EPA/742/R-95/009
Pollution Prevention
Educational Resource Compendium:
Industrial
Un«t<».ty oi M«»«9W
430 £l»l l)niy»r»«y A
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Goal Statement and Summary:
\ industry, and aadama. A dnlidure
\
1 the NPPC directly. —
'
i and magazine.
U support o/^topnttnt of portions o/this Cdr^mm.
A
^
Published by:
The National Pollution
for Higher Education
University of Michigan. 0
430 East University Av«.
AnnAnW.Mt 48109-1115
in Hignsr Education.
• Fax; 313-936-2195
. E-ro«il: nppcOurrach.edu
ss=s
Pr»v«non .
Aon4 199S
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Industrial Ecology
AT.ON-U.-COU.UTION — " -------- °"°
Table of Contents
Explanation of Compendium Contents
Introductory Materials
D Overview of Environmental Problems
D Pollution Prevention Concepts arid Principles
D Industrial Ecology Introduction
Industrial Ecology Resource List
NPPC Resources
D Annotated Bibliography
Q Selected Reading Material
D Course Syllabi •
. • '. • o Case Study and Video:
"McDonald's/EOF Environmental Task Force
All documents can be ordered separately-see the NPPC Order to
Short documents are free of charge; to cover the cost of photocopymg,
mere is a small fee for longer documents.
Na.,0na,Po!lu..JnPrav^nCa?.rjor^g>i^;^^°'M^n *»«~~«
frwty tor non-comnMidal
educational ourcosas.
Apnl 1995
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Industrial Ecology
N*nON«. >OU.U"OH mtVtNTION CtMTtB
Explanation of Compendium Contents
introductory Material*
Overview of Enviroronental Problems. This 100-page paperWgh
*££££«<**> « *' —£ "* T'
ut«, >i>a guidance on oblaining addmonal
all figures and tabl.5 ar e n a u-a format
suitable for overhead projection.
ing pollution prevention activities.
°
• industrial Ecology R««ourc«Li»t
tly lists 153 books,
afacultyinVolved in poUution prevention eduCation_ Note.
SL» all NPPt Resources (see next section) appear in the List.
APOM995
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• NIPPC Resources
The NPPC distributes all of these resources; in many cases, we have also
developed them. All appear in the Resource List (see previous section).
Q Annotated Bibliography. Describes 41 relevant publications; all
appear in the Resource List.
D Selected Reading Materials:
-BradenR-AHenby: "Achieving Sustainable Development
through Industrial Ecology." International Environmental Affairs 4,
. - no. 1 (1992): 56-68. ;• .-. .
- Robert U. Ayres: "Industrial Metabolism: Theory and Policy."
' In The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems, edited byBradenR. .
. ' . ' Allenby and Dearma J.Richards, 23-37. Washington: National
Academy Press, 1994. -
-.Robert A. Frosch: "Industrial Ecology: A Philosophical Intro-
' ducnbn." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, US A W .
(February 1992): 800-803. , • -
- Greg Keoleian and Dan Menerey: "Sustainable Development by
Design: Review of Life Cycle Design and Related Approaches.
Air ami Waste Ooumal of the Air and Waste Management
Association) 44 (May 1994): 645-668,
0 Course Syllabi. A collection of syllabi from iiniversiry
courses involving industrial ecology. Professors include:
- Clinton Andrews .(Princeton)
- Garry Brwer, Stuart Hart, and Gregory A. Keoleian (Michigan)
- William Clark, Michael McElroy, and Robert Frosch (Harvard)
- R.H. Socolow (Harvard) ' .
D Case Study: "Case A: McDonald's Environmental Strategy,"
-Case Bl: The Clamshell Controversy," "Case B2: McDonald s
Decision," and "Case C: Sustaining McDonald's En^ronmental
Success." Cases A and B focus on the work of a Joint Task Force
developed by McDonald's Corporation and the Environmental
SeSeVund, whose members addressed McDonald's sohd waste
strategy and the question of whether to replace polystyrene pack-
aging^ith paperlrap. CaseC examines the company's reaction.to
PSconcernaboutthesustainability;ofbeef. Includes a teaching
note as well as no,tes on life cycle analysis and solid waste issues.
n Video: >McDonald's/EDF Environmental Task Force." This
16-minute video is an accompaniment to the written case study^
. The principles involved are Robert Langert, McDonald s Corpo-
- ration director of environmental affairs, and Jackie Prmce,Envi-
ronmental Defense Fund staff scientist; they present their different
perspectives on the joint project. Issues discussed include reasons
for and reservations about participating, organizational goals or
the project, results, and advice for others thinking about pursuing
similar projects. ,
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Pollution Prevention
and Industrial Ecology
Industrial Ecology:
An Introduction
Bv .Andy Gamer, MPPC Research Assistant, .ind
Dr Greeory A. &oi«an. Assistant Rffearai Scientist.
Umwrsiiy of Michigan Sctorf jf\\jm«i R«*.w«s
. Erti'ironmen'r. and..VPPC Manager' ,
This portion of the industrial ecology compendium ,
Irovfdes an oVerv.ew. or the subiect. It turther oners
'Lance as to how one may teach mdustnal ec^ogy.
Ixhibits are provided at the end of this ^oducfcon
that mav be used in various parts, ot an industrial
co og •' course; Educational resources on indusmal
ecology are how emerging. Thomas Graedel and
Braden Allenbv have wntten the first university;
"cologv as a field of study. This book, alon
David Allen's book on classroom assignments for
poilutlon prevenhon;se^e as excellent sources ofboth
PquaHtativePand quantitative problems ^t could be
Ised to enhance the teaching of mdusmal ecology _
concepts.^ Other sources of information wdl be noted
^introduction, in the summary of .resources, and
in .the NPPC resources section of this compendium.
Background
The development of industrial ecology is ".J^JP*^
provide a new conceptual framework tor understand
fhe .mpacts of industrial systems on the environment
see *e "Overview of Environmental Problems
Section of this compendium,. This ne^v tramework
serves to .dentify and then implement strategies to
reduce the environmental impacts of products and
processes associated with industrial systems, with an •
ultimate goal of sustainable development.
•.industrial ecology is the study of the physical chemical
and biological interactions and interrelationships both
within and between industrial and ecological systems
Additionally, some researchers feel that, industrial*:^
oey involves identifying and implementing strategies
for industrial systems to more closely emulate harmo-
nious, sustainable, ecological ecosystems.
Environmental problems are systemic prdblems and .
thus require a systems approach so that the interconnec-
tions between industrial practices /human activities
and environmental/ecological processes can be more
readilv recognized. A systems approach provides a
holistic view of environmental problems making them
.easier to identify and solve and can be used to high-
lieht the need and advantages of achieving sustamab.l.ty.
Table 1 depicts ecological and industrial system hier-
archies (the figure also shows the hierarchies of political
andeeograpWcsvstems).^ Industrial ecology involves
JhtstuTv Sthe interaction Between different industrial
svstems as well as between industrial systems> and^co-
logical systems. The focus of study can be at different
svstem levels.
World
Continent
Nation / Region
State / County
Town
Human population
Individual
Global human material
& energy «<>«•
Sectors (e.g., transportatioi
Corporations and institutions
Product systems
,r for H,gn«r Education -Un.vers.ty ot M.cnigarT
***** Ml' iflTQ9*1115
Ecosphere
Biosphere
Biogeographic region / Biome
Landscape / Ecosystem
Population
Organism
Pollution Prevention introduction • t
August 199*
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Air Emissions
Materials Transfer
Extraction and/or
Discnaigii of Water
FIGURE 1: THE KALUNDBORG PARK
One goal of industrial ecology is to change the current
linear nature of our industrial system, where raw
materials are used and products, by-products and
wastes are produced, to a cyclical system where the
wastes are then used again as Energy or raw materials
for another product or process. The K'alundborg,
Denmark eco-industrial park represents an attempt to
create an industrial system that is highly integrated
and optimizes the use of byproducts "£«*»«"«*
the waste that that leaves the system.' Figure 1 shows
the svmbiotic nature of the Kalundborg park (see _
Appendix A lor a more complete description of this
eco-industrial park).
Fundamental to industrial ecology is identifying and
tracing the flows of energy and materials through
various systems. This concept, sometimes re erred to
as industntl metabolism, can be utilized to follow
material and energy flows, transformations and
dissipation in the industrial system as well as into
natural svstems * The mass balancing of these flows
^"transformations can help to identify the associated
negative environmental impacts on natural ecosys-
tems. By quantifying resource inputs and the genera-
tion of residuals and their fate, industry and other
stakeholders can attempt to minimize the environmen-
tal burdens and to optimize the resource efficiency ot
material and energy use within the industrial system.
Industrial ecology is an emerging field with much
discussion and debate over its definition as well as its
practicality. Questions remain concerning how it
overlaps'with.and differs from other more established
fields-of study. It is still uncertain if industrial ecology
warrants being considered as a field of its own or if ,t
should be incorporated into other disciplines. This
mirrors tKe challenge in teaching industrial ecology.
Industrial ecology can be taught as a separate, semes-
ter long course or it can be incorporated into existing
courses. In the future it is foreseeable that more
colleges and universities will initiate educational and
research programs in industrial ecology.
^Pollution Prevention introduction '2
August 199*
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Industrial Ecology:
Toward a Definition
Historical Development:
Mistrial eiolotv is roo«d in systems analysisand is
l.sv« appro.* ,o framing *« «.««
i sysiems and
untamable course of the then current .ndustnal
. system.3 : .
[n 1989, Robert Avres developed the concept of
£L^ m*to i* ^e use of ^J
bv industry and how these matenals flow ^th
stems and are transformed and then,
wastes.^ By tracing material and energy
Ei:osvsfe«s.uThe-book brings together many earlier .v :
initiatives and efforts to use systems analysis to solve
environmental problems. Tools of industrial ecology
are identified such as design for the environment, life .
cvcle design and environmental accounting. In
addition the interacfions between industrial ecology
and other disciplines such as law, economics and
public policy are discussed.
•Industrial ecology is being researched in the U.S. _
EPYs Futures Division and has been embraced by the
XTfcT Corporation. The National Pollution Prevention
Inter Fo^Higher Educaho, (NTPC) has been prornot-
ing the sv-stemsapproach^in developing pollut on
prevention educational materials. The NPPC sre^
search on industrial ecology is a natural outgrowth ot
our work on pollution prevention.
Defining Industrial Ecology:
d me concept of industrial ecosystems
Vhich led to the term industrial ecology: W They wrote
"n'deal industrial ecosystem that wouLd-ncnon as
"an analogue" of biological ecosystems. Th.s meta
phor berw^en industrial and natural ecosystems*
undamental-tothefoundahonofindusma^gy. ,
d a resources by another
Lve the industrial system and they .would not
negatively impact natural systems.
in 1991-, the National Academy of Science's Colloqium
' fdustnal Ecology constituted a watershed „ £
There is still no single definition of i
that is generally accepted. However most ~~---^
comprise similar attributes with different emphases
These attributes include:
. a systems view of the interactions between industrial
and ecological systems
• the study of material and energy flows and transfor-
mations ' -
• a-multidisciplinary approach
. an orientation towards the future
. working to change linear (open) processes to cyclical
IcSSf process- so that the waste from one mdus-
try is used as an input for another
. seeking to reduce the industrial systems' env.ron-
. mental impacts on ecological systems
. working towards the-harmonious integration of in-
dustrial activity into ecological systems
. industrial svstems being changed to emulate more
efficient and sustainable natural systems
. the identification and comparison of in:
natural systems hierarchies ^ctvmd,
potential study and action (see Table 1)
, substantial activity directed at the product
ing such tools aslife cycle assessment and life
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esign and utilizing"strategies such as pollution
™«£. Activities at other .evels include tocus,ng
on the tracing of the flow of heavy metals through the
ecosphere.
A cross-section of definitions of industrial ecology is
provided in Appendix B. Further work needs to be
Sone in deve.opmg a unified definition of indusmal
ecology. Issues that need to be addressed include.
. Is a'n industrial system a natural system? Some ar-
gue that everything is ultimately natural.
. is industrial ecology focusing on integrating ihdus-.
ST.vsl.ms into natural systems, or is it pnmarUy
attempting to emulate ecological systems? or both.
. Current definition, rely heavily on technical[solu-
tions. Some authors write of indusmal ecplogjas
looking for primarily technical, engineered solutions
otnvfronlntal problem,. Others believe that
changing industrial systems will also require
changes* human behavior and social !*•««.
Whaf balance between behavioral changes and tech-
nological changes is appropriate?
. Is svstems analysis and material and energy accoiint-
ing'the core of industrial ecology?
Teaching Industrial Ecology:
mdustnal ecology can be taught as a se
it can be incorporated into existing courses in schools
of"ngineeringP business, public health and natural
resources. The course can also be offered as an
multidisciplmary' course (the sample ^«» °«"Jl
m this compendium gives one example of mdustnal
Oology presented as a multidisciplinary course) which
SySrf interest due to the multidisciplinary nature
of environmental problems. Degrees m .ndustnal
ecology might be awarded by universities in the
future.12 •
Chauncev Starr has written of the need for schools of
engineering to lead the way in integrating an mterdis-
cSrv approach to environmental problems in the
umre ThF/would entail educating engineers so tat
Should incorporate social, political, environmental
and ionomic factors into their decisions about£e
uses of technology.* Current research •»>*»
environmental education are attempting to integrate
pollution prevention, sustainable development and
I *"*• 1 ,"'r
other concepts-aid strategies1 'into current Curriculum.
Examples include environmental accounting, strategic
environmental management and environmental law. -
Industrial Ecology as a R«id of Ecology:
The term "Industrial Ecology-implies a relationship to
the field(s) of ecology. A basic understanding of
ecology is useful in understanding and promoting
industrial ecology, as industrial ecology draws on
many ecological" concepts.
Ecology has been defined by the Ecological Society of.
America (1993) as:
The scientific discipline that is concerned
with the relationships between organisms> and
their past, present, and. future environments.
TheLFrelationships include physiological re-
sponses of individuals, .structure and dynamics
^populations, interactions among species, or- -
gani^tion of biological commumhes, arid pro- -
fessing of energy and matter m ecosystems.
Further, Eugene Odum has written that:
the word ecology is derived from the
G^k oito m«»m»¥"ho-»«^°°*'.M'i
^^£i£S%£*$£~
cSes hence we can think of ecology as the
stady of the earth's life-support systems."
ndustrial ecology, one focus (or ob,ec:t) o study «
. interrelationships among firms as we 1 as the'
products, processes, at the local, regional national and
gobaUvsL levels (see libkli. These layers ,o
overlapping connections resemble the tood web that
chaSrii the interrelatedness of organisms in
natural ecological systems.
tndustrial ecology perhaps has the closest relahonship
with applied ecology and social ecology. Applu*
ecology has been defined by the Journal of Applied
1 Ecology as the:
ideas, theories
underlying the manage-
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• mentxontrol. and development of bu^gkal re-
of biotechnology. •
The Institute of 'Social Ecology definition of social
ecology states that:
Social ecoloev integrates the study of h^man
l«.
au.
-rh* interrelationships of culture and nature, it
advance"* *rihcal holistic world view and sug-
gests that creative human -enterpnse can ,on-
• struct an alt5nwttvefunw.reharmon.zmg
People's relationship to the natural wo rid. >y
reharrnomzin? their relationship with each
. other. l- ' '
Ecoloev can be broadly defined as the 'study of the
.fractions between the 'abiotic and the ^ompo-
nentsofasvstem. Industrial ecology is the studv Pt .
the mteracttons between industrial and eeolppeal
svstems and consequently addresses the environmen-
al effects on both the abiotic and biotic «»!»«•£ <*
the ecosphere. Additional work needs to be done to
designate industrial ecology's place m theheld of
ecoi^gv. This will occur concurrently with efforts to
better define the discipline and its terminology.
There are many textbooks that introduce ecological
- concepts and principles,, Examples uiclude Robert
Ricklefs- Fundamental* of Ecology.10 Eugene Odum s ,
Lo-« ind Our Endangered Life-Support Systems, and
£cd4v Indivduals. Populations and Commumr^.by -
Michel Begens. John Harper and Colin Townsend.^
Goats of Industrial Ecology
The primary goal of industrial, ecology is to promote
. sustainable development at the global, regnal and
local levels.13 .Sustainable development has been
d^ned bv the United Nations World Commission on
Environment and Development as meeting tNneeds
of the present generation without sacnhcing A. needs
of future generations.^ Key principles .nheren to
, • u uirubto development include: *?**»££
of resources, prese^-.ng ecological and ^man heal*
, e g the maintenance of the structure and function of
ecosystems), and the promotion of environment^
equitv (bothintergenerational and intersocietal)..^
Sustainable Use of Resources:
Industrial ecology should promote the sustainable use
of resources. This would include the sustainable use ot
renewable resources and the minimal use of.non- %- .
. renewable resources. Industrial activity is dependent
ton a steady supply of resources thus industry should
operate as efficiently as possible. Although in the past,
." mankind has found alternatives to diminished raw
materials, it can riot-be assumed that substitutes .will
continue to be found as supplies of certain raw maten-
. als decrease or are degraded.^ Besides solar energy
the supply of resources is finite. Thus the depletion ot
rion'renewable.resources and'the degradation ot
'renewable resource sources must be minimized in
order for industrial activity to be sustainable.in the
long term. . • " ' . ,:• .".'•'.
Ecological and Human Health:
Human beings are only one component in a complex.
web of ecological interactions, thus their activities can
not be separated from the functioning of the entire
system Because human health is dependent on the
' health^of the othfer components, of the ecosystem,
ecosystem structure and function should be a focus of
industrial ecology. It is important that industrial
•-' activities do not cause catastrophic disruptions to
ecosystems or slowly degrade their structure'and
function jeopardizing the planet's life support system.
Environmental Equity:
A primary challenge of sustainable development is
achieving intergenerationai as well as intersocietal
equity. Depleting natural resources and degrading
ecological health in order to meet short term ob,ectives
can endanger the ability of future generations to meet
their needs. Intersocietal inequities also exist as
evidenced bv the large imbalance of resource use -
between developing and developed.countries Devel-
oped countries currently use a disproportionate
amount of resources in comparison with developing
countries. Inequities also exist between social and
economic groups within the U.S.A. Several stud.es
have Town that low income and ethnic communmes
in the U.S., for instance, are often subject to-much
higher levels of human health risk associated with ;
certain toxic pollutants. ;
"Pollution Prsvantion introduction • 5
T . August'994
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Key Concepts of Industrial Ecology
Systems Analysis:
•m
natural systems.
Material and Energy Flows and Transfer-
mations: .
A primary concept of industrial ecology is the study of
material and energy flows and their *»*«».*«
into products, byproducts and wastes throughout
industrial svstems. The consumphon of resources
inventoried along with environmental releases to a,r
water, land and biota. Figures 2,3 and 4 are examples
of such material flow diagrams. One strategy*
industrial ecology is to lessen the amount of waste
matenal and waste energy that is produced and that
™a e the industnal system subsequently Impacting
ecoloeical svstems adversely. For tnstance in Figure 3.
h shows the flow of platinum through vanous
, 83% of the mater.al in automonve> cata^c
within the industrial system c«n«/«. / ,
the overall efficiency of the industrial system and
service to society.
It is useful to understand the dissipation of materials
- (in the form of pollutants) m order to
global scale.-4
bile.'
-6
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BATTERIES
3700
TOTAL
ANNUAL
CONSUMPTION
.5800
WASTE and •
DISCARDED BATTERIES
.1300 ±200
REFINED
LEAD
3300
Solder and Miscellaneous 400
Cable Sheathing 300
Rolled and Extruded Products 500
PIGMENTS 750
Lead in Gasoline - 100
———
' RefininoWiste-SO
Mining Waste
13
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-------
-------
•J> V
"5 —
w . >
V
u
Is
!!
01 0]
&o e
o o
O..H
o ^
u 3
SS. ft
JJ •*•
e u
-4 O
«i o
.§§
(0 "* ••<
4) fc> U'
U)
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TABLE 2 „
Global Flows of Selected Materials-
Material
Minerals
Phosphate
Salt
Mica
Cement
Metals
Al
Cu
' . JPb '
Ni
Sn.
Zn
Steel
Fossil Fuels
Coal
Lignite
Oil 2800
Gas
Water
Flow
(Million metric tons/yr)
Per capita flow"
120
190
280
890
097
8.5
3.4
0.8
0.2
7.0 '
780
1.6 ,
3200
1200
920
41,000,000
0.3
82(X)
. .
-cs (US- Department of the Interior,
copy
, 1993, Prentice Halt New York;
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TABLES
- — : - - - - Smal, TruCk«— Millions of Pounds (1989)
Plastics Used in Cars.VanajndSmall TrucKS- - ____ -
- ' --
Material
Nylon
Polyacetal
ABS
Polyurethane
Unsat PE
Polycarbonate
Acrylic
Polypropylene
PVC
TPPE
Polyethylene
Phenolic
Material
U.S. Auto
141
25
197 .
509
192
50
31
298
187
46
130
19.
595
141
1,243
3,245
1,325
622
739
7,246
8,307
2,101
18,751
3,162
Percent of Total U.S. Consumption (1988)
Lead
Alloy Steel
Stainless Steel
TotalSteel
Aluminum
Copper and Coppsr Alloys
Malleable Iron
Platinum
Natural Rubber
Synthetic Rubber
Zinc
67.3
10.7
12.3
12.2
18.3
10.2
63.8
39.1
76.6
50.1
23.0
Percent of Total
23.7%
17.7%
15.8%
15.7%
14.5%
8.0%
4.2%
4.1%
2.3%
2.2%
0.7% ' .
0.6%
Book. 1990. '
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TABLE 4
Natural
Arsenic (As)
Chromium (Cr)
Copper (Cu)
Lead(Pb)
Mercury (Hg)
Nickel (Ni)
Zinc(Zn).
Anthropogenic
28
580
190
59
0.40
280
360
[210]
[250]
Mobilization Factor
780 28 [3.3]
940 1.6
2,600 14
20,000 340
110 275 [0.44]
980 3.5
8,400 23
nanoa fluxes. For elements with known
missions fln brackets, from land and sea were added
•opogenic emissions = fossil-fuel and-mdustnal-
parnculate fluxes:
M0rton Herbert L Volchok and Ronald A. N. -
pp. 1677-1700, 1982.
Industrial ecology seeks 'to transform
• activities .into a more closed system by
diss.parion oc dispersal of materials rro
^'sources, in the form* pollutants or v- «s mto
l svstems. In the automobile example, it is
. ^
mg the
at the end of the products' life in order to
-possible adverse environmental impacts.
and products. Refer to Chapter's 3 and 4 in GraedeV
and Cbv's text Irtutfnd Ecotosv for exercises in
this subject area.
Multidisciplinary Approach:
W industrial ecology is based on a *°^^
view it is important that there is input and participa
I variety of expertise will be needed. Experts from
taw^Snomiclbusiness. public health, natural
resources, ecology, and engineering will —-. .
ontribute to the development of industrial ecobgy
and the resolution of the environmental problems
caused bv industry. Along with the design and ^
^ ^mentation of appropriate technologies changes
public poUcvrand'law. as well as in mdmdual
behavior will be necessary in order to rectify environ-
mental impacts.
Current definitions of industrialecology rely heavily
on engineered, technologically based solution to
Some see industrial ecology as narrowly rocused on
industrial activity whereas others see ,it as a way to
" view the entire global economic system.
Analogies to Natural Systems:
There are sevetul usefularxalogies between industrial
Sere is a dynamic equilibrium between organisms,
"polluuon Prevennon WtroauCliJn • 9
AuQUSl las**
-------
the various b.ological.
o^amsms Th,s natural system is c
h ehde^s of mtegration and '^connectedness.
There ,s a tood web by which all organisms feed and
pass on waste or are eaten as a food source , by o£r
I^cklefs texts for a more complete description of
ecological principles.)
,t shares the same characteristics as described above
natural systems. A goal ot mdustrial
that exists in nature.
In both natural and industrial systems, cycling of •
nutrients/materials and energy occur. In «*«•**
carbon, hvdrogen and nitrogen cycle,.are.ntegnl to
the functioning and the equilibrium of the enhre
nWral system. Material and energy flows through
various products and processes are integral tothe
functioning of the .mdustrial system. The*flows can
effect the global environment. For example, the
ac^mulanon of greenhouse gases could induce global
climate change. .
The eco-industnal park in
represents an attempt to mode:
—i-_i—i svstem. The firms
rugmy
Figure 1 and Appendix A).
Linear (open) versus Cyclical (closed)
Loop Systems:
I to a type III system as shown in Figure 5.
A tvpe I system is depicted as a linear process in which
materials and energy enter one part of the system and .
then leave either as products or by-products/wastes.
This" vpe I system relies on a large, constant supply of
law materials since wastes and byproducts are not
recycled or reused. This svstem is unsustainable .
unless the supply of materials and energy-,,rmfinte.
