-------
ollutants that are persistefiVbioaccumulative, and toxic have
been linked to numerous adverse effects in humans and animals. The
United States has taken extensive action over the years to address these
pollutants. But such pollutants not only remain in the environment for -
years and even decades, they afso travel far beyond their initial points of
release, posing threats across national and geographic boundaries. Only
by addressing the threat of these pollutants on a global scale can we
help to meet our goal of leaving America's air cleaner, our water purer,
and our land better protected.
Christine Whitman, EPA Administrator
-------
Table of Contents
-------
c
ihemicals are used to produce many of the items that we depend on in our
daily lives. While useful, chemicals are often a cause for concern due to their toxic proper-
ties. Toxic chemicals that are also persistent and bioaccumulative, such as mercury, dioxins
and furans, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and some pesticides, deserve special atten-
tion. These persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic (PBT) substances are released into the
environment, persist in ecosystems, and often linger there in some form for decades.
-------
cycling between land, water, and air. As aquatic and ter-
restrial organisms repeatedly consume and store PBTs in
their body fat, these substances bioaccumulate up the
food chain. Most human exposure to PBTs occurs through
the consumption of contaminated foods. A range of
adverse health effects (e.g., reproductive, developmental,
behavioral, neurologic, endocrine, and immunologic) have
been linked to PBTs. Because many PBTs can be transport-
ed by wind and water, it is possible for PBTs generated in
one country to affect people and wildlife far from the
source.
In its mission to protect human health and the environ-
ment, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
regulated the use and release of the most harmful PBTs.
While these regulations have been effective in controlling
industrial and municipal sources of PBTs, runoff, fugitive
sources, and background levels of PBTs have proven hard-
er to manage. Therefore, in 1998, EPA created the
Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic (PBT) pollutants
Program to address, using an integrated approach, the
widespread problems associated with toxic pollutants that
persist and bioaccumulate in the environment. EPA also
created the Multimedia Pollution Prevention (M2P2)
Forum, a group of senior managers representing each of
EPA's program offices, to provide guidance to the PBT
Program.
The M2P2 Forum deliberates on EPA's PBT policies and
also communicates with several partners, including other
federal agencies, state representatives, and international
organizations, to resolve common concerns regarding
PBTs. In collaboration with these partners, the PBT
Program had several noteworthy achievements in 2001-
2002:
* Released final National Action Plan for Alkyl-lead.
This document is the first final EPA national action plan
for a priority PBT under the Agency-wide PBT Program.
The plan lists specific goals and priorities for action for
alkyl-lead.
• Released the PBT Profiler. The PBT Profiler is a Web-
based analytical tool designed to help companies deter-
mine whether a chemical might have PBT properties.
* Expanded membership in the Hospitals for a
Healthy Environment (H2E) Program. This voluntary
program calls on hospitals and health care facilities to
pledge to eliminate mercury use by 2005. To date, the
program has recruited 324 hospitals, 586 clinics, 15
nursing homes, and 29 other facilities.
-------
• Analyzed data from the National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Based on
NHANES data from 1999 and 2000, EPA estimates that 8
percent of women of childbearing age have blood mercu-
ry concentrations higher than the level that EPA considers
safe.
• Researched trends on atmospheric mercury deposi-
tion. EPA has uncovered new information that implies
that all forms of mercury must be controlled to effectively
reduce atmospheric deposition.
• Collected additional data on PBTs through the Toxic
Release Inventory (TRI). The 2002 TRI report contains
newly included data on PBTs, giving communities a more
complete picture of the sources of chemicals in their envi-
ronments.
These accomplishments, as well as several others, are
described in further detail in subsequent chapters of this
report. The report contains the following information:
• Chapter 2: Strategies for Addressing PBTs. This chap-
ter provides a synopsis of the PBT Program's priority activi-
ties, including its PBT Strategy and national action plans
for priority pollutants.
• Chapter 3: Achieving Pollution Reductions. This sec-
tion highlights recent efforts of the PBT Program to coor-
dinate and enhance EPA's mission of decreasing PBT con-
tamination in the environment.
• Chapter 4: Filling the PBT Data Gaps. In 2001-2002,
EPA initiated or continued projects designed to discover
key information about the sources of PBTs, their life cycle
in the environment, as well as the levels of PBTs present in
humans and wildlife. This research allows EPA and others
to determine the most appropriate PBT-related policies
and courses of action.
-------
Chapter 5: Collaborative Efforts on PBTs with Tribal
Partners. Many tribes, especially those in Alaska and
other parts of the Arctic, rely on subsistence diets that
include much more fish than the average American eats.
Some tribes are also particularly reliant on the consump-
tion of animals that are high on the food chain.
Subsistence hunters and fishermen are one of the highest
risk groups for PBT exposure, thus fostering partnerships
in tribal communities is particularly important.
Chapter 6: Collaborative Efforts on PBTs with
International Partners. This chapter describes efforts of
the United States and its international partners to reduce
the global use and release of PBTs.
Appendix A: Resources. This section provides additional
sources of information about many of the projects
described in1 the body of the report.
Appendix B: Future Outlook. This section summarizes
future activities planned by the PBT Program.
-------
CHAPTER 2: STRATEGIES FOR
ADDRESSING PBTs
E
PA actions to reduce PBT releases have traditionally been separate regulatory
activities aimed at different environmental media (i.e., air, water, or land). The PBT
Program helps to coordinate these activities to ensure, for example, that regulations
removing a pollutant from the air do not inadvertently result in transferring the pollution
to land or water. In November 1998, the PBT Program published its draft Multimedia
Strategy for Addressing Priority PBTs (the PBT Strategy). EPA revised the PBT Strategy to
-------
incorporate public comments
and is currently finalizing the
document. The PBT Program is
also developing national action
plans to address specific issues
associated with eight priority
PBTs or groups of PBTs (see
Table 1). Together, the PBT
Strategy and national action
plans enable the Agency to har-
ness all of its tools—voluntary,
regulatory, international,
enforcement, compliance, and
research—and focus them on a
group of substances that have
long-term and far-reaching
effects on our well-being.
The PBT Strategy
The goal of the PBT Strategy is
to reduce risks to human health
and the environment from cur-
rent and future exposure to
PBTs. The PBT Strategy identifies
general issues that apply to
' PBTs, such as long-range trans-
port via air deposition and
human exposure to PBTs
through the food chain. Solving
these problems requires action
on several fronts:
• Preventing the introduction
of new PBTs.
• Reducing the use and release
of existing PBTs.
• Improving our understanding
of how PBTs cycle in the envi-
ronment and the routes of
human exposure to PBTs.
• Communicating the risks of
PBT exposure, especially to
sensitive populations.
• Working globally to diminish
the long range transport of
PBTs.
The projects described in this
report use these approaches to
address PBTs.
National Action Plans for
Priority PBTs
The national action plans look
at each priority PBT or group of
PBTs in detail, outlining goals
and important activities to
reduce the negative effects of
each substance on human
health and the environment.
Table 2 describes each
priority PBT and the
status of its national
action plan.
Table 1. Priority PBTs
-------
Table 2. Description of Priority PBTs and Status of EPA Activities
PBT OR PBT
GROUP
MUWAMWH&w&MffnnnntiufeMU&
Alkyl-lead
Benzo(a)Pyrene
(B(a)P)
DESCRIPTION
BnKMHR&WHRHSHMnRBRRn
The vast majority of
lead chemical com-
pounds are inorganic.
However, lead can be
combined with organic
chemicals to form lead
compounds with very
different characteristics
from metallic lead.
Alkyl-lead is one of the
more predominant
types of organic lead
compounds.
B(a)P is a member of
a class of compounds
known as polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs). PAHs are prima-
rily by-products of
incomplete combustion.
.., .-,.... _^ ;-v v-->- ^-7- ; :; 7 " y.. ".' T ', .Y_"
HUMAN HEALTH
AND ECOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
!TOaM!!S*!SSJMiliHUt»flfcii(i!B!KfflEBE
Human health effects:
serious toxic effects to
the nervous system, with
the potential to cause
neurological disorders,
such as mood shifts and
impairment of memory.
Children and certain
occupational groups may
be most at risk.
Ecological effects: Alkyl-
lead and other organic
lead compounds have
been found to signifi-
cantly bioconcentrate in
aquatic organisms (e.g.,
fish and shellfish).
although the biomagnifi-
cation of organic lead
compounds has not
been shown.
Human health effects:
probable human carcino-
gen.
Ecological effects: There
is evidence of carcino-
genicity in animals.
Animal studies also sug-
gest that there are devel-
opmental and reproduc-
. tive problems associated
with long-term exposure.
"-•.".VVh >,:'•'. ' ,'. •'.'•'•'. 7 ;"',.-"•.". .'o"'r .!'••:
SOURCES AND
ROUTES OF
HUMAN
EXPOSURE
SHff^^JrtSfl^ffiWfflW^BSffefffiMjIft^S
Main Source: fuel additive
for racing gasoline and
piston-engine aircraft.
Human exposure: inhala-
tion of leaded gasoline
vapors or dermal expo-
sure to leaded gasoline.
Largest sources of B(a)P:
forest and agricultural
burnings; residential
wood combustion; pri-
mary aluminum produc-
tion; mobile sources;
and open burning of
scrap tires.
Main routes of human
exposure: inhalation of
tobacco smoke; inges-
tion of smoked or char-
broiled food; exposure
during work involving
coal tar and asphalt.
'. '-',;.•• .AU :-"-.; J~a~Kt'.'-.':J--i',<- :';r
FOCUS OF
NATIONAL
ACTION PLAN
^ffifrifffigftffifrffiffiQffiWffipffiMB^^iaftffi?
Continued partnership
with the National
Association for Stock Car
Automobile Racing
(NASCAR) to permanent-
ly remove alkyl-lead from
racing fuels.
Work with the Federal
Aviation Administration
(FAA) and, appropriate
private parties to identify
substitutes for alkyl-lead
compounds in aviation
gasoline.
Research is a high priori-
ty since there is little
data characterizing the
relationship between
emission sources and
current exposure and
risk. EPA is researching
the relationship between
risk and emission
sources such as forest
fires, agricultural burn-
ing, residential wood
and coal combustion.
scrap tire management.
and industrial boilers.
Other federal, state, and
local programs address
exposure to B{a}P
through the inhalation
of tobacco smoke, inges-
tion of smoked or char-
broiled food, and occu-
pational exposure.
STATUS OF
NATIONAL
ACTION PLAN
DEVELOPMENT
£S5fifBWSfffiESBBraBS!a!ESscj5«S8
In July 2002, EPA
released the final
National Action Plan for
Alkyl-lead.
The draft National
Action Plan for B(a)P will
be made available to the
public for comment
before the final version
is released.
-------
WSS^SttfSSS^SSSU
PBT OR PBT
GROUP
DJoxins/Furans
BBM^HHBHHHB^^BHH
DESCRIPTION
The term "dioxins"
refers to a group of 29
chemical compounds
that are members of
three closely related
families: polychlorinated
dibenzo-p-dioxins, poly-
chlorinated dibenzofu-
rans, and certain poly-
chlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs) called coplanar
PCBs.
HHflnHRMraHI^^^^H
HUMAN HEALTH
AND ECOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
The most studied dioxin
compound, 2,3,7,8-
TCDD, has been charac-
terized as a human car-
cinogen. Other dioxin-
like compounds have
been characterized as
likely human carcino-
gens. Non-cancer health
effects include reproduc-
tive and developmental
toxicity, immune sup-
pression, endocrine dis-
ruption and chloracne.
Ecological effects:
Effects found in humans
are typical in most verte-
brates. These adverse
effects have been seen
in field and laboratory
studies in birds and fish.
