EPA/742/R--94/007
Pollution Prevention
Educational Resource Compendium:
Univ«r»ity ot Miefligin. Oan« Building
430 EMI Uniwirty Av«.
Ann ArBor. Ml 48109-1 US
313-764-U12 • F«: 313-936-2195 • E-««u nppcaumicli.»du
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<£>C.rJ,ighi i395 by tne Regents of the University o,
Educators may freely reproduce these materials for non-commercial educational purposes.
Original produced on Hummer mill Unity DP, a 50% post
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Pollution Prevention in
Environmental Studies
PBEV€KTX» CIKTEB FOB HKa*» ECOCATIOM
Table of Contents
ExpUinatipn of Compendium Contents
Introductory Materials
Q Overview of Environmental Problems
D Pollution Prevention Concepts and Principles
Q Introduction: Pollution Prevention and
Environmental Studies
Pollution Prevention and Environmental Studies
Resource Uat
• NPPC Resources
n Annotated Bibliography of Environmental
Studies-Related Pollution Prevention Sources
Q Selected Readings
D Bibliographic Teaching Outline
Q Suggested Course Structures
Q References by Academic Discipline
O Slide Show: "EPA's Comprehensive Pollution
Prevention Orientation"
December 1994
3
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Pollution Prevention in
Environmental Studies
Explanation of Compendium Contents
• introductory Materials
D Overview of Environmental Problems. This lengthy paper Wgh-
liehts major areas of environmental concern energy use, global
c£ng«, resource depletion, land use and development, waste, air
quS water quality and quantity, eco.ogical health, and human
health. It includes definitions of concepts and terms, current data
and research findings on the state of the environment, tables,
figures, and guidance on obtaining additional information.
This document is designed to assist faculty members from all
cUscipSinesinpreparmg course materials and lectures. For faculty
(and students) who may not have extensive knowledge of enyiton-
mental issues, it provides background information; for people
already familiar with environmental problems, it is a convenient,
concisesourceofcurrentdata. ^*°^*»^!?*£*
individual topic areas can be easily reproduced for dutribution to
students; all figures and tables are provided in a full-page format
suitable for overhead projection;
D Foliation Prevention Concepts and Principle.. This short paper
introduces the concepts, terminology, objectives, and scope of poUu-
tion prevention. It discusses how government and the pnvate sector
are currently perceiving and implementing pollution prevention
and describes the barriers and benefits encountered in implementing
pollution prevention activities.
D Introduction: Pollution Prevention and Environmental Studies.
A brief introduction that provides imagery to answer the question
"Why teach pollution prevention in an environmental studies class.
• Pollution Prevention and Environmental Studies
Resource List
A list of relevant resources known to the NPPC, including materials
we produce and/or distribute. It is arranged by the following
topics, which correspond with the Bibliographic Teaching Outlme:
(I) "Introduction to Pollution Prevention," (H) "Understanding
Pollution Prevention Through Life^ycle Impact Assessment'
(HI) "Management of Pollution Prevention," and (IV) Pollution
Prevention in Practice." Note that all NPPC Resources (see next
section) are listed in the Resource List—they are indicated by me
NPPC logo.
December 1994
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y-"V . • . " • NPPC Resource*. The NPPC produces and distributes all of
these resources; in many cases, the NPPC'hasalso developed them.
; All are listed by topic in the Resource List (see previous section).
Q Annotated Bibliography of Environmental Studies-Related
Pollution Prevention Sources. Describes all materials included
in the Resource List Alphabetically lists 47 books, 24 reports,
99 articles, 6 videos, and 13 course syllabi, making a total of
189 resources for environmental studies instructors. Each listing
includes a short paragraph describing its pollution-prevention
' relevance in an environmental studies context
D Selected Readings.
'V ' / - . • •
- •'•:'. - Curran, Mary Ann: "Broad-Based Environmental
Life Cycle Assessment"
. ; - jarriieson, Dale, and Masina VanderWerf:
"Cultural Barriers to Behavior Qv "ge."
- Wise, John: "Challenges for the Future."
Q Bibliographic Teaching Outline. Leads me reader through im-
. • portant pollution prevention topics, ranging from fundamental
concepts to everyday applications. It is written in narrative form,
.- . within an outline that has me same structure as the ResourceList
the main purpose is to serve as a teaching guide for integrating
pollution prevention rn environmental studies courses; a second-
ary purposelis to provide an easy way for teachers to locate re-
.- sources of particular interest
: Q Suggested Course Structure*. Outlines major topics in the
Bibliographic Teaching Outline to suggest how long to spend on
the topics depending on the amount of classroom time available,
be it one day to an entire semester.
Q References by Academic Discipline. Teachers approach envi-
ronmental studies from many disciplines! This list^hows Ac rele-
• vance of Resource List materials to seven liberal arts disciplines:
Biology and: Natural Resources; Chemistry/Physics/Mathematics/
. Geology; Economics; Education; Humanities; Political Science/
Policy Studies; and Sociology /Psychology/ Anthropology. -
. , , ' P slide Show. "EPA's Comprehensive Pollution Prevention
Orientation." This introductory slide show is used in the pollution
- ( prevention training seminar required of all U.S. EPA employees.
It puts pollution prevention in historical perspective; describes
with examples techniques industry can use to practice prevention;
and examines EPA's pollution prevention programs.
December 1994
5
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Pollution Prevention in
Environmental Studies
Why teach pollution prevention (P2) in environmental
studies courses? The following hypothetical scenarios
help answer this question:
. • In-Cheryl's "Environmental Policy" class, she turned
her focus to recent initiatives. She first gave a lecture
introducing students to the concept of preventing
rather than treating or cleaning up pollution, and
explained why pollution prevention is becoming the
dominant environmental policy theme for the 1990s.
She used slides from EPA's Comprehensive Pollution
Prevention Orientation slide show (available through
the NPPC) to "illustrate the many P2 initiatives at EPA,
in businesses, and elsewhere. She also had students
read the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 as well as
EPA's subsequent P2 policy announcement in the
Federal Register. Her students came away with not
only an understanding of P2, but also a better grasp
of the policy, implementation process.
• It was rime for class projects in "Introduction to
• Environmental Issues." Several students wanted to
examine waste reduction opportunities in a local fast
food establishment. Although their initial focus was
on eliminateg plastic foam "clamshells," they took
a more informed look after learning'about life-cycle
impacts and pollution prevention. They realized
that many of the significant waste reduction oppor-
tunities are not readily visible to customers. So the
students focused instead on waste minimization
behind-the-counter. The manager of the local estab-
lishment found their suggestions very he.lpful, and '
promised to make changes to reduce waste.
• Todd emphasized the connection between the ecology
of natural systems and sustainable use of natural
resources in his "Natural Resources 101" course.
He used the life cycle of a paper bag to illustrate the
environmental impacts of1 forest.resource use.; By
taking a life-cycle approach, he could show that not
Pollution Prevention and
Environmental Studies
Prepared by Andrew Duncan, NPPC Research Assistant
only sustainable forestry practices, but also low-
impact manufacturing processes, reuse, and recycling
can help reduce these environmental impacts.
These hypothetical examples illustrate how P2 is an
integral component of environmental studies themes.
While much of the pollution prevention education i:
how taking place in the business and engineering fields,
there are many opportunities for integrating the P2
concept in liberal arts and natural resources. In-daed,
understanding the preventive approach to environ-
mental pfoblems.is a basic tenet of ecological literacy.
With this compendium, teachers and students can
make the connection between overall concerns, such as
ecological balance and sustainability, and prevention-
based approaches for effective action. The resources
in this compendium highlight pollution prevention as
the emerging tool for businesses, government policy-
makers, as well as individuals. While it is easy to recog-
nize that "ah ounce of prevention is worth a pound of f.
cure," it can be difficult to grasp effective opportunities'
for pollution prevention. Therefore, the compendium
stresses how environmental impacts, and opportunities
for pollution prevention, occur over the entire life cycle
of a product. Such life-cycle thinking helps students
(and teachers) to break out of the common mentality
- that recycling is the be-all and end-all of proactive
environmental management.
Teachers approach environmental studies from many
! different perspectives, therefore this module is meant
to be as useful for a teacher with a history background
as it is for someone with training in chemistry. There
are many suggestions how P2 concepts can be used
to examine familiar topics. Whether it be cleaning
products or transportation, the compendium provides
resources and suggestions indicating the many ways
P2 and life cycle impact concepts are applicable in our
evervday lives.
- National Pollution Prevention-Center for Higher Education • University of M.ichigan
Dana Building. 430 East University, Ann Aroor Ml 48109-1 MS' -
Phone 313 764 1412-Fax-313 936 2195-E-mail nppceumichedu
I May oe reproduced
freely for non-commercial
educational purposes.
Oecemeer 1994
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Original produced on Hanunennill Unity DP,
a 50% post
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Environmental-Studies
Pollution Prevention and
Environmental Studies Resource List
Prepared by Andrew Duncan, NPPC Research Assistant. • ,
the following materials are available to faculty who are incorporating pollution
prevention concepts and tools into their courses. We have attempted to make this
list as comprehensive as. possible; please contact us if you can identify gaps and
assist us in filling them with auality resource materials. This list includes
resources available through the NPPC (A); the U.S. Environmental Protection
' Agency Pollution Prevention Information Clearinghouse, Washington, DC.,
202/260-1023 («B*); and the Center for Environmental Research Information,
' Cincinnati, Ohio, 513/569-7562 (t). All materials listed here are described in this
compendium's annotated bibliography.
Key Documents
Cun-an, Mary Ann. "Broad-Based Environmental
Lrte Cycle Assessment.' Environmental Science
and Technology 27, no. 3 (1993): 430-436. <»
Habicht, F. Henry II. EPA Definition of 'Pollution^
Prevention" (internal memo to all EPA personnel).
28 May 1992.4B*
Hirschhom, Joel S., and Kirsten U. Oldenburg.
Prosperity Without Pollution: The Prevention
Strategy for Industry and Consumers. New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1991 .Available for $19.95
by calling 1-800-926-2665.
Jamieson, Dale, and*Klasina VanderWerf.
Cultural Barriers to Behavioral Change: General
Recommendations and Resources for State
Pollution Prevention Programs. Boulder. Center
for Values and Social Policy, July 1993. To obtain
a copy, contact the CVSP, University of Colorado,
Boulder, CO 80309-0332. *
Miller G. Tyler Jr., ed. Living in the Environment-
Principles, Connections, and Solutions, 8th ed.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company,
,1994. 701 + pp.
Smith. Emily T.r David Woodruff, and Fteur
Tempteton. "Growth vs. Environment: In Rio Next
Month,, a Push for Sustainable Development."
Business Wee/f (11 May 1992): 66-70, 72-75.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Communication, Education, and Public Affairs.
EPA Journal—special issue on pollution prevention.
Vol. 19, no. 3 (July 1993). 50 pp. (To obtain a free
copy, the EPA Public Information Center at
202/260-7751.)
, Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic
Substances. 1993 Reference Guide to Pollution
Prevention Resources. Washington: EPA, February
1993.
Wise, John, "Challenges for the Future." In 1993
Spring Conference-Connections for Pollution Pre-
vention, pp. 54-62; proceedings of the National
Roundtable of State Pollution Prevention Programs,
San Diego, CA, 28 April 1993. <&
Prevent Canter »dr H.gner Edu=a«,on,. Un,verslly of M,cmgan
May Be reproduced
freely for lorvc
educational purposes.
Resource List • 1
December 1994
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/fifroducf/ofi to Pollution Prevention C. Pollution Prevention Policy
A. Preamble:
Sustainabilrty and Pollution Prevention
Agenda 21: The Earth Summit Strategy to Save
Our Planet. Boulder EarthPress, 1993.
Goodland, Robert. The Case.That the World Has
Reached Limits." In Population. Technology, and
Lifestyle: The Transition to Sustainability, pp. 3-22.
Robert Goodland. Herman E. Daly, and Salah El
Sarafey. eds. Washington: Island Press, 1992.
Gore, Al. Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the
Human Spirit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992.
Larson, Eric p., Marc H. Ross, and Robert H.
Williams. "Beyond the Era of Materials." Scientific
American 25*; no. 6 (1986): 34-41.'
La^e, ter o., Chris Hendnckson, and Francis C. ^
McMichael. "Recycling Decisions and Green Design."
Environmental Science and Technology 2B, no. 1
(1094): l8A-r4A.
Peet, John. Energy and the Ecological Economics of
Sustainability. Washington: Island Press, 1992.
Tolba, Mostata K., and Osama A. EI-Kholy. eds.
The World Environment 1972-1992: Two Decades of
Challenge. 884pp. London: Chapman and Hall (on
behalf of United Nations Environment Program), 1992.
World Resources Institute and Institute for
Environment and Development. World Resources
1994-1995. New York: Basic Books, 1994.
Wynne, Brian. "Uncertainty and Environmental
Learning: Reconceiving Science and Policy in the
Preventive Paradigm." Global Environmental
Change 2, no. 2 (June 1992): 111-127.
B. History of Pollution Prevention
Conn, David W. "Waste Reduction—Issues and
Policies." Resources Policy 3 (March 1977): 23+.
Rathje, William L. "Rubbish!" The Atlantic Monthly
264 (December 1989): 99-109.
Andrews, Richard. "Heading Off Potential Prob-
lems." EPA Journal 18, no. 2 (May 1992): 40-45.
Baucus, Max. "Environmental Technology and the
Economy." EPA Journal [see "Key Documents"]:
36-37.
Byers, R. Lee. "Regulatory Barriers to Pollution
Prevention." Air and Waste (Journal of the Air and
Waste Management Association) 41, no. 4 (1991):
418-422.
Casler. Stephen D. "Budget Reallocation and the
Peace Dividend: Energy and Pollution tradeoffs."
Energy Policy 19 (September 1991): 666-669.
Commoner,'Barry. Making Peace With the Planet.
New York: The .New Press, 1992.
Fre/?man, Ha-ry, Teresa Harten, Johnny Springer,
Pau. Rar.dal', Mary Ann Curran, and Kenneth Stone.
"Industrial Pollution Prevention: A Critical Review."
Air and Waste (Journal of the Air and Waste Man-
agement Association) 42, no. 5 (1992): 618-656,
Hayes, Dennis. "Energy, Environment, and Archi-
tecture." Keynote speech, American Institute of
Architects, Committee on the Environment. Atlanta,
Georgia, 6 December 1991. Available from the Al A.
1735 New York Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20006.
Hileman, Bette. "UN Environment Program Pushes
for Cleaner Production." Chemical and Engineering
News 70, no. 48 (30 November 1992): 17-21.
"How To Get Industry to Clean Up On Its Own."
Business Week (7 June 1993): 122.
Lieberman, Joseph I. -Why Not Require Pollution
Prevention Planningr EPA Journal [see "Key
Documents!: 34-35.
Lis, James, and Kenneth Chilton. "Limits to Pollution
Prevention." Soc/ery30, no. 3 (1993): 49-55.
Lovins, Amory B. "Abating Air Pollution at Nega-
tive Cost Via Energy Efficiency." Environmental
Professional 12 (April 1990): 164-168.
National Research Council, Committee on Institu-
tional Considerations in Reducing the Generation of
Hazardous Industrial Wastes. Reducing Hazardous
Waste Generation: An Evaluation and a Call for Ac-
• tion. Washington: National Academy Press, 1985.
Resource List« 2
December 1994
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Ophuls, William, and A.'Stephen Boyan, Jr. Ecology
and (he Politics of Scarcity Revisited: The Unraveling
of the American Dream.,New York: W. :H. Freeman
and Company, 1992. ' • .;
President's Commission on Environmental Quality,
Quality Environmental Management Committee.
Total Quality Management: A Framework for Pollu-
tion Prevention. Washington, 1993. To request a
copy, contact PCEQ at 202/395-5750.
Rabe, Barry G. "From Pollution Control to Pollution
Prevention: The Gradual Transformation of American
Environmental Regulatory Policy." Environmental and
Planning Law Journal (September 1991): 226-231.
Roy. Manik. "Environmental Law: Pollution Preven-
tion, Organizational Culture, and Social Learning."
Environmental Law 22 (1991): 189-225.
U.S. Cr-!£rr ", C ce of Technolog:- Assessment.
Serious ReuuCf/on of Hazardous Waste: For Pollu-
tion Prevention and Industrial Efficiency. Washington:
U.S. Government Printing Office. September 1986.
(Out of pnnt, but available in many libraries. Not
copyright protected.)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Pollution
Prevention Strategy." Federal Register 56, no. 38
(1991): 7849r7864. *B*
, Science Advisory Board. Reducing Risk:
Setting Priorities and Strategies for Environmental
Protection. Washington: EPA, 1990.
Wortd Conservation Union (IUCN), United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP), and World Wildlife
Fund for Nature (WWF). Caring for the Earth: A
Strategy for Sustainable Living. Gland, Switzerland:
IUCN/UNEP/WWF (Earthscan Edition), 1991.
•".•'' >
\ ,
II. Understanding Pollution Prevention
Through Life-Cycle Impact Assessment
A. The Big Picture: Holistic Analysis
Dake, Karl. "Myths of Nature: Culture and the Social
Construction of Risk." Journal of Social Issues 48,
nc. 4(1992): 21-37.
Frankenfeld, Philip J. "Simple Gifts: Complex
Environmental Hazards and the Responsibility
to Leave a Controllable World." Futures 25, no. 1
.(1993):,32-52. ; ' : ,
Meadows, Donefla H., Dennis L. Meadows, and
Jorgen Randers. Beyond the Limits: Confronting
Global Collapse, Envisioning a Sustainable Future.
Post Mills, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing Company,
1992.
Mitsch, William J. 'Ecological Engineering."
Environmental Science and Technology 27, no. 3
(1993): 438-445. .
Mitsch, William J., and Sven Erik Jorgensen,
eds. Ecological Engineering: An Introduction to
Ecotechnology. Somerset, NJ: John Wiley & Sons,
1989.472pp.
Orr, David. "The Campus and the Biosphere:"
Journal of Conservation Biology 3, no. 2 (June
1989): 33+.
Tibbs, Hardin B. C. "Industrial Ecology: An Environ-
mental f iendu for Industry!" Whole Earth Review
77 (December 1992): 4-19.
U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment
Green Products by Design: Choices for a Cleaner.
Environment GPO# 052-003-01303-7. Washington:
U.S. Government Printing Office,1992. ,
Uusitalo, Licsa. Environmental Impacts of Consump-
tion Patterns. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986.
Wann, David. Biologic: Environmental Protection by
Design. Boulder Johnson Books, 1990.
B. Life-Cycle Impact Assessment
Framework
Hocking. Martin B. "Paper Versus Polystyrene:
A Complex Choice." Sc/ence251 (1991): 504-505.
Keoleian, Gregory A., and Dan Menerey. Life Cycle
Design Guidance Manual: Environmental Require-
ments and the Product System. EPA/600/R-92/226.
Cincinnati: EPA, Office of Research and Develop-
ment, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory,
January 1993. $
,__. "Sustainable Development by Design: Review
of Life Cycle Design and Related Approaches." Air
& Waste (Journal of the Air & Waste Management
Association) 44 (May 1994): 645-668.
Nash, Jennifer, and Mark D. Stoughton. "Learning
to-Live With Life Cycle Assessment." Environmental
Science and Technology 28, no.: 5 (1994): 236A-
237A. .
Resource List • 3
December 1994
II
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Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
' iETAC). Guidelines for Life-Cycle Assessment:
A Code of Practice. SETAC workshop, Sesimbra,
Portugal. 31 March-3 April 1993. Cost: $25 for
non-members, $15 for members. Write to SETAC,,
1010 N. 12th Ave., Pensacola. FL 32501; call
904/469-1500; or fax 904/469-9778.
Walley. Dariene, Karen Blumenfeld, Nancy Kolodny,
and Nasir All. "Case Study: A Product Life-Cycle As-
sessment of Arm & Hammer Baking Soda. PoMion
Prevention Review 2, no. 1 (December 1992): 51-64.
White. Allen L. and Karen Shapiro. "Life Cycle-As-
sessment: A Second Opinion." Environmental Science
& Technology 27, no. 6 (June 1993): 1016-1017.
C. Controversial Issues in Life-Cycle
Impact Assessrr ent
Crossen. Cynthia. "How Tactical Research' Muddied
Diaper Debate." Wall Street Journal (17 May 1994):
Bt, B8.
Koshland Jr., Daniel F. The Dirty Air Act" (editorial).
Science 249 (28 September 1990): 1481.
Lifset. Reid. "Greener Than Thou Wars—Raising
the Ante for Life. Cycle Analyses." Biocycle 32
(April 1991): 76-77.
Portney. Paul R. The Price Is Right: Making Use of
Life Cycle Analyses." 'Issues in Science and Tech-
nology 10, no. 2 (December 1993): 69-75.
Stipp, David. "Life-Cycle Analysis Measures Green-
ness, But Results May Not Be Black and Whrte.
Wall Street Journal^ February 1991): B1, B5.
U S Environr—ntal Protection Agency. Videotapes:
Less Is More] ,-ollution Prevention is Good Business
(1986; 23 minutes) and Beyond Business as Usual:
Meeting the Challenge of Hazardous Waste&mn-
utes). To obtain either video, call Mary. Ann Welch,
Region VIII Office of Environmental Education, at
303/294-1123 and arrange to send in a blank tape.
Wang, Michael Q. "Life Cycle Assessments."
Environmental Science & Technology 27, no. 13
(December 1993): 2658-2661.
Wells Henry A., Neil McCubbin. Red Cavaney,
Bonnie Camo, and M. B. Hocking. "Paper Versus
Polystyrene: Environmental Impact." Science 252.
no, 7 (June 1991): 1361-1363.
III. Managing Pollution Prevention '
A. Business Management
Carson. Patrick, and Julia Moulden. Green Is Gold:
Business Talking to Business About the Environ-
mental Revolution. Toronto: HarperBusiness,
HarperCollins, 1991.
Cebon Peter. "Corporate Obstacles to Pollution
Prevention." EPA Journal (see "Key Documents"]:
20-22.
Conway. R. A., John H. Frick, David J. Warner,
Carton C. Wiles, and E. Joseph Duckett. Waste
Minimization Practices. Baltimore: Amencan Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 1989.
Cook James. The Ghosts of Christmas Yet To
Come." Forbes (22 June 1992): 92-95.
Dorfman, Mark H., Warren R. Muir, and Catherine
G Miller. Environmental Dividends: Cutting More
Chemical Wastes. New York: INFORM, Inc.,1992.
Available for $75 (plus $3 S/H) from INFORMJnc.,
120 Wall Street, 16th floor, New York, NY 10005
(phone: 212/361-2400).
Dyllfck, Thomas. "Ecological Marketing Strategy for
Toni Yogurts in Switzerland." Journal of Business
Ethics 8 (August 1989): 657-662.
Forester, William S., and John H. Skinner. Waste
Minimization and Clean Technology: Waste Man-
agement Strategies for the Future. San Diego:
Academic Press, Inc., 1992.
Garfield, Bob. "Beware: Green Overkill."
Advertising Age (25 January 1991): 26.
Geiser, Ken. The Greening of Industry."
Technology Review 94 (August 1991): 64-72.
Goldstein, Nora. "Marketing Strategy for Green
Products." In Business 12. no. 3 (May 1990): 38-39.
Hawken, Paul. "A Declaration of Sustainability."
Utne Reader 59 (September 1993): 54-61.
Henion. Karl E., and Thomas C. Kinnear, eds. The
Conserver Society. Chicago: American Marketing
Association, 1979.
Maxwell, James, Lola Matysiak. Jennifer Nash,
and John Ehrenfeld. "Case Study: Preventing Waste
Beyond Company Walls: P&G's Response to the
Need for Environmental Quality." Pollution Prevention
Review 3, no. 3 (June 1993): 317-333.
Resource List • 4
December 1994
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McDonajd's'Corporation and the. Environmental
Defense Fund (EOF), Waste Reduction Task Force:
Final Report. 1991. McDonald's, Environmental
Affairs Department. McDonald's' Plaza, .Qak Brook,
IL 60521..
McMurray, Scott. "Chemical Firms Find That It Pays
to Reduce Pollution at Source." Wall Street Journal .
(11 June 1991): A1, A6. -.-,..
Piasecki, Bruce, and Peter Asmus. In Search of
Environmental Excellence: Moving Beyond Blame.
New York: Simon & Schuster/Touchstone, 1990.
Pojasek, Robert B. "For Pollution Prevention: Be
Descriptive Not Prescriptive." Chemical Engineering
98 {September 1991): 136-139. '
; . "Pollution Prevention Progress." In Environ-
ment Risk Management—A Desk Reference,
PV 503-519. Eric 3. Rothenberg and Dean Jeffrey
Telego, eds. Alexandria. VA: RTM Communications,
Inc., 1991.
Post, James E. "Managing As If the Earth Mattered."
Business Horizons 34, no. 4 (July 1991): 32-38.
Robins. Nick, and Alex Trisoglio. "Restructuring
Industry for Sustainable Development." In Making
Development Sustainable: Redefining Institutions,
Policy, and Economics, pp. 157-194. Johan
Holmberg, ed. Washington: Island Press, 1992.
Schmidheiny, Stephen, with the Business Council
for Sustainable Development. Changing Course: A
Global Business Perspective on Development and
the Environment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992.
Sheridan, John H. "Pollution Prevention Picks Up
Steam." Industry Wee/c241 (17 February 1992): 36+. ,
Smart, Bruce, ed. Beyond Compliance: A New
Industry View of the Environment. Washington:
World Resources Institute, April 1992.
Underwood, Joanna D. "Going Green for Profit."
EPA Journal [see "Key Documents"]: 9-1.3.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Pollution Prevention. Pollution Prevention 1991:
• Progress on Reducing .Industrial Pollutants.
Washington: EPA, 1991-*S*
. , office of Research and Development. Facility
Pollution Prevention Guide. EPA/600/R-92/088.
'Washington: EPA, 1992. *
B. Governmental Management
Browner, Carol M. "Pollution Prevention Takes
Center Stage." EPA Journal [see "Key Documents"]:
..
Kling David J., and Eric Schaeffer,"EPA's Flagship
Programs." EPA Journal [see "Key Documents"]:
26-30.
Lewis, Eleanor J., and Eric Weltman. Forty Ways to
Make Government Purchasing Green. Washington:
Center for the Study of Responsive Law, 1992. To
obtain a copy, contact the CSRL, P.O. Box 19367,
Washington, D.C. 20036.
"A Paper Tale..." (Washington Report). The Office
117 (February 1993): 14.
U S Congress, Office of Technology Assessment.
Changincby Degrees: Steps to Reduce Greenhouse
Gases. (OTA-O-482) Washington: U.S. Government
Printing Off ice, 1992.
U S Environmental Protection Agency, Office of .
Policy Planning, and Evaluation, Regulatory Innova-
tions Staff. Promoting Source Reduction and Recyc-
labilityinthe Marketplace: A Study of Consumer and
Industry Response to Promotion of Source Reduced,
Recycled, -and Recyclable Products and Packaging.
Washington: EPA, 1989. .
- • ' office of Pollutidn Prevention. Pollution Pre-
vention Fact Sheet: Local Governments and Pollu-
tion Prevention. Washington: EPA, 1991. *B»
Office of Pollution Prevention. Report on the
U S 'Environmental Protection Agenc/s Pollution
Prevention Program. Washington: EPA, 1991. «B*
_ Office of Research and Development, Risk
Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Pollution Pre-
vention Case Studies Compendium. Cincinnati:
EPA, 1992.*
US General Accounting Office. Pollution Preven-
tion- EPA Should Reexamine the Objectives and
Sustainability of State Programs, Washington:,U.S.
General-Accounting Office, January 1994. Available
from the GAO, P.O. Box 6015, Gaithersburg, MD
20884-6015; request doc. #GAO/PEMD-94-8.
U S President. Executive Order 12856, August 3,
1993 "Federal Compliance with Right-to-Know
Laws and Pollution Prevention Requirements."
Federal Register 58, no. 150 (6 August 1993):
41981 -41987. AB* v
Resource List • S
Oecemoer 1994
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Executive Order 12873, October 20, 1993.
•Federal Acquisition, Recycling, and Waste Preven-
tion.' Federal Register 58, no. 203 (22 October
1993): 54911-54919. *S»
. Executive Order 12902, March 8, 1994.
"Energy Efficiency and Water Conservation at
Federal Facilities." Federal Register 59, no. 47
(10 March 1994): 11463-11471.
C. The Role of Individuals and Society
"Are You A Green Consumer?" Consumer Reports
57, no. 11 (November 1992): 704-707.
Caplan, Ruth and the staff of Environmental Action.
Our Earth. Our Selves: The Action Oriented Guide
to HP£ You °rotect and Preserve Our'Planet. New
Y«,.k. ^ ita Books. 1990.
Conn David W., ed. Energy and Material Resources:
Attitudes, Values, and Public Policy. AAAS Selected
Symposium ~5. Boulder. Westview Press, 1983.
Da Young, Raymond. "Changing Behavior and Mak-
ing it Stick: The Conceptualization and Management
of Conservation Behavior." Environment and Behav-
ior 25, no. 4 (July 1993): 485-505.
. -some Psychological Aspects of Living Lightly:
Desired Lifestyle Patterns and Conservation Behav-
ior." Journal of Environmental Systems 20 (1991):
215-227.
Durning, Alan T. How Much Is Enough? The Con-
sumer Society and the Future of the Earth. New
Yotk: W.W. Norton, 1992.
Earthworks Group. 50 Simple Things You Can Do to
Save the Earth. Berkeley: Earthworks Press, 1989.
. The Student Environmental Action Guide: 25
Things We Can Do. Berkeley: Earthworks Press,
1991.
Elkmgton, John, Julia Hailes, and Joel Makower.
The Green Consumer. New York: Penguin, 1990.
Harris, Mark D. Embracing the Earth: Choices for
Environmentally Sound Living. Chicago: The Noble
Press, 1991.
Kane, Hal. "Put It on My Carbon Tab." World Watch
6. no.' 3 (1993): 38-39.
• Kenwothy. Lauren, and Eric Schaeffer. Preventing
Industrial ' hazards. New York: INFORM, Inc.,
1993. Avanacie for S25 (plus S3 S/H) from INFORM,
Inc., 120 Wall Street, 16th floor. New York, NY
10005 (phone: 212/361-2400).
Lai, On-Kwok. "Making Sense of the Greening of
Consumption and Production." Journal of Cleaner
Production 1, no. 1 (1993): 43-47.
Letter, Donald W. EarthScore: Your Personal Envi-
ronmental Audit & Guide. Lafayette, CA: Morning
Sun Press, 1993.
Moos, Shawna. "Pollution-Prevention Power to the
People* Technology Review 95 (October 1992):
15-16.
National Research Council, Commission on the Be-
havioral and Social Sciences and Education, Com-
mittee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change.
Global Environmental Change: Understanding the
Human Dimen-Jons. Paul C. Stem, Oran R. Young,
and Daniel Dnckman, eds. Washington: National
Ac Jem-'Press, 1992.
Schwepker, C. H.. and T. B. Comwell. "An Exami-
nation of Ecologically Concerned Consumers and
Their Intention to Purchase Ecologically Packaged
Products." Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 10,
no. 2 (September 1991): 77-101.
"Selling Green." Consumer Reports 56, no. 10
(October 1991): 687-692.
Seymour, John, and Herbert Girardet. Blueprint for
a Green Planet. New York: Prentice Hall, 1987.
Stern, Paul C. "Psychological Dimensions of Global
Environmental Change." Annual Review of Psychol-
ogy 43 (1992): 269-302.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Policy, Planning, and Evaluation. You Can Make
a Difference. EPA/903/M-90/001. Washington,
January 1990. •BR^
•_, Office of Solid Waste. The Consumer's Hand-
book for Reducing Solid Waste. EPA/530-K-92-003.
Washington: EPA, August 1992. Available free of
charge by calling the RCRA Hotline (800/424-9346).
Vargish, Thomas. "Why the Person Sitting Next to
You Hates Limits to Growth." Technological Fore-
casting and Social Change 16 (1980): 179-189.
Wang, Penelope. "One Family's Finances: It's Not
Easy Being Green." Money 19, no. 4 (April 1990):
pp. 100 +.
Winett, Richard A., and Peter Ester. "Behavioral Sci-
ence and Energy Conservation: Conceptualizations,
Strategies, Outcomes, Energy Policy Applications."
Journal of Economic Psychology 3 (1983): 203-229.
Resource List '.6
Oecemoer 1994
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IV. Pollution Prevention Applications
(arranged alphabetically by topic)
Agriculture and Food Production
Holmes, Hannah. "Eating Low on the Food Chain."
Garbage 4, no. 1 (January 1992): 32-37.
Hume Scott. The Green Revolution: McDonalds."
Advertising Age 62, no. 5 (29 January 1991): 32.
Lefferts Lisa Y., and Roger Blobaum. "Eating as if
the Earth Mattered.' E Magazine 3, no. 1 (January
1992): 30-37.
Moore, W. Kent, and David L. Scott. "Beverage Con-
tainer Deposit Laws: Survey of the Issues and Results^
Journal of Consumer Affairs 17, no. 1 (1983): 57-80.
Bobbins, John. "Can Ear.h Survive the Big Mac
Attack?" E Magazine 3, no. 1 (January 1992): 38+,
Where Our Food Comes From (videos by students
at OberJin and Hendrix colleges). Hour-long videos
.can be rented for the cost of shipping;.shorter video
is free of charge. Contact Meadowcreek, Box 100,
Fox, AK 72051 (phone: 501/363-4500):
Architecture
McGraw, Jack W. The Denver Airport: Pollution
Prevention by Design." EPA Journal IS, no. 2
(May 1992): 18-19.
Scholand, Michael. "Building for the Future."
. World Watch 6, no. 6 (November 1993): 36^38.
Batteries
Carpi John. "Green Batteries: Powering Innovation."
E Magazine 5, no. 2 (March 1994): 46-47, 67.
Gasbarro, Ron. "Getting Rid of Batteries." Garbage
3, no. 5 (September 1991): 42-43.
Cleaning and Cleaning Products
Harris, Mark. "Bright Makes Blight." E Magazine 4,
no. 6 (November 1993): 51-52- '
Rose Julian. "And the Detergent 'Epo-label' Goes .
to..." Environmental Science and Technology 28,
.- no. 4(1994): 179A. '..
Consumer Products
Holmes. Hannah, and Patricia Poore. "Packaging in
the '90s." Garbage 4, no. 6 (January 1993): 24-31,
Kleiner, Art. "Compact Packaging for the Compact
• Disk." Garbage 3, no. 6 (November 1991): 50-5.1.
Diapers ;
Arthur D. Little, consultants. Disposable Versus
Reusable Diapers: Hearth, Environmental and
Economic Comparisons. Cambridge, MA:
Arthur D. Little, 1990.
The Green Revolution: Procter & Gamble."
Advertising Age 62, no. 5 (29 January 1991): 16, 34.
Hoiusha, John. "Diaper Debate: Cloth pr Dispos-
able?" New York Times (14 Jury 1990) Section 1,
p. 46, col. 1. .
Lehrburger, Cart. Diapers in the Waste Stream:
A Review of Waste Management and Public Policy
Issues. 1989. T (October 1992): 26-31.
Energy Production and Conservation
Rocky Mountain Institute and U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Region VIII. Negawatts—A
Goldmine of Opportunity (video). 1991. 20 minutes.
Available for $20 from the RMl, 1739 Snowmass
Creek Rd.. Snowmass, CO 81654-9199 (phone:
303/927-3851). ,
Roodman, David Matin. "Power Brokers: Managing
Demand for Electricity." World Watch 6, no. 6
(November 1993): 22-29.
Tracey, Jim. "Green Lights for Home and Business."
Garbage 4, no. 5 (October 1992): 49+.
Industrial P2
Metal Industries—Metal Finishing, Manufacturing
(fact sheets). Compiled by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides
and Toxic Substances. Washington: EPA, 1993.AA
Moberg, David. "Sunset for Chlorine?"
E Magazine 4, no. 4 (July 1993): 26-31.
Transportation
.Automotive Repair, Maintenance, Salvage Yards,
Painting, Radiators (fact sheets). Compiled by U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Pollution Preven-
tion Information Clearinghouse. Washington: EPA,
1993.AS*
Resource List • 7
Decemoer 1994
-------
Ayers. Ed, "Breaking Away," World Watch 6, no. 1
(January 1993): 10-18.
Baldwin. J. "Green Cars." Garbage 5, no. 3 (June/
July 1993): 24-29.-
Flavin. Chnstopher. "Jump Start: New Automotive
Revolution." World Watch 6, no. 4 (July 1993): 27-33.
Holmes. Hannah. Telecommuting." Garbage 5,
no. 2 (Apnl/May 1993): 32-37.
Rocky Mountain Institute and the U.S. Environmen-
tal Protection Agency, Region VIII. Transportation
2000—Moving Beyond Auto America (video). 1991.
30 minutes. Available for $30 from the RMI. 1739
Snowmass Creek Rd.. Snowmass, CO 81654-9199
(phone: 303/927-3851).
Water Pollution and Conservation
World Watch 6, no. 1
Postel, Sandra. "Water Tight.;
(January 1993): 19-25.
U.S. EPA, Region I. Turning the Tide: Keeping Pol-
lution at Bay (video). 1991. 31 minutes. Available to
buy for $25 prepaid (or borrow for $15 prepaid) from
the New England Interstate Environmental Training
Center, 2 Fort Road, South Portland, ME 04106
(phone: 207/767-2539).
Miscellaneous—Other
Bernards. Neal, ed. The Environmental Crisis: Oppos-
ing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1991.
Betts. Kellyn S. "The Coming Green Computers."
E Magazine 5, no. 2 (March 1994): 28-35.
Keoleian, Gregory A., and Dan Menerey. "Dispos-
able vs. Reusable Systems—Two Source Reduction
Case Studies." Journal of Environmental Systems
20 (1991): 343-357.
. "Packaging and Process Improvements: Three
Source Reduction Case Studies." Journal of Envi-
ronmental Systems 21, no. 1 (1992): 21-37.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Research and Development, Risk Reduction Engi-
neering Laboratory. Running a Conference as a
Clean Product. EPA/600/2/91/026. Cincinnati: EPA,
June 1991. 40 pp. Available for $17.50 hardcover or
, S9 microfiche (plus S4 S&H) from National Technical
Information Services: call 800/553-6847 and request
NTIS SPB92-109-99.
Ml,
V. Educational Resources
A. Syllabi and Course Materials
Allen David T., Nandkamur Bakshani, and Kirsten
S Rosselot. Pollution Prevention: Homework & De-
sign Problems for Engineering Curricula. New York:
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Amencan
Institute for Pollution Prevention, Center for Waste
Reduction Technologies, 1992. 155 PP-JJJ-T0
order, call AlChE customer service at 800/242-4363.
Cohen, Mark A. Management 5596: Management of
Environmental Issues (syllabus). Vanderb.lt Univer-
sity, Nashville, March 1993. Aft
De Young, Raymond. NR561/NR361 : Conservation
Behavior (syllabus). University of Michigan-Ann
Arbor, 19M. 4*.
Design for Recycling Team. Teaching Environ-
mentally Responsible Design. Shirley T.
ed. Grand Valley State University, Grand
22 October 1992.
Duncan, Andrew. "Pollution Prevention and Environ-
mental Studies Bibliographic Teaching Outline. Afc
_ . "Pollution Prevention and Environmental
Studies Suggested Course Structures." Aft
Fleischman, Marvin. Pollution Prevention, Waste
Treatment, and Disposal (syllabusJAIniversity of
Louisville, Kentucky, March 1993. Aft
Hanlon, Deborah, and Julie Bartenstein. Teaching
Those Humans to Learn: Creative Approaches to
Pollution Prevention Training. Washington: EPA,
August 1 992. ae* .
Kidd David. Industrial Waste Reduction:A Three-
Credit University Curriculum for Environmental
Engineering. Alaska Health Project, Anchorage,
October 1991. A
Procter and Gamble, Inc. Decision: Earth. An En-
vironmental Teaching Unit for Grades 7-12. 993.
Available from Procter & Gamble Educational Ser-
vices, P.O. Box 599, Cincinnati, OH 45201 .
Rathje, William. Anthropology 337: Modem Material
Culture Studies (syllabus). University of Arizona,
1993. A
Tchudi, Stephen. "A Lesson Plan in Pollution Preven-
tion." EPA Journal [see "Key Documents"]: 42-43.
-------
Washington State Department'of Ecology; Social and
Economic Sciences Research Center, Washington ,
State University, and the Waste Reduction Institute
for Training and Applications Research (WRITAR).
Incorporating Pollution Prevention Concepts in
Higher Education Curricula. 1991. Available for
$30 from WRITAR, 1313 Fifth Street SE, Suite 327,
Minneapolis. MN 55414-4502 (phone: 612/379-5995;
fax: 612/379-5996).-" .
Yust, Becky. DHA 1001: Introduction to the
Designed Environment (syllabus). University of
Minnesota, September 1991. A . •
B. Other Educational Resources
Amato, Ivan. The Slow Birth of Green Chemistry."
Science 259 {12 March 1993): 1538-1541.
Baksnani. Nandkumar, and David T. Allen. "In the
States: Pollution Prevention Education at Universi-
ties in the United States." Pollution Prevention Re-
view 3, no. 1 (December 1992): 97-105.
Corporate Conservation Council, National Wildlife
Federation. Gaining Ground: Environmental Education
in Business Schools. Final.Report of the Curriculum
Development Project, National Wildlife-Federation,
Washington, D.C., June 1992. Available free by
calling 202/797-6878.
National Research Council, Commission on Life
Sciences, Committee on the Applications of Ecological
Theory to.Environmental Problems. Ecological Know-
ledge and Environmental Problem-Solving: Concepts
and Case Studies. Washington: National Academy
Press, 1986.
Orr David W. Ecological Literacy: Education and
the Transition to the Postmodern World. Albany, NY:
State University of New York Press, 1992,
Purcell,'Arthur H. "Invited Comments." Air & Waste
(Journal of the Air & Waste Management Associa-
tion) 42 (1992): 1169-1170. ,
Washington State University, Social and Economic
Sciences Research Center. Incorporating Waste
Reduction Concepts in Higher Education Curricula.
Pullman, WA: Washington State University, March
,1991. ."•'.'•••
VI. Faculty Involved in P2 Education
Richard Andrews
Dept. of Environmental Sciences & Engineering ..
School of Public Health
University of North Carolina
CB #7400, Rosenau Hall
Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7400
phone: 91,9/966-2359
fax: 919/966-7911
e-mail: pete.andrews 0unc.edu
Nicholas Ashford
Ctr. for Technology, Policy & Industrial Development
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, MA 02139
phone: 617/253-1664
fax: 617/253-7140
Terenc=>3aH
Social Sciences
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN 55455
phone: 612/634-0083
fax: 612/626-7599
Lisa Bardwell
School, of Natural Resources and Environment
University of Michigan
Dana Building
Ann Arbor, Ml 48109-1115
Phone:3137747-4708
fax: 313/936-2195
e-mail: bardwell@umich.edu
Richard Bright
Education and Training
Clark Atlanta University
Atlanta. G A 30314
phone: 404/880-8515.
fax: 404/880-8522
Curtis Bryant
Dept. of Civil Engineering
University of Arizona '.
Tucson, AZ 85721
phone: 602/621 -2266
fax: 602/621-2550
William Budd
Environmental Sciences and Regional Planning
Washington State University , -
Troy Hall 305 '
Pullman, W A 99164-4430
phone: 5,09/335-8536
fax: 509/335-7636 -, . '
Resource List • 9
Decemoer 1994
n
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Surfi Resources. Umversity of New Hampshire
221 James Hail
Durham, NH 03824-3591
phone: 603/862-1020
fax: 603/862-4976 .
^^Environment & Hazardous Materials Studies
Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State Univers.ty
Blacksburg, VA 24061 -01 13
phone: 703/231 -7508
fax: 703/231 -3367
e-mail: conn@vtvm1.cc.vt.edu
Noellette Conway-Schempf
Green Design Initiative
GSIA 224
Carnegie-Mellon University
Shentey Park
rgn. pA 15206
fax: ^.^268-6837
e-mail: ncOy+@ andrew.cmu.edu
.Vancy Copno/a
Department of Humanities
New Jersey Institute of Technology
University Heights
Newark, NJ 071 02
phone: 201/596-5726
fax: 201/565-0586
e-mail: coppola@admin.njit.edu
Anthony Cortese
Second Nature
1 7 Msgr. O'Brien Highway
PO Box 4 10350
East Cambridge, MA 021 41 -0004
phone: 61 7/227-8888
fax: 617/227-0104
George Criner
Department of Economics and Policy
University of Maine
5782 Winslow Hall
Orono, ME 04469-5782
phone: 207/581 -31 57
fax: 207/581 -4278
e-mail: cnner@maine.maihe.edu
Faye Duchin
Director, Institute for Economic Analysis
New York University
269 Mercer St. Second Floor
New York. NY 10003
phone: 21 Z'998-7480
fax 21 Z 995-41 65
e-mai! Duchinf@actcluster.nyu.edu
- ___ . - — - "
David Eagan
Institute for Environmental Studies
70 Science Hall
University of Wisconsin-Madison
550 N.Park St.
Madison, Wl 53706
e-mail: djeagan@students.wisc.edu
John R. Ehrenfeld
Ctr. for Technology, Policy, & Industrial Development
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
77 Massachusetts Ave.
Room E40-241
Cambridge, MA 02139
phone: 617/253-1694
fax: 617/253-7140
O. Homer Erekson
Economics Department
Miami Univerrly
Oxford, OH 45056
p^ne: 513-529-2! '6
fax: 513/529-6992
e-mail: herekson@sba-laws.sba.rnuohio.edu
Shirley Fleischma in
Grand Valley State University
301 West Fulton, Suite 618
Grand Rapids, Ml 49504
phone: 616/771-6762
fax: 616/771-6642
Robert L Ford
Director, Center for Energy & Environmental Studies
Southern University at Baton Rouge
Cottage #8, P.O. Box 9764
Baton Rouge, LA 70813
phone: 504/771 -4723
fax: 504/771-4722
e-mail: robert@subrvm.subr.edu
Robert A. Frosch
John F. Kennedy School of Government
Center for Science and International Affairs
Harvard University
79 J.F. Kennedy Street
Cambridge, MA 02138 .
phone: 617/495-8132
fax: 617/495-8963
e-mail: frosch@ksgbbs.harvard.edu
. Robert Gottlieb
Graduate School of Architecture and Urban Planning
University .of California-Los Angeles
Los Angeles, CA 90024
phone: 310/825-1067
Resource List • 10
Oecemoer '994
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Gera/o' Groenewo/d
Director, Energy and Environmental Research Center
: University of North Dakota
15 North 23rd St.
P.Q. Box 9018
Grand Forks, NO'58202-9018 ' :" ^ '
phone: 701/777-5131
fax: 701/777-5181
e-mail: pamiller@plains.nodak.edu .
DeniseGuerin
Design, Housing and Apparel
240 McNeal Hall
University of Minnesota
1985 Buford Avenue
St. Paul, MN 55108
phone: 612/624-1257
fax: 612/624-2750
e-mail: dguerineche2.che.umn.edu
Steven Hamburg
Environmental Ombudsman's Office
University of Kansas
HaworthHall
Lawrence, KS 66045-2106
phone: 913/864-3208
fax: 913/864-5321
Ellen Harrison
Waste Management Institute
Center for the Environment
Cornel! University
Ithaca. NY 14853
phone: 607/255-8576
fax: 607/255-8207
e-mail: e2h1 Ocomell.edu .
Linda Ashman Hicks
Assoc. Dir., Poilutiop Prevention Ed. and Rsch. Ctr.
University of California-Los Angeles
7440 Boelter Hall
Los Angeles, CA 90024
phone: 310/206-2098 ,
fax: 310/206-3907
e-mail: lindah@calvin.ea.ucla.edu
•, \
Joel S. Hirschhorn
Hirschhom & Associates
4221 Forbes Blvd., Suite 240
Lanham, MD 20706-4325
phone: 301/731-4095
fax: 301/731-4099 .
Dale Jamieson
Center for Values and Social Policy
Campus Box 232
University of Colorado
Boulder, CO .'0309
phone: 303/492-6964
Tim Jones - . .
Dept. of Anthropology (Archaeology subgroup)
University of Arizona
Bldg. #30
Tucson, AZ 85721 ;
phone: 602/621-6299
fax: 602/621-9608
Diana Uverman
Earth and Mineral Sciences
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA 16802
phone: 814/863-7004
fax: 814/863-8017
e-mail: dml4@psuum.psu.edu
Todd MacFadden
Cooperative Extension Service
Montana State University
Taylor Hall
Bozeman, MT59717
phone: 406/994-3451
e-mail: acxtmOtrex.oscs.mdntana.edu
Robert L Myers
Agronomy Department ,
210 Waters Hall
University of Missouri
Columbia, MO 65211
phone: 314/882-0317
fax: 314/882-1467
e-mail: agrmyers@umcvmb
Gay/a Neumeyer
W1013 Engineering Building
University of Missouri
Columbia, MO 65211
phone: 314/882-8366
e-mail: neumeyer@ecvax2.ecn.missouri.edu
David On
Environmental Studies
Rice Hall
Oberiin College
Oberiin, OH 44074 :. '
phone: 216/775-8312
•Susan Powers •
Haz. Waste & Toxic Substance Rsch. &.Mgmt. Ctr.
Rowley Laboratories
Clarkson University
POtsdam, NY 13699-5715
phone: 315/268-6542
fax: 315/268-7636 • '.
e-mail: sep@craft.camp.clarkson.edu
Rasourca Lisr« 11
• December 1994
n
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Manlyn Raphael
Geography Department
Bunche Hall
University of California-Los Angeles
405 Hilgard
Los Angeles, CA 96024
phone: 310/206-4590
Lisa Riedfe
D«pt. of Civil Engineering
University of Wisconsin-Plattville
1 University Plaza
Plattville, Wl 53818
phone: 608/342-1539
fax: 608/342-1566
Yuriko Saito
Philosophy Department
Rhode Island School of Design
2 College St.
Providence, Rl 02903-2784
phone: 401/454-6578
fax: 401/454-6157
Brett Smith
5300 Irving Ave. South
Minneapolis, MN 55419
phone: 612/920-9569
fax: 612/929-0903
Joel Tan
Carnegie-Mellon University
Shenley Park
Pittsburgh, PA 15206
phone: 412/268-2609
fax: 412/268-1019
e-mail: jt03+« andrew.cmu.edu
Janet Vail
Waste Reduction & Management Program
Water Resources Institute
Grand Valley State University
One Campus Drive
Altendale, Ml 49401
phone: 616/895-3749
fax: 616/895-3864
Harold Ward
Center for Environmental Studies
Brown University
P.O. Box 1943
135 Angell Street
Providence, Rl 02912
phone: 401/863-3449
fax: 401/863-3503
e-mail: harokJ_ward«5 brown.edu
Becky Yust
Design, Housing and Apparel
240 McNeal Hall
University of Minnesota
1985 Buford Avenue
St. Paul, MN 55108
phone: 612/624-4904
fax: 612/624-2750
e-mail: byustOche2.che.umn.edu
Original produced on HunmenniU Unity DP,
a 50% post-coMumer/50% pie-consumer recycled paper
nude from de-inked old newspapers and magazines.
Published by:
The National Pollution Prevention Center
for Higher Education
University of Michigan, Dana Building
430 East University Ava.
Ann Arbor. Ml 48109-1115
. Phone: 313-764-1412
• Fax: 313-936-2195
* E-mail: nppc9umich.edu
The mission of the NPPC is to promote sustainable development
by educating students, faculty, and professionals about pollution
prevention: create educational materials: provide tools and
strategies for addressing relevant environmental problems; and
establish a national network of pollution prevention educators.
In addition to developing educational matenals and conducting
research, the NPPC also offers an internship program, profes-
sional education 4 training, and conferences.
Your Input if Wtlcome!
We are vary interested in your feedback on these materials.
Please take a moment to offer your comments and communicate
them to us. Also contact us rf you wish to receive a documents
list, order any of our materials, collaborate on or review NPPO
resources, or be listed in our Directory of Pollution Prevention
in Higher Education.
W« Plmn to Go Online
The NPPC is beginning to make its documents available over
the Internet in any of the following ways:
• Anonymous FTP: ftp.snre.umich.edu .
• Gopher: gopher.snre.umich.edu
• Worldwide Web: http://www.snre.umich.edu/
Please contact us if you have comments or suggestions
regarding online access to our materials.
Resource List • 12
Decemoer 1994
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Environmental Studies
Annotated Bibliography of ..
Environmental Studies-Related
Pollution Prevention Sources
Prepared by Andrew D^can,NPPC Research Assistant. *™P™^
-my
topic. [B«ctetoi ^bnrntfim indicates arrspomto* satem in
List «uf« tte Bibliographic Teaching Outline.!
Agenda 21: The Earth Summit Strategy to Save
Our Planet.,Boulder: EarthPress, 1993, [I.A]
Contains an abridged version ofAgenda 21, a
document resulting from the 1992 United Nati ,
Conference on the Environment and .Development
in Rio de Janiero. Calls for a fundamental change
in human-environment interactions, as well as a re-
thinking of the development process. Represents the
views of the less developed South to a greater extent
than the North. Includes chapters on the quality of
life on earth, the efficient use of the earth's natural
resources/the protection of global commons, man-
agement of human settlements, chemicals and the
management of waste, sustainable economic growth,
and implementing Agenda 21. Sections on hazardous
and municipal wastes emphasize prevention.
Allen, David T., NandKumar.Bakshani, and
Kirsten S. Rosselqt. Pollution Prevention: Homework
& Design Problems for Engineering Curricula. New
York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
American :nstitute for Pollution Prevention, Center
for Waste Reduction Technologies, 1992, [V.A]
A set of 22 engineering problems divided into six
categories: life cycle analysis, identifying and pnon-
tizirig pollutants from industrial sites, selecting en-
: vironmentally compatible materials, designing unit
operations for minimizing waste, understanding the
economics of pollution prevention, and flowsheet-
ing processes to minimize waste. The introduction •
also divides the problems according to other topical
areas. Each problem includes background material,
a problem statement, questions for discussion, sug-
' gestions for further reading, and solutions. All the
'problems have useful background information
about industrial'processes and common pollution -
prevention decision-making issues.
Nat,cnai Pollution Prevents Center tor H.gner Education -Umvorsity of
Dana Building. 430 East University. *"" Aroor Ml 48109-vn a.
Phone. 313.764 1412 -Fax* 313.936.2195 - E.ma.1: nppceumicn.edu
Amato, Ivan. The Slow Birth of Green Chemistry."
(12 March 1993): 1538-1541. [V.B]
Descril-es'the ii ceasing : .etest in academe for
environmental chemistry. ?art of the resurgence is
the ongoing shift in focus from pollution control-
not particularly interesting to most academic
chemists— to pollution prevention, which has
greater possibilities for academic discovery.
Andrews, Richard. "Heading Off Potential Problems."
EPA Journal 18, no. 2 (May 1992): 40-45. [I.C]
Subtitle: "It's not as easy as it sounds." Holistic
perspective about P2 written by a social scientist.
Describes P2 in general terms, and outlines five
steps for moving towards more effective progress in
P2 Concludes that P2 is the only sensible strategy,
even though it cannot be implemented by traditional
environmental regulatory policies.
-Are You A Green Consumer?" Consumer Reports
57, no. 1 1 (November 1992): 704-707. [III.C]
Article about environmental consumer awareness
based on the results of a challenging 16-item "Green
Quiz " The sample of Consumer Reports subscribers
answered correctly, on average, only five out of the
16 questions. The quiz and an explanation of the
correct and incorrect answers form the bulk of the
article Also includes two sidebar articles about
results from other questions asked on the survey,
and the Federal Trade Commission's environmental
marketing and labeling guidelines.
Michigan
May be reproduced
Ireeiy tor noncommercial
educational purposes.
Annotated Bibliography • 1
December 1994
-------
Arthur D, Little, consultants. Disposable Vs. Reusable
Diapers: Health. Environmental and Economic Com-
parisons. Cambridge, MA: Arthur D. Little, 1990. [IV]
Disposable diaper company-sponsored life cycle
assessment report. Indicates that disposable diapers
are less environmentally harmful than cotton diapers
in a number of categories. Although it is generally
considered to be an objective analysis, some of the
assumptions used have provoked controversy.
Automotive Repair, Maintenance, Salvage Yards,
Painting, Radiators (fact sheets). Compiled by
U.S. EPA, Pollution Prevention Information
Clearinghouse. Washington: EPA, 1993. [IV]
A >.t.L .'id. . m of fact sheets written by state and
regional organizations. Includes 14 fact sheets
covering various waste reduction aspects of main-
triring ar automobile. Topics include antifreeze
recycling, used motor oil,.paint waste, etc. Also
includes several case study descriptions.
Ayers, Ed. "Breaking Away." World Watch 6, no. 1
(January 1993): 10-18. [IV]
Article describing the benefits of using bicycles in
place of automobiles for personal transit Covers
many aspects of the benefits from increasing bicycle
use: decreased roadway and parking space, safer
transportation, less air pollution, less water pollution
from runoff, lower material intensiveness, afforda-
bility, less congestion, and greater potential for urban
community. The author points out the benefits of
bicycle use in less affluent areas around the world.
Regarding vc United States, the author mentions
the "myth" or the open road, and how bicycles have
been largely relegated to recreational use.
Bakshani, Nandkumar, and David. T. Allen. "In the
States: Pollution Prevention Education at Univer-
sities in the United States." Pollution Prevention
Review 3, no. 1 (December 1992): 97-105. [V.B]
Describes P2 higher education programs in the U.S.,
based on the 1992 directory published by the NPPC.
The authors note that most of the respondants were
associated with science and engineering departments,
with lesser representation in the social sciences and
liberal arts. Within engineering, control technologies
continue to receive more attention than P2. Most
engineering P2- courses are offered at the higher
level undergraduate or graduate level. In the social
sciences and liberal arts, there have been a few
courses from a variety of different perspectives.
In business schools, there has been a great deal of
interest and activity in incorporating environmental
issues in business curricula.
Baldwin, J. "Green Cars." Garbage 5, no. 3
(June/July 1993): 24-29. [IV]
Subtitle: "You can't drive your way to a pristine
planet, but 'incremental improvements' continue."
Article describes some of the new developments
that are making automobiles more environmentally
friendly. Thes" include: electric powered vehicles,
alternative fuels (compressed natural gas, hydrogen),
photovoltaic cars, and high mileage cars.
Baucus, Max. "Environmental Technology and the
Economy.* EPA Journal 19, no. 3 (July 1993): 36-
37. [l.C]
Subtitle "A national strategy is needed." The author,
then-chair of the U.S. Senate Committee on Environ-
ment and Public Works, describes the current situa-
tion with the development of environmental protec-
tion technologies and proposes mechanisms for the
U.S. government to encourage further development.
Bernards, Neal, ed. The Environmental Crisis—
Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven
Press, 1991. [IV]
Includes, among other issues, pro and con statements
about the effects of low-input fanning, cloth diapers,
alternative fuels, and government intervention vs.
radical activism to protect the environment. Also
includes stand-alone pieces on citizen action, inter-
national cooperation, source reduction, and ending
production of toxic wastes.
Betts, Kellyn S. "The Coming Green Computers."
E Magazine 5, no. 2 (March 1994): 28-35. [IV]
Article describes the U.S. EPA's Energy Star pro-
gram, a voluntary federal program that encourages
computer manufacturers to make monitors and
system units that "sleep" if not used for a period
of time, and laser printers that are relatively energy
efficient. The article continues with a discussion of
the'computer industry, including the radiation
emissions from monitors, packaging, toxic manufac-
turing processes, and recycling old computer parts.
Annotated Bibliography • 2
December 1994
-------
Browner Carol M. 'Pollution Prevention Takes
Center Stage." EPA Jduma/19, no. 3 JJuly'1.993):'
6-e: [in.B]
Subtitle: :"No longer confined to special projects, the.
new approach will be integrated into all programs."
Brief article describing the steps U.S. EPA is taking
to incorporate P2 across its entire mission. (Author
b Administrator of U.S. EPA). •
Byers, R. Lee. "Regulatory Barriers to Pollution
Prevention." Air & Waste (Journal of the Air and
Waste Management Association) 41, no. 4 (1991):
418-422. [I.C]r. .
Describes the steps EPA could take to make a
pollution prevention/waste minimization policy
more amenable to industry. In particular, the
author argues that EPA does not give adequate
recognition of the environmental benefits from
reuse, recycling, and waste-to-energy strategies.
Other related regulatory barriers are also described.
Gives examples in the aluminum, woodtreating,
chemical, and petroleum industries, describing
wastes and specific barriers.
Caplan, Ruth, and the staff of Environmental Action.
Our Earth, Our Selves: The Action Oriented Guide
to Help You Protect and Preserve Our Planet. New
York: Bantam Books, 1990. [III.C]
Gives background on environmental problems and
suggests individual and political action strategies.
Topics include global warming, the ozone layer, air
pollution, toxics, solid waste, radioactive waste, and
global environmental issues. Grassroots-oriented.
Carpi John. "Green Batteries: Powering Innovation."
EMagazine 5, no. 2 (March 1994):'46-47, 67. [IV]
Briefly describes the environmental impacts of bat-
tery landfilling or incineration. Discusses programs
to handle old batteries and new battery technologies,
including Ray-O-Vac's "Renewal" rechargeable alka-
line battery and rechargeable lithium batteries.
Mentions both household and automobile batteries.
Carson, Patrick, and Julia Moulden. Green is Gold:
Business Talking to Business About the Environ-
mental Revolution. Toronto: HarperBusiness,
HarperCollins, 1991 .[\\\.A]
Engaging book describing the greening of the busi-
ness sector and citizens. Besides an introduction
about "why be green," the book provides advice on
green strategies, green products (particularly the
Canadian grocer Loblaws' G.R.E.E.N. line), environ-
mental audits, green manufacturing, etc. Published
in Canada but relevant throughout North America.
Casler, Stephen D. "Budget Reallocation and the
Peace Dividend: Energy and Pollution Tradeoffs."
Energy.Policy.19 (September 1991): 666-669. [i.C]
Abstract: '"This paper deals with measurement of the
energy and pollution costs associated with various
budgetary categories, including defense, educ~Jc_.
and other nondefense components of expenditure.".
.. Empirical estimates show that budgetary reallo-
cation away from defense can result in important •
reductions in energy-use and pollution emissions."
Cebon, Peter. "Corporate Obstacles to Pollution
Prevention." EPA Journal 1,9, no. 3 (July 1993):
20-22. [III.A]
Subtitle: "The sociology of the workplace is just as
important as technical solutions." Uses organiza-
tional culture perspective to explain why imple-
menting business P2 programs can be difficult.
Identifies three "realities of organizational life";
(1) The cultures of organizations can effectively limit
their perspectives; (2) in many organizations, it is
very difficult to get information tp the right people
at the right time; and (3) many aspects of organiza-
tional life are very political.
Cohen, Mark A. Management 5596: Management of
Environmental Issues (syllabus). Vanderbilt University,'
Nashville, March 1993. [V.A]
Detailed course description for what could be called
"environmental studies for business students." Gives
an introduction to environmental issues; business
and environmental institutions in the U.S.; public
policy analysis of environmental issues (including
cost/benefit analysis, risk, economic efficiency,
enforcement of environmental' laws); case studies;
green marketing; green finance & accounting; and
global issues: Has a lengthy description of goals
and and grading procedures.
Annotated Bibliograpny • 3
December 1994
-------
Commoner. Barry. Making Peace With the Planet.
New York; The New Press, 1992. [I.C]
.Influential and controversial book, with the per-
spective of the producer as the root of all the environ-
mental problems. Author focuses on changing or
.abolishing polluting production processes and
radically reforming political and economic systems.
Criticizes EPA's approach to P2 as not forceful
enough. Gives background and perspective to the
current situation. Alarmist in general tone.
Conn. David W., ed. Energy and Material Resources:
Attitudes, Values, and Public Policy. AAAS Selected
. Symposium 75. Boulder. Westview Press, 1983,[III.C]
A collection of-papers examining social and political
science unn'"-at:
-------
Assessment.