Further the ability for natural systems to assimilate
wastes (known as "sinks") is also finite. In, type II
svstem, some wastes are recycled or reused in the
svstem while other wastes still leave the system this
characterizes much of our present day industrial
svstem). A tvpe ID system represents the dynam.c
equilibrium of ecological systems where energy'and
Bastes are constantly recycled and reused by othe
organisms and processes within the system. This is a
highlv integrated closed svstem. In a closed mdustnal
svstem only solar energy would come trom outvie the
svstem while all byproducts would be constant yf .
reused and recycled within. A type in svstem repre
sents a sustainable state and is an ideal goal of mdus-
trial ecology.
Strategies for Environmental Im-
pac Reduction: Industrial Ecology
as a Potential Umbrella for Sustain-
able Development Strategies
Various strategies are used by individuals, firms and
by governments to reduce the environmental impacts
of industry Each activity takes place at a specific
svstems level. Some feel that industrial ecology could
serve as an umbrella for such strategies Others are
wiry of placing well established strategies under the
S of indus'trial ecology which is .till bein,;deve^
oped. Strategies that are related to industrial ecology
are briefly noted below.
at the firm leve an cons
prevention and related concepts.
-------
-------
recycling, treatment or disposal. -
System Tools to Support Industrial
Ecology
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA):
»
• - It is a holistic approach, albeit at me
1 firm, not the industrial system, level.
£«crjro—v-1
Ei A .... .u. .-vironmental consequences of a ^
non, and integration.
m
in me u.j., •>" ••— —
are active in developing LCAs.
COMPONENTS OF AN LCA
jiiier cnv*i-* •»— • ctr*Afeff
streamimed tools that are not as ngorous as LCA i .g.
Canadian Standards Association.)
METHODOLOGY
A Life Cvcle Assessment focuses on the product life
cycle system as shown in Figure 7.
-------
improvement
Assessment
Goal Definition
impact Assessment
- Ecological Health
- Human Health
- Resource Depletion
Materials and Energy Acquisition
Manufacturing
Use .
Waste Management
-------
Engir»«V«d &
Speciality
M«ttrial§__
1
TrMtnwnt
DtopOMl
Open-loop
recycling
Material downcycling
into another product
system
Tb» Earth and Wo«ph«r»
Fugitive and untreated residuals
Airborne, waterbome, and solid residuals
Material, energy, and labor inputs for Pr»«« and
Transfer of materials between stages for Product; includes
transportation and packaging (Dutnbunon)
-------
-Most research efforts have been focused on Vhe inven-
-rv
-------
Life-Cycle Stages
Raw
Materials
Energy
Raw Materials Acquisition
Use;Reuse/Wlaintenance
RecyeieWasw Management
Atmospheric
Emissions
Waterbome
Wastes
Solid
Wastes
Coproducts
Other
Releases
System
Boundary
-------
•^E.CYCLi,NVHNTORY CHEC^ST PART ,-SCOPE AND PROCEDURES
INVENTORY OF:
Purpose at Inventory: ;r.ec< !•< irat i
Private Sector Use , . •
Internal Evaluation and Decision Making • ^
• -.--a,^;r--MMa-.e'-ais =-cducts;ot Activities
-".." .--.' =e in 3e -356 Cc-^=ai son win O'het
' '.' 5- .'ac'-"!' 5 2313 • ' -
=0.,,..-?. -.-i.r-r-; •;: =>--C:.c: 3ro S'OCBSS Design
'Enernai Evaluation and Decision Making
3-.-v-.-a -'create--an aes-orca'^se »n9
iwCi-3-.-i'a S'3'8'-.9fi:s :• 3
- PuW/c Sector UM
Evaluation, and Policy-making
'• Suoport Information tor Policy ani
ton/ Evaluation
Gao losntilication = ,. .,.ii«.anrt
ot Reductions in aespurc«us« and
Releases . ;
Public Education .
' OeveioD SuDport Materials lor Public education
Ass.st .p Curt.cuium O
_ _ «—_,
Peer Rwew i-,ate -,o*:.tc K:»«** a™ -t.ais ol '«VHIW«.
jr 5c;ce
.ngui u/ait" ——•""~~
' \toaei Calculations and Formulas
Results ana Reoorting
Secort may need more detail lor addiuonal UM D«yond
•r- v L.:-g-g'-r.v .3«3--id.'c--is dei.ned purpose .
-------
Procedural Framework
INVENTORY CHECKLIST PART II-MODULE WORKSHEET
. Preparer: ——-—•
LIFE-CYCLE
inventory of
Life-Cycle Stage Description:
Date
Quality Assurance Approval:
MODULE DESCRIPTION:
Data Value131
Data Age/Scope j Quality Measures
MODuiNpyrs
MODULE OUTPUTS
Product
Cooroducts<0
Air Emissions
Process
Fue'-'eiated
water Enluents
Process
Solid Waste
Pr--cess
-------
Energy
1
Raw or
Intermediate
Materials
I.
Atmospheric
Emissions
Water
•»• Products
Transportation
—— -»• Coproducts
Waterborne
Wastes
Solid Waste
.Sourer Franklin Assodatts. Ltd-
-------
General l«u«
Not»:En<3fgy
acquisition and
electricity generation
are nol shown on th«
diagram, although they
are inputs to many of
these processes.
.; Bar Soap Production
flow diagram for bar soap ^___
12.
-------
Classify Inventory Itwm
by
13
-------
From journal o/Owner Production:
General Difficulties and Limitrtons of tit. LCA Methodology
Goal Definition *nd Swing hibltive to smal, «rrn»; tim. required tocondueiLCA
Data evaluation
Sophisticated
Information Transfer
evaluating resource depletion, and human
Z ability to represent the product system
^
effects, and aggregation
rie, is limited because they are incommensurable.
Absent an accepted methodology, results of LCAs can
differ Order of magnitude differences are not uncom-
mon. Discrepancies can be attributed to differences tn
• assumptions and system boundaries.
Regardless of the current limitations, LCAs offer a
promising tool to identify and then implement strate-
gies to reduce the environmental impacts of specific
products and processes as well as to compare the
relative merits of product and process options, How-
ever much work needs to be done to develop, utilize,
evaluate, and refine the LCA framework.
Life Cycle Design (LCD) and Design For
the Environment (DFE):
The design of products shapes the environmental
performance of the goods and services that arc
produced to satisfy our individual and societal
needs •» Environmental concerns need to be more
effective!' ^dressed in the design process in order to
reduce the environmental impacts associated with a
product over its life cycle. Life Cycle Design (LCD), ,
Design For the Environment (DFE) and other similar
initiatives that are based on the product life cycle are
being developed to systematically incorporate these
environmental concerns into the design process. Life
Cvck Desim is "a system's oriented approach for
designing more ecologically and economically• sustouv
ab e^roluct svstems. It couples the product develop-
ment cycle used in business with the physical life cycle
of a product and integrates environmental require-
menl into the stages of design so total impacts caused
by the product systems can be reduced .
Design For the Environment (DFE) is another design
sJTgy which can be used to design P«**» ™*
reduced environmental burden. DFE and LCD can be
difficult to distinguish. Although DFE and LCD have
similar Koals> they evolved from different sources.
Dratvolved from the design for.X (DFX) approach,
where X can represent manufacturabiliity, testability,
reliability, or other downstream «*^onf±r-
arions:42 Braden Allenby has developed a DFE
-
-------
to address the entrte product'life cycle.
os are.sim.lar to those of LCD and.also use a
-------
illll
Acute ciltcii
Chronic eflccu
Mixbitluy /mu
1
•> ,e
11.11
Hill*
*
-------
THE DESIGN PROCESS
b re ovcie design seeks to minimize .the'environmental
consequences/of each of the four components:, product,
process, distribution and management, ot a product -
^.stem 43 Figure u shows the life cycle design and
indicates the complex set of issues and decisions*
required: in LCD . •
The -oal. sustainable development."!? located at the top
H the figure. As this figure shows, both internal and
eternal factors affect the design process. Internal
Mcto'rs including corporate policies and the companies
mission, product performance measures, product'
strategies as well as the resources available to the
company during the design process, all attect the
' ibilitv to utilize LCD. The type of corporate environ-- .
' mental management"system, if any. that a company
»MS greatlv affects the company's designer's ability to
utilize LCD:princ.ples. External factors such as ^
government policies and.reftulations. the'demand tor a
product and consumer preferences, the state ot the
economy, and competition affect the design process.
The scientific understanding and the public perception
of risks associated with the product, also influence the
design process.-'
As «hown in the figure.a typical design project begins
wittva needs analysis, followed by the formulation of
requirements, conceptual design', preliminary design.
detailed design, and implementation. During the
needs analvsis or initiation phase, the purpose and-
.cope ot the project is defined,.and customer needs and
I market demand are clearly identified.44 The system
boundaries t the scope of the project) can either be
comprehensive, (e.g. a full life cycle system), a partial
life system or individual stages of the life cycle.
Understandably, the more comprehensive the system
of study is, the more opportunities for reducing
environmental impact that will be identified. Finally
benchmarking of competitors can be used during the
.needs analysis process to identify opportunities to
': improve environmental performance. This involves
comparing a company's product's and activities with
another company who is considered to be a leader in
the'field or "best in class." •
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Once the projects needs have been established, they are
used in formulating design criteria. This step is otten
•considered/to'be the most important phase in the
' .design.process.. Incorporating key environmental
requirements into the design process as early as
possible can prevent the need for adjustments later on.
that can be costly and time .consuming. A primary _
objective of LCD is to incorporate environmental
requirements into the design criteria along with the
more traditional considerations of performance, cost,
cultural, and legal requirements.
Design checklists comprised of a series of questions are
sometimes used to assist designers in systematica.iy
addressing environmental issues. Care must be taken
to prevent checklists, such as the one in Figure 15,
from being overly time consuming or disruptive to the
' creative process. Another more comprehensive
approach is to use requirement matrices such as the
one shown in Figure 16.
Pollution Prevention Introduction •
-------
onceptu in pract.ce su
,o address requirements more broadly during the
earnest stages of design, or each cell can be tur her
subdivided to'focus requirements in more depth.
Government pol.cies. along with
^n the needs analvs*. also should be
often useful m the long term to set environmental
Semen* that exceed Current regulatory requue-
mems to avo.d costly design changes in the tuwre.
requirements relate to the
trom a product. Cost corresponds to the need
the product to the marketplace at a competi-
Pnce, LCD looks at the cost to various stakehold-
ers such as manufacturers, suppliers, users and end of
life managers. Cultural requirements include the
aesthetic needs such as shape, form, color, texture.and
image of the product as well as specific societal norms
such as convenience or ease of use « Thes« require-
ments are ranked and weighed given a chosen mode of
classification.
DESIGN STRATEGIES
Once the criteria have been defined, the design team
can then use design strategies to meet these require-
ments. Multiple strategies often must be effectively
svnthesized in order to translate these requirements.
nto solutions. A w.de range of possible strategy are
available for satisfying environmental 'eq«'remen
including product svstem life extension, material life
. £tsion, material selection, and efficient distnbunon.
. A summary of these strategies are shown in Elgure U-_
Recycling is often over emphasized.
FIGURE 17
STRATEGIES FOR MEETING ENVIRONMENTAL REQU.REMENTS
MM.UI.I~I- isKSS!**-!*
repa"
Material Life Extension
Material Selection
. Enable remanufacture
• Accommodate reuse
. Specify recycled materials
• Use recyclable materials
. substitute materials
, . Reformulate products
Reduced Material intensity • Conserve resources
Process Management
• process substitution
• process energy efficiency
. process materials efficiency
• Process control
« improved process layout ^ _
. inventory control and material handling
• Facilities planning
. Treatment arid disposal
-------
Efficient Distribution
.Choose efficient transportation
.' Reduce packaging _
. use lo*er impact/reusable packaging
.mproved Management Practices ^^ ^ matofia,8 and equipment efficiently
. Label properly and advertise demonstrable
environmental improvements
DESIGN EVALUATION . :
- Finalist ,s crihcal that the design^valuatedand
whicvh includes cost and performance.
environmental impacts. ^ 8 K .
-=-.--~..-,roninerttal effects based on available .
, information for each life cycle stage. In
addition to an environmental matnx and to^olog
exposure matrix/manufacturing and socia /polrtical
marrices are used to address both technical and non-
technical aspects of design alternatives.
Although it-has been used by companies like AT & T
and MUed Signal, LCD is not-vet widely-practiced but
^ecoU«£-n imporfantappreach for-reducing
environmental burdens- To enhance the use o LCD,
in reducing envirohmental ^rdens appropnate
government policies must be evaluated and estab
fished. In addition, environmental accounting meth
ods must be further developed and'utilized by
industrvCthese methods are often referred to ai• Ufe
Cvcle Costing or Full Cost Accounnng, see Table 6.)
Accounting
Full Cost Accounting
In
Life Cycle Costing
1 .
itonmentt co s,,™ ,nc|Ud. only
„, acli«ity. No. wryon. u«*"^."™'w;;."u,.t, include th. lull ran,, ol
r8rrui£^^^^
direct effect on a firm's bottom line.
if this is not possible,
in military and engi-
ln
a oro
posal. Where possible,
9
-------
Capital Budgeting
priate externalities.
Future Needs for the Development
of Industrial Ecology
ecology is an emergng
development of industrial ecology i
. A clearer definition of the field and its concept* The
definition of industrial ecology, its scope.and*
goals need to be clarified and unihed in order .to be
more useful. The application of systems ana^s
must be further refined. • ' '
. X clearer definition of sustainable development
init constitutes sustainable development and how
,t mieht be achieved, will help define the goals and
bTect-es of industrial ecology. Difficult goals to ad-
SS 1S« w* the maintenance of ecological sys-
tm h'ealth'are intergenerational and intersooetal
equity,
. More participation from a cross section of fields such
as ecolo*v. public health, business, natural resources
and rngSeertag should be encouraged in order to
meeSS of the vast research and information re-
. "ilements needed to identify and implement strate-
gies to reduce environmental burdens.
. Increased curriculum development efforts on sus-
tainable development in professional schools of engi-
neering, business, public health, natural resources.
and law. The role of industrial ecology in these ef-
forts should be further explored and defined^ Deter-
m,ning whether industrial ecology courses should be
discipline specific, interdisciplinary or integrated as
modules into existine courses.
. Further research on the impacts of 'industrial ecosys-
tem activities on natural ecosystems iri order^to iden-
tify what problems need to be resolved and how.
. Greater recognition of .the importance of the systems
approach to identifying and resolving environmental
problems.
. Further development of tools such as life cycle> as-
sessment and life cycle design and design for the en
vironment.
. The improvement of governmental policies that will
sttengtLn incentives for industry to reduce envtron-
mental burdens.
Further Information
Further resources, references and sources of informa-
ttofare provided in other sections of this compen-
dium Please forward any comments or concerns
dir2ly to the National Pollution Prevention Center.
Your input is encouraged and appreciated.
-------
Notes
•993
^^^^l^^^S^'
\*^^M^*™«™^ inflUStnal ECOW
^rreae^ayW. icicles of Systems. Cambridge: Wright-Allan Press.
inders and William
"Allenoy Braden. -Achieving Sustainaoie Development Through
industnal Ecology.' imematmrai Environmental Affairs. -Vbl 4(1) 1991. pp.
- (""7 cfl ' ' '
aaVreeman, Harry. Teresa Harten. Johnny Spnnger. Paul'Randall. Mary
Ann eurran.'and Kenneth Stone, industnal Pollution Prevention: A Crrtol
Review.' Journal ot the Air and Waste Management Association. Voi42.
'No. 5. May 199^. p. 619. ._..'. ^ ...
29 Freeman, p^ 620. - . ' • • .
30 Proeman o -620
•3ijaason'Tim ed Clean P-ooucnon Strategy: Developmg Preventive
environmental Management n tne maustnal Economy. NY: .Lewie
' ^s'SolSironmental Toxicotogists ana Chem.sts Foundation for
Environmental Education. "A Technical Framework for ufe-Cycle _
-.\SS* SBTAC Workshop. Smuggler's Notch. vT is August 1990.
. Oonella H .
MA: Sinauer Associates.
nw DA Tolto. 3.W. Comary. H.C. Latham. C.L. Harnson 7 L
fiou H.<3. Hunt, and J.D Sellers. "Life Cycle Assessment inventory
-Seifnes and Pnnc,ples.' C.nc,nna«: OH: US Environmental Protection
Agency. Bisk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. 1993.
3? Hfciungs R j.B.Guinee.G.HuDpes-R.M.LanKreiier.H.S.Udode
^ A Wegener SleeSw,,k. A.M.M. Ansems. P G. EggeiSp R^ 0«n.
de. 'Environmental Ufe Cycle Assessment of P™d*»--
: Le«len. Netherlands: Center of Environmental Sc,ence.
'
"-'
-------
THE .NDCSTRiAL SYMBIOSIS*! KALUNDBORG. DENMARK
PRESENTED AT
THE NAE .NtERNATiONAL CONFERENCE ON .NDLSTRiAL
ECOLOGY
IRVINE, CALIFORNIA, MAY 9 -13, 1994
"' ' , " " .' ' ; BY "" ': ;'' -
HENN1NG GRANN,5TATOIt
t should be translated into spec,fic action.
concept
-------
« The KaJurtdborg municipality,
, Of all d.stnbut.on of water, electnoty and distnct heaung m the
operator
/ Kalundborg city area.
• - v ~ •
Development of the s)dtbiosi$
-^ . : -ln", w Asnxsv^ct; .ho is the central partner in the symb.os-s ,as,taned
: ".' '-"P.." .'."--.. . ' ' :,' ' '.-.•'
. Inl961 Tidewater Oil Company comm.ssioned the first oil refinery ,n
•-.-::. Denmar, ^^^™*^-^*~«***'
Statoil m 1987 along with Essos ai
' . ^«<*«^
' * . lnl972GyProc«tablisheda^^
O^taMU*-^^
follo.wing ah agreement with the refinery. ,
ln 19?6 Nov6 Nordisk started delivery by special tan* trucks of
* .|l|T|grttT'Ti.-.Mi«Minl.riniTftnnintrnmmuniB : '
v'to ^U^-uto-Bt^^
,waste product) e
-------
The new raw rr*tenal from the pc»er plant result* *
eristics
plant and
as raw
.'increased plaster board quality characteristics
, „ nf
The construction of
by the refinery fcr^liaii^^
by the
Typical characteristics of an effective symbiosis
The pamopating ihdustnes must fit together, but be
agreements are based on comme.c,^ sound pnncip.e,
. | ^
go hand m hand
co-operation with the authonties
'
-------
';„,w plnng
''Ka'U"S'
Future developments
,
comple<«4
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Appendix B
". ' :. ' ,nl „ „ '' ' ' " i,'
Selected Definitions
of Industrial Ecology
, Robert A. "industrial ecology: A Phiiosophi-
i. Hooen«. ^_u—i Academy of
with them. Industrial ecology seeks to-optirmze the
to a* trials cycle from virgin material to hnished
materiaTto component, to product, to waste products,
to ultimate disposal." Characteristics are:^
Sciences 89 (February
-The idea of ah industrial ecology is based upon a
s^ehtforward analogy with natural ecological
" In nature an ecological system operates
web of connections in which organisms live
me each other and each other's waste, the
-temas evolved so that the characteristic of com-
ecology can be best defined as the totality
t of relationships between various indus-
trial activities their products, and the environment.
Traditional, ecological activities have focused^on two
rime aspects of interactions between the industrial
Sities and the environment-the past and the
present. Industrial ecology, a systems view ot the
environment, pertains to the future.
Hileman. Bette. "Industrial Ecology *°ut* l°j^..
GM* Chang* Proposed." Chemical and peer-
ing News (Aug. 24 ,1992), p. 7.
more
be without them."
(December 1992).
the industrial system in the process.
-The aim of industrial ecology «»
eSnTbut that is intrinsically adjusted to the
-------
natural systems, not agamst them .
e Ernest. -industrial Ecology-An Organizing
FrneworMor Environmenta. Managernerj To
Quality Environmental Management. Autumn
f industrial ecology is a simple recogru
osvstems and the global biosphere. the.
loop system. w,th near complete rec
materials." ' . - .
concept requires that an industrial system be viewed
not in isolation from its surrounding systems, but m
concert with them. It is a systems view m which one
seeks to optimize the total materials cycle from v«grn
material, to finished material, to component, to
product, to waste product, and to ultimate d«Posal.
Factors to be optimized include resources, energy, and
capital". • , .
Hawken, Paul. The Ecology of Commerce. New-
York: Harper Business. 1993. . .
"industrial ecology provides for the first time a large-
scale, integrated management tool that designs
ndusmalUastructures 'as if they were a series of
nterlocking, artificial ecosystems mtertacmg with the
-• naturalglobal ecosystem.' For the tirst.hme, industry :s
gomg bevond life-cycle analysis methodology and
applving the concept of an ecosystem to the whdte *
an industrial operation, linking the "metabolism .of
ohe company with that of another . . .
roduced on Hamm«miil Unity DP,
Po.lut.onPr.v.m.onmtr^n^
-------
-------
Pollution Prevention
and industrial Ecology
,.- c«. 'CUUT'OH .BEVE^ON CtW PORHIGHEBEDUC*^
Industrial Ecology Resource List
,The/oItoi«g Books and Articles, Problem Sets, Case Studies, ^'**.
JlM are suggested to faculty who are incorporating mdustnal ecotogy concept
fls possible; please contact us ./you an
materials ,Th:s ^includes resourcesanflaUe fnroug/t t
An asterisk*) indicates taterials described in fts compendium s annotated
bibliography, which is arranged alphabetically., , , •
Books and Articles
Topics: industnal Ecology; Clean Production;
Design for Environmental e-.Cycle Design;
Environmental Accounting. Architecture EconomK*,
••'Management; General Ecology; Industnal Metabolism,
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for Sustainable Development. Changing Course: A
Global Business Perspective on Development and
the Environment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992.
World Commission on Environment and Development
Our Common Future. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1987. . . '
Systems Theory
Boulding, Kenneth E. The World As a Total System. •
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1985..
Forrester, Jay W. Principles of" Systems. Cambridge,
MA: Wright-Allen Press, 1968.
. Industrial Dynamics. Cambridge,' MA; MIT
Press, 1961.
:——-. World Dynamics, Cambridge, MA: Wright-
Allen Press, 1971.
Heim. Joseph A., and W.Dale pompton, eds.,
Manufacturing Systems: Foundations of World Class
Practice. Washington: National Academy Press, 1992.
International Conference on System Dynamics.
Elements of the Systems Dynamics Method, edited
by Joergen Randers. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1,980.
Meadows, Donella H., John Richardson, and Gerhart
Bruckmarm. Groping in the Dark: The First Decade
of Global Modeling. New York: John Wiley, 1982.
Problem Sets
Allen, David T., Nandkamur Bakshani, and Kirsten
Sinclair Rosselot. Pollution Prevention: Homework
and Design Problems For Engineering Curricula.
New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
American Institute for Pollution Prevention, and
Center for Waste Reduction Technologies, 1992.
155 pp. (Cost: $35. To order, call AlChE Customer
Service at 800/242-4363.)
Graedel,T.E., and B.R. Allenby. Industrial Ecology.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995. (*)
Case Studies
Hart, Stuart, and Susan Svoboda. McDonald's-EDF
Environmental task Force Case Study: "Case A:
McDonald's Environmental Strategy," "Case B1:
The Clamshell Controversy," "Case B2: McDonald's
Decision," and "Case C: McDonald's Sustaining
- McDonald's Environmental Success." 1995. &
Videos
McDonaid's-EDF Environmental Task Force. 1993.
Second Victory at Yorktdwn. 1994. A ,
•• 'March :1995
-------
Syllabi
Andrews. Clmton. WwS S89: Method^
and Technology Policy. Woodrow Wilson School,
Princeton University. Spring 1993.
School, Princeton University- Fall 1 992- <*
Brewer Garry, and Stuart L. Hart. CS 564 /NRS13:
IS* for Environmental Management. The
University of Michigan. Winter 1994. «&
Clark William. Michael McElroy, and Robert Frosch.
ESPP 98/ ENR 204: Environmental Sconce and
Pubtic Policy- Reducing Industrial Wastes. John F
KenntdV Soo. of Government. Harvard University.
Spring 1994. &
im Fave Proposal fora Curriculum in Ecological
DeveTprnlnt Economics. New York University,
March 1993. &
Frosch, Robert. William Clark, and Michael McElroy.
