gradient. Alternatively it may be a major
feature, where a cave passage descends
below the regional water table into the
phreas, as is common at the lower end of
many cave systems. Some short sumps can
be dived without the use of breathing
apparatus, but most are restricted to
exploration by cave divers. Logistics are a
barrier to endless sump penetrations, but
some have now been explored for many
kilometers in length, notably in Cocklebiddy
Cave, Australia, theNohochNah Chich and
other great flooded systems in Mexico's
Yucatan, and behind Keld Head in
Yorkshire[9]. 2. A pool of underground
water or point on an underground stream
that has a submerged extension, the nature
of which has not been determined[10]. 3. A
place where the ceiling of a passage drops
to and below water level in a cave, leaving
no air space with the cave passage
continuing underwater[13]. 4. A water trap.
sunken pan. An evaporation pan buried in
the ground for equal elevation of the water
surface with the ground surface[16].
superimposed valley. A valley established on
the land surface with a pattern that is
independent of the underlying rock
structure.
supersaturation. A liquid that is
oversaturated with respect to whatever
particles may be contained in the fluid.
suprapermafrost karst. Surface karst in
areas or permafrost. Karstification is due to
the solvent action of suprapermafrost
water[20]. Synonyms: (French.) karst
suprapermafrost; (German.) Pseudokarst;
(Greek.) karst epi monimou paghetou;
(Italian.) carsismo superficiale di
permafrost; (Russian.) nadmerzlotnij karst;
(Spanish.) karst de suprapermafrost;
(Turkish.) don alamyuzey karsti. See also
permafrost karst.
suprapermafrost water
above permafrost[16].
Ground water
surf karren. Surf karren form along marine
limestone and dolomite coasts where the
surf sprays water onto abrasion surfaces
that lie slightly above normal sea level.
They are a result of corrosion caused by the
mixing of sea- and rain water, but do not
exist under the sea surface as sea water is
not limestone-corrosive. Beyond the
splashwater zone the karren are much less
sharp[3].
surfactant. A substance capable of reducing
the surface tension of a liquid in which it is
dissolved. Used in air-based drilling fluids
to produce foam, and during well
development to disaggregate clays[6].
Surfactants are now being considered for
aquifer remediation by helping disperse
immiscible contaminants.
surface detention. Sheet flow of water in
overland flow before a channel is
reached[16].
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surface entry. An opening immediately at the
land surface that permits infiltration to take
place[16].
surface film. A monomolecular film of
organic compounds forming on water or
grain surfaces[16].
surface mapping. The topographic and
geodetic mapping of an area[16].
surface mine. Strip mine[16].
surface retention. Water held on land
surface[16].
surface runoff. That part of runoff traveling
over the ground surface and through
channels1161.
surface seepage. Surface discharge of ground
water not important enough to form a
rivulet[16].
surface spreading. A method of artificial
recharge of water to an aquifer by
spreading on a surface[16].
surface tension. The free specific surface
energy occurring at the interface between a
liquid and its own vapor phase[16].
surface water. Water obtained from surface
supplies[16].
susica. Yugoslavian term for intermittent
stream or river in a karst terrane in which
the water diverts and soaks gradually into
the karst ground-water system[20]. See also
intermittent river.
suspended load. Detrital matter being
transported in suspension by a moving
stream[16].
suspended matter. Solid matter small
enough to be held in suspension by moving
or stagnant water[16].
suspended water. See vadose water.
sustained yield. The rate at which water can
be withdrawn from an aquifer without
depleting the supply[16].
swale. A marshy depression or depression in
a ground moraine[16].
swallet, swallow hole. (British.) A place
where water disappears underground in a
limestone region. A swallow hole generally
implies water loss in a closed depression or
blind valley, whereas a swallet may refer to
water loss into alluvium at a streambed,
even though there is no depression[10]. See
also doline; ponor; sink; sinkhole; stream
sink; sumidero.
swelling. The volume increase due to intake
and absorption of water, especially clays[16].
swelling rate. The time rate of volume
increase[16].
synclinal valley. A valley following the axis
of a syncline[16].
syncline. Downfolded stratum[16].
syngenetic karst. 1. Karst developed
contemporaneously with the lithification of
the formation, as in eolian calcarenite,
where lithification and karstification of dune
sands may proceed simultaneously[10]. 2.
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Karst landforms that developed upon
young, porous carbonate rocks, such as
aeolianites, as they underwent
lithification[9]. Synonyms: (French.) karst
syngenetique; (German.) Syngenetischer
Karst; (Greek.) synegeticon karst; (Italian.)
carsismo singenetico; (Spanish.) karst
singenetico; (Turkish.) e^turumlii karst;
(Yugoslavian.) singenetski krs(kras).
syngenite. A cave mineral —
K2Ca(SO4)2-H2O[11].
synoptic network. A network of first-order
stations permitting the regular observation
of weather for all points at the same time[16].
synthetic unit hydrograph. A unit
hydrograph constructed by assuming the
reaction of a drainage basin will be based on
its physical character!stics[16].
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table mountain.
(mesa)[16].
A flat-topped mountain
tailwater. The lower course of a river with
respect to a given point of structure1161.
talus cone. A conelike collection of
disintegrated rock material originating from
and adjacent to a steeper slope[16].
taranakite. A cave mineral —
KA13(PO4)3(OH)-9H2O[11].
tarbuttite. A cave mineral —
Zn2(P04)(OH)[11].
taylorite. A cave mineral — (K,NH4)2SO4[11].
tectokarst. Karst formed under the strong
influence of tectonic disturbances. The
term is indefinite and its use is not generally
recommended[20]. Synonyms: (French.)
tectokarst; (German.) Tektonischer Karst;
(Greek.) tektonikon karst; (Russian.) karst
zon tektoniceskih razlomov; (Spanish.)
tectokarst; (Turkish.) tektonik karst;
(Yugoslavian.) tektokrs, tektokras,
tektokarst.
tectonic. Pertaining to structural features due
to the deformation of the crust[16].
tectonic cave. A cave formed by some form
of ground movement. The most common is
due to landsliding in a jointed rock, leaving
an open fissure cave parallel to the line of
the hillside along the back of the slipped
block. Tectonic caves can form in any
rock, as they do not depend on dissolution.
Well-known examples are the windypit
fissures of northeast Yorkshire, England,
some of which are hundreds of meters long
and up to 60 m deep[9].
tectonic valley. A valley formed by tectonic
forces[16].
temperature efficiency. An efficiency factor
defined by Thornthwaite for different
climates. See also Thornthwaite.
temperature log. A recording curve of
ground-water temperature in a well[16].
temporary hardness.
hardness.