Technoiogy27, no. 3 (1993).
qoc j
LCA,
Contention B*tevioT.' Environment and
SehaWof 25, no. 4 (July 1993):- 485-505. [HKC]
"big-picture" scholarly article that introduces the
restrictions (See also Wang and White & Shapiro.)
resmcnon*. v^ 5 r
Dake Karl "Myths of Nature: Culture and the Social
Characterizes behavior change techniques according
people, or environmental influence). Assesses the
effectiveness of these techniques by examining dura-
bility of the behavior change plus four other criteria.
examines the cultural contexts of risk and
Z*'p with nature, providing insight
on the attitudes different groups may have toward
P2 Proposes five cultural patterns, using a two-
oir.ensi^matrix of "grid" (degree of social
prescriptions allowed) and "group" (group identity).
prescnpuuio / e> r er
1. High grid and high group culrtires are hierardu-
cally arranged; «tu« is robus^d^^but
only up to a pomt, hence the need for sustainable
development.
.NR561JNR361: Conservation Benavor.
University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, 1 993. [V.A]
Detailed syllabus of
reduction and
ccmservafaon-betavior Focuses on changmg
individual behavior,
are more prominent
Also includes an extensive reading list.
Living
ConSrvation
. Jouma, onWronmertta/ Systems 20
(1991): 215-227. [III.C]
mental management.
3. Individualists are low grid and low group; they
see nature as benign. Deregulation is the appropri-
ate risk management strategy since they view indi-
vidual judgement as superior to collective control.
• . -. ' • ' •'
4. Fatalistic cultures^ high grid and low group, see
' nature as capricious. Their cultural bias rationalizes
isolation and, along with it, stringent control.
L . ,
5. Autonomy is a fifth group that is completely
lacking in any social patterns, e.g., "asocial.
urveys showing constructs of conservation behavior.
Design for Recycling Team. Teaching Environ-
mentally Responsible Design. Shirley T. Fleischman,
ed. Grand Valley State University, Grand Rapids,
Michigan, 22 October 1 992. FV.A]
A. thick notebook of original and copied materials,
resembling a coursepack for an undergraduate engi-
neering design class; also useful for non-engineering
snidente. The ethics chapter includes an essay, creeds,
-codes, and ethical mission statements for engineers,
along with discussion questions. Essays in the chap-
ter on secondary materials cover designing for re-
covery and reuse. The "Paper vs. Polystyrene Cups"
chapter is a teaching module for a thermodynamics
course. The paper-making chapter includes two
classroom projects: one is paper-making for engineers,
the other examines secondary materials from an
engineering economics perspective. There is also a
"Design for Disassembly" freshman curriculum unit.
Annotated Bibliography • 5
December 1994
-------
[III.A]
tote*™
es cateorized
a 137 source reduction activities categorized by
technique used" (pp. 52-S7).
Duming, -an T. How Much Is Enough? The
Cramer Society and the Future ofthe Earth.
New York: W.W. Norton, 1992. llll.C]
Short book presenting an argument
SrjSSTfoodU transportation, P^"**'
etc Concludes with suggestions for reorienting
s^iety Awards more sustainable consumption
patterns. Provocative.
nvllick Thomas. "Ecological Marketing Strategy for
?oV SvoSSTm Sw^Han^u^ of e^ness
a/7/cs 8 (August 1989): 657-662. [HI.A]
bing a Swiss dairy coope rative's
improvements among the entire Swiss
or without the need for regulatory
An effective marketing strategy was
essential for the glass containers' success.
1989. flll.C]
Gives an introduction to major environmental
problems, then 50 "things to do. Bad. action
Includes background information, did you know .
type facts, and recommended actions.
The Student Environmental Action Guide:
25'Things We Can Do. Berkeley, CA: Earthworks
Press, 1991. [IH.C]
Describes waste reduction, energy conservation and
other environmentally sound activities that can be
implemented on college campuses and other schools.
Elkington, John, Julia Hailes, and Joel Makower The
Green Consumer. New York: Penguin, 1990. [III.C]
Guide to green products and environmentauy
responsible actions individuals can take. Topics
include automobiles, food, household products,
garden arc1 pet supplies, gifts, home energy and
'rurni*. ingi, "personal care products, and green
travel Also discusses how to get more involved.
Flavin, Christopher. -Jump Start: The New'Automo-
tive RevolutionL" WorldlVate/>6, no. 4 (July 1993):
27-33. [IV1
Introduction: "Super-efficient, non-polluting cars
S^olongerjustVdreamdeferred. At last, the first
generation of environmentaUy responsible cars is on
the way."
Fleischman, Marvin. Pollution Prevention, Waste
Treatment, and Disposal (syllabus). University of
Louisville, Kentucky, March 1993. [V.A]
Detailed syllabus for an introductory P2 engineering
course. Lists many handouts about current topics in
the news. Includes several engineering homework
problems. The course covers fundamental issues
such as definitions in more depth than similar
engineering courses.
Forester. William S., and John H. Skinner. Waste
Minimization and Clean Technology: Waste Manage-
ment Strategies for the Future. San Diego: Academic
Press, Inc., 1992. [III.A]
Representation of recent examples of what industry
is doing to promote a safe environment. Lists
specific examples and international programs,
which include: low waste technologies; economic
aspects of waste minimization; implementation of
„ technology; legislation; programs in China, Cuba
' " and France; the role of research and development;
the pollution prevention program of the EPA; and
product design in waste minimization. Industries
discussed include: electroplating, pulp and paper,
chemical, oil and petroleum, and pharmaceutical.
Annotated Bibliography • 6
-------
Frankenfeld," Philip. 'Simple Gifts: Complex Environ-
mental Hazards and the Responsibility to Leave a
Controllable World." Futures 25, no. 1 ,(1993): 32-
52. [II.A] . , - . ' ": • "
Scholarly article from an ethical and theoretical politi-
cal science perspective. Argues that .there is a moral
obligation to leave future generations a world that
is as livable as the present world. Livability encom--
passes material resources and pollution as well as
-time and money resources. Author calls for "simple
gifts," e.g., pursuing simplicity over complexity, as a
morally superior and politically feasible strategy. .
A. " "
Freeman, Harry, Teresa Harten, Johnny Springer,
Paul Randall, Mary Ann Curran, and Kenneth Stone.
"Industrial Pollution Prevention: A Critical Review."
Air'and Waste (Journal of the Air and Waste Man-
.•agernrT./ —3C,. ion) 42, no. 5 (19si2): 618-656. [I.C]
Comprehensive review of the industrial P2 topic.
Many citations. Emphasizes the prevention of
pollution closer t-j its point of origin to eliminate
transfers between media. Included are descriptions
' of the following pollution prevention programs and
laws: Clean Air Act; Pollution Prevention Act; U.S.
EPA and their pollution prevention strategy; various
industrial programs; and various local, state, and
federal programs. Other topics discussed include
cost effectiveness, incentives and barriers regarding
P2, and the importance of product design and life
cycle assessment. (See also Purcell.)
Garfield, Bob. "Beware: Green Overkill."
Advertising Age (25 January 1991): 26. [III.A]
Subtitle: "Touting a product's environmental benefits
in ads is all well and good. Being crassly opportu-
nistic about the ecological movement is something
else." Short article indicating that some marketing .
personnel have pushed the limits of "eco-marketing"
with general, unsubstantiated claims. Qives movie
review-style ratings for four different advertisements
on their environmental worthiness.
Gasbarro, Ron. "Getting Rid of Batteries."
Garbage 3, no. 5 (September 1991): 42-43. [IV]
Brief primer on household and automobile batteries.
Distinguishes between primary batteries, which are
used once and thrown away, and secondary^batteries,
which are rechargeable. Mentions several develop-
• ments to make batteries more environmentally
friendly. " -
Geiser, Ken. The Greening of Industry."
Technology Review 94 (August 1991): 64-72. .[ili.A]
Article describes how toxics use reduction (TUR) -
and P2 laws in the states and in federal government
are helping lead the transformation to more sustain-
able materials and technologies. Critical features of
"sustainable industry" include: appropriate tech-
nologies, environmentally safe and compatible
materials, products to meet basic social needs and
some individual wants, low- and no-waste produc-
'tion processes, safe working conditions, energy
efficiency, and resource conservation. Describes
TUR and P2 laws in several states. Advocates a
precautionary principle for eliminating or reducing
environmental emissions. Mentions "clean technol-
ogy" and explains vvhy industry has been reluctant
to invest in it. Concludes with a comment on using
the LC. frair ework as a tool for sustainable Jndustry.
Goldstein, Nora. "Marketing Strategy for Green Prod-
ucts." In Business 12, no. 3 (May 1990): 38-39. mi-A]
Brief article describing the conference presentation
of a marketing firm representative. Discusses
• diffusion of innovations and psyche-graphics—
"understanding consumer goals, motivations, and
values and how these drive their lifestyles." Useful
chart that compares seven psychographic profiles
with willingness to be innovators. Discusses the
need.for a long-term marketing strategy approach.
Goodland, Robert. The Case That the World Has
Reached Limits." In Population, Technology, and
Lifestyle: The Transition to Sustainability, pp. 3-22.
Robert Goodland, Herman E. Daly, and Salah El
Sarafey, edS; Washington: Island Press, 1992. [I.A]
Gives five compelling arguments for the case that
global physical and ecological sustainability is
threatened: biomass appropriation by human activity,
global warming, ozone rupture, land degradation,
and decrease in biodiversity.
Gore, Ai. Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the
Human Spirit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,, 1992. [I.A]
Written before Gore was elected Vice-President, this
book for general audiences combines scientific evi-
dence with the author's personal convictions about
the precarious nature of human sustainability. The
first section examines the sastainability issue, using
various resource and pollution issues—climate, water
resources and pollution, air pollution, wastes, and
Annotated Bibliography • 7
December 1994
-------
food resources—to illustrate the author's concern.
The second and third sections axe a search for bal-'
ance, utilizing such tools as democracy, environmen-
tal economics, technology, psychology, spirituality,
and social forces. P2 does not appear as a chapter or
section, but rather as underlying theme to promote
an appropriate human-environment balance.
The Green Revolution: Procter & Gamble." Adver-
tising Age. 62, no. 5 (29 January 1991): 16, 34. [IV]
Describes rising public concern with disposable dia-
pers and the "garbage crisis" in general. Discusses
P&G's move towards composting (and recycling)
disposable diapers as a solution. Mentions industry-
cotrunissioned studies that show neither disposable
nor reusable diapers ?re clearly superior.
Habicht, F. Henry II. EPA Definition of "Pollution
Prevention" (internal memo to all EPA personnel).
28 May 1992. [key doc.]
Clarifying note about what the U.S EPA officially
considers pollution prevention. Cites the 1990
Pollution Prevention Act and other sources.
Hanlor., Deborah, and Julie Bartenstein. Teaching
Those Humans to Learn: Creative Approaches to
Pollution Prevention Training. Washington: EPA,
August 1992. [V.A]
Internal EPA compilation contains guidelines for a
three-hour training session introducing new EPA
employees to the concept of pollution prevention.
The session covers introductions, concepts of P2,
barriers and incentives, ways to prevent pollution,
and P2 resources. Includes a number of helpful
pointers. Accompanying this are a set of 17 P2 role-
playing exercises from a variety of sources. Most of
the scenarios are at the manufacturing level. Docu-
mentation for some exercises is better than others.
Harris. Mark. "Bright Makes Blight." E Magazine 4,
no. 6 (November 1993): 51-52. [IV]
Subtitle: "Laundering strategies that won't take the
earth to the cleaners." Briefly describes some of the
environmental effects of clothes washing and the $4
billion laundry detergent business, including water
consumption, water heating costs, detergent pro-
duction, water pollution, and dry cleaning solvents.
Goes on to describe ways to make clothes washing
as environmentally benign as possible, including
total omission of phosphates, true biodegradeabality,
concentrated detergents, and recycled packaging.
For clothes washing, the article includes recommenda-
tions for using less water and lowering temperature
settings; for drying, using energy sensors to cut
off dryers when done, or using clotheslines. Also
recommends limiting dry cleaning or using an
"Ecoclean" non-toxic dry-cleaning alternative.
Harris, Mark D. Embracing the Earth: Choices for
Environmentally Sound Living. Chicago: The Noble
Press, 1991. [III.C]
Book describing actions individuals can take to re-
duce their use of materials (wastes), toxics, water,
and energy. Includes sections on transportation, eco-
logical educe tion, and environmental organizations.
Hawken, Paul. "A Declaration of Sustainability." Utne
Reader, no. 59 (September 1993): 54-61. [IIUA] .
Article claiming that the socially responsible corpo-
ration is a have-youroke-and-eat-it-too myth. The
author's agenda for reform includes:
• adjusting the price of goods to reflect true
"environmental and other social costs;
• incrementally replacing the present U.Sxtax
system with revenue-neutral "green fees";
• rearranging the linear industrial economy
into a nature-mimicking cyclical system
[industrial ecology];
• designing for decomposition, closed-loop reuse/
recycling, and toxic materials stewardship;
• . restoring the balance between commerce (busi-
ness sector) and the guardian (government); and
• shifting from electronic literacy to biologic literacy
The author also has written The Ecology of Commerce
C1993), which covers these topics in more detail.
Hayes, Dennis. "Energy, Environment, and
Architecture." Keynote speech, American Institute
of Architects, Committee on the Environment.
Atlanta,'Georgia, 6 December 1991. [I.C]
Text of a keynote speech given to an environmental
architecture conference. More a commentary about
the United States' myopic energy policy than about
architecture. Calls for significant increases in
efficiency and uses vivid numbers to point out
different rates of energy usage around the world.
Annotated Bibliography • 8
December 1994
-------
Henion, Ka'rl E., and Thomas C. Kinnear, eds. The
Conserver Society. Chicago: American Marketing
.Association, 1.979. [III.A] :
Collection of conference papers examining what
might now be called "sustainable living" from the ^
business perspective. The 1970s "conserver society"
concept is dated, although it can be compared with
.the 1990's "green consumer" movement noted by
marketing .departments. The variety of papers also
reflects the tug between business school social scien-
tists, liberal arts social scientists, and practitioners.
Hileman, Bette. "UN Environment Program Pushes
for Cleaner Production." Chemical and Engineering
News 70. no. 48 (30 November i 992): 17-21. [I.C]
Coverage of a UN Environmental Program (XJNEP)
sponsored international conference on cleaner pro-
duction. Describes programs in The Netherlands,
Poland, and China that are being used to foster the
spread of cleaner production techniques. Mentions
obstacles, especially in less-developed countries.
Hirschhom, Joel S., and Kirsten U. Oldenburg.
Prosperity Without Pollution: The Prevention
Strategy for Industry and Consumers. New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1991. [key doc.]
Comprehensive book that could be used either as
general reading or as a textbook for a P2 course.
.Covers manufacturing, commercial, government,
and consumer perspectives of P2. Thorough intro-.
duction to the P2 concept in the first chapter. Other
specific topics include: sustainability and P2, stages
of and obstacles to a P2 program, generation rates of
wastes and toxics, individual P2 practices, pesticides
and P2, ozone-depleting chemicals and.P2, and P2
policy. Little specific discussion of life cycle impacts.
Well researched.
Hocking, Martin B. "Paper Versus Polystyrene: A
Complex Choice." Science 251 (1991): 504-505. [II.B1
Widely circulated brief article that illustrates the use
of life cycle assessment. From the analysis given,
plastic cups are clearly more environmentally benign
than paper cups, Useful in showing that one's
intuition is sometimes incorrect. [See also Wells
' etal-l
Holmes, Hannah. "Eating Low on the Food Chain."
Garbage 4, no. 1 (January 1992): 32-37, [IV]
Article describing the environmental effects, including
both resource use and pollution, of meat consumption.
Also mentions human health effects. Notes that veg-
etarianism is more environmentally beneficial, pro-
motes better health, and is less expensive than eating
meat Gives general recommendations for preventing
pollution by eating less meat and more plant products.
Includes charts and sources for more information.
. . Telecommuting." Garbage 5, no. 2 (April
1993): 32-37. [IV]
Subtitle: "Yes it saves gasoline, air pollution,
driving time, and stress—wait—does it save stress?"
Article outlines the advantages and disadvantages
of telecc m nuting—doing "office work" at home.
Gives practical advice on setting up a home office.
Holmes, Hannah, and Patricia Popre. "Packaging
in the '90s." Garbage 4, no. 6 (January 1993): 24-r
31. [IV]
Article discussing the status of current ^packaging
issues from an environmental perspective. Authors'
perspective is that many types of packaging are not
as environmentally harmful as is commonly per-
ceived. Discusses the demise of most refillable
containers. Also mentions "lightweighting" and
"concentrates," two packaging reduction strategies
that have gained considerable acceptance by busi-
ness. Describes other package reduction examples
and policy initiatives to regulate packaging.
Holusha, John. "Diaper Debate: Cloth or Dispos-
able?" New York Times (14 July 1990): Section 1,
p. 46, col. 1. [IV] -
Newspaper article using cloth and disposable
diapers as an example to show how the life cycle „-
assessment methodology can be controversial..
"How To Get Industry to Clean Up On Its Own."
Business Week (7 June 1993): 122. [I.C]
Short editorial noting that the information disclosure
aspect of the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) is prompt-
ing some companies to voluntarily decrease their
emissions of toxic substances.. Recommends a
similar approach for future EPA efforts, rather than
the traditional "command-and-control" pollution
control regulations. .
Annotated Bibliography • 9
December 1994
-------
Hume, Scott. The Green Revolution: McDonald's."
Advertising Age 62, no. 5 (29 January 1991): 32. [IV]
Short article discussing the hamburger chain's
commitment to the environment. McDonald's had
switched from paperboard to foam polystyrene ham-
burger wrappers after a 1970s life-cycle assessment
indicated the latter was environmentally preferable.
The company's switch to paper wraps was due to
public concern over the foam plastic and the paper
wraps' lower overall environmental impacts. Also
mentions McRecycle program to buy $100 million
worth of recycled items for building and remodeling.
Jamieson, Dale, and Klasina VanderWerf. Cultural .
Barriers to Behavioral Change: General Recommen--
datlcns and Resources for State Pollution Prevention
Pr>jc.a.i loi ler: Center for V&iues and Social-
Policy, Juiy 1993. [key. doc.]
Report of an EPA-sponsored project that takes a new
perspective on 12. Summarizes decades of psycho-
logical, sociological, and other social science research
on environmentally beneficial behavior change.
Integrates the relatively new P2 approach and the
research literature with a lengthy introduction of P2
as a cultural and behavioral issue. Concluded with
16 recommendations to overcome cultural barriers to
P2 and proposes a research agenda. An annotated
bibliography comprises more than half the report.
Includes a short executive summary.
Kane, Hal. "Put It on My Carbon Tab." Worfd Watch
6. no. 3 (1993): 38-39. [lll.C]
Short article that examines the amount of carbon
dioxide each person is directly or indirectly respon-
sible for generating.
Kenworthy, Lauren, and Eric Schaeffer. Preventing In-
dustrial Toxic Hazards. New York: INFORM, 1993. [lll.C]
A guide to help concerned individuals leam how to
use the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) and other data
to understand the operations and toxic discharges of
local plants. Methods are offered for building positive
communications with plant officials and for gathering
the information necessary to assess source reduction
efforts. Explains the source reduction concept and
contrasts this with pollution control. Outlines tech-
niques and strategies of a company source reduction
program. Provides step-by-step process for studying
local plants; mentions legislative approaches to
source reduction. Appendices detail.the TRI.
Keoleian, Gregory A., and Dan Menerey. "Dispos-
able vs. Reusable Systems: Two Source Reduction
Case Studies." Journal of Environmental Systems
20 (1991): 3*43-357. [IV]
First of two articles examining 1) replacing poly-
styrene foam dishware with washable ceramic
dishes at a hospital, and 2) replacing disposable
diapers with washable cotton diapers at a day-care
center. The case studies include a description as
well as process and cost analyses.
. Life Cycle Design Guidance Manual: Envi-
ronmental Requirements and the Product System.
(EPA/600/R-92/226). Cincinnati: EPA, Office of
Research and Development, Risk Reduction
Engineering Laboratory, January 1993. [H.BJ
Provides a framework for incorporating environ-
mental requirements into product system design.
Emphasizes that all four components of product
systems (product, process, distribution, and
management/information) should be integrated in
design. Suggests that, whenever possible, design
activities should encompass all life cycle stages
from raw materials acquisition through processing,
manufacturing, use/service, resource recovery, and
disposal of all residuals. Provides matrices for
developing and evaluating life cycle environmental
requirements, then coordinating these with perfor-
mance, cost, legal, and cultural requirements. Lists
and discusses strategies for reducing product
systems' environmental impacts. Introduces life
cycle assessment (both inventory and impact analysis
stages) as a possible evaluation tool in design while
also suggesting alternative or more streamlined
methods. A summary of major environmental laws,
overview of environmental impacts, and primer on
decision-making models are included as appendices.
. "Packaging and Process Improvements: Three
Source Reduction Case Studies." Journal of Environ-
mental Systems 21. no. 1 (1992-92): 21-37. [IV]
Second of two articles examining (1) bulk merchan-
dising at a cooperative grocery, (2) process improve-
ments and packaging reduction at a large office
furniture manufacturer, and (3) a department store
chain's use of shredded waste paper as a packing
material. The case studies include a description as
well as process and cost analyses.
Annotated Bibliography • 10
Decembar 1994
-------
. -Sustainable Development by Design: Review
of Life Cycle Design and Related Approaches." Air
and Waste (Journal of the Air and Waste Manage-
ment Association) 44 (May 1994): 645-668. [II.B]
From the abstract:, "Necessary changes to achieve a
more sustainable system will require that environmen-
tal issues be more effectively addressed in design....
Although not yet fully embraced by industry, the
product life cycle system is becoming widely recog-
nized as a useful design framework for understanding
the links among-societal needs, economic systems
and their environmental consequences.... Life
cycle design (LCD), Design for Environment (DFE),
and related initiatives based on product life cycle are
emerging as systematic approaches for integrating
environmental issues into design. This review pre-
sents the life cycle design framework developed fpr
the U.S. EPA as a structure for discussing environ-
mental design literature. Specifying environmental
requirements and evaluation metrics are essential
elements of designing for sustainable development (
A major challenge for successful design is choosing
appropriate strategies for reducing environmental
burden The future of life cycle design and
sustainable development depends on education,
government policy and regulations, and industry
leadership, but fundamental changes in societal
values and behavior will ultimately determine the
fate of the planet's life support system. ".
Kidd, David. Industrial Waste Reduction: A Three-
Credit University Curriculum for Environmental
Engineering. Alaska Health Project, Anchorage,
October 1991. (V.A)
A comprehensive, introductory, graduate course
outline. Although oriented toward engineering
. students, parts of the -curriculum are relevant to
non-engineering majors. Gives 15 weekly lesson
plans, each of which includes: readings, additional
instructor references, objectives, class activities
(lecture notes, etc.), and homework. Some of the
lecture outlines are quite extensive, and a number
of homework problems include worked solutions.
Main "focus is hazardous wastes. Lengthy notes and
homework problems on waste reduction approaches
(week 5); waste reduction-assessments (6); used oil
(10); solvents (11); and rinsing systems (12).
Kleiner, Art. "Compact Packaging for-the Compact
Disk." Garbage 3, no. 6 (November 1991): 50-51.
Short article describing the effort underway to get
rid of the 5" x 11" "long box" that has enshrouded
compact disks. Several alternatives are mentioned,
with the most promising selection reusable long
boxes that are removed from the take home "jewel
boxes" at the check-out counter. [Since this article .
Was written, almost all CD manufacturers have
stopped using the long box and have taken the
article's example.]
Kling, David J., and Eric Schaeffer. "EPA's Figship
Programs." EPA Journal 19, no. 3 (July 1993): 26-
30. [III.B]
Subtitle: "Existing programs promote pollution
prevention in innovative ways." Article giving one-
to two-paragraph descriptions of numerous U.S. .
EPA pollution prevention programs. The sections -
and programs include:
I. Integrating P2 into EPA's Mainstream Activities:
(a) Source Reduction Review Project, and (b)P2
in Enforcement Settlement Policy.
II. State and Local Partnerships: (a) P2 Incentives
for the States and (b) Multimedia Grants.
ffl. Private Partnerships to Develop Innovative
Cross-Media Approaches: (a) 33/50 Program;
(b) Green Lights Program; (c) Energy Star
Computers; (d) Design for the Environment;
(e) EPA-GSA Cleaners Project; and (f) Water
Alliances for Voluntary Efficiency.
TV. Cooperative Efforts With Other Federal Agencies:
(a) Agriculture in Concertwith the Environment,
and (b) National Industrial Competitiveness
through Efficiency: Energy, Environment, and
Economics.
V. Identify, Generate, and Transfer Information:
(a) The Toxics Release Inventory; (b) Pollution
, Prevention Information Clearinghouse.
VI. Partnerships in Technological Information:
Clean Technologies Program.
Also includes EPA contact information for each of
these programs.
Annotated Bibliograpny -11
December 1994
3
-------
Kosnland Jr.. Daniel F, The Dirty Air Act" (editorial).
Science 249 (28 September 1990): 1481. [II.C]
Short note about the use of life-cycle assessment
in the debate over disposable and cotton diapers.
Comments that even though the results are far
from clear, using LCA is a much more level-headed
approach than the usual political approach to
environmental controversies.
Lai, On-Kwok. "Making Sense of the Greening of
Consumption and Production." Journal of Cleaner
Production 1, no. 1 (1993): 43-47. [III.C]
Describes the relationships between green consump-
v-ion and green production. Examines the issue from
. social/political studies perfective. Spotlights the
provision of green products in Germany, both offi-
cially labelled as such and informally labelled. The
author concludes by stating that green products
and green labelling are not just a result of advertising
and marketing, but a manifestation of a "new ad-
vanced eco-cultural project, 'Saving our Earth.'"
Larson, Eric D., Marc H. Ross, and Robert H. Williams.
"Beyond the Era of Materials." Scientific American
254, no. 6 (1986): 34-41. [I.A]
Subtitle: "The industrial nations now face a historic
change: economic growth is no longer accompanied
bv increased consumption of basic materials. The
economic outlook depends on the capacity to adapt
to this shift." Emphasizes efficiency improvements
as the driving force for decreasing per-capita con-
sumption of materials. Discusses the implications
of this nevi '.^formation Era" on several specific
industries and society in general.
Lave, Lester B., Chris Hendrickson. and Francis C.
McMichael. "Recycling Decisions and Green De-
sign." Environmental Science and Technology 28,
no. 1 (1994): 18A-24A. [I.A]
Takes a life-cycle impact approach to recycling.
Shows that design-for-recycling can'be a pollution
prevention activity.
Lefferts. Lisa Y., and Roger Blobaum.."Eating as if
the Earth Mattered." E Magazine 3, no. 1 (January
1992): 30-37, [IV]
Introduction' "Environmentally savvy consumers
steer clear of toxic cleaners, bleached coffee filters
and plastic bags at the supermarket, and fret about
the recyclability of containers. But most of us barely
give the environment a second thought when it
comes to choosing food, the product we buy most
often at the grocery store. But besides profoundly
affecting our health, our food choices greatly affect
the environment." Mentions pesticides and other
chemicals used in producing food, the benefits of
organic farming, the connections between diet,
human health, and the environment, and the
advantages of locally grown produce.
Lehrburgur, Carl. Diapers in the Waste Stream:
A Review of Waste Management and Public Policy
Issues. Sheffield, MA: Carl Lehrberger, 1989. [IV]
Cottc.-. diaper industry-sponsored report indicating
that cotton diapers are environmentally preferable
to disposable diapers.
Lewis, Eleanor J., and Eric Weltman. Forty Ways to
Make Government Purchasing Green. Washington:
Center for the Study of Responsive Law, 1992. [II.B]
Describes 40 specific suggestions at all levels of
government to make environmental protection
improvements. Divided into three sections: solid
waste reduction, energy efficiency, and pollution
prevention. Includes numerous examples, contact
information, and additional resources.
Lieberman, Joseph I. "Why Not Require Pollution
Prevention Planning?" EPA Journal 19, no. 3 (July
1993): 34-35. [I.C]
Subtitle: "Required analysis would help companies
find ways to cut waste." Short article describing the
author's draft U.S. Senate bill to require companies
to submit pollution prevention plans. The author is
concerned about "command and control" issues,
and explains that the bill would not stipulate P2
performance requirements.' Instead, the aim of his
bill is to stimulate businesses, particularly small and
medium sized companies, to examine options for
preventing pollution.
Lifset, Reid. "Greener Than Thou Wars—Raising
the Ante for Life Cycle Analyses." Biocycle 32
(April 1991): 76-77: [II.C]
Short article describing the controversy with'
competing LCA methodologies and results.
Annotated Bibliography • 12
• December 1994
-------
Lis, James, and Kenneth Chilton. "Limits to Pollution
Prevention." Society 30, no. 3 (1993): 49-55. [I.C]
Critical article arguing that the fixed pollution pre-
vention / recycling/disposal hierarchy and other
mandated prevention approaches are not always
economically efficient nor scientifically justifiable.
Authors note1 that pollution in the U.S. causes a
small percentage of all cancer deaths, despite per-
ceptions to the contrary. While not criticizing die
goal of reduced pollution, authors point out the.
cost of preventing pollution may be greater than
the benefits. Prescriptive approaches to P2, such as
mandatory P2 planning, required process changes,
and burdensome reporting requirements, represent
unwarranted expansion of governmental influence
and can place U.S. firms at international competitive
disadvantage. Instead, they call for flexible, market-
oriented approaches to pollution control such as
EPA's 33/50 industrial toxics reduction program.
Letter, Donald W. EarthScore: Your Personal Envi-
ronmental Audit & Guide. Lafayette, CA: Morning
Sun Press, 1993. [III.C]
': ' .*•,':
A guidebook for determining one's personal "Earth-
Score." By answering questions in 14 sections, one
can determine a total "impact" and "action" rating—-
and a label such as "Hco-Titan" or "Eco-Tyrannosaurus
rex." Each question also includes a paragraph de-
scribing the nature of the environmental impact and
suggested resources. The methodology for.deteraunT
ing the environmental impacts is based on published
information but cannot be considered rigorous life
cycle assessment. Impact categories include: house-
hold energy, water use, transportation, durable goods
use, food and agricultural products, paper and forest
products, toxics, waste, environmental advocacy,
respect for the land, livelihood, and family planning.
The author has also created EnviroAccqunt, a per-
sonal computer program with the same purpose.
Lovins, Amory B. "Abating Air Pollution at Negative
Cost Via Energy Efficiency." Environmental Profes-
sidnal 12 (April 1990): 164-168. [I.C]
Introduction: "Although abating urban smog, acid
precipitation; global wanning, and other results of
air pollution is ... assumed to require costly techno-
logical investments or inconvenient lifestvle changes
or both, new developments in efficient end-use of
energy can now reduce e.missions even more at zero
or negatiy. net internal cost to society, while .provid-
. ing. unchanged or improved services to customers."
Maxwell, James/Lola Matysiak, Jennifer Nash, and
John Ehrenfeld. "Case Study: Preventing Waste
Beyond Company Walls: P&Q's Response to the
Need for Environmental Quality," Pollution Prevention
Review 3, no. 3 (June 1993): 317-333. [W.A]
Describes the efforts of consumer products sector
corporation Proctor & Gamble to reduce solid waste
and other forms of pollution. Mentions such projects
as eliminating phosphates from detergents in the
1970s, using recycled plastic packaging, marketing
detergent refill units, reducing deodorant packaging,
combining shampoo and conditioner products, and
composting disposable diapers. Discusses how
P&G develops and markets its products, and how
environmental concerns are part of the decision-
making process! .
McDonald's Corporation and the Environmental
Defense Fund. Waste Reduction Task Force: '-
Final Report. 1991.[I".A]
Comprehensive report covering the innovative
waste reduction partnership between a for-profit cor-
poration and a not-for-profit environmental group.
Details the packaging and other waste sources in
the McDonald's system. Examines in detail source
reduction, reuse, recycling, and composting waste
reduction options. Source reduction and reuse ac-
tions considered or implemented include elimination
of chlorine-bleached paper, switching from polysty-
rene to paper sandwich wraps, reusable bulk storage
systems, and packaging reduction for a variety of
behind-the-counter and customer-based items.
Report highlights me practical challenges in imple-
menting waste reduction efforts. It also addresses
trade-offs between different waste reduction methods,
such as choosing a package made with recycled con-
tent versus a virgin content package made with less
material.
McGraw, Jack W. The Denver Airport: Pollution
Prevention by Design," EPA Journal 18, no. 2
(May 1992): 18-19, [IV]
Short article describing some of the many P2 features
that are being designed into Denver>new $2.7
billion airport project. An EPA staff person has been
on loan to the airport authority to help design these
P2 features.
Annotated Bibliography • 13
December 1994
-------
McMurrav Scott. "Chemical Firms Find That It Pays
^Reduce PoLon at Source." Watt Street Journal
(11 June 1991): A1.A6.[II1-A]
Subheading: "By altering processes to yield less
waste, they make production.more efficient_Fea
ture artide that discusses the chemical industry s
newfound enthusiasm for P2 as a means to achieve
Lndustrial efficiency and cut costs. Indudes a brief
historical explanation and a number of short re casL
studies from many of the major chemical companies
Meadows, Donella H., Dennis L. Meadows, and
jorgen Randers. Beyond the Limrts: Confron^ng
Global Collapse, Envisioning a Susa'"able™"™
Post Mills. VT: Chelsea Green Publishing Company,
1992. (H.A] - -
A revised •. ..ion of the'influential and contro^
sial 1972 book, both which use a systems appro-vn
to examine global sustainability. Presents a number
of Sru^Lrio- using a global model with rnputs
such as resource consumption rates, amount of
pollution generated, population growth, and other
variables. Shows human life as non-sustainable
along the current trajectory; advocates an alternative
sustainable path with P2 as a »^.tat ?"J?
cient component. Somber message delivered with
an upbeat tone.
Metal industries-Metal Finishing, Manufacturing
Set sheets). Compiled by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, IPesttcades
and Toxic Substances, Washington: EPA, iss-i. l«vj
A compendium of =fact sheets written by state gov-
ernments and other entities. A total of 14 fteme runs throughout the text, with sections on
nreventine ' water, solid waste, hazardous waste,,.
and pesttc " pollution. Human sustainabuity in the
ecosystem is a broader theme, touching on scientific
background, examining current policies and activities,
and emphasizing sustainable strategies for the future.
Includes guest author essays (induding one about P2
by Peter Montague), case studies, and "individuals
matter" action strategies. Also indudes critical
thinking questions and other teaching aides.
Mitsch, William J. "Ecological Engineering.' Environ-
mental Science and Technology 27, no. 3 (1993):
438-445. [II.A]
Artide describing the emerging field of ecological
engineering, defined as "the design of human society
with its natural environment for the benefit of both.
The concept pertains more to managing the natural
environment rather 'Han the typical engineering do-
main of the built environment. Gives examples such
as the B- sphere oioject, constructed wetlands sewage
treatment systej 5, water 'acinth river pollution
control, and fish production and wetlands systems
as examples of ecological engineering. Most examples
mentioned ars water based. The concept is more
popular in Europe and China than in the U.S.
Mitsch, William J., and Sven Erik Jorgensen, eds.
Ecological Engineering: An Introduction to Ecotecn-
nology. 472 pp. Somerset, NJ: John Wiley & Sons,
1989. [H.A]
An edited collection of papers all with the common
theme of approaching design and engineering so that
human society is compatible with the natural environ-
ment Human interactions, from this perspective, are
considered a part of rather than separate from nature.
The book is divided into two parts. Part One gives
basic prindples, definitions, and concepts; Part Two
is a collection of 12 international case studies. The
ecological engineering concept i* somewhat broader
than P2, incorporating a wider scope of engineering,
planning, and applied ecology concepts and including
ecologically based recycling. Nevertheless, the book
may be a useful bridge among ecology, engineering,
and P2. Many of the applications are water-based.
Moberg, David. "Sunset for Chlorine?"
E Magazine 4. no. 4 (July 1993): 26-31. [IV]
Introduction: "Americans use chlorine in swimming
pools, drinking water and laundry bleach. But this
popular chemical ingredient contributes to some of
our worst pollution probleuis, from ozone depletion
to dioxin. The Grsat Lakes/long a catch basin for
factory wastes, are the site of an ambitious campaign
Annotated Bibliography • 14
December 1994
-------
to ban the industrial use of chlorine."'.Includes an
inset article: "Can You Live Without Chlorine?" by
the same author. This short article describes com- ^
mon consumer products that contain chlorine based
compounds, and potential substitutes.
Moore, W. Kent, and David L. Scott. "Beverage
Container Deposit Laws: A Survey of the Issues
arid Results." Journal of Consumer Affairs 17, no. 1
(1983): 57-80. [IV] . i
Introduction: "Much of the movement toward man-
datory beverage deposit legislation has withered
away in the current anti-regulation mood of the
country. - Even before the change in mood, the major
focus of deposit laws was moving away from litter
control and tbward energy-and resource savings. In
fact, deposit laws have had a variety of repercussions
on such factors as jobs, consumer prices, industry
capital expenditures, energy consumption, and litter.
The cooling emotions and lapse in time since most
of the regulations were enacted provide a good op-
. portunity to sort through the arguments and review
the results This paper attempts to present a balanced
view of the issues surrounding the complicated
topic. It finds that the consequences of mandatory
deposits have generally been somewhere between
the initial predictions of groups favoring legislation
and those opposing it."
Moos, Shawna. "Pollution-Prevention Power to the
People." Technology Review 95 (October 1992):
15-16. [III.C]
Short article describing now the publicly available
Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) data is used by citizen
groups and others to encourage companies to reduce
pollution emissions. • . '.....
Nash, Jennifer, and Mark D. Stoughton. "Learning
to Live with Life Cycle Assessment." Environmental
Science and Technology 28, no, 5 (1994): 236A-
237A:[U.B]
Short article describing the benefits, drawbacks,-and
.associated issues surrounding the use of life cycle
assessments (LCAs) to assess "green products."
Some lessons learned from a recent LCA conference
include the following: For consumer products, the
- indirect impacts of products (e.g., clothes washing)
' may be far greater than the direct impacts (e.g.,
' clothes manufacturing); The conventional wisdom
of reducing environmental impact through "reduce,
' reuse, recycle" activities may not hold true if all
LCA impacts are considered. Authors also discuss
the increasing use of LCAs as a regulatory tool. The
lack of conventions for conducting LCAs, however,
is a problem. , • -
National Research Council, Commission on Life Sci-
ences, Committee on the Applications of Ecological
Theory to Environmental Problems. Ecological ,
Knowledge and Environmental Problem-Solving:
Concepts and Case Studies. Washington: National
Academy Press, 1986. [V.B]
The culmination of a national project to examine
how ecological understanding can help solve envi-
ronmental problems^ Book is divided into two sec-,
tions: (ija description of ecological knowledge and
how it is applied, and (2) 13 case studies of environ-
mental problem-solving. There is an indirect link to
P2 in the discussion of the ecological effects from
contaminants and toxic substances in the first section.
The case studies are more aligned toward ecological
assessment than preventive managment.; Some, ,
such as Washington Lake and DDT cases, may none-
theless illustrate the linkages between ecological
knowledge and pollution avoidance'.
, Commission on the Behavioral and Social ,
Sciences and Education, Committee on the Human
Dimensions of Global Change. Global Environmen-
tal Change: Understanding the Human Dimensions.
Paul Stem, Oran Young, and Daniel Druckman, eds.
Washington: National Academy Press, 1992. [III.C]
Book written by leading authorities outlining social
science approaches to understanding and managing
global change. A comprehensive review of
approaches, with the emphasis on social (sociology,
policy, etc.) over individual (psychology) methods.
' Committee on Institutional Considerations in
Reducing the Generation of Hazardous Industrial
Wastes. Reducing Hazardous Waste Generation:
An Evaluation and a Call for Action. Washington:
National Academy Press, 1985. [I.C]
One of the earlier books on industrial hazardous
waste prevention, reuse, and recycling. In a compact
(76-page) form, the report examines the nontechnical
institutional factors that affect the generation and
reduction of industrial hazardous wastes. Useful
discussion of the three (initial, development, and •• .
• mature) phases of hazardous waste minimization
program. Describes both regulatory and non-
regulatory policy options.
Annotated BtWiograpny • 15
December 1994
35
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Ophuis. William, and A. Stephen Boyan, Jr. Ecology
ana-the Politics of Scarcity. Revisited: The Unraveling
of the Amencan Dream. New York: W. H. Freeman
and Company, 1992. [II.B]
An ecological critique of American political institu-
tions. Boyan has updated Ophuls original 1977 book.
Authors take a Hobbesian approach to ecological
problems, arguing that reformist ecological policies
are not sufficient, and that liberal democracy is itself
doomed. The first chapter introduces principles.
The rest of the first section examines the status of
population, food, mineral resources, deforestation,
biodiversity, managing technology, and pollution.
Ttid second'section discusses the politics of ecological
scarcity, and the third section explores what the au-
thors call "post-modern values" as means for learning
to live with scarcity. Advocates a more loosely struc-
ruted "design" approach to ecological sustainability
than the more cumbersome "planning" approach. A
P2 theme is not readily apparent, but the book does
offer an inquiry into the political nature of resource
scarcity and pollution control that would lend itself
to a discussion of P2.
Orr, David. The Campus and the Biosphere."
Journal of Conservation Biology 3, no. 2 (June
1989): 33+. [It.A]
Overview of a comprehensive ecological investiga.-, •
tion of the Oberlin College food service—where trie
food comes from, ecological and environmental
impacts, etc. (See also the Where Does Our Food
Come From? videos.)
Ecological Literacy: Education and the Tran-
sition to the Postmodern World. Albany, NY: State
University of New York Press, 1992. [V.B]
A post-modem ecological counter to Bloom's The
Closing of the Amencan Mind. Includes a chapter
entitled "Syllabus for Ecological Literacy." Stresses
tundamantal concep'ts of sustainability by learning
from ecological relationships. Critical of "big
technology'" and, in general, the standard "modem"
world-view. Little explicit relationship with P2, but
useful as background reading on integrating new
concepts such as sustainability, ecological systems,
and P2 into liberal arts education.
UA Paper Tale. . ." (Washington Report). The Office
117 (February 1993): 14. [UI.B]
Short article describing the inefficient process by
which the U.S. Government Printing Office pub-
lishes the Federal Register. Compares this with the
much more efficient process the Commerce Depart-
ment uses for publishing U.S. Industrial Outlook.
Peel, John. Energy and the Ecological Economics of
Sustainability. Washington: Island Press, 1992. [I.A]
Despite the title, the coverage is broader than energy
and economics. Provide, context for both where hu-
mans are now and a practical vision for movement
toward human-environment sustainability. Succinctly
covers many topics. Three major parts: "Nature:
The World as We See it," "Limits: The Dark Side,"
and "Choices: Toward"the World as it Could Be."
Sectior- cover such topics as thennodynamics, cur-
rent state of economics, paradigms, growth, ec .logy,
human-nature relations, values. Author touches on
the relationship between energy, ecological systems
and pollution throughout the book but extends the
prevention concept into a wider range of issues than
are normally considered. Could be used as a textbook.
Piasecki, Bruce, and Peter Asmus. In Search of
•Environmental Excellende: Moving Beyond Blame.
New York: Simon & Schuster/Touchstone, 1990. [111. A]
Gives an overview of the major environmental is-
sues, particularly nuclear weapons and greenhouse
gases, then examines how citizens, industries, and
environmental groups can be part of the solution.
Uses the "excellence" concept in the sense of humans
properly managing the environment. Discusses P2
and related concepts in broad, non-technical terms,
countering what authors note as fallacies in the
stereotypical roles of both industry and the
environmental movement.
Pojasek, Robert B. "For Pollution Prevention: Be
Descriptive Not Prescriptive." Chemical Engineering
98 (September 1991): 13&-139. [lll.A]
A short, general article that deals with the basics
involved in the initial description of an industrial P2
strategy. Discussed are the importance of a process
flow diagram, brainstorming solutions, and a
feasibility study.
Annotated BiBliograpny • 16
Oecemoer 1994
-------
; -pollution Prevention Progress." In Environ-
mental Risk Management—A Desk Reference,
pp 503-519 Enc B. Rothenberg and Dean Jeffrey
Telego; eds. Alexandria, VA; RTM Communications, •
Inc., 1991. [III.A]
Describes the progression of pollution prevention,
both from a policy perspective as well as from a
practical implementation orientation. Gives five
stages of progression for a company's pollution pre-
vention program: damage control, pollution control,
waste minimization, source reduction, pollution
prevention.' The author cites 15 milestones at the
pollution prevention stage, with each of these de-
scribed in a paragraph or two. • .
Popre Patricia. "Disposable Diapers are OK."
Garbage A, no.' 5 (October 1992): 26-31. [IV]
Article using disposable diapers as an examp .or
distinguishing between symbol and crisis in the
environmental protection movement. The author,
publisher of Garbage magazine, discusses the contro-
versial cloth/disposable diaper debate as an example
of the hyperbole in the environmental movement.
She defends her own household's use of disposable
diapers and discusses how.her opinion has changed
since the initial publication of the magazine. An
accompanying excerpt from William Rathje and
Cullen Murphy ("Cotton vs. Disposables: What's the
Damage?") briefly discusses the comparative envi-
ronmental impacts of cloth and disposable diapers.
Portney, Paul R. The Price Is Right: Making Use
of Life Cycle Analyses." Issues in Science and
Technology 10, no! 2 (December 1993): 69-75. [11C]
Article presenting issues associated with what the
author terms "product life cycle analysis" (PLCA).
Mentions the three phases of PLCAs: inventorying
environmental consequences, assessing human and
ecological impacts, and making improvements
based on the-first two phases. Notes advantages of
PLCA, particularly its comprehensive scope. Also
presents a number of limitations of PLCAs, including
'the following; .
1. Determining the boundary in a PLCA can
be -daunting, and the effects of changing the
boundary can be quite large. ,
2. Impacts are difficult to standardize because
. thev vary according to time and place.
3. The -relative weights of different types of
impacts are very difficult to determine.
4. The impact phase of a PLCA can be indetermi- •
nate, such as two studies leading to opposite
' dose-response conclusions. '. :
5. Most PLCAs assume comparable products pro-,
, vide identical services, which is not always true.
6. Non-environmental impacts, such as labor
and capital, are often neglected in many PLCAs. .
7, The cost to conduct an LCA is often exorbitant.
8. Using a life cycle approach, producers of consumer
items would need to make hundreds of decisions
about how diey make and distribute products.
9. PLCA results quickly become outdated.
10. Accurate PLCAs are confounded by an
unwillingness to divulge trade secrets.
11. ResuJts IT m -FLCAs *re difficult to convey
succinctly - J consut rs.
The author argues that the price system, although
imperfect, offers an easier way to make informed.
purchasing decisions; he proposes that PLCAs be
used selectively to identify environmental impacts
that are not covered by the price system.
Post, James E. "Managing As If the Earth Mattered."
Business Horizons 34, no. 4 (July 1991): 32-38. [III.A]
An introductory article describing the need to recon-
cile economic activity with ecological viability. Men-
tions the tragedy of the commons and sustainable
development. Describes ozone depletion, global cli-
mate change," and loss of biodiversity as commons-
type problems that profoundly affect business and
society. Calls for efficient resource use, waste reduc-
tion/and a sustainable level of industrial production
as part of the greening of business management.
Postel, Sandra. "Water Tight." World Watch 6, no. 1,
(January 1993): 19-25. [IV]
Case studies of water conservation programs in
Mexico City, Waterloo, San Jose, and Boston plus
additional description about the growing movement
to make Water use more efficient. The article also
discusses mechanisms for decreasing water use,
such as charging for the amount of water used, pric-
ing water to reflect its true costs, using information
campaigns, pushing for government mandates (such
as buiiding'codes that require water^efficient plumb-
ing), xeriscaping (landscaping with plants that re-
quire little or no additional water in the local climate),
and repairing leaks in water delivery systems.
December 1994
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='es,cer; s Ccnniss.cn on Environmental Quality,
Quality Environmental Management Subcommittee.
Total Quanty Management: A Framework for Pollu-
tion Prevention. Washington, 1993. [I-C]
Describes the findings of PCEQ's Quality Manage-
ment Subcommittee. From tHe basis of 12 company
"quality environmental management" P2 case studies,
the report describes the background for P2 and the
steps for a business P2 program. Also includes tools
and techniques, metrics, and a limited bibliography.
Procter and Gamble, Inc. Decision: Earth. An Envi-
ronmental Teaching Unit for Grades 7-12.1993. [V.A]
A collection of teaching materials, including teacher's
guide, a municipal solid waste composting teaching
supplement, photocopy-ready activity sheets, and
two cc'or poster. Much of the unit is devoted to Life
cycle »>' en LCA) of consum.r products..The
L£A unit includes four lessons and and 14 student
activities. The introduction describes it as "an envi-
ronmental curriculum supplement designed to raise
student awareness of the complex consumer product
choices they face and help them make informed
choices based on a product's ability to meet their
needs as consumers." While many of the lessons are
general in scope, the activity evaluating disposable
vs. cloth diapers has raised controversy for allegedly
presenting disposable diapers with a positive bias—
P&G is the largest U.S. manufacturer of disposable
diapers. Portions can be useful for college audiences.
Pureell, Arthur H. -Invited Comments.- Air & Waste
(Journal of the Air 4 Waste Management Association)
42(1992): 1169-1170. [V]
In a brief response to the Freeman, et al., article
titled "Industrial Pollution Prevention: A Critical
Review," Pureell mentions how little attention is
given to P2 in social sciences and liberal arts, noting
the inevitable move towards including consumption
patterns under the rubric of P2.
Rabe, Barry G. "From Pollution Control to Pollution
Prevention: The Gradual Transformation of American
Environmental Regulatory Policy." Environmental_
and Planning Law Journal (September 1991): 226-
Abstract: "The limitations of the United States'
medium-based, pollution control-oriented approach
to environmental regulation is becoming increasingly
evident, prompting "individual states and the Federal
Government to give more serious consideration to
preventive strategies than ever before. In recent
vears, states such as Massachusetts, Minnesota, and
New Jersey have devised a variety of regulatory ex-
periments designed to link pollution prevention with
cr^media regulatory integration. These experi-
ments are far more ambitious than prior prevenbon-
SSed programmes and may constitute models for
other subnational and national units of .government.
Rathje, William, ^thropoiogy 337: Modem Aerial
Culture Studies (syllabus). University of Arizona,
1993. [V.A]
Syllabus and reading list for a unique course using
garbage and similar bits of evidence for clues to
human behavior and culture. Readings are from a
myriad of sources, centering around anthropology.
.^utjLisM" The Atlantic Monthly 26*
(December 19.89): 99-109. [I.B]
Describes the findings of the Garbage Project's^an- _
thropological landfill excavations in a humorous but
lightening style. The author, an anthropologist,
shows how our waste disposal practices can give
much insight into human behavior and culture. The
Tumor has also published a book by the same title.
Bobbins, John. "Can Earth Survive the^BigMac^At-
tack?" £ Magazine 3, no. 1 (January 1992). 38+. [IV]
Introduction: "Animal agriculture has grown to an
industry at odds with the health of the;planet A
reduction in meat consumption ^ay be the single
most potent act we can take to halt the destruction
of our environment. The time has come to think
before we eat." Article describes the envu-onmental
effects from meat consumption, including -Rabbins
tadex" of factoids. The author also mentions health
problems associated with eating meat as well as
ethical concerns. . .
Robins, Nick, and Atex TriaoQltoi'^tructuring
industry for Sustainable Development. In Making
DevlZment Sustainable: Redefining Institutes,
Policy, and Economics, pp. 157-194. Johan
Holmberg. ed. Washington: Island Press. 1992. [IV]
This chapter discusses the context and strategies for
sustainable development within the global^dus-
trial'sector! In the North industnes are undergoing
a '^materialization" per unit GNP.wru n the
' South there * rapid mdustrialization. Mentions the
-------
Pollution Prevention
Educational Resource Compendium:
Environmental
Studies
POU.UTK1N
Un««r*ity of1 Miet«8»n. D«n» Sulkling *"
430 Eut Univ«(iity Av«.
Ann Afbor. Ml 48109-1115
313-754-1412 • Fix: 313-936-219S • E-MAII: nppeOumien.«du'
-------
» Coj..,. .jht lyyS by OK Regents of the University of Michigan.
Educators may freely reproduce these materials for non-commercial educational purposes.
Original produced on HammermUl Unity DP, a 50% post-coHSumer/50% pn-amsumer
recycled pepe/' made from de-inked old newspapers and magazines.
Published by:
The National Pollution Prevention Center
for Higher Education
University of Michigan, Dana Building
430 East University Ave.
AnnArtoor, Ml 48109-1115
• Phone: 313-764-1412
•Fax: 313-936-2195
• E-mail: nppcOumich.edu
The mission of the NPPC is to promote sustainable development
by educating students, faculty, and professionals about pollution
prevention: create educational materials; provide tools and
strategies for addressing relevant environmental problems: and
establish a national network of pollution prevention educators.
In addition to developing educational materials and conducting
•research, the NPPC also offers an internship program, profes-
sional education and training, and conferences.
Your Input is Welcomel
We are very interested in your feedback on these materials.
Please take a moment to off or your comments and communicate
them to us. Also contact us rt you wish to receive a documents
list, order any of our materials, collaborate on or review NPPC
resources, or be listed in our Dinctory of Pollution Prevention
in Higher Education.
We're Going Onllnel
The NPPC provides information on its programs and educaBqnal
materials through the Internet's World Wide Web: our URL is:
http://www.snre.umich.edu/ (dick on "National Pollution
Prevention Center*)-
We may also update the NPPC information available through
gopher (gopher.snre.umich.edu) and anonymous FTP
(ftp.snre.umich.edu). Please contact us if you have comments
about our online resources or suggestions for publicizing our
educational materials through the internet Thank you!
December 1994
-------
Pollution Prevention in
Environmental Studies
"umwtM. POLLUTION CBEVtMTXJH CIVTEB FOfl HIQMCH EOUO>TTO«<
Table of Contents
Explanation of Compendium Contents
Introductory Materials
O Overview of Environmental Problems
D Pollution Prevention Concepts and Principle
' v • • , . • ' ""
a Introduction: Pollution Prevention and
Environmental Jtudies
Pollution Prevention and Environmental Studies
Resource List
• NPPC Resources
Q Annotated Bibliography of Environmental
Studies-Related Pollution Prevention Sources
O Selected Readings ' .
O Bibliographic Teaching Outline
O Suggested Course Structures
a References by Academic Discipline
D Slide Show: "EPA's Comprehensive Pollution
Prevention Orientation"
•Mt"_-l 1** "_JT- 22* _ -««^J"_¥rf» --.'*••_ -j^v
Decemtx5r1994
3
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Pollution Prevention in
Environmental Studies
I MKJH6X EDUCATOR
Explanation of Compendium Contents
• introductory Materials
D Overview of Environmental Problem*. This lengthy paper Wgh-
liehte major areas of environmental concern: energy use, global
change resource depletion, land use and development, waste, air
quality, water quality and quantity, ecological health, and human
healdv It includes definitions of concepts and terms, current data
and research findings on the state of the environment, tables,
figures, and guidance on obtaining additional information.
This document is desired (o assist faculty members from all
disciplines in prepa ring course materials and lectures. For Acuity
(and students) who may not have extensive knowledge of environ-
mental Issues, it provides background information; for people
already familiar with environmental problems, it is a convenient,
concise source of current data. The document is formatted so ma*
individual topic areas can be easily reproduced for distribution to
students; all figures and tables are provided in a full-page format
suitable for overhead projection.
D Pollution Prevention Concepts and Principles. This short paper
introduces the concepts, terminology, objectives, and scope of poUu-
tion prevention. It discusses how government and the private sector
are currently perceiving and implementing pollution prevention
and describes the barriers and benefits encountered in implementing
> pollution prevention activities.
D Introduction: Pollution Prevention and Environmental Studies.
A brief introduction that provides imagery to answer the question _
"Why teach pollution prevention in an environmental studies class?
• pollution Prevention and Environmental Studies
Resource List
A list of relevant resources known to the NPPC, including materials
we produce and/or distribute. It is arranged by the following
topics, which correspond with the Bibliographic Teaching Outline:
(I) "Introduction to Pollution Prevention," (II) "Understanding
Pollution Prevention Through Life-Cycle Impact Assessment,"
(ffl) "Management of Pollution Prevention," and (IV) "Pollution
Prevention in Practice." Note that all NPPC Resources (see next
section) are listed in the Resource List—they are indicated by the
NPPC logo.
December 1994
-------
• NPPC Re*ourc««. The NPPC produces and distributes all of
these resources; in many cases, the NPPC has also developed them.
All are listed by topic in the Resource List (see previous section).
n Annotated Bibliography of Environmental Studies-Related
Pollution Prevention Sources. Describes aO materials included
in the Resource List Alphabetically lists 47 books, 24 reports,
99 articles, 6 videos, and 13 course syllabi, making a total of
189 resources for environmental studies instructors. Each listing
includes a short paragraph describing its pollution-prevention
relevance in an environmental studies context
O Selected Readings.
- Curran, Mary Ann: "Broad-Based Environmental
Life Cycle Assessment"
- Jamieson, Dale, and Was! ia VanderWerf.
"Cultural Barriers to Behavior Change.*'
-Wise, John: Oud.enges for the Future."
D Bibliographic Teaching Outline. Leads the reader through im-
portant pollution prevention topics, ranging from fundamental
concepts to everyday applications. It is written in narrative fotm,
within an outline mat has the same structure as the Resource List
The main purpose is to serve as a teaching guide for integrating
pollution prevention in environmental studies courses; a^second-
ary purpose is to provide an easy way for teachers to locate re-
sources of particular interest
D Suggested Course Structures. Outlines major topics in the
Bibliographic Teaching Outline to suggest how long to spend on
the topics depending on the amount of classroom time available,
be it one day to an entire semester. ;
D References by Academic Discipline. Teachers approach envi-
romnentalstudies from many disciplines. This list shows the rele-
vance of Resource List materials to seven liberal arts disoplines:
Biology and Natural Resources; C^emistry/Physics/Mathematics/
Geology; Economics; Education; Humanities; Political Science/
Policy Studies; and Sociology/Psychology/ Anthropology. •
D Slide Show. "EPA's Comprehensive Pollution Prevention
Orientation." This introductory slide show is used in the pollution
prevention training seminar required of all U.S. EPA employees.
It puts pollution prevention in historical perspective; describes
with examples techniques industry can use to practice prevention;
and examines EPA's pollution prevention programs.
December 1994
5
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Pollution Prevention in
Environmental Studies
Pollution Prevention and
Environmental Studies
Prepared by Andrew Duncan, NPPC Research Assistant
Why teach pollution prevention (P2) in environmental
studies courses? The following hypothetical scenarios
help answer this question:
• In-Cheryl's "Environmental Policy" class., she turned
her focus to recent initiacives. She first gave a lecture
introducing students to the concept of preventing
rather than treating or cleaning up pollution, and.
explained why pollution prevention is becoming the
dominant environmental policy theme for the 1990s.
She used slides from EPA's Comprehensive Pollution-
Prevention Orientation slide show (available through
the NPPC) to illustrate the many P2 initiatives at EPA,
in businesses, and elsewhere. She also had students
read the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 as well as
EPA's subsequent P2 policy announcement in the
Federal Register. Her students came away with not
only an understanding of P2, but also a better grasp
of the policy implementation process.
• It was rime for class projects in "Introduction to
Environmental Issues." Several students wanted to
examine waste reduction opportunities in a local fast
food establishment. Although their initial focus was
on eliminateg plastic foam "clamshells," they took
a more informed look after learning about life-cycle
impacts and pollution prevention. They realized
that many of the significant waste reduction oppor-
tunities are not readily visible to customers. So the
students focused instead on waste minimization
behind-the-counter. The manager of the local estab-
lishment found their suggestions very helpful, and
promised to make changes to reduce waste.
• Todd emphasized the connection between the ecology
of natural sys.tems and sustainable use of natural
resources in his "Natural Resources 101" course.
He used the life cycle of a paper bag to illustrate the;"
environmental impacts of forest resource use. By
taking a life-cycle approach, He could show that not
, only sustainable forestry practices, but also low-
. impact manufacturing processes, reuse, and recycling
can help reduce these environmental impacts.
These hypothetical examples illustrate how P2 is an
integral component of environmental studies themes. ,
While much of the pollution prevention education is
now taking place in the business and engineering fields,
there are many opportunities for integrating the P2
concept in liberal arts and natural resources. Indeed,
understanding the preventive approach to environ-
mental problems is a basic tenet of ecological literacy.
With this compendium, teachers and students can
make the connection between overall concerns, such as
ecological balance and sustainability, and prevention-
based approaches for effective action. The resources
in this compendium highlight pollution prevention as
the emerging'tool for businesses, government policy?
makers, as well as individuals. While it is easy to recog-
nize that "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of
cure," it can be difficult to grasp effective opportunities
for pollution prevention. Therefore, the compendium
stresses how environmental impacts, and opportunities
for pollution prevention, occur over the entire life cycle
of a product. Such life-cycle thinking helps students
(and teachers) to break out of the common mentality
that recycling is the be-all arid end-all of proactive
environmental management.
Teachers approach environmental studies from many
different perspectives, therefore mis module is meant
to be as useful for a teacher with a history background
as it is'for someone with training in chemistry. There
are many suggestions how P2 concepts can be used
to examine, familiar topics. Whether it be cleaning
products or transportation, the compendium provides
resources and suggestions indicating the many ways'
P2 and life cycle impact concepts are applicable in our
everyday lives. -' .
National Pollution Prevention Center (or Higner Education • University of Micnigan
Dana Euiidmg. 430 East University. Ann Amor Ml 48109-1115
Phone 3,13 764 1412 • Fax 313 936 2195 • E-maii nppc«umich edu
May Oe reproduced
freely for non-commercial
educational purposes
t -• •_•
Introduction • 11
December 1 994
'''•'. • 1
-------
Original produced on Hammennill Unity DP,
a 50% post
-------
Pollution prevention in
Environmental Studies
. «*VWTX>. CSXK* COW
Pollution Prevention and
Environmental Studies Resource List
Prepared by Andrew Duncan, NPPC Research Assistant. -
' The Moving materials ore available to faculty who ore incorporating pollution
'prevention concepts and tools into their courses. We have attempted to make this
'list as comprehensive as possible; please contact us if you can identify gaps and
assist us infilling them with quality resource materials. This list includes
resources aixilable through the NPPC (*); the U.:.-Environmental Protection
Agency Pollution Prevention Information Clearinghouse, Washington, DC,,
202/260-1023 («B*); and the Center for Environmental Research Information,
Cincinnati, Ohio, 513/569-7562 «}. AS materials listed here are described mOus
compendium's annotated bibliography.
Key Documents
Outran, Mary Ann. "Broad-Based Environmental
Life Cycle Assessment.' Environmental Science
and Technology^, no. 3 (1993): 430-436. 4*
Habicht, F. Henry II. EPA Definition of'Pollution
Prevention' (internal memo to all EPA personnel).
28 May 1992. »B* :
Hirschhom. Joel S., and Kirsten U. Oldenburg,
Prosperity Without Pollution: The Prevention
Strategy for Industry and Consumers. New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1991. Available for $19.95
by calling 1-800-926-2665.
Jamieson, Dale, and*Klasina VanderWerf.
Cultural Barriers to Behavioral Change: General
Recommendations and Resources for State
Pollution Prevention Programs. Boulder Center
lor Values and Social Policy, July 1993. To obtain
a copy, contact the CVSP, University of Colorado,
Boulder, CO 80309-0332. A
Miller, G. Tyler Jr., ed. Living in the Environment:
Principles. Connections, and Solutions, 8th ed.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company,
1994. 701+ ppi ,
Smith, Emily T.f David Woodruff, and Fteur
Tempteton. "Growth vs. Environment: In Rio Next
Month, a Push for Sustainable Development."
Business Week (11 May 1992): 66-70.72-75.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Communication, Education, and Public Affairs.
EPA JoumaA-special issue on pollution prevention.
Vol. 19, no. 3 (July 1993). 50 pp. (To obtain a free
copy, the EPA Public Information Center at
202/260-7751.)
-. office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic
Substances. 1993 Reference Guide to Pollution
Prevention Resources. Washington: EPA, February
1993.
Wise, John. "Challenges for the Future." In 1993
Spring Conference: Connections for Pollution Pre-
vention, pp. 54-62; proceedings of the National
Roundtable of State Pollution Prevention Programs,
San Diego, CA, 28 April 1993. A
Nano'na. PoUu«n
Dana Building. 430 East University. Ann Amor
\P^ne 313764J412 • Fax: 313.936.2195 • E-mail: nppcaum.ch.edu
May oe reproduced
Ireely for non-corrimercial
educational purposes.