The disruption of fish
reproduction is seen as a
particularly sensitive eco-
logical endpoint.
I^HRRwHB^HBRHRBHK^H
SOURCES AND
ROUTES OF
HUMAN
EXPOSURE
MW0HE^BBBBHfltt89WRHH«l
Dioxins are unintended
byproducts of a number
of processes including:
chemical manufacture;
metals smelting and pro-
duction; and various
forms of combustion,
ranging from energy
production to backyard
trash burning. When
dioxins and furans are
released to the air they
can be carried for long
distances. Some of this
material is deposited on
the leaves of plants that
are used as feed for live-
stock. Consequently the
dioxins bioconcentrate in
domestic meat and dairy
animals. Dioxins can also
enter waterways, where
they may bioconcentrate
in fish.
Humans are exposed to
dioxins primarily through
diet, namely from eating
trace levels of dioxins
found in the animal fats
of beef, pork, poultry,
milk, and dairy products.
BHBHBBI^HWBBBBBi^^^^^^^W
FOCUS OF
NATIONAL
ACTION PLAN
^^^^mMBBHflBHABMMNB
EPA has developed a
three-pronged approach
to address remaining
dioxin risks in the environ-
ment. First, EPA is contin-
uing to complete and
implement regulations to
reduce and control
known dioxin sources into
the environment. (When
fully implemented over
the next couple of years,
existing regulations will
result in over 90 percent
reduction in quantifiable
dioxin emissions using
1987 as a baseline.)
Second, in cooperation
with other federal and
state agencies, EPA is
continuing its research
efforts to identify dioxin
sources and routes of
exposure. Third, the
Agency is developing a
strategy to identify oppor-
tunities to further reduce
exposures to dioxin that
will yield efficient and
effective risk reductions.
EPA will continue to work
closely with its other fed-
eral partners, including
the Department of
Health and Human
Services (HHS), the U.S.
Department of
Agriculture (USDA), and
other agencies. Dioxins/
furans are also listed
under the Stockholm
Convention on Persistent
Organic Pollutants (POPs)
and the Long Range
Transport of Air Pollution
(LRTAP) POPs Protocol.
See Chapter 6 for more
information.
B^^HHHRRR*H^^HHHnMn
STATUS OF
NATIONAL
ACTION PLAN
DEVELOPMENT
MSMMM^BHMBMM^M
An EPA Strategy on
Dioxin will be released in
2003.
H
I^MBMMMI^^HMMI^^H
-------
PBT OR PBT
GROUP
DESCRIPTION
Hexachlorobenzene
{HCB)
HCB is a highly persist-
ent environmental toxin
that was synthesized
and used from the
1940s to the late 1970s
as a fungicide on grain
seeds such as wheat.
HCB is no longer pro-
duced for distribution
in commerce although
it may be produced in
the United States as a
site-limited intermediate
under an exemption
to the UNEP POPs
agreement.
HUMAN HEALTH
AND ECOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
Human health effects:
probable human carcino-
gen.
Ecological effects: HCB
bioaccumulates in fish,
marine animals, birds,
lichens, and their preda-
tors. HCB has been
found in fish and wildlife
at various locations
throughout the U.S.,
though the Great Lakes
and Gulf coast are areas
with elevated concentra-
tions.
SOURCES AND
ROUTES OF
HUMAN
EXPOSURE
FOCUS OF
NATIONAL
ACTION PLAN
HCB is formed as an
inadvertent by-product in
the production of pesti-
cides, chlorine, and in
chlorination processes.
Long-range atmospheric
transport and deposition
from global sources are
also thought to con-
tribute to loadings with-
in the United States.
Main route of human
exposure: ingestion of
HCB-contaminated meat,
dairy products, poultry,
fish, and wildlife. The
general population
appears to be exposed
to very low concentra-
tions of HCB.
EPA's strategic approach
with respect to HCB con-
sists of: 1) collecting
information to character-
ize sources and pathways
in the lifecyde of HCB;
2) achieving a significant
reduction in total air
emissions from inventory
sources of HCB, using
1993 HCB levels; 3) mini-
mizing controlled and
uncontrolled multimedia
transfers of HCB; and 4)
determining the extent
of HCB contamination
from long-range trans-
port and working within
international frameworks
to reduce releases of
HCB worldwide.
HCB is also listed under
the -Stockholm
Convention on Persistent
Organic Pollutants
(POPs) and the Long
Range Transport of Air
Pollution (LRTAP) POPs
Protocol. See Chapter 6
for more information
STATUS OF
NATIONAL
ACTION PLAN
DEVELOPMENT
EPA intends to publish
the final National Action
Plan for
Hexachlorobenzene in
2003.
-------
PBT OR PBT
GROUP
Mercury
DESCRIPTION
Mercury is a naturally
occurring element that
is usually mobilized and
released to the environ-
ment as a result of
human activities. Just a
small amount of mercu-
ry can contaminate an
entire lake, resulting in
mercury levels in fish
that exceed recom-
mended limits for
human consumption.
and endangering preda-
tory wildlife.
HUMAN HEALTH
AND ECOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
Human health effects:
Exposure to high levels
of mercury can perma-
nently damage the brain
and kidneys. Very young
children are more sensi-
tive to mercury than
adults. Harmful effects
that may be passed from
the mother to the fetus
include brain damage,
mental retardation, inco-
ordination, blindness,
seizures, and inability to
speak. Children poi-
soned by mercury may
develop problems of
their nervous and diges-
tive systems, and kidney
damage.
Ecological effects:
Predatory fish and other
species, such as mink.
river otter, marine mam-
mals, kingfisher, loon,
osprey, and bald eagle
which are at the top of
the food web and con-
sume contaminated
aquatic organisms, gen-
erally have higher mercu-
ry concentrations and
subsequently are at an
increased risk of adverse
effects. Reported effects
for these predator
species have included
neurological damage
and reduced reproduc-
tive levels.
SOURCES AND
ROUTES OF
HUMAN
EXPOSURE
Largest sources of mer-
cury release to the envi-
ronment: coal-fired
power plants, incinera-
tors.
Routes of human expo-
sure: Ingestion of fish or
shellfish contaminated
with methylmercury;
inhalation of mercury
vapors from a spill.
FOCUS OF
NATIONAL
ACTION PLAN
EPA is focusing its
efforts on the following
priority activities: 1 )
reducing anthropogenic
release of mercury; 2)
reducing exposure to
mercury by improving
risk communication; 3)
reducing uses of mercu-
ry; 4) conducting and
reviewing research on
disposal of mercury; 5)
investigating life-cycle
issues associated with
mercury as a global
commodity.
In addition, the United
Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) com-
pleted in 2002 a global
assessment of mercury
in collaboration with
governments, intergov-
ernmental and non-gov-
ernmental organizations
and the private sector. In
February 2003, the UNEP
Governing Council
accepted the key find-
ings of the assessment
and agreed on a pro-
gram for international
action on mercury. The
UNEP mercury program
will assist all countries.
especially developing
countries and countries
with economies in transi-
tion, with capacity build-
ing activities to charac-
terize their mercury pol-
lution problems and to
develop appropriate
strategies to mitigate
mercury pollution prob-
lems. See Chapter 6 for
more information.
STATUS OF
NATIONAL
ACTION PLAN
DEVELOPMENT
EPA intends to re-release
the draft National Action
Plan for Mercury for
public comment in late
2003.
mm
••
-------
Table 2. continued
PBT OR PBT
GROUP
Octachlorostyrene
(OCS)
Polychlorinated
Biphenyls
{PCBs)
•i
DESCRIPTION
EPA's concern about
OCS is primarily due to
its persistence and
bioaccumulation in the
environment, and its
toxicity to aquatic
organisms.
PCBs are a group of
synthetic organic chemi-
cals that were manufac-
tured in large quantities
in the United States
from 1929 until the ban
of their manufacture in
1977. PCBs are very per-
sistent in the environ-
ment, and can be found
in aquatic wildlife at
concentrations 100 mil- '
lion times greater than
the concentration in the
surrounding water.
HUMAN HEALTH
AND ECOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
Little is known about the
potential human toxico-
logical effects of OCS.
Data from animal studies
indicate damage to liver,
thyroid, and kidneys.
Ecological effects: EPA
believes that since OCS is
structurally similar to
HCB, it can reasonably be
anticipated to have a simi-
lar ecotoxicological pro-
file. Adverse effects on
fish have also been pre-
dicted by use of chemical
structure activity analysis.
Health effects: liver, thy-
roid, dermal and ocular
changes, immunotoxici-
ty, neuro-developmental
changes, reduced birth
weight, reproductive tox-
icity, and cancer.
Ecological effects: A
large body of laboratory
and field studies shows
that PCBs are causally
linked to adverse health
effects in wildlife.
Adverse effects include:
immunological, neuro-
logical, reproductive.
and developmental
effects and cancer (in
laboratory animals).
Wildlife affected include:
whales, dolphins, seals
and sea lions, polar
bears, fish-eating birds.
and freshwater and
marine fish.
SOURCES AND
ROUTES OF
HUMAN
EXPOSURE
OCS is thought to be an
inadvertent byproduct in
processes that combine
carbon and chlorine at
high temperatures, such
as magnesium produc-
tion and the commercial
production of chlorinat-
ed solvents.
Potential human expo-
sure pathways: ingestion
of contaminated fish.
inhalation, absorption
through the skin.
The major source of PCB
release to the air, land.
and water in the United
States has been calculat-
ed to be the redistribu-
tion of the PCBs that are
already present in soil.
water and, indirectly,
sediment. Next in signifi-
cance as ongoing
sources may be certain
area sources emitting
volatile PCBs - such as
PCB transformer storage
lots, sludge drying beds.
and landfills - that may
be emitting PCBs in
quantities higher than
previously suspected.
Main route of huma,n
exposure: consumption
of PCB-contaminated
foods, especially meat,
dairy products, poultry.
and fish.
FOCUS OF
NATIONAL
ACTION PLAN
EPA's strategic approach
for OCS is to develop a
better understanding of
the chemical's sources,
releases, and potential
for exposure, and to pro-
mote voluntary pollution
prevention efforts where
appropriate.
Priority activities for PCBs
include: 1) promoting the
voluntary decommission-
ing of PCB-containing
electrical equipment; 2)
remediating PCB-contami-
nated sites and sedi-
ments; 3) gathering data
on PCB sources and
routes of exposure; 4}
enhancing fish and
wildlife consumption
advisories and communi-
cating to citizens, espe-
cially those at high risk,
ways to reduce exposure
to PCB contamination; 5)
building the capacity of
other countries to comply
with international agree-
ments and improve their
management of PCB
risks. PCBs are also listed
under the Stockholm
Convention on Persistent
Organic Pollutants (POPs)
and the Long Range
Transport of Air Pollution
(LKTAP) POPs Protocol.
See Chapter 6 for more
I 1 j information.
STATUS OF
NATIONAL
ACTION PLAN
DEVELOPMENT
EPA intends to release
the final Nationai Action
Plan for
Octachlorostyrene in
2003.
EPA is currently prepar-
ing to release its draft
Nationai Action Plan for
PCBs for public com-
ment.
-------
PBT OR PBT
GROUP
BBBeggSMBIBBOMIMasaaHBgl
Pesticides
MHMMfMnanBO&HHi^H
DESCRIPTION
iwaai_^Tf^^i*w*i^
Aldrin, chlordane, diel-
drin, DDT, endrin, hep-
tachlor, mirex, and
toxaphene are persist-
ent organic pesticides
that were once widely
used in large quantities
in the United States.