See carbonate
tenorite. A cave mineral — CuO[11].
tensiometer. A device used to measure the
moisture tension in the unsaturated zone[22].
terminal moraine A glacial deposit
accumulated in front of a glacier[16].
terra rossa. 1. Reddish-brown soil mantling
limestone bedrock; may be residual in some
places[10]. 2. Insoluble residuum of a
reddish-brown color left behind when
carbonate rocks weather under
Mediterranean or allied climatical
conditions[20]. Synonyms: (French.) terra
rossa; (German.) Kalksteinroterde;
(Greek.) erythroghi; (Italian.) terra rossa;
(Russian.) terra-rossa; (Spanish.) terra
rossa; (Turkish.) kizil toprak, terrarosa;
(Yugoslavian.) crvemca, jerina, jerovica.
terrace. A flat surface bounded by steplike
steep slopes[16].
terraced flowstone. Shallow rimstone pools
on outward-sloping walls[10]. See also
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rims tone barrage; rimstone barrier;
rimstone dam; constructive waterfall.
terrain. An area with some specific
characteristics. Reserved for surficial
features only. Contrast with terrane.
terrane. An area with some specific
characteristics^61. Includes both surface
and subsurface features. Contrast with
terrain.
tertiary porosity. See porosity., tertiary.
test hole. A hole to test the depth of ground
water, water quality, or geological
conditions[16].
texture. The arrangement in space of the
components of a rock body and of the
boundaries between these components1161.
thalweg. A line of maximum depth of stream
cross-section1161.
Theis equation. The nonequilibrium equation
of radial flow towards a well[16].
thenardite. A cave mineral — Na2SO4[11].
thermal spring. See spring, thermal.
thermal stratification. The stratification of
water in reservoirs because of thermal-
density differences[16].
thermocline. An intermediate layer in
stratified water[16].
thermocouple. A temperature measuring
device based on the proportionality between
thermoelectric current and temperature
difference between thermojunctions[16].
thermokarst. 1. A pitted periglacial or
former periglacial surface in superficial
deposits, produced by settling or caving of
the ground after melting of ground ice[10].
2. A term applied to topographic
depressions in karstic terranes resulting
from the thawing of ice. See cryokarst.
thermokarst pit. Steep-walled depression
formed by thermokarst processes1101.
thickness. The perpendicular distance
between bounding surfaces such as bedding
or foliation planes of a rock.
thief zone. The zone through which drilling
fluid is lost into a formation through the
borehole wall[16].
Thiem equation. The equation that describes
steady-state equilibrium radial flow into a
thixotropy. The property of a gel to become
fluid under application of shear stresses[l6].
threshold. That part of a cave system to
which light penetrates in some degree[l0].
threshold saturation Saturation below
which no flow occurs[l6].
through cave. Cave through which a stream
runs from entrance to exit or formerly did
so[l0]. Synonym: (German).
Durchgangshohle.
throughfall. A part of precipitation that
reaches ground by falling through
vegetative cover[l6].
throw. The vertical displacement of stratum
along a fault plane[l6].
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thrust; thrust fault. A generally gently
dipping or subhorizontal fault plane where
the relative movement has been essentially
horizontal, with one rock sequence being
pushed across and above another. Some
cave development in the Traligill area of
northwest Scotland has been guided by
thrust planes[9].
tidal river. A river strongly influenced and
subject to tidal currents[16].
tidewell. See spring., ebb-and-flow.
tightest packing. An arrangement of particles
allowing only minimum void space a unit
cell of a sample[16].
till. Predominantly unsorted and unstratified
drift, generally unconsolidated, deposited
directly by and underneath a glacier without
subsequent reworking by meltwater, and
consisting of a heterogeneous mixture of
clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders ranging
widely in size and shape[6].
tilted aquifer. A dipping aquifer[16].
time base. The sum of storm duration time
and concentration time in a hydrograph[16].
time-drawdown curve. A plot of drawdown
variation with time[16].
time lag. The time elapsed between the onset
of a certain event and the reaction to this
event[16].
time of concentration. The time required for
surface runoff produced in the farthest part
of a basin to reach a concentration point
under consideration1161.
time of rise. The time between the first
arrival of runoff and arrival of the peak
flow[16].
tinajita. (Spanish.) See solution pan.
tinticite. A cave mineral —
Fe6(P04)4(OH)6-7H20[nl
toadstone. Local term in the Peak District,
England, for lavas, tuffs, and igneous
intrusions within the local Carboniferous
carbonate sequence.
topographic divide. A crest line dividing one
drainage basin from another[16]. See also
divide.
topographic map. A map representing the
land surface via the use of contour lines,
which are lines of equal elevation on the
earth's surface. Synonym: topo map.
topography. The physical features of a
geographical area[16].
topsoil. The topmost portion of a soil
profile[16].
torca. (Spanish.) Large closed depression,
more or less circular; a doline[10].
torricellian chamber. A submerged air-filled
chamber of a cave at a pressure below
atmospheric pressure, sealed by water,
having an air-water surface above that of
adjacent free air-water surfaces[10].
tortuosity. The ratio of actual length of pore
channel to over all length of sample. The
sinuosity of actual flow path in a porous
medium[16].
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total dissolved solids, TDS 1 The total
concentration of dissolved constituents in
solution, usually expressed in milligrams per
liter[22]. 2. The total concentration of
dissolved material in water [as] ordinarily
determined from the weight of the dry
residue remaining after evaporation of the
volatile portion of an aliquot of the water
sample[22].
total hydraulic head. See head, total.
total pore space. The sum of interconnected
and noninterconnected pore space[16].
total runoff. The sum of all components of
runoff into a stream[16].
total soil-water potential The sum of the
energy-related components of a soil-water
system; i.e., the sum of the gravitational,
matric, and osmotic components[22].
tourelle. (French.) A little tower; applied to
small flat-topped buttes of limestone in
karst areas. Contrasted with pitons, which
have pointed tops, and with coupoles,
which have rounded tops[10].
tower karst, turmkarst. 1. A spectacular
variety of karst landscape dominated by
steep or vertical sided limestone towers
each 30-300 m high. By far the most
extensive and best developed tower karst is
the Guangxi province of southern China.
Towers originate as residual cones and are
then steepened by water table undercutting
from surround alluviated plains. Tectonic
uplift matched by karst erosion then
increases tower heights, but if uplift
exceeds surface lowering the towers are
raised to hillside locations and the landscape
is rejuvenated to form a new generation of
dolines and cone karst. Many towers are
riddled with relict caves at high levels, and
with active caves through their bases[9]. 2.