ENR 204/ESPP90A: Industrial Ecology ^ Green
Design. John F. Kennedy School of Government,
Harvard University, Spring 1995. 4&
Keoleian Gregory A. SNRE 501: Industrial Ecology:
e. The University of Michigan,
Winter 1995. A
Sdcoiow, R.H. PA 525/MAE 559: Introduction To
Energy and Environmental Problems. Harvard
University, Spring 1994. A
Faculty
David Allen, Professor
5531 Boelter Hall
Dept. oi Chemical Engineering -
University of CalHomia-Los Angeles
405 Hilgard Ave.
Los Angeles. CA 90024
310/206-0300
E-mail: dallen@seas.ucla.edu
Braden Allenby. Research Vice President .
AT&T. Engineering Research Center
RoomPR2-308l •
Princeton, NJ 08542-0900
609/639-1234 (extension 2244)
Clinton J. Andrews, Professor
Woodrow Wilson School
Princeton University
Princeton.-NJ 08544-1013
609/258-4835
E-mail: candrews@princeton.edu
Jesse Ausubel, Director
Program for the Human Environment
The Rockefeller University
1230 York Avenue, NR 403
New York, NY 10021-6399
04 O/32T-7917
E-mail: ausubel@rockvax.rockefeller.edu
Faye Duchin, Director -
. institute for Economic Analysis
New York University
269 Mercer St., 2nd floor
New York, NY 10003
212/998-7480
E-mail: duchinf@acfcluster.nyu.edu
John R. Ehrenfeld, Professor.
Ctr for Technology, Policy, and Industrial Dvlpmt.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
77 Massachusetts .Ave.
RoomE40-241
Cambridge, MA 02139
61.7/253-1694
Robert A. Frosch
j F Kennedy School of Government
Center for Science and International Affairs
Harvard University
79 J.F. Kennedy Street
Cambridge, MA 02138
617/495-8132
E-mail: frosch@ksgbbs.harvard.edu
Thomas Gladwin, Professor
Management and International Business
Stem School of Business
'New York University
New York, NY 10012
212/998-0426
Thomas E. Graedel, Senior Scientist
AT&T Bell Laboratories
Room1D-349
600 Mountain Ave.
Murray Hill, NJ 07974-0636
908/582-5420
8 • Resourcs List
Marcn 1995
-------
Victor ibeanusi. Assistant Professor
Biology Department •
Spelman College ' ' •
350 Spelman Lane SW
Atlanta, G A 30314
; 404/223-7641
Polytechnic University
Brooklyn, NY 11201-2990
718/260-3208
.
Department of Civil and Environmental
MIT, Building 48-305 .
77 -Massachusetts Aye.
Cambridge, MA 02139-4307
617/253-1992 s
Gary O'Neal, Director,
Environmental Sustainability
EPA Region 10 ,,-..'.
1200 6th Ave.
Seattle, WA 981 01
206/553-1792.
C. Kumar N. Patel. Vice Chancellor for Research
University of California
Office of the Chancellor
Murphy Hall, Room 21 38
405 Hilgard Ave. ' ,
, Los Angeles CA 90024-1 1405
Donald R. Sadoway, Professor
Department of Materials Science and Engtneenng
MIT, Room 8-1 09
77 Massachusetts Ave.
Cambridge, MA 02139
617/253-3487 .
Bernice Scott. Assistant Professor
Economics Department
Spelman College
350 Spelman Lane SW
Atlanta, GA 3031 4 '
; 404/223-7580
Robert H. Socolow, Director '•
- Center for Energy and Environmental Studies
H1 04 Engineering Quadrangle
Princeton University
Princeton, NJ 08544
609/258-5446 "
,.-,•'« ••' . •
"Valerie Thomas
Center for Energy and Environmental Studies
H102 Engineering Quad
Princeton University
Princeton, NJ 08544-5263
609/258-4665 . '
E-maH: vmthorhas@pucc.princeton.edu
Paul Shriyastava, Professor .
Management Department
Bucknell University
Lewisberg, PA 17837 •':-;-
717/524-1821
E-mail: shrivast@bucknell.edu
Organizations :
. ' ~ ' - i .* *
.nHinn npvslopment is "an international design and
development company creating and redeveloping
industrial parks and facilities that optimize both envi-
ronmental and economic performance," Products
and services include research and consultation;.
design and development; seminars and training; and
proprietary design and management tools (including
software) to support the design and management of
ecological industrial parks, complexes, and facilities.
Customers include real estate developers and eco-
nomic development agencies For information, contact
Dr. Laurence .Evans
168 Chadwick Court, Suite 201
North Vancouver, BC. V7M 3L4
. 604/987-0103 (fax: 604/987-5663) _
Internet: ievans@web.apc.org
Ernest Lowe
6423 Oakwood Dr.. •" , .- . .
Oakland, CA 94611-1350
510/339^1090
Internet e-mail: elowe@patrr.met
Econet or AOL e-mail: elowe
CompuServe e-mail: 72537,1454
-------
Original produced on Ham-mermill Unity DP,
a 50% post-consurher/50% pre-consumer recycled paper
made from de-inked old newspapers and magazines.
Published by:
The National Pollution Prevention Center
for Higher Education
University of Michigan. Dana Building
430 East University Ave.
Ann Arbor. Ml 4B109-1115 :
• Phone: 313-764-U12
• Fax: 313-936-2195
• E-mail: nppcOumich.edu
The mission of the NPPC is to promote sustainable development
by educating students, faculty, and professionals about pollution
prevention; create educational materials; provide tools and
strategies for addressing relevant environmental problems; and
establish a national network of pollution prevention educators.
In addition to developing educational materials and conducting
research, the NPPC also offers an internship program. proies:
sional education & training, and conferences.
10 • Resourca List
March 1995
Your Input Its Welcomel
We are very interested in your feedback on these matenais.
Please take a moment to offer your comments and communicate
them to us. Also contact us if you wish to receive a documents
list order any of our materials, collaborate on or review NPPC
resources, or be listed in our Directory of Pollution Prevention
in Higher Education.
We're Going Online!
The NPPC provides information on its programs and educational
materials through the Internets Worldwide Web; our URU is:
http://www.snre.umifih.edu/
(click on National Pollution Prevention Center)
We may also update the NPPC information available through
gopher (gopher.snre.umich.edu) and anonymous FTP
(ftp snre.umich.edu). Please contact us if you have comments
about our online resources or suggestions for publicizing our
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-------
Pollution Prevention and
Industrial Ecology
•m t imftM •ftCVEMTtOM
CEWTW *0* HittMCT EOUCA-nO*:
Course Syllabi
Methods in Science and Technology Policy .
, Clinton Andrews, Princeton University
Domestic Policy Analysis: Environmental Planning
Clinton Andrews, Princeton University
Strategies for Environmental Management
Garry Brewer and Stuart L Hart,
University of Michigan
Environmental Science and Public Policy:
Reducing Industrial Waste ' -
William Clark, Michael McElroy, and Robert Froscn,
, Harvard University
Proposal for a Curriculum in Ecological and
Development Economics
Faye Duchin, New York University
Industrial Ecology and Green Design '„-,„-,
Robert Frosch, William Clark, and Michael McElroy,
Harvard University
Industrial Ecology: Theory and Practice
Gregory A. Keofeian, University of Michigan
' introduction to Energy and Environmental Problems
R. H. Socotow, Princeton University
National PoButtor Pr»v«n«on Cartar tor l*8t«r f*S*** *i -•-
Dana Builoing, s.,0 EastUnivMiity, AimArtwMl 48109-ltiS
Phon«T3137M.l4l2 • Fax: 313.936^195 • E-mail: -ope«umWu«lu
MayMrepnxkXMd
frMly tor non-comnMfti
educational purpotM.
PoMutton Prtvtnaon SyHatt
Mareft1995
-------
Original produced on Hammermill Unity DP,
a 50% post-consumer/50% pre-consumer recycled paper
'm«i;'ft«m' de-inked old newspapers and magazines.
-------
Pollution Prevention and
Industrial Ecology
Methods in Science and
Technology Policy
Clinton Andrews
WWS5S9, Spring 1993 .
Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University
National Pollution Prevention Center for
May Be r«p«x)uc»d
freely lor non-conwwrctal
educational putpoMS.
Andrews 1
January 1995
c-v .
-------
-------
Princeton Uruversity
Woodrow Wilson School
Graduate Program , ;'
Sorine Term - 1993
- Methods ' Professor Clinton Andrews
Policy - Fridays, 9:00 am - 12:10 pm
< This course introduces a set of tools that are widelyused1 by .- -
practitioners of science and technology policy analysis The focus is on the
development of an operational understanding of applied techniques for
modeUnT risk assessment, and technology assessment This course
mpK
requirement for the Certificate in Science, Technology and Public Policy,
Major topics include the following: ,
Modeling: This module introduces- a set of widely applicable modeling
tools starting on the back of ah envelope with order-of-magrutude .
estoa*ontiaLpro^^
in dynamic systems. We learn to develop growth projections with , an
emphasis on -disaggregate "bottom-up" approaches that contrast withjte
more aggregate "fop-down" methods popular in economics. We -«=T^ .
oTselv!! with STELLA 11. a popular computer package for analyzing dynamic
sy^nTan™
by design or by accident, we examine two limiting applications: conditions of
exponential population and/or economic growth under *PP^*£™* .
cons^aints, and growth in technological capability relative to the scales at
which natural systems operate.
isk Assessment: Many science and technology policy decisions .
uncertainty and significant hazards. This module introduces a set of
PsS
military, and industrial applications. We critically explore ^ ^^^L
methods of probabilistic r£k assessment and "P0^,"""^1^ ??
Tedal problems of non-threshold risks such as carcinogens. We foc^s _on
pSre evant aspects of those tools, specifically risk perceptions and nsk-
benelt analysis applications. Finally, we examine ^ues.°* ^tical
legitimation, including risk communication and prioritization.
AsseSsment: The wide-ranging field of ^^gn and
™
T^hnninflY Assessment: The wide-ranging fieldf of technology^ ^
assessment addresses project evaluation Su65*0*8^^* p^?t ° '
-------
multi-criteria analysis, with a special focus on demand-side options. Product
evaluation emphasizes the societal implications of consumer product design
choices Using life-cycle analysis and materials balance accounting methods,
we examine a set of classic product design questions (Styrofoam vs. paper
cups). .
Innova tion does not instantly transform the industrial landscape. It
must penetrate the marketplace. Thus we introduce a set of market
assessment methods, and models of technology life-cycles, diffusion, and
transfer. Informing real decisions - often nearly in real time -is also one of
the key tasks of practicing policy analysts. We examine methods for
structuring decisions to allow quantitative analysis of policy options, relevant
uncertainties, and decision makers' preferences, for both the individual and
multi-party decision contexts. Finally, we end the semester with a look at
research management tools - productivity indicators and methods of
portfolio evaluation - used at the point where science meets technology
under the influence of policy. ;
Prerequisites: Students should be
concepts at least at the level of WWS 507b, and preferably WWS
although equivalent preparation is acceptable with penrussionof ^the
instructor. A background in microecononucs at the level of WWS 511b i»
recommended. Students should also have basic farniUanry ™* .
microcomputer tools such as spreadsheets, and should be comfortable witfi
the Macintosh platform. Tutorials on the use of the Apple Macintosh, the
Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, and the Lotus 123 spreadsheet are available in to
computer room.
•rnnr^P Requirements: There will be one three-hour class session each
week: Half of eaHx session will be a formal lecture devoted to concepts, and
the other half will be a highly participatory pfacticum. Depen j^ <»»•
week, the practicums will consist of in-class exeroses, topical drawm or a
review of questions on the homework. Grades will be based on ten bnef
S5 ^assignments, essentially one per week (75%), and a short research
paper (25%). The homework assignments, some involving miaocoi mputer
work, will consist of short exercises (1 or 2 pages) apples *« me*°£s
learned to simplified cases. Homework ^\g™en* ™?J* iU'v°
Monday afternoon following each Friday's class, so that they may
time for the next class. In the final paper (length * 15 pages [
one or more of the techniques learned to a science and technology
problem of your own choosing.
-------
of Classes
Date Topic
.2/5 Introduction and overview, order-of-magnitude estimation
2/12 Modeling I: Qrpwth projections, bottom-up vs. top-down approaches ..
2/19 ' Modeling II:. Stocks and Hows, natural scales and human impacts
, 2/26 Modeling,!!!:' Dynamics of systems, monitoring and feedback loops
3/5 Risk Assessment I: Modeling risks, actuarial, epidemiological, and
probabilistic risk analysis approaches
3/12 Risk Assessment II: Policy analysis, risk-benefit analysis, psychometrics
3/26 Risk Assessment III: Political legitimation, communicating and.
prioritizing risks
4/2 Technology Assessment I: .Project evaluation, benefit-cost analysis,
multi-criteria analysis "'•••'.
4/9 Technology Assessment II: Product evaluation, life-cycle analysis,
materials balance accounting
4/16 Technology Assessment III: Diffusion & transfer, regulation, market
analysis, vintaging issues
4/23 Technology Assessment IV: Structuring decisions, decision analysis, '
uncertainty, multi-party context
4/30 Technology meets science (in R&D), summary and wrap-up
\ - - ' - ,
Books, recommended for purchase (but also on reserve in the WWS .
library) include the following:
- J Consider a Spherical Cow: A Course *» Environmental
Problem Solving. Los Altos, CA: William Kaufmann Inc., 1985.
High Performance Systems, SIELL^n, software for the Macintosh,
student package, Hanover NH: High Performance Systems, 1992.
Krimsky, S., and D. Golding, eds. Sonal Theories of Risk, Westport CT:
Praeger,1992
'73
-------
„
Meadows, D. H., D. L. Meadows, and J. Randers,
Chelsea Green: Post Mills, VT, 1992.
Limits,
I" ' .;
pate
11 " „ i • , 'I'lil'l !' ,
2/5 Theory: Introduction and overview
Practice: Order-of-magnitude estimation
''.'. „ i M'i!'i : ,i ' • . ' • • i • ,'• • • '•• n , , ;• , • • h,
2/12 theory: Modeling I: Growth projections
Practice: Bottom-up vs. top-down approaches
: „
Beading:
Irueckebere, t>. and A. SUvers (1974J Ttrh^n '^Mnfag 'Analysis;
- John Wiley & Sons, New York, Chapter 8:
Projecting Population, pp. 259-287.
fa.
1 NIeadows, and J. Randers;
, .
». VT, 1992, d, 1 (overshoot) and 2 (the
driving force: exponential growth), pp. 1-43.
; Office of technology Assessment, Qianging
'^^SfS^^^^^ C^482; ^siungton .
;;:.GoPt Printing Office, ^chapters 1 (summary) and 4 (the buddings
sector), pp. 1-42, H3-145.
Edmonds, I and J- ReiUy (1983), "A long-term global energy-economic
model of carbon dioxide'release from fossil fuel use, Engrgx
gconomics. April issue, pp. 74-88.
Jackson J (1988), The Commercial Energy Demand Modeling
System," Holyoke MA: NEPOOL, pp. 1-11,23-60.
issue, pp. 10-15
-------
Tn -Class Practicum: , . •
Compare the policy-relevant strengths and weaknesses of energy
SSLs that are "bottom-up" (OTA, J. Jackson) versus "top-down
(Meadows, Edmonds & Reilly). , :
Assignment (Hu? 2/15/93):
n-inr fhr ^^~' AH^C* of the United States (on reserve in the J
VSAvl Library) as your data source, .estimate the total population of the
United States in the Year-2020, using (a) a "top down"
exponential, or asymptotic modeling approach; and 0>)
up- cohort-survival method. This is easiest to do "W^
r- a Lotus 123 Excel). A good tutorial also on reserve at the
££ar^^
WWS 1989. Comment briefly (a paragraph or two) on the differences
among your results, and how they compare with government
projections found in the pre-1992 Statistical Abstracts.
2/19 Theory: Modeling II: Stocks iah* flows
Practice: Natural scales and human impacts
Required Reading
So^in^ Los Altos, CA: WiUiam Kaufmann Inc., 1985, pp. 21-
"
64-
Meadows D. H., D. L. Meadows, and J. Randers, Beyond the Limits,
': Post Mills, VT, 1992, eh. 3 (the limits: sources and
sinks), pp. 44-103.
High Performance Systems, V^ftorii^^^y
Hanover NH: High Performance Systems, 1992, ch. 1-6, -pp
Reading
Parti. ( . : .'••.;. '• .'
- •• , ' ' '• ' ' *
In-Class Practicum; ,.
test the STELLA H systems dynamics modeling package.
-------
(due 2/22/93):
a stock-and-flow model of a system of your choice using the
iTlI package. Prepare a brief (about one page) explanation of
rhodeUand hand in the model and explanation on a floppy disk.
2/26 Theory: Modeling III: Dynamics of systems
Practice: Monitoring and feedback loop«
Readings:
Toskow P L and D. B. Marron, "What does a hegawatt really cost?
l^de^e from utility conservation programs," F.nergy Ipurnal, vol.. 13,
no. 4, pp. 41-74.
Meadows, D. R, D. L. Meadows, and J. Randers, ^yond the Limits,
Sea (ireen: Post Mills, VT, 1992, ch. 4-7, AppencUx, pp. 104-217, 237-
"253." • •' '.....^ ...... ". ' " ;' ...... ' ^ .',' '.. ....... .., , \ ,
High Performance Systems, Induction
High Perormance ys, al7D
Hanover NH: High Performance Systems, 1992, ch. 7-9, pp. 103-170.
Readiny
As an engineering-oriented alternative to Joskow & Marron. Pels, M.
F and CL Reynolds, 'Toward standardizing the measurement of
In-Class PractJcuim
Test the Worlds model using STELLA n.
3/1/93):
-------
changed and why (in about one page). Hand in a disk with your
revised model and evaluation.
. ' : ' ' \ . ''•"'.
Theory- Risk Assessment I: Modeling Risks
Practice: Actuarial, Epid«miologicalf and ProbabilbHc Risk Analysis
Approaches
Required' Reading: -
Renn, (X "Concepts of risk: a classification," ch. 3 in Krimsky, S, and D.
Golding, eds-> SodaiTheonesofRisk, Westport CT: Praeger, 1992, pp.
53-79.' ;• ' ^ ..".'.' , /
; Billinton, R., and R. N. Allan, Reliability Evaluation °
Systems: Concep^ anri Techniques. New York: Plenum Press, 1983, ch.
4, 5, pp. 62-123. -
Dougherty, E. M., and J.'R, Fragola, Human RtfliabjUtY Analy$is, New
York: John Wiley & Sons, 1988, Appendix, pp. 189-202.
Marsh, G: M., and R. Day, "A model standardized risk assessment
protocol for use with hazardous waste sites," Environmental Health
Perspectives, vol. 90, 1991, pp. 199-208.
US. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Risk Assessment '
Huidance for Superfund: Human Health Pvaluation Manual. Part A,
Washington DC: EPA, December 1989. .
Recommended Reading:
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, FnvironmentarR^k: Your
anri Redudng Risk. Washington: USGPO, 1991-
545-607, 16 pp.
Billinton, R., and R. N. AUan, g>«»hilitv Evalnarion of Engineering
and Techniques, op. dt, ch. 1,2, pp. 1-35.
In-Class Practicum:
Work through an example using the EPA RAGS method.
Assignment (due 3/12/93):
Each of four working groups will evaluate one of ^^Pf^^
to the EPA Unfinished Business report, and be prepared to share their
7
-------
findings with the class as a whole during next week's class, taking no
more than 20 minutes per group.
3/12 Theory: Risk Assessment II: Policy Analysis
Practice: Risk-benefit analysis, Psychometrics
... i " Jill ,;, , '" i '.,.,, " . , ,'' ; ,,i ' • »i i • , ' • • • i'1.; , . " . >': * ,„ .; i ^ . . , i ,j
Required Reading:
kail I. V;, A. M. Winer, Ivt f. Kleinman, F. W. Lurman, V. Brajer, S.
D> colome, "Valuing the health benefits of clean air," geiOTfife. vol. 255,
14 February 1992, pp. 812-817.
Slovic, P:, "Perception of risk: reflections on the psychometric
paradigm," ch. 5 in Krimsky, S., and D. Goiding, eds., fricial Theones of
Risk, Westport CT: Praeger, 1992, pp. 117-152.
von Winterfelt, D., "Expert knowledge and public values in risk
management: the role of decision analysis," ch. 14 in Knmsky, S., and
D. Goiding, eds., **•»•! Thaartei of Risk. Westport CT: Praeger, 1992,
-, pp. 321-342. ' ' ' " •••••• _ .
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy Analysis and
Office of Policy, Planrung, arid Evaluation TTnfin^hed Busmes^: A
oy ,l
Report and Appendices HV, Washington DC: USEPA, 1987. Read .
overview and appendix appropriate for your working, group.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Science Advisory Committee,
p^.i-ino Risks: Setting Priorities and St~V»r0
-------
Assignment (Hug 3/22/93): "
Prepare a one page term paper abstract.
Spring Break
3/26 Theory: Risk Assessment III: Political Legitimation
Practice: Communicating and Prioritizing Risks
Readins:
Nero, A., Jr., "Controlling Indoor Air Pollution," Scientific American.
May 1988, pp. 42-48. - - .
Kasparson, R. E., "The social amplification of risk: progress in
developing an integrative framework," ch. ;6 in Krimsky, S., and D.
Golding, eds., Sngai Theories of Risk. Westport CT: Praeger, 1992, pp.
153-178. , '".'-."
Freudenburg, W. R., "Heuristics, biases, and the not-so-general publics:
expertise and error in the assessment of risks," ch. 10 in Krimsky, S.,
and D. Golding, eds,, Social Theories of Risk. Westport GT: Praeger,
1992, pp. 229-249.
Chess, C, M. Tamuz, A. Saville, and M. Greenberg, "Reducing
uncertainty and increasing- credibility: the case of Sybron Chemicals
Inc.," Industrial Crisis Quarterly, vol. 6, 1992, pp. 55-70.
Greenberg, M., and D. Wartenberg, "Communicating to an alarmed
community about cancer clusters: a fifty state survey," Journal qf
Community Health, vol. 16, no. 2, April 1991, pp. 71-82.
Greenberg, M., and D. Wartenberg; "Newspaper coverage of cancer
dusters," HMHh gducaHon Quarterly, vol. 18(3), Fall 1991, pp. 363-374.
Recommended Reading:
Wynne, B., "Risk and social learning: reification to engagement," ch. 12
in Krimsky, S., and D. Golding, eds., Social Theories of Risk. Westport
CT: Praeger, 1992, pp. 275-297. .•
i • ' -. - •
Greenberg, M., H. Spiro and R. Mclntyre, "Ethical Oxymora for Risk
Aec0-ecr^0»f Prarririnn^." Accountability in Research, vol. 1, Gordon
& Breach Science Publishers S.A., pp. 245-257.
-------
In-Class Practicurfu
Classroom discussion of Radon problem.
Assignment (due 3/29/93):
Write a one page guidance for risk communication practitioners,
specifying, in cookbook fashion, a process for informing the public
policymaking process about a hazard of your choice.
4/2 Theory: Technology Assessment I: Project evaluation
Practice: Benefit-cost analysis, multi-criteria analysis
• Required Reading:
•• ••' «! •: • • ;. ,i ;, ;" •.'•:. • '. '; J'. : ; v ; •' ../> . ' I "
Schpfield, J., Cost-Benefit Analysis in Urban and Regional Planning.
London: Allen and Unwin, 1987, pp. 1-77 (eh. 1- 6).
DeGonno, E., W. Sullivan and J. Bontadelli (1988), Engineering
Economy, 8m edition, New York NY: MacMUlan and Co., pp. 23-59
(chapter 2).
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Cost-benefit analysis of
Hemand-side planning alternatives. EPRI-EM-5068, prepared by
Decision Focus Inc., Palo Alto CA: EFRI, 1987.
Andrews, C J., "The marginality of regulating marginal investments:
why we need a systemic perspective on environmental externality
Idders," Energy Policy. voL 20, no. 5, May 1992, pp. 450-463.
Recommended Reading:
U S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration,
Annual Outlook far Elertrig Power 1985. DOE/ELA-0474(85),
Washington DC: USGPO, pp. 1-26,47-58 (ch. 1-3, Appendix A).
In-Class Pracu'cum;
Comparison of alternative electric power system investments.
Assignment (due 4/5/93);
Limiting yourself to about one page, sketch out an electric utility
integrated resource planning decision technique and provide a sample
1 " " • ' • ' u r
. . " •' :.' . '. '' '" •'" '-•"' 10 ' ''" ' ' ' ' ' "
-------
calculation demonstrating how environmental factors are, taken into
account. ,
4/9 Theory: Technology Assessment H: Product evaluation
ttactice: Life-cycle analysis/materials balance accounts
Reading:
t. "Ufecvcle^ assessments
nvmnmena
still too green to be used in product certifications," vol. 2, no. 4,
November 25, 1991, pp. 1-2.
Ailenby, B. R-, "Design for environment: ^^J^Sj6
Q0mirnnductor **<*£ Association Toumal. September 1991,
DA andG. Fbo, "Design for X (DFX): key to competitive,
g^uS/AI^^^^ I*™*. May/June 1990, pp. 2-13.