EPA cancelled the regis-
tration of these pesti-
cides in the U.S. during
the 1970s and 1980s
after finding evidence
that they cause adverse
environmental and
human health effects.
nBMHBBHmnHBHBB
HUMAN HEALTH
AND ECOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
IKUKWWf HTHiWWTB'IflffOTtH'l KHH1'
Human health effects:
arobable human carcino-
gen; damage to repro-
ductive, nervous, and
digestive systems.
Ecological effects:
Detectable quantities of
these pesticides have
been found within a
wide variety of animal
species, and in some
cases, at concentrations
that have been known
to pose serious risks to
wildlife. Adverse effects
include: shortened lifes-
pan, reproductive prob-
lems, effects on liver
function, and changes in
appearance or behavior.
Wildlife affected include:
mammals, birds, fish,
and shellfish.
-;
SOURCES AND
ROUTES OF
HUMAN
EXPOSURE
fp$VIMtai^rljMM&&&S^&S9]JBk&l$&aS
Unused, uncollected
stocks in the U.S.; con-
tinued use abroad; con-
tinued emissions from
pesticides built up in soil
and sediment.
Current human exposure
to these pesticides
occurs mainly through
the food chain, and for
the most exposed popu-
lations, is probably due
to the consumption of
contaminated fish.
••BEHHnHBI^BHI
FOCUS OF
NATIONAL
ACTION PLAN
•ffffSS^If^fJ^^fflpffft!9^ll^flffffffj^tff&
EPA is focusing on the
Allowing priorities for
addressing these pesti-
cides: 1 ) preventing acci-
dental releases of
remaining pesticide
stocks; 2) facilitating the
remediation or contain-
ment of non-point and
reservoir sources of pes-
ticides; 3) reducing
human exposure
through risk communica-
tion and outreach; 4)
working internationally
to reduce or phase out
production of these sub-
stances; and 5) continu-
ing to monitor for pesti-
cides in humans,
wildlife, and all relevant
environmental media.
These pesticides are also
listed under the -
Stockholm Convention
on Persistent Organic
Pollutants (POPs) and
the Long Range
Transport of Air Pollution
(LRTAP) POPs Protocol.
See Chapter 6 for more
information.
STATUS OF
NATIONAL
ACTION PLAN
DEVELOPMENT
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EPA intends to release
the final National Action
Plan for the Level 1
Pesticides in 2003.
•
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CHAPTER 3: ACHIEVING POLLUTION
REDUCTIONS
I
he main function of the PBT Program is to coordinate and enhance EPA's
efforts to decrease PBT contamination in the environment. PBT substances are used in and
released by many different sectors of our economy. The PBT Program seeks to encourage
the development of products, processes, technologies, and other tools that prevent the
emission and release of new and existing PBTs into the environment. It also recognizes the
necessity of using control technologies to curb PBT releases where PBTs are inadvertently
generated and implementing sound practices for the recycling and disposal of PBTs.
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Pollution Prevention
Pollution Prevention (P2) practices can improve a busi-
ness's bottom line through reduced raw material and
energy costs, treatment and disposal expenses, and asso-
ciated labor costs. Many P2 strategies, such as substitut-
ing toxic materials with safer alternatives, are simple and
inexpensive. Key P2 benefits include enhanced public
image, increased productivity and efficiency, reduced reg-
ulatory burden, decreased liability, and improved environ-
mental and health quality.
P2 methods can help reduce the air, water, and land pol-
lution that results from waste generation, treatment, and
disposal; reduce worker and resident health risks and the
environmental risks associated with pollutant emissions;
and conserve natural resources and landfill space.
PREVENTING INTRODUCTION OF NEW PBTs
Preventing new PBTs from entering the economy and the
environment whenever possible is extremely important.
Pre-manufacture notices for new chemicals and the newly
released PBT Profiler are two efforts that are helping EPA
prevent the introduction of new PBTs. EPA is also develop-
ing a policy to strengthen the process by which it screens
new pesticides.
Pre-Manufacture Notices for New Chemicals
Under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), chemical
manufacturers must submit pre-manufacture notifications
(PMNs) to EPA for new chemicals that they plan to manu-
facture domestically or import into the United States.2
Using a combination of computer modeling tools and
available test data on the proposed new chemical, EPA
evaluates each chemical's characteristics to ascertain
whether it may present an unreasonable risk to human
health or the environment. In 1999, EPA issued a PBT poli-
cy statement (64 FR 60194) that adopted certain specific
identification criteria and an associated process for use in
evaluating new PBT chemical substances. The policy estab-
lished a screen that identifies PMNs that possess PBT char-
acteristics. These are then given special review. Based on
these reviews, control action under TSCA section 5(e) may
be needed in varying degrees, based upon the level of
risk concern. EPA can stop the production of these chemi-
cals until their prospective manufacturers can demonstrate
that they would not be expected to pose an unreasonable
risk if released into the environment, either by conducting
certain testing specified in the 1999 policy statement or
by controlling environmental releases of the chemical.
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During the period covered by this report, EPA identified
and took action on 65 potential PBTs out of the 1,372
total PMNs it received. Actions ranged from banning
production of a chemical pending testing to allowing
commercial manufacture with control of environmental
releases.
The PBT Profiler
In September 2002, EPA released the PBT Profiler-a
unique. Web-based analytical tool designed to help com-
panies evaluate PBT characteristics associated with new
chemicals. The PBT Profiler enables chemical product
developers to estimate PBT potential of chemicals and
help prioritize chemicals for possible testing. The PBT
Profiler can be accessed at: .
The goals of the PBT Profiler include:
• Providing industry with a quick, easy-to-use prioritiza-
tion tool that estimates information that may not be
otherwise available.
• Helping to inform industry's decision-making in new
chemical product and process development.
• Promoting the design, development, and application of
chemicals and processes that are safer for-the environ-
ment.
The PBT Profiler uses established screening models to esti-
mate PBT characteristics based on chemical structure and
physical and chemical properties. It predicts environmental
persistence, bioaccumulation potential, chronic toxicity in
fish, and half-life time spans in different environmental
media. The model also compares these PBT predictions to
EPA's regulatory criteria for PBT-related action under the
PMN Program and under the Toxic Chemical Release
Inventory (TRI) reporting thresholds.
The PBT Profiler is a joint collaboration between EPA and
partnering stakeholders from the chemical industry, trade
associations, and a leading environmental group.
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PREVENTING THE USE AND RELEASE OF PRIORITY PBTs
Consumers are learning that high-quality, cost-
effective substitutes exist for PBT-containing
products. Also, businesses are beginning to
understand the value in replacing PBT-containing
equipment and materials and adjusting process-
es to prevent PBT releases. The PBT Program
supports programs implemented by state and
local government, industry associations, and
other organizations that encourage the phase-
out of the remaining uses of PBTs in products,
processes, and equipment.
Legislative Solutions to Mercury Reduction
Eight Northeastern states introduced or passed
provisions in 2001 based on the Northeast
Waste Management Officials' Association's
(NEWMOA's) Mercury Education and Reduction
Model Legislation. NEWMOA created the model
legislation in cooperation with the Eastern
Canadian Premiers to provide a comprehensive
framework to help states and provinces develop
more consistent approaches to managing mer-
cury-containing wastes. Rhode Island has passed
16 of the provisions, including public education
arid outreach, phase-outs and/or bans on sever-
al types of mercury-containing products, and
notification by manufacturers, distributors, and
importers of their products' mercury content.
New Hampshire and Maine have also made sig-
nificant progress toward enacting this legisla-
tion.
With the support of EPA, NEWMOA is planning
to develop an interstate clearinghouse to help
states implement the requirements of the mer-
cury legislation. This effort, called the Interstate
Mercury Education and Reduction Clearinghouse
(IMERC), will help to collect data on mercury in
products, develop public education and out-
reach programs, make information on mercury-
added products and legislation available to the
public, and provide technical assistance.
Hospital Partnership
ERA collaborated with the American Hospital
Association, Health Care Without Harm, and the
American Nurses Association to create a volun-
tary program called Hospitals for a Healthy
Environment (H2E). As H2E participants, hospi-
tals and health care facilities pledge to eliminate
mercury use by 2005 and reduce overall hospital
waste by 50 percent by 2010. Further, partici-
pants commit to reducing all PBT releases from
their facilities.
H2E made the following major strides in further
involving the health care sector in 2001 - 2002:
• Completed .its first award program,
which recognized nearly 50 health
care institutions nationwide for
their environmental improve-
ments.
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• Recruited 314 partners representing 324 hospitals, 586
clinics, 15 nursing homes, and 29 other types of facili-
ties. Also recruited 31 champions representing several
major health care networks, group purchasing organiza-
tions, and hospital associations. One healthcare net-
work champion. Kaiser Permanente, recruited all of its
facilities across the United States, including 29 hospitals
and 423 clinics.
• Continued to update its Web site, located at
, to increase the information
resources that are available.
The success of the H2E Program comes from the commit-
ment of its partners, who understand both the environ-
mental and financial benefits of minimizing waste and
using mercury-free products. The program serves as a
model for other sector-based efforts—the health care
industry, like many others, can have an important influ-
ence on its upstream "suppliers" as well as its down-
stream "customers." By demanding mercury-free, environ-
mentally preferable equipment and products, health care
providers encourage producers of hospital supplies to also
•-become more environmentally responsible. Heath care
providers also play a key role in educating the public,
especially children and pregnant women, about the risk
of exposure to mercury and other PBTs.
Industrial Boilers Partnership
EPA supported a voluntary partnership between the Delta
Institute and the Council of Industrial Boiler Owners
(CIBO) to achieve emission reductions of PBTs from indus-
trial boilers in the Great Lakes Region through the imple-
mentation of selected energy efficiency technologies and
methods. Industrial (non-utility) boilers, internal combus-
tion engines, and gas-fired turbines producing thermal
and/or electric energy are the second-largest source of
mercury, the fifth-largest source of PCBs, and the seventh-
largest source of dioxins and furans in the United States.
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Nearly 40 percent of U.S. industrial boilers and heaters
are located in the Great Lakes Region. The project hypoth-
esized that energy efficiency measures offer significant
opportunities to reduce both energy consumption and
PBT emissions from industrial boilers.
To test this hypothesis, the Delta Institute performed boil-
er audits at eight private and public facilities in the state
of Wisconsin. The Delta Institute then conducted an
aggregation analysis based on the energy efficient
improvement recommendations from the boiler assess-
ments and on data provided by EPA. The study found that
optimizing energy needs can result in reductions of PBTs
and other pollutants. For example, achieving a 10 percent
energy efficiency improvement for all industrial boilers
would decrease mercury emissions in the United States by
1 percent. Comparatively, the Industrial/ Commercial/
Institution Boiler MACT rules (See box below for a general
discussion of MACT standards) are expected to achieve a
10 percent reduction of mercury through control tech-
nologies. While mercury reductions from MACT imple-
mentation are greater than for energy efficiency meas-
ures, the benefits from implementing energy efficiency
measures—such as reduced fuel usage and cost savings-
will not necessarily be realized through MACT implemen-
tation.
Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT)
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Chlorine Industry Partnership
In 1996, the Chlorine Institute and a number of member
companies that operate mercury-cell chlor-alkali factories
announced a goal of voluntarily reducing industrial con-
sumption and air emissions of mercury by 50 percent
within a decade. In 2000, the industry achieved this goal.
Through 2001, mercury consumption has been cut 75 per-
cent, on a capacity-normalized basis. In addition, the
Chlorine Institute published guidance for factories world-
wide on how to prevent fugitive air emissions, this guid-
ance is available at . Practical fac-
tors that might explain progress by this sector include:
• Allowing equipment to cool down prior to invasive
maintenance.
• Invention of a UV-light to allow workers to see
vapor leaks.