Karst topography characterized by isolated
residual limestone hills displaying numerous
shapes (e.g., cone shaped, steep-sided)
separated by areas of alluvium or other
detrital sand; towers are generally
forest-covered hills, and many have flat
tops. They may form as isolated hills or in
groups. 3. A type of karst topography,
common in the tropics, in which the residual
hills rise in steep-sided but flat-topped
mounds (resembling towers) from
intervening depressions or dolinas
(sinkholes)[20]. Synonyms: (French.) karst a
tourelles, karst a tours; (German.)
Turmkarst, Kegelkarst; (Italian.) carsismo
con forme residuali a torre; (Spanish.)
karst de tor res; (Turkish.) kuleli karst. See
also cone karst; cupola karst; pinnacle
karst; fengcong; fenglin.
tracers. Materials, such as chemicals, dyes,
radioactive salts, and light insoluble solids,
introduced into underground waters to
determine points of egress of the water and
its velocity™.
tracer flow method A method of
determining flow velocities and directions
by introducing tracers or indicators into
ground water[16].
traction load. See bed load.
tranquil flow. Open channel flow with
Froude number smaller than unity[16].
transgression. The spreading of the sea over
level areas[16].
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transient. A pulse-dampened oscillation or
other temporary phenomena occurring in a
system prior to reaching a steady-state
condition[22]. See flow, unsteady.
transition zone. 1. Portion of bedrock in the
vadose zone that is between the epikarst
zone and the phreatic zone, is relatively
waterless and unfractured, but is locally
breached by discrete percolation points
(vadose shafts.) 2. The zone in which the
properties of two adjacent units change
gradually (freshwater/saltwater). See also
epikarst zone; subcutaneous drain;
subcutaneous flow; subcutaneous zone;
vadose caves; vadose shafts.
transit time; travel time. The travel time of
a sonic impulse through a given length of
rock[16].
transmission capacity The property of a
porous medium to conduct fluid[16].
transmissibility coefficient. The use of the
term "transmissibility" has been replaced by
"transmissivity"[22]. See transmissivity.
transmissivity. The rate at which water of
the prevailing kinematic viscosity is
transmitted through a unit width of an
aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient[6].
Though spoken of as a property of the
aquifer, it embodies the saturated thickness
and the properties of the contained liquid as
well. It is equal to an integration of the
hydraulic conductivities across the saturated
part of the aquifer perpendicular to the flow
paths[22].
transpiration. The process by which water
absorbed by plants, usually through the
roots, is evaporated into the atmosphere
from the plant surface[6].
transpiration depth. The depth of water
consumed annually by plants[16].
transpiration ratio. The ratio of water
weight transpired to weight of dry matter
produced1161.
transport. Conveyance of solutes and
particulates in flow systems. See also
solute transport; particulate transport[22\
transportational process. All processes
contributing to the transport of eroded
material1161.
transverse permeability. See permeability,
transverse.
transverse wave. A wave generated by
shearing displacement where wave motion
is perpendicular to direction of
propagation[16].
trap. See siphon; sump; water trap.
travertine. 1. Hard calcareous mineral
deposited by flowing water, that is the same
as the calcareous variety of sinter and
comparable to the softer tufa. The term is
normally used only for deposits formed
outside caves, where plants and algae cause
the precipitation by extracting carbon
dioxide from the water and give travertine
its porous structure. Travertine forms most
commonly on waterfalls that build up like
gour dams. Famous examples include those
at Plitvice in Croatia, Dunn's River Falls in
Jamaica, and, largest of all, Band-I-Amir in
Afghanistan[9]. 2. Calcium carbonate,
CaCO3, light in color and generally
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concretionary and compact, deposited from
solution in ground and surface waters.
Extremely porous or cellular varieties are
known as calcareous tufa, calcareous sinter,
or spring deposit. Compact banded
varieties, capable of taking a polish, are
called onyx marble or cave onyx[10]. 3.
Generally compact calcium carbonate rock
formed by precipitation of soluble
bicarbonates when equilibrium is lost
through changes in temperature and
chemical characteristics. Soft, porous
variety is called calcareous tufa[20].
Synonyms: (French.) travertin; (German.)
Kalktuff, Sinter, Travertin; (Greek.)
travertinis/asvestolithikos toffos; (Italian.)
travertino; (Russian.) travertin; (Spanish.)
travertino, toba; (Turkish.) trover ten,
suta§\; (Yugoslavian.) sedra, travertin,
bigar, lehnjak. Related to sinter and tufa.
travertine terraces. Terraces and related
forms covered by or composed of
carbonates precipitated from water. Such
precipitation is usually from saturated
bicarbonate waters (as from karst) when
they enter a zone of turbulent flow[20].
Synonyms: (French.) terrasse de travertin;
(German.) Travertin-Terrasse; (Greek.)
anavathmos travertinou; (Italian.) spianata
di travertine; (Spanish.) terrazas
travertinicas; (Turkish.) suta§\ tmcalan;
(Yugoslavian.) slapovi. See also
constructive waterfall.
trellis. A geometrical arrangement of an
interwoven pattern[16].
trellis drainage pattern A arrangement of
stream and tributaries in a rectangular
fashion[16].
tributary. A stream contributing its waters to
another stream of higher order[16].
tributary river. A smaller stream entering
and contributing to the flow of a larger
river[16].
tributary valley. A less important valley
joining a larger valley[16].
triple point. A point at which the solid,
liquid, and vapor phases are in
equilibrium[16].
tripoly. A very fine-grained silica sand[16].
tritium. An isotope of water, H3O (HTO),
used for tracing ground water and for age
dating of ground water[16]. See also
radioisotope; radioactive tracer; tracers.
Trittkarren. (German.) These are best
described as heel-print karren because they
resemble the imprint of a heel. They are
nearly connected with subhorizontal,
adjacent, flat plains and migrate upslope by
cutting "steps" through the process of
retrogressive corrosion. The semicircular
form is preserved by the "horseshoe falls
effect," which concentrates the main
amount of water on the innermost part of
the heel-print. At the upper rim the water
gain speed. The thickness of the film of
water is indirectly proportional to the speed
of the flow. A higher rate of flow results in
a greater effectiveness of fresh precipitation
added to the flow on the ground, but it also
causes the diffusion of atmospheric CO2 and
more extensive corrosion. Most Trittkarren
originate at the rim of a grike lying below
and have moved upward to the surface
through retrogressive corrosion. At the
base of steep slopes where snow collects,
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nearly funnel-shaped Trittkarren appear and
are of subnival origin. They are common in
the Alps[3]. Synonym: heel-print karren.
trough. A depression usually on the land
surface, but can occur in ground water.
troglobite. 1. An animal living permanently
underground in the dark zone of caves and
only accidentally leaving it[10]. 2. A creature
that is fully adapted to life in total darkness
and can only complete its life cycle
underground[13]. 3. A creature that lives
permanently underground beyond the
daylight zone of a cave. Many troglobitic
species are adapted in some way to living in
a totally dark environment. Synonyms:
(French.) troglobie; (German.) Troglobiont;
(Greek.) troglothitis; (Italian.) troglobio;
(Russian.) troglobiont; (Spanish.)
troglobio; (Turkish.) troglobit, kor balik.
troglodyte. A human cave-dweller[10].