Sodety of Environmental Toxicology and Ghemistry (SETAC), "A
technical frame work for life-cycle assessmente," ^^1990 workshop
proceedings, SETAC Foundation, Pensacola FL, January 1991.
Hocking, M. B., "Paper vs. polystyrene: a comptex^oicj" S^nce,
251:504-5 F 1 '91; and subsequent discussion: 252:1361-3 je 7 »i.
US Coneress Office of Technology Assessment; Green Products by
hf^^S^r a Cleaner F.nvirpnment, OTA-E-541, Washington
.
DC:USGPO, 1992, pp. 3-20 (executive summary).
Practicum:
'Test Volvo Corporation's environmental indexing tool.
Alignment (due 4/12/93}:
Design a:multi-criterion environmental rating scheme ^
wi* mass marketed consumer products, and provide an l
example. Limit yourself to about one page.
11
-------
n 6 Theorv Technology Assessment III: Diffusion fc transfer
' -SSX: iSnWiS, market analysis, vintaging .ssues
,4"!!: • - ; ' ,, , ' , \ .',1: .. ' ;;, '• .•.••', ''.••• ! .
Reading
Linstone, and Sahall (1976V Vgchn^ Chapters 1,13.
Lee T and N. Nakicenovic (1987), technology Life Cycles and
,
Laxenburg Austria.
Wells, L. (1972), 'Tne Product Life^ ^^^^J^' rf^wch,
Harvard Business School, Cambridge MA, pp. >33.
( Kroeten (19^3), ''Electric Vehicles: Market '
' Externalities," Trrhr?1?^™1 Forecasting ajxd
fc*» L* W fcAV^»* «*^ 4 ff *% *
ial Change, Vol. 24, pp. 137-152.
''•^'•'.IA'I^
27, pp. 385-397.
ffacticum:
Discussion
A/ 19/93):
Required Reading:
12
-------
Andrews, C. J., "Sorting out a consensus: analysis in support of multi-
party d«*-i<»'">"* " Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design.
vol. 19, 1992, pp. 189-204, , - 'v - ,. ;
Keeney, R. and H. Raiffa, Decisions with multiple objectives:
preferences, and value tradeoffs. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1976,
pp. 31-65, 436-472/515-547 (Ch. 2, 8, 10).
Recommended Reading:
Andrews, C. ]., and S~. R. Connors, "Existing capacity - the key to
emissions." Energy Systems and Policy, vol. 15, pp.. 211-235.
In-Class Practicum: ' . .
Design of "an integrated resource planning process for the electric power
sector. ,
Assignment (due 4/26/93): , •
Apply the STELLA II diffusion model you developed above under
conditions of controversy and uncertainty. Demonstrate how you will
address these issues". Briefly (about 1 page) explain your method and
key results, and hand in the model and explanation- on a floppy disk.
4/30 Theory: Technology meets science (in R&D)
Practice: Summary and wrap-up
Required Reading: . '.-'
Kline, S.J., and D. E. Kash, "Do we need a technology policy?," IEE1
\ Technology and Society Magazine, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 18-25. ,
Markusen, A., and J. Yudken, "Building a new economic order,"
technology Review; vol. 95, no. 3, April 1992, pp. 22-30.
Rothwell, R., "The impact of regulation on innovation: some U.S.
data," tgrhr.nlngical Forecasting and Social Change, vol. 17, 1980, pp. 7-
'34. ' . •-•{ ,. ;.. '. • . ' .. ^ '-,:
Sutherland, R.,." An analysis of the USDOE civilian R&D budget,"
Energy Journal, vol. 10, no. 1, May 1989. ,
13
-------
Viftiite D W., C J. 'Andrews/arid N. W. Stauffer, "The new team;
electri'dty Without global warming," T^chnplogy Review, vol. 95, no. 1,
1 January 1992, pp. 42-50.
M I <".'r..har. Modern Portfolio Theory' and Investment
York: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 261-2W, b71-
. 11,22).
Reading:
Intingh, D. j-Vc. T Andrews; D. C. Kenkeremath, J. E. Mock, F. T. Ja^
Vh^ Marketplace, Meridian /ICFAR, Alexandria VA, 1987
Tn-Class Practicurni
ReVise the energy R&D portfolio for the United States.
5/16 Final Paper.Due
14
-------
Pollution Prevention and
Industrial Ecology
. PCU.-"ON "E^-JT'O*C8MTEH cga
Domestic Policy Analysis:
Environmental Planning
Clinton Andrews
WWS 527a. Fall 1992 - .
Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University
Na,,ona, Poft,oon Pr.v.n«on Cwnrlor M.gnar Educaon,. Umv.r»«ty o. Michigan
May b« reproduced
freely for non-comrr.«raal
Andrews 2
January 1995
-------
-------
Princeton University
Woodrow Wilson School
Graduate Program
Fall Tern - 1992
WWS527a l - ' Professor Clinton Andrews
Domestic Policy Analysis: -. Office: 204 Robertson Hall
Environment Planning .Telephone: 8-4835
Thursday 1:00-4:10pm
The purpose of this course is to explore environmental issues from the planner's perspective,
highlighting the institutional, perceptual, procedural and technical factors that influence environmental
decisionmaking. It introduces a set of key environmental topics and then puts them into the planning
context using case studies and in-class exercises. While the course works with scientific and technological
data, the focus ,is on how planners manage such information" rather than how experts generate it. It
differs from environmental policy offerings in devoting a significant amount of time to the exploration
of systematic approaches to decisionmaking and the development of technically defensible arguments.
Major topics are addressed at two levels: first with an overview lecture on conceptual issues
(during the first hour-and-a-half of class), and then with a case or exercise emphasizing practical
considerations (during the remaining hour-and-a-balf). General issues include the following: planning
philosophy, environmental externalities and she role of government, conceptions of nature and resources,
public participation, scientific uncertainty and risk, systems thinking, regulatory design and industry
response, and technological optimism.
Practical skills developed during this course include aspects of site evaluation, land use planning,
demand forecasting, systems simulation, impact assessment, risk assessment, cost-benefit analysis, multi-
criteria analysis and communicative planning. These skills will be applied in cases that provide exposure
to the different levels of environmental planning: a local siting problem, a state land use controversy,
a regional energy debate, and a global environmental issue.
Much of the context for today's environmental debates is affected by the first generation of
environmental regulation, which was based on negative prescriptions, static perceptions of both
technology and the environment, and adversarial interactions. This course acknowledges that history.
but focuses more on the needs of an evolving second generation approach to environmental planning
These include the design of regulations to better harness market forces and encourage technological
innovation, recognition of the dynamic behavior of natural, and technological systems, and a need to plan
in ways that produce stable, fair and efficient tradeoffs among multiple objectives.
Course requirements include participation in classroom cases/exercises and discussions, including
development of brief in-class presentations^! short written handouts (30%). a mid-term «^ »0*h
and preparation of a term paper on an environmental planning subject due at the. end of reading period
(50%). . , - , ',''.: : '
-------
of topics. Reading, i«it>" Assignments
9/17 Theory: Introduction and Course Overview
Practice: Introductory Case Study
9/24 Theory: Planning Philosophy, Thii Role of Government,
Practice: Student Reports on Actors, Institutions and Laws
brief (5-10 minute) presentation.
AnrivHi. 2nd edition, Prentice Hall Inc.,
Gramlich. E.M. '(15(90). ft
. ..
Englewood Cliffs NJ, pp. 9-24.
Urn C (1986) 'Toward a Synthesis of Contemporary Planning Theories/
' EJ.,^ >ntf Research, vot. 5. no. 2, pp. 75-85.
Environmental Policy in the U.S.A.)
10/1 Theory:
Practice:
Conceptions of Nature and Resources
The Adirondack Park Agency
their proposal to an undecided legislator, and to each other.
Case Study packet
McHarg, I.L. (1969),
Pearce, D.W. and R.K.' Turner (1990) -- r
"T" Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York, pp. 3-
and Co., Garden City NY, pp. 103-115
Natut
(Ch. I).
-------
Sail Antonio TX, 38 pp.
10/8
the Sublime: The Social Construction of Nature in the
*••- *•""* of the Popular Cuim* A«oc,aaon,
in Canada
a recent newspaper «!**- **.
Quebec case.
by Praxis, Inc., Calgary, Albena, 13 pp
.
chapter on public parttipatioo
. c. and L: sJ*i am. -
(<-": *'•-.'
Policy «
. vol. 5, No.
S,eingiass. Ol (,«„,. 'Con-u^y C«l 1
July/ August/September 1989, pp. 19-zu,
'*•
Orejon Historical Society
Sussicind :L. and M. EUioad^). E
'
OR,
hQ. *•-
Game
In-Class simulation.
-------
a-
6, no. I, pp- 50-59
„ R. (1991);
Universiteit te
, D.,. and A.
January, pp
Game Packet
^
planning debate
on
-------
Andrews C J. and S.R. Connors, 'Existing Capacity -The Key to Reducing Emissions/
and Policy. (1992) vol. IS. pp. 211-235.
Elliott, M. (1981). -Pulling the Pieces tog«her: Amalgamation in Environmental Impact
A..f,11 --- , • EJA Review, vol. 2, no. 1. pp. H-37.
Gramiich, E.M. (1990). Ajfcjo
Cliffs NJ, pp.
,, .
Universiteitte Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp. 51-
Moiling, C. (1978),
McAllister. DIM. (1980) Es
pp.67-171 (Ch. 5-9).
^^ ^ PrCSS' <****
Paper abstract
Quebec's Approach
minutes) in class.
Rgading:
Oxford UK. July it. wi.
Case Study packet.
penning, P.J. (1990), -Modeling Reality/
78, Nov-Dec., pp. 495^98.
c...,
Engiewood Cliffe, NJ: pp. 223-230.
' '
.A. (1989), '
JSS, vol-.no. 3, pp.
-------
University, Princeton, NJ, 21 pp
= B ,- rnnnrit ri98T>
New England Energy Policy Council (1987).
Boston, MA-
S.N. Wu^ (1986,. "
_
Snare. Executive Summary of report,
Jg«^
, „.
11/19
Washington DC, pp. 23-49
Gnu"'
.
-------
* , _ . . •__,_! v/*na'*>
-------
Ilicige TN, PP. 261-29/; scan remainder.
-------
Pollution Prevention and ;
Industrial Ecology .
Strategies for Environmental Management
Garry Brewer and Stuart L. Hart
CS564/NR 513, Winter 1994
, University of Michigan'
Na,,onaiPOH«K>« Pr.v.m,on Center for H.r Edu=at»n;..
May b« rsproducea
fr»«ty for non-commercial
educational purposas.
Brewer & Hart
January 1995
-------
-------
GS 564/NR 513 STRATEGIES FORJENVtRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
Winter Term, 1994
Period 3 (January-February) _
Monday-Wednesday, 8:30-10:00; Paton 1018
Monday-Wednesday, 11:30-1:00; Kresge 1310
ProfessorStuartL. HarvSchool of_Busmess Administration
7209 Bus Ad, 763-6820 . 7^?«n
Dean Garry Brewer, School of Natural Resources and Environment, 764-2550
Course Description
quagmire with no escape for the laggards. <
,o busisess. What is the ^™"™£n"1le"'.tonSm;ti5ve "bSts to
. .tmpve
-------
*"
Materials
pack containing r^irjgs and cases will be available m the
area of the Business School.
Four additional b-
placed on reserve in the Business School library.
Scientific American, Managing planet earth; New York: Freeman arid Co, 1990
Cairncross, F. Costing the earth. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1992.
Gore, A. Earth in the balance. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992.
MakiU;j.''tTieE 'factor;^ ''
F?luirments
'
w
papef , will be an individual assignment and ^"require eacn » opportunity
SSme' an industrial problem L<°/P°'a"^
related to the environment. This • one-page Pap«wiu oe ou ^ .^
will be placed on reserve and should help in f ojnun| ^ *™ to develop a case
which will be a V^.^W^^^y^^^^^' These papers
analysis on a company, industry, or industrial g"™^1^^ (those regbtered
willbedueon ^ftb^.S^^^^g^^ ^^g assignment
3S$$ffSS& ISall developing proposed solutions
to tie problems analyzed in the term projects.
Class participation will be a key '
be a key ff^^SiSe will an rt
nts mutual ^^^y^^tamA^ uf
reparat on J™* a ' ^l ^gSgeared to "passive learning".
^
S!S^^Sat w> ""
diversity of the participants mutual
objective. Extensive preparat on
at
Corporation" the week following spnng break
-------
Summary Outline
Strategies for Environmental Management
Wednesday, 5 January: Introduction v
u/ Reading: "Business and environment: A time for creative coexistence" (Brewer)
Monday, 10 January: Ecology
'"'Heading: "Ecological knowledge and environmental problem solving" (NRQ
^-Case: Control of Eutrophication in Lake Washington
Wednesday, 12 January: Strategy
^Reading: "The core competence of the corporation" (Prahalad and Hamel)
\x-Case: Laidlaw Environmental Services
Monday, 17 January: Environmentalism and Business
U-Reading: "It all began with conservation" (Stenger)
v^Casc: McDonald's Environmental Strategy (A)
Wednesday, 19 January: Beyond Conpliance
,-'/ Reading: "Proactive environmental management* (Hunt and Auster)
I Case: Allied Signal
: Monday, 24 January: Pollutioe Prevention
-' Reading: " The environmental failure" (Commoner, Ch. 2)
"Pricing the environment* (Schmidheiny, Ch. 2)
"The innovation process* (Schmidheiny, Ch. 7))
- Problem Definition paper due
^Vednesday, 26 January: Life Cycle Assessment
•' Reading: Note on Life Cycle Analysis
•^ Case: McDonalds (B): The Clamshell Controversy
Monday, 31 January: Product Stewardship
" Reading: "What does it mean to be green" (Kleiner)
- "Design for environment" (AUenby and Fullerton)
•Managing corporate change* (Schmidheiny, Ch. 6)
Wednesday, 2 February: Environmental Strategy I
^•Reading: "Sustainable advantage* (Cihemawat)
-Case: Bayerischc Motoren Werkc AG
Monday, 7 February: EavirwiiBenUi Stratefy II
'^ Reading: "Note on the structural analysis of industries* (Porter)
V/Case: Pacific Gas and Electric
Wednesday, 9 February: Sustainable Devetopaient
'..Reading: "Ecology and the politks of scarcity" (Ophuls)
The butincu of sustainibk development" (Schmidheiny, Ch. 1)
The mirage of sustainahte development* (Dilorenzo)
Monday, 14 February: EaviramMatai Stratcfy HI
Reading: Technology cooperation" (Schmidheiny, Ch. 8)
' Case: -Conoco't Green-Oil-Strategy . ,
Wednesday, 16 February: The Sustainable Corporation
Reading: "How green production might sustain the world* (Hart)
Case: McDonalds (Q
Term Project due
SPRING BREAK-Monday. 21 February-Wednesday, 23 February
Policy Exercise: The Sustainable Corporation
Reading: 'Methods for Synthesis: Policy Exercises,* (Brewer)
1.1
-------
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Pollution Prevention and
Industrial Ecology
.Tin*., POLLUTION PKSVENTION CiHTCB FOR HKJMEB EDUCATION
Environmental Science and Public Policy:
Reducing Industrial Wastes
William Clark, Michael McElroy, and Robert Frosch .
ESPP98/ENR 204, Spring 1994 .
John -F'Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University
Nation* Po«u«on PrW.n«on
Dana Building, 430 East UniwWy,
Phon.: 313.764.1412.Fax:,313.936i195.e-nwil:nppc«uinieft.»du
University of Michigan
Clark, McElroy, & Froscti
January 1995
-------
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' ESPP 98 / ENR204 - Spring 1994
'' tUMHED' ENROLLMEKT: AD
Environmental Science and Publk Policy:
Reducing industrial wastes
T 1:00-3:00- Hoffman Lab Penthouse (Adjoins Peabody Museum)
• Course description:
cooperative policy exercise.
Prerequisites and intended audience:
.enrollment is limited. Interested students ""^*^ In the
prerequisite).
Iff 3-
-------
Requirements:
c...u«w..~ -"ill be expected to reao ana commcui.«» «*«&«.~ - - ^QQ
participate actively in a team project. They wil .„ - „_ /^ 7500 word) due
Wi) paper in the early part of the semesterand «f*lon|*ye™ ^^Volve substantial
term paper (40%).
Readings: ' ' ' ' " '.
Readings will consist of^prepared packets sold in class.
Instructors:
Michael Mllroy (Abbott lawrence Chairman'
Department of Earth and Planetary Science)
Room: Hoffman Lab, 4th Fl.; Tel 495-2351;
Assistant: (5-2351)
Robert Frosch (Senior Research Fellow, Kennedy School^ former Vfce President for
Research, General Motors Corporation)
Room: Kennedy Sdiwl, L-360; Tel 495-8132;
Assistant: Nora Hickey (6-7466; ema»l NhickeyOksgrsch)
-------
ESPP98 / ENR204 - Spring 1994
Environmental Science and Public Policy:
Reducing industrial wastes
3 - Hoffman Lab Penthouse (Adjoins Peabody Museum)
ENROLLMENT: AM interested attend first session]
Syllabus (January 25, 1994)
'
. : \ ;^^5±3d»»^=-. • :
Part I: Science and engineering issues
2 ^^^^^^^^^^^^
.-SSSta!^^iSS^^v^bl.vSdissipa.iv.mateHatnows.
mustrates trends with time, and across countries.
*
Sated through green design or are recovered for reuse.
consumption-related sources of the waste stream.
Part E: Policy Perspectives
fS^ogi^, pricmB of exuan^to associated w,U. was«, and
impa« of on waste treatment of liability nilmgs. ,
haards. Considers the unintended consequences of current regulations tor
industrial ecology.
-------
.
^lblrol«of»=coUnti1,e»d«w»i«u««s
for encouraiiiig inuovanooj in waste leducaon.
the company, as well as discussions with key staff.
Introduction to wastes in the XX Company «^» «mhi«nt'and
Senior official from XX provides an overview of waste problems and
iffnagemerit efforts at the Company.
w idmnt offi<^ """"""S efforts a, owortumoes for,
obstacles to waste reduction.
10 sl^V* on Company »C. Class discussion of
pr^Tim^ements, plus relative importance of economy regulaJ^ry,
information barriers to improvements in performance.
Part IV: A Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Waste Reduction
The major class exercise will be a simulation of a *^
early in the term. Subsequent meetings, in and out of class, will pave the way lor
tation and discussion of the commission's findings.
presentation and discussion
panel of critics.
12 Retrospective on Commission findings and the prospects for reducing industrial
wastes.
-------
Pollution Prevention and
Industrial Ecology
Proposal for a Curriculum in
Ecological and Development Economics
FayeDuchin
March 1993
\: New York University
Nafona, PoHution Pr.v.n«ion Cwmffor Highr EduoMonM• U*»*ir of "ichigw
-------
-------
-. : . ' ,. • .- '. . • . '••.•'"• Revised
•'••'_ / .. : - •": • • * v ;•. ', • ". March 1993-
Proposal f« a curricuXu* in Ecological and Development ,E==nomi=3
' -••••• • .; .' ' /.":'.. by -. •"'"'. •.. '•'- •... •'.-.' ' '.
. Faye Duch^n, Director" -,:./•..•
institute for Economic.Analysis
Kew York University
session
deve
degree
Thare is enormous >
content of EE f or purposes. or o
it within the scientific tradition while r ^ ^ standardize
the liberal arts. It is too early _tor x lity.control role of
one or mote curricula °* * e
selectively accrediting
there is .simply not yet
for others it is part of
r
ut nt others because
material available. But
m
nze ma
ere . _ organ izea m exemplary curricula
While practical^ ^ ^f|en^ ^ in^^^? these
importance, economics does not pl_ ay^^ * **£*£cs which- does serve as.
curricula. Furthermore, the pcirt °| ®co"°m5aluation problems and
a common denominator isa.^^tts lor economic development. .The
discount rates than to strategies £°*** a, del curriculum for
purpose of this proposal i3, J°mff^ ,£?Ey EDE is intended as a
Icological and Development -^°^s e^mics The proposal is
variant of JEE which; is ro°^first describes common problems of
divided, in tnree sections. ^n^r^6^^s the challenges .of
existing curricula, _ the sfjf^ f^opose to address them, and
* ** proposed curriculum
itself.
Curriculum Davaiopment.
• [b:\fd66C0.9\tunK-3.revl
tot
-------
I. common Problems of Existing curricula
There is an enormous1 amount of activity and enthusiasm
is substantial. However, certain problem areas are alsoj*PP«iren^
These arithe more troublesome because they are generally not
diSJtly acknowledged and addressed in the design of new curricula.
A. Background of Students
Most of the graduate-level'programs that "were discussed in
.ffiSar-ttif SSSi£ f&^S^^^\^^^
'SS^STS^:^^
trlaS of any sublet except on an entirely individualized basis
whichisnot practical for training significant numbers of
students.
Today, virtually all economics departments in US
offer the* same curriculum in neoclassical 4<=°nomics.
that we should not follow this lead in BE but should develop
diverse cS?icula, each deeply grounded in a subset of the Problems
wa Vace Existing curricula attempt to provide all things t.o all
potential student!, ^?t most .EE s?udents will benef it^fr-^ more
focus and depth in their training. The curriculum proposed here is
grounded in economics.
B. Role of Mathematics
The programs in existence or preparation do. not take a
position about which requirements in mathematics^ students, of EE
will be expected to satisfy. Consequently, each of these programs
will prepare students with Drying amounts of exposure .
— includina none — to the different fields of mathem-atics.
ExcepT^lcaes0S;ere EE is taught strictly withir.the humanities,
I believe that specific requirements in mathematics are n«ecle°;
Mathematics has revolutionized all of the •cl«?«l.1"dt)4S
students should be encduraged to benefit from the Potential power
of its application to understanding and resolving Problems. One of
objectives in this proposal is to develop u*"" °n
of
ions. Because 01 tne iiut'wi u»i»w« ~-
'. : • • ,-' i'; •;•'' >!'• • i; f:.'..';; •;"''';:":': V't,'"'1-';; i;jr'':';.',' ;''• ;'" :;!,V;' ; ', • r', ••' • ''','' i'r
(ti;\fiJ4600.9W:umc.i.rey) " " ' " ""
•K«^r«s«?.^
-------
to EE and
least at this time.
tive methods because they are
methods need
reasons.
The effective
whenever it is necessary
ly, and this proposed
and abused.
quantitative
for the follows
of Mrbon dioxide emissions over
we teach and to teach
real
C. Building on Existing courses
: Many programs are built on the
economics, ecology, mar me scnces,
two synthesis courses. For
credit, .or even '•^
macroeconomics taught
EE perspective.
The
neoclassical economics alone.
Explicit design of EE courses
will blPindispensable if EE is " ^ave
' students with c0""'"1 *n* "
' or
may accept for
microeconomics and
department.
has practical
courses lnto
curricuiu, cased on
• anlysis.
f or the development- of
tb:\W6600.9\Cumc-3 .rev)
in
-------
D. Pitfalls of Survey Orientation
Most EE curricula are conceived as survey exposures, from a
nol? in my opinion, sufficiently discriminating.
.
II.
Challenges of Designing * Hew curriculum
vested interests.
•+w, H^tu-re" field, by contrast, existing courses are
deleted from the curriculum. In most dlsclPlin]eesa'stV1S1 mljor/
new curriculum.
l
of sconomics in Ecological Economics
V however /:
to train S
past
of economists tout
SS&ZT
|ub|tantially
curricula being taught at different
.revJ
-------
A. Need, for a Team to Build the curriculum in Ecological and
Development Economics
„
highly
will be able to draw on the members of the I SEE Curriculum
will be acie ^o « conduct this project like
* adv^aU of'aur tfcinXin, on the subject of
EE.
every course and not be add-ons.
our students will need to learn the
However, until . there is new curriculum design ,
that needs to be laid in the meantime.
detachment of" academics is needed for this stage^or ^ ^r^olicy
These must be academics who give priority to the neeas o P
and action. . _ s x
B., Creating an Institutional•,Base
[b:^d6600.9\Currie-3.rev) , . ,
•= / , ' -,.' ' -" "'•"' ' . . -•'•-' - 113
-------
sss
curriculum. ..........
The adoption of an entire EE curriculum is possible in the
following cases:
schools of public policy cut acrdss conventional disci-
: support for an EE curriculum.
support experiments.
srss u
explore this option.
administrative battles.
III. outline of Proposed curriculum
A. General Considerations • _ " ' , ^""
For the curriculum proposed hefe> incoming students need to
BaSSM^«BSa«»«ssa a
.»
economist) .
Students completing the degree gduld b.
SSSS&fSSS
(b:>.f
-------
and this will surely be-true
courses.