• Capital investments in new decomposer units, pumps,
elongated cells, and computer controls.
• Improved purification of brine.
• Closure of four factories that did not recycle wastes.
Reducing Open Burning of Household Trash
One of the largest sources of dioxin emissions is the back-
yard burning of household waste (hereafter called open
burning). In addition to accounting for 52 percent of the
total known dioxin emissions, open burning largely occurs
in rural, agricultural areas where it readily enters the food
chain pathway. With grant assistance from EPA, the
Western Lake Superior Sanitary District is continuing a
project to educate residents about the harmful effects of
burning trash. The three elements found to influence a
person's decision to burn their waste on-site—education,
infrastructure, and enforcement—are being examined at
the level of local governmental units such as municipali-
ties, townships, tribal units and counties.
A survey of decision makers and local government offi-
cials was conducted in October 2002. The survey sought
answers to questions about the respondents' understand-
ing of issues about open burning, availability of commer-
cial garbage service and recycling, local enforcement prac-
tices, and willingness to participate in a workshop to
examine these issues from a decision maker's standpoint.
Of the 720 addressees, 109 responded.
Planning is underway for a workshop, tentatively sched-
uled for mid-May 2003. The workshop will bring together
decision makers who responded positively to a question
about willingness to participate, as well as local science
and environmental educators and expert resources. Two
goals of the workshop are to develop models for local
anti-open burning campaigns, including legal and enforce-
ment issues, and to develop curriculum models for envi-
ronmental science teachers. Ideally, these two efforts
would work together at the community level to promote
awareness of the somewhat complex issues surrounding
open burning practices. A similar strategy worked in the
early stages of the recycling effort, where students car-
ried the "Reduce, Reuse, Recycle" message and practices
into their homes.
Controlling PBT Releases to the Environment
In addition to promoting pollution prevention, the PBT
Program supports efforts to control PBT releases to the
environment through emissions control technologies, recy-
cling, treatment, and disposal.
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CONTROLLING PBT EMISSIONS
Certain PBTs are inadvertently generated and
released during combustion. For example, mer-
cury contained in the coal used to produce elec-
tricity can be released during combustion.
Mercury, dioxins and furans, and other PBTs can
be released during waste incineration if proper
conditions for burning are not met. The PBT
Program supports projects that complement
EPA's regulatory efforts in this area.
Electric Utilities
EPA is developing MACT regulations aimed at
reducing toxic air emissions, including mercury,
from electric utilities. Through the PBT program,
EPA is doing analytical work that enhances its
rulemaking efforts.
In 2002, EPA used a sophisticated economic
model called the Integrated Planning Model
(IPM) to initially analyze different regulatory
options. The model projects the effects that
these different options would have on emissions,
both from a national perspective and for various
regions of the country. It also projects the
national costs of different regulatory options, as
well as the effects these options have on the
mix of fuels used to generate electricity and the
control technology used. Modeling results were
presented to the Utility MACT Working Group,
which is under the guidance of a subcommittee
of the Clean Air Act Advisory Committee
(CAAAC). The model will be upgraded based on
results from these initial runs and comments
received from stakeholder discussions. Future
analyses will include deposition modeling using
the emissions output from the IPM.
In any regulatory program, demonstration of
compliance is important. EPA is now field-
testing continuous emission monitors for mercu-
ry at several U.S. sites. Commercially available
monitors have an application history in Europe
on certain sources, including electrical power
plants that co-fire coal and sewage sludge.
However, monitor evaluations specific to U.S.-
based power plants are important because the
control technologies and monitor calibration
techniques employed in Europe are different
from those used in the United States. In the
EPA program, mercury monitors were first
installed on the type of electric power plant
configuration most common in the United
States,3 to determine certain monitor perform-
ance characteristics. Tests were conducted at
this site beginning in fall 2001 and continued
through fall 2002. In 2003, EPA is first working
on a pilot scale coal combustor project to
resolve certain monitor performance issues
before the next series of full scale evalu-
ations, which is to begin in mid-2003
and continue through fall 2003. At
least two power plants that employ
extensive particulate and sulfur
dioxide control technology will be
employed in this work.
1A bituminous coal-fired utility with a cold-side electrostatic precipitator.
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Coal Combustion Residues
EPA is analyzing the potential rates at which mercury and
other metals are released to the environment when the
residue from coal combustion (e.g., fly ash from coal-fired
power plants) is used in commercial products, like cement
and wallboard. Cement and wallboard products are man-
ufactured in high temperature processes, which could
potentially release mercury and other metals to the envi-
ronment. In addition, EPA is studying the potential for
releases of mercury and other metals from the products
during their use and disposal. In 2002, EPA reached agree-
ment with interested parties, including the Department of
Energy (DOE) and the Electric Power Research Institute on
the procedures and methods to be used; completed the
laboratory set-up; and began the analyses. Results are
expected in 2003.
In conjunction with this project, EPA is evaluating the fate
of mercury and other metals from land disposal of residue
from coal combustion in landfills, surface impoundments,
mine reclamations, and use in highway construction. The
results from this effort will be used in a life-cycle evalua-
tion of any potential multimedia and multi-pollutant
effects associated with implementation of mercury control
technologies at coal-fired power plants.
Waste Combustors
Consistent with Section 129 of the Clean Air Act, large
municipal waste combustors (MWCs) completed control
retrofits representative of MACT in December 2000.
During 2001, EPA collected stack test reports from all 167
large MWC units, located at 66 plants in 24 states, and
used the data to calculate post-MACT emissions for 2000.
Performance of the MACT retrofits has been outstanding
for all Section 129 pollutants, including dioxins/furans and
mercury. Since 1990 (pre-MACT conditions), dioxin/furan
emissions have been reduced by more than 99 percent,
and mercury emissions have been reduced by more than
95 percent. Annual dioxin/furan emissions for large
MWCs were estimated to be greater than 8,000 grams
TEQ4 in 1987 and were 12 grams TEQ/year in 2000.
Mercury emissions have been reduced to 2.2 tons/year.
Section 129 MACT standards for small MWCs were adopt-
ed in December 2000 and retrofits are required by
December 2005. These standards address all Section 129
pollutants including dioxins/furans and mercury. State
plans implementing the small MWC standards were-due
in December 2001 and a back-up federal plan was prom-
ulgated final in December 2002. The federal plan is being
implemented at this time and all small MWCs must com-
plete control retrofit by December 2005. Together, the
state and federal plans will result in retrofits at all 84
small MWC units, located at 39 plants in 23 states by
December 2005. Current projections are that dioxin/furan
emissions will be reduced by more than 99 percent, and
mercury emissions will be reduced by more than 96 per-
cent from 1990 (pre-MACT) levels. Dioxin/furan emissions
for small MWCs nationally are projected to be 1.8 grams
TEQ/year and mercury emissions are projected to be 0.4
tons/year by December 2005 (post-MACT retrofit). MACT
standards have also been issued for medical waste inciner-
'TEQ means toxic equivalent quantity, using 1989 NATO toxtcity factors.
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ators and cement kilns burning hazardous waste. Before
regulation, medical waste incinerators were the second
largest known source of dioxins in the United States.
Dioxin emissions from medical waste incinerators are esti-
mated to have been greater than 2,500 grams TEQ/year
in 1987. Actions by state governments and voluntary
measures by hospitals successfully reduced these emis-
sions to about 500 grams TEQ/year in 1995. EPA's MACT
standard for medical waste incinerators is expected to fur-
ther reduce emissions to around 7 grams TEQ/year.
Cement kilns burning hazardous waste were estimated to
emit more than 150 grams TEQ/year in 1995, but under
EPA regulations these emissions are expected to be
reduced to less than 8 grams TEQ/year.
Gold Mines
Imagine 4 million household fever thermometers. That's
the equivalent amount of mercury emissions that will be
reduced by an innovative voluntary reduction program
launched by EPA's regional office in San Francisco, the
Nevada Department of Environmental Protection (NDEP),
and four Nevada gold mines. Under the new Toxic
Release Inventory rules {see Chapter 4), the mines report-
ed more than 13,000 pounds of mercury emissions to air
in 1998, making them the sixth largest source of mercury
emissions in the country. EPA, NDEP and the mines
worked for more than a year to craft a voluntary program
to get immediate, permanent reductions in these emis-
sions without the costs associated with new regulations.
Under the program, the mines agreed to implement new
emissions control equipment or process changes to
achieve at least 50 percent reductions in emissions by
2005. In exchange, EPA and NDEP agreed to defer devel-
opment of a new regulation pending results from the pro-
gram. The mines also agreed to recruit other companies
into the program. The program is already a success:
between 1998 and 2000, the mines cut emissions by
more than 3,000 pounds of mercury-almost 30 percent—
and several are on track to achieve reductions of more
than 75 percent.
RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF MERCURY-CONTAINING PRODUCTS
EPA encourages the removal of mercury-containing prod-
ucts from, homes, schools, and workplaces to prevent the
occurrences of mercury spills and resulting illnesses due
to the inhalation of mercury vapors. Since mercury is a
commodity in the world market, the ultimate disposition
of mercury collected in United States recycling programs
currently depends on the world demand for mercury. As
world demand declines, more recycled mercury may need
to be put into long-term storage. Disposal options for
mercury are currently limited, EPA is
researching various treatments for
mercury waste and elemental
mercury.
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Schools
Mercury can be found in many different places in schools,
such as science labs and nurses' offices. Children exposed
to mercury from a spill are especially susceptible to health
problems, so many state and local environmental pro-
grams focus on collecting mercury-containing equipment
from schools. EPA's regional office in Dallas completed a
pilot project that collected 500 pounds of equipment con-
taining over 45 pounds of liquid mercury from 27 school
districts in a lower income area along the Texas-New
Mexico border. The pilot project also promoted increased
awareness about the hazards of mercury by distributing
brochures in Spanish and English. EPA is hoping to
expand the program to other low-income school districts
in the area. This program is particularly important
because it addresses the concern that low-income popula-
tions bear a disproportionate amount of adverse health
and environmental effects.
In addition to protecting children from health threats,
focusing on mercury in schools provides another opportu-
nity to educate the public about the dangers that mercury
and other PBTs can cause when released into the environ-
ment. In 2001, EPA nationalized a project begun by its
regional office in .Chicago to communicate to teachers,
school administrators, students, and parents the impor-
tance of reducing mercury in schools and the community.
.The national project features regional workshops and
online training courses for teachers, as well as an expand-
ed curriculum package that contains information and
activities on health issues, cultural uses, mercury in
schools, mercury at home, mercury in the community,
environmental effects, and the history of mercury use.
Another important aspect of the project is the Mercury in
Schools Web site, ,
which includes case studies, ideas for taking action, and
state-specific information resources.
Natural Gas Lines
The PBT Program is supporting an effort by the New York
State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) to
promote the replacement of mercury-containing manome-
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ters—gauges used by plumbers to measure the pressure in
natural gas lines-with gauges that do not contain the
toxic substance. Mercury gauges have been the traditional
choice of many plumbers, but are very easily broken. If
the gauges are not used or handled correctly, the mercury
can be released into the environment and evaporate into
the air. The safer mercury-free gauges available today
offer the same precision as traditional gauges, without
the risks mercury gauges can pose to plumbers and their
clients. With EPA funding, DEC is conducting an extensive
outreach project to plumbers statewide to reduce the use
of mercury manometers and ensure they are disposed of
properly. This project includes:
* Providing educational outreach to plumbers about the
potential'hazards of mercury.
• Working with gas utility companies to develop take-
back programs for mercury manometers and with local
governments to collect them on hazardous waste col-
lection days.