Resource List • 1
Oecemoer 1994
-------
Introduction to Pollution Prevention C. Pollution Prevention Policy
A. Preamble:
Sustainabiltty and Pollution Prevention
Agenda 21: The Earth Summit Strategy to Save
Our Planet. Boulder. EarthPress, 1993.
Goodland, Robert. The Case That the World Has
Reached Limits." In Population, Technology, and
Lifestyle: The Transition to Sustainability, pp. 3-22.
Robert Goodland, Herman E. Daly, and Salah El
Sarafey. eds. Washington: Island Press,, 1992.
Gore, Al. Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the
Human Spirit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992.
Larson. Eric D.. Marc H. Ross, and Robert H.
Williams. "Beyond the Era of Materials." Scientific
Amoncan 254. no. 6 (1986): 34-41.
Lave, Lester B., Chris hendrickson, and Francis C. ^
McMichael. "Recycling Decisions and Green Design."
Environmental Science and Technology 28, no. 1
(1994): 18A-24A.
Peet. John. Energy and the Ecological Economics of
Sustainability. Washington: Island Press, 1992.
Tolba. Mostala K., and Osama A. El-Kholy. eds.
The World Environment 1972-1992: Two Decades of
Challenge. 884pp. London: Chapman and Hall (on
behalf of United Nations Environment Program), 1992.
World Resources Institute and Institute for
Environment and Development. World Resources
1994-1995. New York: Baste Books, 1994.
Wynne. Brian. "Uncertainty and Environmental
Learning: Reconceiving Science and Policy in the
Preventive Paradigm." Global Environmental
Change2, no. 2 (June 1992): 111-127.
B. History of Pollution Prevention
Conn, David W. "Waste Reduction—Issues and
Policies." Resources Policy 3 (March 1977): 23+.
Rathje, William L. "Rubbish!" The Atlantic Monthly
264 (December 1989): 99-109.
Andrews, Richard. "Heading Off Potential Prob-
lems." EPA Journal 18, no. 2 (May 1992): 40-45.
Baucus, Max. "Environmental Technology and the
Economy." EPA Journal [see "Key Documents"]:
36-37.
Byers, R. Lee. "Regulatory Barriers to Pollution
Prevention." Air and Waste (Journal of the Air and
Waste Management Association) 41, no. 4 (1991):
418-422.
Casler, Stephen D. "Budget Reallocation and the
Peace Dividend: Energy and Pollution Tradeoffs."
Energy Policy 19 (September 1991): 666-669.
Commoner, Barry. Making Peace With the Planet.
New York: The New Press, 1992.
Freeman. Harry, Teresa Harten, Johnny Springer,
Paul Randall, Mary Ann Curran, and Kenneth Stone.
"Industrial Pollution Prevention: A Critical Review."
Air and Waste (Journal of the Air and Waste Man-
agement Association) 42, no. 5 (1992): 618-656,
Hayes, Dennis. "Energy, Environment, and Archi-
tecture." Keynote speech, American Institute of
Architects, Committee on the Environment. Atlanta,
Georgia, 6 December 1991. Available from the AIA,
1735 New York Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20006.
Hileman, Bette. "UN Environment Program Pushes
for Cleaner Production." Chemical and Engineering
News 70, no. 48 (30 November 1992): 17-21.
"How To Get Industry to Clean Up On Its Own."
Business Week (7 June 1993): 122.
Lieberman, Joseph I. "Why Not Require Pollution
Prevention Planningr EPA Journal [see "Key
Documents"]: 34-35.
Lis, James, and Kenneth Chilton. "Limits to Pollution
Prevention." Soc/ery30, no. 3 (1993): 49-55.
Lovins, Amory B. "Abating Air Pollution at Nega-
tive Cost Via Energy Efficiency." Environmental
Professional 12 (April 1990): 164-168.
National Research Council, Committee on Institu-
tional Considerations in Reducing the Generation of
Hazardous Industrial Wastes. Reducing Hazardous
Waste Generation: An Evaluation and a Call for Ac-
tion. Washington: National Academy Press, 1985.
Resource List • 2
Oecemeer 1994
-------
Ophuis. William, and A. Stephen Boyan, Jr. Ecology
and the Politics of Scarcity Revisited: The Unraveling
of the American Dream. New York: W. H. Freeman
and Company, 1992.
President's Commission on Environmental Quality,
duality Environmental Management Committee.
Total Quality Management: A Framework for Pollu-,
tion Prevention. Washington, 1993. To request a
copy, contact PCEQ at 202/395-5750. .
Rabe, Barry G. "From Pollution Control to Pollution
Prevention: The Gradual Transformation of American
Environmental Regulatory Policy." Environmental and
Planning Law Journal (September 1991): 226-231:
Roy, Manik. "Environmental Law: Pollution Preven-
tion Organizational Culture, and Social Learning."
Environmental Law 22 (1991): 189-225.
US, Congress, Office of Technology Assessment.
Serious Reduction of Hazardous Waste: For Pollu-
tion Prevention and Industrial Efficiency. Washington:
U.S. Government Printing Office, September 1986.
(Out of print, but available in many libraries. Not
copyright protected.)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Pollution
Prevention Strategy." Federal Register 56, no. 38
(1991): 7849-7864. «B*
, Science Advisory Board. Reducing Risk:
Setting Priorities and Strategies for Environmental
Protection. Washington: EPA. 1990.
World Conservation Union (IUCN), United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP), and World Wildlife
Fund for Nature (WWF). Caring for the Earth: A
Strategy for Sustainable Living. Gland, Switzerland:
. IUCN/UNEP/WWF (Earthscan Edition), 1991.
//. Understanding Pollution Prevention
Through Life-Cycle Impact Assessment
A. The Big Picture: Holistic Analysis
Dake, Karl. "Myths of Nature: Culture and the Social
Construction of Risk.: Journal of Social Issues 48,
no. 4(1992): 21-37. ; ,
Frankenfeld, Philip J. "Simple Gifts: Complex
Environmental Hazards.and the Responsibility
to Leave a Controllable World." Futures 25, no. 1
(1993): 32-52. '
Meadows, Donella H., Dennis L. Meadows, and
Jorgen Randers. Beyond the Limits: Confronting
Global Collapse, Envisioning a Sustainable Future.
Post Mills, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing Company,
1992.
Mitsch, William J. "Ecological Engineering."
Environmental Science and Technology 27, no. 3
(1993): 438-445.
Mitsch, William J., and Sven Erik Jorgensen,
eds. Ecological Engineering: An Introduction to
Ecotechnology. Somerset, NJ: John Wiley & Sons,
1989.472pp.
Orr, David.The Campus and the Biosphere."
Journal of Conservation Biology 3, no. 2 (June
1989): 33+.
Tibbs, Hardin B. C. "Industrial Ecology: An Environ-
mental Agenda for Industry." Whole Earth Review
77 (December 1992): 4-19.
U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment
Green Products by Design: Choices for a Cleaner.
Environment GPOf 052-003-01303-7. Washington:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992, •
Uusitalo, Licsa. Environmental Impacts of Consump-
tion Patterns. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986.
Wann, David. Biologic: Environmental Protection by
Design. Boulder Johnson Books, 1990.
B. Life-Cycle Impact Assessment
Framework
Hockings Martin B. "Paper Versus Polystyrene:
A Complex Choice." Science 251 (1991): 504-505.
Keoleian, Gregory A., and Dan Menerey. Life Cycle
Design Guidance Manual: Environmental Require-
ments and the Product System. EPA/600/R-92/226.
Cincinnati: EPA, Office of Research and Develop-
ment, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory,
January 1993. $
; . "Sustainable Development by Design: Review
of Life Cycle Design and Related Approaches." Air
& Waste (Journal of the Air & Waste Management
Association) 44 (May 1994): 645-668.
Nash, Jennifer, and Mark D. Stoughton. "Learning
to Live With 'Life Cycle Assessment." Environmental
Science and Technology 2B, no.. 5 (1994): 236A-
237A.
Resource List • 3
December 1994
-------
Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
' SET AC). Guidelines for Life-Cycle Assessment:
A Cede of Practice. SETAC workshop, Sesimbra.
Portugal. 31 March-3 April 1993. Cost: $25 for •
non-members, $15 for members. Wnte to SETAC,
1010 N. 12th Ave.. Pensacola. FL 32501; call
904/469-1500; or fax 904/469-9778.
Walley Dariene, Karen Blurnenfeld, Nancy Kolodny,
and Nasir Ali. "Case Study: A Product Life-Cycle As-
sessment of Arm & Hammer Baking Soda." Pollution
Prevention Review 3, no. 1 (December 1992): 51-€4.
White, Allen U and Karen Shapiro. -Life Cycle As-
sessment: A Second Opinion." Environmental Science
& Technology 27, no. 6 (June 1993): 1016-1017.
C. Con»ro'"»rs: • Issues in Ufa-Cycle
Impact Assessment
Crossen, Cynthia. "How Tactical Research1 Muddied
Diaper D3bate." W*" Street Journal (17 May 1994):
Bt, 83.
Koshland Jr., Daniel F. The Dirty Air Act" (editorial).
Science 249 (28 September 1990): 1481.
Lifset. Reid. "Greener Than Thou Wars—Raising
the Ante for Life. Cycle Analyses." Biocycle 32
(April 1991): 76-77.
Portney, Paul R. The Price Is Right: Making Use of
Life Cycle Analyses." Issues in Science and Tech-
nology 10, no. 2 (December 1993): 69-75.
Stipp, David. -Life-Cycle Analysis Measures Green-
ness, But Results May Not Be Black and White,
Wall Street Journal J2B February 1991): B1, B5.
U S Environr-=ntal Protection Agency. Videotapes:
• Less Is More: rollution Prevention is Good Business
(1986; 23 minutes) and Beyond Business as Usual:
Meeting the Challenge of Hazardous Wasfe(28 min-
utes). To obtain either video, call Mary Ann Welch.
Region VIII Office of Environmental Education, at
303/294-1123 and arrange to send in a blank tape.
Wang. Michael Q. "Life Cycle Assessments."
Environmental Science & Technology 27, no. 13
(December 1993): 2658-2661.
Wells. Henry A.. Neil McCubbin. Red Cavaney,
Bonnie Camo. and M. B. Hocking. -Paper Versus
Polystyrene: Environmental Impact." Science 25*.,
no. 7 (June 1991): 1361-1363.
///. Managing Pollution Prevention r
A. Business Management
Carson, Patrick, and Julia Moulden. Green Is Gold:
Business Talking to Business About the Environ-
mental Revolution. Toronto: HarperBusmess,
HarperCollins, 1991.
Cebon, Peter. "Corporate Obstacles to Pollution
Prevention." EPA Journalises "Key Documents!:
20-22.
Conway, R. A.. John H. Frick, David J. Warner
Calton C. Wiles, and E. Joseph Duckett. Waste
Minimization Practice^. Baltimore: American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 1989.
Cook Jamo*. The Ghosts of Christmas Yet To
Come.'For, >s(22Ji »1992): 92-95.
Dorfman, Mark H., Warren R. Muir, and Catherine
Q Miller. Environmental Dividends: Cutting More
Chemical Wastes. New York: INFORM. Inc., 1992.
Available for $75 (plus $3 S/H) from^NFORMJnc.,
120 Wall Street, 16th floor. New York, NY 10005
(phone: 212/361-2400).
Dyllick, Thomas. "Ecological Marketing Strategy for
Toni Yogurts in Switzerland." Journal of Business
Ethics 8 (August 1989): 657-662.
Forester, William S., and John H. Skinner. Waste
Minimization and Clean Technology: Waste Man-
agement Strategies for the Future. San Diego:
Academic Press, Inc., 1992.
Garfield, Bob. "Beware: Green Overkill."
Advertising Age (25 January 1991): 26.
Geiser, Ken. The Greening of Industry."
Technology Review 94 (August 1991): 64-72,
Goldstein, Nora. "Marketing Strategy for£™"
Products." In Business 12. no. 3 (May 1990). 38-39.
Hawken, Paul. "A Declaration of Sustainability."
Utne Reader 59 (September 1993): 54-61.
Henion, Karl E., and Thomas C. Kinnear eds The
Qonserver Society. Chicago: American Marketing
Association, 1979.
Maxwell, James, Lola Matysiak, Jennifer Nash
and John Ehrenfeld. -Case Study: Preventing Waste
Beyond Company Walls: P&G's Response to the
Needfor Environmental Quality." Pollution Prevention
' Review 3, no. 3 (June 1993): 317-333.
-------
McDonald's Corporation and the Environmental
Defense Fund (EOF). 'Waste Reduction Task Force:
• Final Report. 1991. McDonald's, Environmental ,
Affairs Department, McDonald's Plaza, Oak Brook,
'IL 60521.
McMurray, Scott. "Chemical Firms Find That It Pays
to Reduce Pollution at Source." Wall Street Journal
(11 June 1991): A1.A6.
Piasecki, Bruce, and Peter Asrrius. In Search of
Environmental Excellence: Moving Beyond Blame.
New York: Simon & Schuster/Touchstone, 1990.
Pojasek, Robert 8. "For Pollution Prevention: Be
. Descriptive Not Prescriptive." Chemical Engineenng
98 (September 1991): 136-139.
-Pollution Prevention Progress." In Environ-
mental Risk Management—A Desk Reference,
pp 503-519. Eric B. Rothenberg and Dean Jeffrey
Telego. eds. Alexandria, VA: RTM Communications,
Inc., 1991.
Post, James E. "Managing As If the Earth Mattered."
Business Horizons 34, no. 4 (July 1991): 32-38.
Robins, Nick, and Alex Trisoglio. -Restructuring
Industry for Sustainable Development." In Making
Development Sustainable: Redefining Institutions,
Policy, and Economics, pp. 157-194. Johan
Holmberg, ed. Washington: Island Press, 1992.
Schmidheiny, Stephan, with the Business Council
for Sustainable Development. Changing Course: A
Global Business Perspective on Development and
the Environment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,1992.
Sheridan, John H. "Pollution Prevention Picks Up
Steam." Industry Week 241 (17 February 1992): 36-K
Smart, Bruce, ed. Beyond Compliance: A New
• Industry View of the Environment. Washington:
• World Resources Institute, April 1992.
- Underwood, Joanna D. "Going Green for Profit."
EPA Journal [see "Key Documents"]: 9-13.
U S Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Pollution Prevention. Pollution Prevention 1991:
Progress on Reducing Industrial Pollutants.-
Washington: EPA, 199.1. *S*
___ Office of Research and Development. Facility
Pollution Prevention Guide. EPA/600/R-92/088.
Washington: EPA, 1992. t
B. Governmental Management
Browner, Carol M. "Pollution Prevention Takes
Center Stage." EPA Journal [see "Key Documents"]:
o-a. ..•'••• . \- '
Kling David J., and Eric Schaeffer,"EPA's Flagship
Programs.' EPA Journal [see "Key Documents"]:
26-30. .
Lewis Eleanor J., and Eric Weltman. Forty Ways to
Make Government Purchasing Green. Washington: -
Center for the Study of Responsive Law, 1992. To
obtain a copy, contact the CSRL, P.O. Box 19367,
Washington, D.C. 20036.,
"A Paper Tale..." (Washington Report). The Office
117 (February 1993): 14.
U S Congress, Office of Technology Assessment.
Chancing by Degrees: Steps to Reduce Greenhouse
"Gases.' (OTA-0-482) Washington: U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1992. ,
U S Environmental Protection Agency, Office of .
Policy, Planning, and Evaluation. Regulatory Innova-
tions Staff. Promoting Source Reduction and Recyc-
lability in the Marketplace: A Study of Consumer and
Industry Response to Promotion of Source Reduced,
Recycled, -and Recyclable Products and Packaging.
Washington: EPA, 1989.
office of Pollutidn Prevention. Pollution Pre-
vention Fact Sheet: Local Governments and Pollu-
' tion Prevention. Washington: EPA, 1991. «e»
_ office of Pollution Prevention. Report on the
U.S.'Environmental Protection Agency's Pollution
Prevention Program. Washington: EPA, 1991. *B*
• Office of Research and Development, Risk
Reduction Engineering. Laboratory. Pollution Pre-
vention Case Studies Compendium. Cincinnati:
EPA, 1992.*
US General Accounting Office: Pollution Preven-
tion- EPA Should Reexamine the Objectives and
Sustainabilitybf State Programs, Washington: U.S.
General-Accounting Office/January 1994. Available
from the GAO, P.O. Box 6015, Gaithersburg, MD
20884-6015; request doc. #GAO/PEMD-94-8.
U. S. President. Executive Order 12856, August 3,
1993. "Federal Compliance with Right-to-Know
Laws and Pollution Prevention Requirements."
Federal Register 58,-no. 150 (6 August 1993):
41981-41987. •
Resource List-'5
• Decemoer 1994-
-------
Executive Order 12873. October 20, 1993.
•"Federal Acquisition, Recycling, and Waste Preven-
tion." Federal Register 58, no. 203 (22 October
1993): 54911-54919. *B*
Executive Order 12902, March 8, 1994.
•Energy Efficiency and Water Conservation at
Federal Facilities." Federal Register 59, no. 47
(10 March 1994): 11463-11471.
C. The Role of Individuals and Society
•Are You A Green Consumer?" Consumer Reports
57. no. 11 (November 1992): 704-707.
Caplan, Ruth and the staff of Environmental Action.
Our Earth Our Selves: The Action Oriented Guide
to Help You Protect and Preserve Our Planet. New
York: Bantam Books, 1990.
Conn David W., ed. Energy and Material Resources:
Attitudes. Values, and Public Policy. AAAS Selected
Symposium 75. Boulder. Westview Press. 1983.
De Young. Raymond. "Changing Behavior and Mak-
ing it Stick: The Conceptualization and Management
of Conservation Behavior." Environment and Behav-
ior 25,-no. 4 (July 1993): 485-505.
-Some Psychological Aspects of Living Lightly:
Desired Lifestyle Patterns and Conservation Behav-
ior." Journal of Environmental Systems 20 (1991):
215-227.
Durnmg. Alan T. How Much Is Enough? The Con-
sumer Society and the Future of the Earth. New
Yock: W.W. Norton, 1992.
Earthworks Group. 50 Simple Things You Can Do to
Save the Earth. Berkeley: Earthworks Press, 1989.
The Student Environmental Action Guide: 25
Things We Can Do. Berkeley: Earthworks Press,
1991.
Elkmgton. John. Julia Hailes, and Joel Makower.
The Green Consumer. New York: Penguin, 1990.
Harris, Mark D. Embracing the Earth: Choices for
Environmentally Sound Living. Chicago: The Noble
Press. 1991.
Kane. Hal. "Put It on My Carbon Tab." World Watch
6. no. 3 (1993): 38-39.
Kenworthy. Lauren, and Eric Schaeffer. Preventing
Industrial ' Hazards. New York: INFORM, Inc.,
1993. Avanacie for S25 (plus S3 S/H) from INFORM,
Inc.. 120 Wall Street. 16th floor. New York, NY
10005 (phone: 212/361-2400).
Lai, On-Kwok. 'Making Sense of the Greening of
Consumption and Production." Journal of Cleaner
Production ' 1 , no. 1 (1993): 43-47.
Letter, Donald W. EarthScore: Your Personal Envi-
ronmental Audit & Guide. Lafayette, CA: Morning
Sun Press, 1993.
Moos, Shawna. "Pollution-Prevention Power to the
People." Technology Review 95 (October 1992):
15-16.
National Research Council, Commission on the Be-
havioral and Social Sciences and Education, Com-
mittee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change.
Global Environmental Change: Understanding the
Human Dimensions. Paul C. Stem, Orun R. Young,
and Daniel Druckman, eds. Washington: National
Acader,iy Press, 1992.
Schwepker, C. H.. and T. B. Comwell. "An exami-
nation of Ecologically Concerned Consumers and
Their Intention to Purchase Ecologically Packaged
Products." Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 10,
no. 2 (September1991): 77-101.
"Selling Green." Consumer Reports 56, no. 10
(October 1 991 ): 687-692.
Seymour, John, and Herbert Girardet. Blueprint for
a Green Planet. New'York: Prentice Hall, 1987.
Stern, Paul C. "Psychological Dimensions of Global
Environmental Change." Annual Review of Psycno/-
pgy 43 (1992): 269-302.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Policy, Planning, and Evaluation. You Can Make
a Difference. EPA/903/M-90/001 . Washington,
January 1 990.
_ _, Office of Solid Waste. The Consumer's Hand-
book for Reducing Solid Waste. EPA/530-K-92-003.
Washington: EPA, August 1992. Available free of
charge by calling the RCRA Hotline (800/424-9346).
Vargish. Thomas. "Why the Person Sitting Next to
You Hates Limits to Growth." Technological Fore-
casting and Social Change 16 (1980): 179-189.
Wang, Penelope. "One Family's Finances: It's Not
Easy Being Green." Money 19, no. 4 (April 1990):
pp. 100 -K
Winett, Richard A., and Peter Ester. -Behavioral Sci-
ence and Energy Cpnservation: Conceptualizations,
Strategies, Outcomes, Energy Policy Applications."
Journal of Economic Psychology 3 (1 983): 203-229.
Resource List • 6
Decemoer 1994
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IV. Pollution Prevention Applications
(arranged alphabetically by topic)
Agriculture and Food Production
Holrnes, Hannah. "Eating Low on the Food Chain."
Garbage 4, no. 1 (January 1992): 32-37. •
Hume, Scott. The Green Revolution: McDonalds."
Advertising Age 62, no. 5 (29 January 1991): 32.
Lefferts, Lisa Y., and Roger Blobaum. "Eating as if
the Earth Mattered." E Magazine 3, no. 1 (January
1992): 30-37.
Moore, W. Kent, and David L. Scott. "Beverage Con-
tainer Deposit Laws: Survey of the Issues and Results."
Journal of Consumer Affairs 17, no. 1 (1983): 57--80.
Robbins, John. "Can Earth Survive the Big Mac
Attack?" E Magazine 3, no. 1 (January 1? ': 38+.
Where Our Food Comes From (videos by students
at Oberlin and Hendrix colleges). Hour-long videos
can be rented for the cost of shipping; shorter vidso
is free of charge. Contact Meadowcreek, Box 100,
Fox, AK 72051 (phone: 501/363-4500).
Architecture
McGraw. Jack W. The Denver Airport: Pollution
Prevention by Design." EPA Journal 18, no. 2
(May 1992): 18-19.
Scholand, Michael. "Building for the Future."
World Watch 6, no. 6 (November 1993): 36-38.
Batteries ,
Carpi, John. "Green Batteries: Powering Innovation."
E Magazine 5, no. 2 (March 199.4): 46-47, 67.
Gasbarro, Ron. "Getting Rid of Batteries." Garbage
3, no. 5 (September 1991): 42-43.
Cleaning and Cleaning Products
Harris, Mark. "Bright Makes Blight." E Magazine 4,
no. 6 (November 1993): 51-52.
• Rose! Julian. "And the Detergent 'Eco-label1 Goes
to, . ." Environmental Science and Technology 28,
no. 4(1994); 179A.
Consumer Products
Holmes. Hannah, arid Patricia Poore. "Packaging in
the '90s." Garbage 4, ho, 6 (January 1993): 24-31.
Kleiner, Art. "Compact Packaging for the Compact
Disk." Garbage 3, no. 6 (November 1991): 50-51.
Diapers
Arthur D. Little, consultants. Disposable Versus
Reusable Diapers: Health, Environmental and
Economic Comparisons. Cambridge, MA:
Arthur D. Little, 1990.
The Green Revolution: Procter & Gamble."
Advertising Age 62, no. 5 (29 January 1991): 16, 34.
Holusha, John. "Diaper Debate: Cloth or Dispos-
able?" New York Times (14 July 1990) Section 1,
p. 46, col. 1.
Lehrburger, Carl. Diapers in the Waste Stream:
A Review of Waste Management and Public Policy
Issues. 1989.- To obtain a copy, contact the author
at P.O. Be 530, Sh 'ield, MA01257.
Poore, Patricia. "Disposable Diapers are OK."
Garbage4, no. 5 (October 1992): 26-31.
Energy Production and Conservation
Rocky Mountain Institute and U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Region VIII. Negawatts-~A
Goldmine of Opportunity (video). 1991. 20 minutes.
Available for $20 from the RMI, 1739 Snowmass ,
Creek Rd.. Snowmass, GO 81654-9199 (phone:
303/927-3851).
Hoodman, David MaJin. "Power Brokers: Managing
Demand for Electricity." World Watch 6, no. 6
(November 1993): 22-29. *
Tracey, Jim. "Green Lights for Home and Business."
Garbage 4, no. 5 (October1992): 49+.
Industrial P2
Metal Industries—Metal Finishing, Manufacturing
(fact sheets). Compiled by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides
and Toxic Substances. Washington: EPA, 1993. A
Moberg, David. "Sunset for Chlorine?"
E Magazine 4, no. 4 (July 1993): 26-31,
Transportation
Automotive Repair, Maintenance, Salvage Yards,
Painting, Radiators (fact sheets). Compiled by U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Pollution Preven-
tion Information Clearinghouse. Washington: EPA,
1993. «ER& . '- "/•..'
Decemoer 1994
-------
Ayers, Ed. "Breaking Away," World Watch 6, no. 1
(January 1993): 10-18.
Baldwin, J. "Green Cars." Garbage 5, no. 3 (June/
July 1993): 24-29. -
Flavin, Chnstopher. "Jump Start: New Automotive
Revolution." World Watch 6, no. 4 (July 1993): 27-33.
Holmes, Hannah. Telecommuting." Garbage 5,
no. 2 (Apnl/May 1993): 32-37.
Rocky Mountain Institute and the U.S. Environmen-
tal Protection Agency, Region VIII. Transportation
2000—Moving Beyond Auto America (video). 1991.
30 minutes. Available for $30 from the RMI, 1739
Snowmass Creek Rd., Snowmass, CO 81654-9199
(phone: 303/927-3851).
Water Po .don and Conservation
Postel, Sandra. "Water Tight." World Watch 6, no. 1
(January 1993): 10-25.
U «*. EPA, Region I. Turning the Tide: keeping Pol--
lution at Bay (video). 1991. 31 minutes. Available to
buy for $25 prepaid (or borrow for $15 prepaid) from
the-NeW England Interstate Environmental Training
Center. 2 Fort Road, South Portland, ME 04106
(phone: 207/767-2539).
Miscellaneous—Other
Bernards, Neal, ed. The Environmental Crisis: Oppos-
ing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1991.
Betts, Kellyn S. The Coming Green Computers."
E Magazine 5. no. 2 (March 1994); 28-35.
Keoleian. Gregory A., and Dan Menerey. "Dispos-
able vs. Reusable Systems—Two Source Reduction
Case Studies." Journal of Environmental Systems
20(1991): 343-357.
, "Packaging and Process Improvements: Three
Source Reduction Case Studies." Journal of Envi-
ronmental Systems 21, no. 1 (1992): 21-37.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Research and Development, Risk Reduction Engi-
neering Laboratory. Running a Conference as a
Clean Product. EPA/600/2/91/026. Cincinnati: EPA,
June 1991, 40 pp. -Available for $17.50 hardcover or
S9 microfiche (plus S4 S&H) from National Technical
Information Services: call 800/553-6847 and request
NTIS *PB92-109-99.
V. Educational Resources
A. Syllabi and Course Materials
Allen, David T., Nandkamur Bakshani, and Kirsten
S. Rosselot. Pollution Prevention: Homework & De-
sign Problems for Engineering Curricula. New York:
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American
Institute for Pollution Prevention, Center for Waste
Reduction Technologies, 1992. 155 pp. $35. To
order, call AlChE customer service at 800/242-4363.
Cohen, Mark A. Management 5596: Management of
Environmental Issues (syllabus). Vanderbilt Univer-
sity, Nashville, March 1993. A
De Young, Raymor\6..tNR561/NR361: Conservation
Behavic syl!;.bus). University of Michigan-Ann
Arbor, 1993. A
Design for Recycling Team. Teaching Environ-
mentally Responsible Design. Shirley T. Fleischman,
ed. Grand Valley State University, Grand Rapids, Ml,
22 October 1992.
Duncan, Andrew. "Pollution Prevention and Environ-
mental Studies Bibliographic Teaching Outline." *k
_. "Pollution Prevention and Environmental
Studies Suggested Course Structures." A
Fleischman, Marvin. Pollution Prevention, Waste
Treatment, and Disposal (syllabus) .^University of
Louisville, Kentucky, March 1993. «*
Hanlon, Deborah, and Julie Bartenstein. Teaching
Those Humans to Learn: Creative Approaches to
Pollution Prevention Training. Washington: EPA,
August 1992.
Kidd, David. Industrial Waste Reduction: A Three-
Credit University Curriculum for Environmental
Engineering. Alaska Health. Project, Anchorage,
October 1991. A
Procter and Gamble, Inc. Decision: Earth. An En-
vironmental Teaching Unit for Grades 7-12.1993.
Available frqm Procter & Gamble Educational Ser-
vices, P.O. Box 599, Cincinnati, OH 45201.
Rathje, William. Anthropology 337: Modem Material
Culture Studies (syllabus). University of Anzona,
1993. A
Tchudi Stephen. "A Lesson Plan in Pollution Preven-
tion." EPA Journal (see "Key Documents'!: 42-43.
Resource List • 3
December 1994
-------
Washington State Department of Ecology, Social and
Economic rSciences Research Center, Washington
State University, and the Waste Reduction Institute
for Training'and Applications Research (WRITAR).
Incorporating Pollution Prevention Concepts in-
Higher Education Curricula, 1991. Available for
$30 from WRITAR, 1313 Fifth Street SE, Suite 327,
Minneapolis, MN 55414-4502 (phone: 612/379-5995;
fax: 612/379-5996).
* . , - • '
Yust, Becky. DHA 1001: Introduction to the
Designed Environment (syllabus). University of
Minnesota, September 1991. A
B. Other Educational Resources
Amato, Ivan. The Slow Birth of Green Chemistry."
Science 259 (12 March 1993): 1538-1541.
Bakshani, Nandkumar, and David T. Allen. "In the
States: Pollution Prevention Education at Universi-
.ties in the United States." Pollution Prevention ffe-
v/evv3, no. 1 (December 1992): 97-105.
Corporate Conservation*Council, National Wildlife
Federation. Gaining Ground: Environmental Education
in Business Schools. Final Report of the Curriculum.
Development Project, National Wildlife Federation,
Washington, D.C., June 1992. Available free by;
calling 202/797-6878.
National Research Council, Commission on Life
Sciences, Committee on the Applications of Ecological
Theory to Environmental Problems. Ecological Know-
ledge and Environmental Problem-Solving: Concepts
'ana Case Studies. Washington: National Academy
Pre'ss, 1986. '."'./•
Orr, David W. Ecological Literacy: Education and
the Transition to the Postmodern World. Albany. NY:
State University of New York Press, 1992.
Purcell, Arthur H. "Invited Comments." Air A. Waste
(Journal of the Air & Waste Management Associa-
tion) 42 (1992): 1169-1170.
Washington State University, Social and Economic
Sciences Research Center. Incorporating Waste
Reduction Concepts in Higher Education Curricula.
Pullman, WA: Washington State University, March
1991. ' .•'•-'
VI. Faculty Involved in P2 Education
Richard Andrews .
Dept. of Environmental Sciences & Engineering .
School of Public Health
University of North Carolina
GB #7400, Rosenau Hall
Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7400
phone: 919/966-2359 - ')
fax: 919/966-7911 ' .
e-mail:. pete_andrews@ unc.edu
Nicholas Ashford
Ctr. for Technology, Policy & Industrial Development
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, MA 02139
phone:'617/253-1664
fax: 617/253-7140
Terence Ball
Social Sciences ,
University of Minnesota _• :'
Minneapolis, MN 55455 -
phone: 612/634-0083
fax: 612/626-7599
LisaBardwell
School of Natural Resources and Environment
University of Michigan
Dana Building , "
Ann Arbor, Ml 48109-1115
phone: 313/747-4708
fax: 313/936-2195
e-mail: bardwell® umich.edu
Richard Bright
Education and Training
Clark Atlanta University
Atlanta. GA 30314-
phone: 404/880-8515
fax: 404/880-8522
Curtis Bryant
Dept. of Civil Engineering •
University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ 85721
phone: 602/621-2266
fax: 602/621-2550
WilliamBudd
Environmental Sciences and Regional Planning
Washington State University.
Troy Hall 305
Pullman, WA 99164-4430
" phone: 509/335-8536
fax: 509/335-7636 ' - >-
Resource List • 9
Oecemoer 1994
n
-------
Natural Resources. University of New Hampshire
221 James Hall
Durham. NH 03824-3591
phone: 603/862-1020
fax: 603/862-4976
David Conn
Ctr for Environment & Hazardous Materials Studies
Virginia Polytechnic'Institute & State University
Blacksburg,VA2406l-OH3
phone: 703/231-7508
fax: 703/231-3367
e-mail: conn@vtvm1.cc.vt.edu
Noellette Conway-Schempf
Green Design Initiative
GSIA 224
Carnegie-Mellon University
Shenley Park
Pittsburgh, PA T5206
,,ione-412'268-2299
<_x '/2<. -6337
e-ma». ncOy+@andrew.cmu.edu
Nancy Coppola
"Department of Humanities
New Jersey Institute of Technology
University Heights
Newark, NJ 07102
phone: 201/596-5726
fax: 201/565-0586
e-mail: coppola@admin.njit.edu
Anthony Cortese
Second Nature
17 Msgr. O'Brien Highway
PO Box 410350
East Cambridge, MA 02141-0004
phone: 617/227-8888
fax: 617/227-0104
George Criner
Department of Economics and Policy
University of Maine
5782 Winslow Hall
Orono, ME 04469-5782
phone: 207/581-3157
fax: 207/581-4278
e-mail: crmer@maine.maine.edu
Faye Duchin
Director, Institute for Economic Analysis
New York University •
269 Mercer St. Second Floor
New York, NY 10003
Dhone: 21Z'998-7480
fax' 21Z-995-4165
e-mail. Duchmf@acfcluster.nyu.edu
David Eagan
Institute for Environmental Studies
70 Science Hall
University of Wisconsin-Madison
550-N.Park St.
Madison, Wl 53706
e-mail: djeagan@students.wisc.edu
John R. Ehrenfeld
Ctr. for Technology, Policy, & Industrial Development
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
77 Massachusetts Ave. »
Room £40-241
Cambridge, MA 02139
phone: 617/253-1694
fax: 617/253-7140
O. Homer Erekson
Economics Department
Miami University
Oxford, OH 4^056
phonp- 513/529-2836
fr :5i:V529-6992
e-mail: herekson@sba-laws.sba.muo:.io.edu •
Shirley Fleischmann
Grand Valley State University
301 West Fulton, Suite 618
Grand Rapids, Ml 49504
phone: 616/771-6762
fax: 616/771-6642
Robert L Ford
Director, Center for Energy & Environmental Studies
Southern University at Baton Rouge
Cottage #8, P.O. Box 9764
Baton Rouge, LA 70813
phone: 504/771-4723
fax: 504/771-4722
e-mail: robert@subrvm.subr.edu
Robert A. Frosch
John F. Kennedy School of Government
Center for Science and International Affairs
Harvard University
79 J.F. Kennedy Street
Cambridge, MA 02138
phone: 617/495-8132
fax: 617/495-8963
e-mail: frosch@ksgbbs.harvard.edu
Robert Gottlieb
Graduate School of Architecture and Urban Planning
University of California-Los Angeles
Los Angeles, CA 90024
phone: 310/825-1067
Resource List.- 10
Oecemoer 1994
-------
Gerald Groenewold
Director, Energy and Environmental Research Center
University of North Dakota /
15 North 23rd St. • • -
P.O.Box 9018
Grand Forks, ND 58202-9018
phone: 701/777-5131
fax: 701/777-5181 ,
e-mail: pamiiter@plains.nodak.edu
DeniseGuerin
Design, Housing and Apparel
240 McNeal Hall
University of Minnesota
1985 Buford Avenue
St. Paul, MN 55108
phone: 612/624-1257
fax: 612/624-2750
e-mail: dguerine.che2.che.umn.edu
Steven Hamburg
Environmental Ombudsman's Office
University of Kansas
HaworthHall
Lawrence, KS 66045-2106
phone: 9T3/864-3208
fax: 913/864-5321
Ellen Harrison
Waste Management Institute
Center for the Environment
Cornell University
Ithaca, NY 14853
phone: 607/255-8576
fax: 607/255-8207
e-mail: e2h1 ecomell.edu
Linda Ashman Hicks
Assoc. Oir., Pollutiop Prevention Ed. and Rsch. Ctr.
University of Califomia-Los Angeles '
7440 Boelter Hall ' :
Los Angeles, CA 90024
phone: 310/206-2098
fax: 310/206-3907
e-mail: lindahQcalvin.ea.ucla.edu
Joel S.Hirschhom ;
Hirschhom & Associates /
4221 Forbes Blvd., Suite 240
Lanham. MD 20706-4325
phone: 301/731 ^4095
fax: 301/731-4099 ,
Dale Jamieson
Center for Values and Social Policy
Campus Bpx 232
University of Colorado
Boulder, CO v0309
phone: 303/432-6964 <
Tim Jones , .
Dept. of Anthropology (Archaeology subgroup)
University of Arizona .
Bldg". #30
Tucson, AZ 85721
phone: 602/621-6299
fax: 602/621-9608 .
Diana Overman
Earth and Mineral Sciences
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA 16802
phone: 814/863-7004 -
fax: 814/863-8017
e-mail: dm!4@psuum.psu,edu
ToddMacFadden
Cooperative Extension Service
Montana State University
Taylor Hal! x
Bozeman, MT59717
phone: 406/994-3451
e-mail: acxtmOtrex.oscs.montana.edu
Robert L Myers ,
Agronomy Department
210 Waters Hall
University of Missouri
Columbia, MO 65211
phone: 314/882-0317
fax: 314/882-1467
e-mail: agrmyersOumcvmb ,
Gay/a Neumeyer
W1013 Engineering Building
University of Missouri
Columbia, MO 65211
phone: 314/882-8366
e-mail: neumeyerOecvax2.ecn.missouri.edu
David Orr
Environmental Studies
Rice Hall
Oberlin College ,
Oberiin, OH 44074
'phone: 216/775-8312 ' .
Susan Powers
Haz. Waste & Toxic Substance Rsch. &,Mgmt. Ctr.
Rowley Laboratories
Clarkson University
- Potsdam, NY 13699-5715 ' - ..
phone: 315/268-6542 .
fax: 315/268-7636
e-mail: sep<8 cratt.camp.clarkson.edu
Resource Lisr« 11
• December 1994
n.
-------
Manlyn Raphael
Geography Department
Bunche Hall
University of California-Los Angeles
405 Hilgard
Los Angeles, CA 96024
phone: 310/206-4590
Lisa Riedte
Dept. of Civil Engineering
University of Wisconsin-Plattville
1 University Plaza
Plattville,WI53818
phone: 608/342-1539
fax: 608/342-1566
Yuriko Saito
Philosophy Department
Rhod3 Is'and School of Design
2Col'jge "
Providence, Rl 02903-2784
phone: 401/454-6578
fax: 401/454-6157 .
flratf Smith
5300 Irving Ave. South
Minneapolis, MN 55419
phone: 612/920-9569
fax: 612/929-0903
Joel Tan
Carnegie-Mellon University
Shenley Park
Pittsburgh, PA 15206
phone: 412/268-2609
fax: 412/268-1019
e-mail: jt03-i-Oandrew.cmu.edu
Janet Vail
Waste Reduction & Management Program
Water Resources Institute
Grand Valley State University
One Campus Drive
Ailendale, Ml 49401
phone: 616/895-3749
fax: 616/895-3864
Harold Ward
Cente^ for Environmental Studies
Browr. Jniv^rsity
P.O. Box 1943
135 Angell Street
Providence, Rl 02912
phone: 401/863-3449
fax: 401/863-3503,
e-mail: harold_ward 3 brown.edu
Becky Yust
Design, Housing and Apparel
240 McNeal Hall
University of Minnesota
1985 Buford Avenue
St. Paul, MN 55108
phone: 612/624-4904
fax: 612/624-2750
e-mail: byustOche2.che.umn.edu
Original produced on Hammermill Unity DP,
a 50% post-conmuner/50% pie-consumer recycled paper
made from de-inked old newspapers and magazines.
Published by:
The National Pollution Prevention Center
for Higher Education
University of Michigan. Dana Building
430 East University Ave.
Ann Arbor. Ml 48109-1115
• Phone: 313-764-1412
•Pax: 313-936-2195
• E-mail: nppc9umich.edu
The mission of the NPPC is to promote sustainable development
by educating students, faculty, and professionals about pollution
prevention: create educational materials; provide tools and
strategies for addressing relevant environmental problems; and
establish a national network of pollution prevention educators.
In addition to developing educational materials and conducting
research, the NPPC also offers an internship program, profes-
sional education & training, and conferences.
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Resource List* 12
. OecemBar 199't
-------
partial greening of businesses, from both regulatory
"push" and market "pulls." Problems thwarting
sustainable business development include the com-
petitive business model/resistance of businesses to
public pressure/legislation, difficulty of changing •
attitudes and culture, linear industrial ecosystems,
and dosed decision-making processes. Outlines a
10-point "eco-industrial policy" that could be used
to overcome these obstacles:
Rocky Mountain Institute and the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Region VIII. Negawatts—A Gold-
. mine 'of Opportunity (video). 1991. 20 minutes, [IV]
' Description from EPA's Reference Guide to Pollution
Prevention Resources: "Negawatts describes how
corporations can join in the energy-efficiency
revolution yielding economic and environmental
u-ne: throughout me y orld. Aggressive energy
Cadency programs are enabling many leading
corporations to improve bottom-line performance
while meeting customer demands for greater
corpo? ^responsibility. Energy efficiency devices
can generate electricity savings (negawatts) to.
displace the output of 500 typical power plants. As
an added benefit, these technologies prevent pollu-
tion by wringing more work out of each unit of
energy. Energy efficiency also creates jobs and
reduces dependence on foreign oil." ^
. Transportation 2000—Moving Beyond Auto
America (video). 1991. 30 minutes.
As described in EPA's Reference Guide to Pollution
Prevention Resources: "Transportation 2000 discusses
different technologies for producing more efficient
automobiles." ' ,
Rpodman, David Malin. "Power Brokers: Managing
Demand for Electricity." World Watch 6, no. 6
(November 1993): 22-29. [IV] • .
Describes the rise of demand-side management
' (DSM) programs at electric utilities, using the
example of the California electric Utility, Pacific Gas
& Electric, as a case study. Describes how utilities,
under pressure from regulatory agencies and
environmental.groups, have shifted from investing
in more capacity toward investing in more efficiency.
The utilities promote efficiency through programs
such as, low-cost loans for insulation or new equip-
ment, which are paid for through higher electricity
' rates.. VVith -eater consumption efficiency; however,
overall electricity costs decrease. The article describes
how these somewhat counterintuitive tactics'are
gaining credence throughout the U.S. and the rest
of the world. , _. ••'•'.
Rose, Julian. "And the Detergent 'Eco-label' Goes
to..." Environmental Science and Technology 28,
no. 4.(1994): 179A. [IV]
Brief article describing the controversy in Europe
over environmental impacts of detergents. The
European Union intends to award "eco-labei" to
environmen tally friendly detergents. Detergents
including phosphate would not be eligible. How-
ever, European phosphate producers commissioned
a scientific consultative study (using the Delphi tech-
nique) that indicates phosphate is hardly more envi-
ronmentally harmful man alternative ingredients.
"toy, ^anik. "Environmental Law: Pollution Preven-
tion, Organizational Culture, and Socai Learning."
Environmental Law 22 (1991): 189-225. [I.C] ,
PIES Abstract "This document addresses some of
the fundamental theories of U.S. environmental pro-
tection policy. This policy has proven difficult to
practice due to the complexities of evaluating social
costs of pollutant discharges and the inability of
government agencies to enforce environmental laws
on all of the world's polluters. This document high-
lights the weaknesses of the simple explanations of
environmental protection policy and then explores
the role of the social sciences in environmental poli-
cies. Finally, the document suggests a direction for
environmental policy that helps society to under-
stand how best to limit its pollution through pre- ,••
vention by better reflecting the realities of those
companies and individuals that generate waste."
Schmidheiny, Stepnan. with the Business Council for
Sustainable Development. Changing Course: A Glo-
bal Business, Perspective on Development and the
Environment Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992. fllLA]
Released around the time of the United Nations Con-
ference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
in Rio de Janeiro, this book provides a business per-
spective on sustainable development. Working from
the basis that a healthy environment is a prerequisite
for a healthy economy, the authors examine how the
economy can be reshaped in sustainable develop-
ment terms. Integrates P2 into the prescription for
sustainable business development, although much of
the text is framed in broader terms. Includes many
case studies from corporations around the world.
December 1994
-------
Scholand. Michael. 'Building for the •
World Watch 6, no. 6 (November 1993)
. [ivj
Describes new trends to improve the energy efficiency
of commercial and domestic buildings, which now
use 36% of the U.S. energy budget. Gives examples
of measures such as thermal windows, insulated
walls, auto-dimming Lights, variable flow climate
control systems, water conservation, and natural
lighting. A number of the described programs ate
outside the U.S. Describes how efficiency increases
in buildings are Likely to come from two forces: regu-
latory (such as stricter building codes) and voluntary
(from pioneering architects and home-builders).
Schwepker. C. H.. and T. B. Comwell. "An Exami-
nation ol Ecc'ogically Concerned Consumers an^
Their intention to Purchase Eccfegiofly Packaged
Products." Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 10,
no. 2 (September 1991): 77-101. [IH.C]
Scholarly marketing-studies article presenting results
of a questionnaire-based study that examined vari-
ables which may indicate which people are wUhng
to purchase ecologically packaged products. The
study found significant discriminating variables to
be attitude toward ecologically conscious living,
attitude toward litter, locus of control (i.e., whether
or not one has a sense of personal control over one; s
life) and perception of pollution as a problem. De-
mographic variables were not found to be as impor-
•tanfas^ociopsychological variables The research
indicates that most consumers would be willing to
purchase products with reduced, recyclable, and/or
biodegradable packages and that policymakers and
marketeers may Want to increase their efforts to
educate consumers about the solid waste problem.
-Selling Green." Consumer Reports 56, no. 10
(October 1991): 687-692. [III.C]
Critical article about eco-marketering oriented
toward the savvy consumer. Mentions numerous
positive and negative examples of green products
and packaging. Includes an inset box on the contro-
versy surrounding the U.S. EPA's Consumer s
Handbook for Reducing Solid Waste.
Seymour, John, and Herbert Girardet. Blueprint fora
Green Planet. New York: Prentice Hall, 1987. [III.C]
Book by British authors that suggests actions that in-
dividuals can take to minimize pollution and reduce
resource use. Takes the perspective that individual
behaviors are important and that consumption must
be moderated. Can take on a moralistic tone at times,
although it provides a number of practical sugges-
tions. Major topics include household water use, ag-
riculture, food, solid waste, medicines and toiletries,
household toxics, energy use, and automobiles.
Sheridan, John H. "Pollution Prevention Picks Up
Steam." Industry Week:241 (17 February 1992):
364. ill.A] ..'..'.
Artid-- describes the success of voluntary- P2 pro-
grams but warns that stricter regulations may be
developed. Begins with several P2 success stories
from the manufacturing sector. Mentions common
conflicts between environmental and production
staff over making P2 changes to the production
process. Compares EPA's focus on source reduction
with a more "balanced" approach, which would
also include recycling, treatment, and disposal.
Smart, Bruce, ed. Beyond Compliance: A New
Industry View of the Environment. Washington:
World Resources Institute, April 1992. [III.A]
A compilation of company information releases and
other original material by Smart, former CEO of a
Fortune 100 corporation. P2 is a central theme
within the broader analysis of business and the
environment.
Smith. Emily T., David Woodruff, and Fleur
Templeton. "Growth vs. Environment: In Rio Next
Month a Push for Sustainable Development." Bus/-
ness Week (11 May 1992): 66-70, 72-75. [key doc.) .
Written just before the UNCED Earth Summit, this
cover story examines unsustainable human practices
and what can be done to bring about sustainable hu-
man development. A proposed solution for sustain-
able development includes increased efficiencies in
both resource use and pollution emissions, a frame-
work for change such as environmental taxes and
international agreements, population stabilization,
and restraints on consumption. "Sustainable devel-
opment would stress prevention" (p.75). Includes
many examples and quotes from leading experts.
Annotated Bibliography • 20-
December 1994
-------
, Turning the Tide: Keeping Pollution at Bay
(video). 1991. 31 minutes. [IV]
Video examining coastal protection and non-point
source water pollution in the Buzzards Bay, Mass.,
area. Shows how the decisions of individuals,
organizations, and elected officials can affect.the
quality of coastal resources. Indirect P2 message.
•,.' . office of Communication, Education, and
Public Affairs. EPA Journal —special issue on pol-
lution prevention. Vol. 19, no. 3 (July 1993): 50 pp.
[key doc.]
An issue of U.S. EPA's EPA Journal almost entirely
devoted to pollution prevention. Most articles
pert? n to industrial P2 ;md the "win-win" aspect of
'. (p . >tecting the environment and saving money).,
I For articles listed separately in this bibliography,
see Baucus, Browner, Cebon, Kling & Schaeffer,
-Uebennan, Tchiidi, and Underwood.]
_, Office of Policy, Planning, arid Evaluation.
. Promoting Source Reduction and Recydability in
the Marketplace: A Study of Consumer and Industry
Response to Promotion of Source Reduced,
Recycled, and Recyclable Products and Packaging.
, Washington: EPA, 1989. [III.B]
Report and annotated bibliography that examine ^
source reduction arid recycling marketing issues in
the consumer products sector. .Primary emphasis is
the effect on the municipal solid waste stream. After
examining the popular and academic literature, the
• report summarizes important components of suc-
cessful consumer marketing programs. Includes
recommendations for the implementation of a suc-
cessful government-business program to encourage
the sale of "source-reductive and/or recyclable con-
sumer products. Includes an extensive (58-page) ,
annotated bibliography of relevant documents. Most
are from popular journals and similar sources; some
are from academic journals. The majority cover
recycling rather than source reduction.
§. office of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation.
You Can Make a Difference, Washington, January
1990. [III.B] . ' . •'.','
Pamphlet showing how individuals can help
prevent pollution and set an example for others to
follow. Activities are suggested in such areas as :
home energy conservation, reuse /repair /recycling,
transportation alternatives, pesticide use reduction,
indoor air pollution reduction, lead-based paint
reduction, and tree-planting. 'Also includes a list -
of additional contacts.
t office of Pollution Prevention. Pollution
Prevention 1991: Progress on Reducing Industrial
Pollutants. Washington: EPA, 1991 a. [111. A]
A comprehensive description of industrial P2
activities in businesses, the federal government,
state and local governments, academia, and NGOs
as of 1991. Includes one chapter describing national
trends in industrial P2 and another outlining non-
industrial c'imensions of P2. A useful if already
dated reference.
. office of Pollution Prevention. °ollution Pre-
vention Fact Sheet: Local Governments and Pollu-
tion Prevention. Washington: EPA, 1991 b. [HI.B]
Fact sheet describing the role of local governments
in promoting P2. Mentions mat they can provide:
educational programs to raise awareness in busi-
nesses and the community; technical assistance pro-
grams to businesses and organizations; regulatory
mechanisms such as codes, licenses, and permits;
and procurement policies for recycled or recyclable
products. The fact sheet reproduces two model
ordinances, one establishing a recycled product
procurement policy and the other establishing a
hazardous waste minimization program for indus-
trial pollutants discharged to sewers.
_ , office of Pollution Prevention. Report on the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Pollution
Prevention Program. Washington: EPA, 1991. [III.B]
Short report describing the EPA's P2 program. Gives
a brief historical policy synopsis of the P2 program.
The bulk of the report outlines various activities
within the Office of P2, the rest of the EPA, and the
rest of federal government. These include activities
in the agriculture, consumer, energy and transpor-
tation sectors. Also described are efforts in EPA's
offices of Air, Water, Solid Waste, Pesticides and
Toxic Substances, Enforcement, and Research and
Development, as well as in the EPA's 10 regional
offices. The final section examines future directions,
including life cycle assessment/creating a P2 ethic,
' and measuring P2. Provides insightful though some-
what dated overview of EPA's P2 activities. Also
' briefly describes three state'programs. r ,
Annotated Bibliography • 23
December 1994
-------
Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic -
Substances. 1993 Reference Guide to Pollution
Prevention Resources. Washington: EPA, February
1993. [key doc.)
An annual EPA publication with abundant informa-
tion about P2 programs and resources throughout
the U.S. Includes a lengthy listing of university;-
affiliated P2 research and training centers, state P2
programs, federal P2 programs, training guides,
videos, and clearinghouses. Most listings include
descriptions and contact information. Information
is oriented to practitioners rather than teachers or
researchers. (No 1994 guide issued.)
_• t office of Research and Development,
Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Pollution
Prevention Case Studies Compendium. Cincinnati:
EPA, 1992. [III.B]
A compilation of case study summaries from EPA's
Waste Reduction Innovative Technologies Evalua-
tion (WRITE), Waste Reduction Evaluations at
Federal Sites, Waste Minimization Assessments!,
and University-Based Assessments programs. The
summaries, all two or three pages long, describe
current practices and potential waste minimization/
P2 alternatives. Some case studies are quite technical
and relevant for specific manufacturing processes,
others are more general relating to common manu-
facturing and service industry practices. Primarily
addresses RCRA hazardous wastes, not all pollutants.
, office of Research and Development, Risk
Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Running a
Conference as a Clean Product. EPA/600/2/91/026.
Cincinnati: EPA, June 1991. [IV!
Report describing how to prevent pollution through
environmentally sound conference management
practices.' Uses a 1990 EPA P2 conference as a model.
Discusses successes and failures of the strategies
pursued. Includes an interesting appendix of sugges-
tion letters from others within and outside of EPA.
, Office of Research and Development. Facility
Pollution Prevention Guide. EPA/600/R-92/088.
Washington: EPA, 1992. [III.A]
A general "how-to" manual for industrial P2 pro-
grams, Upd • >s the popular 1983 "Waste Minimiza-
tion Cppor:.. .ty Assessment Manual," which was
aimed for generators of hazardous wastes. The focus
has been broadened to cover all pollutants (air emis-
sions, wastewater discharges, solid wastes), energy
and water consumption, and life-cycle impacts of
product manufacture, use, and disposal The pri-
mary audience remains manufacturing industries.
Chapters address different aspects of a P2 program:
initial organization, assessment of P2 options, mea-
surement of progress, program maintenance, and
economic analysis.
, Office of Solid Waste. The Consumer's Hand-
book for Reducing Solid Waste. EPA/530-K-92-Q03.
Washington: EPA, August 1992. [III.C]
A guidebook to source reduction and reuse oppor-
tunities for individuals. Introduces the concept of
source reduction and integrated waste management.
Givej numerous suggestions for reducing household
waste at the source. Includes examples of source
reduction in communities and businesses, and
appendices of terms and EPA resources. Has full
color illustrations using a "the caf s out of the bag"
theme. (An earlier version of this guide was con-
sidered too controversial to distribute.).
t
, Science Advisory Board. Reducing Risk:
Setting Priorities and Strategies for Environmental
Protection. Washington: EPA, 1990. [I.C]
Summary report describing the findings and recom-
mendations of the Relative Risk Reduction Strategies
Committee. The report is a follow-up to the 1987
"Unfinished Business" EPA report, which compared
the relative risks of 31 environmental problems.
This report outlines 10 findings of the committee
and 10 EPA policy recommendations for reducing
risk. One of these recommendations is that EPA
should "emphasize pollution prevention as the
preferred option for reducing risk."
. "Pollution Prevention Strategy." Federal
Register 56, no. 38 (1991): 7849-7864. [I.C]
An official announcement of EPA's non-regulatory
pollution prevention program as of the early 1990s.
It serves a dual purpose: (1) providing guidance
. about incorporating P2 into existing EPA programs
and (2) initiating a voluntary industrial toxics reduc-
tion program. The more lengthy guidance compo-
nent describes general principles behind EPA's P2
program and discusses a number of P2 activities that
EPA is pursuing. The second component justifies
and outlines the industrial toxics project (also known
as the 33/50 Program)^ Noteworthy and readable.
Annotated Bibliograpny • 24
Oacsmber 1994
-------
Where Our Food Comes-Frbm (videos produced by
students at Oberjin and Hendrix colleges). Fox, AK:
Meadovycreek. [IV] - - ..
Students at Oberlin (Ohio) and Hendrix (Conway,
AK) Colleges produced hour-long videos about the.
origins of the food they ate on campus, interviewing
growers (in states as far away as California) and
distributors. A 10-miriute video, produced in 1992
at Oberlin, shows how the college is beginning to
buy locally grown food. Th" shorter video comes
with a booklet written for institutions interested in
initiating such a program.
White, Allen L, and Karen Shapiro. "Life Cycle
Assessment: A Second Opinion." Environmental
Science & Technology 27, no. 6 (June 1993):
1016-1017. [II.B]
Short article of fering additional views responding to
Mary Ann Curran's article in an earlier issue of the
same journal. Authors mention data accessibility
issues, including the need to use published data
sources. The issue is particularly relevant in light
of industry-sponsored studies that compare one
product with another. They also discuss the pos- -
sibility of conducting streamlined LCAs to help
gauge a product's relative harm. [See also Wang, M.]
Winett, Richard A., and Peter Ester. "Behavioral Sci-
ence and Energy Conservation: Conceptualizations,
Strategies, Outcomes, Energy Policy Applications."
Journal of Economic Psychology 3 (1983): 203-229.
[III.C]
Not all of this lengthy article may be relevant to P2,
but it provides a useful overview of the behavioral
sciences and the role of behavior-change strategies
for conserving energy. Much of article is equally
applicable to individual P2 strategies as it is to
energy conservation. Abstract: "While economic,
physical design, and legal disciplines have been the
dominant .approaches in energy conservation poli-
cies, each perspective has limitations with regard
to effectively being able to modify energy-related
behaviors of consumers. A behavioral science ap- -
proach which integrates knowledge bases from a
number of disciplines and levels of analysis has had
relatively little:input in energy policy, even though
conceptually and technically the approach is well
' developed, and has recently demonstrated its appli-
cability through many field experiments. . ."
Wise, John: Challenges for the Future. Presented
at National Roundtable of State Pollution Prevention
Programs 1993 Spring Conference: Connections
for Pollution Prevention, pp. 54-62. San Diego, CA,
28 April 1993. [key doc.] '
Excellent overview of the P2 perspective. Gives
background on the command and control approach
of EPA and the dramatic shift in both EPA and
industry towards a cooperative P2 approach. Also
lists four challenges that lay ahead: (1) "articulate
prevention-based behavior as a prevailing social/
cultural ethic," (2) "diffuse this prevention-based
ethic to a larger community," (3) "promote clean
and green technology to retool America for the
global marketplace," and (4) "promote total quality
and continuous improvement by measuring
progress and celebrating success."
World Conservation Union (IUCN), United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP), and World Wildlife
Fund for Nature (WWF). Caring for the Earth: A .
Strategy for Sustainable Living. Gland, Switzerland:
IUCNAJNEP/WWF (Earthscan Edition), 1991. II.C]
A new version of the 1980 "World Conservation
Strategy," which was one of the first publications
to promote the concept of sustainable development.
This book continues with the same theme, taking a
holistic, worldwide view of "sustainable living."
Includes three major sections: principles of sustain-
able living; actions for sustainable living; and
implementation and follow-up. Actions cover
energy, commerce, human settlements, farm arid
range lands, forest lands, fresh waters, oceans and
coastal areas. Pollution prevention, framed as
adopting a "precautionary approach to pollution"
(pp. 29-30), is emphasized throughout. • ,
World Resources Institute, and Institute for Environ-
ment and, Development. World'Resources 1994- ;
1995. New York: Basic Books, 1994. [I.A]
Authoritative and comprehensive reference on
resource abundance and use. Includes pollution
generation data to a lesser extent. Provides an
excellent discussion and' explanation of the tables.
Published every other year. The 1994-95 edition '
includes narrative chapters on natural resource
consumption, population and .the environment,
and women and sustainable development. It also
includes regional foci on China and India.
Annotate* Bibliography • 27
. December 1994
-------
Wynne. Brian. 'Uncertainty and Environmental
uearnmg: Reconceivmg Science and Policy in
the Preventive Paradigm." Global Environmental
Change 2, no. 2 (June 1992): 111 -127. [l.A]
A scholarly article about risk and the newly emerging
preventive paradigm from a philosophy of science/
political philosophy perspective. Examines the con-
cepts of nsk, uncertainty, ignorance, and indetermina-
cy pointing out that problems commonly construed
as being "uncertain" are actually much more inde-
terminate. Author also examines the implications of
taking environmental protection further "upstream"
as a result of pollution prevention's emphasis on
prevention at the source (e.g., R&D, design, etc.).
One of the consequences is comparatively more
indetermin£--y because of the now greater distance
between upstream design and downstream environ-
mental effects. Author » concluding sentence: "the
preventive paradigm for environmentally sustainable
technology is opening up a more radical shift in our
relationship with scientific knowledge, and a corre-
spondingly more radical challenge to society, than
has yet been recognized."
Yust Becky. DHA 1001: Introduction to the
Designed Environment (syllabus). University of
Minnesota, September 1991. [VA]
Detailed syllabus for an introductory applied design
class. Introduces students to interaction of people
and the environment from cultural, ethical, and be-
havioral perspectives. Course features many guest
speakers and field trips. Pollution prevention is in-
cluded not so much as a topic than as an underlymg
concept in approaching the designed environment.
Original produced on Hammennill Unity DP,
a 50% post
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The text ot the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 can be
useful reading, pamcularty because it is only 10 pages
i0ng. Political-science or policy students may wish to
examine Congressional hearings that pree:eded *«, pas-
sage of this law. Following the P2 Act of 1990, EPA ^
sued a lengthy '"Pollution Prevention Policy Statement
in the Federal Register (U.S. EPA, 1991). It is a 'good
place to start for a federal P2 policy primer. Although
dated Hirschhom and Oldenburg's discussion of
' U.S. P2 policy (1991, pp. 24-28 (key doc.]) is short
illuminating, and somewhat critical in contrast to EPA
,( sources, the entire July-September 1993 EPA ]ourna
(1993 [key doc.]) is devoted to P2. Many of the articles
in this issue discuss policy issues, from Congressional
' (Lieberman, 1993, and Baucus, 1993); EPA (Browner,
1993 [TUB]); and academic (Andrews, 1993) perspectives.
in, arles about P2 Po! cy can depend on the
perspective of the author. For example, Shendan
(1992 [HI.A]) gives a generally positive rating to U.S.. -
P2 policv for the industrial sector, but warns of, the
potential for excessive regulation. Both Byers (1991)
and Lis & Chilton (1993) take a more anti-regulatory
view, with particular concern about what they consider
EPA's artificial boundary between P2 and recycling.
In contrast; authors such as Commoner (1992) take an
extreme stance in the other direction-favoring strict
government controls of private business in order to
prevent pollution. Lieberman (1993) takes a more
accommodative stance/supporting greater government
involvement in encouraging businesses to prevent
pollution. Likewise, then-Senator Albert Gore d tecusses
his "Strategic Environment Initiative"—ideas about
how government can work with businesses to encourage
P2 and promote technological advancement (Gore,
1992 [LA]). ; . ' "
For a more theoretical-academic approach, Roy's (1991)
article combines social science and environmental
policy perspectives. Freeman et al.'s (1992) review
article while not exclusively written for an academic
audience, provides an almost exhaustive review of
... industrial P2 themes, 'including policy. However,
Purcell (1992 [V.B]) notes the review includes neither
non-industrial nor non-technical perspectives of P2.
If time permits, specific issues may be worth particular
attention. For example, the Toxic Release Inventory
(TR1) has been credited "with leading to many P2
initiatives (Moos,. 1992 [ffl.C]).' A Busmess Week- -
'' editorial /H, To. ,.," 1993) suggests this type of
^formation provision as a major direction in future
US P2 policy. Another example is the connection
; between P2 and energy efficiency policies, as discussed
''. by Hayes (1991) and Lovins (1990). ,
STATE AND LOCAL POLICY
State and local pollution policies vary greatly. Some
states have practically no P2 laws nor programs, while
other states have extensive regulatory or assistance
programs. Congress has, to date, decided against
enacting sweeping P2 planning or regulatory legisla-
tion, leaving the door open for states td develop such .
programs on their own. As with many environmental
issues, EPA's national P2 program is a backstop for the
state progran \ providing funding, information, and
other resources. However, a General Accounting
"ffice -eport faults EPA's state P2 assistance program
for supporting non-P2 treatment and recycling pro-
, grams (U.S. GAO, 1994 [ffl.B]).