SzX
si crises
A question arises —* «gg£
include separate courses in values and ..eroc.^ ^ ssue
practice in many business J=hools^ «e be^«^Jm Because cur
consider a range of social values in all. courses
and the same ideas can
B. Proposed Curriculum ~ . ,.
1. introduction to Ecological.and Development Economics (EDE)
the field and the roles of ^^^tr^^^ neoclassical economics
EE. , A brief comparison *^^s£™r of EE (baly, Costanza, Funtowicz,
etc.) will be assigned. . „
! ; ' . , i
2. Macroeconomics (fresh version)
. _>,„,,+. the overall evolution of a nation s
This course is about tne ove^"^ income consumption,
economic activity in . terms .or ™ Hmacro« variables. The
employment, the price lev^0Sh-' but on Structural change, on the
emphasis will be not on "growth but on:*" , . macroeconomics
incorporation of subjects not usu^y ^°pji\or^ between the subject
like demographic change^ and_ on^W J.«-k technologicai and social
compared with other kinas
[b:\W6«0.9\Cunic-3.revl
-------
of ' actions ,' that''; a government;'1 'arid '"its"' cit&enry through" social
institutions, may take.
3. Microeconomics (fresh version)
oireuMf ahea* 'of . their ««^* ««^ioSiWl drad«ion
!
of
input^output Economics and Scenario Analysis '
^timal" solutions of neoclassical economics.
,',,•,„ '„•,, • .
5. The Evolution of Economic Thought and Analysis
'
economy and the
natural world.
-------
6. Technology, Households,, and institutions, ;
• V *•«!=• *as to be broad enough to include real
The scope of :.ED? ?* i^o^se. f or activities like preparing
l. choices 10 tes of
., iose. or ac
substance about technologiGal. choices 10^ aifferent types of
food or making steel the |c^^ob^les/ COBmOn transport, or
^SSJ^^S^-
Possible quantitatively.
-,'. Natural Resource and the Pollution of Air, Land, and Water
Economic activities r«jug. *£££i£ fc* StT 'res'ourcel
so on, and generate wastes • J^^l^iogies and institutional
and wastes «so««e\"«hi6ilf^« f " rVsbuJce-saving, pollution-
•SSITlS^SSa^^ S*t .*• associated with econo^c
incentives or legislated requirements. .••.:...
8. -Economics of Sustainable Development
This course will focus on ~~~
perspective, .and how. it could '•."JSjtVlS"™, ouality ,of life,
growth, improving the materia l_|^ar <»^« ££ ^^f be coynsiaered.
;isr.sluri«Unw^i "-ef toePOSe1i"eieCnce in recent decades
different regions of the world.
-9 The Effective. use of .Cost and Benefit Evaluations
through the use oi _ _
—=- --.„, .. *. •*+.« nower as well as its limitations.
case studies that ^^^^^^^^^ COSt of an ana-lysis
to explain to those who
will ultimately make use of the outcome. v _. . .
10. scenario Analysis: The Future of the World Economy
EDE takes a ^
toward solving global and lofa1 j^SS/m wa?s to proceed in
formulation and analysis of ^"^^tions of neoclassical
rb:'.fd6600.9\Cumr -3 .revj
-------
10
to b. »ade . in
scenarios will be formulated in terms ot possible
an, to provide
a basis for action.
11. Legislation and Policy instruments
t
12. Mathematics and Statistics for EE
For this phase1 of^ deWiopment of
purposes
thematic
information"" (The other courses — micro, mawtw, x.^-w T—*-•--'
. inxoETuaTiion. v •L"~ wtoi»». la-rrreiv salf—contained in terms
cost/benefit — will need to oe largely
mathematics.)
13. "Research Seminar/Poiicy Seminar
empirical investigation. The
focused
settings
feedback.
The objective of this project
with all of the courses developed to «*' Peol^a^newriu oreoare a
the end cf a year;
.(biUiJ6600.9\Cumc-3.rev)
-------
held at the end of the year.
members will be working to «°on5e7r and third-
?S
thi.
initial, offering.
[b:\fd66C0.9'Carnc-3.rev!
-------
-------
Pollution Prevention and
Industrial Ecology
Industrial Ecology and Green Design
Robert Frosch, William Clark, and Michael McElroy
ENR204/ESPP9QA, Spring 199$
John P. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University
M«yb«r*produc«d
fr^lytornoivconiin
.ducauonal piopoM*.
Fro«*,Clwk.iiidMeBroy
March 1996
-------
-------
John P. Kennedy School of Government,
Harvard University,
Spring/ 1995.
ENR-204/BSM-90A: INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY and GREEN DESIGN
SYLLABUS: 01/18/95
cours* objectives and structure
This course provides an in-depth examination °* ^%?*®rf jn
fill* n^Tndustrial Ecology; a systems view of the flow of
trials trough InduHry. The course investigates how
goveriment^oSly/?ookedyat from a systems perspective could
affect oublic and private initiatives to achieve efficient
riSStions in Se net wastes of the industrial syste
more efficient use of materials including the reuse of
"wastes" and products at the end of ^ei* JJse!^ 1^
feedstocks. Policy issues which bear on the ^^Y °*hth
Industrial svstem to adapt to a more ecological approach -
members will participate in exercises Designed to Develop an
understanding of the systems approach to problem-solving
generall? £d to waste^inimisation in. industry P^icularly,
Changes in approach to the design and implementation of : public
pSlicythat might lead to a better integrated industrial ecology
will be an important focus of the seminar.
intended Audiene* aad ?r«c«qui»it«»
The course is intended primarily for Kennedy School students,
and environmental studies.
The class will be taught as a seminar /tutorial. stude
Mrsf^^^^^^
foundry.
ENR-100 is a prerequisite for undergraduates and MPPs wishing to
enroll.
-------
EnrolUneni Is limited to, twenty students and by permission of the
instructors. No auditors.
All students who wish to b^ considered must attend class on
February 6.
students shin, to
« ijFS? 3r
address.
eieryonwsupplies an e»ail
., 1995 and
Class Meetings1' " " "' ' " ."' "'"'' ;" ' ""_'
Monday and Wednesday, 2:3O - 4:00 PM, in Belfer Room 124
Shpppin| day: We^e^^ebr^^^
First formal class: Monday, February 6.
Principal instructor: ^S^^^t^^
Littauer Room 362
Ph (617) 495 8132
FX (617) 495 8963
' • S55?5%r3Siff?.«« i»»
0«i=. hours: :&£%£^tZ^^££?
-------
Research Associate:
Research Fellow:
Co-instructor:
Faculty Assistant:
With participation of:
Jan Crawford ,
Kennedy School of Government
Belffer 307
Ph (617) 496 6218 • •
_
Mailbox in CSIA, opposite Rm L362 in KSG
Ted Tschang
Kennedy School of Government
Belfer Room 307
Ph (617) 495 1417
FX (617) 495 8963 ,
.
Mailbox in CSIA, opposite Rm L362 in KSG
Professor William C. Clark
Kennedy School of Government
Littauer Room 360
Ph (617) 495 3981
FX (617) 495 8963X
,
Mailbox in CSIA
Nora Hickey O'Neil „
Kennedy School of Government
Littauer Room 364
Ph (617) 496 7466
FX <617> 495 8963
Mailbox in CSIA opposite Rm L362 in KSG
Professor Michael McElroy
Hoffman Laboratory, 4th Floor
Ph (617) 495 2351
Course requirement*
Some exercises will be undertaken in groups.
*-
2.
irPSeVs^tems apSoIch-to'framing an issue.
Paper due: Monday, March 6, 1995.
Each student will prepare two
single-spaced) recording the site
-------
due: Wednesday /Ma^ch 22/1995
*
on
3. Major exercise (in three parts)
Individual paper due:
»«£&«= S3S:5S»
All pap.ls;' except the f ihal, to' be site-Iited in class.
'In,! ' , "' , „ " '' •'„"!!' ! ,:,''' ,''',,,' i ' ' I'' , ' I. ' " , T," • 'in,1 "'•' ,, ,' i
Y; ,, ',' " ''"' 'Grading
Systems paper
Memo on scrap yard visit
Memo on foundry visit
Individual paper
Group task
Final paper
Class participation:
Late pairs will not be accepted unless the prior permission of
the instructor has first been obtained.
,'";! : '.'' "''• "::'""'" '' " '"""':' -V1 :••: ':":i:': •'" '.': !•""•'.' IV •'.' l
course Materials
•as
Press.
Price:
The list price of this text is $34.95
of
''!. . ' " ........ .,'..' ,,- , ' i . .
Price: $6-50 Total amount: $33.50
-------
To be distributed in class (no charge):
1. Richards, D^./J^;^?!^^
Environr?^?!1 prg "
National Academy
Washington, D.C.
readings My be placed on reserve in the KSG library.
-------
Hm-204/BSPP-90a: Class Schedule (01/X8/95)
: " ' , i;:ii „ • «" '., ........ • '," ..... " • ...... • •• " , ' " , .......... "' , •" '"," " / • " • i ,
1 " " ..... ' ..... ' / j ' ' • i ,
•
address.
Venue: Belfer Room 124
1. introduction - Overview of Industrial Ecology
Monday, February 6
2. introduction to Green Design
Wednesday, February 8
3. introduction to Systems Concepts
Monday, February 13
*
4,
MW" exercise introduced (due Mondiy/March 6)
arid Green Design.
Wednesday, February 15
PRESIDSJT' S DAY: MON°AY '• FEBRUARY 20
-------
fN 'IPEAI,.' sySTEM: STAIE1 ,
5. implementing industrial Ecology ideas locally - Kalundborg
and other "industrial park" cases
Wednesday, February 22
Guest speaker: ^^•^fn... 6 Bnviron-ent Progri
'••'" ""•'" " ' ' ' ' MIT' ' '- ' ' " ' - ' '' :. " '" • . ,. ''' '
PROBLEM JpOHNDARI^S & SCOPE
6. Materials arid Waste Flows
Monday, February 27
7. Regulatory & Policy Framework
Wednesday, March 1
ercscomn individual paper with a group
task living the foundation for a final paper which will
rloSire eaSh student to synthesize the course materials,
SiS visits and class work into policy recommendations for
the implementation of industrial ecology.
Individual papers due: Monday, April 24
Group presentation: Monday, May l
Final individual paper: Monday, May 22
FRAMEWORKS
8. Life Cycle Assessment - Car recycling as a successful case
Monday, March 6
* First "systems8* p*p«r du«.
9. scrap yard visit
Wednesday, March 8
Memo
OB site visit to b«prepared (due Wed, March 22)
10. industrial Metabolism - Cadmium in the Rhine
Monday, March 13
* rirst exercise returned
11. The Ecology of Metals - Recycling Copper and Silver
Wednesday, March 15
-------
12.
13.
Econmc indutrial ecology
Monday, March 20
Law - Overview of u.S^ environmental laws from the
perspective of the firm
Wednesday, March 22
MIDTERM BREAK: MARCH 25-APRIL 2
"
issues
and their impact on industrial systems
Monday, April 3
'*' ' ' sormp ''' yard '1»«mois returned. .......... " •
15. information and its influence on the industrial system: and -
cofipariy practice
" Wednesday, April 5 ..................................... . -
* Major exercise reviewed.
16. information - 4e need for technical assistance to small
'firms ........ • ......... ....................
Monday, April 10
Quest speakers from Mass. Orfic* of Teohnoio^y Assistmnce
BEHAVIOUR
..... ..... ............ _ ^ _ ..... _ ^ ^ _ ^ ^ _
17. inside the Company - Managing e^^ compliance
Wednesday, April 12
Quest speakers from industry
18. Foundry visit - Background to field trip
Monday, April 17
-------
19. .Foundry visit ;
Wednesday, April 19
* MB: Tni. will *• * one-day trip (probably 8am - 4pm)
* Memo on sit. viiit to be prepared (due Wed, Mmy 3)
'
fts & CONCEPTS
20. Public Policy: for industrial Ecology and Green Design
* Monday, April 24
individual papers prepared a» part of major exercise due.
21. Ideas for Public Policy
Wednesday, April 26
22. croup Presentations - Major Exercises
Monday, May 1
23. summary and Review of Class Exercise
Wednesday, May 3
* Memo on Foundry viait due.
READING PERIOD: MAY 6-1?
FINAL EXAMS: MAY 18-27
FINAL PAPER DUB: 4:00 PH, MOMDKT, MAY 22, 1995
ROOM BELTER 307
131
-------
-------
Pollution Prevention and
Industrial Ecology
•UTTONAL POUI/TO* PBTOOTON CENTtH WHMH6H 6DUC*TK3«_
Industrial Ecology:
Theory and Practice
Gregory A, Keoleian
SNRE 501, Winter 1995
University of Michigan
C-m* for »*£**£%,'V™"*** « *****
May M r«produc«d
trMty for noo-eomm«rci«l
•dueattontf purport.
133
-------
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INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY: THEORY AND PRACTICE
llNUuaiKiAi, SNRE 501 Section 003
Winter Term 1995
• Syllabus
. • ) • ' •
, • ' ' .•'.
Time. 3:bO- 4:30 Monday and Wednesday '
Location 1520DanaBi4g-
Instructor Dr. Gregory AvKeoleian (Greg)
Assistant Research Scientist .,.
•" Manager, National Pollution Prevention Center
•°ffiCe SchootSNa\urai8Resources and Environment i
Phone 764-3194
gregak@unuch.edu
Office Hrs to be announced
Teaching Assistant Mr. Jonathan Koch
Secretary Ms. Kathy Hall
Officf 2544DanaBldg.
Course Background
universities nationwide.
Course Description
•135
-------
Course Content
ThetheoreticW^
papers P""^** *Jp^£$SX> SliioS. BecSise industrial ecology is
shape this framework.
snape uiib u*uuc»»v»«-
Th ursewm provide you wimp^ti^^
principles offiidustrial ecology The.practical ^f^^^f^^life cycle
based largely °n research actrn^s m Ae area *Wgg.a a comprehensive tool for
design sponsored by *? US bPA. ^5^ ^ burdens associated with a product system
identifying and evaluating the ^^Y^^^^ogy Can be used for comparative
from production ^u^t^m?rh 'disposable and cloth diapers, or paper, plastic and
analyses of product altemauv^such ^J^^^ign for Environment (DFE) focuses
unprovements.
Course Format
i Will be introduced by lecture and discussed
cycle assessment and life cycle design.
Course Resources
1 Course pack: available at Dollar BUI
2.
January 1995 (Draft Report).
.3. K^£o.andM«:°^^
..... -1993. .......................... ' ............. ' ....... . ,
4 Reserve Textbooks at the Natural Science Library
, Ecology an* Our ^upport Systems Odum, Eugene P., Sinauer Associates, Inc.
Sunderland, Massachusetts. 1993.
b. ,n£s,M Ecology CSr^ mand ABenby, *:, not ^ pubUsh.4 uncooccKd
x. ^geproof .
c. Gnpr:
Congress, Office of Technology Assessment (1992).
-------
d The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems National Academy Press: Washington,
D.C.(1994). . ' .
-S«5S^^
Engineering Laboratory, February 1993.
Course Outline
I. Introduction ,
Jan 9 overview of the Course: Industrial Ecology -Systems Framework
' Material and Energy Balances
A Framework for Sustainable Development
Interdisciplinary Approach
,
Proceedings, National Academy of Sciences, USA 89 (February
; 793-797. . . .'•'•.'"
Jan. 1 1 - Overview of Environmental Problems: Global, National, Local
Perspectives
Energy
Resource Depletion
Solid Waste
Hazardous Waste
Toxics Release Inventory (TRI)
EPA Relative Risk Study .
Reference: Overview of Environmental Problems (1994) Draft, National Pollution
Prevention Center. ' • ', ,
Limits to Growth (1972) Meadows, D.H.etal
Beyond the Limits (1992) Meadows, D,H. et al^
K^4^-^p^islc%$?f
\ Protection, U.S. EPA SAB-EC W-Uii
"Jan. 18 Overview of Environmental Problems (continued)
II. Industrial Ecology: Theory
Jan 23 Industrial Ecology: An Emerging Field of Ecology?
Definitions
Historical Perspective
Fields of Ecology
Reading Allenby, ^^Braden R. "Achieving Sustainable Developn^m through Industrial
Reading. g^logy." International Environmental Affairs 4(1): 56-68.
-------
Patel C Kumar N. "Industrial Ecology." Proceedings, National Academy
jflc&c^USA 89 (February 1992): pp. 798-799.
Handout: Ecology and Industrial Ecology: De'Mtions
Foundations of Ecology: Classic Papers with
Leslie A. Real and James H. Brown, eds. 1991.
pioH^f
-------
Other Related Frameworks
Pollution Prevention
Ecological Engineering
Readings: Tibbs, Hardin B. C. "Industrial Ecology: An Environmental Agenda for
S Industry ." Whole Earth Review #77 (December 1992): 4- 19.
Reference: Pollution Prevention Concepts and Principles (1994) Draft, National . ' . .
Pollution Prevention Center.
Freeman, Harry, Teresa Marten, Johnny Springer, Paul Randalt Stoy Ann
Curran, and 'Kenneth Stone. "Industrial Pollution Prevention; A Critical
Review." Air and Waste Management Association 42, no. 5 (1992): OiB-
' ...•, 56. • . • ';/• - • ;
» - "•"','.'" . . _
HI. Industrial Ecology: Tools and Applications
Feb 8 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): Components and Applications
Goal Definition and Scoping
Life Cycle Inventory Analysis
Life Cycle Impact Assessment
Life Cycle Improvement Assessment
Functional unit of analysis
• Case: Beverage Containers
Reading: Curran, Mary Ann.
Environmental Science and Technology 27, no. 3
Hunt ^Robert G., JereD. Sellers, and William E. Franklin "Resource and
Environmental Profile Analysis: A Life Cycle Environmental Assessment
for Products and Procedures." Environmental Impact Assessment Review
Spring(1992):
Guinte, J. B., H.A. Udp de Haes, and G. Huppes, "Quantitative life cycle
assessment of products. 1: Goal definition and inventory, J. Cleaner
Production 1, no. 1(1993): 1-13.
Refemnces- Life Cycle Assessment: Inventory Guidelines and Principles (EPA600/R-
References. ffi^**^ OH: UA E^A, office of Research and Development,
Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, February 1993.
Life Cycle Design Guidance Manual: EnvironmentalRequiremems and the
8^S*«^EPA«a^»M^
of ReseanA and Development, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory ,
January~1993.
Feb 13 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis
System Boundaries
, Process Flow Diagram •
Input/Output Analysis
Case: Diapers - Disposable ys Reusable?
-------
A Life-Cycle mventory of Baby
gy
FeblS
Life Cycle Inventory Analysis
Allocation Rules
Data Sources
Data Quality
Case:' Cups - Paper, Plastic or Ceramic
Wells Henry A Neil McCubbin,- Red Cavaney, Bonnie Carno, and M. B.
2d£^
Hocking, Martin B. ''Disposable ^ Cups Have Ecolerit" Nature 369, 12
May (1994): 107.
Feb. 18-26 Spring Break
Transportation Energy
Transportation Emissions
, Embodied
C^
Reading:
Handout:
Mar. 1
Reading:
"Applying Environmental
*„.»%*}< Anril f 1994V. 22-27.
Transportation Data - Append* A Friddin Associates
Life Cycle Inventory Analysis
Stages of the Life Cycle - Special Issues
Portney, Paul R. 'The Price Is Right
Analyses." Issues in Science and Tec
i: 69-75.
. 1-8 Mid-term Exam Period (3 day take home)
Mar 6 Life Cycle Impact Assessment
1 Qassification
Characterization
,":: ! • " 'Valuation '
Critical Volume Approach
Case: EPS
6
-------
Reading:
Reference:
Mar. 8
Mar. 13
Reading:
Mar. 15
Reading:
Mar. 20
Reading:
Guinee J. B., Reinout Heijungs, H.A. Udo de Haes, and G. Huppes,
"Quantitative life cycle assessment of products 2. Gassificauon valuation,
and improvement analysis," J. Cleaner Production 1, no. 2 (1993); 81-91.
Naurie DennisF. and Terrence K. Pierson "A Framework for Risk
Characterization of Environmental Pollutants" 7. Air and Wage
tion Vol. 41, No. 10(1991): 1298-1307.
Life Cycle Assessment
Case: Milk Packaging
Life Cycle Design
Life Cycle Framework
Life Cycle Management
Multi-stakeholders
Internal Elements: Environmental Management System
, External Factors
Life Cycle Design Process
Needs Analysis
Specification of Requirements
Selection and Synthesis of Design Strategies
Design Evaluation
Keoleian, Gregory A., and Dan Menerey. "Sustainable Development by
BeligTReview of Life Cycle Design and ^^^^ournal
the Air and Waste Management Association (1994) 44:
Design Requirements
Checldists and Matrices
Multi-objective analysis
Case: AlliedSignalOil Filteirs
Chapter 4 Life Cycle Design Guidance Manual
Design Strategies .
Product Life Extension
Material Oriented Strategies
Material Recycling
Material Selection
Material Intensiveness
Process Oriented Strategies
Distribution Oriented Strategies
Class Exercise: Lease vs Sell - Business Phone
of Research and Deve
Engineering Laboratory, January 1993.
-------
',;'! Si'"':''1-"* V i •'• "'§'
;•«*•; i r> «^TTtyzati)n-FbcuseH Service Economy: Resource
•«*• i r> «tzat)n-
ani JH Ausubel/'Dematerialization,"
1989): pp. 50-69.
Mar 22 Design Evaluation (LC A Tools and Environmental Metrics)
M Allenby^-^"
'
Sony Resource Productivity Measure
Anr 3 Life Cycle Costing/Full Cost Accounting
P Case: Light Bulbs
Management Review 67, no. 4 (1978): 17-23.
Aor 5 ufcCycleFrarneworkforEnvirorm^
Apn:> FTC Guidelines
Report Cards
Seals of Approval
Case: Green Seal, Blue Angel, Green Cross
Apr. 10 Term project presentations
Apr. 12 Term project presentations
Anr 17 poUcyand^guia^nsto
Apr. 17 foiicy ™^»g A Common sense Initiative
Reference: TennprojectpapersDue
Ar. 24 FinalExam
Course Evaluation
Class Participation 10%
Assignments 15%
Mid-Term Exam 25%
FinalExam 25%
Term Project
-------
Exams
lurA-rm-' Take home
w* normal
Take home exam. 3 days to complete. Sign out exam from Kathy
gjfjw* normal ^^ hours sometime between Match 1 and
MarchS. For example, if you pick up the exam at 9 am on ^
Wednesday March 1 it will be due back before 9 am on March 4.
Late exams will be marked down.
Final In-class exam, two hours.
Term Projects
A term oroiect wUl be assigned on Jan. 18- and project groups will beformed to
^fffiSdSunary collaboration. Your group will choose a product arid
S indSS^principles and tools to assess the environmental impacts
SSdated wto S?prSuct andidentify opportunities for its improvement. The
term project includes a group paper and presentation.
-------
s luii "• . '"I'M'' !<:: :i
-------
'Pollution Prevention and
Industrial Ecology
POLLUTION PBEVEMT.ON CEUTES MB HK1HER EDUCATION
Introduction to Energy and
Environmental Problems
R. H. Socolow
PA 525/MAE 559, Spring 1994
Princeton University
National Polk ,on Prevent™ Center (or Higher Eduetton • Unwenrty of Mttugan
Dana Building, 430 East University, Ann Arbor Ml *8109-1J1il. .
PhoneT 313.764.1412 • Fax: 313.936.2195 • E-ma..: nppcOurrHCh.edu
May b« npraductd
frMty tor nofHComnwreia)
MtucMtonal puiposM.
Socolow
January 1995
-------
-------
Public Affairs 525 / Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
559: ' , '
INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Instructor: R. H. Socolow, Director •
Center for Energy and Environmental Studies
H-104 Engineering Quadrangle
Phone: 8-5446
MONDAYS, 1:00*4:10 p.m. in Room 12, Woodrow Wilson "School
COURSE OUTLINE FOR 1994
R. H. Socolow
Introduction
The Global Environment
.Week 1:
Week 2:
Week 3:
Week 4:
Week 5:
Week 6:
Week 7:
week 5:
Week 5:
Week 10:
Week 11:,
Week 12:
Sources of Human Impact: Population,
Industrialization, Technology/ Values
Industrial Ecology: Materials Flows,
Vulnerabilities, and Reconfigurations
Energy Use, Efficiency, Lifestyle
Land Management and Solar Energy
Reserves and Resources of Fossil Fuels
Air Quality and Fossil Fuels
Nuclear Energy Options
Nuclear Problems: Accidents, waste Disposal,
Proliferation
Biodiversity
Stewardship
-------
PAS 2 5 /MAES 5 9 Spring 1994
; ' • STUDENT : TERM ' PAPERS ' '
Tom Davis, cgm Synthesizing
Environmental Cleanup and Economic Development-
Robert Heeler, "Rethinking Fusion via Industrial Ecology"
Wendy Hughes, "intergenerational Equity" • -
Olga Kim, "Building Cities in the Desert"
verna Lomax, "The Potential Benefits of Commuting by Bicycle in
the Washington, DC Area"
Avinash Ratta, "The Challenge of Nuclear Disarmament in South
; Asia" ...... " ' - ..... '
n*nn Reiclart, "Recovery of Sulfur from Coal Combustion Gases:
A ISdy balancing Environmental Concern with Economic
Opportunity"
Ted Stephens, "History of the Endangered Species Act and the
Reauthorization Battle"
Hitoshi Tagawa, ^Alternative Options for the Expansion of the
Supply of Natural Gas to Japan"
parcy Zarubiak, "The Facts and Politics of the Duck Island
Incinerator"
-------
Public Affairs 52 5 /Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering 559
READINGS - Spring Term 1994
Week Two: • . •.-.••
William Cline, rm^! w^lnqj to* Err^ln Kt*fj. Institute
for international Economics, 1992.