• Identifying municipalities in New York State that require
plumbers to use mercury gauges and drafting model
municipal code language that they can use to bring
about the replacement of mercury gauges.
Federal Facilities
EPA's regional office in Boston worked with NEWMOA
and the Massachusetts Department of Environmental
Protection to develop a methodology to assist federal
facilities in identifying and reducing uses of mercury. The
project team produced four case studies based on visits
to various types of facilities, such as military installations
and laboratories. During the site visits, the team identified
mercury materials, observed purchasing and management
practices, and provided information about alternatives to
mercury products. The case studies, available at
, include recommendations made
and subsequent actions taken at each facility.
Information Sharing on Mercury Recycling and Disposal
In May 2002, EPA cosponsored a conference entitled,
"Breaking the Mercury Cycle," with Environment Canada,
the Commission for Environmental Cooperation, the
Environmental Council of the States, NEWMOA, and oth-
ers. The conference focused on policies, technologies,
and techniques used to address environmentally sound
management and treatment of excess mercury supplies
and stockpiles and mercury-bearing wastes. It provided an
/'*—
opportunity for participants to learn about the current
policy framework,-mercury materials flow, research under-
way on different treatment and storage technologies, and
other long-term options for management of surplus and
recycled mercury and mercury-bearing waste.
Mercury Treatment
Several of the existing land disposal restrictions (LDR)
treatment standards for hazardous wastes containing high
levels of mercury require either retorting5 or incineration,
depending on whether organic constituents are present in
the waste. Over the past couple of years, EPA has been
researching alternative options for managing mercury
wastes and bulk elemental mercury. This research sought
technologies to effectively lock mercury into a solid matrix
from which it would not easily escape (i.e., technologies
5 Mercury retorting is the thermal recovery of mercury. In a retorting unit, the mercury waste is heated, causing the mercury to volatilize.
This volatilized mercury is then condensed and captured as elemental mercury. The elemental mercury is often distilled to increase its purity.
25
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that would "stabilize" mercury). It was a collaborative
effort shared by EPA and DOE.
In late 2001, EPA concluded its treatability study research.
The draft final report summarizing the results of the
study was peer reviewed in 2002 and then was published
in the Federal Register on January 29, 2003 as part of a
Notice of Data Availability (NODA). The information will
be useful to many stakeholders, including the Department
of Defense, which is currently preparing an environmental
impact statement describing its plans for long-term man-
agement of its mercury stockpile, and chlor-alkali facilities
that have closed or stopped using the mercury cell
process.
RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF RGB-CONTAINING PRODUCTS
Certain uses of PCBs, including those involving PCBs
sealed in electrical transformers, are still allowed under
U.S. law. Other uses, as well as the manufacturing, pro-
cessing, and distribution of PCBs, were banned in the
United States in 1977. Since the mid-1990s, EPA has been
strongly encouraging owners of PCB transformers and
capacitors to voluntarily take them out of service and dis-
pose of them responsibly. This decommissioning message
reflects the U.S. concern, shared with the neighboring
and global communities, that continued use of PCB equip-
ment creates opportunities for increasing exposures as
the equipment ages.
The federal government is the largest single owner of
PCB-containing equipment. The PBT Program has identi-
fied the specific federal facilities that contain this equip-
ment and EPA is contacting the owners of these facilities
to encourage them to decommission the remaining equip-
ment.
EPA has also begun a national outreach effort to trade
associations and major national businesses to seek the
voluntary reduction of PCB-containing electrical equip-
ment. EPA has developed a list of individual businesses
and trade associations that it will contact. In addition, EPA
has prepared brochures for distribution to trade associa-
tions and companies on its PCB transformer registration
database and developed an advertisement for publication
in trade association journals and newsletters.
Other projects of the PBT Program to encourage voluntary
decommissioning include:
Utility Industry Partnership
In 2001-2002, six utilities contacted by EPA's regional
office in Chicago committed to continue to remove any
PCBs they have or find. Two of those six utilities stated
that they had already removed all high concentration
PCBs of which they were aware. EPA will encourage the
remaining utilities in the region to do the same.
Mining Equipment
EPA's regional office in Denver began an outreach effort
to the mining industry to encourage voluntary removal
and disposal of PCB-containing electrical equipment in
underground and surface mines. It placed advertisements
in three major mining journals, informing the domestic
mining industry about PCBs and the problems they cause,
and seeking the voluntary disposal of the PCBs. EPA
received approximately 25 domestic and 37 international
inquiries regarding the advertisements. The Agency
responded to the inquiries with further information on
the problems with PCBs and how to identify and dispose
of PCB-containing equipment.
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RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF PESTICIDES
Over the past 20 years, states have been actively promot-
ing environmental protection and pollution prevention by
conducting collections of agricultural pesticides. EPA pub-
lished a report in November 2001 that compiles state data
on collections of unwanted agricultural pesticides into a
single document. Many states refer to these as "Clean
Sweep" programs. From 1988 through 2001, Clean Sweep
programs collected more than 24 million pounds of old
pesticides and ensured the proper management and dis-
posal of these materials. EPA's goals in publishing this
report are to recognize the proactive efforts of the state
and local governments, document the history and
achievements of Clean Sweep programs, and establish a
baseline of information in a standard, updatable format
as a resource for those who wish to initiate or improve
programs. The Clean Sweep Report 2001 can be found at:
.
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CHAPTER 4: FILLING THE PBT DATA GAPS
N
ew information about the sources of PBTs and their life cycle in the environ-
ment, as well as the levels of PBTs present in humans and wildlife, allows EPA and others to
determine the most appropriate PBT-related policies and courses of action.
The PBT Program is sponsoring the development of a Routine Monitoring Strategy for PBTs
that will feature recommendations for integrating and augmenting key PBT monitoring pro-
grams within and outside of EPA. It will also encourage partnerships and facilitate a process of
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continuing information-sharing on all levels. The strategy
will guide the development of a national monitoring net-
work and assessment program that will provide informa-
tion to:
• Discern long-term trends in various media.
• Assess the effectiveness of risk management actions
undertaken by EPA and others.
In addition, the strategy will provide information to help
effectively target future risk management actions. EPA
plans to complete the strategy and implementation plan
in 2003.
Sources and Environmental Cycle of PBTs
During 2001-2002, EPA made some significant discoveries
about how PBTs, especially mercury, cycle in the environ-
ment. EPA also continued to add to its understanding of
the sources that release PBTs into the environment.
MULTIPLE PBTs
Lowering Reporting Thresholds Under TRI
The 2000 TRI Public Data Release (published May 2002)
includes newly-reported data on PBTs, giving communities
a more complete picture of the sources of chemicals in
the environment. The newly-reported data result from an
October 1999 rulemaking in which EPA lowered the
reporting threshold for the 13 PBTs already reported
under TRI and also added reporting requirements for 5
new chemicals that are also PBTs, including dioxin and
dioxin-like compounds. In January 2001, EPA issued anoth-
er rule to reduce the reporting threshold for lead and
lead compounds effective for the 2001 reporting year.
EPA and the general public now have more data on the
levels of PBTs released into the environment. For example,
EPA now has baseline information on the amount of diox-
in and dioxin-like compounds released. In 2000, approxi-
mately 100,000 grams of dioxin and dioxin-like com-
pounds were reported. In addition, the lower reporting
thresholds for other PBT? give EPA and the public informa-
tion about releases associated with small users of PBT
compounds. These releases make up a significant portion
of total PBT releases. Another important finding in the
2000 TRI data is the reduction in releases of elemental
mercury, which may be the result of efforts to reduce the
use of elemental mercury in products.
29
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Table 3. Reporting Thresholds and Releases for TRI PBT Chemicals
30
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MERCURY
Investigating the Chemical Behavior of Mercury in the
Atmosphere
Through the PBT Program, EPA has uncovered new infor-
mation that challenges EPA's traditional understanding of
atmospheric mercury deposition. This information indicates
that the lifetime of gaseous elemental mercury in the
atmosphere is shorter than was previously thought. In the
upper atmosphere over the open oceans, mercury is con-
verted into forms that are more water-soluble. The implica-
tion of this information is that we need to control releases
of all forms of mercury, including elemental mercury, in
order to effectively reduce atmospheric deposition.
Several different forms of mercury reach our shores in air
currents and are deposited on land and in the water.
Most problematic are the chemically reactive gaseous and
particulate forms that more readily dissolve in water. The
elemental form of mercury, by contrast, is much less solu-
ble and reactive. EPA has recently established automated
mercury monitoring sites in Coral Springs, Florida; Cheeka
Peak, Washington; Barrow, Alaska; and Mauna Loa,
Hawaii. In addition, EPA has conducted more than thirty
mercury research aircraft sorties off Florida's Atlantic coast
. and in Barrow, Alaska. At each site or study, specific sets
of measurements have contributed to EPA's overall under-
standing of the way elemental mercury transforms into
reactive gaseous mercury (RGM) and particulate phase
mercury. Understanding this transformation mechanism is
necessary to accurately estimate the transport and fate of
mercury emissions.
EPA and the Florida Department of Environmental
Protection (FL-DEP) supported a study that has been use-
ful in making improvements to atmospheric models of
transport and fate of mercury. The study, finalized in April
2002, provided refined information on reaction rates of
mercury, and production of RGM under ambient atmos-
pheric conditions. This study has also helped EPA to
understand recent fieldwork on mercury reactions in the
air at the automated mercury monitoring sites mentioned
above. The study also contributes to continuing research
and modeling related to the influence that marine halides
(bromine and chlorine species) can have on mercury dep-
osition in southeastern coastal states and elsewhere.
Scientists from EPA and FL-DEP intend to use the study
and the'improved models in additional work on mercury
during the coming year.
Advancing Scientific Knowledge About the Relationship
Between Mercury Air Emissions and Water Quality
EPA is continuing to work with the states of Wisconsin
and Florida to study the relationship between mercury air
emissions and water quality, and to examine air and
water modeling tools that could be used to support Total
Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) (see box on next page) for
waters polluted by atmospheric mercury. A report on the
Florida pilot project will soon be released showing the
relationship between reductions in atmospheric deposition
and fish tissue levels of mercury, including the time for
fish mercury levels to decrease following reductions in
mercury deposition. The model for the Wisconsin pilot
project is currently being validated to reflect area deposi-
31
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tion rates. Follow-on work is beginning to develop tools
and approaches for regional-scale TMDLs that could assist
with broad-based strategies to lower mercury emissions.
Determining the Routes by Which Mercury Pollutes the
Everglades
EPA and the Florida Department of Environmental
Protection are collaborating on a pilot study to identify
and evaluate the sources and transport mechanisms that
bring mercury into the Everglades. Preliminary findings
include the importance of local sources to mercury depo-
sition, and the projected reductions in the ecosystem's
mercury burden as deposition decreases. In addition, sev-
eral intensive field studies on dry deposition of mercury
(and earlier intensive work on wet deposition) have been
completed in South Florida. Currently, two highly instru-
mented research sites on atmospheric mercury continue
to produce new information. A comprehensive report on
developing, evaluating, and applying a model for atmos-
pheric transport and fate of mercury was completed in
December 2001.
These completed and on-going field studies are being
incorporated in improvements to general atmospheric mod-
els made subsequent to the model runs for the pilot study
for the Everglades TMDLs. EPA scientists developing the
Models-3/CMAQ module for mercury in the atmosphere
continue to use the research results from the field and lab-
oratory studies, and advances made in other models.
PBT Levels in Humans and Wildlife
The PBT Program is able to measure progress towards its
ultimate goal of reducing risks to human health and the
environment by continuing to support research to meas-
ure PBT levels in humans and wildlife. The following activi-
ties have given EPA a better understanding of PBT levels
and trends.