' Rather than attempt to provide representative docu-
ments from state and local programs, the reader is
encouraged to contact nearby P2 offices for the most.
recent and relevant information. Contact information
is provided in the 1993 Reference Guide to Pollution Pre-
vention Resources (U.S. EPA, February 1993 [key doc.]).
However, there are a few documents that discuss state
and local programs in broad terms. For an academic
treatment, Rabe (1991) discusses the experiences of
several states as a model for other states and the rest
of the country. Geiser (1991 [ffl-A]) provides a more
popular-audience discussion of state P2 and toxic-use
reduction laws as related to "sustainable industry."
INTERNATIONAL P2 POLICY
Likewise, only a few accessible documents deal
extensively with international P2 policy. Documents
such as Hileman's (1992) cover the United Nation's
"cleaner production" program. International P2 and
sustainable development policy are the themes in a
Business Week cover story (Smith et al., 1992 [I.A]>
immediately preceding the 1992 United Nations
Conference on the Environment and Development in
Rio De Janiero. Portions of UNCED's Agenda 21
' (Agenda 21,1993) and the World Conservation Union's
Strategy for Sustainable Living (World Conservation
Union, 1991) contain P2 themes. .Tolba and El-Kholy
(1992 [LA]) provide general information about
international environmentalpolicy.
-;53
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Congressional research reports With international policy
themes include one discussing policy measures to re-
duce global greenhouse emissions (U.S. Congress. UI A,
I992a (III B]), another on using trade and energy policies
to reduce pollution (U.S. Congress, Senate, 1992); and a
third on the design of products (U.S. Congress, OTA,
1992b (HA)). This third report. Green Products by Design,
includes an interesting discussion of different environ-
mental policy models, indicating that the European ap-
proach is mo're focused at the end-product stage, while
the U.S model is more focused at the manufacturing
stage As shown in the next section, these two foci rep-
resent differentstages of a product's life-cycle. Indeed,.
the theme of the next component is understanding F2
opportunities throughout A product's life cycle.
II. Understanding Pollution Prevention
Through Life Cycle Assessment
Although there are many ways to understand the
concept of pollution prevention, life cycle assessment
(LCA) is used here to enable students to recognize the
opportunities for reducing environmental impacts over
the entire life of a product. All of a product's impacts,
from initial resource extraction to ultimate disposal,
can be included in a life cycle assessment. Thus the
LCA approach is synthetic. LCA is also an analytical
approach because it enables students to break down
the entire system into components that can be more
readily understood and analyzed.
While the mechanics of conducting an LCA are
controversial, a more, important theme for students to
grasp is the "big picture" approach to environmental
impact assessment. Life cycle assessment is one of
several tools for understanding environmental impacts.
Therefore, the first section surveys such themes across
the broader landscape of human impacts on the
environment. For those with little class time, the first
section is not crucial. However, it is important to
include key life-cycle assessment framework concepts
from the second section. The third section will help
develop student's critical thinking skills by .pointing
to LCA applications'and controversies.
nwi The Big Picture: Holistic Analysis
L'nderstar - * P- necessitates taking a "big picture"
view Although it may be easy to agreeon the need for
a comprehensive, critical perspective, it is much more
difficult to agree on exactly what items such a perspec-
tive includes and excludes. This section is an introduc-
tion to some of the themes that may be included in
such holistic analyses. It also provides a background
and justification for taking a life-cycle approach. This
section is most useful when there is sufficient time to
examine this context for life-cycle assessment.
A "product system" is just one many interlinked
systems, and systems analysis is, in itself, an area of
study. There are numerous documents that unite a
holistic, system-wide analysis with a P2 theme. For
example, Peet (1992 [LA]) provides a concise intro-
duction to an environmental systems approach. An
example of systems theory in practice (Meadows et al.,
1992) uses a predictive systems model of global flows
to argue for jstainabl iractices. Human sy—ms are
inextricably tied with natural systems, and a growing
body of literature calls for human systems to mimic
and thus mesh more closely-with these natural systems.
Authors such as Tibbs (1992), Mitsch and Jorgensen
(1989), and Warm (1990) discuss this theme using a
variety of terms: ecological engineering, industrial
ecology, biologic design, etc.
As Orr (1992 [V.B]), Hawken (1993 [m.A]), Peet (1992
[LA]), and others a point out, a greater challenge rests
with fundamental knowledge structures. The tradi-
tional Western "linear thinking" model may have much
utility, but it does not always complement the funda-
mental cyclical system of the ecological web. Education
can provide the intellectual tools to promote a shift
to more holistic thinking.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is one such tool. Defined,
LCA "consists of several techniques for identifying and
evaluating the adverse environmental effects associated
with a product system" (Keoleian
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'understand .the life-cycle concept. Therefore, the next
section is an introduction to life-cycle assessment meth-
odology, followed by an overview of controversial LCA
issues. Following this "understanding" component/
Section ffl examines different approaches for handling
human impacts from a holistic, preventive perspective.
As with ecological systems, both producers (businesses)
and consumers (individuals) have roles to play, as do
intermediaries (government).
Ilia Ufa Cvcle Assessment Framework
The LCA framework is the "nuts and bolts" part of this
section. Because there are relatively few sources of gen-
eral information about the life cycle analysis framework,
this section goes into greater explanatory detail than
other sections.in the outline. References to the biblio-
graphy are primarily clustered at the end of the section.
THE LIFE CYCLE SYSTEM
i , - '
The life cycle system on which LCA, is based is a
"cradle-to-grave" set of stages that follow a product
from its origins to its ultimate disposal. As shown on
the diagram below, the life cycle system begins and
ends with the earth and the biosphere. (This circular
pattern is analogous with the ecological web of life as
well as the Native American "circle of life.")
The life cycle system incorporates both sources and
sinks. At each stage, energy and material "sources"
may be needed, and likewise pollutants may be emitted
to air, water, or land "sinks." Indeed, an innovative
aspect of LCA P2 analysis is its capability to account for
the transfers of pollutants and other material/energy
flows across these different media (often called "cross-
media transfers").
Ctoeed-toop
recycling '•
1
Trw Earth and Bloapiiar*
Open-toop
recycling
Material downcyciing
into another product
system
Fugitive and untreated residuals .
Airborne, waterbome. and solid residuals ••
Material, energy, and labor inputs for Process and Management
Transfer of materials between stages for Product, includes transportation and
packaging (-Distribution)
Bibliographic Teaching Outline- 7
December 1994
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Raw material acquisition is the beginning stage of a
product system. Activities-such as mining, petroleum
extraction; and forest harvesting are all examples of
this stage. The raw materials must be transformed into
usable materials and then manipulated through manu-
facturing processes. Although these stages may be less
visible to the end-user, they can account for a significant
portion of a product's life cycle impact.
Following manufacturing, product use is the next
stage. Some products, such as food, are consumed in
use while other products enter a post-use stage. Items
that are reused or recycled are looped back into an
earlier stage of the product life-cycle, although "open
loop" recycling into different products sends the
material into a different product system.
The open-loop recycling example illustrates an impor-
tant factor in conducting LCAs: the boundary for any
given product system. Even'for the most basic product,
there are many indirect impacts that could be included
—such as the effect of using gasoline from imported oil
to power a delivery truck that carries the product. At
some point, an arbitrary boundary must be made and
justified. Thus, in the case of most LCAs, once a prod-
uct is recycled into a different product, it has crossed
the product system boundary.
PRODUCT SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The term "product system" is preferable to "product"
because of the non-product impacts associated with
every product. In fact, there are four major product
system components.»In addition to (a) the product
itself, there are also impacts from (b) processing,
(c) distribution and (d) information/management
components. Processing impacts encompass many
of the impacts associated with transforming a raw,
material into a finished product, but there are also
processing impacts during use and post-use stages.
For example, cleaning reusable dishware is a significant
use/post-use processing impact. Transportation impacts
include getting the product to the end-user, as well as
transporting raw materials, post-use detritus, etc. The
management component is "the entire information
network that supports decision making throughout the
life cycle" (Keoleian & Menerey, 1994).
PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS
Product systems must satisfy other requirements in
addition to minimizing environmental impacts, and
LCAs can potentially be used to examine other impacts.
Product life-cycle designers, in particular, may seek to
minimize environmental impacts while still satisfying
performance, cost, cultural preference, and legal
requirements (Keoleian & Menerey, 1993). Likewise,
consumers and others evaluating product systems may
consider factors such as cost, performance, availability,
social popularity, and aesthetic appeal as more impor-
tant than envirbrunentaJ 'mpacts.
To review, life cycle assessment includes three
principal dimensions for analysis:
• Life Cycle Stages - raw materials acquisition,
matf rials processing and manufacturing,
product use, and post-use.
• Product System Components - product, process,
transportation, and information/ management
• Product Requirements - environmental,
performance, cost, cultural preference, legal
As a three-dimensional matrix, this results in 80 unique
combinations of factors! Students cannot be expected
to take on such a mammoth LCA exercise, but LCA
problems can be broken into more manageable compo-
nents. For example, economics students could compare
cost with environmental requirements by examining
the incremental economic and environmental impact
over the stages of a product's life cycle. Or psychology
students could examine me product system impacts of
differing personal and cultural preferences. There are
many potential variations for using the LCA concept.
Topic suggestions in Section IV are one place to rum
for ideas on how to apply the LCA concept.
Bibliographic T«actimg Outline- 8
December 1994
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STAGES OF A LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT
As with other types of impact assessments, an LCA' v
begins with goal-setting and scoping; this is particularly.
important in defining the product systenVboundaries,
establishing a proper basis for comparing multiple
products, and setting temporal and spatial boundaries.
The final stage would involve analyzing and interpreting
the results. In between the preliminary and final
' phases of the methodology are three major stages that '
distinguish an LCA from other types of assessments. As
explained by the Society of Environmental Toxicology
and Chemistry (SETAC 1993), they are:
1.'Life Cycle Inventory Analysis ''
2. Life Cycle Impact Assessment „
3. Life ~/cle Improvement -\ssessment ,
At the inventory analysis stage, the research Jenrifies
and quantifies materials and energy flows for a given -
product.system. This stage of LCA is the most devel-
oped, with SET AC and other groups helping to set ,-
standard methodological framework. However, such
a life
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DHLCA Applications'and Issues
APPLICATIONS
Showcasing life-cycle applications can be a.useful way
to assist students with understanding life cycle impacts.
An oft-cited example is Martin Hocking's short article
(1991) comparing the life-cycle impacts of paper and
plastic-foam beverage cups. Walley et al. (1992-93)
presents a LCA for baking soda, which, even though tt
is a relatively simp.e product, illustrates the many vari-
ables associated with conducting LCAs. A set of two
articles by Keoleian and Menerey (1991 [IV.16] and
1991-92 [IV.7]) analyze comparative life cycle impacts
fc- five cases: disposable and reusable diapers, dis-
posable and washable dishware, bulk and packaged
product merchandising, office furniture manufacturing
process improvements, and reuse of office paper as
-eking materials. Arthur D. Little (1991 [IV.6]) and .
Lehrburger (1989 [IV.6]) both examine life cycle impacts
of disposable and reusable diapers. Their methodolo-
gies, however, differ, as do their conclusions.
At the industrial level, Geiser (1991 [ffl.A]) mentions
tha usefulness of the LCA framework as an important
tool for promoting sustainable industry. Continuing
with this theme, EPA's Facility Pollution Prevention Guide
(U.S. EPA. ORD, 1992a [III.A]) encourages users inves-
tigating P2 opportunities to examine the impacts of a
pfoduct's manufacture, use, and disposal. At a more
fundamental level, the OTA's "Green Products by
Design" (U.S. Congress, OTA, 1992b [II.A]) discusses
policy and business opportunities to prevent pollution
at the design stage. A video that illustrates thinking
from a life-cycle perspective is Where Our Food Comes
From (1989 [IV 9]). As the title suggests, it traces the
sources of foods we commonly eat. Further examples
and opportunities for examining LCA and P2 applica-
tions can be found in Section IV. .
CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES
While life-cycle assessment can be a very useful tool for-
understanding pollution prevention, students should
be encouraged to think_critically about this and other
analysis methodologies. This section introduces some
of the critical literature surrounding LCAs This can be
an important part of a complete introduction to LCA
and P2. as well as an example of the nexus between sci-
ence and environmental policy or management. How-
e\er, this section may be omitted in briefer modules.
The most commonly voiced concerns about LCA are
the quality of the data and nature of the methodology.
Data limitations are universally mentioned, although
authors describe a variety of specific concerns. Missing
or incomplete information is one of the most basic
concerns—even at the inventory level, since there is still
much we do not know about effects of different sub-
stances on the environment (Curran, 1993 [key doc.];
Keoleian and Menerey, 1993 [HB]; Lifset, 1991; Porrney,
1993-94). Also, potentially useful proprietary informa-
tion might not be verifiable or available (Curran, 1993
[key doc.]; Keoleian and Menerey, 1993 '(D B]; Portney,
1993-94, White and Shapiro, 1993 jp.Bl). Curran (1993
[key doc.]) discusses the information gaps issue, although
'she does not treat this as a fatal flaw with the procedure.
Crossen (1994), on the other hand, finds significant
fault with LCA because the information gap invites
a wide range of defensible assumptions.
Furthermore, the all encompassing nature of LCA adds
more uncertainty. At the highest level, the location of the
system boundary affects what data is or is not collected
(Keoleian and Menerey, 1994 [H.B]; Portney, 1993-94).
At the impact assessment stage, Wang (1993) poi Us out
that the same pollutant levels at different points in the
product life-cycle may need to be treated differently.
Wang also mentions geographic uncertainty—the same
pollutant levels may have varying impacts depending
on the location of the emissions.
Measuring impacts often becomes an "apples vs.
oranges" issue, with researchers facing the enormous
challenge of reducing many different types of impacts
(such as resource depletion, habitat change, atmospheric
change, and human health effects) into one'dimension
(Crossen, 1994; Curran, 1993 [key doc.]; Keoleian and
Menerey, 1993 [H.B]; Keoleian and Menerey, 1994 [II.B];
Portney; 1993-94). There is also the issue of what types
of impacts will be examined. For example, Portney-
faults LCA for ignoring important non-environmental
impacts, such as labor and capital usage.
With this litany of data concerns, the manner in which
data is used—methodological concerns—seem relati'. !v
minor in comparison. The lack of a standardized I \
is a well-recognized problem (Crossen, 1994; Keoi.. ".
and Menerey, 1994 [H.B]; LiTset, 1991; Nash and
Stoughton, 1994 [II.B]). There has been recent progress
toward a more universally acceptable LCA inventory
analysis procedure (SETAC, 1993 [II.B]). But there is
little, if any, emerging consensus on conducting impact
analyses and improvement assessments.
BtBliograpnic Teacnmg Outline- '0
*
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One way to help avert methodological squabbling is a
third-party review process, although several authors
(Crossen, 1994; Curran, 1993 [key doc.]; Keoleian and
Menerey, 1993 [ILB]) note that there is often insuffi-
cient peer review of LCAs. Wang (1-993) adds that all
sectors—private, government and public interest-
should participate in this review process. Related to
this concern is Crossen's comment that research money
is becoming increasingly dominated by private funding
sources, which may be affecting how researchers
approach their task.
Apart from specific data and methodological concerns,
'some authors raise broader concerns. For one, there is
the practical concern that LCAs are lengthy and costly,
limiting the potential LCA targets to those whose
sponsors have the resources to undertake such projects
(Keoleian and Menerey, 1993 and 1994 [H-B]; Portney,
1993-94). In practice, this limits LCAs to high-profile
.consumer items sponsored by a corporation, trade ,
group, or the national government. And the results
may soon become out of date {Portney, 1993-94).
Other concerns include the difficulty in comparing
different products when the products do not provide
identical services (Portney (1993-94). Disposable and
cloth diapers, for example, provide similar infant pro-
tection but have quite different qualities. Comparability
is also reflected in Crossen's (1994) comment that human
behavior is considerably less predictable than the
"rational actor" most modelers originally assumed. On
. the receiving end of LCA results, Portney notes the dif-
ficulty in conveying them in a succinct understandable
form. He also mentions a similar problem—the myriad
factors that can potentially affect a product's life-cycle
impact would stretch the decision-making capacities of
those producing the product.
WHAT CAN BE DONE?
The critical literature addressing LCAs can be roughly
divided into two groups. Critics feel the uncertainty
surrounding LCA is so great that the procedure should
be curtailed or significantly scaled back. Supporters re-
cognize LCA's weaknesses but feel that it still provides
useful results. Students may have differing opinions
as well, and this could be a worthy topic for debate.
Some of the authors who find fault with LCA advocate
. an alternative analysis system. For example, it is not
surprising that economist Paul Portney's long list of
problems with LCA is followed by his recommendation
for greater use of the pricing mechanism (1993-94).
A number of authors recognize the limitations of LCAs
and advocate streamlined methodologies which might
not attempt to account for all variables but are still
useful (Hocking, 1991; Portney, 1993-94; White and
Shapiro, 1993 [H:B]). Some,approaches use the LCA
theme but are not strictly life-cycle assessments, such
as the EnviroAccount personal environmental impact
computer program and guidebook (Letter, 1993 [ffl.C]).
To be legitimate, LCA methodology must strive for use-
ful results. However, it is easy to 'lose the forest for the
trees." At its core, the life-cycle approach is not just a
methodology, it is a way of thinking about environmental
impacts. At this introductory level, understanding, for
example, the precision of a dose-response relationship ,
for a given variable is not as important as grasping the
core concepts such as the stages of a product's life-cycle
and the concept of a product system.
Thus, it is important that students grasp the life-cycle
approach for understanding pollution prevention oppor-
tunities. Such an approach enables them to investigate
opportunities for managing P2—in business, govern-
ment, or across individuals and society—from a much
richer perspective. Indeed, here at the midpoint of
this outline, we move from a more passive "analysis/
understanding" frame to a more active stance of
"managing/doing." This may an appropriate time
for reviewing what students have learned thus far.
///. Management of Pollution Prevention
Moving from understanding to doing, this section
covers literature on managing pollution prevention
practices in government and society as well as in
business. The literature described here is a sampling
of the more generalist management literature ("how
to do P2"); the literature described in the next section
mentions specific P2 opportunities for, a number of
products o.r sectors. As with other parts of this com-
pendium, many more specialized pieces of the literature
have not been included; this is especially the case for
the burgeoning support for P2 in industry.
If you want to approach the management issue using
a case study or problem-solving format, you may want
to try using topics from Section IV, "Pollution Pre-
vention in Practice," to illustrate themes outlined in
Section III.
Oecemoer 1994
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ITU-! Business Management
INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL LITERATURE
In the past decade, P2 has emerged as an important busi-
ness topic Accordingly, many of the numerous articles,
books, and videos describing P2's role in business are
quite recent. General treatments include articles by
Freeman et al. (1992 [I.C]), Post (1991), Sheridan (1992),
and Underwood (1993). Books include Gore (1992
[I A]), Hirschhom and Oldenburg (1991 [key doc.]),
President's Commission (1993), Smart (1992), and the
U.S. EPA's Office of Pollution Prevention (1991b).
Videos, such as Beyond Business as Usual (unknown
date) and Less is More (1990), are also available.
. .nether set << li erarure fccuses on ecologically sus-
uma out., ess development, often including P2 and
life-cycle product stewardship as prominent themes.
Representative works that mention P2 include a book
hy Schmidhe'ny (1992) and articles by Robins (1992)
and Smith et al. (1992 (LA]). Other pieces of literature
emphasize the need for businesses to fit within an
ecological framework. Terms used include "industrial
ecology" (Tibbs, 1992 [O.A]), "biologic design" (Wann,
1990 [II.AD, and "ecological engineering" (Mitsch, 1993
[U.A]). Hawken (1993) also discusses the concept, under
the rubric of dramatically changing the role of the
corporate charter to be more ecologically sustainable.
A more management-oriented approach'encourages
"excellence" in business P2 management. For example,
the report from the President's Commission on Environ-
mental Quality (1993>tfiscusses the connection between
Total Quality Management (TQM) and P2, and includes
many examples. Piasecki (1990) develops the "environ-
mental excellence" concept for businesses as well as
other sectors.
Othenpieces Of the literature do not fit neatly into any
category, such as Lai's academic article looking at P2
from a green production and consumption perspective
(1993 [ni.C]) and Larson et al.'s discussion of society s
move towards greater efficiency and reduced material-
intensiveness (1986 [D.A]). One chapter in a P2 compi-
lation for engineering students includes a number of
engineering ethics creeds, making a connection between
the P2 goal and professional ethics (Design for Recycling
Team. 1992 [V.Al). ' •
Sot all the literatuie presents P2 in a positive light.
For example. Cook (1992) notes that risk of human-
induced ecological ruin, and thus the need for P2-
' oriented businesses, may not be as great as what: some
authors (particularly Meadows et al., ^2 [n.A]) ciaim-
Taking another tack, Lis and Chilton (1993 [I.C}) note
that the benefits of some P2 activities may be less than
the implementation costs.
TECHNIQUES FOR IMPLEMENTING
POLLUTION PREVENTION PROGRAMS
There is a great deal of literature describing how to de-
sign and run an industrial P2 program. Some of these
documents can be obtained through libraries; many of
them are available from state environmental agencies,
the U S EPA (particularly PPIQ, trade associations,
and other sources. The literature mentioned here *
sam.iUne >f mere accessible pieces. Hirschhom and
Old* -hurt, (1991 [key doc.]) provide an excellent de:
scription of the stages of P2 P^^» *""? *™,
used by the National Research Council (1985 [I.C]) and
Pojasek(1991b). Pojasek also describes 15 P2 program
milestones and, in another article (1991a), coversthe
basic components of an mdustrialP2p^amC«ver
authors, such as Kenworthy and Schaeffer (1990 [Ul-C])
and Conway et al. (1989), also describe the components
of a successful program. The US. EPA Office of Re-
search and Development's Pollution Preventvm Benefits
Manual (1992a) is a one of best known P2 guidance
manuals, although numerous others are available.
Much of the literature goes into more detail about par-
ticular technical requirements. Such detail is generally
not appropriate at this introductory level, but authors
suchSlCeoleian and Menerey (1993 DUD incorporate
life-cycle design as way to achieve P2. Dorfman et al.
(1992) describe, for a lay reader, specific techniques
that can be used to prevent organic chemical waste.
Both Kidd (1991 [V.AD and the Design for Recycling
Team (1992 [V.A]) have produced course materials tor
engineering classes that are general enough to be used
in an introductory environmental studies class.
OBSTACLES
Many of the sources thus far include only a brief
discussion of the potential obstacles that can hinder a
business P2 program. In some ways, this giv*s P2 a
specious "everybody is joining the P2 bandwagon
image, While P2 enjoys the "win-win" prospect of
environmental protection and economic benefit, many
businesses are not rushing to implement P2 programs.
-------
A number of pieces cover, obstacles to PZp depth and,
each has a slightly different-perspective. Cebon (1993),
in a bnef article, identifies three common "business
culture" bamers-limited organizational vision inade-
quate information flows, and,organizational politics.
Hirschhom and Oldenburg (1991 [key doc]), discussing
their four stages of P2, touch on organizational and
psychological obstacles in during the cruaal Stage 1.
Likewise, a pioneering National Research Council report
(1985 [I.C]) discusses institutional factors that affect
hazardous waste generation and reduction, Geiser (1991)
describes why industry has been unwilling to invest in
clean technology. In a real-life case study, McDonalds
Corporation and the Environmental Defense Fund
(1991) give a fascinating description of the challenges
- they faced in implementing a P2/recycling program.
TaVmg nuch broader pers-ective, Robins and
i Jgliu ^1992) mention problems facing businesses
as they work toward global sustainable development.
INDUSTT; AL POLLUTION PREVENTION INITIATIVES
If the literature is any indication, pollution prevention
activities are most likely to take place in an industrial
setting, particularly in businesses involved in the man-
ufacturing stage of a product's life cycle. Thisandthe
following subsection give references to broader P2 ex-
amples in industry as well as other business sectors.
Look to Section IV for references to more specific topics.
The core of P2 interest lies in creation and assembly of
products. Many of the largest U.S. manufacturers now
recognize the benefits of PZ and they have the resources
to research and implement-changes in their factories.
The pollution-intensive chemical industry is particularly
noteworthy, as McMurray (1991) points out with P2
examples from many major chemical companies.
Freeman et al. (1992 H-C|) and Forester and Skinner
(1992) also mention a variety of industrial P2 programs.
Other more general articles, such as those noted ma
previous section, invariably highlight manufacturing
Pleases. • .. • - '
Broader, consumer-industry. P2 examples include a case
study of the overall P2 program at Procter and Gamble
(Maxwell et al., 1993) and a comprehensive study of con-
sumer and industry response to source reduction and
recvcled-content products (U.S. EPA, OPE, 1989). Not
all examples of P2 are positively received by industry,
'as Moberg (.1993 (W.H)) describes in industry'.s reac-
' tion to a pr - -osed elimination of industrial chlonne
compounds use.
POLLUTION PREVENTION IN
OTHER BUSINESS SECTORS
In the agricultural sector..P2 activities such as organic -
farming and integrated pest management can dramati-
cally decrease pollution impacts from pestiade manu-
facture and use. Assuming conservation of resources
under the rubric of pollution prevention, such practices
as conservation tillage and drip irrigation are also P2
examples; references that discuss them include Bernards
(1991 OV.161), Hirschhom and Oldenburg (1991 {key
doc ]), Miller (1994 [key doc.]), Mitsch and Jo'rgensen
(1989 [H A]), and Tolba and El-KKoly (1992 [LA]), (See
also the discussion under Food and Agriculture in the
Section IV.). A more controversial P2 approach is a
shift from "aru.nal agriculture" to less energy- and
material-intensive plant-based agriculture, as described
. . Hoh aes (1992 fIV.9]) and Robbins (1992 [IV.9]).
Energy conservation is also a major P2 topic, but, aside
from highly technical articles about energy-efficient
process changes, governmental and individual actions
are much better represented in the literature (see O.B
and n.C). The Rocky Mountain Institute is well known
for advocating energy efficiency, and its Megawatts
video (1991 flV.8]) illustrates how these efforts make
sense in businesses. Other works, such as Hirschhom
and Oldenburg (1991 [key doc.]) and Geiser (1991) also
touch on energy-efficiency,programs in business.
P2 through architectural design is often aimed at
achieving energy and other resource savings. The field
of "ereen architecture" has grown significantly in
recent years. Scholand (1993 [IV.l]),provides a general
introduction to the topic. Environmentally appropnate
design in architecture as well as other fields, is ad- ^
dressed in works such as U.S. Congress, OTA, (1992b
tn A]), Wann (1990 [HA]), as well as in a course taught
by Yust (1991 [V-A]). Again, architecture is one of the
topics in the next component.
MARKETING POLLUTION PREVENTION
Businesses with successful P2 programs typically want
the public to be aware of their efforts. Most marketing,
however, is focused on end-products rather than earlier
stages in a product's life-cycle. • The literature reflects
'this tendency to focus on green products and marketing,
bv authors such as Carson and Moulden (1991); Dylhck
(1989), and Goldstein (1990). However, some authors
such as Garfield (199^ point to green overkill—using
deceptive marketing to paint an environmental image.
-------
Packaging is a case in point. For example, Holmes
(1993 (IV, 13]).discusses P2 packaging options and
companies with innovative packaging systems. Other
packaging examples include musical compact discs
(Kleiner, 1991 [IV. 13]) and fast-food containers
(McDonald's & EOF, 1991). The latter example, how-
ever, offers an excellent example of perception versus
reality. While McDonald's polystyrene clamshell ham-
burger containers have received the most attention, the
report points out that greatest life-cycle impacts, and
thus most promising P2 opportunities, lie behind the
counter, invisible to consumers.
BUSINESS AND GOVERNMENT
This subsection is arranged under the assumption mat
business, government, and individuals/society are
three distinct sectors that, nonetheless, overlap a great
deal. A number of business-oriented writers mention
the role of government intervention (and assistance)
in business P2 programs. The literature here is in fact
quite varied. Some authors claim that either govern-
ment erects regulatory barriers to business P2 programs
(Byers, 1991 p.C]), or that mandated P2 requirements
are an unnecessary expansion of government influence
(Us and Chilton, 1993 [LC]). On the other hand, authors
such as Commoner (1992 [I.C]) and Hawken (1993)
claim that government is riot being forceful enough in.
advocating P2 amongst businesses. Perhaps the per-
spective of Scholand (1993 [IV.l]) is most appropriate
—that both the pull of voluntary initiatives and the
push of regulatory forces increase the level of P2.
HUH Government Management
If there is a role for both business and government in
achieving pollution prevention, then what are the
mechanisms for government "management" of P2?
While the previous section examined broad themes for
governmental involvement in P2, this section takes a
closer look at specific policies and programs. The focus
of this discussion is the federal P2 role, although state,
local, and international government programs are also
included. Indeed, some state P2 programs are broader
in scope than the federal-program.
GOVERNMENT AS GUARDIAN
Government at all levels can play a number of roles
in promoting P2. One role is that of a "guardian" that
intervenes in the affairs or business, organizations,
and individuals to prevent as much pollution as
governmental bodies deem appropriate (Hawken, 1993
[m.A]). Commoner (1992 [LA)), for example, calls for
"command and control" governmental action to
eliminate polluting processes.
Rather than a forceful intervener, government may act
as a more passive gatekeeper. For example, government
standards could be used to set acceptable boundaries
for environmental marketing statements. There are also
less se^ era mechanisms such as requiring businesses
and other entities to develop P2 plans. For example,
Geiser (1991 [m.A]) and Lieberman (1993 [I.C]) discuss
the role of state and federal governments, respectively,
in promoting P2 plans. For the most part, the U.S. EPA
is working to make its current rule-making and enforce-
ment activities more accommodating to P2 activities, ,
rather than adding further regulatory burdens
(Browner, 1993, and Kling & Schaeffer, 1993).
GOVERNMENT AS ASSISTANCE PROVIDER
Traditionally, environmental protection agencies are
viewed primarily in the regulator or guardian role.
Despite mis image; EPA has many efforts underway to
encourage rather than dictate P2. In this role, govern-
ment acts, either directly or through an intermediary,
as an assistance provider. Specific avenues include
• technical assistance to companies, informational assis-
tance (e.g., PPIC), regulatory compliance assistance,
and financial assistance (loans, grants and subsidies).
Numerous examples of federal, state, and other P2 as-
sistance programs are listed in EPA's annual Reference
Guide to Pollution Prevention Resources (US. EPA, OPPTS,
1993 [key doc.]). Other references include Baucus (1993
[I.C]), who discusses a Senate proposal to encourage
environmental technologies; Conn (1977 [I.B), who
mentions subsidies and other assistance-type policy
options; and the U.S. EPA OPPE (1989), which proposes
a joint government/business program to encourage
source-reduced and recyclable/recycled consumer
products.
Bibiiograpr
December 199*
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GOVERNMENT AS INFORMATION FACILITATOR U.S. EPA'S POLLUTION PREVENTION PROGRAMS
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is the lead
federal agency not only in promoting P2 policy but also
in implementing P2 programs. A useful place to start
is Kling and Schaeffer's (1993) one- to two-paragraph .
descriptions of EPA's many P2 programs and initiatives.
The EPA's Reference Guide to Pollution Prevention -•
Resources (1993 [key doc.]) describes these programs in
more detail. Many of these programs are also described
in the NPPC's P2 slide show and accompanying script.
(1993). A video (Beyond Business..., pn.A]) introduces
some of EPA's programs. Other general overviews of
EPA's P2 programs are by Freeman et al. (1992 [I.C])
U.S. EPA (1991 [I.C]) and U.S. EPA OPP (1991a and
19?lb [ffl.A]). .
Ln between '"government as regulator"; and "govern-
ment as assistance provider" is government's role in
obtaining and communicating information about the
P2 and other environmental attributes of a business,
product, or other entity. In this role, government acts
as a prod to facilitate the flow of information.
For instance, the Toxic Release. Inventory (TRI) has been
widely recognized as an important P2 tool, even though
it"only requires industries to report not actually prevent,
toxic releases. Making these releases known to the pub-
lic as well as to the businesses themselves has proven to
be significant inducement toward preventing pollution.
Moos (1992 [HI.C]) and Keriworthy and Schaeffer (1990
[IJLC]) discuss how citizens can use TRI data; "How
'.Tr. "'1093 2]} reflects mdustr /'s preference for
infon-.-jon disc\osuie over prescriptive regulations.
EPA's 33/50.program to reduce'toxic industrial emis-
sions (1991 [I.C]) is one example of how governmental
bodies can cc.nbine information facilitation with assis-
tance programs to encourage voluntary P2 activities.
GOVERNMENT AS A POLLUTION GENERATOR
The models.thus far assume government is taking ac-
tions on the affairs of other entities. Government itself,
however, is a large generator of pollution. As such, it
can setan example by implementing P2 measures.
Lewis and Weitman (1992) give 40 detailed suggestions
for using the federal's significant purchasing power to
promote energy efficiency, pojlution prevention, and
solid waste reduction: As a recognition of the federal
government's tremendous potential as a P2 leader.
President CHrxoh has signed three executive orders.
The first requires federal compliance with the Toxic
Release Inventory (TRI) and Pollution Prevention Act
of 1990, and calls federal agencies to develop toxic
chemicaf reduction goals (TJ. S. President, 1993a); the
'" second calls for increased federal waste prevention, re-
• cycling, and purchases of "environmentally preferable i
products" (U. S. President, 1993b); the third calls on
federal agencies to implement cost-effective energy-
. efficiency and water-conservation investments at federal
facilities (U. S, President, 1994). Even before these
executive orders, the U.S.'EPA ORD published a guide
on reducing the environmental impact of conferences
and meetings (1991 [,IV"16]) Another article contrasts
two similar fed - il printing offices,;one inefficient and
the other efficier.; ("A Paper Tale," 1993). • '
A ce erye it source for information on EPA's P2 pro-
, grams is its Pollution Prevention Informatior. Clearing-
house (PPIC), as described in the Reference Guide, U.S.
EPA, OPPTS (1993 [key doc.]); for contact information;
see this compendium's Resource List PPIC can provide
current descriptions of specific programs, such as the
Source Reduction Review Project; the 33/50 program
(see also U.S. EPA, 1991 [I.C]); the Energy Star initia-
tive for computers (see also Berts, 1994 [IY.16]); Design
for the Environment (DfE); and Water Alliances for
Voluntary Efficiency (WAVE). Also, U:S. EPA ORD
sponsored a compendium of case studies from other
P2 programs (1992b). ,
OTHER NATIONAL PROGRAMS
There are numerous other federal offices with P2
programs. The White House and the Departments of
Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, and Energy are par-
ticularly active. Many of these programs are partner-
ships between EPA and other federal agencies. Such
partnerships include-"Agriculture in Concert with the
Environment" (ACE); "National Industrial Competi-
tiveness through Efficiency: Energy, Environment and
Economics (NICE3)"; and "The Clean Technologies
Program." Again, general information about these
programs can also be found in the U.S. EPA's Reference
Guide to Pollution Prevention Resources (1993 [key doc.))
and in the NPPC P2 slide show. Other sources of gen-
eral information about national, non-EPA P2 programs
include Freeman et al. (1992 [I.C]) and U.S: EPA OPP
'(1991a and 1991b [OLA]).
Bibliographic Taactimg Outnner 15
Decemoer 1994
•£3
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STATE AND LOCAL PROGRAMS
The degree of state and local involvement in pollution
prevention programs covers the gamut. Some states
have practically no P2 laws nor programs, while others
have extensive regulatory and/or assistance programs.
Likewise, there some outstanding county and city P2
programs, although many local governments defer P2
.ssues to state and federal programs. Many of the state
programs receive financial assistance through the U.j.
EPA's Pollution Prevention Incentives for the States
program. The 10 regional EPA offices also provide
organizational resources and financial assistance to
state and local programs. Once again, the Reference
Guide to Pollution Prevention Resources (U.S. EPA,
CPPTS, 1993 [key doc.]) is an excellent resource for
state program descriptions. Other general descriptions
of state program and local programs are found in
Freeman et al. (1992 [I.C]) and U.S: EPA, OPP (1991b
IIII A]). The General Accounting Office (1994) gives a
critical view of EPA-funded state P2 programs. Many
of the programs, the GAO found, were inordinately
involved in waste treatment and other non-P2 activities.
Geiser (1991 [I.C]) describes how state P2 laws have
encouraged businesses to engage in more P2 activities.
Likewise for energy conservation, Roodman (1993 [IV.S])
describes how state regulatory agencies, along with
environmental groups, have been encouraging power
utilities to invest in demand side management (D5M)
programs to increase the efficiency of electricity use,
Although not strictly a P2 initiative, Moore and Scott
(1983 IIV.3)) give a balanced analysis of the effects from
state beverage container deposit legislation. Jamieson
and VanderWerf (1993 [key doc.]) give recommenda-
tions for integrating P2 into all of society through state
programs. Besides one's own state, information about
The more active P2 programs in such states as California,
Massachusetts, Minnesota, Washington, North Carolina,
and Oregon may be worth acquiring.
For local P2 programs, EPA has published a fact sheet
describing P2 mechanisms, such as ordinances, that city
or county governments can use (U.S. EPA, OPP, 1991a).
Postel (1992 [IV]) gives several examples of cities that
have used P2 principles to design water conservation
programs. In'Denver, a regional EPA staffer helped the
citv-s airpor minority integrate P2 features in the new
Denver airp." : iMcCraw. I** [IV]r Several of the
case stud.es cued by the L S. EPA ORD (I992b [III.A)
take place in state or local government settings, such •
as state transportation garages or school districts.
INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS
Governments around the world are developing P2 pro-
grams. The United Nations Environment Program
(UNEP), in particular, has taken a lead role in promoting
"clean production" at the industrial levels (Hileman,
1992 [I.C]). In fact, outside the U.S., P2 is not as common
a term as "clean production" or "clean technologies."
In addition to industrial P2 programs, many countries
in Europe have government sponsored "eco-labels" or
similar green-product programs (Lai-1993 [ffl.C]; Rose,
1994 [IV.S]; U.S. Congress OTA, 1992b [II.A]).
Much of the literature that mentions non-U.S.
governmental P2 programs is incorporated into a
broader !i> "arure on global environmental sust-iinabiliry.
As the WonJ Conservation Union shows (1991 LI.C]),
government-sponsored P2 programs are one facet of a
"world conservation strategy." Tolba and El-Kholy
(1992 [I'.A]) provide a useful.reference of, among other
topics, environmental management tools with an
United Nations orientation. The World Resources ref-
erence series (World Resources Institute, 1994 [LAD is
not only a useful reference, it also features reports on
topical global resource and pollution issues
BE The Role of Individuals and Society
This section has thus far discussed the role of businesses
and governments in promoting pollution prevention.
These sectors are instrumental, but P2 cannot expect to
become a widely implemented environmental manage-
ment theme without broader public support. This
subsection discusses extending the management of P2
beyond the realm of businesspersons and governmental
administrators.
"P2 and society" is a controversial topic because it
potentially widens the P2 concept to a much wider
range of actions. Few people would argue about the
benefits of preventing pollution through more efficient
industrial processes, while behavior changes such as
reducing private automobile use may prevent pollution
but are disagreeable to a wide segment of the popula-
tion (Durning, 1992; Hirschhom & Oldenburg, 1991
[kev doc 1; Jamieson and VanderWerf, 1993 [key doc.]).
However, there are many "win-win" activities at the
personal and societal level (see for example U.S. EPA
OPPE. 1990, and U.S. EPA OSW, 1992 [1113]). 'Activities
such as conserving domestic energy and water, reduc-.
mg household toxics, and buying efficiently packaged'
Biblioorapnic Teaching Outline- 16
Decemoer 1994
-------
products,are seen as,posihve steps by most parties in
the business,-government, and household sectors. How-
e or, there are many -shades of gray between'socially
acceptable P2 activities and unacceptable curtailment
actions typified by the expression "freezing in the
dark." For those promoting individual and societal P2r
the challenge is to find the proper balance between
preventing significant life-cycle environmental impacts
and fitting within society's tolerance for change.
WHY EXTEND POLLUTION PREVENTION TO
INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY?
Perhaps "pollution prevention" should remain-a term
used primarily in industry, Surely there would be less
confusion about the concept if this were the case. How-
ever excluding consumers from influencing what and
how ~bd- s are made is plac. ,g all P2 responsibility
on f. . jucers, and the governmental forces that affect
them (see Selling Green, 1991). Yet in a free market,
consumers, through the process of informed purchasing
decisions, cm have a significant impact on producers
("Are You ...," 1992; Gore, 1992 [I.A]; Hirschhom and
Oldenburg, 1991 (key doc.]; Lai, 1993; Schwepker and
Cornwell, 1991; U.S. EPA, OPPE, 1989 [ffl.B]). Further-
more, a variety of non-market activities—one's leisure
activities. Health choices, family planning decisions,
etc —can have a profound impact on an individual's
environmental impact (De Young, 199(3-91; Durning,.
1992; Lotter, 1993).
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIORS
As Durning (1992), Frankenfeld (1993 [II.A]), and others
argue, one can make a moral argument to personally
prevent pollution if the lives of future generations are
valued. However there is often a wide gap between
feeling the tug of such an argument and actually engag-
ing in conservation behaviors. The process of getting
from concern to ongoing behaviors is an active area of
" psychological research (Conn, 1983; De Young, 1993a;
Henion and Kinnear, 1979 [ffl. A ]; Jamieson and
VanderWerf, 1993 [key doc.]; Schwepker and Comwell,
1991; Stem, 1992; and Winett, 1983).,-At a more applied
level, this calls for personal involvement.
Other authors focus on supplying practical "how-to"
information, as is seen with the plethora of "green living-
guides (including Captan. 1990; Earthworks Group,
1989 ahd'l'991,'Eli';n
-------
IV. Pollution Prevention in Practice
After students have been introduced to pollution pre-
vention concepts. life
-------
• Architecture
Connecting architecture with pollution, prevention
illustrates the power of the life-cycle impacts approach.
An excellent opportunity for increasing energy efficiency,
reducing indoor air pollution, and making best use of
.building space is at the design stage—preventing pollu-
tion through architectural design. Therefore, architects
have a key role in promoting P2 through their practice.
An entire resource compendium could be devoted to
this broad topic, but specialized architectural know-
ledge is not necessary to explore this topic.
Potential topics include:
• Use the LCA framework to examine impact and P2
opportunities at each stage of a building's 'life-cycle"
(design, construction, use, demolition).
• Pick a building (hcme, dc.m, school building, etc.)
and note what changes could be made if building it
again with P2 in mind. .
• What opportunities are there for local, state, or
federal government to encourage P2 in buildings?
Possible answers include: building codes and
inspections, property taxes, low-interest loans,
building material standards, government purchasing,
and regulated utility rates.
• How does a building's location and construction
affect P2 opportunities? Transportation ^nd solar
, energy are two possible impacts to consider.
RESOURCES
/ • * . '
Hayes, 1992 [I.C]—text of a speech calling for increases
in energy efficiency, particularly in architecture
Lewis & Weltman, 1992 [US]—book with suggestions
for increasing energy efficiency and reducing pollution
in federal government buildings .
McGraw, 1992—article outlining efforts to incorporate
• P2 features in constructing the new Denver airport
Scholand, 1993—article describing new trends in
energy efficient commercial and residential buildings
U.S. President, 1994 .[m.Bl—calls for increased fuel
efficiency and water conservation in federal buildings
Warm, 1990 (HA]—book giving examples of designing
environmental protection in buildings
• Batteries .
Pollution prevention issues with batteries includes
reducing the toxicity of materials found in batteries
(including lead, cadmium, and mercury); increasing the
life of batteries; designing battery-powered products to
use less electricity; and, after all prevention options have
been exhausted; recycling batteries in an. environmen-
tally sound manner. The resources below collectively
provide a useful primer on the environmental impacts
of batteries. Studente may want to look at their own
battery use or survey others, and examine opportunities
to prevent battery-related pollution at the raw-material,
manufacturing, use, and post-use stages of a battery
product-system's life-cycle. ,
RESOURCES
Carpi, 1994- article about the impacts of battery
disposal and new 'green battery" technologies
Gasbarro, 1991—primer on batteries and how to
, minimize their environmental impact •
Hirschhom and Oldenburg, 1991 {key doc]—
portions of a book describing impacts and alternatives
for household battery use
• Beverage Containers
Beverage containers provide a good opportunity to look
at comparative life-cycle impacts. Several beverage
container product-systems can be compared: PET
plastic bottles, glass bottles (reusable or "one-way"-
recyclable), and aluminum cans. A comparative analysis
is especially appropriate for illustrating the importance
of life-cycle environmental impacts mat are not readily
apparent to the consumer. For example, many consumers
may perceive recyclable glass bottles as environmentally
superior to plastic ones. However, plastic bottles use
significantly less material than glass, thereby reducing
resource extraction, manufacturing, and transportation
life-cycle impacts. Whether plastic is superior to
recyclable glass depends on a host of other life-cycle
impact factors. Reusable glass containers may have
even fewer life
-------
RESOURCES
Allen et al., 1992 [V, A]—one of a set of P2 engineering
design problems examining the environmental impacts
of soft drink containers
Chiming, 1992 [m.C}—book with information about en-
vironmental impacts of packaged beverage consumption
Dyllick, 1989 [ffl.A)—case study examining a yogurt-
maker's switch from plastic to reusable glass containers
Hirschhorn & Oldenburg, 1991 [key doc.}—book with
a small amount of information about glass and plastic
beverage bottles
Moore and Scott, 1983—article examining the
environmental and other impacts of beverage
container deposits
U.S. EPA, OPPE, 1989 [ffl.B]—'eport examining
environmental marketing issues for consumer
products, including beverage containers
• Campus Initiatives
Students are becoming increasingly aware that pollution
prevention opportunities exist under their noses! A
diverse coalition of students, campus plant staff, environ-
mental groups, and faculty members is appearing on
campuses around the country. As with many other P2
efforts, typically these initiatives yield environmental
benefits as well as cost savings for school administra-
tors. Promising areas include energy conservation in
heating, cooling, and lighting, water conservation,
waste reduction, indoor air pollution, lab chemicals
minimization, and transportation.
Institutions including the University of Kansas, the
University of Wisconsin, Brown University, and Tufts
University have innovative programs. The National
Wildlife Federation (NWF) and Student Environmental
Action Coalition (SEAC) also have "greening the cam-
pus" programs.
environmental action
RESOURCES
Earthworks Group, 1991 [m.C]-
guide for students
Orr, 1989 [II. A]—article describing a comprehensive
ecological investigation of a college's food service
• Cleaning and Cleaning Products
Cleaning products and related cleaning issues are
relevant to individuals, businesses, and industry alike.
As the descriptions below indicate, there are a variety
of perspectives on this issue. Most of the attention is
on providing an environmentally appropriate product
that is properly labeled. Looking further back in the
product's life-cycle, impacts from manufacturing and
resource extraction are also important Specific issues
that may be worth examining include: ingredient
disclosure, by-products from manufacturing, toxic
ingredient reduction, post-use impacts of deaner use
and packaging, efficient packaging, eco-marketing,
business product stewardship, and the efficacy of
"green" versus standard products.
RESOURCES
Harris. 1993 [m.C)—article about reducing'environ-
mental impacts from dothes washing
Hirschhom & Oldenburg, 1991 [key doc.}-detailed
book chapter on household toxics, iriduding cleaning
products
Maxwell et al., 1993 [m.A]—case study article mention-
ing Proctor and Gamble's cleaning products P2 efforts
Rose, 1994—article about the controversy with
detergent eco-labels in Europe
Schmidheiny, 1992 [m.A}—book with case studies of
environmental stewardship, including several cleaning
product corporations
Walley et al., 1992 [H-Bl—producer-sponsored article
outlining a life cyde assessment of baking soda
• Diapers
The debate between using disposable or reusable dia-
pers is a classic environmental controversy. The issue
is interesting enough to examine in both substance and
form On a substantive level, the seemingly abhorrent
disposable diaper and the supposedly innocuous cotton
diaper may neither be clear winners when all life-cycle
impacts are considered. In form, the diaper debate epi-
tomizes how the supposedly rational life cycle analysis
process can be immersed in rhetoric and emotion. It .
also shows how varying assumptions can be used to
reach different conclusions.
-------
The debate itself makes for an interesting case study,
partly because dueling LCAs are unable to.produce a ,
clear winner. Some relevant factors: ., • .
• Consider local conditions when deciding what type '
of diapers are locally superior. For example, a short-
haul diaper service may allow economies of scale for
transporting and washing reusable diapers. A com-
munity with very scarce landfill space is likely to be
more concerned about the solid waste impacts of
disposable diapers, while another community with
scarce water supplies may be more concerned about
water and sewage impacts associated with laundering
co'tton diapers. ,
• Cloth and disposable diapers are not completely
comparable.. Some experts argue that cloth is better
. .-«»x"-at 'V'* skin, while otKirs favor the wicking
featw.-i of disposable diapers. ;
• Direct diaper costs may not include hidden costs
such as lah, t and transportation. Generally, cloth
diapers are going to be less expensive to buy, but
they typically require more labor—more frequent
changes and washing time (if done at home). Dis-
posable diapers trade reduced labor intensity for
greater material intensity. For many people, this
tradeoff is worthwhile.
• Most consumers do not directly pay for the solid
waste costs of disposable diapers. Household solid
waste disposal fees are often a set fee per month or
, part of a community's property taxes. However,
. communities with volume-based solid waste dis-
posal fees may affect parents' diapering decisions. •
RESOURCES
Arthur D. Little, 1990—disposable vs. cloth LCA
(including environmental, health, and economic
impacts) sponsored by a disposable diaper maker
Bernards, 1991—pro and con debate-style statements
about the use of cloth diapers
Crossen, 1994 [D.Cl—article describing the use of "tacti-
cal research" for disposable diapers and other products
Green Revolution, 1991—article mentioning the
'- disposable diaper'issue from an industry perspective
Holusha, 1990— article about the cloth-versus-
disposable diaper debate , ' '
Keoleian and Menerey, 1991—case study of day-care
center that switched from disposable to cotton diapers
Koshland, 1990 (II.Cj—editorial welcoming the
rationality of the LCA process in the diaper debate
Lehrburger, 1989—cotton diaper-industry supported ,
report comparing cotton and disposable diapers
Poore, 1992—article presenting .the cloth vs. disposable
diaper debate as an example of environmental hyperbole;
includes an inset comparing cloth and disposables
Proctor and Gamble, 1993 [V.A]—K-12 teaching
materials, including'an activity evaluating cloth and
disposable diapers . ,
• Dnnkinq Cups and Dishware
Martin Hocking in 1991 demonstrated the practicality
of life-cycle assessments by showing, in two pages, the
environmental superiority of polystyrene foam drinking
cups over paper cups. Although his work has been
criticized, and some of the manufacturing processes he
analyzes are no longerdominant, it shows that a LCA
need not be a magnum opus. Related issues to examine
include reusable (plastic and/or porcelain) containers
versus either polystyrene or paper cups and the
environmental impacts of dishwashing.
RESOURCES
Allen et al., 1992 {V.AJ—one of a set of P2 engineering
design problems comparing polystyrene and paper
drinking cups
Design for Recycling Team, 1992 [V.A]-^-set of engi-
neering design problems including one comparing
paper and polystyrene cups
Hocking, 1991 [ILB]—article with a short LCA of paper
vs. polystyrene drinking cups ;
Keoleian and Menerey, 1991—article case study of a
. hospital cafeteria that switched from polystyrene to
washable ceramic dishware
McDonald's Corporation, 1991 [m.A]—report with
portions that discuss fast-food drinking cup arid
dishware options '
Wells et al., 1991 [HO]—comments criticizing or
complementing Hocking's i991 article
Bibliographic Teaching Outline- 21
"December 1994
-------
I Energy Production and Conservation • Industrial Pollution Prevention
Many activities can be ultimately reduced to energy
and material flows. Energy use and conservation is an
extensive area that has been widely investigated from
both technical and socio-behavioral perspectives. Energy
conservation is, in fact often treated separately from P2.
!t is included here because, within the overall rubric
of reducing life
-------
Moberg, 1993—article about .the campaign to ban
the industrial use of chlorine <.
Moos, 1992 [m.C]—article describing how Toxics
Release Inventory (TRJ) data can be used to encourage
companies to reduce pollution
Schmidheiny, 1992 [IHA]—book with case studies of
environmental stewardship with industrial corporations
Smart, 1992 [ID.A]—compilation of company releases
and other information illustrating buair esses' efforts to
reduce pollution and protect the environment
U.S. EPA, 1986 [ri.C]—video highlighting industry P2
success stories .
U.S. EPA, OPP, 1991a—comprehensive report describ-
ing government-sponsored industrial P2 programs
• Shopping Bags
Grocery shoppers typically face a decision at the
grocery check-out lane—"paper or plastic?" Actually,
there are at least three grocery bag choices—kraft paper,
polyethylene plastic, or reusable cloth bags. Paper
may be perceived by many students to be the environ-
mentally preferable choice, but on an environmental
basis alone (not including factors such as performance,
personal preference, litter, etc.) the evidence suggests
that plastic bags are better. Unfortunately, most of the
analysis to date has centered on paper vs. plastic, with
little comparative analysis of cloth bags.
This issue is simple enough to encourage students to
do an actual life cycle'assessment in class; it could also
be covered in lecture. Some of the important points of
a shopping bag LCA include the following:
• Whether or not the bag is recyclable may be only the
tip of the iceberg. Many of the impacts occur at the
• resource extraction and manufacturing stage but are
sensitive to bag capacity, degree of reuse or recycling,
and similar consumption factors.
• On a granvfor-gfam basis, plastic resin may have •
.. more environmental impact. However, for a given
amount of groceries, much more kraft paper is used,
with accordingly greater impacts.
• Post-use impacts can be a major factor^-if a house-
hold can reuse one type of bag while the other is
thrown av, '1 '. that may significantly change the total
product-system impact. ' ,
• Paper vs. plastic is not the only LCA comparison that
can be made. LCA may find both inferior to cloth
sacks. A three-way comparison is difficult, particu-
larly with the lack of data.
• There are a number of impacts, such as cultural pref-
, erences and ecological damage, that are not readily
reducible to objective facts. ,
RESOURCES
Allen et al., 1992 [V.A]—one of a set of P2 engineering
design, problems comparing plastic and paper shopping
bags
Hirschhorn & Oldenburg, 1991 [key doc.]—section in
book on shopping bags and other grocery packaging
• Transportation
Transportation is a many-faceted topic that lends itself
to a P2 discussion session or problem-solving exercise..
One can approach the issue from the perspecive of
resource conservation (reducing the use of petroleum
as well as roadway materials and space, automobile
materials, airports, etc.) and/or emissions reduction
(automobile exhaust, runoff from roads, groundwater
contamination by petroleum products, etc.). P2 in the
transportation sector goes far beyond mere technical
concerns—transportation systems in the USA are
intertwined with our culture.
Some points to consider include: life-cycle impacts of
alternative fuels (naturalgas, batteries/electricity, gaso-
line, ethanol); resource extraction and manufacturing
impacts of car-making; air pollution impacts of different
transportation systems (auto, train, plane, bicycle, etc.);
other transportation system use-stage impacts (noise,
land use, fuel consumption, etc.); cultural expectations,
transportation systems and P2; eco-marketing of P2 ^
transportation schemes; government forces and trans-
portation systems; the 1990 Glean Air Act's trip-use ,
reduction requirement; vehicle repair and maintenance
. and P2; and telecommuting and other transportation
alternatives. •
RESOURCES
Ayers, 1993—article describing the use of bicycles
for basic transportation needs
Baldwin, '1993—article describing new environmental
developments for automobiles
Biblibgrapr
December 1994
7/
-------
Bernards, 1991-pro and con debate style statements
about alternative fuels
Ounung. 1992 [IH.C]—book chapter with data and
description of transportation impacts worldwide;
includes suggestions for change
Flavin. 1993—article describing innovations in. energy
efficient, low polluting automobiles
Holmes, 1993-^rricle about the benefits and drawbacks
of telecommuting
Lewis & Welrman, 1992 [n.B]-brief section on
government procurement of efficient vehicles
Rocky Mountain Institute and U.S. EPA, 1991-video
discussing different technologies for more efficient
automobiles
Automotive Repair. Maintenance, Salvage Yards, Painting,
Radiators, 1993—compilation of P2 fact sheets for
automotive repair and maintenance shops
• Water Pollution and Conservation
Preventing water pollution and conserving water use
are both rich areas for exploration: The literature listed
does not reflect the large number of issues that could be
examined. Potential water pollution prevention issues
include: protecting drinking-water watersheds, pre-
venting non-point sources of water pollution (agricul-
ture, roadways, etc.), and eliminating toxic discharges
to sewers. A related group of issues include: efficient
industrial use of water, xeriscaping (low water-use
landscaping), more effective agricultural water usage,
gray water reuse, domestic water conservation, and
water transmission leakage reduction.
RESOURCES
Gore, 1992 [LA]—book chapter on water use and
conservation around the planet
Mitsch, 1989 [U.A]—book with numerous water-based
examples of "ecological engineering"
Postel, 1993—article about increasing the efficiency of
water use and case studies of water conservation
programs
Seymour and Girardet. 1987 [I1I.C]—book chapter
about conserving household water use
U S. EPA, Turning the Tide, 1991—video showing the
many actors-involved in reducing non-point water
pollution v
U S. EPA, OPP, 1991b [in.B]—fact sheet with a model
local ordinance for reducing industrial pollutants
discharged to sewers
U.S. President, 1994 [ffl.B]-«xecutive order calling for
water conservation in federal buildings
World Resources Institute, 1994 [I.A]-reference book
with extensive data about water use and pollution
• Miscellaneous Consumer Products
There are many more consumer-oriented products and
other topics than are listed here. These listed resourc..
can provide a starting place for further exploration.
Other consumer products worth pursuing include:
personal care products, medicines, lawn and garden
> products, pet supplies, gifts, compact disk packaging.
Additional topics for discussion include "eco-marketing/
consumer vs. producer P2 roles, environmental labeling,
visible and behind the scenes pollution impacts of
consumer products, household hazardous wastes, and
the purposes of packaging. The resources below give
some idea how wide the scope of this sector can be. Not
included are resources that are specifically relevant for
one of the specific topics.
RESOURCES
Carson and Moulden, 1991 im.A]—book of green
business strategies, especially for selling consumer
products
Duming, 1992 ,[ffl.C]-book describing the impacts
from consumer society and what to do about it
Elkington et al., 1990 [ffl.Cl-guide to green consumer
products and environmentally responsible individual
actions
Holmes and Poore, 1993—article discussing current
packaging issues from an environmental perspective
Kleiner, 1991—article describing efforts to reduce the
amount of compact disk packaging
Maxwell et al., 1993 [IH.A]-<:ase study about Proctor
and Gamble's efforts to reduce pollution associated
with their consumer products
Bibliograonic Teacnmg Outline- 24
December 1994
-------
Schmidheiny, 1992 fllUHbook with case studies
-of environmental stewardship of consumer product
corporations • '-...'
-Selling Green/'1991 [ffl.Cl-critical article about
\eco-marketingh-omaconsumerperspective
U.S. EPA, QPPE, 1989 [TUB]—report summarizing the
literature about environmental marketing
U.S. EPA, OSW, 1992 [m.C]—consumer guidebook for
reducing solid waste
• Multi-Subject References and
Miscellaneous Topics
Books that include a variety of P2 topics are listed here.
W xny of ches" --sources are also listed under spec'fic
.topics. ' ise .-.sources are a gooci place to start fr
finding additional P2 topics. ,
RFSOURCES
\' ' • . •
. getts, 1994—article about "green computers";
includes a description of EPA's Energy Star program
Caplan, 1990 {ffl.C]—book with individual and
political action strategies for a number of topics
. Earthworks Group, 1989 [ffl.C]-"50 Simple Things
You Can Do to Save the Earth"
Elkington et al., 1990 [m.C]-book with advice for .
green consumers;
Gore, 1992 [LA]—book with chapters on tools for
achieving environmental balance with the earth
Harris, 1991 (Ul.Q—book describing "choices for
environmentally sound living" -
Hirschhom and Oldenburg,1991 [key doc.]—
data-rich book describing P2 opportunities for industry
and consumers .
'Loiter, 1993 [m.C]—guidebook for determining one's
personal "Earthscore" across a variety of pollution and
resource use categories
Paper Tale, A, 1993 [UI.B}—article describing inefficient
and efficient federal government printing services
Schmidheiny, 1992 [ffl.A]—book describing models
of corporate environmental stewardship
Seymour and Girardet, 1987 [ffl.C]—book with
suggestions for individual actions to-minimize
pollution and reduce resource use
U.S. EPA, OPPE, 1990 [m.B]—pamphlet describing
P2 actions individuals can take
U.S. EP^ORD, 1991—report describing "how to
run a conference as a clean product"
Wang, 1990 llfl.Cj —article pigling me finan^ JS of
a family that strives to be "green"
Wann, 1990 fn.A)--book with numerous examples of
the author's "biologic" concept—modeling processes
after efficient natural designs '
v •-•"'•
• Other Potential Topics
There are countless other topics that can be used to
apply pollution prevention concepts. A few additional
topics include:
- Improving indoor air quality using P2
- Office paper waste prevention
- Reducing CFC production and use
- Eliminating chlorine bleaching in paper making
- Increasing the efficiency of direct mail campaigns
- Preserving greenspace and preventing pollution
Bibliographic Teaching Outline* 25
Qec8fnberl994
-------
o
Original produced on Hunmennill Unity DP,
a 50% post-consumer/50% pre-consumer recycled paper
made from de-inked old newspapers and magazine*
Published by:
The National Pollution Prevention Canter
for Higher Education
University of Michigan. Dana Building
430 East University Ave.
Ann Arbor, Ml 48109-1115
• Phone: 313-764-1412
• Fax 313-936-2195
• E-mail: nppcOumich.edu
The mission of the NPPC is to promote sustainable development
by educating students, faculty, and professionals about pollution
prevention; create educational materials; provide tools and
strategies for addressing relevant environmental problems; and
establish a national network of pollution prevention educators.
In addition to developing educational materials and conducting .
research, me NPPC also otters an internship program, profes-
sional educaft-- & training, and conferences.
Your Input I* Wdcomel
We are very interested in your feedback on the** materials.
Please take a moment to offer your comments and communicate
them to us. Also contact us if you wish to receive a documents
list, order any of our materials, collaborate on or review NPPC
resources, or be listed in our Directory of Pollution Prevention
in Higher Education.
W« Pltn to Go Online
The NPPC is beginning to make its documents available over
the Internet in any of the following ways:
• Anonymous FTP: ftp.snre.umich.edu
• Gopher: gopher.snre.umich.edu
• Worldwide Web: http://www.snre.umich.edu/
Please contact us if you have comments or suggestions
regarding online access to our materials.
Bibliographic Teaching Outline* 26
• December 1994
-------
Pollution Prevention in
Environmental Studies
no* w«ywnoB cwrta KM MOM* COUCATICN
Pollution Prevention References
by Discipline
Poteion prewntion crosses many disciplines, but it cm be useful to stow the
link between P2 and one's discipline. The list below includes documents and
other resources from the bibliography Out ore particularly relevant to liberal arts
and natural resources disciplines. Documents ore listed more then once if they
ore applicable to multiple disciplines. Contact the MK for information about
P2 educational resources in business, engineering, and otherfulds.
Biology and Natural Resources
Bernards, 1991
Committee on the Applications..., 1986
Cunningham and Saigo, 1992
Goodland, 1992
Holmes, 1992
Larson etal., 1986
Lefferts and Bjobaum, 1992.
Meadows, 1992
Miller, 1994
Mitsch,1993
Mitsch and Jorgensen, 1989
Nebel and Wright, 1993
Orr,1989
Peet,1992
Tibbs,1992
Tolba and El-Kholy, 1992 .
U.S. EPA, SAB, 1990*
Wann, 1990
."Where Our Food Comes From," 1989
World Resources Institute, 1994
Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics
and Geology .