Examples would be early "cave man."
troglophile. 1. An animal that enters beyond
the daylight zone of a cave intentionally and
habitually and generally spends part of its
life in the underground environment. Cave
swifts and some bats are troglophiles[9]. 2.
An animal habitually entering the dark zone
of a cave but necessarily spending part of its
existence outside such as some species of
bats[10].
troglophobe. An animal or person unable
physically or psychologically to enter the
dark zone of a cave or other underground
area1
[10]
trogloxene. 1. A creature that will enter a
cave on occasions but does not use the cave
either for temporary or permanent
habitation[9]. 2. An animal entering a cave
for various reasons but not living there
permanently[10].
true velocity. Ground-water flow velocity in
porous interstice or cavernous opening[16].
truncation. A horizontal or vertical clean cut
through a topographic feature[16].
tsingi. Type of pinnacle karst found on
limestone in Madagascar[9].
tube, lava. See lava cave.
tubular passage; tube; tube passage. 1.
Cave passage formed by approximately
equal dissolution all round when full of
flowing water within the phreas. Relict
tubes, abandoned as the water table was
lowered, are common in old caves, and may
be partially filled by sediment, breakdown,
or stalagmite, or entrenched to form
keyhole passages. Tube sizes range to over
15 m in diameter, but the larger ones are
rarely of uniform section. Peak Cavern in
Derbyshire is well known for its fine
circular phreatic tubes. Some of the trunk
passages of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, are
spectacular tubes of elliptical section,
formed by dissolution rates that were higher
along the bedding than across[9]. 2. These
are nearly horizontal cave passages
(tunnels) with round or elliptical cross
sections and are either straight or winding.
At Mammoth Cave they vary in size up to
30 feet high and nearly 100 feet wide. They
are formed while completely filled with
flowing water. Athough they are typically
wider than high as a result of dissolution
along horizontal cracks and bedding-plane
partings, they may also form as high,
narrow, straight fissures along major
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vertical or near vertical fractures[15]. See
also canyon passage; keyhole passage;
passage; vertical shaft.
tubular spring. See spring, tubular.
tufa. Soft, porous concretions of carbonate
reprecipitated from saturated karst water,
often around plants[22]. See also sinter;
travertine.
tunnel. See natural tunnel.
turanite. A cave mineral —
Cu5(V04)2(OH)4[nl
turbidity. A diminishing of light penetration
through a water sample because of
suspended and colloidal materials.
turbulence. An irregular motion of fluid
particles in an inertia-dominated flow
regimen[16].
turbulent flow. 1. Type of flow that begins
to develop in a dissolutional subconduit as
its diameter increases to the point where
differences between flow velocity at the
bounding wall (slowed by friction and
adhesion) and the maximum velocity in the
tube's center are sufficient to cause
development of eddies within the flowing
water[9]. 2. The flow condition in which
inertial forces predominate over viscous
forces and in which head loss is not linearly
related to velocity[22]. It is typical of flow in
surface-water bodies and subsurface
conduits in karst terranes, provided that the
conduits have a minimum diameter of
approximately 2-5 mm although some
research has suggested that 5-15 mm, may
be more appropriate. See also laminar
flow; Reynolds number; turbulent threshold.
turbulent threshold. The limiting value of
subconduit size, below which water flow is
essentially laminar and above which water
flow includes a significant turbulent
component. Subconduit diameters between
5 mm and 15 mm have been suggested as
the minimum for turbulent flow, but the
value depends upon a variety of factors,
including the flow velocity; at low flow
velocities laminar flow conditions may
persist in tubes up to 500 mm in diameter[9].
See also laminar flow; Reynolds Number;
turbulent flow.
turlough. (Irish.) 1. A karst depression that
may be dry or flooded according to season
or prevailing weather conditions; derived
from the Irish term for "dry lake."
Oscillations in the general ground-water
level, including variations in response to
local or more distant tidal effects, are the
probable mechanism for water level changes
in the true furloughs. Effects that appear
similar can be produced by high surface
runoff into a closed depression with only
restricted capacity for the drainage to sink
underground[9]. 2. A depression in
limestone or in glacial drift over limestone
that is liable to flood either from excess
surface runoff or from rising ground water.
From the Irish words "tuar loch," meaning
"dry lake"[10].
Turmkarst. (German.) See tower karst.
type curve. A plot of the theoretical well
function versus the lower limit of the
integral in Theis' graphical solution
method[16]. Numerous variations of Theis'
original work have been developed for
which type curves readily exist.
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tyuyamunite. A cave mineral
Ca(UO2)2(VO4)2-«H2O[11].
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u
unaltered rock. Rock that has not
experienced physical or chemical erosion[16].
unconfined. A condition in which the upper
surface of the zone of saturation forms a
water table under atmospheric pressure[22].
unconfined aquifer. An aquifer in which the
water table is exposed to the atmosphere
through openings in the overlying materials.
unconfined flow. Ground-water flow
displaying a free surface[16].
unconfined water. Ground water vertically
in direct contact with the atmosphere[16].
unconformity. A fossil land surface
representing the absence of a sequence of
sediments[16].
unconformity spring. See spring,
unconformity.
uncontaminated zone In electrical logging
practice, the zone around a borehole that
has not become contaminated by mud
filtrate[16].
undercut karren. These are Rinnenkarren
(solution grooves) that have been
transformed by humus filling and by their
side walls having been hollowed under by
biogenic CO2[3].
underflow spring. See spring, underflow.
underdrainage. The drainage from under a
hydrologic feature such as a river, barrier,
lake, etc.
underfit stream. A small stream that flows
along a cave passage that was enlarged to
its current size by an earlier, larger stream.