Total Maximum Daily Loads
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Monitoring PBT Levels in Humans with NHANES Survey
Data
The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES) is the first national collection of measurements
for mercury in humans. NHANES is conducted by the
Centers for Disease Control with technical and financial
support from EPA and other federal agencies. Based on
combined NHANES data from 1999 and 2000, EPA esti-
mates that 8 percent of U.S. women of childbearing age
have blood mercury concentrations higher than the level
which EPA considers safe. These NHANES data are repre-
sentative of the U.S. population as a whole when using
appropriate statistical procedures. A manuscript describ-
ing these findings has recently been published in the
Journal of the American Medical Association. In addition,
EPA is analyzing the dietary data collected in NHANES
1999 and 2000 to estimate consumption of methylmer-
cury based on recorded fish consumption.
NHANES also provided invaluable data on body burden
levels of many other PBTs including dioxins, HCB, PCBs
and many pesticides. CDC has completed laboratory
analysis of 1999 blood samples for dioxins and has begun
analysis of 2000 samples. These data will provide the first
statistically based sampling of human body burdens for
.these compounds.
Measuring Heavy Metals and POPs Levels in Fetal Cord
Blood Samples Taken from Indigenous Peoples in Alaska,
Northern Russia, and the Russian Far East
This is a cooperative project with participation of the U.S.
Indian Health Service (IHS), the Alaska Native Regional
Health Corporations, the Centers for Disease Control
(CDC), the Alaska Native Health Board (ANHB), Canadian-
Quebec Center for Public Health, University of Tromso in
Norway, Russian and Alaskan Aleut communities and local
Russian authorities.
The basic elements of the pilot project include a dietary
survey for each woman in the cohort being sampled,
blood samples adequate for POPs and heavy metal assess-
ments, and basic demographic information.
Current study results, based on increased sampling in
Central and Northern Alaska, indicate that a strong rela-
tionship exists between high concentrations of PCB con-
geners in the mother's blood and chronic infections in
newborns during the first two years. The study will con-
tinue in 2003 and has already been expanded to collect
and analyze additional data from mother/neon ate cord
blood sampling pairs from indigenous people living in the
Eastern and Western Aleutian, Komandor, and Pribilof
Island villages. The types and amounts of traditional
foods consumed in each of these areas vary greatly.
Collecting National Data on PBT Levels in Fish Tissue
EPA's Office of Water continued to collect and analyze
samples for the National Fish Tissue Study, a 4-year fresh-
water fish contamination study that began sample collec-
tion in 2000. The study is expected to produce a wealth
of data about the largest group of PBT chemicals studied
in fish to date. The data set includes all of the priority PBT
chemicals except alkyl-lead. This is the first fish tissue
study to use a random sampling design on a national
level; its data will allow EPA to develop national estimates
of the mean levels of individual PBT chemicals in fish tis-
sue. The study also addresses critical data gaps by defin-
ing background levels for PBT chemicals in fish and by
characterizing the prevalence of these chemicals in fish
33
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on a national scale. To date, participating states
and EPA regions have collected fish from 261
lakes in 44 states, and EPA has completed
chemical analysis of the 288 first-year fish sam-
ples. The first-year data sets will be released on
request.
Checking for PBTs in the U.S. Dairy Supply
EPA conducted a study to detect the presence
of 37 PBTs in the U.S. dairy supply. Because milk
fat is likely to be among the highest dietary
sources of exposure to PBTs, understanding PBT
levels in milk is important. In addition, milk,
unlike other animal fats, is produced and distrib-
uted regionally. Understanding regional variabili-
ty can offer clues to sources that release these
compounds and the processes by which they
enter our food supply.
The study involved the collection of milk sam-
ples in July 2000 and again in January 2001,
from 45 large dairy plants located across the
country and collectively estimated to represent
about 20 percent of the nation's milk supply.
Out of the 37 chemicals studied, 16 chemi-
cals, including mercury, could not be
quantified due to analytical difficul-
ties. The levels of all chemicals in
the chlorobenzene, pesticide, and
other halogenated organic groups
were determined to be below
their detection limits in all samples.
Contaminants found to be above their detection
levels include: dioxins/furans and dioxin-like
PCBs, cadmium, alkyl-lead, and six polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The PAHs
showed the strongest seasonal/geographic dif-
ferences, with higher levels in the winter than in
summer, in the North than in the South, and in
the East than in the West. Alkyl-lead concentra-
tions were consistently higher than those of
cadmium for both sampling intervals. Higher lev-
els of alkyl-lead were observed in the South
than the North, but the seasonal difference was
relatively small.
Comparing national average dioxins/furans and
co-planar PCB TEQ concentrations to those
found in an earlier national survey of dioxin-like
compounds in the U.S. milk supply conducted
in 19966 suggests that these concentrations
have declined by about 50 percent. If this differ-
ence is truly indicative of declining levels in milk,
and assuming exposure levels from non-dairy
pathways have remained the same over this
time period, this would result in an overall
decrease in adult background dioxin exposure of
14 percent. Several factors could account for
these apparent changes in dioxin levels in milk,
including uncertainties in the approach of the
study, reduced emissions, and changes in agri-
cultural practices.
6Lorber MN, Winters DL, Griggs J, Cook R, Baker S, Ferrario J, Byrne C, Dupuy A, and Schaum J. A nation-
al survey of dioxin-like compounds in the United States milk supply. Presented at Dioxrn '98, the 18th
International Symposium on Chlorinated Dioxins and Related Compounds, held August 17-21 at
Stockholm, Sweden. Short paper in Organohalogen Compounds, 1998: Volume 38:125-129.
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Linking PBT Sources to Human Exposure
DIOXIN EXPOSURE iNnwiVE
The Dioxin Exposure Initiative (DEI) is EPA's research pro-
gram to quantitatively link dioxin sources to general pop-
ulation exposure. The current state of understanding
regarding dioxin sources, dioxin environmental transport
and fate, and the introduction of dioxin into the human
food supply is insufficient to support this quantitative link-
age. Having the data and analytical tools needed to make
these quantitative linkages is central to EPA's ability to
establish risk management priorities based on exposure
reduction potential. Development of this capability under
the DEI is being accomplished by pursuing two simultane-
ous lines of inquiry. One approach is to start with human
body burdens and work backwards through the process
of bioaccumutation and uptake. The second focus is on
identifying sources of dioxin-like compounds and working
forward along their pathways of transport and deposition.
As these two lines of inquiry merge, they should provide
an adequate understanding to enable EPA to target future
exposure reduction efforts to those sources and pathways
that most significantly contribute to human risk.
An additional goal of the initiative is to document dioxin
environmental trends as a way of evaluating program effec-
tiveness and to identify new opportunities for exposure
reduction through pathway intervention. The DEI is cur-
rently composed of over 50 discreet project areas with 19
individual projects completed and 19 currently underway.
Of the 19 current projects, 7 involve other federal agencies.
As results from these projects become available, additional
projects will be identified and designed as warranted. A
summary of the current scope of DEI projects follows:
Exposure Backward Approach
Major gains have been made through the DEI in quantify-
ing general population exposure as a result of EPA lead
surveys of beef, pork, poultry, and milk. This initial effort
has been followed up by an expanded program of dioxin
food analysis by the Food and Drug Administration and
the Department of Agriculture. The DEI has shifted much
of its EPA food-related analytical efforts to measuring
dioxin in animal feeds. This work, conducted jointly with
the Center of Veterinary Medicine and the Agricultural
Research Service, identifies the pathways leading to con-
tamination of the human food supply and opportunities
for pathway intervention. This work on animal feed will
either confirm or modify the hypothesis that air deposi-
tion to crops is the primary pathway for exposure for
domestic meat and dairy animals. Continued sampling of
food and feed provide the most direct measure of identi-
fying and tracking near-term changes in human exposure.
Sources Forward Approach
Source Characterization
Major industrial scale waste combustion sources are
under stringent regulation; confirming projected emissions
reductions from these sources remains a high priority as
does incorporation of new source data into revised nation-
al emission estimates. A 2000 Dioxin Inventory is under
development with further revisions planned for 2002 and
2005. To move more poorly characterized sources into the
inventory, additional source testing is also being pursued.
Due to the high cost of testing, emphasis is placed on
testing those sources that have the greatest potential for
significant release. These include uncontrolled combustion
sources, landfill fugitive emissions, and urban area
35
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sources. Candidates for future source testing include sec-
ondary steel electric arc furnaces, and ferrous and non-
ferrous foundries. Identification and characterization of
reservoir sources will continue to be a high priority.
Air Transport and Fate
Air transport is the principal vehicle that links dioxin
sources to the food supply. It is critical for EPA to have a
clear understanding of the presence and behavior of diox-
in in air if we are to link sources to exposure. Based upon
recommendations from a panel of international experts,
EPA has made major investments through the DEI to
establish a National Dioxin Air Monitoring Network
(NDAMN). NDAMN provides the most direct empirical
measure of the cumulative impact.of air source reductions
and air trends. To link sources to ambient air concentra-
tions, the DEI is relying on multiple air transport models.
The DEI has worked to put in place all of the parts neces-
sary to operate and test the three long-range air trans-
port models best suited for dioxins. The 2000 emission
inventory and the NDAMN transboundary air monitoring
stations will provide the source terms needed for model-
ing. The DEI has already supported the modification of
EPA's RELMAP model to handle dioxin chemistry and dep-
osition, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration has adapted its HYSPLITT model to handle
dioxin. EPA has been developing a new generation trans-
port model (model 3) which will also be included in the
exercise. The NDAMN monitoring data for the year 2000
will provide an empirically based metric against which
each of these models can be evaluated, it is expected that
this multi-model integration will not only provide the fun-
damental confidence needed in air transport model pre-
dictions, but will help to identify sources missing from the
inventory and improve NDAMN monitor placement.
Program Integration
Up to now the DEI has used development of the EPA
Dioxin Reassessment as the principal vehicle for integrat-
ing DEI findings and identifying priority research needs.
As we move to a post reassessment mode, two vehicles
will be used to maintain program integration and to syn-
thesize results. First will be periodic updates of the expo-
sure portions of the reassessment as new source and
exposure data result in revised inventory and exposure
estimates. The second will be the development and oper-
ation of an integrated modeling framework that will com-
bine source inventory, air transport modeling, food chain
uptake and human exposure to provide the quantitative
linking of sources to exposure.
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CHAPTER 5: COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ON
PBTS WITH TRIBAL PARTNERS
S
ubsistence hunters and fishermen are one of the highest risk groups for PBT exposure. Native American tribes are
increasingly concerned about the safety of their subsistence resources. Tribes need information that allows them to
make choices that balance caution in eating certain subsistence foods with the cultural and spiritual value of these
foods. EPA acknowledges the necessity of having tribes participate in decisions about risk communication. Involving
Alaskan native villages in determining how to use PBT risk information is important because up to a third of their diet
consists of subsistence foods. The Alaskan Arctic (and other parts of the Arctic) serves as an environmental sink for PBT
contamination, yet the United States has less PBT monitoring data for Alaska than it has for the lower 48 States.
37
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In addition to furthering partnerships with tribes in order
to undertake the tribal risk assessment and risk communi-
cation efforts described below, the PBT Program has con-
tinued to support activities that communicate risks of PBT
exposure to the general population.
For example, as part of an effort to transition into a new,
topic-based approach to environmental protection, EPA is
conducting a thorough review of the mercury information
currently on its Web sites. Mercury information will be
clearer and easier to find, with access through a central
mercury Web portal. In addition, this process of organiz-
ing mercury-related information will be used as a model
for communicating important messages about other pri-
ority PBTs. During 2001-2002, EPA also continued to work
with states to publicize fish consumption advisories and
develop guidance on risk communication messages.