Allen et al., 1992
Amato, 1993
Cunningham and Saigo, 1992
Dorfman et al., 1992
Goodland, 1992
Peet,1992
Society of Env'tal Toxicology and Chemistry, 1993
Economics
Allen etal., 1992
Casler, 1991
Duming,1992
Gore, 1992
Hawken.1993
Hirschhom and Oldenburg, 1991
Larson, 1986
Lewis and Weltman, 1992
Lis and Chflton, 1993
McDonald's Corporation, 1991
Moore and Scott, 1983
Peetl992
Partney, 1993-94 >
Robins and Trisoglio, 1992
Schmidheiny, 1992
Uusitalo, 1986
Education
Allen etal., 1992*
Amato, 1993*
Bakshani and Allen, 1992-93*
Corporate Conservation Council, 1989*
De Young, 1993*
Design for Recycling Team, 1992T
Hanlon and Bartenstein, 1992*
Jamieson and VanderWerf, 1993
National Research Council, 1986*
Orr, 1992*
Purcell, 1992*
Stem etaL, 1992
Tchudi, 1993'*
ILS. EPA, OPPTi 1993
Washington State University, 1991*
National Pollution Prevention Center lor Higher Education • University of Michigan
Dana Building, 430 East University, Ann Artor Ml 48109-1115
Phone: 313.764.1412 • Fax: 313.936.2195 • E-mail: nppcOumich.edu
May M reproduced
treaty for non-commercial
educational purposes. :
Discipli
Oecemoerl994
-------
Humanities (Philosophy, History,
Languages, etc.)
Bernards, 1991 - ,
Buchholz et al., 1989
Commoner, 1992
Crossen, 1994
Chiming, 1992 .
Frankenfeld, 1993
Gore, 1992
Jamieson and VanderWerf, 1993
Orr,1992
Peet, 1992
Rathje, 1989
Schumacher, 1973
Vargish, 1980
Wynne, 1992
Political Science and Policy Studies
Andrews, 1992
Baucus, 1993
Bernards, 1991
Browner, 1993 • _ •
Byers, 1991
Casler, 1991
Commoner, 1992
Conn, 1983
Conn,1977
Cook, 1992
Freeman et al., 1992
Geiser, 1991
Gore, 1992
Habicht, 1992 »
Hileman, 1992
Hirschhom a.-.d Oldenburg, 1991
"How to Get Industry to Clean Up on its Own," 1993
Kling and Schaeffer. 1993
Koshland, 1990
Lai, 1993
• Lieberman, 1993
Lis, 1993 •
Monatague, 1994
National Research Council, 1985
Ophuls and Boyan, 1992
Orr,1992
Rabe, 1991
Robins and Trisoglio, 1992
Roy, 1991
Smith et al., 1992
Tolba and El-Kholy, 1992
U.S. Congress, OTA, 1986
U.S. Congress, Senate, 1992
US. EPA, 1991
U.S. EPA, OPP, 1991c
U.S. EPA, SAB, 1990
U.S. EPA, OPP, 1991
U.S.GAO
Sociology, Psychology and
Anthropology
Andrews, 1992
Bernards, 1991
Cebon, 1993
Conn, 83
Dake, 1992
De Young, 1993a
De Young, 1993b»
De Young, 1990-91
Duming,1992
Henion and Kinnear, 1979
Jamieson and VanderWerf, 1993
Lai, 1993
Low and Heinen, 1993
Meadows etal., 1992
Miller, 1994
Moos, 1992
Morris, 1991
National Research Council, 1985
Ophals and Boyan, 1992
PurceU,1992
Rathje, 1993»
Rathje, 1989
Roy, 1991
Schwepker and Cornwell, 1991
Stem, 1992
Stem et al., 1992 •
U.S, EPA, OPPE, 1989
Uusitalo, Licsa, 1986
Vargish, 1980
Winett and Ester, 1983
Wise, 1993
-These sources appear in Section V. of the Resource List,
"Educational Resources."
Original produced on Hammermill Unity DP,
a 50% post-consumer/ 50% pre-consumer recycled paper
made from de-inked old newspapers and magazines.
Disciplinary
December 1994
-------
Pollution Prevention in
Environmental Studies
FOB HIGHER BXJCATOH
Suggested Course Structures
Prepared by Andrea Dtmam, NPPC Research Assistant.
These an suggested structures for teaching a pollution prevention module or
course during one or more 50-minute doss periods. Class periods do not need to
be consecutive. "-.'..
Single-Session Introduction
°«-.-,
-------
Two-Week Module
CLASS 1
• Reading: Wise Q993 [key doc.]), Habicht (1992
[key doc.]), and/or Smith, et al (1992 [key doc.]).
• Session: Introduce P2 concept, history, and policy,
and show relationship to other topics or disciplines.
• Assignment Study questions.
CLASS 2
• Reading: See Outline Section OLA.
• Session: Introduce LCA framework and issues.
• Assignment "Find P2 opportunities at each life-
cycle stage."
CLASS 3
• Reading:'Curran (1993 [key doc.]).
• Session: Cover follow-up topics (and/or discussion)
of LCA and P2; introduce management of P2 by
business and give an example.
• Assignment: "Describe a specific example of a busi-
ness P2 activity. What makes it different from other
business environmental management activities?"
CLASS 4
• Reading: EPA Journal (1993 [key doc.]) or some-
thing from Section ffi.B.
• Session: Introduce management of P2 in govem-
ment'and describe an example.
• Assignment: "Describe a personal P2 activity and
discuss why or why not it is easy to implement"
DISCUSSION SECTION
Conduct a "mini" life-cycle assessment for a specific
product system. (See Outline Section IV for topics.)
CLASS 5
• Reading: Jamieson and Vand'erWerf (1993
[key doc.]) or something from Section ffl.C.
• Session: Conduct follow-up of discussion; intro-
duce P2 management by individuals and society;
and give brief individuals and society P2 example.
• Assignment: Prepare to take test or give report.
CLASS 6 ,
• Session: Conduct an in-depth examination of life
cycle impacts, P2 opportunities, and societal roles
for one or two topics. Possible test or report.
Half-Semester Module
Assign Hirschhom and Oldenburg (1991) as a general
text; see other modules above and the Bibliographic
Teaching Outline for specific readings and assignments
as needed.
WEEK1 .''•'.
Cover human-environment impacts and sustainability;
examine the definition and concept of P2 and its
history.
WEEK 2
Examine P2 policy, both enactment and implementation;
show P2's application to different disciplines/fields;
and introduce LCA concept compared with other
systems analysis tools.
WEEK 3
Examine LCA framework and controversial issues;
describe management of P2 in business.
WEEK 4
Show business P2 example(s); describe government
management of P2; show government P2 example(s);
describe individual and societal management of P2 and
show example(s).
WEEKS
Explore Topic #1 and initiate student projects.
WEEK 6
In-depth examination of one or more P2/LCA
applications. (For topics, see Outline Section IV.)
WEEK 7
Exploration Topic #2.
WEEKS
Presentations and/or exam and wrap-up.
Suggested Course Structures • 2
December 199*
-------
POTENTIAL EXPLORATION TOPICS
- P2 and federal, state, or local policy •
- Global P2 and sustainability
- Relationship of P2 and LCA to an environmental issue
- In-depth examination of a P2 initiative
- P2/LCA examples/opportunities at the grocery store
- P2/LCA examples/opportunities at home
- P2/LCA examples/opportunities at one's school
- Relation of P2 to a specific discipline or field
- Comparison of P2 with preventive medicine
- The history and/or literature of P2
- P2 and "futuring"
- LCA, P2, and current social issues
- Ethical implications of P2 and LCA
Original produced on Hammermill Unity DP,
a 50% post-consumfir/50% pre-consumer recycled paper
made from de-inked old newspapers and magazines.
Published by:
The National Pollution Prevention Center
for Higher Education
University of Michigan, Dana Building
430 East University Ave.
Ann Arbor, Ml 48109-1115
.Phone:313-764-1412 .
• Fax: 313-936-2195
• E-mail: nppcaumich.edu
The mission of the NPPC is to promote
by educating students, faculty, and professionals about pollution
prevention; create educational materials; provide tools and
Strategies for addressing relevant environmental problems, and
establish a national network of pollution prevention educators.
in addition tb developing educational materials and conducting
research, the NPPC also offers an internship program, prates-.
' sioral education & training, and conferences.
Your Input l» MfolcoiM/
We are very interested in your feedback on these materials.
Please take a moment to offer your comments and communicate
them to us. Also contact us if you wish to receive a documents
list order any of our materials, collaborate on or review NPPC
resources, or be listed in pur Directory of Pollution Prevention
in Higher. Education.
*-
We Pl*n to Go Online
The NPPC is beginning to make its documents available over
the Internet in any of the following ways: .
. Anonymous FTP: ftp.snre.umich.edu
• Gopher, gopher.snre.umich.edu • .
« Worldwide Web: http-7/www.snre.umich.edu/
Please contact us if you have comments or suggestions
regarding online access to our ma.t6.ials.
Suggested Course Structures • 3
December 1994
-------
I
-------
Pollution Prevention in
Environmental Studies
O.UT10M P«rv£HnOK CTMTEH «J« HX>CB EDOCATTOW
Selected Reading Material
Mary Ann Curran: "Broad-Based Environmental Life Cycte
Assessment." Environmental Science and Technology 27, no. 3
(1993): 430-436.
Dale Jamieson and Klasina VanderWerf: Cultural Barriers to
Behavioral Change: General Recommendations and Resources
for State Pollution Prevention Programs. Boulder Center for
Values and Social Policy, July 1993.
John Wise: 'Chalons es for the Future.' \n1993Spring
Conference: Connections for Pollution Prevention, pp. 54 -62;
proceedings of the National Roundtabte of State Pollution
Prevention Programs, San Diego, CA, 28 April 1993.
National Pollution Prevention Cantsr tor Higher Education • University ol.Michigan
Dana Building, 430 East University. Ann 'Arbor Ml 48109-t1\5^_"i^- ..
Phone: 313.764.1412 • Fax: 313.936,2195 • E-mail: nppc0umich.edu'
Selected Readings • 1
December 1994
-------
-------
MARY ANN CURRAN
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
Risk Reduction Engineering
Laboratory
Cincinnati, OH 45288
Pollution prevention through
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
is a departure from evaluating
waste management options
that look mainly at single issues
such as recyclability or reduced tox-
icity.
An LCA is a snapshot in time of
inputs and outputs. It can be used as
an objective technical tool to iden-
tify environmental impacts associ-
ated with a specific product (it can
also be applied to processes and ac-
tivities, but this article focuses on
products) and evaluate opportuni-
ties to reduce these impacts. The
LCA is a holistic approach that ana-
lyzes she entire system around a
particular product It encompasses
extracting and processing raw mate-
rials: manufacturing*, transportation .
and distribution; use, reuse, and
maintenance; and recycling and
waste management (1). It also fac-
tors, in the downstream and up-
stream effects of product use (2).
The Society of Environmental Toxi-
cology and Chemistry defines .LCA as
looking holisticatty at the environ-
I
I
B
-------
T.er.uu consequences associated with
trie cradle-to-grave life cyce of a pro-
cess or product f 1). The 3M Company
defines us life cycle approach as
looking at how waste can be reduced
or eliminated starting with the point
of generation in the manufacturing
operation, to its processing,,treat-
ment or ultimate disposal as a resid-
ual hazardous waste (3).
Pollution prevention can take
place at any stage in a product life
cycle, and changes at any stage can
have positive or negative effects on
waste generation at other stages.
Government programs have typi-
cally focused on releases to a single
medium (air, water, or land). Al-
though designed to reduce releases
to one environmental medium,
these programs can increase re-
leases to other media. For example,
when air pollution control equip-
ment is installed in hazardous
waste incinerators, large quantities
of hazardous wastewater may be
generated from scrubbers (4).
'.CAs can assist in evaluating pro-
posed changes to product or process
designs so that trade-offs can be'
identified. For example, an appar-
ent improvement to a product that
decreases air pollutants but results
in increased water-borne pollutants
could be identified by an LCA. Any
potentially offsetting effects of the
water-borne pollutants could be ac-
counted for in an overall environ-
mental assessment of the product.
Product stages and LCAs
For the "raw material acquisi-
tion" stage, an LCA considers activ-
ities that involve removing materi-
als from the Earth, such as crude oil.
The second stage is ."material man-
ufacture." which includes process-
ing raw materials, for example,
turning crude oil into polymeric
resin. In the "product fabrication"
stage, the processed raw materials
are made into .products. For exam-
ple, polymeric resin is melted and
formed into a number of products.
such as plastic bottles.
Many activities take place during
the next stage: "filling, packaging.
and distribution." The plastic bottle
in our example is filled, packaged
for transportation, and distributed
for sale. Transportation, however.
occurs throughout all the life cycle
stages and is not accounted for as-a
single activity during distribution.
The next star- "use. reuse, and
maintenance • Incorporates how
the product is used after the point of
sale. The last stage, "recycling and
waste management." assesses how
the product is ultimately disposed
of. including recycling. Figure 1 de-
picts the stages of a product life cy-
cle assessment.
Procter & Gamble defines the LCA
as an attitude that displays an ac-
ceptance by manufacturers of con-
sumer products of their share of re-
sponsibility for the environmental
burden caused by their products
from design to disposal. It uses the
LCA as a quantitative tool that en-
sures that real—rather than superfi-
cial—environmental improvements
are identified (5).
EPA's definition of LCA .involves
examining the environmental re-
leases and impacts of a specific
product by tracking its develop-
ment from a raw material, through
its production, and to eventual dis-
posal (6). Other names for LCA in-
clude product life cycle analysis,
ecobalance, cradle-to-grave analy-
sis, and resource and environmen-
tal profile analysis.
One of the major findings of e
1990 LCA workshop held by »he So-
ciety of Environmental Toxicology
and Chemistry (SETAC) was that
complete LCAs should be com-
posed of three separate but interre-
lated components: life-cycle inven-
tory, life-cycle impact analysis, and
life-cycle improvement analysis.
Existing LCA efforts have focused
primarily on the inventory compo-
nent. Considerable research is
needed to develop the impact and
improvement analysis components.
The workshop identified the addi-
tional research needed for the in-
FIGURE1 .
Defining system boundaries
ventory component in'database de-
veiopment and methodology
refinement (1).
Although LCAs have been
used—by industries, governmental
agencies, and other organiza-
tions—in one form or another over
the past several decades in Europe,
the United States, and a- few other
countries, interest in this environ-
mental analysis tool has grown in
the past several years (2). Modern
life-cycle inventory analysis had its
beginnings in the 1960s. Concerns
over the decreases of raw materials
and energy resources sparked inter-
est in finding ways to account for all
energy use and project future re-
source supplies.
In 1969, researchers at Midwest
Research Institute (Kansas City,
MO) initiated a study for the Coca-.
Cola Company that laid the founda-
tion for the current methods of life-
cycle inventory analysis in the
United States. The process of quan-
tifying resource use and environ-
mental releases of products became
known as the Resource and Envi-
ronmental Profile Analysis (REPA).
With the formation of public inter-
est groups who encouraged indus-
try to ensure that the public receive
accurate information concerning a
product's environmental effects,
and with the oil shortages in the
early 1970s, approximately 15 RE*
PAs were performed between 1970
and 1975.
From 1975 through the early
1980s, interest in these comprehen-
sive studies waned because of an
AtmtMptorie
WatMtoonw
' wastM
Solid
Energy
Coproducts
Other
releases
System boundary
432 Environ So Tecnnol Voi 2? No 3 1993
-------
partial ereening of businesses, from both regulatory ;
-push" and market "pulls." Problems thwarting
sustainable business development.include the com-
petitive business model, resistance of businesses to
public pressure/legation, difficulty of changing
attitudes and culture, linear industrial ecosystems,
and dosed decision-making processes. Outlines a
10-point "eco-industrial policy" that could be used
to overcome these obstacles.
Rocky Mountain Institute and the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Region VIII. Negawatis—A Gold-
mine of Opportunity (video). 1991. 20 minutes. [IV]
Description from EPA's Reference Guide to Pollution
Prevention Resources: "Negawatis describes how
corporations can jcin in the energy-efficiency
re v olution y; ' ding economic in'-4 environmental
benefi iroughout the world. Aggressive energy
efficiency programs are enabling many leading
corporations to improve bottom-line performance
w'nile meeting customer demands for greater
corporate responsibility. Energy efficiency devices
can generate electricity savings (negawatts) to
' displace the output of 500 typical power plants. As
an added benefit, these technologies prevent pollu-
tion by wringing more work out of each unit of
energy. Energy efficiency also creates jobs and
reduces dependence on foreign oil."
. Transportation 2000—Moving Beyond Auto
America (video). 1991.30 minutes.
As described, in EPA's Reference Guide to Pollution
' Prevention Resources: "Transportation 2000 discusses
different technologies for producing more efficient
automobiles."
Roodman, David Malin. "Power Brokers: Managing
Demand for Electricity." World Watch 6, no. 6
(November 1993): 22-29. [IV] V
Describes the rise of demand-side management
(DSM) programs at electric utilities, using the
example of the California electric utility, Pacific Gas
& Electric, as a case study. Describes how utilities,
under pressure.from regulatory agencies and
environmental groups, have shifted from investing
in more capacity toward investing in more efficiency.
The utilities promote efficiency through programs
such as low-cost loans for insulation or new equip-
' ment, wKich^re paid for through higher electricity
rates' With -eater consumption'efficiency, however,
overall electricity costs decrease. The article describes
how these somewhat counterintuitive tactics are
gaining credence throughout the U.S. and the rest
of the world.
Rose, Julian. "And the Detergent 'Eco-iabel' Goes
to..." Environmental Science and Technology 28,
no.4(1994):179A. [IV]
Brief article describing the controversy in Europe
over environmental impacts of detergents. The
European Union intends to award "eco-label" to
environmentally friendly detergents. Detergents -;
including phosphate would not be eligible. How-
ever, European phosphate producers commissioned
a scientific consultative study (using the Delphi tech-
nique) that indicates phosphate is hardly more envi-
ronmentally harmful than alternative ingredients.
Roy, toanik. ErvironmentaJ Law: Pollution P'even-
tion, Organizational Culture, and Social Learning."
Environmental Law 22 (1991): 189-225. [I.C]
PIES. Abstract: ''This document addresses some of
the fundamental theories of U.S. environmental pro^
tection policy. This policy has proven difficult to
practice due to the complexities of evaluating social
costs of pollutant discharges and the inability of
government agencies to enforce environmental laws
on all of the world's polluters. This document high-
lights the weaknesses of the simple explanations of
environmental protection policy and then explores
the role .of the social sciences in environmental poli-.
cies. Finally, the document suggests a direction for
environmental policy that helps society to under-
stand how best to limit its pollution through pre^
vention by better reflecting the realities of those
companies and individuals that generate waste."
Schmidheiny, Stephan, with the Business Council for
Sustainable Development. Changing Course: A Glo-
bal Business Perspective on Development and the
Environment Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,1992, [IIIA]
Released around the time of the United Nations Con-
ference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
in Rio de Janeiro, this book provides a business per-
spective on sustainable development. Working from
the basis that a healthy environment is a prerequisite
for a healthy economy, the authors examine how the
economy can be reshaped in sustainable develop-
ment terms. Integrates P2 into the prescription for
sustainable business development, although much of
the teXt is framed in broader terms. Includes many
case studies frora corporations around the world.
December 1994
-------
Scholand, Michael. 'Building for the
World Watch 6, no. 6 (November 1993): 36-38. [IV]
Describes new trends to improve the energy efficiency
of commercial and domestic buildings, which now
use 36% of the U.S. energy budget. Gives examples
of measures such as thermal windows, insulated
walls, auto-dimming lights, variable flow climate
control systems, water conservation, and natural
lighting: A number of the described programs are
outside the U.S. Describes how efficiency increases
in buildings are likely to come from two forces: regu-
latory (such as stricter building codes) and voluntary
(from pioneering architects and home-builders).
^cMwapker. C. H., and T. B. Cornwall. "An Exa-i-
nation of Ecologically Concerned Consumers .
Their Intention to Purchase Ecologically Packaged
Products." Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 10,
no. 2 (September 1991): 77-101. [III.C]
Scholarly marketing-studies article presenting results
of a questionnaire-based study that examined vari-
ables which may indicate which people are willing
to purchase ecologically packaged products. The
study found significant discriminating variables to
be attitude toward ecologically conscious living,
attitude toward litter, locus of control (i.e., whether
or not one has a sense of personal control over one's
life), and perception of pollution as a problem. De-
mographic variables were not found to be as impor-
tant as sociopsychological variables. The research
indicates that most consumers would be willing to
purchase products with reduced, recyclable, and/or
biodegradable packages and that policymakers and
marketeers may Want to increase their efforts to
educate consumers about the solid waste problem.
"Selling Green." Consumer Reports 56, no. 10
(October 1991): 687-692. [III.G]
Critical article about eco-marketering oriented
' toward the savvy consumer. Mentions numerous
positive and negative examples of green products
and packaging. Includes an inset box on the contro-
versy surrounding the U.S. EPA's Consumer's
Handbook for Reducing Solid Waste.
Seymour, John, and Herbert Girardet. Blueprint fora
Green Planet. New York: Prentice Hall, 1987. [III.C]
Book by British authors that suggests actions that in-
dividuals can take to minimize pollution and reduce
resource use. Takes the perspective that individual
behaviors are important and that consumption must
be moderated. Can take on a moralistic tone at times,
although it provides a number of practical sugges-
tions Major topics indud" household water use, ag-
riculture, food, solid waste, medicines and toiletries,
household toxics, energy use, and automobiles.
Sheridan, John H. -Pollution Prevention Picks Up
Steam." Industry Week 241 (17 February 1992):
36+.PII.A]
Article describes the success of voluntary P2 pro
grams but warns that stricter regulations may be
developed. Begins with several Pi2 success stories
from the manufacturing sector. Mentions common
conflicts between environmental and production
staff over making P2 changes to the production
process. Compares EPA's focus on source reduction
with a more "balanced" approach, which would
also include recycling, treatment, and disposal.
Smart, Bruce, ed. Beyond Compliance: A New
Industry View of the Environment. Washington:
World Resources Institute, April 1992. [111. A]
A compilation of company information releases and
other original material by Smart, former CEO of a
Fortune 100 corporation. P2 is a central theme
within the broader analysis of business and the
environment.
Smith, Emily T., David Woodruff, and Fleur
Templeton. "Growth vs. Environment: In Rio Next
Month a Push for Sustainable Development." Bus/-
ness Weefc.(11 May 1992): 66-70. 72-75. [key doc.]
Written just before the UNCED Earth Summit, this
cover story examines unsustainable human practices
and what can be done to bring about sustainable hu-
man development. A proposed solution for sustain-
able'development includes increased efficiencies in
both resource use and pollution emissions, a frame-
work for change such as environmental taxes and
international agreements, population stabilization
and restraints on consumption. "Sustainable devel-
opment would stress prevention" (p.75). Includes
many examples and quotes from leading experts.
Annotated Bibliography • 20
Decemoer 1994
-------
apparent end to the oil crisis, and
•;nviruhmen:ai concern shifted to
/issues of hazardous waste manage-
me'nt However tnrou-ahout .this
tirne i.re-jve-.e ,;rv.->rncrv analyse?
..jp.tip.ued '.) o* conducted 'about
.-wo Atuu-.es per \ear most pt which •
T.JCUO-M on'ep.eray requirements].
ar.ii metp.cdoioiv ..mproved. When
si.,., d wiste w-d.T.e i.worldwide is-
,ue .i-.'l'J88 '.p.tf .::--':•.c:e inventory.
anjiviis •technique .isam became a
•".o. : ,r j'nai* /.:r.-i environmental
r'r .:..•.'"•= '-
. *ir'
i ' .
j'Jctirtsj :rk> study are determined. :
TpYinu>p.t of the peer review is to
ensure tr.at the! LCA study is com- , .
olete.. the process. ;s open to scru-
t'tt'v quai;t\ data are used, and the
conclusions fit within the scope ot.
;he data It is very important that all
•. assum.ptions ma'de during a study- .
be cieV.v stated when'the results
are Dissented (22}. . • • ' '
_ LCAs can also, serve as1 decision-
makina tools for industry. A product
manufacturer compares the current
product to modifications'.. the same.
product. The assessment makes it
possible to determine if changes are •
an improvement or only a smtt ot -
environmental burden from one -u-ea
tb another. This "greening-ot proa- . •
ucts has'been used over the years by
• many companies/including Pr-cter
& Gamble- (see-surfactant study ...;ed .
injablell. - :-.
LCA methodology
' Many experts agree, that LCAs are
useful 'for identifying opportunities
• for pollution prevention, .but with-
out an agreed-upon approach the re-
,'sults are" not always consistent. In a -
1990 study sponsored bv Procter x
Gamble. A.D. Little l/ll found that
cloth diapers consume more than
- three tirnes.as much energy, from
cradle to grave, as disposables do.
' But'.a study sponsored by the Na-
Yional Association of Diaper Ser- .
vices reported that disposables con-
sume TO0-., more energy that cloth
diaoers do il-"!'- The. discrepancy
can'be '.raced largely to.a.crountina.
methods For example/the >tu>iv ta-
i^p.^r^v^'as an -p.-rav credit.
.wmch :e-.:uced the bof.-im,.jn.e jn-
,-r«y usaa? The other -tudv 7-ili "ol1-
-."iiPit .:.--Jeneration because it- pro-
:ul-- -iir pollution JJt- • '
"bjtd •:.c-.'ie.ction is another tenucu?,
^:-.i v. r.er. oertormina LCAs Data
'::-.'..-. :"p.-' ap.'octai-nab'i'e. bpc'ause' of
•r.r-.: ••:-.:':den.;;a', nature pro'pri-
-------
Life cvcle impact analysis
LV •. -T-. .•
: c:e<
irn
:r.e env.rorirneniai
u'-'.j Howe>.er.-ir. d
:>.'ed to identify op-
Decrease environ-
* ar.a energy ana raw
7r..i use of .nventory
j '.eii is best ap-
r.'.::1. wnere '.he oata
:i~"^ '."lit -5 '•vnere
,r.r,-.-r.;j;
-\.-:."=; ~-T.cJi :o e\ j.ua'.e , r.az-
,:.-js ^o:uci> '.however, has .come under
rr.ucn criticism, mainly as a result ot
- -j^-ri-s '-". '..".e jO'e.c'.i\ es ot
•'-- -• . ~\ ir.c ".r.e .r.'.enaed use ot
•r.r '..-:.jr~d;;or. 'If- impact analysis
.; :e<.:ed. it is necessary to clearly •
jief-.r.e what is considered an impact
•r" :r.e context of an LCA. Previous
.rr.Dac: definitions have been mixed
dr.:: rin^e from human health risks
•_ -.r.e effects, of habstat alteration.
N ' . :n: still in its infancy Specifically.
me'.r.ods developed to date do not
"orovide the necessary data on
wr.:cn to base decisions about prpd-
u'ct choices. They go on to say^that
iitnough there are certain problems
with life cycle analysis, there are
also efforts under way to improve
the process (2T). •
EPA's activities
EPA is interested in encouraging
manufacturers to use LCAs. when
developing new products or im-
proving existing ones. No regula-
tions exist that require assessments
ID be performed, nor are there any
. plans to make the LCA process a
TABLE 1 - •
_ •3f--:tf
*-:•. ; -••;-..•'.• • ." TJ
•f^.f
." ,.— .
Life cycto assessment* In the United States • .•- / - - • •
caii-k
Coca-Cola ' .-
EPA r ;'\3- ,
Uo&ovin
Qoodysar • .
Proctsr 4 Gamoia
_A^;._
,u». *•*•
' :M» .''T
• '• yni •'.;?•
" ""MRI^VL
' FrainMn'.
FrarWin
r Product •" . " '
• rBtverage containers
•"'^Btvarage containafa
" Ptestlcs ". .•
Beer containers
Soft dnnk contairwrs
Laundry detergent •
pacfcagino,
"' Y««r
. 1969
•'•-•'• W74
:;f 1974
: 1974
,1978
1988
ed ooiysfyrene and
weacned paperooard
Clotfi and disposawe
1 Grocery sacxs
Cferr.
S^stsms
1989 . 12
.1990 13
1990 14
1990 IS
1991 15
• 99-
-3 ,-9
- J-- • .-j:-- ;--ji-9-s
" c:- i : sccsaos
•992
•990
-------
•n
i-
a-
ti
>y
a
regulation. Instead. EPA wants to
develop the'process into a usable
.tool and demonstrate us importance
m environmental protection. • .
Several offices within EPA have
been studying life-cycle methodoi- •
ogy since'1990'in an effort to de-
velop a uniform approach to con- .
ducting the assessments. This type
of nonregulatory ••standard will
provide guidance to life cycle users
as well as reduce the tendency ior
Studies to reach aPP^^V contra-
dictory conclusions. EPA s Office of
Research and Development.
through its Risk Reduction Engi-
neering Laboratory in Cincinnati.
developed a guidance manual in
late 1992 for conducting and evalu-
ating life-cycle inventories (22).
This work was done in coordina-
tion with the Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards, the Office
of Solid Waste, ard the Office of
Pollution Prevention and Toxics.
The inventory manual is intended
to be a practical guide, for conduct-
ing and interpreting inventory anal-
ysis, and it provides a template for
generalizing the inventory develop-
ment process by describing a set of
rules that assist in making neces-
sary assumptions regarding assess-
ment boundaries, data quality and
coverage, and equivalency of use in
a consistent fashion. It was written
to be practical and useful to a broad
audience. . . ,
The approach outlined in the
manual is descriptive rather than
prescriptive, that is, it is not a
"cookbook." A more stepwise ap-
proach would require application
within a specific industry because
the variations amo»g different in-
dustries prohibit making the gener-
alized statements that are needed in
a precise, step-by-step method (22).
bur next step will be to apply the
inventory manual to several case
studies within selected product cat-
egories. At the same time wei are
continuing W assess the viability of
performing the impact assessment
component of the LCA process and
plan to come out with guidelines m
the next year. Also. EPA is identify-
- ing sources of data that can be used
for LCA applications.,It if antici-
pated that this effort will benefit
life-cycle practitioners by providing
them with information on the avail-
ability of reliable and accurate
sources of data.
for use as a
ting tool.
Future direction
'As EPA continues in this area, we
are pursuing cooperative efforts
with other agencies, industry, and
appropriate trade associations to
perform LCAs and start gathering
the necessary data in order to dem-
onstrate the feasibility of LCA stud-
ies-It is anticipated that as date be-
come more accessible to potential
Ssers, the cost of doing an LCA w^
decrease because much of the cost
is in the labor involved in collecting
data. Consequently, more users, wiU
be able to apply the LCA tool to
more products. We will also con-
tinue tb study the impact analysis
component of this assessment in or-
der to develop guidance in this area
However, members of the SETAC
LCA Advisory Group—an interna-
tional panel of scientists represent- -
ing government, academia. indus-
try and environmentalists-say
that the assessment methods need
to be further researched before
drawing conclusions about specific
' products. Also, assessments could
be misused by those seeking a mar-
ket advantage. .
The Advisory Group strongly
supports the internal use of LCA in-
ventories by companies examining
their own processes in an attempt to
make improvements in product de-
sign. However, the LCA model is
not developed to the point where
external judgment can be made
about the relative environmental
impact of some processes and prod-
With continued research into re-
fining LCA methodology and mak-
ing life-cycle data more accessible,
the assessments have the potential
to become a powerful tool to reduce
the environmental burdens associ-
ated with a product, process, or ac-
tivity Both manufacturers and con-
sumers are realizing the need to
look at the cradle-to-grave environ-
mental consequences of the prod-
ucts they make and use. An LUA
will not provide all the answers, but
used along with other sources of m-
' formation, such as cost accounting.
it contributes much needed infor-
mation in a comprehensive deci-
sion process.
Although the research described m tot
article has been funded by the US. En-
vironmental Protection Agency, it has
-------
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'and administrative review and therefore
may not necasssanly-reflect the views of
the'Agency, and no "official endorsement
should be'inferred. . •• .
Mary Ann Curreui is a chemical engi-
neer in EPA's Risk Reduction Engineer-
ing Laboratory. She has more than 12
vears' experience in conducting various
'engineering and research projects in-
volving environmental issues. She is
currently manager of EPA's LCA re-
search program. She received a B.S. de-
gree in chemical engineering fr ' the
University ncinnati in 1980.
References
(1) Fave, J. A. et a' ' A Technical Frame-
work for Life-Cycle Assessments."
Society of Environmental Toxicology
and Chemistry workshop held in
Smuggler's Notch, VT. August 18-23,
1990.
(2) "Background Document on Clean
Products Research and Implementa-
tion": prepared by Franklin Associ-
ates Ltd., Inc.. for U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency: Cincinnati. 1990;
EPA/600/2-90/04a,
(3) Hunter. J. S.; Benforado. D. M. "Life
Cycle Approach to Effective Waste
Minimization." 3M Company, paper
presented at the 80th Annual Meeting
of APCA, New York. NY, tune 21-26,
1987.
(4) Baker. R. D.: Warren. J. L. Pollution
Prevention Review 1991, 1(4). 357-67.
(5) Koch. D. G.; Kuta. C. C. Inside Envi-
ronment 1981. 3(12). 8-20.
(6) Inside EPA 1991, J2(42). 7-8.
(7) COPPE Quarterly 1991, 5(1), 2-4.
(8) "Resource and Environmental Profile
Analysis of Nine Beverage Container
Alternatives"; prepared by Midwest
Research Institute for U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency: Washing-
ton. DC. 1974: EPA/530/SW-91C.
(9) "Resource and Environmental Profile
Analysis of Plastics and Competitive
Materials, prepared by Midwest Re-
search Institute for the Society of the
Plastic Industries. Kansas City. MO.
1974. ,
(10) Hunt. R. G.. Franklin. W. E. Chemtech
1975. 5(8). 474-80.
(11) •'Family-Size Soft Drink. Contain-
er—A Comparative Energy and Envi-
ronmental impact Analysis; Volume
I—Summary", prepared by Franklin
Associates. Inc. for the Goodyear Tire
& Rubber Compan> (Akron. OH). Jan-
uary 1978
mental Impacts for the Delivery of
Soft Dnnks in Nine Containers", pre-
pared by Franklin Associates, Inc.. for
the National Association for Plastic
Container Recovery (Charlotte. NO,
February 1989. Prairie Village. KS.
1989.
(13) "Resource and Environmental Profile
Analysis of Foamed Polystyrene and
Bleached Paperboard Containers";
prepared by Franklin Associates. Inc.
for the Council for Solid Waste Solu-
tions, Washington, DC. 1990.
(14) "Energy and Environmental Profile
Analysis of Children's Disposable
and Cloth Diapers"; prepared by .
Franklin Associates, Inc. for the
American Paper Institute. 1990.
(15) "Resource and Environmental Profile
Analysis of Polyethylene and Unb-
leached Paper Grocery Snacks"; pre-
pared by Franklin Associates, lac. for
the Council for Solid Waste Solu-
tions. Washington. DC. June 1990.
(16) "Vinyl Products Lifecycle Assess-
nent"; prepared by Chem Systems for
the Vinyl Institute, Washington. DC,
March 1992.
' 1 r> Lehrbv w. C; Mullen, J.; Jone*. C. V.
"Diapt Environment Impa< s and
Life Cycle Analysis"; report to the Na-
tional Association of Diaper Services,
Philadelphia. PA. January 1991.
(18) "The Tellus Institute Packaging
Study (project summary)"; prepared
by the Tellus Institute for the Council
of State Governments, Lexington. KY,
November 1991.
(19) "Impacts of Production and and Dis-
posal of Packaging Materials—Meth-
ods and Case Studies"; prepared by
the Tellus Institute for the Council of
State Governments. November 1991.
(20) "Project Synopsis: Resource and En-
vironmental Profile Analysis of Hard
Surface Cleaners and Home Remedy
Cleaning Systems"; prepared by Fran-
klin Associates Ltd.. Inc. for Procter &
Gamble. Cincinnati, OH. April 14,
1992. ,
(21) "Disposable versus Reusable Dia-
pers—Health. Environmental and
Economical Comparisons"; prepared
by Arthur D. Little, toe., for Procter &
Gamble (Cincinnati. OH), 1990.
(22) "Life-Cycle Assessments: Inventory
' Guidelines and Principles"; prepared
by Battelle for U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency: Cincinnati. 1992:
EPA/600/R-92/036.
(23) "Life-Cycle Analysis Measures
Greenness. But Results May Not Be
Black and White," Wall Street Jour-
nal, February 28,1991.
(24) Berube, M.; Bisson. S. "Life Cycle
Studies: A Literature Review and
Critical Analysis": report to Minister
of the Environment of Quebec, Janu-
ary 1992.
(25) Lasninsky. A. Plastics News 1992,
'Feb. 10.3.
(26) Curran. M. A. Presented at the Soap
and Detergent Association and Ohio
Cooperative Extension Service Con-
ference—Cleaning Products. . . In
Our Homes. In Our Environment. Co-
lumbus. OH. 1992.
(27J Environmental Action Foundation
Inside Environment 1991. 3(11). 18.
436 Environ So Tecnnol Voi 2" No 3 '993
-------
Pollution Prevention and
Environmental Studies
LUTEM rmvumm cant* ran xotcx
Cultural Barriers to
Behavioral Change:
General Recommendations and
Resources for State Pollution
Prevention Programs
ARtporttoOielLS.ErvirtmmaialPi
Under Grant *XB19192-01-0.
By Dtui JaooKM tnd Bosou VonderWerf,
Cotter for Values and Social Policy,
Lbwxrsity cfCabndo, Boulder
Agency
Natkjnal PoUution Pmvenfloo Canter lor Higtw Education • Unlvintty of Mletilgvi
Dana BuHdlng. 43O Ernst Untvwiity. Ann Arbor Ml 48109-1115
Prwn« 313.764.1413 • Fax: 3i 3.936.2195 •
Cultural Banters
Jury 1993
-------
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CULTORAL BARRIERS TO BBHA'/IORAL CHANGE*
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS AND
RESOURCES FOR STATEPOLLUTION PREVENTION PROGRAMS
A REPORT TO ,-«•-*
THE UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
UNDER GRANT XB19192-01-0
July 1993
..- ..
' Dale Jaaie»on and Klasina VanderW«rf
C«nt«r for Values and Social *?,"•«£ ,
University of Colorado, Boulder 80309-0232
Telephone 303-492-6964 Pax 8386
Robert Simmons
US EPA Project Officer
Denver, Colorado
The views expressed in this report are solely thoserof the J"*h?"
and should not be attributed to any of the_ sponsoring
organizations.
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PREFACE
This report has £«« ^g^o «
discussion about how c^" V fio^ 4nv people who cannot all .be
We have learned a great deal tram inany Pf^® Uy like to thank
acknowledged here. However, we ^^^jj^b conceive this
project and has been instrumental in' carrying ^ ou£iversity-oi
. - - ~ " ) ano. • . - - - .;.."-
^iy' served ...project advisor.; —^^^ OJ
'their exteUff cO-ent, =* "rU^draft. of
.ociety .^^ ^ prasented
in at a ' -*
the opportunity of presenting our f ^ing^ at a
prevention 'conference organized by/ ^ ftMerience8"' Thi* rep°rt
July, 1993
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SUMMARY
in this report we discuss cultural barriers and incentives to
pollution prevention behavior and make recommendations to state and
other pollution prevention programs on how to address cultural
barriers and incentives. Cultural barriers such as beliefs,
desires, emotions , attitudes , values, mental models, and patterns
of reasoning can be as powerful in inhibiting pollution prevention
behavior as physical, institutional, technological, or legislative
barriers. Likewise, changing beliefs, values, attitudes, and other
cultural barriers can play an important role in facilitating
pollution prevention behavior.
Although there are many pollution prevention programs at the
state and local levels, many of these programs are not as effective
as might be hoped. Programs that simply provide information to
producers and consumers are often ineffective and raetines even
counterproductive. In some cases such programs may reinforce
values, attitudes, and behaviors that must be changed if we are to
prevent pollution.
The purpose of this report is to survey what is known about
cultural barriers and incentives to pollution prevention, to make
some tentative recommendations, and to set an agenda for future
research. We review literature from several different disciplines
including psychology, sociology, economics, and philosophy. While
enough is known to identify some barriers and facilitators as well
as to make general recommendations, important gaps in our knowledge
remain. Furthermore, substantial difficulties are involved in
bringing different areas of academic and other professional
expertise into conversation with one another.
Pollution prevention has risen in importance as it has become
increasingly clear that human activity is bringing about many local
and global environmental changes that are detrimental to humans and
other living things. Thus far, however, most of our efforts have
been directed toward trying to ameliorate or reverse what has
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already been done. These clean-up efforts are ^^j"^ ^
vHTonof a -ust'ainable future, and some sense of how to
there from here. Individuals, businesses, and government will .11
ha^to .hare 'the burden of this transition. Indeed, if pollute
prevention is to suooeed over the long term, it must increasingly
L ..en not a. a burden, but a. a way of life voluntarily chosen
and willingly embraced.
' Pollution.is, in part, a behavioral problem, and behavior can
be extremely difficult to change. Yet a change in behavior will be
necesaar- if long-term environmental ^1* a.re to be met, and^it
will oureiy also be accompanied by cultural changes that involve
significant shifts in values. A fundamental shift in focus needs
to occur. Rather than seeing the environment as something external
to us that it is the responsibility of environmental professionals
to maintain, we must focus on seeing ourselves as situated in an
environment which it is our re8ponsibility to preserve. Prevention
approaches focus on a sense of obligation and responsibility.
The prevention approach to pollution problems is gaining
attention because we have come to recognize that our current
efforts don't provide a complete solution to the problem. Although
the current strategy of -command and control" has proven valuable
in dealing with pollutants once they are created and in the system,
it does not address preventing the creation of pollutants in the
first place. Pollution prevention provides us with the other
critical tool necessary for dealing with the problem of pollution.
It can also prove valuable by creating a solution which has the
commitment and investment of all those involved and which instills
the kind of individual behavior and sense of responsibility on
which long-term environmental protection is built.
The incorporation of a pollution prevention approach will not
be without difficulty. Many barriers and difficulties stand in
the way of implementation—the pollution prevention approach places
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great demands,on all actors including .government, business, and
consumers for greater knowledge about the effects of their actions,
common tools of measurement and evaluation, and; «»«^t^mj*
efforts toward a common goal. Yet despite these difficulties, the
potential of adding pollution prevention to the tools that we
already have is so great that ii is important to pursue it.
State pollution prevention programs could make a difference
over the long term in a .number of different areas, including
production and consumption of toxics, consumer products, energy
use, climate stabilization, and pollution prevention education.
But first it is important to have a clear understanding of what
pollution prevention is. We can generally distinguish two types of
pollution prevention behavior. One kind is directed toward
reaching some existing goal by employing alternative means tha*;.
produce less pollution. Another kind involves actually shifting
our goals.
Since pollution prevention bears on many different yet often
overlapping issues, a successful program must be •multi-media"—it
cannot, rely on a single .method or approach. Additionally, in order
to be maximally effective, pollution prevention programs must touch
the lives of all citizens. Thus, various cultural barriers and
facilitators must be addressed if pollution prevention behavior is
to become the norm. Bringing about long-term, sustainable change
toward pollution prevention involves understanding the cultural
beliefs, desires, emotional responses, attitudes, values, patterns
of reasoning, and mental models that sustain present behavior.
Despite the importance of cultural barriers to pollution
prevention, of all the barriers they are the least understood,
because they are complex, and they are of ten . neglected or
overlooked. Overcoming these barriers is key to successfully
implementing a prevention program.
One of these cultural barriers concerns people's values. A
successful pollution prevention program depends on people coming to
value efficiency and even sufficiency over excessive consumption.
Yet any program whose success depends on a reorientation of basic
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values must, be sensitive, to charges of manipulation and
exploitation. Thus, it is .important in the implementation of
pollution prevention programs to respect people as active
information processors and knowledge-users. Indeed, if long-term
success rather than merely the short-term modification of behavior
is to be achieved, it is vital that people's values, beliefs, and
reasoning become more reflective, and this requires treating them
with respect. Thoughtful, reflective citizens are more likely to
produce long-term suFtainable change than those whose motivations
and concerns are short-term. It is also important to recognixe
that pollution prevention does not require a radical revision of
everyday values. Surveys show that environmental values are
strongly held by many Americans. For many people the strongest
motivator for pollution prevention w
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»ith individual behavior, value, and attitude, underlie and help
\. • , ,,ti0nalize ,particular beliefs, desires, and
to generate or «tiona P^ £rMieuorJC tn Mck these
emotion., Mental "^1^ reasoning affect the perceived
features are embedded. Patterned. .» _ ««vitice hew
relationships between these elements and can alscv produce ^new
beliefs or values. All of us hold beliefs that are true, «d^also
beliefs that are false. We have a multiplicity of ^^^
plurality of attitudes, and a host of diverse values. Any attempt
to overcome cultural barriers to pollution prevention behavior must
confront the reality of our. existing mental models. ^nufflb^
different conceptual models for behavioral change have been
employed in the literature we surveyed, but two models have^been
est>ecially influential: +*.* rational choi. „ mode: and the attitude
model. The basic idea b»uind the rational choice model is that
people's behavior is determined by their interests. The attitude
model supposes t-hat people- actions ara caused by underlying
positive or negative dispositions toward the results of these
actions. We briefly review three specific types of attitude
models: a causal model of environmentally relevant behavior, a
psychological-social mbdel of energy conservation, and a decision-
making model of environmental behavior.
Although the existing literature related to cultural barriers
to pollution prevention behavior is strikingly uneven with respect
to the problems it addresses, it is possible to summarize some
basic themes': behavioral studies have focused primarily on
individuals and households rather than institutions and workplaces;
emphasis has been placed oh relatively small day-to-day choices
rather than major investment decisions; and relatively little
attention has been paid to how one environment-friendly behavior
may lead to others.
In our literature review, we begin by looking at some themes
that have emerged about how various individual attributes may
affect pollution prevention behavior. The attributes we consider
are demographic factors, positional factors (reflecting one? s
situation, e.g. /homeowner or renter), attitudes and past behavior,
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=r-
values. we then -look at facilitators and barriers that may affect
the performance of environment-friendly actions, including a sense
of efficacy, public commitment, rewards, coercion, shame and
embarrassment, and personal experience. Finally, we consider four
factors involved in the effectiveness of information provision.
salience, utility, persuasiveness, and feedback mechanisms. _
Our report contains sixteen tentative recommendations that we
nav du, eloped based on what we have learned from analyzing the
literature and from interviews with a variety of people active in
pollution prevention. They are general recommendations, based on
our research and our best guesses, and therefore intended to be
used as guidelines for thoso who work in pollution prevention.
Although they cannot be applied mechanically, they should be useful
when applied with the insight and sensitivity of those who work in
particular programs and who know what their own specif ic needs are,
Our recommendations are as follows :
1) Rewards and incentives may not be as effective as values
in sustaining behavior over the long-term.
2) Values that we already hold can be powerful.
3) specific values may be more important in generating
action than general values.
4 ) . Knowing how to prevent pollution may be as important as
wanting to prevent pollution.
5) HOW information is presented helps to determine its
effectiveness.
6) The credibility of information is affected by its source.
7 ) Hew information is understood in terms of old concepts .
8) Stories, anecdotes, and analogies can be powerful
resources . . ' . • '
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en It is general^ more effective to work through existing
communities or groups than to build new ones __
•••;•• 10, information" about the effects of our past .actions
influences present behavior.
,1) P«ple are «re lUceiy "act if th.tr b^,yior dearly
makes a difference,
12) People are more likely to act if they feel responsible
for an outcome.
13) Public commitment makes peoplemore lively to act.
14) Role models are important.
15) Change agents are important.
16) The quality of relationships matters.
Our report concludes with ah outline of an agenda for future
research and other work into cultural barriers and facilitators to
pollution prevention behavior. Gaps in the existing literature on
cultural barriers suggest that it will be important to provide
definition and organization to this new field of study that
incorporates such diverse disciplines. Several particular areas of
resaarch within the arena of cultural barriers also deserve more
attention. For instance, although we gained insight into how
values are formed in general, w. lack methods for predicting value
change. Future research on this topic will be necessary, as will
consideration of the ethics of modifying the values of others. The
role of psychological research should be emphasized as well,
because pollution prevention is ultimately a matter of human
behavior. It is humans who make consumer choices and energy use
decisions and who can bring pressure to bear on those who pollute.
To that end, we also need more specific information about how
people make consumer decisions, particularly those related to
capital purchases, such as furnaces, cars, or refrigerators.
Finally, practical considerations suggest that research on
institutions as well as individuals will be necessary, and on-going
analysis of existing pollution prevention activities will
undoubtedly contribute to the success of any pollution prevention
program.
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PART I: THE PROBLEM
in this report we discuss cultural barriers and incentives to
pollution prevention behavior and make recommendations to state and
other pollution prevention programs on how to address cultural
barriers and incentives. Cultural barriers such as beliefs,
desires, emotions,, attitudes, values/ mental models, and patterns
of reasoning can be is powerful in inhibiting pollution prevention
behavior as physical or technological barriers. Likewise, changing
beliefs, values, attitudes, and other cultural barriers can play an
important role in facilitating pollution prevention behavior.
'State governments are well positioned to help, bring about the
transition to a oociety that prevents pollution, away from one that
devotes an ever-increasing share of its resources to trying to
mitigate the effects of pollution. Through public information
programs, outreach, technical assistance, and proactive planning,
state governments can be effective agents in making pollution
prevention a reality.
Although there are many pollution prevention programs at the
state and local levels, many of these programs are not as effective
as might be hoped. Programs that simply provide information to
producers and consumers are often ineffective and sometimes even
counterproductive. In some cases such programs may reinforce
values, attitudes, and behaviors that must be changed if we are to
prevent pollution.
The purpose of this report is to survey what is known about
cultural barriers and incentives to pollution prevention, to make
s6me tentative recommendations, and to set an agenda for future
research. We review literature from several different academic
disciplines including psychology, sociology, economics, and
philosophy. While enough is known to identify some barriers and
facilitators and to make some recommendations, important gaps in
our knowledge remain. Furthermore, substantial difficulties are
involved in bringing different areas of academic expertise into
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conversation with one another.
Pollution prevention has risen in importance as it has become'
increasingly clear that human, activity is bringing about many local
and global environmental changes that are detrimental to humans and
other living, things. For example, the diminishing of the o.one
layer weakens the shield that, protects living things from
ultraviolet radiation; the pollution of air and water poses health
risks; and the production and consumption of toxic materials makes
sections, of our cities and states unsightly and unsafe.
Thus far most of our efforts have been directed .toward trying
to ameliorate or reverse what has been done. Efforts to clean up
pollution can help to alleviate the situation, but they are not
sufficient to address the extent and magnitude of our current
problems. "End-of-pipe" regulation imposes large costs on the
economy, and it cannot answer the widespread popular concern about
even very small concentrations of pollutants. .
Most important, amelioration efforts do not address the long-
term challenges posed by environmental change. What is needed is
a vision of a sustainable fnature, and some sense of how to get
there from here. State and federal agencies alone cannot ensure
this transition. For such a vision to be successfully implemented
it will have to engage with people's basic values and appeal to
their sense of responsibility. Individuals, businesses, and
government will all have to share the burden of pollution
prevention, 'indeed, if pollution prevention is to succeed over the
long term, it must increasingly be seen not as a burden, but as a
way of life voluntarily chosen and willingly embraced.
Government regulation has an important role to play, and it is
difficult to imagine a future in which it does not play a part.
But the excessive use of regulation creates an atmosphere that is
hot conducive to long-term success. For in order to secure a
sustainable future we must engage people's voluntary impulses and
desires for change, and a social climate characterized by
government coercion is inhospitable to these impulses and desires.
As -a nation we must make reflective choices about the level of
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««llt,
our considered judgments. _ ,-•„»«
Clearly there will never be complete agreement across
sectors and comities about the appropriate >•"*
secor
environmental quality. But we must move beyond
but
situation in which conflicts arise not just between
also within people. Many of us desire higher level- of
environmental quality, , yet our behavior contributes to
environmental degradation. Part of the reason for this is the wor*
situations we find ourselves in, our lack of ^emative. ^ with
respect to our consumer choices, and »<-• on. Yet both as
irdivMu.1. and ... a sc 'ety we. mure d *ore ;o reconcile our
ve. ues and our behavior, and our beliefs and our actions.
Pollution prevention strategies and policies can make an
import ,nt contribution in seeding long-te^m environmental success.
State programs in particular, because they can reflect regional
choices and values and serve as laboratories for experimentation,
have the potential to be on the cutting edge of pollution
prevention. However, it will not be easy for state pollution
prevention programs to define their roles and to carry them out
successfully. Pollution is, in part, a behavioral problem, and
behavior can be extremely difficult to change. Yet if long-term
environmental goals are to be met, changes in behavior must occur.
If new environment-friendly patterns of behavior are to be stable
and enduring,' they must be accompanied by cultural changes that
involve significant shifts in values.
A... A PREVENTION APPROACH
Prevention is a major goal in various areas of human life. As
a society we have come to see that prevention is the best solution
for various health problems such as cancer and heart disease. At
a personal level most of us recognize that preventive maintenance
for our cars and homes is a good strategy. The focus on prevention
brings with it a sense of obligation and responsibility. In order
for many public health programs to be successful, people must come
• to feel • responsible for their own health. Instead of seeing their
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bodies as machines that it is the job of health professionals to
maintain, they must come to see themselves as embodied, with the
responsibility to do what they can to keep themselves healthy.
Like these other prevention approaches, pollution prevention
requires a fundamental shift of focus. , Rather than seeing the
environment as something external to us that it is the
responsibility of environmental professionals to maintain, the
pollution prevention approach focuses on seeing ourselves as
situated in an environment which it is our responsibility to
preserve.
A prevention approach to pollution is gaining attention
because of the widespread perception that o«r current efforts at
environmental protection are failing Many people argue that our
-iizrtfat patterns of resource use are inconsistent with global
equity and also deprive future generations of what should be their
birthright. Moreover, while non-renewable resources appear to be
in good supply, pollution generated from human activity
increasingly threatens renewable resources such as air, water,
soils, biodiversity, ozone, and climate.
In addition to these large-scale concerns, many people believe
that our "command and control" approach to environmental protection
isn't a complete solution to the problem. Pollution prevention is
the other part of the solution. While command and control can be
effective in dealing with pollutants that are already in the
system, we need in addition to seek a solution that attempts
wherever possible to eliminate the creation of the pollutants in
the first place. V
Command and control has been criticized because it imposes an
adversarial model oh environmental regulation, thereby driving out
-win/win" alternatives. ,It has also been criticized,because it can
foster a minimal commitment, that is, encouraging people to do-only
what is absolutely necessary to meet standards and no more. And
command and control has been further critized because it locates
the responsibility for dealing with pollution with the government
and with business rather than encouraging the individual behavior
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and
sense of responsibility on which long-term environment*! .
protection is built. • ,, .,
Despite the difficulties involved in mov.ng to a pollution
prevention focus, such an approach has much to recommend J^
Lions that prevent pollution can have a greater iB*act than
actions that try to mitigate a problem which already exists. For
example, purchasing a fuel-efficient car will contribute less to
pollution than the careful maintenance of an inefficient vehicle,
and cutting back on packaging can do more for warte reduction than
recycling paper. Moreover, many of the problems that result from
human activity, such as the release of chlorofluorocarbons, are
difficult if not impossible to control once they have been set in
motion. Controlling pollution at its source is often much more
effective than responding once it ha« become diffuse.
Generally across the economy, a pollution prevention approach
makes good economic sense and will contribute to competitiveness
and stimulate new business opportunities. Both international and
domestic experience shows that pollution prevention and economic
growth can go hand-ih-hand. In many cases, it is cheaper to
prevent pollution than to clean it up. Over the long term many of
the strategies involved in pollution prevention programs will lead
to more efficient and effective use of resources, thus contributing
to both economic and national security and attainability. This
does not mean, however, that all facilities, sectors, and regions
will benefit equally from pollution prevention. Changes of policy
and focus always create winners and losers, even if only in
positional terms. Not every facility in every industry will
survive in a pollution prevention environment.
Perhaps the most important reason for adopting a pollution
prevention approach is that it has the potential to provide a
central organizing principle for our environmental protection
efforts. These efforts have often been fragmented across various
divides: single-medium programs are often not coordinated with
each other; regulatory agencies at different levels of government
often make different, even inconsistent, demands; the culture of
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enforcement 'often 'see*, contradictory to the culture of problen-
pollution prevention approach provides an ^uni for
these problem in a consistent way.
co^on focus for environmental protection efforts
connnon ground on which to negotiate these divisions. However It
would be foolish to expect -these divisions to disappear -txrely.
TO some extent they are established by legislation and nourished by
-history and tradition. At th» same time the pollution Prevention
, approach presents us with our best opportunity for overcoming these
stage, however, pollution prevention should be thought
of as a vision for the future rather than a policy of the present.
If pollution prevention were easy to implement it would already be
in place either through the magic of the market or through
administrative directive. Many barriers and difficulties nead to
be overcome. The pollution prevention approach place, great
demand* on all actors including government /business, and consumers
for greater knowledge about the effects of their actions, common
tools of measurement and evaluation, and coordination of efforts
toward a common 'goal. Yet despite these difficulties, the
potential of pollution prevention is so great that it is important
to pursue it.
B. SOME KE£ pnT.^ftffl10H pfigVEMTIOH ISSUES .
— State pollution prevention programs could make a difference
over the long term in a number of different areas, including
production and consumption of toxics, consumer products, energy
use, climate stabilization, and pollution prevention education .
Before discussing these areas, it is important that we have a clear
understanding of what pollution prevention is.
Pollution prevention means different things to different
people. To some people it is a fashionable buzzword with little
content; to others it is a new set of demands and responsibilities
piled on top of others that are themselves barely manageable. In
practice, for many people, pollution prevention means getting
•. . ' ' ' ' '•'-'•, 13 ' -.'.-'''• • •'
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businesses to reduce their use of toxic materials.
in addition to these understandings of pollution prevention,
this tern, is also defined in the federal Pollution Prevention Act
of 1990, in subsequent US EPA policy' statements, and in -^8lati°"
pa8sed in more • than half the states. US EPA'a definition of
pollution prevention includes source reduction and any other
practices that reduce or eliminate the creation of pollutants
through increased efficiency or conservation. Source reduction is
any practice that reduces the amount of any hazardous substance,
pollutant, or contaminant that is released into the environment, or
reduces the hazards to public health and the environment associated
with the release of such sxtbstances. A broad definition of
pollution prevention includes recycling because it is an activity
which ivoids the -reation of new poJ ".ntnnta. Definitions in state
legislation are narrower in some cases and broader in others.
We can generally distinguish two kinds of pollution prevention
behavior. One kind of pollution prevention behavior is directed
toward reaching some existing goal by employing alternative means
that produce less pollution. Examples of pollution prevention
behavior of this type include replacing toxic solvents with
nontoxic ones, reducing packaging, using energy-efficient light
bulbs, bicycling instead of driving, and carrying a cup to work.
Another kind of pollution prevention behavior involves shifting our
goals. For example, telecommuting may not be a perfect substitute
for commuting. Contact by fax or telephone is not the same as
face-to-face interaction. Yet telecommuting may serve enough of
the purposes of commuting to make it a feasible alternative, and it
may also open up other possibilities that may help tis to realize
other goals (e.g., by permitting us to work at home, and so on).
Similarly, avoiding the use of toxic lawn chemicals may require us
to grow different plants.
The areas identified as pollution prevention target areas for
the purposes of this report overlap in various ways. For example,
programs that promote energy efficiency contribute to climate
stabilization by reducing emissions of carbon dioxide. Reducing
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;::«::r r 4-
areas. . concepts involved in
Before discussing some of the key concepts
«*-cs~t -«^ >»«i9"" pou"tion *«™tion' -wiu
'. ' f — _ — .a^K^aM*
briefly discuss these five areas of concern.
1. The Production and Consumption of Toxics
One important target of pollution prevention programs is^the
production and consumption of.toxics. Although we need to reduce
the production of toxics and also provide consumers with effective
alternatives for the toxics that are now in use, this issue may^be
overemphasised relative to other pollut ion prevention issues. This
may be a result of the fact that pollution prevention programs are
often housed in offices whose main charge is the regulation of
toxics, and they are often funded by fees and penalties M«™^™
producers who use toxic materials. The use of toxic, i. a tempting
target for those who are interested in pollution prevention because
there are a relatively small number of large actors in this area
about whom quite a lot is known due to various reporting
requirements. It is important to remember, however, that not all
pollution prevention problema Have this profile.
One problem that arises when considering the question of
toxics concerns its definition. Scientists, regulators, and
industry may all have different views about whether or not a
particular product should be considered toxic. In addition to
definitional differences, the toxicity of many materials is a
matter of great uncertainty. Moreover, people have different
attitudes toward this uncertainty. Toxicity is probably best
thought of as a matter of.degree; but here again, people differ
about the degree of risk that they regard as acceptable. To some
extent a pollution prevention perspective helps us to cut through
these problems: it makes sense to reduce the use of any material,
however toxic, whenever possible.
Materials that are to some extent toxic occur in a wide range
15
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of hcusshdd products For example, »eta!s such as
and mercury are used in batteries, pigments, plastics, and
Toxic organic substances include solvents, »«»*"- «
and volatile organic compel, that are used 1,>
lubricators, paints, vami.h.., pU.ti«-. ***•• ? a.
Acid, and alkali., are found in .uch =o-on houaehold product.
bleaches and cleaners.
The production and consumption of toxics pose a range ot
societal problems. They present issues both with respect to worker
safety and safe household use. There are also well-publicized
difficulties in disposing of toxic materials. Although people use
these materials, they do not readily accept living near disposal
•i, -s. Pollution prevention pr gra^s have the potential to
minimize these problems by reiucir^ the amount of toxic material
that is produced and consumed.
2. Consumer Products
Consumer products is an area with a great deal of pollution
prevention potential. Tracing the life cycle of a product from
production to disposal demonstrates the range of problems that can
result from consumer products. Extractive industries that make
available the raw materials for consumer products are associated
with many environmental problems. Mineral extraction is associated
with problems of air and'wator quality and often leads to toxic
residues. Logging often creates ecological problems and threatens
other resources such as fisheries. Fabrication processes pose
•problems in many different areas. After a product has worn out,
been exhausted, or fallen from favor'it is dubbed -garbage," and
becomes a problem for waste disposal.
In recent years problems of waste disposal have gotten a great
deal of attention. It is becoming increasingly difficult . f or
communities to find adequate waste disposal sites, even when the
waste is not classified as hazardous. Alternatives to landfills
such as incinerators have engendered a great deal of resistance.
Yet according to reports of the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development, the per capita waste generation of
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Americans, and indeed most people in the industrialized world,
continues to increase. The pressures of waste disposal are_felt by,
people in various areas of their lives, ranging from litter in
their communities to higher taxes and fees to fund the creation of
new waste disposal sites.
Reuse and recycling are. two approaches to these problems
associated with consumer products. Many products can be
efficiently recycled, requiring significantly fewer environmental
inputs than the fabrication of a replacement product. For example,
a recycled aluminum can be produced with about one-third of the
energy investment of a new can. A reusable glass bottle can be
used 40-50 times for the energy investment required to manufacture.
a'replacement, But there are serious difficulties in the economics
of recycling, and many consumer products cannot be recycled at all.
Although experiments in recycling such products as automobiles are
currently underway, prevention is a simpler and more effective
approach if it can be put into practice.
Packaging reduction is one obvious target for pollution
prevention programs. Since 1990 McDonald's has been working with
the Environmental Defense Fund to reduce waste. This campaign
appears to be successful in several wayss McDonald's is taking
significant steps to reduce waste; by demonstrating their
commitment to waste reduction, McDonald's has gained public
relations benefits; finally, the efforts McDonald's has been making
have contributed to educating its employees, suppliers, and
customers about pollution prevention.
More generally, the use, of reusable shopping bags, bulk
purchasing, and packaging reduction shows that our purposes as
consumers can be just as well served with fewer environmental
inputs. However, in the long term it may be necessary to go beyond
programs that take our present goals as fixed. Consumer products
are a means to quality'of life and fulfillment, not ends in
themselves. We need to begin thinking about how quality of life
can be improved with fewer environmental inputs.
3, Energy Use
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The use of energy entails many different environmental
problems. The use of fossil fuels such as wood, coal, and oa.1
produces large amounts of atmospheric pollution that are difficult
and expensive to control. Pollutants . that result from the
combustion of fossil fuels cause respiratory, and cardiovascular
problems in humans, degrade visibility, and may contribute to
climate change. These pollutants are alao implicated in the
production of acid precipitation which has deleterious effects on
ecosystems and materials. Nuclear power generation is regarded as
unacceptably unsafe by many people and creates problems of waste
disposal that have not yet been solved. Even "renewable" energy
sources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric generation create
visual or noise pollution and sometiaes have undesirable ecological
5.