Albert Gore/ f1»rrlH"ttf Wind
Boston: Houghton Mifflm, 199Z.
"
Robert Socolow, Graphs of geophysical '. data . about the atmosphere.
(Handout) .
WeeJc Three:
?fciayton Yeutter re Biodiversity Conventxon.
. -world Development Report 1992: -Development and the Environment"
pages 313 thru 356. ......
"The Climate Change Action Plan" by W. J. Clinton and A. Gore -
thru page 31. •
"Emissions 'of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 1985-1990"
thru page 23'.
R.
^ f ...__. r, and
Also:
From "Economics of the Environment" (3rd edition) edited by
Robert Dorfman and Nancy S. Dorfman, Norton 1993. -
Chapter 26 Scott Barrett, "International Cooperation .for
Environmental Protection" - .' . «
Chapter 21 Thomas C. Schelling, "Some Economics of Global
warming"
ill
-------
Chaptlr 28 Yoshiki Ogawa, "Economic Activity and the
Greenhouse Effect"
From Richar* Benedict -ozone W=™=y"VHarv«d University Press
Week Four: " ' '. ..... ..... " ;;/' ; ' ........ / ..... . / ' | '
"Towards al Industrial Ecology," by R. A. Frosch and V. E.
Gallopoulos. .
Table of Contents: Tn*"i-rUl B^W^f BT<*"1 Ch*Pq
-------
Week Six:
Roles for Biomass Energy in Sustainable Development, " Robert K.
Williams. . . ..-'•'
lHt5PMaiirs con^ned'by S.tionaS ASdub^slcHiyf May'im'.
"»' . ' || « •» 1 ^««»^«4 7 i^ 3YT9 1 1 j
^?4sSSS- SSS^^^SSSSLi
Press, 1993.
by Amory B. Lovins, ^
Colophon Books.
Week Seven: , ' .
BP Statistical Review of world Energy, June 1992.
•.., r>^^»™ Handbook Sixth Edition, Elsevier, 1983.
science, W. H, Freeman and Co.
Week Eight: ,
Thomas E. Graedel and Paul Crutzen, "The Changing Atmosphere,"
° ameriean. September 1989, pp. 58 68.
Robert Stavins and- Bradley W «hit.head
i^
210
Mar= H.
Environmental
3, Spring 1991, pp. 61-66.
Paul Slovic,, "Perception of Ri.k,-' AfiittfiU 236, April 1987, pp
280-285. '
Marc Ross, "«hy Cars Aren't as ^ Clean a. We Think, -
Review, February /March 1994. -
pp.-_27-45.-i
IS I
-------
-:!" fir's1"'"' " i'" .in1..:1.
»" ""lii "' . M ' '
Nine:
Art Hobson; "Physics: Concepts and Connections, " pages 325-373..
Reactors WorX, " ^^•*li''--i*agi*Sfe5HS5kl
^«-'"" *nd the Arms..Raa&/ Congressional
/ Inc.> .pages ?.9~45v
n Colombo and U. Farinelli, -5rbgr«Ss in .Fusion Energy
..gl^0;? "SS^ov *nd snvir^ vol. 17, pages 123-159.
Week 10:
Environment, Vol. 11, Pages 235-239.
ErikSln;^OutJoigsightrout'-ef &r'Minas,- T^ N>« TQrt
Magazine, March 6/ 1994.
Vol. 18, pages 631-665.
Week Eleven':
Aldo Leopold, "A Sand County Almanac and fketches Here and
There," Oxford University Press, pp. 201-226.
'.'*—' •-.„. ""a«^ ''Win ""'hav'aii.';': Deep_-S£aloav. Gibbs Smith, 1985,
George Sessions ana BUI oevaai, yyfr PV.M—3-^
Chapter 5.
Edward 0. Wilson, -Threats to Biodiversity," >1*ntific American,
September 1989, pp. 108-116-.
Walter B. West man, "Managing the Biodiversity," Bj^S£Lisn«JL, Vol.
40, No. 1, pp. 26-33.
• .':'.)v. '•', ,• ',v: ji-;, .•;,!(,. i •;.;/;:,;. : , ,;;-', ;,
Robert Repetto, "Deforestation in the
American,"April 1990, Vol. 262, No. 4,
Marguerite Holloway, "Nurturing Nature^.^1^t1f1r
April 1994, pp. 98-108.
-------
Pollution Prevention and
Industrial Ecology
NATIONM. POUUT10N —• ~ ^<~~- '«• "MHIB MU«;*TO«^
Selected Reading Materials
Braden R. Allenby: _. , • ,
"Achieving Sustainable Development Through Industrial Ecology.
International Environmental Affairs 4, no. 1 {1992): 56-68.
Robert U. Aynss: ' , . . .
"Industrial Metabolism: Theory and Policy." In The Greening of
Industrial Ecosystems, edited by Braden R. Allenby and Deanna
J. Richards, 23-37. Washington: National Academy Press, 1994.
'"Industrial Ecology: A Philosophical Introduction." Proceedings.
of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 89 (February 1992):
800-«03.
Gf*fl KeoMan and Dan Mmieray:
"Sustainable Development by Design: Review of Life Cycle
Related Approaches.' Air and Waste (Journal of the
Management Association) 44 (May 1994): 645-668.
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Pm, N.UI! Jiiad Sci. L'SA
Vol. 89. pp. 400-803. Feoruary
Colloquium Paper
with che permission of fixe
-wi.u-i *-*>= :.-
Industrial ecology: A philosophical introduction
(industr,/m«.uf.cturinf/«nviro«m«.t/w«i.«/polhitJoo) •
ROBERT A. FROSCH
By analogy with natural
waste materials and of producti attte ends of
internalizing of the costs of •
choice of processes andIP"*"* nottma „ ,„_„ ,
done about it. 1 was Pa/V
-------
Colloquium Paper Frosch
pro*. '.Var/.' Awi. 5ci. C'SA 59 r/992)
801
Plastics have begun to He an interesting example of this.
They a e extremely drfficult to recycle into direct uses largely
Scause they mm up in products mixed together and are not
i to chemical type. The vanous chemical types
'normal useful life, . f.,,_.,. ideas so that
We need some systematic adoption of these ««« " ^
It becomes the normal practice to use them in cnoos g
PpSuct?as potential inputs when newBesses and mdus-
_j^ .u— »«*«»A if%j4 u/niild
'
ou know exactly what it is. .
a^e 5 easily reusable for anything that .smvoved
because they generally do not survive
presumably only for
: most elaborated of all the
matena, Byw.. Tt exhibits some '«^^^f^l
shifts in recycling as technology changed. JJ^htre was
.
sore enn a'number of ways, the amount or , crap
h« could be disposed of by remelting ^"j***"^
me industrial uses of iron is, of course,
the same as in P«»«WS: <&* a™1 iron "^ jtecl w.ast r^S
mostly our own internally generated scrap.
s§§sasS5!£
and more degraded uses.
-------
$02 ' Colloquium Paper-Frosch -; •
dispersed wastes, particularly when they appear in the form
of products at the end of their lives, may be challenging
because these wastes may be dispersed very widely geo-
graphically, and collection, transportation, and separation
costs may be nontnvial. There are. of course. ;he probiems
of process compatibilities for new types of ™P£™«™J
(metals may be in the wrong valence form, forexamp*>• New
processes or variations on old processes <™yj»« '"J*
dev.sed if waste materials are to be used as process mpuu.
Problems also, arise from statutes and ^ulations h* may
not be appropriate to new waste-util.zation opportunmes. We
have all heard tales of possible uses of hazardouswaste
materials as inputs to other processes that were »£««»•»
realize because the would-be user and would-be supplier
could not solve the problem of getting transportation permits
to get the material from the place where it was generated jo
the place where it could be used. This seems rather foolish,
since a transportation permit to some place is 'likelyjcH*
required for either destruction or disposal. Refusal to permit
transport results in generating a hazardous waste-transpor-
tation problem and a hazardous waste-disposal Problem,
instead of generating only a hazardous waste-transport prob-
lem, with disposal of the material being an economical input
to an industrial process. This is not an arSume««>r ™
regulation of hazardous or troublesome materials but rather
is an argument for regulation appropriate to the problem:
regulation that will encourage reuse and recycling in an
industrial ecology rather than regulation that turns out to
interfere with sensible solutions. An industrial ecology point
of view will require that we rethink how we want to regulate
waste materials of all kinds. • - ...... u-r^, »~A
There are also potential problems arising from liability and
responsibility in the transfer of regulated wastes. A generatof
of aregulated waste may be reluctant to put it in the hands
of a broker or waste exchange or even to sell it to a user if the
responsibility for ultimate disposal by reuse, Destruction in
theVourse of process use. or ultimate disposal cannot alsobe
transferred. It may not be satisfactory to be able only•« rent
out the use of the material to a sequence of industrial users
if the ultimate responsibility cannot be transferred with the
material. This problem is already hampering the brokered
exchange of some types of waste materials. Geiieral Motow
is sometimes reluctant or refuses to transfer regulated waste
to brokers, waste exchanges, or potential users because rt
cannot get rid of the legal responsibility for thematenaiand
is not sure it can trust the downstream users. We need some
new thinking about law and regulation in this area. .
The problem that has been outlined is dominated byrts
intricacy—by its glittering complexity. How can we some-
how encourage the]growth of the web of interactions of waste
production and waste use. as well as waste Prevention and
some inevitable disposal, to grow into a ^tteMntegmed and
a more elaborated system, with more waste being Prevented
and with more being cycled through the industrial web and
thus with less of it appearinrat the end of the industrial
system to become a disposal and an environmental P™wem.
It is known in * number of ecological systems that if a
certain system component, an organism. <*'»«*»»• the
entire nature of the system changes, and other organisms may
vanish as well, even though their connection w«h £e ong-
inally disappearing organism is very '
obvl'us. This appears to be the case wit
lakes and ponds; the absence of a predator CM[
whole pond "sick." Sometimes one can correct the probtem
in such a system by specifically introducing a species that will
nilS"particular placVin the system web. We might consider
the problem of "stocking" the industrial pond to make other
parts of the web of material cycling operate correctly. Econ-
omists will say that this will happen naturally if the values, the
costs, and the profits to be made are correct. However, this
Proc. ,Va7/. .\cad. Sci. USA 89 r/992)
does not necessarily happen automatical in ihe natural
ecology case, and we might have to stimulate the invention
and stocking of some new industrial organisms into the
industrial ecology for the purpose of getting a better or
preferred balance in the system. Perhaps simply providing
'public information on the business opportunities available in
such cases might do the trick, or. perhaps special economic
'measures might be required for startup.
The problem of cost has been much studied in its system
aspects by both ecologists and economists, but the problem
of internalizing the costs of handling external wastes, and
particularly the problem of internalizing societally diffused
costs into the internal cost management systems of industrial
enterprises, has not really been solved. In industry, senior
managers are conscious that we are paying for waste disposal
and transportation and for the more subtle societal costs.
even when we have not been directly charged for them. We
are paying for these things in direct charges, in taxes, and in
toss of public amenities. There is an opportunity for cost
minimization within the enterprise if we can .figure out a
reasonable way to take tho'-e costs and reflect them back into
Ourproduct and process design engineers and operating
managers are not usually in a position to do a sensible job of
incorporating waste questions and environmental questions
in their designs or their operations. They have no idea where
or what the costs are that they are either avoiding or including
by the nature of the design and the manner of operati ion/ The
nature of our standard accounting systems is such that those
costs appear very far away in the bookkeeping; nowhere in
the system do you find out how to attribute such an external
cost to a particular design or operating decision. (An engineer
who chooses a cadmium-coated fastener may do so in pref-
erence to a fastener without the cadmium material coating
because the alternative fastener costs more; the price of the
cadmium coating as it appears to the engineer does not
include the cost of disposal of contaminated plant waste and.
certainly not the societal cost of final disposal of the bolt
when the car is junked.) We sometimes affect such issue,
artificially by making a manager responsible for solving
relevant in-plant problems or by forbidding the use of sorte
materials totally (in effect, by regulation), but the plant
operators and design engineers are usually unaware of many
external costs as part of their usual management information.
A p^desTgner hTno way of knowing the effects of des^
chokes and alternatives on such external costs. We need
wmTnew internal accounting and bookkeeping method* ij»
that we can understand what it is we are paying for in the total
sySem and to be able automatically to taki > these costs into
account in our design and management trade-off decisions.
TOs raises the question of how we can get to such an
industrial ecology system without using some massive centra^
plannmipVSesT in which we pretend to design the industry
sStemfVom the top down. We have to avoid any temptation
w proceed in that direction because it is so clearly not
posKand will lead to failure. (I find it curious ha after 70
Pears, when the Eastern Bloc has finally decided that they^ do
and manage a central <*°W>
£d ** hacteristics. We would like
tohave a>obust, flexible system. We would really like a
svstem that would "self-organize" to accomplish waste
rSzarton by the various methods discussed above
wTneed to look for some way in which we ««•**.
modest set of policy initiatives, be they economic incentives.
'
-------
JTolloquium Paper' Frosch
ynf^^
nudge «he components o< 'the mdu smd ^t^.
environmental costs and the results , « F web . the
s: We want w0
.,.; ] Proc. .Var/. Acad'. Sci. USA 89 (19921
803,
the remaining was
and retisi of wastes. We
SKI
,
for the
as input
is not dear how
••
applpnate pdlhts in the design cycle.
to try.
i' Ausubel J
J.. eds. (1989) Technology and
don). Chap. 16-
-------
-------
V
"'
-------
~otoyrtght 1994. Reprinted'!
with permission of the Air-
and Waste. Management Association..
CRITICAL REVIEW
> .xanagemeni_ rtasnji_-j.ai_xun.
Sustainable Development by Design:
Review of Life Cycle Design and Related
Approaches
Gregory A. Keoleian and Dan Menerey
National Pollution Prevention Center
School of Natural Resources and Environment
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan
the planet's life support system.
Sustainable development seeks to meet current needs of soci-
ety without compromising the ability of future generations to
satisfy their own needs. We define sustainable development as a
dynamic state that harmonizes economic activities with ecologi-
cal processes. Our industrial society is not yet on a path towards
sustainability.1'-3 The global-model developed by Meadows
(199'') simulates future outcomes of the world economy by
analyzing five primary, factors: population, industrial capital.
food production, resource consumption, and pollution, mis
model predicts that major changes in the way humans interact with
the natural world will .be necessary to achieve a sustainable
economy. Although other global economic models envision
essentially no limits on growth and rising standards of living, it
c-ems more likely that sustainable d-velopment will require a
reduction in population along with significant changes in patterns
of consumption" and economic systems. Evidence suggests that
conflicts and economic disruptions have already resulted from
maldistribution and depletion of otherwise renewable resources.
It may be relatively easy to envision sustainable development
but it is much more difficult to change the political, economic.
technological,social,andbehavioralforcesthatdefmeourpresent
; unsustainable activities. Because the state of the environment is ;
now so influenced by the composite of individual human behav- ,
: iors and values, preserving the. planet's life support system for
ourselves and future generations requires the broadest, most
fundamental changes. Clearly, no single discipline or-set of
actions can hope to achieve sustainable development m isolation.
;' : The complexity of issues influencing sustainability can be
shown through organizational hierarchies for sevendicnt.ca
• systems Table I shows organizational hierarchies for three types
1 of systems that provide a boundary for human activities. The web
of interactions and links between economic and ecological sys-
tems determines the sustainability of human activities. The new
field of industrial ecology*-'' studies how economic and ecologi-
cal systems shape and influence each other. At present, most
desien initiatives for achieving sustainable development concen-
trate on the product system, which is the most basic link between
societal needs and the global ecosystem.
Attempts to foster sustainability through design are m an
embryonic state. Most current design methods do not explicitly
^^^MMHMMMMi>MMI^^*MB~
AIR & WASTE • Vol. 44 • May 1994-645
-------
CRITICAL REVIEW
address environmental issues.'* Not surprisingly. «»fusion
frequently surrounds the design of cleaner P^ucts f Ipro-
i. Products have been labeled clean, earth fnendly. green
fhendK. recyclable, or biodegradable, even though their
•t on the environment mav be undocumented or unproven.
Jcti green marketing campai§nS have resulted in guidelines and
reiiulatorvresponses'to prevent misleading environmental
i n'u M>i.A..nh mihhr concern for the environment has
claims.1' Aitnougn puoiic luu^cm ivi
now been targeted and the level of environmental awareness
possibly raised, an effective design response remains the chal-
Ien£siamabiUiy through destgn requires integrating environ-
M^^*^**1^*™:^^
>n tor environment vi>i i-<- •"•- ecoaesign.
These initiatives are 'all based on the life cycle framework, which
considers the full environmental consequences of a product from
raw materials acquisition through manufacturing and use to final
*'SS «t,e*'focuses on integrating environmental issues into
product development. It will address durable and nondurable
«oods nther than architectural or graphic design although many
SS! same principles apply to all disciplines. We begin with an
overview of the major environmental issues that provide the
context ^design approaches to ^tainable £**««».
for discussing the Design process, design strategies, and evalua-
tion tools.
Overview of Environmental Problems
Tangible environmental degradation underlies the growing
interest in sustainable development and life cycle design. Hie
material demands of our current society inevitably cause environ-
mental stresses that damage our planet's life support system. In
attempting to evaluate the state of the environment, it is useful to
examine trends in resource use and waste generation.
Resource Consumption and Depletion
Environmental damage caused by human activity begins with
consumption of renewable and nonrenewable resources. Renew-
able resources are capable of being replenished quickly enough to
meet near-term demand. At present, renewable resources such as
water, forests, and soil are being heavily exploited.' resulting in a
significant loss of biodiversity. The manner in which these
renewable resources are used and managed also determines the
level of their sustainabiiity. Overuse can damage ecosystem
structure and function, thereby lowering future sustainable yields.
Thus although a resource can appear renewable at current usage,
exploitation at the same rate may not be possible for long due to
' impacts that affect both the resource itself and related ecosystem
elements. Increasing consumption of nonsustainable resources
seems more obviously self limiting. Energy, now derived pnma-
rilv from fossil fuels, is one of the most critical needs of our
* ._. . . i _ i _ _ : ^ .«««*.!« n.f Unman reliance
«vci>tcw v* «•*• • ••-!*" - . , .»i~—.-..it Thic Ut*/ fmm frt«il nifitS IS OnC OI UlC mUM wuiwai UWWSM «! v-.
system and present specific goals for life cycle design.
yBMa;iselifecycledesign,sadauntinglylarge.rapidlyexPand-
j..i_!-;i .:,_ ~i.t,,"«ifj.rr{p["gj highlight major onnci
only
i w» ui5"»e»* ••— j~- r — -«-
We have chosen to use the life cycle
T»bte t. Various organ.zational hierarchies."*-" "
Gioonphlc and
Political
World
Continent
Nation
Region
State
County
Town
Human population
Individual
Economic
Global human material
& energy flows
Sectors (e.g. transportation,
health care)
Corporations and
institutions
Product systems
Ecolofleai
Ecospnera/BlospharB
Biogeograpnic region
Biomt
Landscape
Ecosystem
Organism
-•
fable II. Purchastd world energy (XmsJimption. 1988."
Resource Annual Use
(quads)1
OH
Coal
Natural Gas
Hydroelectric
Nuclear
121
96
20
22
17
ill |!:| ,
Percent of
Total
38%
30%
20%
7%
5%
Reserves* Years of Supply
(quads) at 1988 use rates
7000
150000
8000
60
1500
120
' A quad is 10" BTU.
t Economically recoverable; includes known and estimated undiscovered
"serves. Undiscovered coal is estimated at 10 times known reserves, oil
and gas at less than half known reserves.
fuels tor so percent or aii purtuawu ~-iiwi6J..- »—
annual rate at which different energy supplies are consumed.
Increasing world energy use is presented in Figure I. This
fieureincludesaplotof theexpanding world population, showing ,
thataspopulationincreas«13.5timesinthelast 100years.energy :
use increased 13 times." Calculations in the figure are based on |
total poweruse, including traditional biomass fuels such as
wood crop wastes, and dung. Fossil fuel use actually rose ;
by afactorof 20inthelast 100 years. Although only about (
23% of world population are citizens of the developed
world theyaccountfortwo-thirdsoftotalenergydemand.
Thus people in the developed world consume 6.8 times ,
rriore energy per capita than citizens in less developed
countries." • ,. . ';
Each year 500 million vehicles consume half of the ,
world's oil or 19 percent of total energy demand." Indus- j
trial processes consume another 40 percent of energy ,
demandeachyearinthedevelopedworldj' Energyseems
relatively abundant in the short term, but our heavy reli-
ance on non-renewable fossil fuel sources and the contm- ]
ued exponential increase in demand as developing coun-
tries become more industrialized suggest that future sources
and patterns of use must change substantially.
Pollution and Wa«te Generation
In addition to problems created by depletion, resource
and energy use ultimately produce residuals that create
significant environmental impacts. Many residuals are
temporarily concentrated in landfills, while others are
immediately dispersed throughout the ecosphere. A com-
parison of anthropogenic and natural fluxes of toxic metals
on a global scale provides one example of the environmen-
tal problems created by human activity. Human actions
dramatically increase the dispersion of these toxic met-
als »•" Widespread accumulation of toxic metals in the
biosphere is generally harmful, and thus not compatible
with sustainable human practices." The implication for
—————
$48 • May 1994 • Vol. 44 • AIR & WASTE
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toxic metal production - substantial reduction in mining virgin
ores jmlunuul elimination of their releases as residuals, applies
to other hazardous and toxic materials if humans are to achieve a
sustainable societv.
Dispersin* pollutants into the environment may cause irrepa-
rable damaK For example, fossil fuel combust.on releases
greenhouse'aases that can lead to global warming. Fossil fuel
combustion accounts for approximately 70* ot greenhouse gas
emissions from human activity.:' Using one index ot greenhouse
"as loadins. the United States, former Soviet Union. Brazil,
China. IndFa. and Japan account for 50% of global increases in
greenhouse aases each year.:- Although the seventy and distribu,-
tion of potential climate change is as yet unknown, it already
appears that average global temperature will rise from 1.5 to -.5
decrees Celsius in the next 60 to 100 years.:' This could cause
major human and ecological dislocations* Given current prac-
tices it will be difficult to avoid the consequences of climate
change Just to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of green-
house gases at current levels, emissions of many species will have
to be reduced by about 80 percent.'-' "
Other environmental consequences of human activity, such as
ozone depletion, can also affect the entire planet. A globa
perspective is necessary to understand these broad environmental
issues, but local and reaional problems should also be considered
when evaluating sustainability. Local issues often dominate the
environmental aaenda because they seemingly affect individual
lives more directly, even though greater benefits might be achieved
bv addressing problems that exist on regional and global scales.
" in the United States and other countries, municipal solid waste
(MSW) eeneration reflects increasing resource consumption. In
1960 they nited States generated 2.65 pounds of MSW per person
per day/ This compares to the nearly 4 pounds per person
generated daily in 1988. By 2010. per capita daily generation is
expected to reach 4.9 pounds.:-.- As Figure 2 shows, both gross
and net-discards have been trending upwards recently. Even after
material recovery, net discards nearly doubled between 1960 and
1988. Consumer products account for a significant fraction ot '
MSW but industrial production generates the vast majority of this
' nation's solid and hazardous waste. Each year, U.S. industries
produce 10.9 billion tons of nonhazardous waste reported under
the solid waste management provisions of the Resource Conser-
vation and Recovery Act (although classified as solid, wastewater
accounts for 70 percent of this total).» US industries also generate
700 million tons of hazardous waste annually."