Developing Different Approaches to Help Tribal
Officials Better Safeguard Tribal Traditional Lifeways
EPA established the National Tribal Subsistence Summit/
Tribal Traditional Lifeways Project to increase the ability of
tribes to assess environmental threats from toxic chemi-
cals and pesticides, including PBTs and
radionuclides, which can be in
foods and other materials
important to tribal cultures.
Tribes are in the best posi-
tion to successfully evaluate and develop an appropriate
course of action to address their concerns.
This project will create different approaches to help tribes
prioritize, assess, and address these issues as appropriate
under EPA's programs. In spring 2003, the National Tribal
Environmental Council and the Alaska Native Science
Commission will convene a preliminary technical meeting
of tribal scientists, environmental directors, and risk asses-
sors to identify lifeways issues and concerns, potential
resources, and gaps in data to be used to identify next
steps. The approach selected will make maximum use of
tribal traditional knowledge so that the overall assessment
is cost-effective and culturally appropriate.
Analyzing the PBT Content in Traditional Native
Alaskan Foods
During 2001-2002, the PBT Program continued to support
a partnership with Alaskan native villages to test and ana-
lyze the foods that Native Americans obtain from the wild
in Alaska. Members of five Native American communities
collected herring gull eggs according to a quality assur-
ance project plan developed by the tribes and approved
by EPA. EPA also developed a screening tool to help
Alaskan tribes predict, based on a statistical model, the
presence or absence of PBTs in gull eggs within
Southeast, South Central, and Northwest Alaska.
Preliminary analysis of the samples indicates that risk
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exposure levels for heavy metals, organochlorines/pesticides, and
dioxins/furans are minimal. The Alaska Sea Otter and Stellar Sea
Lion Commission and Community Field Collectors will hold commu-
nity meetings to describe the study and explain the risk levels associ-
ated with the contaminants analyzed in the gull eggs.
Expanding Assessment Toots to Cover the Exposure Risks
Specific to Tribal Cultures
In May 2002, EPA's Office of Pesticide Programs began an effort to
modify Lifeline, one of its primary software risk assessment tools, to
enable it to capture unique exposure risks that may accompany the
practice of traditional tribal cultures and ways of life. In its first year,
the tribal LifeLine pilot project will modify existing Lifeline software
to allow it to evaluate risks to tribes in two biogeographical areas
(BGAs) of the country, one in Alaska and the other in the contigu-
ous 48 states. At the conclusion of this initial phase of the project,
EPA risk assessors, tribes, and others will have access to state-of-the-
art software that will allow them to assess potentially significant
risks from toxic chemical exposures to tribal populations in the two
chosen BGAs.
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CHAPTER 6: COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ON
PBTs WITH INTERNATIONAL
PARTNERS
I
he long-range atmospheric transport of PBTs has become a pervasive and global
problem, one that requires the cooperation of the international community. The United States
continues to work with its international partners to resolve problems posed by PBTs locally,
regionally, and globally. The following are examples of EPA's collaborative efforts with interna-
tional partners on PBT issues in 2001-2002:
40
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Signing the Stockholm Convention
on Persistent Organic Pollutants
EPA Administrator Whitman, along with
the members of the European Union
and 90 other countries, signed the
Stockholm Convention on Persistent
Organic Pollutants (POPs) on May 23,
2001. This groundbreaking treaty
includes measures to reduce and/or
eliminate the production, use, and/or
release of 12 POPs (see Table 4). The
Convention will enter into force once it
is ratified by at least 50 countries.
On April 11, 2002, Administrator
Whitman submitted the
Administration's legislative proposal to
Congress to implement the POPs
Convention. The package also includ-
ed provisions to implement the
Rotterdam Convention on Prior
Informed Consent (PIC) and the Long
Range Transport of Air Pollution
(LRTAP) POPs Protocol. The
Administration is working with the
U.S. Congress to ensure approval of
the legislation in order for the U.S. to
become parties to these important
international Conventions as soon as
possible to further protection of
human health and the environment
domestically and globally.
In the spring of 2002, the PBT Program
sponsored the publication of a
brochure and a technical support doc-
ument to communicate information to
United States audiences regarding the
POPs treaty. The brochure, entitled
Persistent Organic Pollutants: A Global
Issue, A Global Response, is a collabo-
rative effort between EPA and major
stakeholders, including other federal
agencies and groups in Alaska and the
Great Lakes. Targeted to the general
public, the brochure provides basic
information about POPs and the POPs
treaty. It also describes global and
domestic actions taken by the United
States to control POPs and region-spe-
cific POP issues.
The technical support document, enti-
tled The Foundation for Global Action
on Persistent Organic Pollutants: A
United States Perspective, was
published to inform decision-
makers, academia, and the
general public about the
POPs treaty's scientific
foundation and rele-
vance to the United
States. This report sum-
marizes data available
in the peer-reviewed lit-
erature on the 12 POPs
Table 4. Persistent Organic
Pollutants
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and provides an overview of the risks posed to United
States ecosystems and the public.
Assessing Mercury Contamination on a Global Scale
Based on the suggestion of EPA and the Department of
State, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
Governing Council decided in February 2001 to conduct a
global assessment of mercury. The assessment was com-
pleted in collaboration with governments, intergovern-
mental and non-governmental organizations and the pri-
vate sector in 2002 and addressed the following:
• Sources, emissions inventories, long-range transport,
chemical transformations, and fate of mercury.
• Production and use patterns of mercury as a global
commodity.
• Prevention and control technologies and practices, with
associated costs and effectiveness.
• Exposures and effects on humans and ecosystems.
• Ongoing actions and plans for controlling releases and
limiting use and exposures.
• Options for international action.
In February 2003, the UNEP Governing Council accepted the
key findings of the Global Mercury Assessment and agreed
on a program for international action on mercury. The UNEP
mercury program will assist all countries, especially develop-
ing countries and countries with economies in transition,
with capacity building activities to characterize their mercury
pollution problems and to develop appropriate strategies to
mitigate mercury pollution problems.
PBT Reductions in the Russian Federation
DEMONSTRATING THAT SO2 REDUCTION POLICIES ALSO REDUCE
MERCURY EMISSIONS
EPA is supporting a demonstration project to document
mercury reduction as a co-benefit of sulfur dioxide (S02)
emission control at a small coal-fired power plant outside
of Moscow, Russia, fn this project, an electrostatic precipi-
tator, which is primarily a particulate matter control
device, will be retrofitted with an atomization system
through which lime slurry can be injected for S02 control.
This technology, originally directed solely at SO2 reduc-
tion, will be evaluated for mercury capture and is expect-
ed to be a low-cost option with at least 50 percent reduc-
tion effectiveness. Speciated mercury measurements will
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be taken at the stack and in the ambient environment
around the plant as a baseline and following operation of
the control technology, which will begin in spring 2003.
Efforts are also underway to analyze mercury in Russian
coal in support of an emissions inventory.
PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTION REDUCTIONS IN THE RUSSIAN
FEDERATION
The three projects discussed below are implemented
under the international Arctic Council Action Plan (ACAP)
Program to reduce/eliminate Persistent Organic Pollutants
(POPs) in the Arctic. These projects are currently imple-
mented in Russia, but they can be expanded to other
countries. They are part of an integrated program to
assist Russia to meet the requirements of both the
Stockholm Convention and the POPs Protocol of the Long
Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) Convention.
Phase Out of PCBs in the Russian Federation
The United States, along with seven other Arctic countries
and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
Chemicals, are working to help the Russian Federation
expedite PCB phase-but and develop sound PCB manage-
ment and disposal practices in the Russian Arctic.
This project consists of three phases. The first phase,
development of a PCB Inventory for the Russian
Federation, was completed in October 2000 and is openly
available. The second phase was a Feasibility Study to
evaluate alternatives to PCBs, as well as PCB decontamina-
tion and destruction technologies. This phase was com-
pleted in October 2002. Currently, work has started on
Phase 3 to develop a prototype demonstration for
destruction of up to 200 tonnes of PCB liquids from elec-
trical transformers and capacitors in Russia.
Reduction of Dioxins and Furans Releases in the Russian
Federation
This is a cooperative project with Sweden, Russia and
UNEP Chemicals. The primary objective is the reduction of
dioxins/furans releases to the Arctic from key industrial
sectors with particular focus on the pulp and paper indus-
try and landfill incinerators.
Initial activities completed include: translation into Russian
of the UNEP Chemicals "Standardized Toolkit for
Identification and Quantification of Dioxins and Furans
Releases"; development of a draft Dioxins/Furans Fact
Sheet for use in Russia; and a Workshop on
43
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Harmonization of Laboratory Methods between Russia
and Western countries.
The project consists of three phases: Phase l-ldentify and
verify sources of dioxins and furans in Russia, verify emis-
sions and refine emission factor estimates, and modernize
and harmonize Russian sampling and analytical tech-
niques; Phase II—feasibility studies for technological
improvements in the pulp and paper industry and industri-
al incineration; Phase Ill-pilot demonstration project(s).
Environmentally Safe Management of Obsolete Pesticides
Stockpiles in the Russian Federation - C-/
This multilateral project under the Arctic Council Action
Plan (ACAP) will assist Russia with management of its
extensive stockpiles of Soviet Era pesticides, many of
which are migrating into the Arctic. This is a cooperative
project with Canada, Finland, Norway, Russia, Sweden,
and UNEP Chemicals.
The project consists of three phases: Phase 1—developing
the inventory of obsolete pesticide stockpiles in the nine-
teen priority Russian regions impacting the Arctic; Phase 2
—developing a strategy for safe interim storage and stabi-
lization of stockpiles; this will include
performing risk assessments for
highest contaminated areas, evaluating destruction tech-
nologies, and designing a prototype storage facility that
can be used throughout Russia; and Phase 3—implement-
ing a prototype demonstration for environmentally safe
destruction of those pesticides stocks of greatest risk to
the Arctic, including Alaska, and construction of a proto-
type storage facility.
Helping Caribbean Nations Inventory PCB-
Contaminated Equipment
In 2001, EPA began a project to assist selected countries
in the Caribbean in addressing targeted PCB sources. In
2002, an inventory of PCBs in the Caribbean was complet-
ed and the Bahamas was identified as a country with
large quantities of PCB-containing equipment. The
Caribbean PCB management project will initially involve
assisting the Bahamas with a more comprehensive inven-
tory of PCB-containing equipment. Thereafter, a strategy
will be developed for the safe disposal, storage, and/or
destruction of PCB-containing equipment. This strategy
will be developed to be applicable to the Bahamas as well
as other Caribbean countries.
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Resource Topic
EPA's PBT Web Site
Location/Co ntact*
EPA's PBT Program and Priority PBTs
www.epa.gov/pbt
Dioxin and Related Compounds
Enviro Web's Dioxin Home Page
www.epa.gov/ncea/dioxin.htm
www.ejnet.org/dioxin
National Center for Environmental Assessment's Dioxin and
Related Compounds
www.epa.gov/ncea/dioxin.htm
EPA's Mercury Web Site
www.epa.gov/mercury
EPA's Mercury Research Strategy
Northeast Waste Management Officials' Association
(NEWMOA) Mercury Program
UNEP Global Mercury Assessment and Decision
Binational Toxics Strategy Mercury Work Group
(EPA Region 5)
www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL/mercury
www.newmoa.org/Newmoa/htdocs/prevention/mercury/
www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/default.htm
www.epa.gov/region5/air/mercury/mercury.html
Florida Department of Environmental Protection's Mercury
Web site
www.dep.state.fl.us/air/pollutants/mercuryhtm
EPA's Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics (OPPT)
PCB Home Page
www.epa.gov/oppl/pcb
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Databases and Forms
www.epa.gov/opptintr/pcb/data.html
This is only a partial listing of available resources. The listing of non-EPA Web sites does not constitute an endorsement by EPA or its partners.