Energy efficiency is central to pollution prevention since
using less energy is the most effective way of reducing the
pollution that results from its use. Many effective programs that
encourage energy efficiency are currently in place. The EPA's
"green lights" program has had an important effect on business, and
some local utility companies have mounted aggressive campaigns that
include subsidies for residential insulation and the use of energy
efficient lighting sources. Innovative pricing structures have
also helped to reduce peak demand. New cars and appliances are in
most cases much more energy efficient than those they replace, and
stickering programs help consumers to make informed decisions.
Yet despite these gains, much remains to be done in reducing
the use of energy. While the United States is now producing more
economic benefits from less energy consumption than it was two
decades ago, these gains are relative and not absolutes American
energy consumption continues to rise. We continue to have a more
energy-in tensive economy and society than almost any other country.
The potential for further efficiency, gains is very great. However,
changes in life-style may be required to realize some of these
gains.
As we shall discuss in Part II of this report, energy
• _ . ' '
18 .
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transferred to other areas with pollution prevention potential
4. Climate Stabilization -v< !«*„
in recent year* concern has mounted about the ^"f11
anthropogenic climate change . Many scientists believe
emissions of such gases as carbon dioxide .-W-.
chlorofluorocarbon. caused by human activity have ^ *""?*£.
bring about a dramatic change of climate in a relatively short
period of ti». If such climate change occur, it will hmv. .eriou.
effects on wilderness and endangered species , on the fabric of
international relations, and on the American economy and way of
* The issue of climate stabilisation is complicated, but it is
clear that pollution prevention activities have a role to play in
reducing the risk of climate change. One of these areas has
already been discussed. If we succeed in reducing our 'production
and consumption of fossil fuels, then the threat of climate change
will to some extent diminish. Further, a general pollution
prevention focus that seeks to produce greater quality of life from
fewer environmental input, and output, is likely to contribute to
climate stabilization. At this stage climate stabilization perhaps
is best seen as a welcome secondary effect of other pollution
prevention activities. Over the long term, however, the
possibility of climate change could well have a dramatic, effect on
how we organize our economy and society.
5. Pollution Prevention Education
Pollution prevention education is an important concept that
underpins efforts in all four of the other areas. If pollution
prevention is to be successful, people will need to be effectively
educated about toxics, consumer products,, energy, and the risk of
climate change. Moreover, they will need some basic competence
19
/13
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with respect to the pollution prevention concepts that underUe^11
of these specific concerns. Xn this respect pollution prevention -
education must be holistic and comprehensive, focusing on the
systemic sources of pollution and how they can be addressed.
Education can be considered in both a broad and narrow sense.
in the broad sense education permeates all areas of our live..
Education occurs when we talk to friends and neighbors, watch
television, and leam from experience. In this broad sense almost
every pollution pravention, program can be thought of as having an
educational dimension.
Education in a narrower sense is what occur, in .uch
institutions as schools and colleges. Although in recent year.
environmental education ha. become meee prominent in educational
institutions, the goal of polluti^ prevention challenge, u. to
reform curricula and even to rethink' some of the basic concept, of
education. There are some recent attempts to do this in higher
education, coordinated by the National Pollution Prevention Center
for Higher Education at the University of Michigan.
Education both broadly and narrowly construed can be either
declarative or procedural. Declarative education focuses on
teaching students what is the case. It involve, knowledge that is
primarily prepositional in form—the sort of knowing that in the
philosophical literature is called "knowing that." Procedural
knowledge focuses on teaching student, how to do thing.. It i.
directed toward giving students the behavioral competence to
undertake specific tasks. In the philosophical literature this
sort of knowing is referred to as "knowing how." Both kinds of
education are important for pollution prevention. Shifts in
beliefs, values, attitudes and so on require prepositional
knowledge; but acting on this knowledge requires behavioral skills
and competencies.
Pollution prevention education can take many specific forms.
In one form it may consist in making available to students
information that will make them aware of alternatives to everyday
pollution producing activities. For example, pollution prevention
20
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education may teach students about composting as an
.disposing of organic waste, in iandfiU.. This kind of
can b. useful but it. effectiveness is li-i-d by
difficulties that fa=. pubUc education campaign, in gen.r.1
' Part.II.B,3). ' • j« -^*-i«
A second form of pollution prevention education may directly
address the cultural barriers that, we discuss in this report.
Students may specifically learn about various obstacles to the
employment of pollution prevention technologies and practices. By
making students aware of thdse obstacles, we may hope to overcome
them. For example, once students learn that they tend to
systematically underestJ-mate the amount of waste they produce, they
may become more conncic about household was* and do a better job
of reducing it.
A third form of pollution prevention education is the most
challenging. Orr (1992), notes that while the importance of
literacy and numeracy are emphasized in our educational »y»teias,
the idea of "ecological literacy" has yet to take hold. W» might
think of ecological literacy as competence in understanding the
environmental effects of our actions. An ecologically literate
person would be one who associates with each commodity that he or
she consumes all of its environmental effects from its production
to its disposal. For example, an ecologically literate person
would understand both the short-term and long-term environmental
consequences'of burning one gallon of gasoline when deciding what
kind of.car to buy. ,
Ecological literacy is a challenging ideal because rather than
being an additional goal or area of study, it suggests a
systematically different approach to education.. Ecological
literacy might be taught in conjunction with history, art, or
mathematics. Indeed the very functioning of a school could well
provide a lesson in ecological literacy. With the help of
teachers, students could research both the sources and effects of
the energy that powers the school; the,life-cycle of the food that
is served in the cafeteria could be studied along with the systems
"'.'•".•'-•' . ' 21 ' •- '" "••-'";.
•••'••- .- ' ' - . ,-,--//5
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that bring water to the school and dispose of it as waste.
Because pollution prevention is so closely associated with how
we live our lives, many exciting pollution prevention programs can
be undertaken in the schools, ones that employ -hands-on-
techniques that may produce lasting effects on students. Indeed,
many very good educational programs are already in place. These
programs have an important role to play in addressing pollution
prevention. Despite their potential benefits, pollution
prevention programs face some unique and extremely complex
problems. An understanding of these problems helps to explain why
historically there has been a lack of attention to source reduction
and other pollution prevention measures Since pollution
prevention baars on many different issues ranging from energy
c' 3u..,ptior, to the production and consumption of toxic materials,
a successful program must be "multi-media"; it cannot rely on a
single method or approach. In order to be maximally effective,
state pollution prevention programs as well as those at other
levels of government must touch the lives of all citizens. Every
producer and consumer is a pollution prevention actor.
£t. CULTURAL BARRIERS AND FACILITATORS
Various cultural barriers must be addressed if pollution
prevention is to become the norm. New pollution prevention
technologies will do little good if people do not use them.
. "Getting the prices right" is part of the solution, but in some
areas people *have shown remarkable resistance to change even in the
face of shifting economic incentives. Moreover, it is unlikely
that we will systematically restructure our economy so that it
rewards pollution prevention behavior unless pollution prevention
comes to be something that people strongly value.
Discussions often polarize between those who believe that in
order to achieve pollution prevention corporate and governmental
institutions must change, and those who believe that the burden is
on individuals to change their values and behavior. We believe
that this is a false dilemma. In order for institutions to change,
individuals will have to make new demands upon them. Individuals
22
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are more likely to change... their values and behavior in a
sympathetic institutional environment.
Bringing about long-term, sustainable change toward pollution
prevention involves understanding the cultural beliefs, desires,
emotional responses, attitudes, values, patterns of reasoning, and
mental models that sustain present behavior. It is in these areas
that cultural barriers to pollution prevention in both individuals
and organizations can be found. It is important to .remember,
however, that what is a barrier from one point or view can be, from
another perspective, a facilitator. For example, if a bias toward
the -near and dear" is identified as a barrier to adopting a
pollution prevention perspective, then from another point of view
this presents a challenge to design programs which exploit this
psychological tendency on behalf of pollution prevention.
Cultural barriers to pollution prevention exist in government,
business, and in American culture as a whole. Government agencies
are typically regulatory, reactive, and single-medium focused
rather than cooperative, proactive, and holistic in their outlook.
History, tradition, reward structures, organisation, and
bureaucratic inertia may all contribute to resisting change.
Similar barriers exist in the private sector. In addition, the
pressure to satisfy regulators, managers, and stockholders can
create an atmosphere which discourages innovation that does not
immediately improve the bottom-line. Moreover, the pollution
prevention community tends to focus on government and business to
the exclusion of concerns about • the general public. Yet,
ultimately, changes in government and business will. be closely
associated with changes in popular outlook.
Shifts in these cultural barriers arid facilitators have the
potential for enabling enduring and comprehensive changes in
patterns of human action. Despite their importance, of all the
barriers confronting pollution prevention programs, cultural
barriers are the least understood. Although they are complex,
neglected and overlooked, overcoming these barriers is key to
implementing a pollution prevention approach.
: - :" ! • 23 ' ' '•'.-'••-.
7
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^
ention programs must wvcj.ww~.—
barrier-Tare to be ™™c'™.^^*°°*~™«°"
Imitation. Governments and other powerful institutions have
s in •"*
ejfcwj.w*k.*» «•••»•"- — , _J»1«
opportunities to create events and shape messages in misle
manipulative ways. In .implementing pollution prevention
it is important to respect people as active information P™°«
and'knowledge users. People should not be viewed as ra ory
animals to be manipulated in order to obtain some desired result.
indeed, if long-term success rather than merely the «hort-term
modification of behavior is to be achieved, it is vital that
people's values, beliefs, and reasoning become more reflective, and
this requires treating them with respect. It is also important to
recognize .that pollution prevention does not require a radical
revision of everyday values. Surveys show that environmental
values are strongly held by many Americans. For many people the
strongest motivator for pollution prevention will be concerns for
children and community, values already deeply rooted in American
life. • . ' . .
' Rather than being autonomy-threatening, pollution prevention
programs that have a long-term focus can contribute to people's
autonpmy and sense of responsibility. Many environmental problems
have the character of collective action problems—widespread
deleterious effects are brought about unintentionally by the tiny
contributions of a great many people. Such problems occur in part
because people feel alienated from their communities and the
consequences of their actions; they persist,because people feel
powerless to change them. Pollution prevention strategies have the
potential to empower people. People who are empowered are more
24
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likely to see themselves as responsible actors. When people see
themselves as responsible actors they are more likely to make a
difference. For this reason a non-coercive pollution prevention
approach has practical as well as moral value^ ~*^
reflective citisens are more likely to produce long-term
sustainable change than those whose motivations and concern, are
short-term.
t
25
//f
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PART II: A SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE
1
"»
Pro* one perspective, it can be said that the literature that
to Cultural barriers to pollution prevention is
ing; from another perspective it is sparse^
from a wide variety of discipline, have done work that ^
thought to bear on some aspect of our problem,, but very little work
has been done that is directly .focused on cultural barriers to
pollution prevention. In these circumstances a review of the
literature is inevitably impressionistic. Different researchers
would probably emphasize different aspects of the literature. It
would be foolish to e-xxsct complete .greemr * about what i«
a* ;rwnt or to expec. one revi«,r of the literature to be
definitive.
One approach that we I-ro used to jome extent is to look at
literature that examines behavior that appears to be analogous to
pollution prevention behavior. Recycling is generally not
considered a core pollution prevention behavior, but we have
proceeded on the assumption that important insights can be gained
from looking at the literature which examines recycling. In a more
limited way we have examined the literature on smoking and seat
belt use. Although we believe that insights can be gained here,
thus far we have been disappointed in much of what we have found.
In addition to the problem of determining exactly what
literature is relevant to the project, a further problem lies^ in
trying to synthesize the literature that has been identified as
relevant. Even when questions are closely related, different
researchers often focus on different aspects of problems. Concepts
are used in different ways and different models are employed.
These differences make it difficult to compare results directly.
When the literature is read from a problem-oriented perspective,
the fault lines that separate disciplines and research traditions
emerge very clearly.
As a result of this fragmentation, the best way to use the
26
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lit.ri.ur. <°r policy purposes i, to read
the literature is qvite rich when approached
few definitive conclusions apply directly «»
pollution prevention, many insight. are •*<^*"
extended and modified, M *•* » caution is observed..
I. METHODS, COHCEPTS^ MB MffiES£ . ..i.*.—,*
~ . Since the source, that we draw on are quite diver.., different
method., concept., and models are employed.
1- MFouT*ba.ic method, are employed in the literature that we
surveyed.
8 Ss!rvey research typically in^ives mailing questionnaires to
selected populations, or in acme cases administering questionna, -«s
to- telephone or in interview settings , Some surveys attempt to
measure attitude, or levels of concern, while other, ask .ubjects
to self -report relevant behavior. Occasionally these studies are
supplemented with an observational component . For example, some
studies have involved observing the behavior of people who claim to
participate in recycling programs. Political scientists and
sociologists of ten study behaviors Such as voting, letter-writing
and so on, while studies of conservation behavior are typically
done by psychologists.
b. Behavioral Experiments
A second approach is to use behavioral experiments . Situations
are manipulated in such a way that significant variables can be
controlled. On the basis of various correlations, claims can be
made about the determinants of behavior. Increasingly behavioral
experiments employ causal modeling or regression analysis.
c. The Ethnographic Method
The ethnographic method, presents open-ended questions to
subjects in an interview format. This approach can sometimes
elicit information that would not be made available using- other
methods. This approach is especially valuable when used in
conjunction with other methods. Because it is extremely labor-
•: . " " '•-. .- 27 ••'.•'.•
-------
intensive, it has not been used as fluently as other methods in
the literatures that we have reviewed.
d. The Synthetic-Analytic Approach , , ,«,,tare have
somfof the »o.t valuable contributions to the «*«
invoked revising e-pirical .tudi.. and trying
bring
into a larger framework. Such attempts ,«*..*.
interesting data that have been neglected or show that some of what
we thought we knew may not be so certain after .11.
2'- ^eTf'the difficulties in coping with the literature that
bears on cultural barriers to behavior change is that ~««™*
use different "words for the same concepts and refer to different
concepts with t*e same words.
There are many reasons for this. The relevant literature is
found in different academic disciplines and subfields, each wxth
its own research traditions and vocabularies. In addi**on'
contemporary social scientists have been strongly influenced by
behaviorism and positivism and, as a result, often seem
uncomfortable with the language of values.
in an effort to simplify this discussion we will identify
seven factors that affect behavior: beliefs, desires, attitudes,
values, emotions, patterns of reasoning, and mental models.
Depending on how these factors.are functioning, they can either
facilitate behavior change or be a barrier to it. While these
concepts apply most naturally to individuals, they also apply to
such institutions and collectives as corporations, clubs, churches,
and interest groups.
In developing this vocabulary we are building upon the
literature. But since the literature is conceptually fragmented
and inconsistent, the development of this vocabulary is to a great
extent a constructive task.
These seven features that we will discuss can be thought of as
occurring at different levels in an individual, society, or
culture. Beliefs, desires, and emotions are most immediately
connected with behavior. Values and. attitudes underlie and help to
28
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or rationalize particular beliefs, desires e
.. ,« provide the framework in which these features are
^ning affect the perceived relationships
ana can. also produce new beliefs or values.
reject no. someone ta.es the
world to be. Such statements as -driving contributes to climate
change" and -new refrigerators are more energy-efficient than old
ones" reflect beliefs that a person may have.
Desires reflect goals that people seek to realize. For
example, people may desire more energy-efficient appliances, faster
cars, or less government regulation.
On one standard account, an action is produced by the
conjunction of a belief and desire, if a person desires some end
E and believes that A is a means to E, then everything else being
equal the person will do A. Por example/ if a person desires
energy-efficient appliances and believes that new refrigerators are
more energy efficient than old ones, then everything else being
equal the person will try to replace an old refrigerator with a new
one. ,
This example can also be used to show how an action can go
wrong. If a .person believes that old refrigerators are more energy
efficient than new ones, then this person may seek to hold on to
the old one at all costs in the service of energy efficiency. An
action may be based on a false belief .
The beliefs we hold may be false, or taken together they may
be inconsistent. There may also be important features of the world
about which we have no beliefs. Similarly our desires can be
inconsistent. A person may want both a large, fast car, and one
that is energy-efficient. At least today, these desires are in
conflict with each other. ' ,
Unlike beliefs, desires are neither true nor false. If one
person wants a Ford and another a Chevrolet they desire different
cars , but it is not the case that one desire is true and the other
false. Economists typically believe that desires should be taken
•'•-.'.'.." . -- • • 29. ''."'-'' •"' ' • .
-------
,h,t there is no ground for saying that one desire is
" 91Ven: th"er other theorists have argued that desires can
we'd lose our job if we did it, and so. on.)-
Bn.otions also appear to play a role in *™«tin*u~
inhibiting action. We may fail to do sowing that we would
otherwMe do becavse we would feel ashamed if we did it. <•£
litter). Love or anger may lead us to feel passionately about
performing an act and therefore raise the probability of our doing
There is a great deal of controversy in the psychological and
philosophical literatures about the nature of emotions. On some
accounts they are purely affective, on others they have cognitive
dimensions as well, and some see them as being «ocia^v
constructed. Whatever the nature of emotions, it seems plausible
to think of them as bearing on which combinations of beliefs and
desires issue in action. Indeed, emotions can be so powerful that
they may even lead us to act against our desires or in
circumstances in which we believe our actions would be futile.
b. Attitudes*and Values
Whether or not desires can be evaluated, it is important to
ask why people have the desires that they do. If we cannot say
that people have the desires that they do because they are the best
desires for them to have, then the question becomes all the more
difficult. .
The same question can be asked even about beliefs. The role
of a belief is to represent the world. To some extent people have
the beliefs that they have because the world is the way that it is.
But many beliefs involve highly complex matters of interpretation.
'In other cases we are comfortable in holding our beliefs and
30
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dismiss contrary evidence or try to avoid"confronting it. Instill
other cases we have no beliefs because, for whatever reason, we do
not take an interest in forming beliefs in this area.
These considerations suggest that mechanisms underlying our
beliefs and desires play a role in determining which beliefs and
desires we have. This is the role of attitudes and values.
The literature often conflates attitudes and values, but it is
useful to distinguish between them. Roughly we can say that an
attitude is a deep disposition that guides somrone in forming
beliefs and desires. For example, an attitude may lead a person
not to seek information provided by the government or to disbelieve
it when it is presented. An attitude may also incline one to have
certain desires or ends rather than others. For example, a
generally positive attitude toward wilderness may incline one to gw
camping or backpacking.
Values are more reflective than attitudes, and to some extent
they are backed by reasons. A person may have an attitude that
affects his or her beliefs, desires, and actions without being
consciously aware of having that attitude. Or the attitude may
simply be experienced as a subjective fact—part of what it is to
be that person, in much the same way that we experience our hair
and eye color, and other facts about us over which we have little
control. People are often unwilling or unable to justify
attitudes; indeed, often we think that a request to justify an
attitude is entirely out of place. Values, on the other hand, are
more likely to be the objects of reflection, and to some extent
values can be supported by reasons.
Part of why attitudes and values are conflated in the
literature is because one and the same stance can reflect an
attitude in one case and a value in another. Imagine two people/
one who has a pro-wilderness attitude and one who has a pro-
wilderness value. For the first person this pro-wilderness stance
is unreflective. A disposition to form pro-wilderness beliefs and
desires is simply part of what it is to be this person. This
person cannot justify this stance and may even think that a request
••'-•••'-' 31 ' •- '•'''
-------
to do BO is out of place. The second person, on the .
able to produce reasons, arguments, and evidence .for her nev about
wilderness preservation. The oo-it^ent to wilderness P"*""""*
• • My Play the sa*e role in generating beliefs, desires, •»*•«£•
; for both people, but in one case it i. an attitude and in th. other
I case it is a value.
i This distinction between attitudes and values is potentially
i of great importance because the mechanisms that sustain and change
I attitudes and values may be very different. To some extent values
1 are affected by cognitive considerations; persuasive, noncognitive
attempts to influence them may be seen as irrelevant or may even
have the effect of hardening them. Attitudes, on the other hand,
/ ±A impervious to cognitive appe&xs because they ar« not based
i on reason. Insofar as attitudes can be changed it is by altering
(' their internal and external environments, rather than by combatting
• them with information.
c. Mental Frameworks and Patterns of Reasoning
.- Beliefs, desires, attitudes/ and values are all elements in a
broad framework that structures our experience of the world. To
I some extent this framework is biologically constrained. Given the
i sorts of animals that we are, visual information is more salient
for us than olfactory information, and certain occurrences in the
» world do not figure in our thinking at all because they fail to
] produce changes to which our sensory systems are sensitive.
Compare our reactions to toxic waste sites that offend our eyes and
nose with our reactions to radon.
In addition to the contribution of biology, mental frameworks
are to a great extent culturally and perhaps even individually
constructed. This can be seen by the cultural relativity that
exists with respect to a wide range of issues.
The investigation of mental models is in its infancy,. and
disagreement is rampant about how they should be represented. For
example, -some argue that mental models are fundamentally
computational, while others argue that they are connectionist
systems. But however these models are represented, some
32
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interesting features of them have come' to light.
.- For example, there is evidence that many concepts are
represented in our minds in terms of the properties that are most
salient or frequently experienced, rather than by rules specifying
necessary and sufficient conditions for their application. A
collection of salient properties is called a prototype. On this
view something is characterized as an instance of a concept if it
is "similar enough- to the prototype,of the thing in question. The
prototype view may help to explain the apparent conservatism of our
mental models. It is striking that new information is often
assimilated to what we already believe. On this picture we
categorize new information by assimilating it to an already
existing prototype.
In addition to having ._jntal models we also p«rform operations
on our beliefs that result in new beliefs. These operations can be
thought of as patterns of reasoning. In recent years they have
been intensively investigated, and various biases in our reasoning
have been discovered. For example, people tend to overestimate the
probability of a probable event and underestimate th* probability
of an improbable one. We tend to overestimate the probability of
an event that we have recently witnessed and underestimate th«
probability of one we have not. Experts tend to overestimate their
expertise.
All of us hold beliefs that are true and also beliefs that are
false. we'have a multiplicity of desires, a plurality of
attitudes, and a host of diverse values. Any attempt to overcome
cultural barriers to pollution prevention behavior must confront
the reality of our existing mental models. .
3. Models .
The literature that we have reviewed contains a number of
different conceptual models and research traditions. The
behaviorist tradition remains strong in some academic circles, and
research is still being conducted that seeks to explain and predict
behavior by associating it with various external stimuli. Other
researchers study the growth of environmentally friendly behavior
. . • • '•"•-. 33 ' • ' • .
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in . population by modeling it on the diffusion of technology.
However, two families of models have b*en especially influential:
the rational choice model and the attitude model. Each ^1rest,
d intuitively plausible idea. The basic idea behind
^to^TS*™*** The attitude model supposes that P*°*l*'*
actions are caused by underlying positive or negative dispositions
toward the results of these actions.
a. Rational Choice Models
Rational choice models of conservation behavior are inspired
by models prevalent in microeconomic theory. These models imply
that people are rational actors who always act in their own
iutsrast*, so long -s certain conditions *r* satisfied (e.g., they
have perfect information, there are no transaction costs, and so
on). If people behave in a way that is socially deleterious it is
because it is in their interests to do so or the conditions on
rational action are not satisfied. In order to change people's
behavior so that it produces socially preferred outcomes, either
these conditions must be satisfied or incentive structures need to
b® changed so that people's individual interests are aligned with
the public good.
Although the application of rational choice models to
conservation behavior has produced important insights, these models
have been criticized,. Important conceptual objections to these
models argue ''that they are circular or empirically false. In
addition it has been argued that these models collapse a wide range
of psychological phenomena—values, beliefs, attitudes, and so on—
into the category of self-interest. Indeed, one striking empirical
result is that, contrary to what rational choice models might
predict, providing people with information or changing incentive
structures frequently does not have the desired results.
Incentives need to be understood in order to be effective, and
information must be interpreted; values, prior beliefs, mental
models, and so on greatly affect this understanding and
interpretation.
34 - ' ,
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These problems and limitations have led some researchers to
- <
choice models.
behavior. The concept of an attitude to*
adequately characterized. Moreover, studies frequently gilto
disloverl strong, direct ,or consistent relationship between
attitudes and behavior. This suggests that .insofar as attitude
models are plausible, the relationship between attitudes and
behavior is neither simple nor direct. ^ _^
in recent years several different attitude model, have been
developed. These models attempt to fill the gap. between simple
attitudes and behavior. While none of these model, is successful
for every sort of case, they draw our attention to important
influences on behavior. Many &re of the., model, have J>een
developed than we can di.cu.. (Rokeach 1973, Ajxen and Pi.hbein
,1980 , and Gray 1985 have been especially influential ) . Her* we
briefly review three of them.
i. A Causal Model of Environmentally Relevant Behavior
Stem and Oskamp ( 1987 ) developed a model in which individual
behavior is a product of psychological variables (e.g., attitudes),
interpersonal variables (e.g. , communication) , situational
structures (e.g., community sixe), and contextual factors (e.g.,
demographic background). Attitudes and behavior are strongly
correlated when both are measured at the same level of specificity
and when behaviors are easy to perform. The model incorporates
feedback loops in order to account for learning and self-
justification.
35
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I bam
Sat* I ilni|i
O n* r«a«
This model is interesting because it identifies some important
factors that bear on behavior, and it also acknowledges the fact
that causal factors can be both proximate and distal. However/
some of the basic concepts need further refinement, and in
attempting to provide a causal theory the model is very ambitious
and open to various counterexamples.
ii. A Psychological-Social Model of Energy Conservation Behavior
Costanzo.et al. 1986 have developed a model for explaining and.
predicting the behavioral effects of providing pro-conservation
information. This model distinguishes two families of interacting
variables: psychological variables and positional variables.
Psychological variables concern how information is processed by
*! - '
individuals, while positional variables concern individuals'
circumstances that support or constrain action. In order for
information to become active on this model, it must be perceived,
favorably evaluated, understood, and remembered. In order for this
information to issue in action, positional variables such as
disposable income must be favorable.
36
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Psychological and Social Factors in Energy
Conservation Behavior
Pro—CcRMfvalion
Information
Although this model specifically relates to the use of
information, it explains both strong and weak correlations between
attitudes and behaviors. Positional factors mediate between
attitudes and behaviors and determine whether or not attitudes will
be associated with appropriate behaviors in particular cases.
However, thia model may place too much weight on positional
factors. .
ill'. A Decision-Making Model of Environmental Behavior
Halford (1990) has suggested a five-step decision-making model
of how people arrive at environment-friendly patterns of behavior.
On this model information, understanding, attitudes, action, and
rewards are all essential for the production and maintenance of
these behavior patterns. If there is a failure in any stage of the
process, the desired behavior will either not occur or it will not
be sustained. . .
37
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INFORMATION
W— "*
im«L-TV. mta
Although this model identifies a number of important areas for
further research, it is oversimplified in its present fora. The
failure to identify feedbacks among the five components is
especially striking.
The models that we have discussed are all interesting and
useful. It should be clear -that no single model or research
tradition dominates the literature. Work will continue employing
different concepts and models.
While a diversity of research traditions is all to the good,
it is troubling that often'the concepts that are used are not very
clear. Moreover, researchers use the same terms with different
meanings and different terms with the same meanings. Communication
across research traditions is a challenge in this area, as it is in
so many areas of science.
38
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SOME THEMES IN THE T.TTERATURS •
Several fields h, s addressed the issues that are of interest
to this project. This section reviews findings from social
psychology, anthropology, sociology, marketing, business, and
economics. Because their work is grounded in various disciplinary
traditions, researchers from different fields often approach issues
from different perspectives, employing different models and
vocabularies. Moreover, the existing literature is strikingly
uneven with respect to the problems that it addresses.- Fpr
example, a great deal of research has been done on energy use,
littering, and recycling, but much less attention has been given to
the use of household products. Behavioral studies have been
focused primarily on individuals and households rather than
institutions and workplaces. Emphasis has been placed on
relatively small day-to-day choices rather than major investment
decisions. Relatively,little attention has been paid to how one
environment-friendly behavior, may lead to others. Any attempt to
survey and synthesize such a wide range of diverse literature is
inevitably eclectic and impressionistic. For these reasons it is
difficult to summarize some basic themes in a tidy way. >
In general, institutional factors do not get the attention
that they deserve in this literature review. The institutional
factors that affect pollution prevention behavior are obviously
very important. Changes in the culture of a corporation or in its
competitive o'r regulatory environment can have a dramatic effect on
people's behavior. However, the central focus of this literature
review is on individual behavior. In part this reflects the
preoccupations of the existing literature, but it also reflects the
mandate of this project, which is concerned . with identifying
.barriers to, and facilitators of, long-term sustainable change with
respect to pollution prevention behavior. The cultural factors we
discuss—beliefs, desires, emotions, attitudes, values, mental
models, and patterns of reasoning—are relatively neglected, yet
they provide the context for any long-term change. For these
reasons they are our focus.
' ' •• ' - .' ' • -'39 '.' •''.'.'•-
-------
1. The Individual .
we begin this review by looking at some themes that have
emerged about how various individual attributes may affect
pollution prevention behavior.
a. Demographic Factors
A great deal of research has been undertaken to determine
whether various demographic variables, for example age or level of
income, predict consumer-related characteristics such as media
preference (Vining and Ebreo, 1990). While correlations have been
discovered that are useful in making such predictions, demographic
factors have been far less useful in predicting environmental
concern or the likelihood of environmentally responsible behavior.
Although some relationships have held up on occasion, definitive
conclusions are difficult to find. Part of the problem is the
complexity of the subject. Environmentally responsible behavior
forms a large and diverse class, some members of which may be
correlated with some precisely defined but ungeneralizable
demographic features.
Some weak correlations that have been reported are the
following: .
1) age - which has a negative correlation with
environmental concern (Mohai and Twight, 1987; Hines,
Hungerford, and Tomera, 1987; Van Liere and Dunlap,
1980);
2} education - which has a positive correlation with
environmental concern (Hines, Hungerford, and Tomera,
1987; Van Liere and Dunlap, 1980);
3) liberal political ideology and higher socioeconomic
status - which are sometimes found to have a positive
correlation with environmental concern (Taylor, 1989;
Van Liere and Dunlap, 1980).
The higher levels of activism found among people with higher
levels of income were initially attributed to higher levels of
concern; more recently, however, it has been claimed that higher
levels of activism do not reflect higher levels of concern, but
40
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rather greater access to resources (Taylor, 1989; Mohai and Twight,
9«ater activism has been round ^on Mle.
than .-on/white. than blac*., recent -
-that levels .f concern .re fairly equal between male.
and between blacks and white., and the difference in level, of
activism is now thought to reflect greater access to resource.
(Hines, Hungerford, and Tomera, 1987; Mohai, 1992; Stem, Diet*,
and Kalof, under review).
b. Positional Factors .
Although demographic factors are not atrong predictors of
environmental attitudes and behaviors, various positional factors
that relate to one's situation or circuauinances ire. The greatest
single factor which inflances a major energy investment, such as
the purchase of a new furnace, is home ownership (Black, Stem, and
Blworth, 1985; Costanzo,et U., 1986). Home ownership has also
been identified as a factor which influences recycling (Oslcamp, et
al., 1991). Other factors which predict the adoption of an energy-
saving device include ownership of other home technologies and a
household member who is able to perform repairs (Costanzo, et al.,
1986). . , \
c. Attitudes
Specific attitudinal factors have been found to be better
predictors of other attitudes than are broader belief systems
(Oskamp et al*., 1991; Samdahl and Robertson, 1980). Attitudes and
past behavior can influence present behavior (Harris, Miller, and
Reese, 1992); and.those attitudes which are most closely related to
a person's basic values are those which are most likely to be
carried into behavior (Stern and Oskamp, 1987).
d. Mental Models
Mental models are essential for organizing our experience of
the world. They.provide rules of thumb, shorthand explanations,
and useful heuristics that help us to deal with new or difficult
situations.
In order to fulfill these functions successfully, mental
; . ..41 •'.'...•• " ' • •
35
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models are intrinsically conservative. We Model novel experiences
on the basis of old ones, and we assimilate new ^W~"
ones with which we are already familiar. Kempton (1S87) has shown
how people model 'thermostats as valves or feedback devices, and
this affects how they use them.
The conservatism of our mental models gives rise to
-conforming attitudes.- An individual's broad general attitudes
can affect his or her attention to and belief in information that
is presented (Stem, Diets, and Black, 1985-86). If information
deviates too far from what people already believe, it is often
discounted or ignored (Burn and Oskamp, 1986).
This disposition to pay attention only to what we already
belie ^ aay lead to another phenomenon. When presented with
information that does not appear to conform to what we already
believe, we tend to shape the new information so that it does
conform to our previous beliefs and commitments (Kempton, 1987,
1990).
. We can be quite selective as to what beliefs we admit to our
belief system. For example, if someone forms the belief that an
energy-saving device is difficult to operate, this may influence
the decision whether or not to obtain that device more than how
wail the device does what it is meant to do (Darley, 1977-78;
Darley and Beniger, 1991). This is an example of how changes in
our beliefs can affect our desires (Tversky and Kahneman, 1981).
e. Attitudes'Toward Risk
It is clear that people have different attitudes toward risk.
This can affect our disposition to engage in pollution prevention
behavior by leading us either to discount or to magnify the
probability of pollution-caused harm. The subject of risk is a
large one, and an extremely large literature has been produced
which addresses it. Indeed, there is a large society (the Society
for Risk Analysis) that studies risk, and it publishes its own
journal (Risk Analysis). -We shall note only several points here.
First, not only are there different attitudes toward risk
across individuals, but different clusters of people have different
42
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attitudes toward risk. lor. ««**•. «P«« and ""*>""
been sho™ to- have different attitudes toward ««k... »ong the
facts that see* to affect peopie-s attitudes toward "*"*•
, to. further exampies see Kahneaan, SXovic, and TversXy,
1 PH5 \ »
1) the increased noxiousness of risk, leads to the
amplification of risk (Hass, Bagley, and Rogers, 1975);
2) harms that are more than 10 to 15 years away are
heavily discounted (Jeffery, 1989);
3) health risks we pose to ourselves are systematically
discounted (Jeffery, 1989).
Second, opinions differ regarding the relevance of the
literature on risk to problem of pollution prevention. It can be
argued that pollution prevention and risk analysis are alternative
paradigms and that the case for preventing pollution doe. not rest
on the assessment of risks. Some risk analysts, on the other han«,
argue that the only case for preventing pollution is that it
exposes people to risks.
f . Values
No single, global value has been found to predict general
environmental concern nor to correlate strongly with general pro-
environmental behavior (Oskamp, et al. , 1991). Further, no general
view of the energy problem is associated with reported energy
conservation behavior (Olsen, 1981). Buttiel and Johnson (1977)
have suggested that environmental concern is multi-dimensional;
thus it may not be possible to generalize from the determinants of
one environmentally responsible behavior to another (Tracy and
Oskamp, 1983-84). This suggests that we need to examine specific
environment-friendly behaviors in detail (Oskamp, et al.,. 1991;
Stern, 1986; Stem and Oskamp, 1987; Buttel, 1987).
Although there is no single value associated with
environmental concern, a number of different values appear to be
related to it. These include: ,
1) self-interest (Kempton, 1990); ,
2) future generations in general and one's
" "
37
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own descendant, in particular (Kempton, 1990)
3) human welfare in general (Dunlap and Van lor... 1977).
4) nature in general (Heberlein, 1972).
Yor,1983, 1990-91, ha. done rese^"V"-""
b--fw one obtain. by
a on. foring. De Young ,1986, ha. found tna, : the
satisfaction, are correlated with environmentally responsible
behavior: .
1) frugality (the careful use of resources);
2) self-sufficiency or self-reliance;
3) participation;
4) quality of life (Be Youn^, 1986 and 1990-91).
These satisfactions are independent. One can derive satisfactions
from both frugality and quality of life when performing a single
behavior. ,
One observation about values that is prompted by De Young s
work is this. Conservation has been derided as "being too hot in
summer and too cold in winter." De Young's work show, that there
are satisfactions that can be obtained from acting on the basis of
our values. Indeed, the American tradition of valuing a simple,
self-reliant life may have the makings of an important pollution
prevention value.
One important question about values is how they make
themselves felt in behavior. Schwartz and his collaborators have
developed a model of how norms are activated and shown that norms
can influence behavior (Schwartz and Fleishman, 1978). On this
view personal norms, which are constructed from one's general value
system, generate a sense of obligation to act in a particular way
in a specific situation. According to this view, when people feel
personally responsible and are aware of the consequences of their
actions, they often behave, according to moral norms even when this
conflicts with economic considerations (Heberlein, 1972). Norm
activation theory also suggests that action depends not just on the
belief that something ought to be done, but also on the belief that
44
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^ one's actions can make a difference (Stern, Dietz, and Black,
. . .1985-86) . . •-••'••"• / ' • ._'
2. Social Milieu
individual behavior is embedded in a social framework, and
social factors play an important role in affecting what we do.
Most people have a highly differentiated web of social
relationships. Some relationships, such as those with friends and
family members, are highly valued. People often modulate their
* behavior in response to the opinions of those whom they love and
! care about. The more valuable the relationship, the greater the
: influence other people can exert upon us.
However, even someone who is not in a valued relationship with
us can exert a strong influence. The block leader system has been
v a very successful approe to recycling Bun (1991) suggested
2 that this approach is successful either due to the block leader's
3 own behavior modeling, or to the incentive provided by the
• recognition of one's behavior by others. Another study of
recycling suggests that the social interaction provided by a block
leader influences behavior less directly than modeling, and that
the block leader's behavior can initiate the establishment of
social norms that tend to enforce behavior independent of the
block-leader's own behavior (Hopper and Nielson, 1991). Earlier
: the importance of behavior modeling was demonstrated by Aronson and
& O'Leary (1982-83). . ,
I Social norms and community expectations are clearly important
^ in sustaining a pattern of behavior. Even if a person is not
closely linked to a community, the prevailing norms and
expectations may still bring the person's behavior into conformity
:f with community values. . • _ '
;.: increasingly people's networks of relationships are growing to
encompass not only those with whom they have a direct connection,
/• but also people they see on television or hear on the radio. These
people can also serve as example-setters.
. 3. Facilitators and Barriers .
. Various factors enable or inhibit the performance of
1 ! • ' -.' . . • 45 ' .. '
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environment-* riencUy actions . These include the following
belief that «... actons
toward reducing energy. Bandura and Cervone (1983) have show,
a sense of efficacy can lead to renewed efforts to address a
problem when an individual knows that he or she is capable of doing
more than he or she has already done. /„,'.,,,,.„ MMe
Groups interact in important ways with an individual's sense
of efficacy. While an increased sense of efficacy can motivate
someone r- join a -roup (Cook, 198
-------
helplessness that leads to loss of motivation or even depression.
b. Public Commitment ,
Public commitment established through public statements has
been found to increase the probability of actions consistent with
these statements (Bum and Oskamp, 1986). Another study found that
gaining a commitment from individuals increased the frequency and
degree of a behavior; there seems to be a correlation between the
strength of the commitment and the level of output. Further, those
individuals who had made a commitment initially continued to engage
in that action even when the period covered by the commitment had
ended (Pardini and Katzev, 1983-84). Public commitment/ in the
sense in which it is understood in these studies, involves a face-
to-face social interaction.
c. Rewards
Many studies have tracked the results of the use of rewards
for conservation behavior, such as recycling, littering, and
alternative transportation use. It has been found that although
there is generally a short-term increase in the probability of the
rewarded action, the probability of the behavior returns to its
original level or ceases entirely once the reward is discontinued
(Witmer and (Seller, 1976; De Young, 1986). The cost of maintaining
rewards for conservation behavior can be prohibitive-^even greater
-than the savings they generate (De Young, 1986). In a bus
ridership study, Backman and Katzev (1982) concluded that although
providing rewards for desired behavior had some success, this
approach did not produce results that were any better than those
produced by the less costly means of securing public commitment to
follow a course of action (also, Katzev and Pardini, 1987-88).
Large rewards can actually reduce the long-term probability of
a desired behavior. When a behavior is heavily rewarded, an
individual may come to think that the reward is his or her
motivation for the behavior, even if the individual had previously
engaged in the behavior and believed that it was important. When
the reward is withdrawn, the individual may discontinue the
behavior on the ground that the reason for performing the action no
47
II
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longer obtains (Katzev and Pardini, 1987-38). •
As one would expect from learning theory, studies have
indicated that rewards' distributed on a probabilistic *"£££
as a lottery system, generate a greater increase xn the probability
" a deseed beha^lr than rewards that are distributed in a.
predictable way (Jacobs and Bailey, 1982-83; Diamond and Zoewy,
1991)
Again, as one would expect, rewards are generally more
effective than punishments in increasing the probability of a
desired behavior. Moreover, in some cases the provision of
positive incentives may generate positive attitudes toward a
desired behavior, and this can lead to the establishment of a value
or norm that fixes the behavior for the long tern (Geller, 1983).
•i'he provision of rewards may also motivate individuals to overcome
barriers, such as fear or lack of information, that prevent some
action (Bachman and Katzev, 1982).
d. Coercion ,
If responsibility and choice are at one end of the spectrum,
then coercion is at the other. Some researchers claim that there
is an element of coercion in strategies such as distributing fear
messages about unwanted behavior, or establishing monetary and
social disincentives for their performance. However, generally by
coercion we mean a strategy that punishes an unwanted action or
omission.
The literature on coercion that is relevant to this project
mainly concerns the backlash that coercive policies often produce.
In one study, housewives who felt forced to change detergents were
less positive about the new detergent than those who believed that
they had a choice between'them (Mazis, 1975). Coercion can reduce
the desire for the behavior that is being sought, and increase the
desire for the forbidden alternative (Brehm et al., 1966). If even
a few people react negatively to a mild strategy, such as providing
reminders to' do something, it has the potential to nullify any
gains made by those who comply with the prompt's request (Aronson
and O'Leary, 1982-83).
48
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e.
Shame and Embarrassment , • ' »,__ adae
The- inducement of shame -^ ' «^?^\J^ °^
appears key to evaluating its effects.
f. Personal Experience ^ '••«.*.
Personal experience can have a dramatic effect on the
probability of performing a behavior. Kempton (1990) speculate.
that one factor which may motivate people to support protection of
the environment is that they have had personal experience with
environmental degradation. For many African, pollution is not an
abstract problem but an ex.. -iential part or evex. day life. To be
effective, however, experience must be interpreted and understood.
Experience of pollution may incline people toward environmental
protection, but experience with efforts to prevent pollution may,
in some cases, incline people in the opposite direction.
4 . Information Provision
The provision of information is frequently used in attempts to
facilitate action. A great deal of evidence indicates that the
effectiveness of such programs is often overrated.
There are many reasons why it would seem to make sense to rely
on information provision as a awns for changing behavior: it is
relatively inexpensive, fairly convenient, and large numbers of
people can be reached with relatively few resources. Nevertheless,
as a means for producing results, the simple provision of
information has been shown to have a limited effect on behavior
(Ester and Winett, 1981-82? Stem and Aronson, 1984? Costanzo, et
al. , 1986; and Kempton, et al., 1985). This much seems undeniablet
there appears to be no clear causal relationship between the
provision of information and behavior change.
There are probably many reasons why information provision
fails to change behavior. Aronson and O'Leary (1982-83) suggest
that when lifestyle changes are involved, information provision is
' . " ' •- "•' • • 49
/V3
-------
:r::
pro,i.i»n
*»
that
abou-i f , , .ciplent's oehavio^ appears effective
a. Salience -
informtion which i. »li«* 1. -»
th» infection «Wch i. not. M«..,.. -tbt tt.
«nd p.r.oa.liz«i «. «r. imir to b.
not ^.t.r «d «in.tt, 1981-82, Ma,
Earli.r M not«i that .pecific .ttitud..
m UMT « b. «.oci.t«i vith
attitude.. Similarly, «.«9e. that »l.t. to .
Pr.vantion behavior ar. ~r. lik.ly to b. .f f.etiv. than
are general.
A vivid message is on. that relies on #«**"
behavior, or'narrativ.. These ...sage, are »ore effective than
carefully written, lawyerly communications.
A personalized message i. one that appear, to the recipient
b. relevant to his or her life. Re.earch indicate, that ^p«>ple
anticipated experiencing direct personal consequences from energy
problems were more likely to take action to save energy (Ol.en,
1981; Stem, 1991). Similarly if information makes reference to a
group with which the recipient identifies (e.g., the middle class,
homeowners, African-Americans), the message is more likely to be
effective.
50
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rr ,:t£r nxiz
roughly the same attitude, toward recycling, but their level of
about ho* to recycle was significantly
Young/ 19.88-89). Another study found .that recycles were better
informed than non-recycler. about how to recycle and^about local
recycling programs (Vining and Bbreo, 1990). Hine. et al. (1987)
found that two of the variables associated with responsible
environmental behavior were knowledge of the issue, and knowledge
of specific action strategies.
Although it appear, fro. these report* that providing useful
information may be important to the effectives.. of a me..age,
thi. could be called into que.tion. W« may wonder why the non-
recycler. have less knowledge about recycling than the recycler*.
Thi. may have little to do with the information that ha. been
provided the non-recycler.. The non-recycler. may have a po.itive
attitude toward recycling, but have reasons other than lack of
information for not taking part in this activity. Since they do
not recycle, they may simply ignore information about how to
recycle.
This suggest, another aspect of what it i. for information to
have utility. Thi. aspect i. quite obviou., but it i. sometime.
ignored. If information about polluting behavior i. to have.
utility for a person, then the .person mu.t see him or herself as
having viable alternative, to the polluting behavior. If people
believe that they have no reali.tic alternative to the continued
use of a product packaged in a pla.tic container, then they will
not see information about plastic recycling as having utility
(Tracy and. Oskamp, 1983-84? Van Liere and Dunlap, 1978).
c . Persuasiveness
Marketing 'theory suggests that, in designing a persuasive
' • • ' 51 ' '. ; •'•.'" '
-------
«h. Public that th. .nergy cri.i.
belief in th.
doe. not
.. 1M1| Seli^an,
believe ^ - — «T
and heath (Samuelson and
. Stem, ««
only the con^t of a »e...g. that aftec*. it.
campaigns
(Stern and Aronson, 1984)
to a CSH/Tlae
oiosLin,'Ao uiv^iio are rsy»*
information about the environment, government is next,
is last Stem (1986) discusses a case in which brochures
describing how to save energy were mailed to apartment "•"«•
Half the brochures were mailed with letters from the state public
52
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service
s.rvlc«commission and the other half with letters from the local
electee utility:- The information mailed by the electric utility
,ad no effect, while that sent from the state publxc service
commission resulted in a 7% energy savings. forMtion
Friends and relatives are seen as more credible information
sources thai, any 'institutions (Costanzo et al., 1986). Product
information provided by friend, and relative, is more effective
than information provided by independent experts (Darley and
'Beniger, 1991) •
d. Feedback .
Feedback about our own behavior can be a very effective form
of information. One study found that providing immediate feedback
to homeowners reduced their daily use of electricity (Seligman and
Darley, 1977). Feedback *rves to give peoplt cues about what
works and what doe. not. It may also serve to motivate an
individual to stick with a task, and it he]p. to focus attention on
the behavioral objective (Seligman, Darley, and Becker, 1977-78).
interestingly, one study which did not find feedback effective
speculated that this was because the participants did not view the
feedback as credible. .
Despite the potential for feedback to be an effective form of
information provision, much of the information that we receive
about our own environmentally related actions is limited,
misleading, or difficult to understand. Many energy bills, for
example, provide monthly totals with no indication of what the
particular costs are that comprise the total. To make matters
worse, we are often bad judges of our own energy usage. We tend to
overestimate the energy costs of such visible appliances as
television sets and underestimate the costs of such invisible ones
as home heating system. (Kempton et al., 1985).
53
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PART III: WHAT WE CAM DO NOW
The investigation of cultural barriers and facilitators to
pollution prevention behavior is a relatively new "tivity^
Although it builds upon previous studies of human behavior, it is
a complex area in which much still remains to be learned. Very
little can be said to be known with certainty. At the same time it
is possible to make recommendations which may be valuable in
guiding the efforts of those states and others who work in
pollution prevention. The following are some recommendations that
we ha-r. developed based, on what we have learned from analysing the
literatv j *nd f^om interviews with a variety of people active in
pollution prevention. These are general recommendation, based on
our research and our best guesses. Because they are general they
cannot be applied mechanically. They will be «o.t useful when
applied with the insight and sensitivity of those who work in
particular programs and who know what their own specific needs are.
1. Rewards and Incentives May Sot Be As Effective A. Values in
Sustaining Behavior over the Long T«a
The provision of incentives can be quite costly in terms of
time and money and in some cases can be ineffective in changing
behavior. For example, in a number of cases incentives have not
substantiallysinfluenced people to recycle. In some cases in which
' the provision of rewards has been effective in changing behavior,
the desired behavior ceases once rewards are no longer provided.
This suggests that incentives should be used in a carefully
targeted way. The provision of incentives may be most effective as
part of a program that is directed toward developing values which
would sustain the desired behavior over the long term. For
example, economic incentives are more likely to contribute to
lasting change in the way that a corporation does business if they
are used to reinforce, rather than to replace, the corporation's
own efforts to implement pollution prevention through changes in
its corporate culture.
54
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.
prevention motivator. in bu.in... and corpora*. ..ttin,. a.
' 1.
General Valu«8
and respect nature) are not very good predictor.
environmental behaviors. People', bringing their
grocery stores is more likely to be a result of «-i, havina
attitude or value that is directed toward this •
than a larger value about the.importance of J
Similarly, rather than trying to implement
values in corporate land government cultures, it
effective to instill specific values regarding the
own behavior. An individual or corporation that
concerned to reduce its own specific polluting act
more effective than one that has large, abstract
commitments. ' . '•'...»• «!.«•«-4«n
4. Knowing tow to Prevent Pollution May Be A« I^ortant As Hating
to prevent Pollution ' .
The recycling literature suggests than many people may not be
competent to engage in recycling behavior (they don't know whatto
separate, what or when items are collected, and so on). In many
cases giving people knowledge they need to prevent pollution may be
more important than convincing them .that pollution prevention is
-''••••'' ' . • ' 55- '
-------
des-ab'e. This may be especially 'true in the business community
with"respect to those pollution prevention activities which -would
make economic sense. Businesses may not take advantage of these
opportunities because they may not know how. Similarly, in many
cases government agencies may not be competent to engage in
pollution behavior or to convey pollution prevention knowledge and
values to other sectors of society.
5. HOW information Is Presented Help, to Determine Its
Effectiveness
People are more lively to pay attention to information which
is vivid, personal, specific, and which they perceive as credible.
People are more likely to remember information that includes
specific illustrations about people with whom they identify.
Context affects whether people pay attention to information.
Hearing about the benefits of a produce at a dinner party from
friends is a more credible endorsement for most people than hearing
about the same product in a paid advertisement. Reading about a
community problem in a brochure handed to you by a neighbor
typically has greater effect than reading about the same problem in
a flyer anonymously placed on a doorstep.
6. The Credibility of Information I» Affected by It« Source
Information from friends and relatives 'is regarded as more
credible than information from other sources. Environmental
information from environmental groups is regarded as more credible
than information provided by government. Environmental information
provided by business is regarded as the least credible of all.
Enlisting the help of environmental groups to provide pollution
prevention information may be one way of making such information
more credible. Once such information enters a person's network of
friends and relatives, it may be effectively transmitted throughout
that network. ,
7. New information is Understood in Terma of Old Concepts
in general, people are conceptually conservative. They tend
to assimilate new information in such a way that it is consistent
with the ideas and concepts they already have. People, also tend to
• ' ". 56 "
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• Any
new
begin by recc
at tt. . W -«
' M8Ooiat. .»ergy
at racing an i».«i=i.nt furnace win r..ult ^n
Ju.t •• warm in vintir, «W1. «ving both .n.rgy and »on.y.
nt agenci.. ^d corporation. 1~ t«d to b. =onc.ptu.l y
«rvative and to a..i-il.t. n« id~. «d infor-tio. ,
and practic... _**, «^!^™T
there is a great deal of t* . about f—,—
private sector and reinventing govern«mt in the public sector,
2 {-^iMumfina «•»»*«• id«»« ii often so slow ana
progress in implementing
0™., *«__—, «* Analogies Can Be Powerful
Prom the time we are children, much of our knowledge of the
world is obtained through stories. An anecdote about how a company
reduced its use of toxics or a homeowner began to compost can be
much more effective than a set of abstract instructions or some
qualitative data about the long-term effects of our actions.
Analogies between pollution prevention and successful programs in
such areas as public health (e.g., anti-»oking campaign.), and
highway safety (e.g., ..atb.lt us.) may provid. important in.ight.
that transfer to pollution prevention. Stories, anecdotes, and*
analogies can be just a. important in motivating and educating
employees and officials as citizens- '•-,-
9. It is Generally More Effective to Work through Existing
Communities or Group. Than to Build Hew One. '
Existing networks and organizations already have a base of
support, membership, credibility, and an established position in a
community. Pollution prevention may be more likely to succeed xf
it is adopted by existing groups such as families, churches, clubs,
57
151
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groups, and so on, than if it is the ,0,1 *
esse group, or organization,. Similarly, *
government pollution prevention *ay be .ore ef f eot.v.iy
•!f it utili.es exiting corporate or bureauor^o
whether they are internal or external to the agency or
10. inf oration about the tttaet. of Our Pa.t action,
Present Behavior ' -
Specific fallback permits us to monitor the effectiveness of
our behavior and to adjust it accordingly. '^**1"'^1£
increase and focus our attention on specific actions. Households
which receive specific information about their energy usag are
reor*
more rwar* of what they do that requires energy and are
• M O.
better t ^e to control their energy consumption,
often do not provide specific enough information for feedback to be
effective because they generally lump together all energy <*»**'»*
give consumers no way of knowing which action, result in what
costs. Feedback can also provide a m«an. of giving positive
reinforcement for achieving energy savings. This is true both for
individuals and businesses.
11. People Are Itore Likely to Act If Their Behavior Clearly Make*
a Difference .
There are a variety of ways of helping people to feel
empowered, including organizing them around modest achievable
goals, developing a community whicl. can provide social sanctions
and encouragement, and providing the. with immediate,
understandable feedback about their behavior. Part, of the
difficulty in motivating corporate and government actors may be due
to a lack of a sense of efficacy on the part of those rooted in
bureaucratic organizations. People who work in large organizations
often feel powerless to achieve even modest goals. Specific,
manageable goals that make a difference should be identified, and
people should get adequate feedback about their efforts to reach
them.
12. People Are More Likely to Act If They ?e«l Responsible for an
Outcome
58
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It is difficult to motivate pollution prevention
.because everyone is a pollution prevention actor and therefore it
is easy for each person to believe that someone else is or should
be responsible. Generally in the environmental area citizens
believe that government and business are the responsible actors,
and therefore individuals often fail to acknowledge the importance
of their own behavior and roles. Yet business and government are
unlikely to take aggressive action without pressure from citizens.
If pollution prevention is to be a priority within an organization .
or society, specific individuals must accept responsibility for the
consequences of their actions. Another difficult is that the
desired pollution prevention behavior is often seen as negative
(e.g., don't drive your car, don't use paper or plastic), and it is
difficult to motivate people not to periorm an act. On« approach
to this is to describe pollution prevention behaviors as positive
activities (e.g., walking, or bringing your own bag to th« stor*)
and encourage th« performance of th««« alternative actions.
13. Public Cos*mit»*nt Make* People Mor« LUwly to Act
People make commitments either as an expression of a value
that they already have, or th« very act of making th« commitment
contributes to forming the value. Whichever is the case in a
particular circumstance, making a public commitment is a way of
taking on a responsibility. Those who make public commitments are
more likely to act than thos« who do not, and th«y often carry
through with 'the behavior beyond the period of time to which they
have committed.
14. Role Models Ar« Important
People tend to follow the behavior that others around them
model. People may participate in curbside recycling because most
of their neighbors participate and they may feel peer pressure to
• do so, or modeling may be a way of demonstrating how recycling is
done. For either or both reasons, role models are important. In
order to get business to act aggressively, it may be important for
government tofbe a pollution prevention role model. Similarly, the
business community as a whole is more likely to act if they have
59
153
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mode's £-om within their own community. For these reasons,
la other *or»s of public recognition *ay be e^ect.ve.
15 ' a*"" ^"."Lvior are typically di«»- fro. a
for
th. only way
ar. th.
program. have th. potential to be
large. .
16. Th. Quality of Relationship. Matter*
ln,titution. and Mn.a.r. of t.n op.»t. a. ^f
«i*ulat. oth.r. to act i. through ..tabli.hin, .
authority, and th« policing th.ir b^avior.
pr«uppo.. that intimidation and th«at. of
only Tliabl. motivator.. Ho«v.r, in .« =.....
th. oppo.it. .ff.ct, «h.n P~P1. f~l
th.y of«n »b.l. 1» oth.r
r.infor=«»nt i. .i-ply not a. .f f«ti« a. po.iti~ r.inforc«».nt^
Ultimately, th. .uoc... of a relation d.p«,d. on p«,pl. s
Willingn.» to .upport and oo^,ly with it. A pollution
«rlc.r may b*»or. .ffctiv. a. a facilitator, p^rtMr, or
resource than a. a regulator or «»forc.r.
60
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PART IV: AN AGENDA FOR F^URE RESEARCH AND OTHER WORK
With the completion of Pha.e I of thl. project, weare clo..r
to understand^ the role that cultural barrier, and *«^°r'
play in affecting pollution prevention b^a^or. We hav,.1.0
learned what need, to be done if « are to gain ,r..ter ln.iaht.
into cultural barriers and facilitators.
1. cultural Barriers A. an Area of Study
it is clear fro. the research that ha. been done thus far that
cultural barrier, to pollution prevention behavior is not a
cohesive area of research that ha. developed it. own specific body
of literature. It is a new, emerging are* of instigation and
.oncerr. In our search of -he literature, we h ,. drawn fro.
studies in numerou. di.cipline. and field, that focu. on a wide
rang, of hu*ui activiti... Th... .tudie. have addre..ed topic.
ranging fro. recyclir^ and .e*ti~lt u.e to con.u^r choice.. ^
have atten.pt^i to gather together the.* diver.. Ut«raturU "*
read the. a. addre.«ing sox.* connon themes and problem, but it
will be important for future ^rk to provide definition and
organization to thi. field and to identify tho.e que.tion. that can
be most productively pursued under current condition.. •
2. What W0 Can Still L*axn about Value.
!t also becaj- clear in Phase I of thi. project/ that although
we have gained in.ight into how value, are formed in general, %»e
lack method, for predicting value change. It ha. been argued by
some that the very fact of lifted re.ource. mu.t ulti»ately «xtail.
a major shift away fro. the growth-oriented cour.e that our society
is on. Others believe this shift is already beginning to occur.
But there is .till much to be learned about the whole area of
values, and about the relationship, between social and
environmental changes, shifts in social norm., change, in
individual value structures, and modifications of behavior.
Specifically, much remains to be learned about how environmental
values relate -to pollution prevention in particular. General
* 61 '•.".•'
l-SS
-------
values about environmental concern do not necessarily get expressed
in specific action; it is specific value, which undergird specific
Behaviors. we need to be clearer about what the specific value.
are which contribute to pollution prevention and how tho.e value.
work in human behavior. ^*
Another consideration which it will be important to address as
we gain a greater understanding of values formation is the ethics
of modifying the values of others. In our Phase I work we
encountered some concern about the role of government in affecting
and implementing environmental values. This was expressed both as
a concern about the ethics of government modifying environmental
values, and as a concern" about the ethically acceptable methods of
such icjdJ "lection.
3. The Role of Psychology
Psychology is an important discipline of broad relevance, but
it has taken lea. interest in studying environmental behavior than
one would expect. Part of the reason for thl. may be that
aa
environmental problems have traditionally been regarded
technical and engineering challenges. Yet pollution prevention
ultimately is a matter of human behavior. It is human, who make
consumer choices and energy use decisions and who can bring
pressure to bear on those who pollute. Even where there are
technological solutions to environmental problems, psychological
factors still play a role, people must be motivated to adopt them.
Psychology has an important role to play in helping us to
understand pollution prevention behavior.
It is also clear that we need to know more about what we have
to work with before we can launch any program that we expect to be
effective. We need to know more about people's pre-existing
beliefs, ideas, and attitudes. Everyone has ideas about how
something like a furnace works, and these ideas affect how they use
that appliance. We also know that people overestimate the energy
usage of those appliances of which they are most aware. They are
often baffled that they do not see huge savings in cheir energy
bills as a result of turning out the lights more often and turning
62
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on the television leas,. ' , ' .
People look at the'world through conceptual frameworks; they
organize/information in ways that are consistent with ^^«*
already know. if information is presented that doesn t fit an
existing framework or preconception, it may be rejected or
inaccurately incorporated. Yet very little is currently known
about how people perceive pollution prevention. We need a clearer
understanding of what people already know and believe about
pollution prevention so that we can build oh this information in
designing effective pollution prevention programs.
4. People a« Conatipers
We need more information about how people make consumer
decisions. One of the areas of individual action that can have the
greatest impact is that of capital purchases, An efficient
furnace, car, or refrigerator can produce an energy saving* that
will generally outstrip the savings that result from decreased use.
Yet little is known about how pollution prevention considerations
influence major investments.
There is a -large, fairly inconclusive literature on how
demographic factors influence environmental concern and activity.
However little has been done specifically on demography and
pollution prevention behavior. Since everyone in our diverse
society is a pollution actor, it is important to understand the
role of various demographic considerations. Such findings would be
crucial for designing program, that deal with consumer decisions,
energy usa, and pollution prevention education.
5. Practical Applications
The primary focus of this project has been on how cultural
barriers and facilitators affect individual behavior. However, it
is important to recognize that individual behavior occurs in an
institutional environment, and that corporate and governmental
structures are themselves important pollution prevention actors.
we need to look closely at the role of pollution prevention in the
context of corporate and governmental institutions. Although
institutions are comprised of individual actors, they can have
•• '. 63 ' .''-'.
/57
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distinctive behaviors that are different from how any of the
individuals who compose the* would act in their personal
also need to Know more about how institutional structure,
individual behavior. •«.„«.
Finally, a great deal of pollution prevention activity is
currently taking place at the state and local level. This activity
needs to be studied in an attempt to identify the ingredients that
contribute to success and those that contribute to failure.
64
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PART V
: A DIRECTORY OF INFORMATION RESOURCES
Andrew Baum and Jerome Singer
SSSSJ.fVSS'SSSi
(esp. see Geller article)
New York: Academic Pre««, 1977
' vo1
New York: Academic Pre»»,
Boulder: Westview Pre««,
Mark A. Chesler, Bunyan I. Bryant, and Jaa«« B.
A Prof..on*. u to
Publication., 1981
and tte 9
Chicago: university of Chicago Press, 1989
Robert B. Cialdini
Influence.- Science and Practice _
Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Co
65
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John Cohen r—«? ,•/-»*• tnn«
Behavior in Uncertainty and Its Implications
New York: Basic Books, 1964
Karen Schweers Cook and Margaret Levi (eds.)
»»«, 19.90
Roy G. D'Andrade and Claudia Strauss (eds.)
Human Motives and Cultural Models
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992
J. D«rlega and Janusz Grzelak (eds.)
on and Helping Behavior: Theories and Research
New York: Academic Press, 1982
o Duster, An Inventory of Sociological
«
New York: Springer-Ver lag , 1986
Barry A. Brf3lstein and Larry Michelson (eds.)
Handbook of Prevention
New York: Plenum Press, 1986
(esp. chapter by Geller)
Amitai Btzioni .
The Moral Dimensions Toward a Nev Economics
New York: The Free Press, 1988
Rise and Fall of Cigarette Smoking in
North America
New York: Garland Publishing, 1989
* - .
Claude S . Fischer
To Dwell Among Friends
Chicago: university of Chicago Press, 1982
Nickolau's R. Feimer and E. Scott Gel ler( eds.) _
Environmental Psychologyt Directions and Perspectives
New York t Praeger Publications, 1983
E. Scott Geller, Richard W. Winett, and Peter B. Everett
Preserving the Environment* New Strategies for Behavior
Change
New York: Pergamon Press, 1982
66
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John Martin Gillroy, (ed.) . . _ n,,7, •*•,-,-* Z
•rhtrirbnneneaj Uis/c, Environmental Values, *ndppo^tj'cal
Choices: Beyond Efficiency Trade-offs in Public
Policy Analysis
Boulder: West view Press,
. .