Commonly underfit streams are found
flowing under vadose conditions along the
floors of drained phreatic tubes, long
abandoned by the phreatic flow that
enlarged them. Underfit streams may also
occur if the major flow in a vadose
streamway is captured to lower levels by
the opening of a new shaft. The main flow
no longer uses the downstream passages,
leaving any tributaries to amalgamate as an
underfit stream[9].
underflow. Deep phreatic flow within an
aquifer, along flow lines that are largely
unrelated to the more obvious flow at
higher levels. Underflow drainage may be
slower than that in shallower systems, and
may travel towards more distant and/or
unrelated springs[9].
underground divide. Subsurface watershed
between two catchment areas in karst; often
incongruent with the surface topography of
the area[20]. Synonyms: (French.) ligne de
portage des eaux souterraines, limit
souterrainne; (German.) unterirdische
Wafierscheide; (Greek.) ypoghios
ythroketis; (Italian.) spartiacque
sotterraneo; (Russian.) vodorazdel
podzemnih vod; (Spanish.) divisoria
subterrdnea; (Turkish.) yeralti su bolumu;
(Yugoslavian.) podzemna razvodnica,
podzemna vododelnica. See also
subsurface divide.
underground river, underground stream.
Water flowing in channels through caves,
caverns, and larger galleries in karst
terranes[20]. Synonyms: (French.) riviere
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souterraine; (German.) Hohlenflufi,
unterirdischer Flufi; (Greek.) ypoghios roe.,
potamos; (Italian.) fiume sottermneo;
(Russian.)podzemnaja reka; (Spanish.) rio
subterrdneo; (Turkish.) yeralti nehri,
deresi; (Yugoslavian.) podzemni tok,
podzemna rijka, podzemna reka. See
subterranean river.
underground waters. All subsurface
waters[16]. Not to be confused with "ground
water," which specifically refers to water
within the phreatic zone.
uniaxial (unconfined) compression.
Compression caused by the application of
normal stress in a single direction.
uniaxial state of stress. The state of stress in
which two of the three principal stresses are
zero.
uniform flow. Flow with constant velocity at
all points and at all times[16].
uniformity coefficient. A numerical
expression of the variety in particle sizes in
mixed natural soils, defined as the ratio of
the sieve size on which 40% (by weight) of
the material is retained to the sieve size on
which 90% of the material is retained[6].
unit-hydrograph. A hypothetical discharge
hydrograph for a given point resulting from
unit rainfall that produces unit runoff161.
unsaturated coefficient of permeability
The apparent coefficient of permeability in
flow through an unsaturated medium[16].
unsaturated flow. 1. The movement of water
in a porous medium in which the pore
spaces are not filled to capacity with
water[22]. 2. Two-phase flow through pores
only partially filled with water and air[16].
unsaturated zone. See vadose zone and zone
of aeration.
unsteady flow. Flow with a finite local
acceleration term and streamlines that vary
with time[16].
unterirdische karst. See interstratal karst.
upconing. Process by which saline water
underlying fresh water in an aquifer rises
upward into the freshwater zone as a result
of pumping water from the freshwater
zone[22].
uplift. 1. The hydrostatic force of water
exerted on or underneath a structure
tending to cause a displacement of the
structure. 2. The relative upward
movement of a part of the earth's crust[16].
upper confining bed. An impermeable bed
overlying an aquifer[16].
upside-down channel. See ceiling channel.
urkarst. See buried karst.
uvala. 1. A multi-coned closed depression;
now little-used term of Croat, Serb or
Bulgarian origin. The term was introduced
to describe features assumed to be the
second step in a three-stage process of polje
development, in which dolines were
supposed to coalesce into uvalas. This
mechanism is no longer accepted and the
term "uvala" has fallen into disuse[9]. 2.
Large closed depression formed by the
coalescence of several dolines that have
enlarged towards each other. Typically, the
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floor is irregular, being a combination of
doline floors and degraded slopes of the
individual hollows[19]. 3. A Yugoslavian
term for an elongated closed depression in
karst that is commonly dry or with
periodical small sinking streams or
inundations. They are generally a few
hundred meters long and may be considered
as a small polje[20]. Synonyms: (American.)
compound doline; (French.) cuvala;
(German.) Uvala; (Greek.) ouvala;
(Italian.) avvalamento carsico, uvala;
(Russian.) uvala; (Spanish.) uvala;
(Turkish.) koyak; kokurdan; (Yugoslavian.)
draga. See also canyon; karst valley;
valley sink. Related to polje.
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vadose cave. 1. A cave that underwent most
of its development above the water table.
Within the vadose zone, drainage is free-
flowing under gravity, and cave passages
therefore have air above any water surface.
The gravitational control of vadose flow
means that all vadose cave passages drain
downslope, they exist in the upper part of a
karst aquifer, and they ultimately drain into
the phreatic zone or out to the surface.
Active stream caves, explorable by non-
diving cavers, are by definition vadose
(though they generally have phreatic
origins). Characteristics of vadose caves
are uneroded ceilings (except for immature
phreatic features predating the vadose
conditions) and continuous downhill
gradients (unless interrupted by short
perched sumps). The main passage forms
are canyons, with meanders and potholes,
broken by sub-cylindrical, spray-corroded
shafts that may demonstrate waterfall
retreat. Some of the caves of Monte Canin,
Italy, are spectacularly long and deep
vadose systems[9]. 2. Older, higher cave
passages found in the vadose zone; usually
vadose caves have been abandoned by the
ground water except in times of extreme
aquifer recharge. Passages usually appear
as canyons and keyholes.
vadose shaft. A vertical tube in the vadose
zone that may be a few inches to several
feet in diameter and may be a few feet deep
to hundreds or over a thousand feet deep.
They commonly occur as complexes. A
drain hole is usually evident at their base.
See also vertical shaft.
vadose water. 1. That part of the
underground water in a karst limestone that
circulates freely under gravity above the
level of saturation - the vadose zone. Caves
formed by flowing water are said to be
vadose caves[W\ 2. Water in the zone of
aeration; water above the zone of
saturation1101.
vadose zone. 1. The zone between the land
surface and the water table[22]. 2. The zone
between the land surface and the deepest
water table which includes the capillary
fringe. Generally, water in this zone is
under less than atmospheric pressure, and
some of the voids may contain air or other
gases at atmospheric pressure. Beneath
flooded areas or in perched water bodies
the water pressure locally may be greater
than atmospheric[22]. When discussing a
karst setting, it is preferable to use the term
"vadose zone," so as to avoid confusion
regarding chemical saturation. Synonym:
unsaturated zone. See also zone of
aeration.
valley fill. Unconsolidated debris
accumulated on a valley bottom[16].
valley sink. (American.) An elongated closed
depression or series of interconnecting
depressions forming a valleylike depression.
Compare karst valley, uvala[W\
valley spring. See spring, valley.
vanadinite. A cave mineral —
Pb5(V04)3Cl[11].
vaporization. The process by which liquid or
solid water changes into the gaseous
state[16].
variance. The square of the standard
deviation1161.