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TSCA Chemical Substance Inventory
PBT Profiler
Mercury Education and Reduction Model Act
Hospitals for a Healthy Environment
Sector-Based Pollution Prevention: Toxic Reductions through
Energy Efficiency and Conservation Among Industrial
Boilers
2001 Chlorine Institute Annual Meeting Presentations
Chlorine Institute's 4th annual report to EPA
Reducing Open Burning of Household Trash
Taking Toxics Out of the Air: Progress in Setting "Maximum
Achievable Control Technology" Standards Under the Clean
Air Act
Reducing Mercury from Power Plants: Integrated Planning
Model
Field Testing of Continuous Emission Monitors
Coal Combustion Residues - Mercury in Fly Ash
Results of analysis of MACT retrofits on large municipal
waste combustors, EPA Docket A-9(M5, under Section
VIII-B.
Rules for Municipal Waste Combustors
•»"*>-«*-«-»• in jjaiiihrt».pp»,,|.,i iiii.^^p^m,,!,,!. ,^, .^ .,„ ,,,i,>M^^,N.^ „,,,
Rules for Medical Waste Incinerators
Rules for Cement Kilns Burning Hazardous Waste
Technology Transfer Network Air Toxics Website
Mercury in Schools
Pressure Gauge Safety for Plumbers
Mercury in Federal Facilities
Breaking the Mercury Cycle: Long Term Management of
Surplus & Recycled Mercury & Mercury-bearing Waste
www.epa.gov/opptintr/newchems/invntory.htm
www.pbtprofiler.net/
www.newmoa.org/prevention/mercury/
final_model_legislation.htm
www.h2e-online.org
delta-institute. org/publications/boilers/Sector-Based_Pollution%
20Preve ntion_-_Toxic_Red uctions_th rou g h_E ne rgy_Ef f iciency_
and_Conservation_Among_lndustriaLBoilers.pdf
www.c!2 .com/AM2001 /
www.epa.gov/region5/air/mercury/4thcl2report.html
Douglas Fairchild at 218 722-3336, Ext. 334,
doug.fairchild@wlssd.duluth.mn.us
www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/takingtoxics
-——' i L iM-jr^rija —..•.pmIMMniij lUH i J-^H.X^O^-^—
Maryjo Kroiewski at 202 564-9847, krolewski.maryjo@epa.gov or
Bill Grimley at 919 541-1065, grimley.william@epa.gov
"~°"™-™~-™~~™™~---™™~~--~---— i-.-i—,.,.1 .,,„., ---.--_-
jusan Jhorneioe at 919 541-2709, thorneloe.susan@epa.gov
www.epa.gov/oar/docket.html or 202 566-1742
Walt Stevenson at 919 541-5264, stevenson.walt@epa.gov
Fred Porter at 919 541-5251 or porter.fred@epa.gov
www.epa.gov/hwcmad:
www.epa.gov/ttn/atw
www.mercuryinschools.uwex.edu/
www.dec.state.ny.us/website/ppu/p2plumbr.html
www.newmoa.org
www.epa.gov/ttbnrmrl/mercuryretire.htm
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s
1
i
I
1
Alternative Treatments for Mercury Waste
Partnering with Industry to Eliminate PCBs
Phaseout of PCBs Electrical Equipment in Mines
Removing Pesticides From the Environment
The Clean Sweep Report
Mary Cunningham at 703 308-8453, cunningham.mary@epa.gov
Tony Martig at 312 353-2291, martig.anton@epa.gov
Dan Bench at 303 312-6027, bench.dan@epa.gov
www.epa.gov/pesticides
www.epa.gov/oppfead 1/cb/csb_page/updates/cleansweep.pdf
Filling the PBT Data Gaps
EPA's Toxic Release Inventory home page
www.epa.gov/tri
www.epa.gov/tri/lawsandregs/pbt/pbtrule.htm
Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic (PBT) Chemicals
Rules
Atmospheric Mercury Research
Matthew Landis at 919 541-4841, landis.matthew@epa.gov
Addressing the Relationship Between Mercury Air
Emissions and Water Quality
Determining the Routes by Which Mercury Pollutes the
Everglades
Total Maximum Daily Loads
Blood and Hair Mercury Levels in Young Children and
Women of Childbearing Age— United States, 1999
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Measuring Heavy Metals and POPs Levels in Fetal Cord
Blood Samples Taken from Indigenous Peoples in Alaska,
NorthemRussiaand the Russian Far East
National Fish Tissue Study
Ruth Chemerys at 202 566-1216, chemerys.ruth@epa.gov or
Randy Waite at 919 541-5447, waite.randy@epa.gov
John Ackermann at 404 562-9063 or ackermann.john@epa.gov
www/epa/g ov/owow/tmdl
| www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5008a2.htm
www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes.htm
PBTs in the U.S. Dairy Supply
Dioxin Exposure Initiative
Ella Barnes at 202 564-6473, barnes.eleonora@epa.gov
Bob Dyer at 202 564-6113, dyer.bob@epa.gov
Cathy Allen at 202 564-6115, Catherine.Allen@epa.gov
Leanne Stan I at 202 566-0404, stahUeanne@^pagov
John Schaum at 202 564-3237 or schaum.john@epa.gov
Dwain Winters .at 202 566-1977 or winters.dwain@epa.gov
Collaborative Efforts on PBTs with Tribal Partners
National Tribal Subsistence Summit Project
Darlene Harrod at 202 564-8814, harrod.darlene@epa.gov
Tribal LifeLine Risk Assessment Project
Analyzing the PBT Content in Traditional Foods of Native
Alaskans: The Alaska Sea Otter and Stellar Sea Lion
Commission
Karen Rudek at 703 305-6005, rudek.karen@epa.gov
Lianna Jack at 800 474-6342, asoc@alaska.net
Measuring Heavy Metals and POPs Levels in Fetal Cord
Blood Samples Taken from Indigenous Peoples in Alaska,
Northern Russia and the Russian Far East
Ella Barnes at 202 564-6473, barnes.eleonora@epa.gov
Bob Dyer at 202 564-6113, dyer.bob@epa.gov
Cathy Allen at 202 564-6115, Catherine.Allen@epa.gov
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The Foundation for Global Action on Persistent Organic
Pollutants: A United States Perspective
United Nations Environmental Programme Chemicals
Persistent Organic Pollutants
Stockholm Convention on POPs
Mercury/S02 Co-Benefit Project
Russian Phase-out of PCBs
Reductions of Dioxins/Furans Releases in Russia
Environmentally Safe Management of Obsolete Pesticide
Stockpiles in the Russian Federation
Carribean Inventory of PCBs
http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm ?deid=51746
www.chem.unep.ch/pops and www.chem.unep.ch/mercury
www.epa.gov/international/toxics/pop.pdf
www.chem. u nep.ch/sc/
Marilyn Engle at 202 564-6472 or engle.marilyn@epa.gov
Bob Dyer at 202 564-6113, dyer.bob@epa.gov
Ella Barnes at 202 564-6473, barnes.eleonora@epa.gov
Seth Low at 703 603-9087, low.seth@epa.gov
Ella Barnes at 202 564-6473, barnes.eleonora@epa.gov
Bob Dyer at 202 564-6113, dyer.bob@epa.gov
Seth Low at 703 603-9087, low.seth@epa.gov
Bob Dyer at 202 564-6113, dyer.bob@epa.gov
Ella Barnes at 202 564-6473, barnes.eleonora@epa.gov
Angela Bandemehr at 202 564-1427, bandemehr.angela@epa.gov
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Future activities that build on projects disclosed in this report include:
Developing Strategies for Addressing PBTs
• Completing the Multimedia Strategy for Addressing
Priority PBTs.
• Releasing the draft National Action Plans for Mercury,
PCBs, and Benzo(a)Pyrene.
• Releasing an EPA Strategy on Dioxin.
• Publishing the final National Action Plans for Pesticides,
Hexachlorobenzene, and Octachlorostyrene.
Achieving Pollution Reductions
• Developing a policy to strengthen the process by which
EPA screens new pesticides prior to their production and
introduction to the marketplace.
• Working with the National Association for Stock Car
Automobile Racing (NASCAR), the FAA, and others to
identify substitutes for alkyl-lead compounds in fuels.
• Holding a workshop in the Western Lake Superior
Sanitary District to develop models for local anti-open
burning campaigns, including legal and enforcement
issues, and to develop curriculum models for environ-
mental science teachers.
• Continuing to evaluate continuous emission monitors for
mercury on power plants. At least two power plants that
employ extensive particulate and sulfur dioxide control
technology will be employed in this work.
Upgrading the Integrated Planning Model (IPM)—used to
analyze regulatory options for reducing mercury emis-
sions from power plants—based on initial results and
stakeholder comments. EPA will also continue to field
test continuous emission monitors for mercury at power
plants.
Analyzing the potential rates at which mercury and
other metals are released to the environment when the
residue from coal combustion is used in commercial
products, like cement and wallboard. EPA will also study
the potential for releases of mercury and other metals
from the products during their use and disposal.
Implementing standards for PBT emissions from small
municipal waste combustors by December 2005.
Encouraging federal owners of PCB-containing electrical
equipment to voluntarily decommission this equipment.
Expanding the PCB partnership with utilities to include
additional facilities within the Great Lakes region. The
partnership seeks voluntary commitments from utilities
to decommission their remaining PCB electrical equip-
ment.
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Filling the PBT Data Gaps
• Completing the Routine Monitoring Strategy for PBTs.
* Releasing findings from studies in Wisconsin and Florida
on the relationship between mercury air emissions and
water quality.
• Continuing to measure heavy metals and POPs levels in
fetal cord blood samples taken from indigenous peoples
in Alaska, Northern Russia and the Russian Far East.
• Continuing the National Fish Tissue Study. The 4-year
goal for the study is to sample a total of 500 lakes.
Once the study is completed, the data will be made
available to the public through EPA's Storage and
Retrieval (STORET) database system.
• Continuing the Dioxin Exposure Initiative.
Collaborating with Tribal Partners
• Developing different approaches to increase the ability
of tribes to assess environmental threats from toxic
chemicals and pesticides.
• Holding meetings in Alaskan tribal communities to
describe the tribal herring gull eggs study and explain
the risk levels associated with the contaminants ana-
lyzed in the gull eggs.
• Modifying existing Lifeline software to allow it to cap-
ture risks to tribes in two biogeographical areas (BGAs)
of the country, one in Alaska and the other in the con-
tiguous 48 states. This will allow EPA risk assessors,
tribes, and others to assess potentially significant risks
from toxic chemical exposures to tribal populations in
the two chosen BGAs.
Collaborating with International Partners
• Working with UNEP to help implement the February
2003 Governing Council Decision on Mercury.
• Testing control technology that could lead to reductions
in both mercury and S02 at a coal-fired power plant in
Russia.
• Developing a prototype demonstration for destruction
of up to 200 tonnes of PCB liquids from electrical trans-
formers and capacitors in Russia.
• Working to reduce dioxins/furans releases to the Arctic
from key industrial sectors in the Russian Federation,
with particular focus on the pulp and paper industry
and landfill incinerators.
• Assisting Russia with the management of its obsolete
pesticides stockpiles.
• Assisting the Bahamas with a more comprehensive
inventory of PCB-containing equipment and developing
a strategy for the safe disposal, storage, and/or
destruction of PCB-containing
equipment, which can
be applicable to
other Caribbean
countries.
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