Politics of Culture in American Life ,
Chicago: university of Chicago Press, 1989
Robert E . Goodin
No Smoking ,oo«
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989 x
Ecological Beliefs and Behaviors: Assessment and Change
Westpprt, Conn.: Glenwood Press, 1985
Reid Hastie, Steven D. Penrod, and Narcy Pennington
Inside the Jury • . •
Cambridge, Mass .: Harvard University Press, 1983
P Havs • ' • " • •
ff Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics
'in tha United States, 1955-1985
Cambridgei Cambridge University Press, 1987
Michael Hechter, Lynn Nadel, and Richard E. Michod (eds.)
The Origin of Values
Hawthorne, N.Y.: Aldine de Gruyter, 1993
Lawrence G. Hines
Environmental Issues: Population, Pollution, and Economics
New York: W.W. Norton, 1973
Joel S. Hirschhorn and Kirsten U. Oldenburg
Prosperity Without Pollution: The Prevention Strategy for
Industry and Consumers
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1991
Robin M. Hogarth arid Melvin Reder (eds.)
Rational Choice: The Contrast Between Economics and
Psychology
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986
Ronald Inglehart .
Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990
67
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Shanto lyengar
19n
Warren Johnson
Traditional Values in an Age of Scarcity
New York: Dodd, Mead, 1985
Cambridge: Cambridge University
world
New York: Praeger Publishers
-Richard D. Katzev and Theodore R., f
Promoting Energy Conservation* An Analysis of
Research
Boulder: Westview Press, 1982
snaring, Tne Effect of
on Knowledge Structure-A Cognitive ^s^ctlv
Ann Arbof : The University of Michigan, MA Thesis
Kenneth J. Koford and Jeffrey B. Miller (eds.)
Social Norms and Economic Institutions
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991
Side of Human Nature: Altruism and Empathy
in Everyday Life
New York: Basic Books, 1990
Kenneth J. Koford and Jeffrey B. Miller (eds..)
Social Worms and Economic Insti tutions
Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1991.
Craig L. LaMay and Everette E. Dennis
Media and the Environment
Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1991
Shearon A. Lowery and Melvin L. De Fleur .-«.,-..
Milestones in Mass Communication Research: Media Effects
'New York: Longman, 1983
68
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NikUs Luhmann (translated by John Bednarz, Jr.)
* chi=a,c Pre.s, 19..
New York: Academic Press,
Dean E . Mann ( ed . ) . '
Environmental Policy Formation -
Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1981
(esp. chapter by Milbrath)
Jane J. Mansbridge (ed.) . :
Beyond Self Interest „_.. IQQQ
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990
Lerry May and Stacey Hoffman (eds.) r^n-*. in
c£?«c?ive Responsibility, -ive Decides o* Debat in
Theoretical and Appliec .thica .
Savage, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers
Amiand L. Mauss _ •
Social Problems aa Social Movements
Philadelphia: J.P. Lippincott, 1975
as complication Theory-. An
Beverly Hills, Calif.* Sage Publications,
Lester w. Milbrath
Envisioning a Sustainable Society
Albany: state University of Hew York Press,
Lester W.-Milbrath ««.'««-*-«»
Environmentalists* Vanguard for a ****** «ty
Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984
Mancur Olson, Jr. '
The Logic of Collective Action . m
Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press
Education and the Transition to
a Postmodern World . . «--*«• 1005
New York: State University of New York Press, 1992
Robert B . Reich ( ed . )
The Power of Public Ideas
Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988
69
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Everett M. Rogers
Free Press of Glencoe, 1962
Everett M. Rogers and P. Floyd Shoemaker
Communication of
New York: The Free Presa
Milton Rokeach
The Nature of Human Values
New York: Free Press, 1973
°f
in Western Europe and the
Boulder: Westview Presa, 1991
*— *« '-
Bostons D. Reidel, 19B5 ,
m chard c Schwihg and Walter A. Albers, Jr. («*»•)
SSSSi ii-*^.-^"*' Hov saf0 Is *•" *nougA?
Mew York: Plenum Press, 1980
Muzafer Sherif
The Psychology of Social Norms
New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers,
Paul C. Stem, Oran R. Young, Daniel D«ctoa» ^*'\
Global Environmental Change: Understanding the Human
Dimension .««•
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1992
Paul C. Stem and Elliot Aronson (eds.)
Energy Use* The Huaan Dimension
New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1984
(National Research Council)
!oc"tyZinctio«.. The Theory of Social Becoming
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991
Ronald J. Troyer , _ „ ,.
Cigarettes.- The Battle Over Smoking
New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1983
Influencing the Nonexpert's Perception and
Evaluation of Environmental Risks
New York: Garland Publishing, 1990
70
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Sidney verba and Gary R. Orren • '
Eauality in America: The Vie* from the Top•• _
Smbridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985
t1 , ,- T T/i i-r and Michael E. 'Krait
Norman j . vig auvi **— *-.he 1990'st Toward a .Vsv Agenda
^vironaejital PoJacy i /congressional Quarterly, Inc.),
Washington, D.V..J *-w *^=o«» \»- ^
. 1990
Neil D. Weinstein' (ed.) . - ,*
Taking Caret Understanding and Encouraging Sell-
Protective Behavior
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987
Social PsycAo-Zogy, Vol. 24
New York: Academic Press, 1991
PERIODICALS
Jack Arbuthnot ; • • ^
-Environmental Knowledge and *«<^lin9 f*0*™*,"^.^-,.
Function of Attitudes and Personality Characteristics
unpublished . . ___
keys: attitudes, information, recycling, psychology^ .
This study hypothesized that recyclers would be less
economically oriented; believe less in .••l^JJ^ Jv^U?£
technology; be more oriented toward using legislation to
solve environmental problems; feel more •nvironmfnt*iiy
efficacious; be more future oriented; perceive the system as
more modifiable; feel more persona.l control; have «ign«r
self-esteem; be less superstitious, less conventional, less
committed to patriotic symbols; be lower in need for order;
InTfeel more^ocial responsibility. Also, recyclers were
expected to be higher in social class and education,
younger, and more likely to belong to an environmental
group, to have read more books on the environment, and to be
more environmentally knowledgeable. _»,„«.,xi-
Study indicated that recycling behavior was PJ^table
from education and knowledge about the environment more than
bv personality and attitudes. On the other hand,
environmental knowledge was predictable from personality and
latitudes as well as access to information. All personality
variables but social responsibility corfeiat~,™h__, _1.1_-
recycling behavior. Therefore, personality characteristics
are predictive of environmental action. The scales do_
overlap and so the*total amount of variance accounted for
beyond that explained by education and knowledge was small.
Factors to be considered in the effort to increase
ecological behavior include raising the information -level of
the public on the issues and taking personality and
71
J15
-------
........udin.1 predispositions into account when providing
information.
Elliot Aronson and Mi^*!is°of Models and Prompts on Energy
-The Relative Ef fac^veness of Moa ^ & ^^ Room.
Conservation: A pi*i^,j~:^l,
journal of Environmental st?_
not e h0
what is often being a«kedh^fl£eOpi|hivioral scientists
innovation or lifestyle C5«W- tJJn 3 Innovation , people
suspect that in the area fL^S with th« behavior of other
are influenced. by direct contact witn jn an
people through modeling and JgJlJ^jJ.w house shower at
experiment performed at the J«ft^Jc h was an increase
2 " '
inc
reased from one to tw°
comiunent on Urban Bus
Transportation R«s«arcA
b.h«vior
^ condltlon.
bus ridershl; than "-."""ji. 1. «t. and
treatment. Th« conditions ^^"ft.^^?^ .objects to
schedule information; s«curing =°""i":keM ; coibination
up
bus. This
rt . ^
-
E
__ to a
behavior"thanWto~reward them for doing so.
72
-------
Mechanisms Goveminc, the
Vol. 45,
performers construct for themselves.
expec ut toward sacking and .-J
to determine whether media. ar« influential .in «g ®r _
based on behavioral science theory, etc.
Lawrence J. Becker, Clive Seligman, Russell H. Fazio, John
-Relating Attitudes to Residential Energy Use"
Environment and Behavior
Vol. 13, No. 5, September 1981, pp. 590-609
keys: attitude, self-interest, framing, sociology,
found that factors which predicted energy
73
-------
=on.u.p«on -re =0^-
attitudes). Hom^owe"
crisis was l^^
energy consumption
energy problems is often
conservation with
convinced the •"•
in this study and
time.
"B^av?oTItudy on Recycling Participation-
Biocycle
oisicmif leant ly correlate with
skepScfsm about the reality of
as the major barrier to
need tQ ^
This is not the case
et al. , 1977-78.
ahouid include theme .that
• i un s to reeve than convenience of program.
j Stanley Black, Paul C. Stern, and Julie T.
^Personal Yand CoAtextual Influence on Household Energy
Adaptation* "
Journal of Applied Psychology
£y.:7eA.rg^ ef ficM'a^ud.., belief., norm.,
responsibility psychology ^^ on & cau8al ,
which JSLSrSat contextual variable, (e.g., demographic,
economic) affect behavior indirectly through personal
variables (attitude., belief.). «««ultt augges ted tha t
Itthough bihavior. that are unconatrained (l-;-» d«n '* take
circumstance, or ability, such a. .etting a
e)^re influenced by norm., per.onal
vc lis. influence on more con««ain
ma^or insulation installation, r -Plying a
Capital investments are «m«tr«lnjd by «jny
including funds? low-cost investments are more
indertaken in response to norm, because they are le.«
cSnlSainSd Sy factor, out of the consumer's control.
personal norS influence behavior, but only within
III by the context of consumer choice. The •" «««
and risinq fuel prices was stronger in producing economic
sacrifice" than in producing energy savings. Home ownership
seems to be a central factor influencing major energy,
Investments, suggesting that investments have *•«••*• «
the basis of (perceived) self-interest. Generalised concern
74
Thus,
-------
with the' national energy si^ation does no^influence
of "ligatioS to improve efficiency
Genera! Concern.
and Local Hazards " .
Social Science Quarterly
Vol. 70, No. 3, September 1989
9ender difference, inoncern
n.
i
"The^Cigarette Risk and American Culture-
Risk c
; P.rc.ption
a of th. behavior of «olciag
and tne eslishment: of it. h~lth risks. S»ok.r. **
able to justify behavior a» private— they could ca«>««
?Sey wanted todo as long as it didn't ^-H
Thil attitude was undermined by •^•»i^f 0
the secondary effects of snoking. The i»age of
has been reSf ined from that of strong ^.^™
that of weak and irrational. Behavior xs •h«P«*
cu!tural, psychological, Biological, processes tb
such as smoking are sociocultural phenomena , not
individual, or necessarily rational.
jack w. Brehm, Lloyd K. Stires, John Sensenig, and Janet
«Th|hS?ractiveness of an Eliminated Choice Alternative"
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
Vol. 2, 1966, pp. 301-13
Hey8!Br1h^s°Iheory implies that the elimination of* choice
alternative will Snd to increase the attractiveness of that
alternative to the person who is about to make the choice.
Two experiments , in which college students rated the
75
-------
attractive ^cord increased in at ^^^^ ^ ^^
!Si£^l£i^
given no prior freedom to choose wjicn^ ^ ^ M the
SSfa^ar-.-
take.
Robert Bullard and Beverly Hendrix Wright
"Environinentalism and the Politics of Equity.
Emergent Trends in the Black Community
Mid-American Review of Sociology
reassessment, belief, activism,
sociology ^^ are juat beginning to integrate
environmental issues into traditional cijrU rxgj» -~»
The promise of jobs is attractive to economically
area? but there is a need for assessment of health
environmental risks. The black community n««f« J? UM
institutions—churches, civil rights and PJi**;^;,^
organizations, etc.—to address environmental problems.
Robert D. Bullard and Beverly Hendrix Wright
"The Politics of Pollutiont implications for the
Black Community"
Phylon ' ' „- :
Vol. 47, No. .1, 1986, pp. 71-78
keys: ethnicity, income activism, message
Blacks, low-income groups, and working cl»8B-Pff™* _
subjected to a disproportionately larger amount of pollution
Jithin workplaces and neighborhoods. These communities do
not have a history of organizing to challenge public policy
SlciStons Sore^ecently, the base of "i"""*"! support
has been broadened with .the inclusion of issues that relate
to these groups.
"Social"psychology and the Stimulation of Recycling
Behaviors: The Block Leader Approach"
Journal of Applied Social Psychology
Vol. 21, NO. 8, 1991, pp. 611-29 ,
keys: recycling, incentives, public commitment, norms, role
models, framing, sociology, psychology W^».^K -«H
Data indicate that both the block leader approach and
leaving a persuasive communication and recycling bags at tne
door of households are successful in increasing recycling.
It is not clear why the block leader approach is successful.
This could be for several reasons: modeling, providing
76
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sociology, psychology. . p-jsuasive communication area:
Article recaps -researcn in y« f existing
* <„#«,-*«*£ ion can't deviate too
of information from reference group.
to proo...
ta noxiou. =on.equ«nce8
• Sersonalized- connur-.cation
. credibility of sou. t reconmend,d action
* daare« of apBCificity 01 ~!«>!«wiie coi^t
Study al»? looto. «.« « J •« •JJ-S.g^g XtLS5T^»
Attitudes stated P^1^^ ^.n of SSviors consistent
expression ^^•^^JSSS^l ? uSlisa^ion o£ persuasive
with then. Both iic coiWtMttt) increased
rsss— .
interaction ) .
^U"iirec?i
Annual R«vi«v of
Ecology" ar?ue8wthaLlt*;ivrof human societies to .
are shaped by th« ^^-^1^ ^biosphere. This departs
their basic survival needs f roaj we * distinct .
from classical human ecology xn at least ^ ^ ^^^^
argument: which is that •««*•;•* a°L continued resource
with the environment %but rath?ran5hropomorphism underlies
depletion and <*^»^?t^'-«i^S^tTbe distinguished
thl "human ^^P^^ii^f^adlgm." New human ecology ^
from the "new enviro™n^i8?hroomorphism and reject the
argues humans must shed this "
years. Age,
77 ' .
-------
••
r^i*rpd to the number of accurate beliefs held afcout
les mrtant han non-monetary. 3) The Environment
Sovelent JT^echnological Risk and Risk ^•••nMt. 3) The
Political Economy of the Environment and Environmental
Politics.
Frederick H. Buttel and Donald B. Johnson
-Dimensions of Environmental Concern'
Journal of Environmental Concern
keys: attitude, psychology, social class, political
a£fllAttitSdinal items factor into more than one distinct
dimension. -Environmental concern" and -environmental
rJfSrm- are ambiguous concepts because the -nature of social
change sought under this rubric is not ^explicit .- The
assumptionlof the uni-dimensionality of
concern is unwarranted: a sample of J".
environmental issues to be at least bi -dimensional ,
pursues dichotomy as that of two broad dimensions : whether
the scope of environmental reform is basically ameliorative
(environmental concerns more cosmetic or post Aoc; seexs
solutions within present institutional context ) °*
redirective (toward new social order, i.e., challenging tne
legitimacy of industry which pollutes excessively).
Aulhors hypothesize that indicators of -objective interests"
i'n environmental reform will be more closely related to
redirective concern than ameliorative. Study uses three
independent variables as indicators of these objective
interests: ownership of or employment by commercial or
industrial enterprise; socioeconomic status of community ot
• residence; attitudinal scale of support for economic growth.
There is little correlation between "objective interests
78
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^'SC^&* ss&JPSS'.S&S; to
live in low socioeconomic status commu threat:en induatrial
support environmental ^^sTis more strongly associated
than with amelioration.
B Cialdini , Raymond R . Reno , Carl A. Kallgren
^ Places-
journa Personality a/id Social
Vol. 58, No. 6, 1990, pp. 1015-26
i (i.)
•J
individual.
e Stoupi.
Motivations"
American Politics
People join special interest groups to gain
strongest) . :
Stuart W. Cook and Joy L. Berrenberg
-Approaches to Encouraging Conservation Behavior: A
Review and Conceptual Framework"
journal of Social Issues
in=.ntive,, group
ways of conceptualizing
79
[13
-------
material incentives . ., ti the
SSiSSSSX SfSiM -^? H p 3
on the effectiveness of change. A^horl "°*^ ?*£«
of persuasive communications may be rf**ced if ™vidual,a
recommended changes deviate too afar from the indj.va.dual s
existing beliefs and practices.
Mark Costanzo, Dane Archer, Elliot Aronson, and Thomas
"EnergT'consIrvation Behavior: The Difficult Path from
Information to Action"
American Psychologist
behavior, social
n SSfS'Ef luence conservation behavior,
the attitude-change model and the rational-economic "odej/
underestimate the complexity of human ^havi?f; a*86"611
indicates the lack of a direct relationship between
attitudes and energy conservation behavior. Four^
"intrapsychic" events must occur before a . P™""**™*^ .
information campaign will result in adoption of an energy-
saving devices perception, favorable evaluation, .
understanding, remembering. There are also four P081;*0?**
factprs which best predict adoption of energy- saving device i
home ownership, socioeconomic status, ownership of
technologies, presence of household member •«*!•.*;
repairs. Innovation diffusion occurs through existing
networks and involves two influence processes: i^0
communicated via interpersonal contact and the •o?«Uta9 °jj
effective behavior. Information received from friends and
acquaintances is vivid and personal, perceived as credible.
« *
John M. Darley ''''', j mu./«
"Energy Conservation Techniques as Innovations, and Tneir
Diffusion"
Energy and Buildings
Vol. 1, 1977-78, pp. 339-43
keys: feedback, diffusion of innovation, efficacy, social
networks , *....*'
Study traces the adoption of set-back thermostat in
neighborhood. Feedback was important. Study found that
adoption is due to psychological factors or perceived
characteristics of the innovation, such as how difficult it
is to .operate, rather than economic ones, perception ot
efficacy was important: people needed to believe there was a
specific, usable innovation available that would address the
80
-------
ni 'fusion proceeds along sociometric (existing
proolem. Pltf u8^T.?;??rather than spatial networks.
communication .networks ) ratner |£a" I, s sucn as low
Adoption decisions ^^i^of will pSuce savings together
certainty that the ^°;aj£°?n!£iii or decide on innovation.
— • —
John M Barley and James R. Beniger
»Si? fusion of Energy-Conserving Innovations"
journal of Social Issues • .
^s: 'Information!^?!! *££". perception, behavior,
pgyehSTLcSl5TS1ffiPt an ener^-con.er.in, product or
d.
influence the adoption deci?lon- .?ttn« is more
1I
energy conwrva by
Government) is not likely to be effective.
Resources, Conservation, and Recycling
Vol. 3, 1990* pp. 253-66. '
on non-monetary motives.
M-propriate Behavior, The Role
of Intrinsic Motivation
Journal of Environmental Systems
vol. 15, No. 4, 1985-86 pp. 281-92
keys: intrinsic motivation, efficacy, psychology
81 . _ " '
" . .' • ' IS'
-------
. a - er
intrinsic motivation and ^I^aSe thing for its own sake .or
intrinsic motivation's ^doingsomething^^ ^ tangibl
because it "feels 9°^' <„„ «? why people conserve may be
returns . Our «nd;«"^Jn?n^iSicP2S±v.tion and personal
efforts and larger
world . )
"'
r "'Difference f t«enR.=y=ler. and Ken-
Recyclers: the Role of Information
Journal of Environmental Systems
. ,
Slin prSent: b«hvior. Thi. may bjdM to social
pressure. As more households recycle, it becomes
embarrassing, not to recycle.
t
"P.=«.of Recycling: Th. Structure of
Conservation Satisfactions"
Environment and Behavior .
reys-'^cyciing/a^ituae; vSiuef psychology, sociology
Y A gSSt dial of research has been done on the use of
^-trinsic incentives in recycling programs. Extrinsic
!ncln?!vls SavS their drawScks: they don't P*°*^« S"£f
behavior changes and may cost more to Produce ^han actual
results save. Author proposes looking at the goals and
Awards that arise out of active particxpation in an ongoing
activity. Study found four satisfactions: frugality,
careful use of resources; self-sufficiency and self-
reliance; the idea that humans are active, knowledge-
generating creatures; and luxury, being a member of an
82
-------
a«"-uent society and participating in the good !«••
:«i.f action. wire 5-eraily |»=°£* 1^^%
satisfaction scales, so, IT: i.s ««'• luxurv Thus,
sense of satisfaction."
"KcSotinl enervation Behavior in Shared Spaces : The .
Role of Energy Monitors"
Journal of Environmental Systems
£ys deling; norms!0diifus^;^^^
we L in^?^^
?he stale of the place where an individual ^^helps to
define the norms of behavior in that place, J^^gjJ".-
acted as energy monitors to spread information and define
norms. Approach was participatory, including direct
involvement on part of users. Participation allow*
individuals to interact directly with the environment,
enhances their understanding of ^1*^ir»P2L^i2li?v
role in it, and increases their feelings of responsibility
about the functioning of that
environment.
Raymond De Young ' . '
-Some Psychological Aspects of Living Lightly: _-,„.__.
Desired Lifestyle Patterns and Conservation Behavior
Journal of Environmental Systems _
This etudy looks at whether a conservation-oriented
lifestyle might have its own intrinsic satisfactions. Study
took form of a mail-back survey. The relationship between
lifestyles and environmentally responsible beha^i;fi"1 .
gaining attention. The core of this lifestyle ^JfnfjJ11*
which is often portrayed as an austere one of • J*crif .i <=£< *n
onerous undertaking. But there is also an historical basis
for regarding the austere and simple life as one rj.ch with
an inner sense of well being. So an environmentally _
responsible lifestyle might provide for a sense of P««onaV
satisfaction per se. Three satisfaction scales Demerged from
the survey: frugality (defined as prudent use of resources );
the opportunity to participate or become involved; and
deriving satisfaction from the acquisition of luxuries. The
satisfaction from luxuries scale interestingly enough had a
low correlation with each of the other satisfaction scales
which would seem to indicate that the satisfaction derived
83
IT7.
-------
*~m 'uxu-es is not incompatible with'the satisfaction
gained from frugality or 'participation. The data reported
?n -his study offer the perspective that rather than
conservation being equated with sacrifice, it was associated
w<«h forTns of intrinsic satisfaction and a reduced
consumption lifestyle. So, making ^•>dljtinctionb«twMn
curtailment and efficient energy use might not prove to be
the most productive approach to the promotion of
conservation behavior.
Raymond De Young , .
"Changing Behavior and Making It Stick: The Conceptualiza-
tion and Management of Conservation Behavior"
IN PRESS , • .
keys: information, incentives, group influence, experience,
coercion, psychology ,
De Young categorizes behavior change techniques as or
three types: ' , .
(1) informational techniques - help people understand
che nature of the problem and what to do to remedy it
(2) positive motivational techniques - include
extrinsic motivation and intrinsic when an individual is
helped to discover a behavior that is worth doing in its own
right. Intervention strategies try to draw attention to the
behavior. ,
(3) coercive techniques,- physical or perceptual
constraints of choice - in general, environmental psychology
argues against use of punishment. It should be noted,
however, that monetary and social disincentives can be
considered coercive in nature, as might the employment of
fear messages.
Article distinguishes source of change within these
techniques as coming from the environment/others or as
having an internal source (discovery, direct experience,
commitment, intrinsic satisfactions, sense of duty, sense of
dread). =
De Young wants to evaluate methods on basis of
effectiveness, cost-benefit, reliability, speed of change,
and particularism, generality, and durability.
More research is needed on person-initiated categories
of behavior change techniques; commitment is one of the only
techniques in these categories to have been adequately
investigated. The dominant paradigm is to stress the >
environment and others as the source of conservation
behavior change and to minimize role of individual. Yet no
technique is optimal. One which causes rapid behavior
change may not result in durable change. The promotion of
conservation behavior should draw on techniques utilizing
both person-initiated and other-initiated behavior change
approaches...
Raymond De Young and Stephen-Kaplan
84
-------
-coni.rv.tion Behavior and the .Structure of Satisfactions
journal of snviroaauKMl Systems
people -do
conservation is deP«" en . mht rovide payoffs of a more
SSS £ound
a special
taken a. a «bol«f indicate
part of the ultimate decision to go ahead with a
conservation activity.
Raymond De Young and Stephen Kaplan
-On Averting the Tragedy of the woa
Environmental Kanageaent ^
Vol. 12, No. 3, 1988, pp. 273-83
rationa behavior (acting ^" «!Hto.W and/or
reduces the chance of people messing things up, but a i so can
85
' 11
-------
eliminate a degree of ^ersity essencial^^effective
resource management. ""^Sby the decision, checking out
advice of those most aff ec^°(3°J,Siiitv/ and never venturing
stability, and distributed
Raymond De Young, Andrew D^an, Jeffrey "^JJ
Shereen Rothman, John Shenot, Andrea Shotxin,
Behavior: The Role of
Motivational Information"
! information, conservation, motivation, education
inJ study addresses behavioral chjmgjujiing
information baJed on both economic and env i^nmental
rationales. Source reduction represents /departure rrOT
society^ way of managing materials: more •"^•JJ ^
packaging and reduced consumption are ««* 5°™;°^ ^.
western government, industry, individ"*ih^OSS!d onnon-
present study looked at previous aPP«>;;h;» ^J^ intrinsic
Economic motivational strategies such "aj;^*;' intrinsic
satisfaction, and social commitment and based its ^
informational appeal on these findings . JamP£1J>* !S* US
which gave not only reasons for performing the desired
behavior but specific procedural information a*0** *°T
perform behavior. Behavior changes were ••"-'•PfJ
Results showed individuals are concerned a^V.^JL!?
environment and their economic interests. !%£££•**
more likely to practice home-based source Deduction
activities %uch as reuse of aluminum fjil rather than
consumer-based source reduction activities such as buying
goods with less packaging.
William D. Diamond and Ben Z. Loewy _ _ ai-titudes
-Effects of probabilistic Rewards on Recycling Attitudes
and Behavior" . • , •
Journal of Applied Social Psychology
ilUi.ll;
to
and lotteries. One study combined two
be associated with attitude change: writing down
and the use of probabilistic rewards. *«>b^ii"ttJJ
did, on the average, lead to more attitude change than
86
-------
• „,«««««• s Subjects who won the lottery had very"
•certain payments. ™Jtudes in the direction of their
polarized posttestattitudes^n^he ^^ fey ^^
written reasons . ^ne atti J lottery. The second
arguments was au9*en^cS Several types of reward as
study cp«P*f«J a^itude and behavior change (certain,
agents of both a"1"" rewards). No significant
"con
r««rd. 1^ « greater
:: sss-
be as «ny pri«» a.
maximize number of winners.
. The Case of Environmental Risk"
Sociological Forua.
b.U.f , eeon»l=.,
social constructions of conflict can
Conflict ha.
.- i. uninfor-d
requires expert undermtandlngj
2, tee.t--rSS ar. diHrtbat.! ™«J»«1^ •»
therrwiU b« winners and lo»er« from any policy
3, valu^differences—inderlying value, ar. the only »eans
4, n P«P1- have com. to
SSn seen by many as an economic issue into a political^one .
87
-------
i • <*A «oeieties have traditionally managed
ssss rassijS-j H ?5r.iaisssris.rji -.
">« th""l " then be in the interest of
deine
as a resource
Psychological
awareness of environmental facts.
Richard D. Dixon, Roger C. Lowery, Diane B. Levy and
-S.lf-!ni:re.rand'r?ublic Opinion Toward Smoking Policies
A Replication and Extension"
Public Opinion Quarterly
Vol. 55, 1991, pp. 241-54.
And benefits of a proposal are unambiguous and salient in
minds of respondents .This study added •~j3ff«S5t
variables and^found that another measure °f «2«^Jt5*g;
profiting from tobacco, was the strongest predictor of tne
smoking attitudes studied.
Riley E. Dunlap and Kent D. Van Li«f«. BT.«H p*-h^r."\
- Consents and Rejoinders- (to Heberlexn on "Land Ethic )
Journal of Social Issues
Vol. 33, No. 3, 1977, pp. 200-7
•keys: values, attitudes, beliefs, sociology Heberlein/s
Recent societal trends call into question Heberlein s
suggestion that an environmental ethic ia being realized in
88
-------
appear also to influence environmental ^aviors when tne
latter are seen as having consequences for humans.
Riley E. Dunlap and Kent D. Van Liere
"The 'New Environmental Paradigm'"
Journal of Environmental Education
Vol. 9, 1978, pp. 10-19 „ Y™.
keys: belief, framing, values, psychology _.
y Transition to a steady-state ^c^^V JTdS bv
increasing scarcity and ^ted growth /ill fc ' -.•Jtod1git,
acceptance of the New t..ironm«l»l. Paradigm, A. •-."•«•
to growth, the importance of preserving balance of nature,
etc? Study f inds^ rapid growth in the •«!«Pg"212*: S!cjn
state of Washington from th* Dominant iocial Paradigm which
had been accepted.
Pater Ester and Richard A. Winett ..'«•«'
-Toward More Effective Antecedent Strategies for
Environmental Programs"
Journa 1 of .Environmental System*
Vol. 11, NO. 3, 1981-82 pp. 201-21 ^, .QCi»l
keys: marketing, framing, information, role models, social
networks, behavior, sociology, communication
Article reviews the literature to evaluate
strategies (interventions used as stimuli b«*°*; * 522S?
to influence the behavior, such as information and prompts)
aclca" ^
and consequence strategies (such as
rewards oh conservation behaviors including
recycling, transportation, etc.). When
to factors such as specificity, salience
convenience, antecedent strategies can have effect,
still less of one than consequence strategies. The ««e™
of antecedent strategies are important because t5*J,a"«i
expensive to implement. Many of the antecedent strategies .
studied were poorly designed ones, such aV!??i««r exarch
not make use of the basic tenets of communications research .
Authors recommend looking at more effective .a**«c*»"'"L4.__i.
strategies such as behavioral modeling and personal contac t
approaches. 'Authors note antecedent approaches have been ana
are logical types of governmental interventions.
Some points of communications theory which are or
importance to behavioral environmental research: what is tne
pre- intervention need of target group? What is the degree
89
o r3
-------
of hrgenei,y/heterogenei,y or
whether messages need MB. 9°- ^he
«h.t media is b«t to convey
message?
Kenneth F Perraro and Grier Jewell-Patton
filled with Se 'Holy Smoke': Religion and
Tobacco in Carolina"
Review of Religious Research ^
Vol. 30, No. 1, September 1988, pp. 59-72
by sidestream smoke and their propensity to
SSSSLSS SSS £ SS 5Si
southern, tobacco-growing states
Proscriptions on Public Smoking
Sociological Inquiry
SJ;.'SJ5^'ftaSSBy!"iJ?'i-««. p-r^oiow
"^ E^troSSinSrtoblcio ««*. «««««,«»^t directly
affaet suot>ort for legal controls; rather these are
tndlrec??ln1.re.t in constraining public »king m-y ^not be
pSrely concern for clean air, but se«n as one ««eway to
delegitimize the smoking lifestyle. The most "^"^tni ia
l controls on ublic «»»kin9 i8
delegitimize the smoking esy. tn
predictor of support for legal controls on public «»»kin
thrdeviant chalacterixation of smoking, a finding which
emphasizes the role images play in shaping policy
preferences .
'
Gerald T. Gardner, Adrian *•'**"**•.*"****'
Donald R. DeLuca, Leonard W. Doob, Jan A.
-Risk and, Benefit Perceptions, Acceptability Judgments
and Self -Reported Actions Toward Nuclear Power"
The Journal of Social Psychology
activism, nuclear power,
pSyCh?neg?esults of a questionnaire administered to 367
respondents from five US communities indicated that degree
of Self-reported action was systematically correlated with
?ne rated ^acceptability, « risks, Befits, «^ quali^a1;ivc
characteristics of nuclear power, ^^"jj^*0*
correlated with personal action was confidence in r
management institutions and organizations.
"Applied Behavior Analysis and Social Marketing: An
Integration for Environmental Preservation"
90
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Vol. '.45, No. 1,
keys: marketing,,
Article presents
behavior analysis and
intervention for envi
behavior analysts P»I
apply intervention
relevant behaviors, —.
attitudes and values fif8*
influencing behavior '»"«•
approaches: direct
change.) —'•-»•"-
attitude, psychology
model of applied
Srketing as an approach to
protection . Environmental
p r ^^ e££ec1:ivs to
JLectly to environmentally
ttlempting to modify
a^ P sSbaequently
2°|Jally advocates both .
and focus on attitude
are based on the
. Antecedent
, since a «
stimulus <=on«^dSfa^n;2rSd^u2ation sessions, verbal
strategies inciu;*^a^S2linarcommitaient procedures,
and written J^y^LJff^S&m di.cS«e« the integration
Harold G. Grasmick, Robert J. Bursik, Jr./ and Karyl A.
- shame^nfEmbarrassment as Deterrents to Noncompliance with
the Law"
91
-------
•'legal behavior. Significant others in.the actor s
environment and the actor's own conscience can play a role
similar to that of the state. The cost of noncompiiance i.
subiec^ive Long-term consequences can be loss ot vaiuea
relltionshios and restriction in opportunities to achieve
HiSr ?£lSid gSals! Study shows those in study were less
likely to litter after an antilittering campaign based on
mo«l appeals, and they scored higher on threats of shame
and embarrassment.
Donald Philip Green and Ann Elizabeth Gerken
"Self-Interest and Public Opinion Toward Smoking
Restrictions ind Cigarette Taxes"
Public Opinion Quarterly
Vol. 53, Spring 1989, pp. 1-16
keys: smoking., self-interest, anthropology tnt.reat
Study finds, in contrast to others, that self-interest
plays a role in shaping attitudes toward smoking
restrictions and cigarette taxes.
Graeme Halford
"Human Decision-making about Environmental Change
from Global Change: The Human Dimensions,
Harold Brookfield and Loene Doube (eds.)
Research School of Pacific Studies,
The Australian National University, 1990
keys: conceptual .».*-..
An analysis of the nature of natural decision-making
processes and an assessment of their impact on our chances
of making effective responses to global change. A model is
put forward in which information is necessary for
understanding the problem, which in turn affects attitudes,
which lead to actions, which are maintained by rewards.
Charles C. Harris, Jr., Tracy A. Miller, and Kerry Re«se
-Possible influences on Donation Behavior: The Case of
Idaho's Nongame Wildlife and Endangered Specie* Tax
Checkoff Fund"
Society and Natural Resources
Vol. 5, 1992, pp. 53-66
keys: attitude, experience, knowledge, psychology
The research examines the role of possible determinants
of donating behavior: attitude, past behavior, and
knowledge; as well as other situational factors such as age,
income, sources of information. Authors review conceptual
models in attitude-behavior research. In the Pishbein-Ajzen
(1975) model, a behavioral intent is a precursor to the
actual behavior- In the Bentlar and Speckart (1979) model,
attitude can influence behavior directly. Hughes (1984)
added past behavior as a behavioral determinant that can
directly affect the behavior as well. Study found that
knowing a person's attitude toward the program as well as
92
-------
knowing about a person's past behavior, as well as
situatiorial factors (knowledge about the program, in
cilarl can help predict:behavior. Although attitude
«s« behavtSr directly influence behavior, they can also
indirect elfacts-on behavioral intent. The authors
So lughes' (1984) study which found that increased
with a behavior is accompanied by a decline in
cance of attitude as a behavioral determinant.
jane w. Hass, Gerrold S. Bagley, and Ronald w. Rogers
"Coping with the Energy Crisis* Effects of Pear Appeals
upon Attitudes Toward Energy Consumption"
Journal of Applied Psychology
Vol 60, no. 6, 1975, pp. 754-56 .
keys: framing, perception, belief, psychology ...
investigated the persuasive effect of two variables
that considered fear appeals: the magnitude of noxiousness
of threatened event anc* the probabiiin; of it occurrence,
Increase in perceived ^ ,;elihood had no effect.; increments
in perceived noxiousness or severity strengthened intentions
to alter behavior.
Thomas A. Heberlein ^
-The Land Ethic Realised: Some Social Psychological•
Explanations for Changing Environmental Attitudes'
Journal of Social Issues*
Vol. 28, No. 4, 1972, pp. 7S-87
keys: values, attitud»a, responsibility, sociology,
psychology
Author argues there haw been a change in attitude
toward environment from an aconomic orientation to a moral
one which includes th« vi«w that humans are related to
natural world. Cites «arli«r study on littering (Heberlein,
1971, unpublished) demonstrating when people both are aware
of the corwequencws of their actions and feel personally
responsible they will behav« according to moral norms rather
than economic expariencsj. Th« physical environment became a
moral issue because actions which had an effect oh the
environment came to fit this modal. Paradoxically, science
has helped increase awareness of consequences, and
technology, by providing alternative courses of action, has
made the decision-maker responsible.
'. ' '....••
Jody M. Hihes, Harold R. Hungerford, Audrey N.Tom«ra
"Analysis and Synthesis of Research on Responsible
Environmental Behavior: A Meta-AnalySis"
Journal of Environmental Education
Vol. 18, No. 2, 1987, pp. 1-8
keys: attitude, efficacy, belief, responsibility .
Study analyzed psycho-social variables in relation to
environmental behavior. The following variables were found
93 . '...'. '
-------
co be associated with responsib ^
knowledge of issues, knowledge ot
of control
sense of respons
were also analyzed
correlation.
R. Hopper and J oyce McCarl
owledge ot ac conBnitment and
selected demographic variable.
Selectee ^ income, gender.
n ; age had a negative
no significant
ta/a Mhavior«l
Program
and Behavior
norm
into behavior only when
By definition, a^^i8*
are developed through
cM-qencM a. high
° noraative, and norm.
Block leader.
modeling
whatever the motivation, may be
R..p
Control to Environmental Activism
Basic and Applied Social Psychology
vol. 2, No. 1, 1981, PP-
sr-
environmentally
SSnce'bu, did
94
-------
^^^^^^^^i^£^^
of control was measured more ««*, when it was
in light of conges xn
measured in sztuation-specxxcro,iticai
Recycling
Program"
journal of Environmental Systems
intervention against th« «•«»••*»•
could be cost-effective, including more nda
prompts, fewer prizes, and a less expensive maintenance
program .
«Se%2iitictirLife Cycle of Technological Controversies"
Social Forces
vol. 67, No. 2, December 1988, pp. 357-77
keys: attitude, values, psychology .
Different dynamics influence public opinion in
different periods of the life cycle of technology.
PoiiSSS lontext is the ^V'^t^^^inSiS *SJ
differences. The prepolitical period is Dominated by
confidence in the experts? media attention leads^ *o -
oolitization? depolitization is the result of the end or the
attention cycle, ^Basic values are key to attitudes in fully
politicized periods.
Health: Contrasting Individual and
Population Perspectives"
American Psychologist
'••'- . ' , -• "95 - -.'"••
-------
70' 44 No. 9, September 1989, pp. 1194-201
•'
Population level interventions act on P°Pulat^nJ^S -eot>le
i bles and modify the broader environment in which people
ncs, Passive protection from environmental hazards,
and control of promotional practices.
Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky
"Choices, Values, and Frames"
American Psychologist
Vol. 39, No. 4, 1984, pp. 341-50
s^an^lies in consumer behavior when
Exiono s
people IrgSnizSoutcomel of transactions. Acceptability of
ITSption can depend on whether a negative outc ome is
evaluated as a cost or as an uncompensated loss. For
ordinarTdecision making the correspondence between decision
values (contribution of anticipated outcome to .
attractiveness of option) and experience value (degree of
pleasure, pain, anguish, etc.) is not V**Mt. .
Summary of biases in personal decision "*inj« an
elevated sensitivity to potential loss as opposed to
noSntitl gain (I. eT, preference to maintain current state
S Sfa?rs9anS defend Igainst losses rather ^.^^«
potential gains); (b).a tendency to prefer e«r*«^J1«J5-B
chance; (c) a tendency to discount very small probabilities
entirely and (d) a tendency to evaluate risk choice _
?e!a?!ve tSnoimative expectations about usual or expected
outcomes rather than in absolute terms.
Richard D. Katzev and Theodore R. Johnson
"Comparing the Effects of Monetary Incentives and Foot-in-
the-Door Strategies in Promoting Residential
Electricity Conservation"
96
/I
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Journal of Applied Social Psychology _ ~
plus incentive. Conmiitnent had a
ope durany and later »|f ^at
are not extremely high and conservation effect* might not
very visible.
Richard D. Katzev and Anton U. . r«-»1
-The Comparative Effectiveness of R«r««lB^f?'Si
Approaches in Motivating Community Recycling
journal of Environmental Systems
Vol. 17, No. 2, 1987-88, pp» 93-113
keys: recycling, psychology, incentives
This study begins from a position which ,
use of incentives/particularly extrinsic J^^^iS?
as rewards) in promoting resource conservation in general
and recycling in particular. Problems with incentive
programi have been documented, th«yfl*f» nJL i^^ot
effective. (Jacobs and Bailey, 1982-83); ^•y
effective in encouraging participation; and
to produce long-term, enduring behavior change .
filler 1976 \ This study draws on an alternative social
2S iueAce's^tegJ^sed la the minimal Justification^
principle which emphasizes the importance of ^modest rather
than highly attractive, external justifications in
controlling behavior. Within this framework, it is _
speculated that individuals will be more likely to attribute
their behavior to external sources when l
justifications are increasingly
are performing a response may stop when the
is rSoved, for they have come to believe that
,
activity for the reward. This account •W«?»«h
attractive external incentives won't lead to long -
behavior changes because they do not permit the Divid
to develop sufficiently powerful internal mechanisms or
97
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ot
wa. greater inth.
groupswhere there was a commitment (whether
vior than rewarding the« for doing so
Willett Kempton, Craig Harris f ' Joanne Keitn, and Jeffrey
WU-ih:o .sumers Know 'What Works' in taergy Conservation?"
Marriage and Family J?evie*r
keys: message, knowledge, perception, anthropology, cost,
ener9?on1™r*£e?ceptions of energy conservation lead to an
overemphasis on curtailment and management »«*hods «*
neglect of efficiency investments < energy °«J~2S?le!£SJ
as a "sacrifice"). Consumers estimate •« W1**^ " *^rg
use by perceptual salience, so something like television
would be overestimated. After discovering biases, .
researchers did an informational mailing— mailing did not
measurably correct the identified biases.
Willett Kempton, Daniel Peuermann, and Arthur E. *cGarity
-'I Always Turn It on Super': User Decisions About When and
How tx> Operate Room Air Conditioners"
Energy and Building*
anUiUse of air conditioners was studied to determine how
user needs, concepts, and behavior influence energy
consumption. Study finds people limit use on basijrof
factors that include folk theories of appliance function,
body heat tolerance, personal approach to all machines,
beliefs and preferences concerning health and comtort, ana
alternative means of cooling off. User control was a
crucial determinant of device operating characteristics. •
Willett Kempton
"Lay Perspectives on Global Climate Change"
PU/CEES Report No. 251, August 1990
keys: attitudes, values, behavior, framing, anthropology
Kempton reveals public's misconceptions about what
98
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-global
how people ^stort inforton in order
immediate experience with ^iSSSthlv.. , An
a
have little direct contact with .
about reducing energy use, lay P«W«
SET .
public. (Study problem noted* small sample size from single
geographical area.)
Willett Kempton .
-Two Theories of Home Heat Control
from Cultural Models in Language and Thought,
Dorothy Holland and Naomi Quinn (eds.)
..
social systems that generate behavior. The folk -^^T ••
endorsed^ the experts may not ^ ^he lot^Selry^
when applied to practical use. Also^ the f^J gSrSt
persist? even when people are P"8^6*.^/"^;^
scientific information (i.e., it is resistant to gange)..
People may reinterpret scientific information to fit with
preexisting folk theory.
Marv C. Kernan, Beverly Heimann, and Paul J. Ranges
-Iff ects of Goal Choice, Strategy Choice, and Feedback
lource SJ Goal Acc4ptance, Performance, and Subsequent
Goals"
journal of Applied Social Psychology
2
SyS.2effiSacy; beha;i??; fee^Lk, sociology, psychology
Y One factor of theoretical and practical importance in
99
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the study cf contextual factors that affect
^^n^^r^L^oa s srS
outcoLs such as Wer perfornnce and goa^acc
maximum degree of choice was superior. For the ^™**-
'
feedback did not result in higher goals or performance
ofrlfficacy: The Effects of Group Size on
Perceived Efficacy in Social Dilennnas
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
Vol. 25, 1989, pp. 287-313
x««xvx^-*B ™ self-efficacious when group size
is smaller. Bandura has noted that social factors
(vicarious experience of others'.performance, i
messages concerning one's efficacy) may affect
judgments in individual performance contexts; but a much
broader range of social factors may be relevant f°*
collective tasks, including beliefs about *£°£P 8t^ture'
group process and other members' likelY ta8* ^f":0,?' nn
Action in collective tasks will likely depend not onlv on
perceived self-efficacy, but also on perceived co]
efficacy, a group belief that they can solve problems
through concerted effort.
Kaye H. Kilburn and Raphael H. Warshaw „,«.<«„<«
-Effects of Individually Motivating Smoking Cessation in
Male Blue Collar Workers"
American Journal of Public Health
Vol. 80, No. 22, November 1990, pp. 1334-37 .n,nmr
keys: smoking risk assessment, framing, belief, sociology
Demonstration of the adverse personal effects of
smoking appear to contribute to the decision to quit or
reduce smoking rate
Howard Levanthal and Paul D.. Cleary .
-The Smoking Problem: A Review of the Research and Theory in
' Behavioral Risk Modification"
Psychological Bulletin
100 '
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Vol. 88, No. 2, 1980, pp. ,370-405 ^
keys': smoking, behavior, risk assessment, perception,
sociolocry ' ' .
Recent increases in success rates may be due to changes
in the social environment that multiply the action of
previously unsuccessful procedures. Changing norms and
values, evolving definitions of the role of the individual
in society, and shifting perceptions of the importance of
self-regulation as opposed to technological intervention are
important in determining the extent and meaning of smoking
in our society. The individual's preparation,
experimentation, becoming a smoker, regular use, decision to
quit, etc. all occur in a social context. The norms and
values of the context direct the smoker's attention and
provide interpretations or meaning for specific experiences.
David M. Ludington
-Smoking in Public: A Moral Imperative for the Most
Toxic of Environmental Wastes".
Journal of Business Ethics
Vol. 10, 1991, pp. 23-27
keys: smoking, values
Article gives the ethical bases for disallowing smoking
in public places. , .
Barbara VanOss Marin and Gerardo Marin, et al. .
"Cultural Differences in Attitudes Towards Smoking:
Developing Messages Using the Theory of Reasoned
Action"
Journal of Applied Social Psychology
Vol. 20, Ho. 6, 1990, pp. 478-93
keys: smoking, ethnicity, belief, behavior, message, social
networks, sociology, psychology,
Family-related consequences of smoking contributed more
to the attitude toward smoking for Hispanics than non-
Hispanic whites. Data suggent that concern for children and
fear of displeasing other family members may be powerful
cultural motivators to quit smoking in this group.
Gerardo Marin, Elisea J. Perez-Stable, Barbara VanOss Marin
"Cigarette Smoking among San Francisco Hispanicsr The
Role of Acculturation and Gender*
American Journal of Public Health
Vol. 79, No. 2, 1989, pp. 186-98 .
keys: smoking, ethnicity, gender, sociology •
Level of acculturation to the mainstream culture can
influence smoking behavior. ' .
Michael Mazis
"Antipollution Measures and Psychological Reactance Theory:
A ?ield Experiment" ' ; ' ' .
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
101 ;
-------
Vol. 31, No. 4, 1975, "pp. 654-60
keys: behavior, P8JcholW reactions to and
Experiment measured houseww detergent under
acceptance of changing to non p Jupported idea of
different circumstances. Results *|jpp« ^ r
S^S^'iSSst^
Induct th.nhthl.e who felt more
to
in changing.
Edward McAuley, Susan Wraith, and Terry E. Duncan
"Self -Efficacy, Perceptions of Success, and intrinsic
Motivation for Exercise"
journal of Applied Social Psychology
8°Ci°ThTsoIffihcc|nTtive approach ^
intrinsic interest is generated as i;1
evaluative mechanisms begin to operate
substantiated interpretation of ^^,
exercise behavior. (Ryan at al., **%&***
motivation to b« multidiawnsional and included
c^m^ence, effort, interest-enjoyment, pressure-tension
perceived choice.)
James McGuiness, Allan P. Jones, and Steven G. Cole
"Attitudinal Correlates of Recycling Behavior
Journal of Applied Psychology
recvciino, attitudes, behavior, psychology
StSo? at?ImptS to identify the variables related to
l .trong..t negative
STSf » re
-------
, There is' modest support for
more environmentally concerned than .men
'for age, education, - income, and residence, ^
personal behaviors that demonstrate concern for w. t
Snvironment more often; but are less likely than males to
engage in public behaviors on behalf °*« "2?S^v ^
Thellwer iSvels of women's environmental activity may be
consequence of women's lower level of political activxty in
general. Whatever barriers inhibit general political
activity are the same ones that inhibit environmental
activity. • . •'-,.'
Murray G. Millar and Abraham Tesser „«-».. <-/-h
"Attitudes and Behavior: The Cognitive-Affective Mismatch
Hypothesis" [ -
< Advances in Consumer Research
Vol. 17, 1990, pp. 86-90 ,
ke^s: attitudes, behavior, psychology
Thought about one's attitudes has inconsistent
on the attitude-behavior relationship. Sometimes
increases the correlation between attitudes and *
and sometimes thought decreases the correlation . • one way
understand this is to assume that the reports L n°ivi^
give concerning their attitudes are based on whatever
of the attitude is salient when the report ia^ given:
or cognition. The cognitive component of attitude contains
attributes and beliefs about the attitude object, and the
affective component of the attitude encodes emotions ana
feelings associated with the object. Consummatory .
behaviors, ones engaged in for their own sake, are lixeiy ^o
be affectively driven. Instrumental behaviors, «nff
intended to accomplish a goal independent of the attituae
object, are likely to be cognitively driven.
If the affective and cognitive components of an attj*™ "®
not aligned, it is possible for thought to produce different
attitude reports about the same object. So, at any °««
moment, it is possible for the individual to have
attitudes toward an object: acme based on feelings
the object and some on beliefs about the object.
environmental factors are important in determining^which or
the attitudes held about the object is reported: wnetner
those conditions make affect or cognition salient.
Paul Mohai and Ben Twight •' . .
"Age and Environmentalism: An Elaboration of the Buttei
Model Using National Survey Evidence"
Social Science Quarterly .-'•..
Vol. 68, No. 4, December 1987, pp. 798-815
keys: age, political affiliation, activism, sociology
Age is the strongest and most consistent predictor or
environmental concern. Place of past residence has a
stronger effect on environmental concern than current
103
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environmental activism.
Paul Mohai .
"Black Environmental ism
Science Quarterly
for
of whies- b paticipation is lower. .Explanations fo
?his are not completely accounted for by differences in
socLecInSmic stktus and knowledge of government. Other
««« tbilitiia • blacks direct limited resources to higher
S"riiyp~Si«i* structural barriers exist between
black/white interactions.
Paul Moha^ « >»
-Men, women and the Environment: An Examination or the
Gender Gap in Environmental Concern and Activism
Society and Natural Resources
keys:Render! concert activism, sociology, psychology,
y Mohai concludes from a review of the literature that no
firm conclusions can be drawn about the •****%****!* £
concern about general environmental issues. Some studies do
shSw women to be more environmentally concerned; yet there
is also evidence that women are less politically active on
environmental issues. Purpose of study is to look at
national survey data to evaluate various explanations of
socialization explanation is that women
are socialized to be politically passive while men are
socialized to be politically active. The situational
explanation is that the roles of mother and homemaker tie
women down.with home responsibilities and leave them little
time for outside activities. The structural explanation.
sees gender differences as a result of differences in
socioeconomic characteristics such as educational
attainment, income, occupational status.
Study found that differences in socioeconomic
characteristics, environmental concern, and knowledge of
Government are not sufficient by themselves to explain
differences in rates of environmental activity. Homemaker
status and full-time employment also did not appear to
account for gender differences. Neither structural nor
situational explanations fully account for gender
differences in environmental activity. The factors
inhibiting the environmental activity of women were' unique
to the area of environmental activity and not simply an
extens -rv of lower general political activity. One possible
explana.-on is that fewer resources are available to women
104
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for any single issue because women face more issues as a
• group than do men-. :. • . ., ; .
Jf Concern and Elite Involvement in Environmental-
Conservation issues
Social Science Quarterly
link weenocioeconomic status and ^
between the socioeconomic status and . . ,
concern. The «*«»— S^STl"^ ter*
so^^
rlth" tSans unique concern for the environment.
Martha C. Monroe and Stephen Kaplan • __ ^,,^,1
-Whan Words Speak Louder ""nan Actions s ^nviro aental
Problem Solving in -.ie Classroom"
Journal of Environmental Education
£ys. 'education; inlor^io'/eiperienca, efficacy ^
Y The purpose of this study was to determine effective
atrateaies for teaching environmental problem solving by
surveying clSsroSm telchers in Michigan ^ ****** *
believed they helped students develop these skills.
Classroom strategies include simulations, role plays v field
tripsT guest speakers , case studies, values activities,
moral dilemmasriocal issues, and action projects.
?eachers' success was based on those who had the most^
students who showed an interest in or who participated in
environmental problem solving activities . The following
strategies were used most often by the successful teachers:
cafe studies about solutions, trying to solve problems, case
studies about what students can do to help, talking about:
what others do to help, becoming aware of others' beliefs.
While most effective learning experiences were not literally
experiential, neither were they lecture situations in which
Indents were not involved in problem solving Process.
Teachers who were successful differed in circumstantial
inf ormalion f wm less successful teachers only in that they
were more interested in the environment.
Denton E. Morrison and Riley E. Dunlap \ ,
"Environmentalism and Elitism: A Conceptual and Empirical
Analysis" • '
Environmental Management
Vol. 10, No. 5, 1986, 581-89 _.-.-.
keys: elitism, sociology. : ';: . . Mia1 ... . ^^,,'
The frequent charge that environmentalism is elitist
is examined conceptually and empirically. First, the
105
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concept of elitism "i. analyzed by
of accusations made against the envi
compositional elitism suggests that
c
reforms, whether intentionally or not, in fact have
regressive social impacts. *.*,,.-* tvnes of
The evidence bearing on each of the three types or
elitism is examined, and the following c°ncl™±°n8 ***
drawn: Compositional elitism is an e«99eration,
although environmentalists are typically abo ye a
socioeconomic status (as are most sociopolitical
few belong to the upper class. Ideological el^ism may
in some instances, but environmentalists have shown
increasing sensitivity to equity concerns and there is
little evidence of consistent pursuit of self -J11***"*^
Impact elitism is the most important Issue, and also tne
most difficult to assess. It appears that there has Been a
general tendency for environmental reforms to nave .
regressive impacts. However, it is increasingly f®00^**1
that problems such as workplace pollution and toxic waste
contamination disproportionately affect the lower
socioeconomic strata, 'and thus reforms aimed at sucn
problems will likely have more progressive impacts.
Nancy Newhouse
"Implications of Attitude and Behavior Research for
Environmental Conservation"
Journal of Environmental Education
Vol. 22, No. 1, 1990, pp. 26-32 -^r-^ r-ole
keys: knowledge, attitude, efficacy, responsibility, roie
models, psychology and sociology .".**' „« ««
The factors identified as having positive influence on
environmentally responsible behavior are* sense of «fftfTS,'
sense of responsibility, understanding of issues and action
strategies, and positive attitude. The modeling approacn
has certain shortcomings (such as, failing to ProviJ?
learner with skills to make own future decisions). Tne
discrepancy between attitude and behavior in studies may o«
the result of poor research design.. The most powerful .
experiences seem to be "life" experiences. There does seem
to be a high consistency between attitude and behavior 11
both dimensions are measured correctly.
•
Marvin E. Olsen
"Consumers' Attitudes Toward Energy Conservation"
Journal of Social Issues
Vol. .37, No. 2, 1981, pp. 108-31 ' .»,,,„,„_
keys: values, energy efficiency, belief, attitude, behavior,
norms, psychology
106
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General attitudes toward the energy problem are not
with reported conservation 'actions, but people
h personalonsequences
.fn:
rlsulTZf^h* development 'of social norms about saving
energy.
Stuart Oskamp, Maura J- Harrington, To^. Edwards, Deborah
L. Sherwood, Shawn M. Okuda, and Deborah C, Swanson
"Factors Influencing Household Recycling Behavior
Environment and Behavior,
Vol. 23, No. 4, July 1991, pp. 494-51 .•
keys: recycling, belief, attitudes, behavior, friends,
stuay investigated attitudes, behaviors, and knowledge
in a So. California city that had begun a citywide curbside
re Cycling program. Study demonstrates that different
environmentally responsible behaviors have different
patterns of antecedents. Particular significant variables:
living in a single-family house; owning one's own home;
recycling by one's friends and neighbors (highly visible
modeling stimulus). Most of the attitudinal factors were
better predicted by other attitudinal variables thaiv by
demographics, knowledge, or behavioral variables. The
attitudinal items significantly related to curbside
recycling participation were ones focusing specifically on
recycling rather than on broader environmental concerns:
i.e., general proenvironmental attitudes did not predict
curbside recycling behavior, but attitudes specific to
recycling did.
Anton U. Pardini and Richard D. Katzev .
"The Effect of Strength of Commitment on Newspaper
Recycling"
Journal of Environmental Systems
Vol. 13, 1983-84, pp. 245-54
keys: recycling, commitment, sociology
Findings of study illustrate three effects of
commitment techniques: gaining a commitment from individuals
increased frequency and amount of behavior; the greater the
strength of the commitment, the greater the magnitude of _
outcomes; those who had made a strong commitment to recycle
continued to do so even when they were no longer bound by
commitment. These results suggest that commitment
techniques may be,a promising method to overcome the
difficulties incentives- based approaches have in promoting
sustained changes in recycling across a large number of
individuals.
John C. Pierce, Nicholas P. Lovrich, Jr.. Taketsugu
Taketsugu Tsurutani, and Takematsu Abe
107
lor
-------
Belief System A»ong Japanese and American
Elites and Publics
Political Behavior 139_59
' nd^ss^nvironmental belief
ana nfl whether
tes the special status of
systems indifferent
from their
m has been
prrUy with the negative
pr™ natural environment;
thought to be
keys: international,
Article examxnes
systems in ^^
postindustrxalism
elites and drives
countries toward each
respective publ ics
"victim--onented,
impact on humans cf alterations in
wSile American environmental i
concerned prima^ly
in its natural state.
Paradigm" than it
The distance
systems ^greater in US
Prefecture). Japan haB ?
the nvironment
environmentalism's focus on
®n aanifested in Japan
social
mass public belief
(Shizuoka
i society and
politics in
Environment and Behavior
21 No. 1, January 1980,
pp
57.8!
57-«
Pro-re^lawry
measures. 4rf«0iooical premises of environmental
108
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systems rather than aociodemographics .
A Confirmatory Factor
Applied -Social Psychology
efficienc^at^uae, belief, cost /framing,
and Becker in
identifying four principal d^611810118^6^^^?^
and beliefs regarding energy use: comfort and ^eal^;.
effort-low payoff; role of individual consumer; legitimacy
If energy prtSlem! Study reinforces ^l"8}™ ^ fut^
energy conservation campaign* should be sensitive to
consumers' concerns about comfort and health, «JJ .
COJlOUlUWSi O wwi»w«*a»» »*«r^r — — •»—•• i - — — — i • J * 4 ^4 • 1
effort/saving tradeoff, perceived efficacy of^of^;11**
conservation efforts, and the perceived legitimacy of the
nation's energy problem. .
Thomas C. Schelling . .
"Addictive Drugs and the Cigarette Experience
Science
Vol. 255, January 1992, pp. 430-33 JJW • *\~,
keys: smoking, attitude, behavior, credibility, sociology^
Change in smoking behavior occurred without efforts by
government. It is associated with changes in attitudes,
expectations, and norms. Noticeable efforts at abstinence
generate a social environment that is supportive of efforts
to abstain. Smoking is coming to be identified with lower
education and employment status.
Shalom H. Schwartz ' "' .„.
"Normative Explanations of Helping Behavior: A Critique,
Proposal, and Empirical Test"
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
Vol. 9, 1973, pp. 349-64.
keys: norms, behavior .
Article examines normative explanations of helping
behavior. Hypothesis that the impact on behavior by norms
is a function of ascription of responsibility to the self
(AR) is tested through the mailing of a questionnaire about
bone marrow donation (to a stranger). Subsequent
volunteering to donate was substantially impacted by norms
in those with high AR rates. Altruism research is greatly
influenced by widely held norms. Norms were found to be
socially acceptable subsequent justifications rather than
precursory causes of action. Norms are rarely used as
predictors. While personal and social norms may overlap, a
personal norm is distinct in its emphasis on moral
obligation. AR combined with a personal norm of interaction
109
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was found to lead all'others as a predictor of behavior
(Wicker, 1969). Norms are more likely to influence behavior
the greater the time there is to formalize them (based on
general values)
before acting. .
Shalom H. Schwartz and John \. Fleishman -*,--*.
-Personal' Norms and the Mediation of Legitimacy Effects
on Helping"
Social Psychology „,. '
Vol. 41, No. 4, 1978, pp. 306-15
keys: norms, altruism, behavior _ „•„!,«.
This study looks at the cognitive mechanisms that might
explain how legitimate need elicits helping behavior more
than illegitimate need. Theory makes use of the concept of
personal norms. Personal norms refer to self-expectations
for behavior backed by the anticipation of self-enhancement
or self-deprecation. Personal norms are built up from the
person's general value system and are experienced as
feelings of obligation to act in a particular manner in
specific situations. Per- -nal norms dlf ar fr a general
attitudes toward an obje^- in their focus on specific
actions and on feelings of obligation; they differ from
general social norms in referring to internalized self-
expectations. Among those vith strong personal norms,
substantial help will be forthcoming from those with.norms
which favor help, and little help will come from those whose
personal norms oppose help, regardless of the legitimacy of
need. Those who have little sense of obligation, that is,
weak personal norms related to the issue, will help more
when the need is perceived as legitimate than when it is
illegitimate.
Shalom H. Schwartz and Richard C. Tessler
"A Test of a Model for Reducing Measured Attitude-Behavior
Discrepancies"
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Vol. 24, No. 2, 1972, pp. 225-36
keys: behavior, attitude, psychology
Four sources of attitude-behavior discrepancy are
identified. The capacity of Fishbein's model to cope with
two of these sources—inadequate sampling of potential
antecedents and inadequate conceptualization and measurement
of attitudes— was assessed in a study of intentions
regarding six kinds of medical transplant donation among 195
adults. The model's three components—attitude toward the
act, personal normative beliefs, and social normative
beliefs—explained an average of more than 50% of the
•variance in intentions, with personal normative beliefs
consistently the strongest contributor followed by attitude
toward the act and social normative beliefs. Regression
weights of the model's components remained relatively stable
110 :
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across kinds of transplant- and across ' ""JJSg^ ^
suggested that when the model was used to P»«J it
volunteering to become a bone marrow donor fflO"^s,^®*nai
was not superior either to one of its components (personal
normative beliefs) or to one alternative model for
predicting behavior.
Clive Seligman and John M. Darley . - -^__,
"Feedback as a Means of Decreasing Residential Energy
Consumption" >
Journal of Applied Psychology
Vol. 52, No. 4, 1977 ,. pp. 363-68 <«*,«««. <«n
kr-^t; ar.ergy efficiency, behavior, commitment, information/
f feedback, communication \_ .K««*. *»»<»
Providing immediate feedback to h^f™6*8^^
daily use pf electricity reduced consumption. +.°^«riiaB|®
in the treatment of feedback may have also contributed to
reduced energy usage including: hoineowner commitment^ to
experiment and development of favorable attitudes *$if*
helped sustain motivation to conserve. An area °***™*
study in the area of feedback would be its effectiveness
over time.
Clive Seligman, John M. Darley, and Lawrence J. .* **?**$..
"Behavioral Approaches to Residential Energy Conservation
Energy and Buildings
Vol. 1, 1977-78, pp. 325-77 . w.ii,^«v •
keys: energy efficiency, attitude, motivation, behavior/
•'
feedback, psychology ••-•.'
A study in Twin Rivers attempted to determine
it was possible to' distill from the varied **titudes that^
people hold about energy a few basic attitudinal dimensions
that reflect people's conceptualizations of energy
consumption and whether these attitudinal dimensions are
related to energy consumption. Seven attitudinal categories
were represented: perceived bother? discomfort a88O"ated
with conservation; health questions; legitimacy of energy
crisis; belief in science; morality of issue; role of
individual. The attitudinal variables were successful in
predicting energy use. Significant were: comfort, health, •
and role of the individual. The most significant was a high
level of effort that produced a low level of pay-off,
Legitimacy of energy crisis accounted for only trivial
proportion .of variance. , . . '
Another study looked at efficacy of feedback.