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variscite. A cave mineral — A1PO4-2H2O[11].
varve. The alternating of coarse and fine
grained layers in glacial lake sediments[16].
vasque. A large, shallow solution pan formed
in the intertidal zone of warm seas by the
action of brine and marine organisms[19].
vauclusian spring; vauclusian rising. See
spring, vauclusian.
vegetation cover. The cover living vegetation
on top of the upper soil horizon[16].
vein. A mineral-filled fracture cutting through
a host rock. The mineral filling may be
derived from the host rock, as is the case
with many calcite veins in limestone (e.g., at
Marble Showers in Ogof Ffynnon Ddu) or
derived from other, generally deeper
sources, such as the many veins containing
lead and zinc ore minerals in the Derbyshire
Peak District, England[9].
velocity, average interstitial. The average
rate of ground-water flow in interstices
expressed as the product of hydraulic
conductivity and hydraulic gradient divided
by the effective porosity. Synonymous with
average linear ground-water velocity or
effective velocity.
vertical cave. A vertical passage within a
cave system, formed along joints by which
underground watercourses are transferred
from a higher to a lower bedding plane[19].
They may become transformed into vertical
shafts by sufficiently uniform dissolution as
to create a rounded vertical passage. See
also fissure cave; vertical shaft.
vertical shaft. These are formed by
underground water dripping of flowing
straight downward through the limestone
along vertical cracks. Uniformly distributed
dissolution of the rock results in a silo- or
well-shaped passage so that most of them
appear roughly circular in cross section
when viewed straight up and down. They
form above active tubular passages,
although they may intersect a limited
number of passages along their length. At
Mammoth Cave, they range in size from 30
feet across to 200 feet from top to
bottom[15]. Synonym: dome-pit. See also
canyon passage; fissure cave; keyhole
passage; passage; tubular passage; vadose
shaft; vertical cave.
vertical caver. A caver who enjoys and is
competent doing vertical caving[13]. See
also vertical caving.
vertical caving. Caving that includes a lot of
ascending and descending[13]. See also
vertical caver.
very fine sand. Grain particles with diameters
ranging from 0.05 to 0.1 mm[16].
vesicular. Containing small circular
cavities[16].
victor tube. The single phreatic subconduit
among the many that potentially exist on a
given bedding plane (or fracture plane) that
is the first to reach a diameter capable of
establishing turbulent-flow conditions.
Following this breakthrough the victor tube
tends to enlarge more rapidly than other
branching or subparallel alternatives, and
eventually captures much of the drainage
within its field of influence[9].
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virgin flow. Flow unaffected by artificial
diversions, impoundments, or channels[16].
virgin passage
previously
discovery[13].
A cave passage that has not
been entered; a new
viscosity. 1. The resistance of liquid to
flow[16]. 2. The property of a real fluid
creating shear forces between two fluid
elements and giving rise to fluid friction[16].
Specifically, it is the ratio of the shear stress
to the rate of shear strain[6].
void. See interstice.
void ratio. The ratio of the volume of void
space to the volume of solid particles in a
given soil mass[22].
volatiles. Substances with relatively large
vapor pressures. Many organic substances
are almost insoluble in water, so they occur
primarily in a gas phase in contact with
water, even though their vapor pressure
may be very small[22].
volumetric flowmeter. Apparatus designed
to measure a volume flow rate[16].
volumetric moisture content. The
concentration of water in soil by volume[16].
vrulje. (Yugoslavian.) See submarine spring.
vug. A small cavity in rock usually lined with
crystals. Adjective, vuggy[10]. See also
geode.
vugular pore space. Void space due to
solution cavities of small size[16].
vulcanokarst. An area comprised of tubular
caves within lava flows and showing
evidence of mechanical collapse of the roof
into them. See also lava cave;pseudokarst.
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w
water-bearing. Containing water[16].
wading measurement. Discharge
measurement during which a hydrographer
takes readings while standing in a river[16].
wall block. A roughly cubical j oint-controlled
large block of limestone or dolomite, which
has rotated outward from a cave wall[10].
See also cave breakdown; wall slab.
wall karren. These are found on vertical
walls as a result of water flowing down the
walls without any areawide moistening,
although areawide sprinkling occasionally
influences their developmental See also
meandering karren; humus-water grooves.
wall pocket See pocket.
wall slab. A thin but large block of rock,
which has fallen outward from the wall of a
cave in limestone in which the dip is nearly
vertical[10]. See also cave breakdown.
,[10]
wang. (Malaysian.) Polje1
wash. A small ravine caused by outwash from
flow in desert regions[16].
wash load. The incoming load of suspended
sediment passing through a river network
without deposition1161.
waste load. The content of wastes by weight
of volume transported by or discharged into
a river[16].
waste water. Water containing sewage and
waste products[16].
water-balance. An instrument designed to
measure evaporation by gravimetry[16].
water-borne disease Disease spread by
organic contaminants contained in the water
supply[16].
water budget. The quantitative accounting of
water volumes involved in the hydrologic
cycle[16].
water catchment. The intake of water from
an aquifer or a surface reservoir[16].
water conservation. All measures to reduce
the quantitative of qualitative spoilage of
water[16].
water content. The amount of water lost
from the soil after drying it to constant
weight at 105°C, expressed either as the
weight of water per unit weight of dry soil
or as the volume of water per unit bulk
volume of soil[22]. See moisture content.
water course. Any channel conveying
water[16].
water equivalent. The depth of water
resulting from the melting of snow[16].
water hammer. An abnormally high pressure
rise in a pipe when sudden changes in flow
occur1
.[16]
water-holding capacity
retention.
See specific
water invasion. The sudden invasion of
water into a well or borehole[16].
water level. The level of free surface of a
water body or water column[16].
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water logged, waterlogged Water
saturated1161.
water logging. Water accumulation on top of
soil where the water table and ground
surface coincide[16].
water of constitution. Chemically bound
water[16].
water of crystallization. Water embodied in
crystal structure1161.
water of dehydration. Water freed from
hydrous minerals by chemical changes[16].
water pot. See kamenica, solution pan.
water quality. The physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics of water[16].
water requirement. The quantity of water
needed for crops regardless of the
source[16].
water resources. The total supply of surface,
ground, and reclaimed water that can be
used[16].
water stage. The height of the water level[16].
water table. 1. The top surface of a body of
slowly moving ground water that fills the
pore spaces within a rock mass. Above it
lies the freely draining vadose zone, and
below it lies the permanently saturated
phreas. In uniform aquifers, such as
sandstone, the water table is a smoothly
contoured surface intersecting the ground
at rivers and lakes, but in limestone it is
more complex. Individual cave conduits
may be above or below the water table, and
therefore either vadose or phreatic, and the
water table cannot normally be related to
them. The water table concept does,
however, apply to the diffuse drainage of
percolation water in the microfissure
network of limestone, but its detailed
structure may be complicated by the
presence of conduits. The water-table slope
(hydraulic gradient) is low in limestone due
to the high permeability, and the level is
controlled by outlet springs or local
geological features. High flows create
steeper hydraulic gradients and hence rises
in the water level away from the spring. In
France's Grotte de la Luire, the water level
in the cave (and therefore the local water
table) fluctuates by 450 m[9]. 2. The upper
surface of a zone of saturation except where
that surface is formed by a confining unit[22].