Once designers recognize that environmental problems need to
be addressed in their work, establishing priorities can help con-
centrate efforts on the most critical areas. The following priorities
for environmental impacts set by me Ecology and Welfare Su6-
committee of the Science Advisory Board ot the U .S. EPA provide
one example of such a global ranking:" •
Relatively High-Risk Problems
'• Global climate change
. Habitat alteration and destruction
• Species extinction and overall loss of biodiversity
• Stratospheric ozone depletion
Relatively Medium-Risk Problems
• Acid deposition
• Airborne toxics
• Herbicides/pesticides
» Toxics, nutrients, biocherrfical oxygen demand, and
" turbidity in surface waters
Relatively Low-Risk Problems
• Acid runoff to surface waters
_• Groundwater pollution
• Oil spills . . .
• Radionuclides . '
• Thermal pollution
Items within the three groups are ranked alphabetically, not by
priority. The EPA undertook this study to target environmental
protection efforts on the.basis of opportunities.for the greatest risk
reduction. In developing the hierarchy. EPA considered reducing
ecological risk as important as reducing human health nsk, Of
course, many human actions are interrelated and produce multiple
consequences, so assigning environmental priority to specific
' actions will be complex.' Furthermore, it is difficult to apply such
; global rankings to design of a discrete product. For example,
I companies' are much more likely to focus on reducing toxic
! releases, especially those that are regulated, rather than reduce
! releases of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide.
System Definition . TU
Defining the system is fundamental to any design activity. The
' definition of the product system begins with a clear statement of
the basic societal needs being met by the design. In the project
: initiation stage, design teams determine the scope of their activity
but frequently do not explicitly state the spatial and temporal
, boundaries of the proposed design. In life cycle design, bound-
aries should usually be determined by the full environmental
' consequences arising from aproduct system. The physical dimen-
180
I960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985- 1988
•Material recovery only: no incineration
Figuri 2. Trends in gross and net discards of U..S. municipal solid waste
Figure 1. World population and power use.
AIR & WASTE • Vol. 44 • May 1994 • 647
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CRITICAL REVIEW
wins o< ihe Astern encompass the material and energy flows and
tfansibrmattorii associated w ith an enure product lite cycle, in tne
process oldetlnme "boundariesfor a design project, the various
groups polenuallv impacted b> the design should also be identified.
The product life cvcle provides a logical framework tor sus-
tainable desien because it considers the full range of environmen-
tal consequences and other stdkeholder interests associated with
a product. Bv addressing a life cvcle system, designers can help
prevent shifung impacts between media (air. water, land) and
beiwcen other life cvcle stages. This framework also includes
stakeholders ie.e.1 suppliers, manufacturers, consumers/users.
resource recovery and w'asle managers), whose involvement is
entical to successful design improvement. The life cycle system
IS complex due to its dynamic nature and its geographic scope.
Life cvc!e activities may be widely distributed over the planet, and
they may also create environmental consequences on global.
regional, and local levels.
Life Cycle Stages
Several diagrams have been proposed to represent the product
life cycle. ' " " Figure 3 is a general diagram which shows the
circular nature of material and energy flows through a product life
cvcle. On an elementary level, every product requires that
resources be consumed and wastes generated which accumulate in
the earth anti biosphere. A product life cycle can be organized into
the following stages:
raw material acquisition
bulk material processing
engineered and specialty materials production
manufacturing and assembly
use and service
retirement "
disposal
Raw materials acquisition includes mining riohrenewable
material and harvesting biomass. These bulk materials are pro-
cessed into bise materials by separation and purification. Ex-
amples include flour milling and convening bauxite to aluminum.
Some base materials are combined through physical and chemical
means into engineered and specialty materials. Examples include
'l!l!l!polylrnenzauonltllof1ethyl|ene into polyethylene pellets and the
production of high-strength steel. Base and engineered materials
are then manufactured through various fabrication steps, and pans
are assembled into a final product.
Products sold to customers are consumed or used for one or
more functions. Throughout their use. products and processing
equipment may be serviced to repair defects or maintain perfor-
mance. Users eventually decide to retire a product. After
retirement, a product can be reused or re-manufactured. Material
and energy can also be recovered through recycling, composting,
incineration, or pyrolysis. ...
Some residuals generated in all stages are released directly into
the environment. Emissions from automobiles, wastewater dis-
charges from some processes, and oil spills are examples of direct
releases. Residuals may also undergo physical, chemical or
bioloeical treatment. Treatment processes are usually designed to
reduce volume and toxicity of waste. The remaining residuals,
including those resulting from treatment, are then typically dis-
posed in landfills. The ultimate form of residuals depends on how
they degrade after release.
Product System Components
A product system is characterized by both a physical flux of
material and energy as well as a flux of information across each
stage of the life cycle." »•« The entire system can be organized
. into four basic components: product, process.'distribution and
management. As much as possible, life cycle design seeks to
integrate these components.
Figure 4 gives a limited example of elements in the product
system of a plastic cup over its ii'fe cycle. Although far from
complete, this simplified example illustrates how components are
defined across the life cycle.
Product. The product component consists of all materials
constituting the final product and includes all forms of those
materials in each stage of the life cycle. For example, the product
component for the plastic cup shown in figure 4 consists of
• petroleum or natural gas from raw material acquisition: the high
density polyethylene (HOPE) pellets, stabilizers, and pigments
that are molded into cups; and the discarded cup or residuals from
recycling in a municipal solid waste landfill. Gases, water vapor,
ash. and other substances related to pigments and stabilizers are
produced if the retired cup is incinerated.
The product components of a complex commodity such as an
automobile consists of a wide range of materials and parts. These
may be a mix of primary (virgin) and secondary (recycled)
materials. The materials invested in new or used replacement
parts are also included in the product component.
The remaining three components of the product system, pro-
cess, distribution and management, each share the following
subcomponents:
• Facility or plant
• Unit operations or process steps
• Equipment and tools
'Utt Xmnrntrai
o*^. Fuj-u-c uid untrutcd miduals
_*. Aireomt. wmrtiomt, mil vAa
tonneyck. I
\\tpax*
I roitif.
p ytiwmnmm I •
J+S&mt ****• *?!•*.
^^_. nek. - WDBBHiB
..TV ., mi.*!
MuuftWIt
Tcuuto o( mnauli bn»«n tola for Fniucr. includa
IfVHJXXUUOOMd pKil|W| (OUWtionwil
Figur. 4. Partial example of product system elements for a reusable plastic cup
over its life cycle.
644 • May 1994 • Vol. 44 • AIR & WASTE
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•'•L^bor
• Direct and indirect material inputs
• Energv
Process' Processing transforms materials and energy into a ,
vanetv of intermediate and final products. The prdcess compo-
nent includes direct and indirect materials used to make a product.
Gualvsis and solvents are examples of direct process materials.
Thev'are not siantTicantlv incorporated into the tinat product.
Plant and equipment are examples of indirect material inputs for
processina. Resources consumed during research, development.
testme and product use are included in the process component.
Distribution. Distribution consists of packaging systems and
transportation networks used to contain, protect, and transport
products and process materials. Both packaging and transporta-
tion result in simificam environmental impacts. Packaging ac-
counted for 31.6 percent of municipal solid waste generated in the
US in 1988.* Material transfer devices such as pumps and valves.
cans and wagons, and material handling equipment (forkhfts. crib
towers etc ) are also pan of the distribution component.
Distribution is sometimes considered a life cycle stage (be-
tween manufacturing and use) but in the product system, distribu-
tion links all stages. For example, materials and energy require
transportation and containment to move between the extraction
and bulk processing life cycle stages, just as products require the
same to-move between manufacturing and use. and then between
the use and disposal stages. Thus the distribution component
exists throughout the life cycle of a product.
Storage facilities such as vessels and warehouses are necessary
for distribution and thus included in this component. In addition,
both wholesale and retail merchandising is. considered part ot
'S Management. The management component includes the entire >
information network that supports decision making throughout |
thelifecycle. Within a corporation, management responsibilities i
include administrative services, financial management, person- ,
nel. purchasing, marketing, customer services, legal services, and ,
training and education programs.
Interconnected Product Systems
Each product system contains many product life cycles within j
it The interconnected state of these systems complicates analysis j
but also offers opportunities for reducing environmental impact. .
On the product system level, products are interconnected through ,
material exchange or common processes activities. Figure 5 ;
shows how product systems can be linked through recycling. This
demonstrates the need for designers to adfess>how f"™*
systems.fit into a larger industrial web of highly integrated
activities. , -
Goals lor Sustainable Development
The fundamental goal of life cycle design is to promote
sustainable development at the global, regional, and local levels.
Principles for achieving sustainable development should include.
sustainable resource use (conserve resources, minimize depletion
of non-renewable resources, use sustainable practices for manag-
ine renewable resources ). maintenance of ecosystem structure
and function, and environmental equity. These principles are
interrelated and highly complementary. ' —
Sustainable Resource Use
There could be no product development or economic activity
of any kind without available resources. Except for solar energy.
the supply of resources is finite. Efficient designs conserve
resources while also reducing impacts caused by material extrac-
tion and related activities.
,' Depletion of nonrenewable resources and overuse of otherwise
renewable resources limns their availability to future generations. ,
At present one fifth of the world population consumes nearly 80
percent of fossil fuel and metal resources: continuing this level'bf
consumption in industrial nations while adopting them in devel-
oping countries is an unsustainable strategy.' Yet. given recent
history impending resource depletion may not seem critical, in
the past two hundred years, human activity in certain regions
depleted economically exploitable reserves of several natural
resources with critical applications at the time, such as certain
woods for ship building, charcoal for steelmakmg. and whale oil
for lighting. When this happened, substitutes were found that
often proved both cheaper and more suitable for advancing indus-
tries However, it would be unwise to assume that infinite
abundance will be characteristic of the future. It may be true that
widespread, critical shortages have not yet developed m the very
brief history of intensive human resource use. but the amount and
availability of resources are ultimately determined by geological
and energetic constraints, not human ingenuity.
Ecological Health
Maintaining healthy ecosystem structure and function is a prin-
ciple element of sustainability. Because it is difficult to imagine how
human health can be maintained in a degraded, unhealthy natund
- world the issue of ecosystem health should be a more fundamental
concern. Sustainability requires that the health of all diverse spec.es
as well as their interrelated ecological functions be maintained. As
only one species in a complex web of ecological interacaons. humans
cannofseparate their success from that of the overriding system.
1 Environmental Equity
i The issue of environmental equity is as complex as the
1 subject of sustainable development. A major challenge in
I sustainable development is achieving both intergenerational
i "and intersocietal environmental equity. Over-consuming re-
: sources and polluting the planet in such a way that it enjoins
i future generations from access to reasonable comforts irre-
sponsibly transfers problems to the future in exchange for
i short-term gain. Beyond this intergenerational cpnflict, enor-
mous inequities in the distribution of resources continue to
exist between developed and less-developed countries. Ineq-
uities also'occur within, national boundaries Pollution.and
other impacts from production are also unevenly distributed^
Studies show that low-income communities m the United
States are often exposed to higher health risks from industna
activities than are higher-income communities." Inconsistent
PRODUCT 1
1
dated-Loop
Recydtet
PRODUCT 2
» •
systgms |n c|osed. af)(, open_,oop recycling.
MR « WASTE • Vol. 44 • May 1994 • 649
-------
v V'. fl
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i ' i" ' i .1 ,i J1:1:, ' ,, jii1' i . ' 'i'1" ' ,i "Y ,u' ,i !||, ,,![! i • •' i| ,"'i!'' I!,;,1 ',' . • ',,, ;,., '!»' ". * 'i ' , , ,,,' ' Ilii'1 !| ;'141 , ".:''
J- - ,;" I, : :,; " i i ', , ' "Hi; 4 WStEl * ; ' & "> J * « * i- r *• L^V W tori < f • SAiiiiv.ll! r . .Sii ':„ : ' • L L 1 P fe*> 1 * • ,> ,•*••' v : H4 1 • , I, ! ,. , ' , ", '. • 1,
fflj rRITIHAI REVIEW |H^^^HHHI
•M-,lLUIIIIIIIIIlJillllllllllllll^^
"' . i, i • ..
swiwin the US have ahofed to different definitions of
acceptable risk level* lor workers and consumers.'"
' Specilic Objectives o< Life Cycle Design
Luc cvcle'd'eMgn applies 'sustainable development principles
at the product sv Mem level, The envtronmental goal tor life cycle
design IN to minimize the aggregate life cycle environmentai
burden associated uuh meeting societal demands for goods and
services One method for characterizing the aggregate impacts
for each Mage and the cumulative impacts for the enure life cycle
IS an environmental profile, such as that illustrated in Figure 6.
This figure shows a hypothetical impact profile because at present
there is no universal method for characterizing environmentai
burden so precisely As illustrated, impacts are generally not
uat'farinK distributed across the life cycle. It is also important to
recognize that human communities and ecosystems are also im-
pieted by many other product life cycle systems.
Evolution of Lile Cycle Design and Related Approaches
This section highlights the evolution of life cycle design and
related design-bas'ed approaches for sustainable Development
Major concepts introduced here will be elaborated later. Until
recently, the life cycle framework has been much more widely
associated with environmental assessment than design. Life cycle
assessment iLCA >."'"• resource and environmental profile analy-
sis t REPAID and ecobalance" « are all methods for evaluating the
Ufe cycle environmental consequences of a product from "cradle
10 grave " LCA and related approaches are evaluation tools, not
design methods. There are thus quite distinct from life cycle design
« Although recycling can be an effective strategy, design- ,
; ers and the public may have overemphasized this approach rather
• than giving careful consideration to other means of designing
more benign products.
Extended producer responsibility is a more general approach .
that promotes cleaner products by explicitly expandingthe role of •
the producer beyond the manufacturing stage.« The recent i
adoption of total quality management (TQM) principles focused
on customer satisfaction has also contributed to the development
of LCD «•«• This emphasis on the customer and multistakenolder
participation has now evolved to include the environment. Rather
than being driven by regulations, innovative companies are begm-
' ning to recognize the value of applying the life cycle framework
to their operations as they adopt total quality environmentai
', management programs." Such initiatives promote a sustainable
economy and provide the necessary support for LCD.
! A life cycle framework for design was investigated by the
authors in a three-year project with the US EPA Risk Reduction
Engineering Laboratory. This effort resulted in the public* on of
the EPA UfeCvcle Design Guidance Manual, which defined LCD
as ."systems-oriented approach for designing more ecologically
: and economically sustainable product systems which integrates
; environmental requirements into the earliest stages of design. In
life cycle design, environmental, performance, cost, cultural, and
legalrequirementsarebalanced," In addition to this manual, o her
guidance documents are now available™." or are under develop-
: gment.n A comprehensive survey of life cj^e d,s^su^m the
international literature has also been prepared by van Weenen._ Jn
Dupoul
aUQlUUllUJ urcat wv»^>» ••«•• — a — • r
promote environmental design without of.-. ...e -r- -
or suggestions for implementation have also been written.'
Preparing design guidelines is only the first step in encourag-
ing widespread adoption of sustainable design practices. Such
-------
mu« be applied to actual design projects w their
Practical.* can be i«s««e. and the suggested procedures im-
proved through learning. Several industry government and
un,ver,,,v projects are no* testmg the feasibility o elementsof
LCD and other <>steins approaches for environmental-design.
Life Cycle Design Framework
The Irfe cvcle design framework mtroduced in Life Q-<£
Des«n Gu,M UanM" provides the template used m this
paper for review,ng major concepts and approaches to LCD.
F.iure 7 demonstrates the complexity of integrating «vironmen-
taf issues mto des.sn. The goal of sustainable development is
located at the top to indicate its fundamental importance. As me .
fiEiire shows-, both internal and external forces shape the creation.
synthesis, and evaluation of a design. _
' External factors include government regulations,and policy.
market demand, infrastructure, state of the economy- state.of the
environment, scientific understanding of environmental risks.and
public perception of these risks. Within a company both organ.-
zational and operational changes must take place to effectively
implement life cycle design. . .
Of the internal factors, management exerts a major influence
on all phases of development. Both concurrent design and total
qualitv manaeemem provide models for life cycle design. In
addition, appropriate corporate policy, goals performance mea-
sures. and resources are needed to support LCD projects.
Researchandtechnologydevelopmentuncovernew approaches
forreducina environmental impacts, while increased understand-
ina of the state of (he environment by the scientiflc/ommunS°
the* general public provides global, regional, and local pnont.es
for environmental problems that can be addressed by designjn
this way. current and future environmental needs are translated
into appropriate designs.
Life Cycle Design Mwufonent
i . Ptrfomunce Maura
1 • Srattgy
* Resou
• Mul&-«akei»Mm
• Concurrent Detifn
• Tom Coofdinjcon
• Oo«mme« policy
indretuUcora
• MBkesikmm
tnfrmrufatuic
A tvptcal desian project begins with a needs analysis, then
proceeds through formulating requirements, conceptual design.
preliminary desian. detailed design, and implementation. During
the needs analysis or initiation phase, the purpose and scope of the
•proiect are defined, and customer needs are clearly identified.
Needs are then expanded into a full set of- design criteria that
inciudes'environmental requirements. Various strategies are ex-
plored to meet these requirements, which act as a lens for focusing
knowledee and new ideas into a feasible solution. The develop-
ment team continuously evaluates alternatives throughout the
design process. Environmental analysis tools ranging from single
environmental metrics to comprehensive life cycle assessments
(LC A) may be used in addition to other analysis tools. Successful ,
designs must ultimately balance environmental, performance.
cost, cultural, and legal requirements. .
Although this model is overly simple, it demonstrates essential
elements and relationships in life cycle Design. Many different
connections and feedback mechanisms exist among the activities
shown in Fiaure 7. Design itself is an iterative process wh.ch
includes multiple .sequences of analysis, synthesis. and evaluation.
Environmental Management System and
Design Management ,
Product development occurs within the broader corporate
management structure. Increasingly, environmental stewardship
issues are being addressed within corporations by formal environ-
mental management systems.'^ A corporation's environmental
managementsystemsupportsenvironmentahmprovementhrough
' a number of key components including environmenta policy and
goals, performance measures, and a strategic plan. Ideally. the
environmental management system is interwoven with.r, ,fe ;cor-
'- porate structure and not treated as a separate function .« Success- ,
.fill life cycle design .projects require commitment from all em-
ployees and all levels of management. Annl-
Mission Statement and Policy. -Mission statements and poh- ,
ciescontaining environmental principles help tocommunicateUie
importance of environmental issues to internal and external stake-
hoWers. A well-known example of this is the corporate environ-
mental policy developed by 3M in 1975." Th.s policy stated that
™M would prevent pollution at the source, develop products with ,
• mimmalenvironmemaleffect.conserve«source^ ;
facilities and products meet alt regulations while also assisting ;
government agencies andothers in their environmental activities. ,
!£vau£ principles, and the Responsible Care Program devel-
oped by the Chemic-al Manufacturers Association provide ex-
amples of how groups of companies or sectors may -cooperat. s»
develop environmental policies. Major elements of the Vakkz
principles pledge companies to: protect the biosphere through
safegSg habitats and preventing pollution, conserve ^re-
newable resources and make sustainable use of renewable ~.n-
sources, reduce waste and follow responsible d.sposal methods
reduce health risks to workers and the community disclose
nual
Continuous Improvement
Corawuoui fascamm
Figure 7. Lite ~/cie design process.
tocauseenvironn-m^an
evaluations of progress toward implementing these principles^
Policies that support pollution prevention, resoure. : conserva-
.tion. and other life cycle principles foster life cycle Design.
However such principles must be linked to guidelines and proce-
aSr^o^rationallevelinordertobeeffective Vague environ-
mental policies may not result in much action on their own.
EnJnnmental Strategy and Goats. Strategic Pta
essential to managing the complexity and dy"™
life cycle system. This activity can seem overwhel
d tferemtimecyclesaffectingproductsystemcomponents. Time
scatesrf different events that can influence design include:
• Business cycle (recovery, inflation, recession)
. Product life cycle (R&D. production, termination, service)
_— — ^ ^ -1 "" "
AIR ft WASTE • Vol. 44 • May 1994 • 651
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CRITICAL REVIEW
\it .11 life product
....... ..... ill .....
«E»juipmeni life
• Process
« Cultural trends ttashion obsolescencei
« Regulatory change
, * Technology cycles
« Environmental impacts nccur-
Understanding, coordinating, and respond.ng to .ssues occur
r,ne uithin these time scales can be a key element ,n improved
deln 1 " ifecvcle des.gn strategy MO succeed, the underlying
tedSogical capab,l.iy -of a corporation must be reconfigured
loSrtmai strategv Businesses cannot successfully launch
nk prograin'i that are not consistent with their abilities.", no
matter how. well mtemioned.
Corporate strategies tor implementing LCD include.
t Discontinuing/phasing out product lines with unacceptable
f ESmg m research and development of low-impact
technology
* Investma in improved facilities/equipment
. Recommending regulatory policies that assist life cycle
. Educating and training employees in life cycle desig;n
Man* companies are under pressure to shorten development
limes This is due in pan to competition to continuously bring new
pSJs to market. Strategic planning must balance these factors
L -L-: need to meet and even exceed life cycle goals.
sufficiently detailed to gu.de des.gn. Examples of
environmental goals include reducing or phasing out the , use of
toxic chemicals within a specific t.me period. enhancing the
energy effk.ency of a product in use. and reducing packaging
waste from suppliers to a specific level.
Enwonmental Performance Measures. The progress of de-
sign projects should be clearly assessed with appropriate mea-
sures to help members of the design team pursue environmental
goals, Consistent prioritized measures of impact reduction m all
ohases of desnn provide valuable information for design analysis
S3*X£ making- '< «* "nponwt to establish measures that
cctrerfiaenuesourceusetmaterialsa^
waste reduction t multi-media), as well as measures to assess
human health and ecosystem sustainability. These last two mea-
sures are much more difficult to assess.
Companies may measure progress toward stated goals in
several wavs. Regardless of how progress is measured, life cycle
desttn t5 likely to be more successful when environmental aspects
are pan of a firm's incentive and reward system. Even when life
tvcledes.2nmaycutshon-tenncosts.enhance,mmed,ate perfor-
mance. of increase annual profitability, a discrete measure of
Environmental respons.bility should still be included when as-
sessma an employee's performance. If companies claim to follow
Sound-environmental policies, but never reward and promote
people tor reducing impacts, managers and workers will naturally
focu-i on other areas of the business.
A/amI?
-------
Scope of Design Project
In addition to definma the project timeline and budget, the
development team should define system boundaries. The ideal
framework for design considers the full life cycle trom raw
material acquisition to the ultimate fate of residuals, but more
restricted system boundanes may be. justified by the development
team in order to meet the demands of a particular product devel-
opment cycle. ' . . • .
Beainnma with the most comprehensive system design and
analysis can"focus on the full life cycle, partial life cycle, or
mdividual stages or activities. Choice of the full life cycle system
generally provides the greatest opportunities for achieving the
°oals of sustainable development. In some cases, the development
Team may confine analysis to a partial life cycle consisting of
several st'azes. or even a single stage. Stages can be omitted if they
are static or not affected by a new design. As long as designers
working on a more limited scale are sensitive to potential upstream
and downstream effects, environmental goals can still be reached.
,E\en so. a more restricted scope will reduce possibilities for
design improvement.
Evaluate Baseline and Benchmark Bast in Class
Baseline analysis of existing products and benchmarking com-
petitors may indicate opportunities for improving a product
system's environmental performance." * While companies have '
pro-rams to compare their products'performance and cost against
those of their competitors, environmental criteria are generally
more difficult to benchmark. LCA can be used for comparative .
analysis internally and externally, but this tool has several limita-
tions not the least of which is that benchmarking activities are
influenced by available company resources. Regardless of meth- ;
ods chosen, the following basic guidelines apply:"
« plan and determine goals and scope of benchmarking study ;
• collect preliminary data •
'• select "best-in-class" !
• ascertain data on best-in-class , ;
• review and assess data in teams
• develop implementation plan
• assess program performance continuously
'Baseline analysis and benchmarking can be used to identify
opportunities and vulnerabilities that will be addressed m the
current design or used for strategic planning.
Design Requirements
Formulating requirements may well be the most critical phase
of design.-' Design initiatives such as quality function deploy-
ment (QFD)» " and total quality management (TQM)*-" recog-
nize the pri macy of customer needs, and thus increasingly focus on
ensuring quality and value at the earliest stages of development.
Through their emphasis on designing quality into products, rather
than achieving it through later remediation, these programs pre-
pared the way for LCD's focus on environmental requirements.
Requirements define the expected outcome and are crucial for,
translating needs and environmental goals into an effective design
solution. Design usually proceeds more efficiently when the
solution is clearly bounded by well-considered requirements. In
later phases of design, alternatives are evaluated on how well they
meet requirements. , . •
Incorporating environmental requirements into the earliest
staae of design can reduce the need for later corrective action. Tins
proactive approach enhances the likelihood of developing a lower-
impact product. Pollution control, liability, and remedial action
costs can be greatly reduced by developing environmental re-
quirements that address the full life cycle at the outset of a project.
Life cycle design also seeks to integrate environmental require-
ments with traditional performance, cost, cultural, and legal
requirements. All requirements must be properly balanced in a
successful product. A low-impact product that fails in the market-
place benefits no one.