Information about energy consumption can be an effective ,
111
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strateov for promoting energy conservation. Feedback cues
which set the more difficult goal. Another study with
?Sidba" did no? result in Bignifi cant savings --apparently
dba no resu
because participants did not perceive feedback as credible
Clive Seligman, Lawrence J. Becker, and John M. Darley
"Encouraging Residential Energy Conservation Through
Feedback" « i i
Advances In Environmental Psychology, vol. J
Hillsdale, N. J. : Erlbaum Associates
keys: feedback, energy efficiency., psychology . •
Energy conservation in housing is both a technological
and a behavioral problem. It is possible to save a large
percentage of 'energy used in -anes through pprop uate
Engineering practices. It JU also possible to save energy
by bringing psychological insight to bear on the problem. A
distinction can be made between what it takes to influence
people to make one-shot changes -o homes and to behave
differently in homes.
Psychological aspects of the problem involve an
approach that includes all those living in the home? one
that is concerned with behavior that occurs over time? one
that makes energy consumption more salient; and one that can
fit into a family's everyday routine, i.e., isn't too
disruptive. Feedback meets these criteria. A possible
explanation of why feedback works is that it provides goal -
relevant information. A precondition for it to work is that
the individual is motivated to conserve. Feedback, then,
can show that actual conservation is below the level someone
wants to achieve, .thereby triggering an increased effort.
This study gave groups of homeowners both feedback and
a conservation goal. The group with a difficult goal and no
feedback saved little more than the control group. The real
savings were achieved by the group with the difficult goal
receiving feedback. Without feedback, it is difficult for
people to know whether their efforts are sufficient.
Benefits of feedback may include that it demonstrates
to those with only tentative commitment to energy
conservation that saving energy is not as hard as they
thought, thereby encouraging increased conservation.
Feedback may also help people maintain conservation when it
gets difficult. It also helps keep the idea of energy
conservation salient. Factors that affect whether feedback
is effective are its credibility, homeowners' initial
commitment to saving energy, possibly its frequency, and
whether it is given in a way that is meaningful to the
recipient
112
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ocat Risk: Toward the Social :
.Transformation of Risk Analysis'
American Sociological X*™** ,_ '
Vol. 49, December 1984, pp. 711-25
keys: risk, 8?<:i?loJ*a±n. with the social fabric serve as a
iflued and- essary aspects of.fcwn existence.
pp.44,-5!
n^werleslness, cynicismr*^ alienation have been climbing
stnle 1966? Also; there has been a long-term decline in the
level of the public's political trust.
Under the Threat df Disaster"
Environment and Behavior
Sys.'risf ;ss;8sSt ^nforSitJonT'Iducation, psychology
Y 'The assumption that by increasing society's level of
awareness of hazards, the public will be better able to cope
wl?h Sr adapt to theii is examined. This article describes
the results of an empirical study designed to explore
relationships among hazard education, awareness, and
knowl^ge* Individual processes of ac^in|hin^S!SiStvn
natural hazards is diverse and fragmented. The possibility
is raised "at different processes may be needed to explain
inowledgl of adaptive responses according to hazard type of
tSe nature of thS threat posed by the hazard. Contrary to
other studies, awareness of a hazard was not found to be a
aood predictor of knowledge of adaptive behavior . Previous
Ixperienle of a hazard »ras found to be a good predictor. of
knowledge of how to respond to a given disaster.
Mary Ann E. Steger, John C. Pierce, Brent S. Steel, and
Nicholas P. Lovrich
-Political Culture, Postmaterial Values, and the New
Environmental Paradigm: A Comparative Analysis of
Canada and the United, States" :
; Political Behavior •• . " ^
113
oLG-7
-------
Vol. 11, No. 3, 1989, PP-.233-54 relationship between
E .
postmaterial values and tne New *" postmaterial values
Canada (Ontario) and the US (^i*"* ' ^STaS political
include such things as a* ^"^^^ce of minorities ,
freedom, participation, equality, to -1®"™ °* m* d self.
'-openness to new ideas, environmental protection and sen
collectivism bent. Canadians are more likely to oe
postmaterialists and to support the ^EP. These resux^s
icate that postmatera vau da
arate constructs in the thinking of both Canada ana
US.
Conflict: A Realistic Strategy for Risk
Communication
Policy Sciences
Teys : * Jl£9^£ . "information, framing, communication
Defining technological conflicts "^ones °* **•*,,
perception ii simplistic. These conflicts are «"«£*• al **
political. Risks are not assessed in a value-neutral
manner .
*?Sychol55ical Dimensions of Global Environmental Change-
Annual Review of Psychology
Vol. 43, 1992, pp. 269-302
keys: behavior, conservation, psychology
Current psychological research which JPPlJ;e« J» «L and
understanding of the relationship between Juman behavior and
the environment includes attitude theory, tne^ °**°£te
dilemmas , applied behavior analysis , theory of aJ^J;8*^
behavior the cognitive psychology of ^d9»en^n*n^5?udes
applied to the study of environmentally relevant *"itudes ,
beliefs, and actions. Different types of behavior are
different along many dimensions such as time and^ »°«®y
involved and ease of decision. Contextual influences have
an effect on decisions. «.<-n „«* K««n
Research on environmental attitudes has still not »««*
cumulative. It is not clear whether environmental attitudes
are one thing or many. Environmental concern has «®«" ««*•
represented in different ways: as an ecological awareness,.
as an anthroppcentric altruism (people care about the
environment not for its own sake but because its loss
represents a threat to human health and well being); *• *
function of egoism (concern about the environment represents
concern about the effects on self and family); and as a
func-on of a deeper cause such as underlying religious
114
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individual behaviors can affect collective action.'. _ The
behavior of firms i-s influenced by the demand for ?»<*»<*•
and services. It can also affect choo.ce of P««onnel.
Individuals affect communities- and governments through
leadership and through pressures put on leaders through
public opinion and lobbying. Political behavior includes
voting, signing petitions, participating in demonstrations.
It is not clear whether political behaviors about the
environment have the same psychological basis as consumer
behaviors.Values have a psychological component. Article
provides a good summation of current psychological research.
Paul C. Stern, Elliot Aronson, John M. Darley, Willett
Kempton, Daniel H. Hill, Eric Hirst, and Thomas J.
Wilbanks ^ ' .
-Answering Behavioral Questions About Energy Efficiency in
Buildings"
Energy , • . - .
Vol. 12, No. 5, 1987, pp. 339-53 - •
keys: feedback, message (credibility, vividness), framing,
incentives ' . . ...
Article identifies behavioral questions that arise with
policy interventions for energy efficiency in buildings:
1. information. The effects of energy information
depend not only on completeness but on credibility,
specificity, comprehensibility, vividness (Stern and
Aronson, 1984); this suggests using surveys to identify
misconceptions about energy use in homes and using community
groups to implement energy programs because information is
spread more successfully due to their credibility and
reliance on word-of-mouth. (Stern, et al., 1986)
2. Incentive programs. Size of incentive may not be a
strong factor, because people can only compare incentives in
hypothetical situations. The same incentive won't appeal to
everyone.. Non-financial features of incentive programs such
as availability of technical assistance, consumer protection
features, credibility of program sponsor, quality of
interaction between clients and program personnel may be
critical to a program's success. (Stern, et al., 1986)
3. Standards. If energy efficiency is an explicit
consideration when consumers choose buildings or appliances,
better information will make their decisions more
economically rational in terms of energy. If energy is not
considered, standards will be a more effective way to
increase efficiency.
4. Technological research and development. The
practical effect of any new technology depends on choices
about its purchase and use. Adoption decisions depend on
whether estimates of energy savings from the new technology
are reliable. It is hard to make these estimates when the
energy savings depend not only on the operation of the -
115
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technology but also on the behavior of those who use it
Paul C. Stern, Elliot Aronson
-The ^ectfvenesfo* 'incentives for Residential Energy
Conservation"
Evaluation Review _g
V01' looiTat swdieS'wWcn-have evaluated incentive
to
-
com;
stern ThcMMts Dietz, and J. Stanley Black
forEnvir^nental Protection: The Role Of Moral
Norms"
"So.'"1 frfr!2n/Winter 1985-86, pp. 204-22
valSes, fraiing, responsibility, activism, altruism,
oHiilaSon'ofpublic support for th.^vironaent.1
o to omene The eended norm-
personal action that depends on a belief that one s action
?an make a difference. Authors present a model of social-
. has a
Howevr norms that respondents apply to government
seem to be of a different kind: The government was viewed as
having a moral obligation to act to solve certain kinds of
116
-------
collective problems whether or not it was responsible for
of nor, activation is h
how -people come to support social movements thatbenef it
others but not themselves . Interest g^P-
has greater difficulty explaa.na.ng public suPP°r**
that do not offer tangible benefits to any clearly
social group. The model suggests that mobilization of
support for such causes and for the advancement: of ^no"
interests will be more successful when framed in terms of
avoiding harmful consequences to people in ways that lead
potential converts to see themselves as personally
Responsible. The model also suggests that 8UCC«!!^n«!!°
to mobilize support for such causes will make references, to
consequences and responsibility in an effort to activate
altruistic norms in potential supporters .
Paul C. Stern, Thomas Diets, and Linda Kalof • • ^V'
"Value Orientations, Gender, and Bnvir oriental Concern
Environment and Behavior
ARTICLE UNDER REVIEW
keys: values, altruism, gender, psychology ^
This paper expands on the Schwartz model of norm
activation by proposing an integrative theoreti«;11ai^®i of
environmental concern. The authors develop a model that
incorporates three value orientations: concern for the
welfare of other humans, -humanistic altruism-; concern^with
nonhuman species or the biosphere, "biosphenc altruism ,
and egoism or self-interest. All three value orientation?
predict willingness to take political action regarding the
environment. Some of the anomalies in contingent valuation
research may be the result of focus effects: different sets
of environmental attitude questions draw attention to
different value frames and, therefore, yield differing
degrees of environmental concern. In one sample, genaer
differences are the result of gender difference* relating to
the effects or consequences of environmental problems? there
were no substantial male-female differences in value
orientations toward egoism or "either type of altruism.
Women tend to see environmental quality as having .
consequences for personal well-being, social welfare, and
the health of the biosphere. When these gender- ^K^
differentiated belief systems are taken into account, other
differences disappear.
Paul C. Stern . - ,*. «,„
"Blind Spots in Policy Analysis: What Economics Doesn t Say
About Energy Use" .
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management
Vol. 5, No. 2, 1986, pp. 200-22 ' .
keys: economics, information, attitude, behavior, values,
incentives, psychology
. ' : •' " ;: ' 117 •' - .'.•.•,'.•.'•
-------
Article describes the difficulties of reducing analysis
of energy use to an application of economic theory. When
economic concepts are given the most obvious behavioral
interpretations, they lead to an overemphasis on variables
such as price and incentive size and an underemphasis on
factors such as communication, misinformation, trust,
motivation, program implementation, and consumer assurance,
which can make more of a practical difference than
substantial changes in financial conditions. , Energy
analysts could be more effective if they had knowledge about
what information consumers already have and about how people
respond to information in realistic settings. Concepts
about information economic theory already makes use of:
* information is more likely to change behavior when it
is specific, vivid, and personalized
* feedback also helps—but it is not obvious from
economic theory that feedback should be more reliably
effective than specific instructions about what actions
to take to save energy
* information that attracts consumers' attention is
more effective; the source of information, particularly
its trustworthiness, can make a difference.
Attitudes and beliefs about specific energy-related
actions have more effect on behavior than general energy
attitudes. Adoption of new investments may also have a
momentum, such as that described by cognitive dissonance
theory: small changes lead energy consumers to change their
views of themselves in ways that lead to later, larger
changes, that is, past actions can change consumer
preferences.
Paul C.. Stern and Gerald T. Gardner
"Psychological Research and Energy Policy"
American Psychologist
Vol. 36, No. 4, April 1991, pp. 329-42
keys: information, marketing, attitude, psychology
Article presents a behaviorally oriented analysis of
the US 'energy system and*its implications for psychological
research. Some energy conservation decisions must be
frequently repeated while some only need to be made once.
The first are amenable to strategies based on principles of
'behavior modification. For "one shot" behaviors, influence
techniques based on an understanding of the multiple
determinants of consumer choices may be more appropriate.
Paul C. Stern and Eileen M. Kirkpatrick
"Energy Behavior: Conservation Without Coercion"
Environment
Vol. 10, No. 9, December 1977, pp. 10-15
keys: conservation, psychology, attitude
The authors want to find an alternative solution to the
.schools of thought about energy conservation which maintain
118
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that the only effective strategy is to offer incentives or
penalties to change the ..-.behavior of individuals (that is,
since energy use brings about immediate rewards to the
consumer, .conservation, will come, about only if it can be
made to serve the short-term interests of ^djvi*£j;>- «*
that which sees attitude change as essential to achieving
energy conservation. The problems with use of strong
incentives or pressure in changing attitudes include:
psychological reactance research shows that when people are
not able to choose a mode of behavior, the lost option
becomes the most attractive one; and "overjustification"
theory which shows that when people are given a clear
extrinsic reason for doing something they would have done
anyway, their intrinsic motivation is undermined. A
strategy is presented for influencing groups. The use of
incentives and, verbal appeals can shape a group ...
corsciousness that in turn pressures individuals to change
their attitudes and to act in the long-tern interest of the
group. Attitudes are maintained by social forces rather
than by more obvious incentives. One element of success in
the application of the theory in lab games may have been due
to the public commitment groups members made. The
difficulty of creating a group consciousness at the national
level suggests that a program of this type must be directed
at smaller groups within society.
Paul C. Stem and Stuart Oskamp .
"Managing Scarce Environmental Resources"
Handbook of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 2
New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1987
This section summarizes the psychological research
findings in the following resource problem areas:
1. Environmental attitudes. There is some evidence for a
construct of general environmental attitudes (VanLiere and
Dunlap, 1981), though not strong. Many types of research
indicate that attitudes and behavior can influence each
other with other variables often mediating these
relationships (Kelman, 1980). Positive relationships
between ecological attitudes and environmentally protective
actions have not been established as causally connected.
Some behavior analysts argue that environmental concern does
not even predict behavior that should be related to it.
(Geller, et al., 1982) The failure of verbal communication
to change environmentally relevant behavior is due to four
factors: a) communication techniques are often ineffective
(Ester and Winett, 1982); b) attitudes and beliefs are
embedded in personal values and social contexts that are
hard to change (Heberlein, 1981); c) attitudes formed
through personal experience are likely to be confidently
held and hard to change; d) there is a mismatch in
specificity between attitude measures which are usually
general and behavioral indexes which are usually specific.
. \ \ . ' -• • •
119 ' '..•'•
-------
,
attitudes that are closely related to a nto
!^;io£1S^itSJn£-5S,'£ Ec&STiS So !d waste,,
4. Conservation of Land; 5. Water Conservation; 6.
Environmental Pollution; 7. Energy Conservation
andT?n"e°Environment: Toward an Explanat ^n of^the
Concern and Action Gap Between Blacks and Whites
Environment and Behavior
Vol. 21, No. 2, March 1939, PP'.175-2°f. w ««et0iocv
keys: ethnicity, concern, behavior, efficacy, 9°°£°]°™
The environmental concer- gap that exis s bet aea .
blacks and whites can be bett^ understood by J^0**"* JJ*
gap that exists between concern and action. There is only
weak evidence showing that environmental concern is
associated with socioeconomic st£-us. Environment*iw1__.
environmentalists, so the chance of fellowship with other
members is low); political efficacy (political assertion
through citizen organizations rather than indivi dual .
contacts is more characteristic of blacks than whites ); non-
recognition of advocacy channels (government officials are
unresponsive). Among members of the lower-middle-class,
unsatisfactory responses by governing elites lead to
feelings of powerlessness and hostile outbursts . _In the
upper-middle-class, the same things encourage participants
to influence the political process through bureaucratic-
political tactics; collective action problems (groups are
mobilized according to the degree of preexisting group
organization). Groups with weak identities produce few
intragroup networks and are less likely to mobilize.
Efforts to increase black environmental activism shouia
focus on: solidarity; cognitive perception of reality
(develop political efficacy) resources; and psychological
factors 'ideology, discontent).
120
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Journal of Environmental Systems
vol: 13, No. 2, 1983-84, pp
.
anv other. More participation was found in one- shot _
beLviorfthan in repetitive behav tort. No general factor
accounted for major variance in all of the behaviors. Tnere
SIS lltSe correlation between energy .attitudes and energy
Behavior. For many people, the behaviors ware just not _
feasible: e.g., some needed goods were available only in
plastic containers . '
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman _ /•»;„«/.*»
-The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice
Science • «, ,ie-» ea •' " -'"'''
Vol. 211, No. 30, January >v 81, pp. 453-53
^'ArSct^deS
demonstrate consistency and coherence, i.e., rational _ .
choice. People frame decisions in different ways, and the
frame that someone adopts is influenced by formulation of
the problem, also by norms , habits , and personal
characteristics of the decision-maker. A change of
perception can influence the desirability of an option,
inconsistencies can be traced to the interaction of two sets
of factors: 1) variations in the framing of acts—
contingencies and outcomes; and 2 ) nonlinearities oJjrjiM---
and decision weights. Complexities arise in the normative^
analysis of decision making because the framing of an action
sometimes affects the actual experience of its outcomes,
i.e., the way we frame an outcome may influence how we
respond.
Kent D. Van Liere and Riley E. Dunlap \^ *„*+*«- nf
"Moral Norms and Environmental Behavior: An Application of
" Schwartz's Norm-Activiation Model to Yard-Burning"
Journal of Applied Social Psychology
Vol. 8, No. 2, 1978, pp. 174-88
keys: perception, behavior, responsibility, psychology
Study findings were tentative but did support the
contention that moral norms governing the welfare of human
beings' will influence environmental behavior, if tne
behavior is defined as possibly harmful to people. A number
of factors besides moral norms may influence behavior, such
as anticipated costs, social pressures* behavior of models,
etc. However, behavior is more in accordance with normative
expectations when- both awareness of consequences and
121
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««hii'itv were high. Non-acceptance of -
ascription of .responsibUi ty w •» nig eness of
responsibility ^y explain why pufci ^ tion of
environmental Problem* ^"2 when those problems pose a
environmental behav^ors-.even when tno Prenegs ^harmful
In ion
serious health threat. In l^ion ^ known and there
mulfalso^ :SK alterna^ves^o the behavior before it
will be given up.
Opinion Quarterly
sender, politlo.1
""elation
-SS
explanatory value
Difference How
It Is Measured?"
Environment and Behavior
Vol. 13, No. 6, November 1981, pp. 651-76
kV"sSSStSSi^2dl^2.-l«. ^ find a measure for
"environmental concern," specifically to determine ^eth er
d3f erent measures capture the -f^^f"^!^^^
environmental concern, or actually reflect di««rent
roneeots For example, some measures of environmental
ooSceS deal le^rately with different *•«"•"?*«'.
nollution, population, and natural resources, while others
of cSnc^p?ualizing concern about the environment such as
perceived seriousness of environmental problems, support for
spending on environmental issues, knowledge about
environmental problems,aetc.e ^ of item8
that focSson a wide range of issues into a single measure
of concern is not a wise course. It does make some
difference in how environmental concern is measurea.
Conce^ about population issues is distinct from concern
about natural resources and pollution, which were
correlated. In theoretical conceptualizations there was
correlation except for the behavioral indicators.
Elaine Vaughan
"Chronic Exposure to an Environmental Hazards RISK
122
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Perceptions and Self-Protective Behavior" -
Health Psychology . '
IN PRESS • . , - .;..-, v • •*
keys: risk assessment, attitudes,behavior, ethnicity,
anthropology , . , • • _,.,«.
Greater perceptions of pesticide risk among immigrant
farmworkers were associated with beliefs that: past harm had
occurred; future harm to self or to offspring was likely;
precautions were minimally effective; and cancer-causing
agents are mostly unavoidable. Self-protective behavior was
most likely for those receiving, information about the risk,
having greater perceptions of control over health effects
and the occupational risk situation, and believing that
precautionary methods were generally effective.
Elaine Vaughan and Brenda Nordenstam
"The Perception of Environmental Risks Among Ethnically
Diverse Groups" . - /
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
Vol. 22, No. 1, March 1991, pp. 29*60
keys: ethnicity, risk perception, self-efficacy, framing,
psyrhology •
Individuals who share similar experiences, attitudes,
and values ascribe similar meanings to phenomena. Group
differences in perceptions of risk may be best understood
within the context of prior experiences that shape one's
perspective on risk. Currently there is no extensive
evidence that the empirical and conceptual relationships
described in the literature can be generalized across all
groups. Ethnic background is one factor associated with
systematic differences in judgments on risk issues. Article
puts forward three hypotheses to explain theses differences
in levels of exposure to risks or prior experience;
dissimilarities in general perspective on risk and
environment; nonequivalent values on those qualitative
dimensions- which influences assessments of environmental 1
risk. ' ..-'.. .... ' ' . - . • • . ••
JoAnne Vining and Angela Ebreo
"What Makes a Recycler? A Comparison of Recyclers and
Nonrecyclers" i
Environment and Behavior
Vol. 22, No. 2, January 1990, pp. 55-73
keys: recycling, demographics, sociology
Recyclers were better informed overall about recycling
than nonrecyclers: they had more accurate information and .
were more informed about local programs. Nonrecyclers may
selectively ignore or discount information as irrelevant to
their own behavior. Recyclers and nonrecyclers were no
different in the strength of their belief that protecting
the environment was an important reason to recycle. This
result may provide some support for the contention that
" - ' •' . . • ••. .: 123-' ''.'•'.- : .
-------
» ^nT-ftcvclers" from recalling recycling
dissonance Prevents nonracycl.rsfr^ ^
information. S^i^ctors by either group. Perhaps
reported as import «£ Jj£ or* ^is study was not open to
because recycling ^ill influence should be a more powerful
public scru^y- h^or cin £ observed by peers. Also
infoLmtion for targeting auaiences.
in a River
Environment"
Journal of rnvironflientaJ
rafting groups, they appeared to improve litter picxup
behavior.
Ke..ur.
EtH V 4* J» ^rf**»»»^*»* ^»^» •• -^ —• •— —
Environment and Behavior
Vol. 10, No. 1, March 1978, pp. 3-16
the respondent" subsequent behavioral responsiveness to a
requel?Pfo"r help by a Sierra Club member. Random samples
from wo medium-sized New England towns were used. The
124
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5SSS2
deposit law.
Kipling Williams, Stephen Hark'ins, «"J JJ1*^?
"Identifiability as a Deterrent to Social Loafing,
Journal**? Personality and Social Psychology
Vol. 40, No. 2, 1981, pp. 303-11 ..-,__
keys: social influence, psychology, 8OCt°i°3y
' As in previous research, people exerted
when working in groups than when working al°
individuals were identifiable, this "»ocial
eliminated. When individual outputs are
ffi^nii^
lourSi ol'retnf^cement; «Kl their ofgg-.^^
identifiable (even when alone) they oxert low levels of
effort across all group sizes . I<*ntif ^^^
an important mediator of -social loaf ing . • J^J
identifiability is important because it assures .
contingency between effort and outcome. When J^Mo?1
performances are unidentifiable, there can be no causal
relation between response and outcome. _ . theorv of
experience feelings of helplessness, which can in turn lead
to^eactions ranging from loss of BOtfva;io"nt°1.;?8 f ould
depression. In a collective action situation, this could
definitely lead people to lessen their efforts.)
Jill F. Witmer and B. Scott Geller .«-.«4.-«
"Facilitating Paper Recycling: Effects of Prompts,
Raffles, and Contests"
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
Vol. -9, No. 3, 1976, pp. 315-22 ^
-------
the amount somewhat. Students »"h
levels .
Amendment to the Fishbein Model"
Journal of Applied Social Psychology
y,«.. socidcgy,
Changing attitudes can have an impact on behavior,
however, changing subjective norms, intentions, and_P«*haf*
most importantly habits will have a more powerful •««f* <»
Sehavio?? Evenyan important behavior ««eh *• •»*t£Jt *8e
is motivated by forces outside the realm of volitional
control (implying the need for such things as passive
restraints and multidimensional inf lutmce attempts ) .
Suzanne M. Yates and Ellio, Aronaon ' •
-A Social Psychological Perspective on Energy Conservation
in Residential Buildings"
American Psychologist
Vol. 38, April 1983
keys: knowledge, message (vivid, personal), perception,
models (friends), folk theory (cognitive dissonance),
^Dilcusses limitations of the rational -economic model to
predict human behavior. Situational factors can override
logic and cause people to follow preferences that are not
economically rational. There is a need to take into account
cognitive, social, and personal forces. .
REPORTS ' .
Colorado Department of Health
Better Air Campaign
Market Research and Statistical Evaluation
Pri An informational campaign designed to get people to cut
down on driving and wood burning and to see the direct
relationship between their behavior and air pollution.
Knowledge, awareness, and interest increased, but changes in
behavior were extremely small. Thus, either voluntary
programs are a bad idea or the strategies to carry out this
program were not effective. Public opinion does not support
first conclusion. So, if the second conclusion is correct,
we need to reexamine the program. Education is a "key
factor" according to this study "if long-term and permanent
change is a goal." Motivation is another factor. "In the
long term, it is probably the internal motivation to be 'part
126 •
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of the solution that will be most effective."
McDonald's Corporation and Environmental Defense Fund
Waste Reduction Task Force / >
Final Report - April 1991
Report outlines McDonald's source .reduction progress-
to reduce both quantity of packaging and change nature of
packaging (from polystyrene foam to paper wraps); reuse and
recycling efforts as well. Report discusses how suppliers
were also affected.
JALA Associates Technical Reports .
Vol. I/ No. 2, June 1988
"Traffic Reduction by Telecommuting: A Status Review and
Selected Bibliography" by Jack M. Nilles
Science Advisory Board
Report made to Environmental Protection Agei.ry
-Reducing Risk: Setting Priorities and
^t, xtegies foz Environmental Pr tection"
September 1990
127
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PART VI:
A DIRECTORY OF HUMAN RESOURCES
One of the best L****£**°ffoun<1 in a «.*~~-,
pollution prevention afe\ca?J^nd^cua»nt number for that
published by USEPA. The title ano.«JJ prevention Resources;
is "1993 Reference Guide to wj»ji# EPA/742/B-93-001.
published February, 1993? DocJ5J!: Bailable through the
One more excellent difect°tji.*^ and compiled by
National Pollution ^^^S^SSn of the University of
Nandkumar Bakshani and David AiJ-^tlined through the
California, Los Angeles, can De ootai« university of
National Pollution pre™n$io?.n7v£*sitY; Ann Arbor, MI,
Michigan, Dana Bldg, 430 B. ^pc^lution^rWen ion in
*.^_.^.^AAK«» j_ ^*. IK ^ ^% * «^^*^*4* A%^^^ faT : f^J ^L ^B *• **«ta^*"" *_ JL Q T
2)' Below i. a partial list o
iSS f.n »aant to be
exhaustive.
Carol Aby
Planning Manager
ADEQ
3033 North Central
Phoenix AZ 85016
(602) 207-4601
Bruce Anderson
Deputy Director
Hawaii Dept. of Health
P.O. Box 3*378
Honolulu HI 96801
(808) 536-4424
FAX (808) 586-4444
Jesse Baskir
P2 Coordinator
US EPA
75 Hawthorne, H-l-B
San Francisco CA 94105
(415) 744-2190/1796
FAX (415) 744-1796 .
128
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Toin Brotherton- . . . • •
Governor's Energy Conservation Office
State of Colorado
1675 Broadway, Suite 1300
Denver CO 80202-4613
(303) 62,0-4292 .
Allan Brandt .
Department of Social Medicine .
University of North Carolina
Chapel Hill NC 27599
(919) 962-1136
Shawn M. Burn
Department of Psychology and Hunan Development
California Polytechnic State University
San Luis Obispo CA 93407
Peter Cebon
MIT Room E52-511
2 Sloan School of Management
Cambridge MA 02139
(617) 253-8431
Bill Crooks
Executive Office
Central valley RWQCBD
3443 Routier Road
Sacramento CA 95827-3098
(916) 255-3039 • " • .
James Crowfoot
School of Natural Resources
The University of Michigan
Ann Arbor MI 48104-1115
(313) 763-5466
John M. Darley
Department of Psychology
Princeton University
Princeton NJ 08544
Raymond De Young
School of Natural Resources
University of Michigan
430 East University
Ann Arbor MI 48109-1115
129
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na Environment Pr=gra»
Small Business Development Center
784-4337
John Dunlap
CAL EPA
Department of Toxics
400 P. Street
Sacramento CA 95814
Rilsy E. Dunlap
Department of Sociology
Washington State University
335-6419
Andxaw Duncan
School of Natural Resources
The University of .^ghigy
Dana Building - 430 E. University
Ann Arbor MI 48109-1115
(313) 764-6529
Dana Duxbury
President
The Waste Watch Center
16 Haverhill St
Sandra Eberhardt
Unit Manager
ADEQ
3033 North Central
602) 207-4236
Terry Foecke
WRITAR
Waste Reduction Institute
1313 5th Street SB, Suite 325
Minneapolis MN 55414-4502
FRANCIS GROUP
49 Gilmour Road
Edinburgh EH16 5NV
United Kingdom
44-(0)31-667-3996
130
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Kris Franklin '• ' . . .
UNR-SBDC
UNR, MS 032
Reno NV 89557-0100
Melanie Gaier r
US EPA
75 Hawthorne St.
San Francisco CA 94105
(415) 744-1939 ,
Scott E. Geller
Department of Psychology
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Blacksburg VA 24061-0436
David Getches .
School of Law
Campus Box 401
University of Colorado
Boulder CO 80309
(303) 492-7377
Tim Greiner ,
OTA
100 Cambridge St. Suite 2109
Boston MA 02202
(617) 727-3260
Anna Hackenbracht
US EPA
Chief Planning 6 Analysis Section
75 .Hawthorne St.
San Francisco CA 94105
(415) 744-1634 PAX«(*15) 744-1678
•• - • - .
Spenser Havlick
School of Environmental Design
University of Colorado
Campus Box 314
Boulder CO 80309
(303) 492-6936
Greg Helgin
National Pollution Prevention Center
University of Michigan
430 E. University .
Dana Building #2540
Ann Arbor MI 48109-1115
(313) 764-1412 FAX: (313) 936"-2195
131
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Advancement of Socio-Ecpnomic,
714 H Gelman Library
2130 H Street NW
Washington DC 20052 .
(202) 994-8267 FAX:(202) 994-1639
David Howekamp
Director, Air & Toxics DW
US BOA
75 Hawthorne Street (A-l)
San Francisco CA 94105
f ' '
Dale Jamieson
Department of Philosophy
University of Colorado
Campus Box 232
Boulder CO 80309
(303) 49--69S4 FAX:'303) * ,-8386
Kris Jensen
Ground-Hater Branch
US-EFA
999 18th Street
Suite 500, Mail Code-8WM-GW
Denver CO 80202-2405
(303) 294-1133 FAX*(303) 293-1424
Steve Johnson
Assistant Director ADEQ
3033 North Central
Phoenix AZ 85016
(602) 207-2381
Center fo^Technology, Environment, and Development
Clark University
950 Main Street
Worcester MA 01601-1477 • ,„.
(508) 751-4606 FAX:(508) 751-4600
•April Katsura
75 tfawthorne Street, H-2-2
San Francisco CA 94105
(915) 744-2030 FAX: (415) 744-1044
Willett Kempton
College of Urban and Public Affairs
University of Delaware
Newark DE 19716
(302) 831-4502 FAX:(302) 831-3587
132
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Pollutioneprevention Waste Reduction Program
Colorado Department of Health
4300 Cherry Creek Drive South
Denver CO 80220 , •_ . '
(303) 692-3003
Howard Kunreuther
Wharton School of Business
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia PA 19104 .
Hilary Lauer
P2 Coordinator . ,
EPA Region 9
75 Hawthorne Street, H-l-B
San Francisco CA 94105
(415) 744-2189 FAX:(415) 744-1796
Beth Levine
Water Resources Control Engineer
SFBRWQCB
2101 Webster Street, Suite 500
Oakland CA 94612 '
(510) 286-0656 FAX*(510) 286-1380
Angela Liberatore
Istituto Universitario Europeo
Via Emilia 472
40064 Ozzano Emilia (BO)
ITALY 051-79 97 98
Sandra Lopez
Manager, Toxics
BAAQMD
939 Ellis,Street
San Francisco CA 94105
(415) 749-4711
James L. Lounsbury
Executive Director „„_,,««
National Roundtable of state Pollution Prevention Programs
US EPA, OS 301
P.O. Box 7219 • • ' . "
Silver Spring, MD 20910
(301) 495-9278
Daniel Luecke
Environmental Defense Fund
1405 Arapahoe Avenue , •
Boulder CO 80302
(303) 440-4901
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Jack Luskin
Toxics Use Reduction Institute
University of. Massachusetts
Lowell MA 01854
(508) 934-3262
Odete Madriago
Cal EPA
400 P Street
Sacramento CA 95814
(916) 255-2301 FAX:(916) 255-2222
Robert McMullin
Pollution Prevention Partnership
1099 18th Street
Suite 21OO
Denver CO 80202
(303) 294-1200
.3ary McClelland
Department of Psychology
University of Colorado
Campus Box 345
Boulder CO 80309
(303) 492-8617
Claudia Mills
Department of Philosophy
University of Colorado
Campus Box 232
Boulder CO 80309
(303) 492-6132 PAX:(303) 492-8386
Paul Mohai
School of Natural Resources
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor MI 48109-1115
Gay Nicholson
Ethics and Public Life
Cornell University
117 Stimson Hall
Ithaca NY 14853-7101
(607) 255-6051 FAX:(607) 255-8649
William R. Orr
Research & Technology Development Division
Integrated Waste Management Board
8800 Cal Center Drive
Sacramento CA 95826
(916) 255-2301 FAX:(916) 255-2222
•134
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Stuart. Oskamp --.-'-..
Department of Psychology _•
.Claremont Graduate School
Claremont, CA 91711
RockyPMo"tain Co-housing Association
1705 14th Street
#317
Boulder, CO 80302
(303) 494-8458
Margie Perkins '•' ..
Pollution Prevention Partnership
Hewlett Packard
P.O. Box 302, MS CM 307
Loveland CO 80539
Carrado. Poli
Fondazione Lanza
•"ia Dante 55
35139 Padova, Italy ™™0
(049) 8756788 PAX:(049) 8756788
Cliff Popejoy . - ^
Senior Air Pollution Specialist.
CA Air Resources Board
2020 L Street
Sacramento CA 95814
Linda G. Pratt .
Program Manager, Pollution Prevention
San Diego County Department of Health Services
Hazardous Materials Division
P.O. Box 85261
San Diego ,CA 92186
(619) 338-2215 PAX:(619) 338-2139
Ted Rauh
Deputy Director, Hazardous Waste Program
DTSC .
400 P Street
Sacramento CA 95693
Dick Reavis :
Department Administrator
ND EP . .- . .
123West Nye Lane
Carson City NV 89710
(702) 687-5883
135^ .
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Patricia Reed
PRC Environmental Management, Inc.
1099 18th Street
Suite 1960
Denver CO 80202
(303) 295-1101 FAX:(303) 295-2818
Barbara Rhode
Directorate General xll Science
CGE\DGXII\H, ARTS/LUX3/23
200, rue de la Loi
1049 BRUXELLES
'Belgium
(2) 2951869 FAX:2964299
Verne Rosse
Department Administrator ; EP
123 West Nye ^ane
Carson City NV 89710
(702) 689-5872 PAX:(702) 885-0868
Joel Schurke
WRITAR
1313 5th Street, SB
Minneapolis MN 55414-4802
(612) 379-5995
Harry Seraydarian
Director, Water Management Division
US EPA
75 Hawthorne Street
San Francisco CA 94105
(415) 744-2125
Robert Simmons
Senior Policy Advisor -
US EPA Region VIII
999 18th Street
Denver CO 80202
(303) 2S4-7009
Udo E. Simonis
Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin
Reichpietschufer 50
1000 Berlin 30
Germany
(30) 25 49 12 45 FAX:(30) 25 49 12 47
136
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Paul C. Stern . _. ' ,
Commission of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education
National Research Council - .
2101 Constitution Ave. NW , .
Washington DC 20418
David Thomas
Chairman
National Roundtable of State Pollution Prevention Program*
Hazardous Waste Research and Information Center
One East Hazelwood Drive .
Champaign IL 61820
(217) 333-8940 PAX:(217) 333r8944
Michael Tracey
School of Journalism
University of Colorado
Campus Box 237
Ijoulder CO 80309
(303) 492-0445
Klasina VanderWerf
Department of Philosophy
University of Colorado
Campus Box 232
Boulder CO 80309
(303) 492-6964 PAX:(303) 492-8386
Elaine Vaughan
Program in Social Ecology
University of California, Irvine
Irvine CA 92717
(714) 856-7184
Sonja Wallace
Pollution Prevention Program
Department of Environmental Quality
168 North 1950 West
Salt Lake City UT 84114-4810
(801) 536-4480
Kim Wilhelm ^
Supervising Engineer, Dept. of Toxics
CAL EPA
PO Box 806
400 P Street
Sacramento CA 95812-0806
(415) 744-2153 FAXs(415) 744-1044
137
237
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Bill Wilson j-„.*.«..
Waste Minimization Coordinator
US EPA
75 Hawthorne Street (H-1-W)
San Francisco CA 94105 -
(415) 744-2153 FAX:(415) 744-1044
Teng-Chung Wu
Division Chief
San Francisco Bay RWQCB
2101 Webster Street, Suite 500
KSlO) 286-1380
Laura Yoshii
Deputy Director, Hazardous Waste
US SPA
75 Hawthorne Street (H-l)
San Francisco CA 94105
(415) 744-1730
Nancy Yoshikawa
US EPA
75 Hawthorne Street
San Francisco CA 94105
(415) 744-1939
Jeff Zelikson
Director, Hazardous Waste
US EPA
75 Hawthorne Street (H-l)
San Francisco CA 94105
(415) 744-1730
138
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CHALLENGES FOR THE
FUTURE
NATIONAL POLLUTION PREVENTION
ROUNBTABLE
SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA
APRIL 28, 1993
BY
JOHN WISE
ACTING REGIONAL ADMINISTRATOR
EPA REGION 9
.-5.4-
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I am honored to be invited to share my perspectives at this National Roundtable. It is gratifying
for me to be among so many colleagues and friends tonight; for you - individually and
collectively - have done so much to advance the concept of pollution prevention and to build
viable programs at the state and local level.
These are exciting times ... times of change. Yet, despite the campaign rhetoric or the Clinton
Administrarion, this "change" is not entirely new. Over the past several years, we have been
witnessing and participating in a "sea change" ... a change that is trending towards a vision of
environmentally responsible economic development.
In my remarks tonight, I want to exanvne the origins of this change; the forces and influences
that are shaping and defining our journey and the challenges for the future.
A good place to start is to examine EPA's statutory mission as the defining framework for the
changes that are taking place.
Today, EPA administers some H different statutes, each of which requires some form of
pollution control and abatement. The distinguishing feature of each of these individual statutes
is that they are single-purpose, media-specific, a..- they mandate die "control" and "abatement"
of pollution. That is, all of our federal statutes mandate a regulatory/enforcement structure to
control pollution releases. This has come to be known as "command and control", that is we
•command" by regulation, and "control" by permits and enforcement.
Therefore, from our statutes, we can distill EPA's primary mission:
• set national standards
promulgate regulations
• issue permits
• inspect for compliance .
• enforce where necessary
• monitor for environmental result •
And, of course, all of this is done in concert with the states, regional agencies, and local
governments under a series of "delegation agreements" -such that "command and control"
cascades down through the different levels of government.
Over the years, environmental regulation by "command and control" has produced remarkable
results; '• ~
* major reduction of mass loadings of pollutants to air, water, and land;
installed control technology (end-of-pipe, top-of-stack;
provided essential public health protections;
arrested ecosystem losses.
All of this has :ost society roughly SI trillion in the past 20 years. The'casts of controlling
pollution now account for roughly two percent of U.S. Gross National Product. America is now
spending about SI 15 billion a year to meet environmental goals.' The benefits, although not
-------
John Wise, "Challenges for the Future"
precisely quantifiable,, are the reasonably clean and healthful environment that we generally
enjoy today.
America could well afford an investment of this magnitude.
We have much to be proud of.
But - when we examine our progress and the prospects for the future we can see some
disconcerting trends:
1. Despite all of our gains, we are barely keeping up with growth;
'.. While we made reductions in one media, we may have simply transferred the problem to
another media;
3. While we are imposing-regulatory costs on U.S. industry, our global competitors are gaining
an unearned trade advantage.
Moreover, the environmental landscape is changing. We find that the remaining environmental
problems/risks:
1. reside in a large universe of small sources:
2. require a geographic or location-specific response; •
3. require a change in corporate and consumer behavior.
These features of the changing environmental landscape indicate that our traditional "command
and control" regulations (mandated by statute) may not be very effective, and certainly can't be
very efficient, in addressing these remaining environmental problems.
* - . • "
As America faces the economic realities of the 1990's, wherein we must compete in a worldwide
marketplace, we cannot afford to continue to operate an inefficient environmental regulatory
scheme. Over the past four-to-five years, we have seen EPA, the states, and industry all make
fundamental shifts to restructure our programs for a new future - all based.loosely upon the
concept of pollution prevention.
What motivated these changes?
For EPA and the states, pollution prevention was initially seen as an extension of our regulatory
programs. Indeed, most of the early prevention-based activity was driven by pur regulatory and
enforcement authorities and by the imposed costs and liabilities that attend our enforcement
efforts. We used our regulatory and enforcement authorities to directly gain pollution prevention
as conditions of a permit, or as terms of an enforcement settlement.
For industry, it was apparent that imposed regulatory costs - costs of permit applications, cost
of end-of-pipe treatment, cost of disposal, cost of compliance, cost of non-compliance by fines
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John Wise, "Challenges for the Future"
and penalties cost of liabilities, cost of insurance - were viewed as non-productive expenses.
Cost^nSatitn aLTcost avoidance naturally led many industries to was* numnu^n
programs, recycling and recovery operations, and better housekeeping; the first tentative steps
towards pollution prevention...
However I suggest that, behind the cost calculus, three other interrelated forces intersected to
drive a fundamental restructuring of industrial operations towards pollution prevention:
1 the appreciation for global competitiveness and sustainable growth;
2. the public disclosure requirements of community nght-to-know laws;
3. the onset of total quality management.
. the mid-1980',, many companies began to cc -atulate themseives *what **"&*?
a remarkable feat - compliance with government regulations! Today, it is not enough to , sunply
comply with governmental regulations; a progressive compass moving beyond compliance ,
and ahead of its industry in a fast-paced global ecop«-ny.
What accounts for this dramatic shift in perspectives? Basically, American maiiagersjire
realizing that they cannot remain fixed on a short-term preoccupation ^hjcomphance and cos£
They are developing a new sense of a far greater value, that is, the concept *fj*«™***
growth, wherein enlightened environmental management reinforces economic growth wherein
long-term values of sustainability outweigh short-term costs.
This -refocusing" effort, already well underway in me mid-1980's, was
by the disclosure requirements of Community Right to Know Lwn, such as SARA CTitle 0£
and, in California, Proposition 65. These disclosure provisions, such as the Toxic Release
Inventory, are reshaping environmental policy.
Information is power, and when citizens have information about the release of toxic 'ubsmces
to the air, water, or land, they demand action. The toxic release inventory has done more to
reduce toxic emissions than, all of our regulations taken together - simply by turning the glare
of adverse publicity (and attendant liability) on companies that are releasing uiese chemicah.
We have seen dramatic reductions (all voluntary) in chemicals released, in a frantic scramble
by business to restore public confidence and corporate image.
(Despite the good news embodied in these trends, let me also issue a caudon. -Tte corporate
nish to reduce releases of high volume chemicals may madvertentlybias the need to ^fress
the releases of chemicals which pose the most serious risks. TRI deals with reteases, not
exposures and consequent risk to public health. Companies will need to be mindful of the
necessary balance between total reductions and reductions of those chemicals that may jeopardize
public health.)
-57-
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John Wise. "Challenges for the Future"
At the beginning of the TRI in 1987, most companies were focused on compliance and they
simply did not know what they were releasing to the environment by pathways that were not
directly regulated. The numbers were astonishing and caught most corporate managers and their
environmental management staff totally by surprise. .
The prevailing corporate fear of 'public disclosure - a hostile public, angry neighbors, boycotting
consumers, NIMBY -did not come to pass. The world did not end. Disclosure actually helped
many companies deal with their sxjsmal constituencies and neighbors.
But the real payoff came inside. the company. Companies invested in internal auditing, mass
balance inventorying, life-cycle costing, all of the internal techniques tnat provided the data
necesiarv for accur^e reporting antf honest public disclosure of environmental releases. By
disciplining in* ita collection effort and husbanding information, companies were able (for the
first time!) to see how their basic production processes were leading to the generation of wastes
and a economic inefficiencies.
The need for data enabled the environmental managers to work with the production managers
to ask some fundamental questions: How can we minimize waste? How can we prevent
pollution? How can we change inputs, change processes? How can we produce green products
in a green way?
This data-driven self-examination of performance is (as you know) a fundamental quality
process As total quality management drives the production process toward preyenuon-based
operations, companies are reassessing their role: the ultimate purpose of the corporate endeavor
is to compete in a global economy, not to passively comply with rules and regulations.,
And, in order to compete, American companies will need to retool for clean production
technologies:
• • • • • . • • -. ' • '•
a. where prevention changes the cost profile;
b. where information from environmental managers and production managers merge to form
a new direction for the company; .
c. where new total quality principles of continuous improvement and process reform drive us
to achieve our environmental and economic goals.
We have seen that total quality management, where process information drives prevention-based
behavior, can result in significant payoffs:
1. reduction or elimination of a .waste;
2. conservation of materials, conservation of water,
3, energy efficiency;
4. technical accomplishment; ,
5 . financial benefit; . . -.
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John Wise. "Challenges for the Future"
6 shareenine the competitive edge of American 'industry; .
: !SS^
• no more permit applications;
no more inspections;
• no more reporting;
• no more treatment and disposal costs;
• no more enforcement fines and penalties;
• no more liabilities;
- w more excuses!
we have certainly witnessed a dram*, change in EPA, ir the sta: », and in the business
community in the way we seek to accomplish our environmental goals.
. EPA is shifting from regulator to cconerator.
• Industry is shifting from compliance to competitiveness.
We have made much progress, but our journey has just begun. As we look toward the future,
from the platform of accomplishment to date, we face four major challenges.
These challenges are: .
1. To articulate prevention-based behavior as a prevailing social/cultural ethic.
2. To diffuse that ethic to a larger community:
• • within EPA itself; . . ' ,
• externally with our state and local partners;
• vertically down through the business establishment;
. horizontally across all sectors of U.S. enterprise.
3. To promote clean and green technology to retool. America for the global marketplace; and
4. To promote total quality and continuous improvement by measuring progress and celebrating
success.
f ,.
'• . - . i - ' . '
Let me examine each of these challenges in turn.
1. T9 articulat> preventioq-hased behavior as a prfrvflflfog social/cultural ethic;
We need to recognize that pollution prevention is QOJ just another activity, QOJ just another
' initiative, n& just another program that is layered on top of everything else we do.
-59-
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John Wise, "Challenges for the Future"
Pollution prevention is a fundamental "new philosophy which needs to be incorporated as an
integral and central component of all environmental policy; all economic and industrial activity;
all consumer behavior. We need to appreciate that pollution prevention requires a new cultural
orientation - we need to reach deeply into the culture and values of society and create a
fundamental new philosophy, or ethic. '
This new ethic will be the underlying integrating force - the essential linchpin - to unify
environmental and economic policy for long-term sustainability.
: , . ', , ' f ' • " ' ,
i TIT lifTiis? thfrffn'fmfrTHTflffd rthfo ti? a
This diffusion effort must begin with EPA itself. If we are to make pollution prevention the
strategy of preferred choice in the Agency, we must incorporate prevention into our ongoing
regulatory and program agenda - to mainstream prevention into the core values of the Agency,
The diffusion effort must ..naturally extend externally to our state and local partners, where so
much initiative and progress have already been made in developing pollution prevention as the
centerpiece of state programs. We need to continue to develop a network of EPA/state
collaboration. " . .
I suggest that it is time to systematically integrate federal grant assistance and state resources
invested in pollution prevention. We have gained much from the various EPA grant programs,
PPIS, two percent set-asides, and media program grants, but we must now construct a larger
framework (or strategy) for our unified efforts. .
The State Grants Guidance, issued November 12, 1992, by former Deputy Administrator
Habicht, is the perfect vehicle to systematically integrate our efforts. I encourage maximum
utilization of the opportunities for flexibility thajt the Guidance provides.
The diffusion effort must be vertically implemented. That is, major large corporations are
already well along the prevention-biased transition; we must devote increasing attention to
medium, and small, businesses. These smaller enterprises are caught in the regulatory "web",
without the technical, managerial, or financial ability to comply. Assisting these firms to engage
in pollution prevention investments, rather than end-of-the-pipe, will enhance their economic
productivity and competitiveness, as well as their compliance needs.
.The diffusion efforts must be horizontally implemented. That is, our major focus to date has
been on manufacturing industry. We need to expand our efforts to address pollution prevention
needs in the agricultural sector, the transportation sector, the energy sector, the consumer sector,
and most importantly, the federal sector.
All or these -efforts at diffusion, inside EPA, with the states, vertically down to medium and
smaller businesses, and horizontally across all economic sectors, represents a truly heroic
challenge. ' ' ' , . . ' '..-.'.•
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John Wise, "Challenges for the Future"
retooling America" for clean production technology.
and Japanese have been relatively successful in developing and deploying clean
inSoSTpart of their national industrial policies. While some of this has
S! SJ^ues (often learned from their European subsidiaries), Amenca
seems to be stuck in "technology gridlock".
What acco'-nts for this? Is it attributable to:
lack of information for prevention-based technologies,.
lack of credit and financing,
lack of entrepreneurialship and risk takers,
lack of positive market signals,
lack of research and development,
lack of technology transfer programs,
lack of a national industrial policy?
Or is it attributable to the BACT syndrome, wherein federal environmental law mandatesand
Sforcel ^available control technology, and so "locks in" the technical V**^'™*
ae con ,
hide est" if there is no incentive or credit to do better? Why go beyond the best
if it rSv ris^ %o compSce position vis-a-vis government regulators? Why go beyond the
*b£tMf yob hCj^xpended substantive resources on an end-of-the-pipe treatment plant?
ra^a^°^^^
r^^fflffJ^l&Ttt 2ZS53ZSSZ
successfully compete, domestically and internationally.
Partnerships and collaboration in research, development, and demonstration are very important
Srs here Tarn encouraged as we mobilize the Department of Energy' s National Laboratories
to help in this endeavor.
Another aspect of green technologies is the export market potential for such technologies
rtSm«lve?After the Rio Earth Summit, it seems that the "race for green technology" in the
Sbd marketplace may be the equivalent of the space race. It is a race that the United States
cannot afford to lose, but today, it is a race that we are noi even prepared, to enter.
-61-
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John Wise, "Challenges for the Future"
ring progress and
Pollution orevention like other large-scale social/economic change processes, depends on the
safety benefits from our pollution prevention endeavors.
The transition of America toward a prevention-based ethic and a clean technology industrial base
35™ oS? oveS. Setting high goals, striving for continuous improvement, and
celebrating our successes should enlighten our path to the future.
In summary I've taken you on a long journey: from the origins of pur command and control
sy-in to the tremendous success in reducing gross mass loadings, to thedwel°Pm««*
pollution prevention concepts and programs within EPA and ^"^li^^rfStonw-
Sponse of industry to Community Right-to-Know laws, to the four challenges of the future
• to instill a prevention-based ethic, >
• to facilitate a diffusion of that ethic to~a larger community,
• to promote green technologies, and
:• to measure our progress and celebrate successes.
I want to thank you for your patience to indulge me as I scoped-out my perspectives. I would
be pleased to respond to questions or comments.
Thank you. , " '
-62-
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CHALLENGES FOR THE
FUTURE
i . " • ' '",_/' - . ^ - '
NATIONAL POLLUTION PREVENTION
ROUNDTABLE
SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA
APRIL 28, 1993
•"• •' " : - BY:/- .
JOHN WISE
ACTING REGIONAL ADMINISTRATOR
EPA REGION 9
. -7 '-?
-54-
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I am honored to be invited to share my perspectives at this Naaonai Roundtable. %
for me to be among so many colleagues and friends tonight; for you - in^viduaUy and
collectively - have done so much to advance the concept of pollution prevention and to build
viable programs at the state and local level.
These are exciting rimes ... times of change. Yet, despite the campaign rhetoric or the Clinton
Administration, this "change" is not entirely new. Over the past several years, we have been
witnessing and participating in a 'sea change' ... a change that is trending towards a vision of
environmentally responsible economic development.
In my remarks tonight, I want to examine the origins of this change; the forces and influences
that are shaping and defining our journey and the challenges for the future.
, i ' :
A good place to start is to examine EPA's statutory mission as the defining framework for the
changes that are taking place.
Today EPA administers some 14 different statutes, each of which requires some form of
pollution control and abatement The distinguishing feature of each of these individual statutes
is that they are single-purpose, media-specific, and they mandate the "control" and "abatement'
of pollution. That is, all of our federal statutes mandate a regulatory/enforcement structure to
control pollution releases. This has come to be known as "command and control", that is we
•command" by regulation, and "control" by permits and enforcement.
Therefore, from our statutes, we can distill; EPA's primary mission:
• set national standards
• promulgate regulations
• issue permits
• inspect for compliance . /
• enforce where necessary „'
monitor for environmental result
And, of course, all of this is done in concert with the states, regional agencies, and local
governments under a series of "delegation agreements" -such that "command and control"
cascades down through the different levels of government.
Over the years, environmental regulation by "command and control' has produced remarkable
results:
• major reduction of mass loadings of pollutants to air, water, and land;
• installed control technology (end-of-pipe, top-of-stack;
• provided essential public health protections;
• arrested ecosystem losses.
All of this has ;ost society roughly $1 trillion in the past 20 years. The'sflsia of controlling
pollution now account for roughly two percent of U.S. Gross National Product. America is now
spending about SI 15 billion a year to meet environmental goals.' the bjfflsfijs. although not
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John Wise, 'Challenges for the Future" ' • •
precisely quantifiable,, are .the reasonably clean and healthful environment that we generally
enjoy today.
America .could well afford an investment of this magnitude.
We have much to be proud of.
But - when we examine our progress and the prospects for the future we can see some
disconcerting trends:
•i ^sn^TX^1^^
3. vmposng regulator COM o^^^
an unearned trade advantage. •
Moreover, the environmental landsc^
problems/risks:
1. reside in a large universe of small sources;
2. require a geographic or location-specific response;
3. require a change in corporate and consumer behavior.
•niese features of the changing environmental landscape indicate Aat our traditional J«™*£
a^ontrol" regulations (mandated by statute) may not be very effective, and certainly can t be
very efficient, in addressing these remaining environmental problems.
As America faces the economic realities of thel990's,wh
marketplace, we cannot afford to continue to operate an inefficient «v^«*J**f^
S3. Over the past four-to-five yean, we have seen EPA^he *^>^« ^fc
fundamental shifts to restructure our programs for a new future - all based loosely upon in
concept of pollution prevention.
What motivated these changes?
ForEPA and me states, poUutionpre^^
programs. Indeed, most of the early prevention-based activity was driven by our "^^^
eZSmem authorities and by the imposed costs and liabilities that «^1«"£S£.
efforts. We used our regulatory and enforcement authorities to directly gain pollution prevention
as conditions of a permit,- or as terms of an enforcement settlement.
For industry,, it was apparent that imposed regulatory costs - costs of permit aPP^ons,^
of end Woe treatmemTeost of disposal, cost of compliance, cost of non^ompbance by fines
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John Wise, "Challenges for the Future"
and oenaldes cost of liabilities, cost of insurance - were viewed as non-productive expenses.
MSLS and^st avoidance naturally led many industries to ^^™>
programs, recycling and recovery operations, and better housekeeping; the first tentative steps
towards pollution prevention...
However, I suggest that, behind the cost calculus, three other interrelated forces intersected to
drive a fundamental restructuring of industrial operations towards pollution prevention:
I the appreciation for global competitiveness and sustainable growth;
2. the public disclosure requirements of community right-to-know laws;
3 the onset of total quality management.
In the nud-1980's, many companies began to congratulate memoes for what they Bought was
^remarkable feat - compliance with government regulations! Today, it is not enough to simply
comply vwth governmental regulations; a progr-'sivecompanya 3 moving beyond compliance ,
and ahead of its industry in a fast-paced global economy,
What account* for this dramatic shift in perspectives? Basically, American inanagersjms
realizing that they cannot remain fixed on a short-term preoccupatioa with compliance and costs.
They are developing a new sense of a far greater value, thatis, the concept ofj^mabl6
growth, wherein enlightened environmental management reinforces economic growth wherein
long-term values of sustainability outweigh short-term coats.
This 'refocusing" effort, already well underway in the mid-1980's, was give* P^fl^P
by the disclosure requirements of Community Right to Know Laws, such as SARA (Title
and. in California, Proposition 65. These disclosure provisions, such as the Toxic Release
Inventory, are reshaping environmental policy.
Information is power, and when citizens have information about the release of toxic substances
to the air, water, or land, they demand .action. The toxic release inventory has done more to
reduce toxic emissions than all of our regulations taken together - simply by turning the glare
of adverse publicity (and attendant liability) on companies that are releasing these chemicals.
We have seen dramatic reductions (all voluntary) in chemicals released, .in a frantic scramble
by business to restore public confidence and corporate image.
(Despite the good news embodied in these trends, let me also issue a caution. The corporate
rush to reduce releases of high volume chemicals may inadvertently bias the need to first address
the releases of chemicals which pose the most serious risks. TRI deals with releases, not
exposures and consequent risk to public health. Companies will need to be mindful of the
necessary balance between total reductions and reductions of those chemicals that may jeopardize
public health.)
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John Wise, "Challenges for the Future"
.- . . . ...fh_ T-RI :., 1987, most companies were focused on compliance and they
,
* were releasing uthe environment by pathways that were not
T*em w£ astomsmng and caught most corporate managers and their
environmental management staff totally by surprise.
•Hie orevailine corporate fear of public disclosure - a hostile public, angry neighbors, boycotting
c^SSr?nMBY - did not come to pass. The world did not end. Disclosure actually helped
many companies deal with their sxismai constituencies and neighbors.
But the real payoff came ins& the company. Companies invested in internal auditing, mass
balnce ^emo^g^fe^yck costing, all of the internal techniques that provided the data
n^^ forSirate nroorting and honest public disclosure of environmental releases By
dlSSg^ta* collection effort and hus* nding information, < .mpame vere able (for the
fiS S to see how their basic production Accesses were leading to the generation of wastes
and to economic inefficiencies. .
The need for data enabled the environmental managers to work with the production managers
to askttne fundamental questions: How can we minimize waste? Jfow can we j«event
How^ can we change mputs, change processes? How can we produce green products
in a green way
This data-driven self-examination of r«fbrmance is (as you know) a fiadamental quaUty
AS total quality management drives the production process toward raKfflfim-based
^ are reassessing their role: the ultimate purpose of the corporate endeavor
not to passively comply with rules and regulations..
And, in order to compete, American companies will need to retool for clean production
technologies:
a where prevention changes the cost profile; . .
b. where ^formation from environmental managers and production managers merge to form
a new direction for the company; . : ' .
c where new total quality principles of continuous improvement and process reform dnve us
to achieve our environmental and economic goals.
We have seen that total quality management, where process information drives prevention-based
behavior, can result in significant payoffs:
1. reduction or elimination of a waste;
2. conservation of materials, conservation of water;
3 energy efficiency; . .
.4. technical accomplishment; ;.
5. financial benefit; '.,-...
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John Wise. "Challenges for the Future"
no more permit applications;
no more inspections;
no more reporting;
no more treatment and disposal costs;
no more enforcement fines and penalties;
no more liabilities;
«cuses! '
EPA is shifting from regulator to cooperator. ^
industry is shifting from compliance to competitiveness.
These challenges are: .
1. To articulate prevention-based behavior as a prevailing social/cultural ethic.
2. To diffuse that ethic to a larger community:
• within EPA itself;
. externally with our state and local partners;
. vertically down through the business establishment;
. horizontally 'across all sectors of U.S. enterprise.
3. To promote clean and green technology to retool America for the global marketplace; and
4. To promote total quality and continuous improvement by measuring progress and celebrating
success.
Let me examine each of these challenges in mm.
n^^dm, Jnr* ""^ " a nr™ninf ^WCTftnMttte
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John Wise."'Challenges for the Future"
Polluaon .-prevention is a fundamental new philosophy which needs to
integral and central component 'of all environmental policy; all economic and
all consumer behavior.- We need to appreciate that pollution prevention requires a new
orientation - we need to reach deeply into the culture and values of society and create a .
fundamental new philosophy, or ethic. , ..
This new ethic will be the underlying integrating force - the essential linchpin - to unify
environmental and economic policy for long-term attainability.
2. To diffuse this nreyention-ba^i ethic to a laiTfr rnmmUPitY.
''This diffusion effort must begin with EPA itself. If we are to make pollution prevention ithe
> rrategy of preferred choice in the Agency, we must, incorporate prevention into our ongoing
regulatory and program agenda - to mainstream prevention into the core values of the Agency.
The diffusion effort must naturally extend externally to our state and local partners, where so
much initiative and progress have already been made in developing pollution P*«m « **
centerpiece of state programs. We need to continue to develop a network of EPA/state
collaboration.
I suggest that it is time to systematically integrate federal grant assistance and state resources
invested in pollution prevention. We have gained much from the various EPA grant programs,
PPIS, two percent set-asides, and media program grants, but we must now construct a larger
framework (or strategy) for our unified efforts.
The State Grants Guidance, issued November 12, 1992, by former Deputy Administrator
Habicht, is the perfect vehicle to systematically integrate our efforts. I encourage maximum
utilization of the opportunities for flexibility that the Guidance provides.
The diffusion effort must be vertically implemented, that is, major large corporations are
already well along the prevention-based transition; we must devote increasing attention to
medium, and small, businesses. These smaller enterprises are caught in the regulatory weo ,
without the technical, managerial, or financial ability to comply. Assisting these firms to engage
in pollution prevention investments, rather than end-of-the-pipe, will enhance their economic
productivity and competitiveness, as well as their compliance needs.
The diffusion efforts must be horizontally implemented. That is, our major focus to date has
^ been on manufacturing industry. We need to expand our1 efforts to address pollution prevention
needs in the agricultural sector, the transportation sector, the energy sector, the consumer sector,
and most importantly, the federal sector.
All of these efforts at diffusion, inside EPA, with the states, vertically down to medium and
smaller businesses, and . horizontally across all economic sectors, represents a truly heroic
• challenge., • .'-'-. , . ." '".
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Jonn W:se. 'Challenges for the Future"
of continuous improvement and process reform to drive us to our
^U. we museum a formidable, change. ,t is no less
retooling America" for clean production technology.
c in^SS UPS Sn^nies (often learned from tneir European subsidiaries), Amenca
seems to be stuck in "technology gndlock".
•Viut accounts for this? Is it attributable r
. lack of-informadon for prevention-based technologies,
• lack of credit and financing,
. lack of entrepreneurialship and risk takers,
. lack of positive market signals,
• lack of research and development,
• lack of technology transfer programs,
• lack of a national industrial policy?
naourccs on an
treannent piant?
P«rhaDS it is all of the above. If these are root causes of America's technology gridlock, ,jt
successfully compete, domestically and internationally.
to help in this endeavor.
of green technologies is the export market potential for such technologies
«h?So 1Lth Summit, it seems that the "race for green technology" m the
mece mav be the equivalent of the space race. It is a race that the Umted States
Snot Storfw lose, but today, it is a race that we are not even prepared to enter.
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•John Wise,:'Challenges for the Future''
safety benefits from our pollution prevention endeavors.
.-declaring our successes should enlighten our path to the future.
• to instill a prevention-based ethic,
• to facilitate a diffusion of thai ethic to a larger community, ,
• to promote green technologies, and
. to measure our progress and celebrate successes.
I want to thank you for your patience to indulge me as I scoped-out my perspectives. I would
be pleased to 'respond to questions or comments.
\ ' - ' -
Thank you.
i*r
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