3. The upper surface of the zone of
saturation on which the water pressure in
the porous medium equals atmospheric
pressure[22]. 4. The upper boundary of an
unconfmed zone of saturation, along which
the hydrostatic pressure is equal to the
atmospheric pressure[10]. See also
potentiometric surface.
water-table aquifer. See unconfmed aquifer.
water-table cave. In theory the water table
offers the prime environment for cave
development, as it provides the shortest
route through the phreas and is potentially
more active chemically because of the
presence of the air/water interface.
However, geological factors determine the
details of cave inception and enlargement,
and passages most commonly form just
below the water table as a shallow phreatic
variety of cave development. Development
of this type is believed to be responsible for
the "levels" of cave passage found in some
areas, as in the flint Mammoth Cave
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System, Kentucky. True water-table caves
are rare, except on a limited scale as
extensions to cliff foot notches margined to
tropical swamps. Also, under these
conditions, the water table may adjust down
to the level of a mature phreatic cave and
then modify the passage with horizontal
dissolution notches — as is common in the
caves of Mulu andNiah, Sarawak[9].
water-table divide See divide.
water-table map. A map showing the upper
surface of the phreatic zone of a water-table
aquifer by means of contour lines[1]. See
also phreatic zone; potentiometric-surface
map; water-table aquifer.
water tracing. Underground drainage links
through unexplored caves confirmed by
labeling input water and identifying it at
points downstream. The common labeling
techniques involve the use of fluorescent
dyes (fluorescein, rhodamine, leucophor,
pyranine, etc.), lycopodium spores, or
chemicals such as common salt. Detection
of dye downstream may be purely visual,
but if the dye is used at a subvisible
(environmentally acceptable) dilution,
suitable detectors must be placed in all
potential risings and collected for
subsequent fluorometric examination
(although water samples are more desirable
and beneficial). Lycopodium spores are
usually collected in fine nets, along with
other streamborne sediment, and must then
be identified under the microscope. If
chemical tracers are used, regular water
samples must be collected for subsequent
analysis, or the resurgent waters must be
monitored with suitable electronic detectors
and recorders. Flowpaths can also be
confirmed by transmission of artificial or
natural flood pulses, which provide
additional data on the nature of conduits, as
a pulse is transmitted instantaneously
through flooded passages. The longest
successful water trace was from Beysehir
Golu to the Manavgat springs, in Turkey,
over a distance of 130 km; 390 kg of
fluorescein was used and the dye
reappeared after 366 days[9].
water trap. A place where the roof of a
chamber or passage of a cave dips under
water but lifts again farther on[10].
Synonym: trap.
water works. A plant where water is treated
and prepared for municipal consumption1161.
water year. A 12-month period for
streamflow computation1161.
waterlogging. Water accumulation on top of
soil where the water table and ground
surface coincide.
watershed. 1. A drainage basin[16]. 2. A
divide separating one drainage basin from
another[16].
waterway. An artificial or natural
watercourse fit for navigation.
wave karren. Wavy karren surfaces that
appear similar to corrugated tin. When
denuded they are a disposition for the
formation of Rinnenkarren[3]. See also
covered karren; Rinnenkarren; root karren.
wayboard. One of many thin beds of volcanic
clay that occur at intervals within the
Carboniferous carbonate succession of the
Peak District, England; a term formerly
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used by lead miners (see loadstone).
Wayboards have potential significance
during speleogenesis, when they may act as
local aquicludes, inception horizons, or
providers of strong acid formed by
oxidation of sulfide minerals[9].
well yield. The volume of water discharged
from a well in gallons per minute or cubic
meters per day.
wet line. That portion of line submerged
under water in stream measurements1161.
weathering. The process of disintegration
and decomposition as a consequence of
exposure to the atmosphere, to chemical
action, and to the action of frost, water, and
heat.
wedge storage. 1. Water storage in the form
of a wedge overlying a prism[16]. 2. Storage
in a flooded river segment[16].
weir. A dam across a water course to control,
raise, or measure water flow[16].
weir coefficient. A coefficient used in
transforming water depths into discharge
volumes in weir measurements[16].
well. 1. A shaft or hole sunk into the earth to
obtain water, oil, gas, or minerals[10]. 2. A
deep vertical rounded hole or shaft in the
floor of a cave or at the bottom of a closed
depress!on[10]. 3. A bored, drilled or driven
shaft, or a dug hole, whose depth is greater
than the largest surface dimension1221.
well function. An exponential integral as
used in Theis' nonequilibrium equation[16].
well hydrograph. A graph of water level
fluctuations in a well[16].
well loss. Head loss caused by flow through a
screen and inside a well[16].
well-sorted grains. An assortment of grains
having the same diameter[16].
wetland. A general term used for a group of
wet habitats, in common use by specialists
in wildlife management. It includes areas
that are permanently wet and/or
intermittently water-covered, especially
coastal marshes, tidal swamps and flats, and
associated pools, sloughs, and bayous[1].
wettability. The property of a solid substance
to be wetted by a liquid such as water[16].
wetted area. The cross-sectional area of that
portion of a channel that is filled with
water[16].
wetted perimeter. The perimeter over which
flowing water is in actual contact with the
channel walls and bottom[16].
wetting period. The period of contact
between a liquid and a solid surface during
which wetting occurs[16].
whitlockite. A cave mineral —
Ca9(Mg,Fe)H(P04)7[11].
width of contribution. The width of the
contributing region between the ground-
water divide from which water enters a
well. This usually occurs with an inclined
piezometric surface[16].
wilt, to. The shrinking of cell walls due to
loss in turgor as a result of water deficiency
in the plant[16].
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wilting coefficient, wilting point The soil
moisture content at which plants wilt[16].
wind factor. The factor containing a monthly
mean wind velocity in evaporation[16].
wind field. The air velocity field above
ground due to wind action[16].
window. 1. In speleology, a natural opening
above the floor of a passage or a room,
giving access to an adjoining cavity or to
the surface; larger and less symmetrical than
a porthole. 2. The opening under the arch
of a small natural bridge[10]. See karst
window.
windypit. Open fissure, widened by landslip,
common in valley side situations in which
limestone overlies weaker rocks such as
clays or shales. The term is commonly used
to describe gulls and tectonic caves in the
Jurassic limestones of northeast Yorkshire,
England[9].
withdraw, to. To draw water from an aquifer
or reservoir[16].
workover. The reworking of a well that has
declined in yield[16].
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yield. The quantity of water discharged from
an aquifer[16] (e.g., spring or well.) See also
wellyield.
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zadernovannyi karst. (Russian.) See subsoil
karst.
zakrytyi karst, skrytyi karst. (Russian.) See
closed karst.
zanjon. (Spanish.) In Puerto Rico, solution
trench in limestone. Zanjones range from a
few centimeters to about 8 meters in width
and from about 1 to 4 meters in depth.
Apparently they form by the widening and
deepening of joints by solution[10]. See also
bogaz; corridor; struga.
zero adjustment. The adjustment of a scale
or a measuring circuit to an original point of
departure1161.
zonal soil profile. The normal horizontal
distribution of soil zone[16].
zone of accumulation. The second horizon
of a soil profile (B), usually the zone of clay
accumulation subjacent to zone (A)[16].
zone of aeration. The zone in permeable soil
or rock that is above the zone saturated
with water; the zone of vadose water[10].
See also vadose zone.
zone of investigation. The zone over which
a given measuring device is able to obtain
information[16].
zone of leaching. The top horizon of a soil
profile (A) that is most intensely
weathered[16].
zone of saturation. The zone in permeable
soil or rock that is saturated with water; the
phreatic zone[10]. See alsophreatic zone.
zones of karstification. Cvijic (1926, 1960)
distinguishes three zones of karstification:
(1) dry zone in the upper part of the karst
with caves almost completely dry; (2)
transition zone where water flows
downstream almost permanently; and (3)
deep zone with slow downstream flow and
local siphons[20]. Synonyms: (French.)
zones de karstification; (German.) Zone der
Verkar stung; (Greek.) zoni karstikopiiseos;
(Italian.) zone idrogeologiche; (Spanish.)
zona de karstificacion; (Turkish.)
karstla^ma ku^agi; (Yugoslavian.) zone
karstifikacije.
Zwischenhohle. (German.) Cave in which a
river passage, or former river passage, is
entered from above or laterally and which
can be followed upstream and downstream
some distance but not to daylight[10].
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REFERENCES
1. Bates, R. L., and J. A. Jackson. 1980. Glossary of Geology. American Geological Institute, Falls Church, Va.
751pp.
2. Bear, J. 1979. Hydraulics of Groundwater. McGraw-Hill Inc., New York. 569 pp.
3. Bogli, A. 1980. Karst Hydrology and Physical Speleology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 284 pp.
4. Daoxian, Y. 1985. New observations on tower karst. Paper presented at the 1st International Conference on
Geomorphology (Manchester, England). 14 pp.
5. Dreybrodt, W. 1988. Processes in Karst Systems: Physics. Chemistry, and Geology. Springer-Verlag, New
York. 288 pp.
6. Driscoll, F. G. 1986. Groundwater and Wells. Johnson Division, St. Paul, Minn. 1089 pp.
7. Ford, D. C., and P. W.Williams. 1989. Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology. UnwinHymanlnc.. Lakeland.
Fla. 601 pp.
8. Jennings, J. N. 1985. Karst Geomorphology. Basil Blackwell Inc., New York. 293 pp.
9. Lowe, D., and T. Waltham. 1995. A Dictionary of Karst and Caves: A Brief Guide to the Terminology and
Concepts of Cave and Karst Science. Cave Studies Series Number 6. British Cave Research
Association, London. 41 pp.
10. Monroe, W. H. (Compiler). 1970. A Glossary of Karst Terminology. Geological Survey Water-Supply
Paper 1899-K. U.S. Geological Survey. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 26 pp.
11. Moore, G. W., and G. N. Sullivan. 1978. Speleology: The Study of Caves. 2nd Edition. Cave Books., St.
Louis, Missouri. 150 pp.
12. Mylroie, J. E. 1984. Hydrologic classification of caves and karst. Groundwater as a Geomorphic Agent. R.
G. LaFleur, Editor. Allen & Unwin. Inc. Boston, pp. 157-172.
13. NSS. 1982. Glossary of caving terms used in this manual. Caving Basics. J. Hassemer, Editor. National
Speleological Society, Huntsville, Ala. pp. 124-125.
14. Palmer, A. N. 1972. Dynamics of a sinking stream system: Onesquethaw Cave, New York. National
Speleological Society Bulletin. 34- PP- 89-110.
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15. Palmer, A. N. 1981. A Geological Guide to Mammoth Cave National Park. Zephyrus Press, Teaneck, NJ.
196 pp.
16. Pfannkuch, H. O. 1971. Elsevier's Dictionary of Hydrogeology. American Elsevier Publishing Company,
Inc., New York. 168 pp.
17. Quinlan, J. F. 1978. Types of Karst with Emphasis on Cover Beds in Their Classification and Development.
Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin. 323 pp.
18. Quinlan, J. F., P. L. Smart, G. M. Schindel, E. C. Alexander, A. J. Edwards, and A. Richard Smith. 1991.
Recommended administrative/regulatory definition of karst aquifer, principles for classification of
carbonate aquifers, practical evaluation of vulnerability of karst aquifers, and determination of optimum
sampling frequency at springs. Hydrology. Ecology. Monitoring, and Management of Ground Water
in Karst Terranes Conference (Nashville, Tenn., 1991). J. F. Quinlan and A. Stanley, Editors. National
Ground Water Association, Dublin, Ohio. pp. 573-635.
19. Sweeting, M. M. 1973. Karst Landforms. Selected Glossary. CompiledbyK. Addison. Columbia University
Press, New York. 362 pp.
20. UNESCO. 1972. Glossary and Multilingual Equivalents of Karst Terms. United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization, Paris. 72 pp.
21. UNESCO. 1984. Guidebook to Studies of Land Subsidence Due to Ground-Water withdrawal. Prepared
for the International Hydrological Programme. Working Group 8.4. J. F. Poland, Editor. United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, Paris. 305 pp. (plus appendices).
22. USGS. (1989). Federal Glossary of Selected Terms: Subsurface-Water Flow and Solute Transport.
Prepared by the Subsurface-Water Glossary Working Group, Ground-Water Subcommittee, Interagency
Advisory Committee on Water Data. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Office of Water
Data Coordination. 38 pp.
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