Regardless of the project's nature, the expected design out- _
come should not be overly restricted or too broad. Requirements
defined too narrowly eliminate attractive designs from the solu-
tion space. On the other hand, vague requirements (such as those
arising from corporate environmental policies that are too broad
to provide specific guidance), lead to misunderstandings between
potential customers and designers while making the search pro-
cess inefficient."' ' .
An estimated 70 percent of product system costs are fixed in
the design stage. Activities through the requirements phase
typically account for 10 to 15 percent of total product develop-
ment costs.™ yet decisions made at this point can determine 50 to
70 percent "of costs for the entire project."")-1"'
- Different methods are available to assist the design team in
establishing requirements," including requirements matrices and
design checklists: Requirements can also be established by formal
procedures such as the "house of quality" approach."" ,
Design Checklists
Checklists are usually a series of questions formulated to help
designers be systematic and thorough when addressing design
topics such as environmental issues. Proprietary checklists for
DFE have been developed by AT&T which are similar to the
Design for Manufacturability (DFM) checklists widely used by
designers." For example, a Toxic Substance Inventory checklist
is used to identify whether a product contains a select group of
toxic metals. The Canadian Standards Association is currently
developing a Design for the Environment (DFE) standard which
includes checklists of critical environmental core principles.'« A
series of yes/no questions are being proposed for each major life
cycle stage: raw materials acquisition, manufacturing, use, and
waste management.' '. .
Environmental design checklists that accommodate quantita-
tive, qualitative, and inferential information through different
design stages have also been offered for consideration." In addi-
tion, Quakemaat and Weenk"» propose management or design
checklists based on "environmental merit," which is an assess-
• ment of the potential to reduce environmental burdens. Although
their concept has not yet been well demonstrated, their checklist
' of environmental issues and parameters may be useful. _
Checklists are not difficult to use but they must be compiled
carefully without demanding excessive time from the designers to
read « Checklists can also interfere with creativity because dt-
' signers may rely on them exclusively to address environmental
I issues without considering which prompts in the-hsts are most
appropriate for their specific project.
Requirements Matrix
Matrices allow product development teams to study the inter-
actions between life cycle requirements. Figure 9 shows a
multilayer matrix for developing requirements. The matrix tor
each type of requirement contains columns that represent lite
cycle stages. Rows of each matrix are formed by the product
system components: product, process, distribution,and manage-
' ment Each row is subdivided into inputs and outputs. Elements
i within the rows and columns can be described and tracked in as
much detail as necessary. r^ i
There are no absolute rules for organizing matrices. Develop-
ment teams should choose a format that is appropriate for their
project The requirements matrices shown in Figure 9 are strictly
conceptual- in practice such matrices can be simplified to address
requirements more broadly during the earliest stages of design, or
AIR & WASTE • Vol. 44 • May 1994 •
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Ill "V.
CRITICAL REVIEW
i
Bffiv-lv J^ Sect passenger's irt"5 collision. Environmental re-
quirements are closely linked and often constrained by perfor-
Environmental Acquirements
Env.ronmental requirements sfiould be developed to m.m-
mit>he use of natural resources .particularly nonrenewablesi
* Energy consumption
• Waste generation
» Threats :«• ecological health
ucsepe „ Um.ted by technical factor,
pertSnce limits are usually defined by best ava.lable
hw while absolute lirmts that products may stnve to
he success of a major new design project may depend on
in
he,P deve,opment teams define
generation and resource use.
Cost
•44
been avoided,
Peribrrnanct
Performance requirements aefine functions of the product .
svsfem ™un" tional requirements range from size wterancesof ;
;
rflaximum on s .|^ ^^^nggr ^d St0rage capacity, and
«»» *•»'" ""p <"ss"m • h
FlQiirt S. Conceptual requirements matrices.
Cultural
654 • May 1994 • Vol. 44 • AIR & WASTE
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Anticipated environmental gains from design innovations are
often offset by chances in patterns of consumption. - For ex-
ample, automobile manufacturers doubled average fleet fuel
economy over the last twenty years, but gasoline consumption in
the United States remains nearly the same-because more vehicles •
are bem° driven more miles. Unexpectedly. widespread computer
use apparently mcrea>es paper consumption. Printouts ot drifts ot
this manuscript are a case io point!
Legal
Local, state, and federal.environmental, health, and safety
reflations are mandatory requirements. Violation of these re-
quirements leads to fines, revoked permits, criminal and civil
prosecution, and other penalties. Long-term liabilities also result
from the production, use. and ultimate disposal of certain toxic and
hazardous materials. '
A plethora of regulations apply to most product systems.
Environmental professionals, health and safety staff, legal advi-
sors and government regulators can identify legal issues for life
cycle design. Principal local, state, federal . and international
regulations that apply to the product system provide a framework
for leaal requirements. Regulations can vary dramatically both in
tvpe-and detail between these jurisdictions, adding to the complex-
ity of formulating legal requirements for products that will be sold
'on a global basis. . .
Whenever possible, legal requirements should take into
account pending and proposed regulations that are likely to be
enacted. Such "forward thinking can prevent costly problems
during manufacture or use while providing a competitive ad-
vantage. ,
Ranking and Weighing
Ranking and weighting distinguishes between critical and
merely desirable requirements. An example of one useful classi-
fication scheme follows:
Table (II. Some issues to consider when developing environmental requirements.
• Must requirements are conditions that designs have to meet.
No design is acceptable unless it satisfies alt must require-
ments. Government regulations are examples of must
requirements.
• Want requirements are desirable traits that are not manda-
tory: Want requirements help designers seek the best solu-
tion, not just the first alternative that satisfies mandatory
conditions. These criteria play a critical role in customer
acceptance and perceptions of quality.
• Ancillary functions are low-ranked in terms of relative im-
portance: They are relegated to a wish list Designers should
be aware that such desires exist, but ancillary functions
should only be expressed in design when they do not compro-
mise more critical functions. Customers or clients should not
expect designs to reflect many ancillary requirements.
Once must requirements are specified, want and ancillary
requirements can be assigned priorities. There are no simple rules
for weighting requirements. Assigning priority to requirements is
_, j:rf._..i. <,oui because different classes of requirements
Amount Type
Renewable
Nonrenewable
.Type .
Solid waste
Air emissions
Waterborne
Ecosystem Stressors
Physical
- Biological
Chemical
Population at Risk
Workers
Users
Community
Materials and Energy
Character Resource Base
Virgin Location
Reused/recycled local vs. other
Reusable/ recyclable Scarcity
Qualify
Management/
restoration practices
Residuals
Characterization Environmental Fate
Constituents, amount, Containment
concentration, toxteity: Bioaccumulation
Nonhazardous Degradability
Hazardous Mobility/transport
Radioactive
Ecological Health
Impact Categories
Diversity System structure
Sustainability, resilience and function
to stressors Sensitive species
Human Htalth and Safety
Exposure Routes Toxic Character
Inhalation, skin contact. Acute effects
ingestion Chronic effects
Duration & frequency Morbidity /mortality
Impacts Caused By
Extraction anH Use
Material /energy use
Residuals
Ecosystem health
Human health
t
Treatment/Disposal
impacts
Scale
Local
Regional
Global
Accidents
Type & frequency
Nuisance Effects
Noise, odors,
visibility
values of the design team must be used to arrive at priorities.
Requirements can also be strategically organized in a time
dimension. Future or anticipated requirements which may not be
presently met can be distinguished from other requirements that
apply to current designs. .
The process of making trade-offs between types of require-
ments is familiar to every designer. Asking How important is this
function to the design? or What is this function worth (to society,
customers, suppliers, etc.)? is a necessary exercise in every suc-
cessful development project.
Development teams can expect various requirements to con-
flict with each other. If conflicts cannot be resolved between must
requirements, there is no solution space for design. When a
solution space exists but it is so restricted that little choice is
possible, mustrequirements may have .
been defined too narrowly. The abr
sence of conflicts usually indicates -
that requirements are too loosely de-
fined, producing a cavernous, solu-
tion space in which virtually any al- ,
tentative seems desirable. Undersuch
conditions, there is no practical
method of choosing the best design. ,
In all of these cases, design teams
need to redefine or assign new priori- i
ties to requirements.
Design Strategies
Presented by themselves, strate- ;
gies may seem to define the goals of a
design project. But effective design
relies on a synthesis of multiple strat-
egies for translating requirements into
solutions. Although it may be tempt-
ing to pursue an intriguing strategy
for reducing environmental impacts
at the outset of a project, deciding on
a course of action before the destina-
tion is known can be an invitation to
disaster. Strategies flow from re-
quirements, not the reverse.
Appropriate strategies need to sat-
isfy the entire set of design require-
ments, thus promoting integration of
environmental requirements into de-
••————
AIR ft WASTE • Vol. 44 • May 1994 • 655
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CRITICAL REVIEW
e. es'senliil proaifct performance must be pre-
«
mental .mpacis If performance » « even less likely •? p^j*™ «£
of all requirements, so development teams w«".usua1^™^ °
adopt a range of strategies. As an example, design « P™fs '°
Stives siich as extended producer responsibility '>»• 'M can
usual v be« be expressed through a vanety of strategies. Waste
SoSe. Cycling, and aspects of product hfe extension
may variously be employed to meet such challenges.
Several key strategies will now be outlined to illustrate how
they may be used in LCD.
Product System Life Extension
In manv cases. longer-lived products save resources and gen-
era e less waste, because fewer units are needed to satisfy the same
Ss*; Suchp cduct life extension is one of the most direct ways
"reduce environmental impacts associated with human acnv,-
£?•• Before pursuing this strategy, designers should understand
TaWt IV. Strategies for meeting requirements in LCD,
useful life L'seful life measures how long a system will operate
ally and meet performance standards when maintained properly
Ind not subject to stresses beyond stated limits.- Measures ot
useful'life vary with function. Some common measures are
number of uses or duty cycles (washers, switches), length ot
option aUtomobiles..ightbu.bs).andsheltMife(food unsta^
chemicals). Retirement is the defining event ot useful life. Rea-
sonswhy products are no longer in use include: technical obsoles-
cence fashion obsolescence, degraded performance or structure
Se caused by normal wear over repeated uses, environmental
or chemical degradation, and damage caused by accident «
inappropriate use. Clearly, product systems intended for a long
service life must successfully address issues beyond simple wear
and tear As Table IV shows, there are a vanety of ways to extend
«
-------
because such .products must either be repaired or discarded. In
both cases, environmental impacts and costs increase/
Serviceabtlin. A serviceable system can be adjusted tor opti-
mum performance under controlled conditions. Many complex
produos desianed to have a long useful life require.serv.ee and
support. When designing serviceable products, development teams
should consider v. hether original equipment manufacturers deal-
ers, private business, customers, or various combinations ot these
croups will be servicing the product. Types ot too)s and the level
of expertise needed to perform tasks strongly influences who is
capable of providing service. In any case, simple procedures are
an advantage. Design teams should also recognize that equipment
and an inventory of pans are a necessary investment tor any
service network. , • . .
Service activities may be broken into two major categories:
maintainability and repairability. Maintenance includes periodic.
preventative. and minor corrective actions. The relative difficulty
or time required to support a certain level of system performance
determines whether, that system can be practically maintained.
Issues that need to be addressed when designing easily maintained
product svsterns include: downtime, tool availability, personnel
skills, complexity of required procedures, potential for error.
accessibility, and frequency of design-dictated maintenance. This
is not an exhaustive list, but it identifies some key factors affecting
maintenance, most of which are interrelated.
Durable products may also need repair to stay in extended
service Repairability is determined by the feasibility of replacing
dvsfunctional pans and returning a system to operating condition.
. Factors relating to downtime, complexity, and accessibility are as
important in repair as they are in maintenance. Easily repaired
products also rely on interchangeable and standard parts. Inter- ;
changeability usually applies to pans produced by one manutac-
turer while standardization refers to compatible parts that con- j
form to accepted design standards made by different manufactur- j
... • ^i__. £_.-...__ .misfit* r1«m*ncirmc for cOfTlfTlOn DdftS !
rorm 10 actcpicu ucaigti ow»».%»**.*-«...———v —
ers "= Designs that feature unique dimensions for common parts ,
can confound normal repair efforts; specialty parts usually require ,
expanded inventories arid extra training for repair people. In the
burgeoning global marketplace, following proper standards en- ;
ables practical repair.
Cost also determines repairability. If normal repair is too
expensive, practical repairability does not exist. Labor, which is •
directly related to complexity and accessibility, is a key.factor in .
repair: when labor is costly, only relatively high-value items will
• be repaired. , ;
As in maintenance, infrequent need, ease of intervention, and
a hieh probability of success enhance repairability and translate
directly into perceptions of higher quality. Finally, repairable •
designs need proper after-sale support. Manufacturers of repair- '
able products should offer information about trouble-shooting,
procedures for repair, tools required, and the expected useful life
of components and parts. User decisions about when to retire
rather than repair a product are complex and have significant
environmental consequences. • •
Remanufacturing. Worn products can be restored to like-new
condition through remanufacturing. In a factory, aretired product
is first completely disassembled. Its usable parts are then cleaned.
refurbished, and put into inventory. Finally, a new product is
reassembled from both old and new parts, creating a unit equal in
. performance and expected life to the original or a currently
available alternative. In contrast, a repaired or rebuilt product
usually retains its identity, and only those parts that have failed or
are badly worn are replaced." . •
Industrialequipmentorotherexpensiveproductsnotsubjectto
rapid change are the best candidates for remanufacture. Typical
remanufactured products include jet engines, buses, railcars.
manufacturing equipment, and office furniture. Viable
remanufacturing systems rely on the following factors: a suffi-
cient population of old units i cores i. an available trade-in network.
low collection costs, and storage and inventory infrastructure."
In addition to these factors, no remanufactunng program can
succeed without design actions that address ease of disassembly.
allowing sufficient wear tolerances on critical parts, avoiding
irreparable damage to pans during use. and ensuring interchange-
ability of parts and components in a product line."--
When properly pursued, remanufacturable designs can pro-
vide clear benefits. For example, one original equipment manu-
facturer of jet engines also remanufactures engines for customers
at a cost of $900.000 plus trade-in, compared to $ 1-.6 million for
a new engine. Fuel efficiency in the remanufactured engine is *%
better than original specifications for that model of engine."
Reuse. An item can still be used after it is retired from a clearly
defined duty. Reusable products are returned to the same or less
demanding service without major alterations, although they may
undergo some minor processing, such as cleaning, between ser-
vices. '•-.-'
The environmental profile of a reusable product does not •
always depend on the number of expected uses. If the major
impacts occur in manufacturing and earlier stages, increasing the
number of uses will reduce'total environmental impacts. How-
ever, when most impacts are caused by cleaning or other steps,
between uses, increasing the number of duty cycles may have little
effect on overall impacts. ,
Material Life Extension
Recycling is the reformation or reprocessing of a recovered
material. The EPA defines recycling as the series of activities. .
including collection, separation, and processing, by which prod- ;
ucts or other materials are recovered or otherwise diverted from ;
the solid waste stream for use in the form of raw matenals in the ,
manufacture of new products other than fuel."4
Many designers, policy makers, and consumers believe recy- .
cling is the best solution to a wide range of environmental ,
problems. Even though recycling does divert discarded matenal
from landfills it also causes other impacts and so may not be the ;
best way to minimize waste and conserve resources. Before ^
designers focus on making products easier to recycle, they should
understand several recycling basics such as types of recovered
material, pathways, and the necessary infrastructure.
Types of Recycled Material. Material available for recycling ;
falls'into the following three classes: home scrap, preconsumer.
and postconsumer. Home scrap consists of matenals and by-
products generated and commonly recycled within an ongmal
manufacturing process."' Many materials and products, contain :
home scrap that should not be advertised as recycled content For
example, mill broke (wet pulp and fibers) has histoncally been
used as a pulp substitute in paper making rather than discarded, so
it is misleading to consider it recycled content. Preconsumer
material consists of overruns, rejects, or scrap generated dunng
any stage of production outside the original manufactunng pro-
cess '» It is generally clean, well-identified, and suitable for high-
quality recovery, and thus frequently recycled in many areas. In
contrast, postconsumer material has served its intended use and
been discarded before recovery. Unfortunately, in many cases
postconsumer material has been a relatively low-quality source of
input for future products. - .
• Recycling Pathways. Development teams choosing recycling
as an attractive way to meet requirements should be aware of the
i two major pathways recycled material can follow, as shownin
Figure 5. In closed-loop systems, recovered matenals and prod-
ucts are suitable substitutes for virgin material. They are thus used
to produce the same part or product again. Some waste is gener-
ated during each reprocessing, but in theory a closed-loop model
AIR & WASTE • Vol. 44 • May 1994 <
•US
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CRITICAL REVIEW
are
can opiUeWr an extended penod or t.me * .thout x J
?V -aur«,c enem and in -ome case-; process m
^iSfcreSc^ing, *"««« and other industr*.
ngreJien* ire themo« common materials recyc led '"
loop Postconsunwr maier.al i« much more ditt.cult to recycle : in
a -loced loop because it is otjen degraded or contaminated.
oi^ffimSSe clo-.ed.loop recychng o.f such waste may
£ overstate the I.Kely benefits. However, there can be sue-
ce«M program, that rely on 100 percent po«con«.m« mate-
rul fame* products In one such program. ABS tacryloni
S5e.£STe«™ivren:e» ftgnnd. demed from scrapped tee-
pSne h2?mts. Vai used to produce mounnng panels for
mav conflict with other project needs As an example, snap-fit
™ches and other joinings that speed assembly can severely
Impede disassembly. In some products, easy disassembly may
also lead to theft of valuable components.
Material identification markings greatly aid manual separation
and the use of optical scanners. Siandard markings are most
effective when they are well-placed and easy to read. Symbols
have been designed by the Society of the Plastics Industry (SP
for commodity plastics. The Society of Automotive Engineers
SAElhasdeveiopedmarkingsforengineeredplastics. Ot course
marked material muststillbevaluableandeasytorecoveror, w,l
not be recycled In addition, labeling may not be useful in systems
that rely on mechanical or chemical separation, although.« can be
a vital pan of collection systems that target certain matenals or
Infrastructure* Suitable program's must be in place or planned
toerSS^uccessofanyrecyclingsystem. Key considerations
- recvclinz programs and participation rates, collection
" '-ne'capacilv. quality of recovered matenal. and
. factors u.timately de^w
mafenal will be recycled. Markets for some secondary natenals
may be easily saturated. Recycling programs and high rates of
oanicwadon address only collection: unless recovered matenal is
SaTy uSorecycline has occurred. Take-back legislation in
Genr-any ^packaging .flustrates the importance of anocipanng
SS™ range of recvlling .ssues. Although the legislation in-
SdesSand other possible «^"**f£££££
dealing with packaging items that manufacturers must ake bacic
fsrecychng Todatethepnvatelyfinanced-Greenporprogram
for WeSing packaung su.table for recycling has exceeded
Srtial expectations. The quantity of material recovered has
oveSh'K^
SSdte use of the material.* This difference between simple
iollea.on and .mended use for recovered matenal may delay
^S^ckordinancesaimedatautomobilesandelectronic
mpao also make products
e Jer tfrecycle As previously mentioned, this is an attractive
sSfo?manyotherreasons.Inma
sSecSn has notbeen coordinated with environmental strategy
A* a result many designs contain a bewildenng number ot
mater^hoseX combined cost and performance annbutes^
There may be little chance of recovering matenal from such
complex products unless they contain large components made of
a single, practically recyclable matenal. mnatih|e or
Even without separation, some mixtures of incompatible or
specialty materials can be downcycled. At present. *verd means
are available to form incompauble matenals into . »mpw«es.
However, the resulting products, such as plastic lumber, may have
ignecanarecyC
DatiSaterialsinaproductForexample.acomponentcomain-
FngpWomposed of different matenals could be designed.*,*
pomade from the same material. This strategy also a pphes
within material types. Formulations of the same matenal might
^ suchTfferenTpropenies that they are incompatible during
recycling. Designers will usually have to make trade-offs when
selectinlonly comatible materials for a product. Making smgle-
.
pubfic collection, recovery ^ could be difficult, t may not be
pSbleiocwateaonvatecolleai^
-nmpetes with v.rg.n materials. However if demand I for recov-
e^dVnalerial increases in the future, this will greatly aid collecnon
Cff D?5«n Considerations. Under ideal circumstance^ most ma,
Knata *ould be recovered many times until they became too
degraded for further use. Designing with recycling in mind is
cSSSif this soal is to be reached.- Even so. design for
recv-clabirity is not the ultimate strategy for meeting all environ-
memal recrements. As an example, refutable glass bottes use
much less life cycle energy than single-use recycled glass to
deliver the same amount of beverage.'"
When suitable infrastructure appears to be in p ace. or the
development team is capable of P13""!"^^^;"^",^
greatly abetted by design practices which consider recycling
needs." Features that enhance recycling include:
• ease of disassembly
• material identification
• simplification and pans consolidation
. material selection and compatibility
Products may have to be taken apart after retirement to allow
recovery of matenals for recycling. However, easy disassembly
but not in others.
Material Selection
Material selection, which is tmfjmsn^m^K^-
man: oprjortunities for reducing environmental impacts tnrougn
out a product life cycle. In life cycle design, material Mieonon
beeins by identifying the nature and source of raw matenals. Then
Snmenta. impacts caused by material acquismor,.process-
ing use, and end-of-life product management ,*«J^luated.
FinaHy.proposed materials are compared to determine bes^ho.ces^
When designing modest improvements of ex.st.ng P«Juc«sor
^ion Of a ime, material choice may be constraint.
ay also be restricted to certain materials by the need
ig plant and equipment. This type of process limita-
tion can even affect new product design. Substantial investment
mav then be needed before a new matenal can be used, un me
may men uc ««»» - _.._,„, onerations and
mav then e neee
o*er han May 1994 • Vol. 44 • AIR & WASTE
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Material -substitutions can be made for product as well as
process materials, such as solvents and catalysts. For example.
waier-based solvents or coatings can sometimes be substituted tor
hiah-VOC alternatives during processing. Oil the other hand.
materials that don't require coating, such as some-metals and
polvmers. can be substituted in the product itself.
Rcfonnulanon. Reformulation ,s a less drastic alternative than
substitution. It is an appropriate strategy when a high degree ot
continuity must bi maintained with the original Product.
Consumables and other products that, must fit existing standards
may limit design' chpices. Rather than entirely replace one
material with another, designers can alter percentages to achieve
the desired result. Some materials can also be added or deleted it
characteristics of the original product are still preserved. Gasoline
is one product that has undergone many reformulations to reduce
fugitive emissions as well as emissions from combustion. This
reformulation is further complicated because it can reduce fuel
economy or engine performance. •
Efficient Distribution
Both transportation and packaging are required to transfer
most goods between life cycle stages.
Table V. Environmental requirements matrix for AT&T LCD demonstration
Product
Transportation. Life cycle impacts caused by transportation
can be reduced by several means. Approaches that can be used by
designers include:
• Choose an energy-efficient mode
• Reduce air pollutant emissions from transportation .
• Maximize vehicle capacity where appropriate
• Backhaul materials
• Ensure proper confainment of hazardous materials
• Choose routes carefully to reduce potential exposure from
spills and explosions
Trade-offs between various modes of transportation are neces-
sary Time and cost considerations, as well as convenience and
access, play a major role in choosing the best transportation.
When selecting a transportation system, designers should also
consider infrastructure requirements and their potential impacts.
Packaging. Only packaging generally used between the manu-
facturine. use. and retirement stages .will be discussed here.
Packaging must contain and protect goods during transport and
handling to prevent damage. Regardless of how well-designed an
item might be. damage during distribution and handling may
cause it to be discarded before use. To avoid such waste, products
and packaging should be designed to complement each other.
project for a business telephone:
Manufacture
Materials should be recyclable (preferably on-site)
• plastic regrind
- Maximize use of recyclable materials when
environmentally preferable
- Choose ozone-depleting-substance (QDS) tree
components
- Eliminate the use of toxic matenals (e.g., Po)
Uss/Sirvici „.
- Extend useful lite through modular design with
sufficient forward and backward capability
-Make product upgradable
• ROM parts
• sockets for additional memory and/or
processor chips '
End-of Life-Management
- Reuse parts (e.g. handsets, cords)
- Standardize parts to facilitate remanufacture
- Product components recyclable after
consumer use
- Open-loop recycling into fiber cables,
spools, reels
- Easy to disassemble: no rivets, glues,
ultrasonic welding - minimal use of
composites
- Components easy to sort by marking
and minimal use of matenals
- Housing should be shredable
Manufacture
- Minimize process wastes including air emissions,
liquid effluents and hazardous and nonhazardous
solid wastes
- Minimize resource and power consumption
- Meet five corporate environmental goals
- Do not commingle waste streams
Uw/Serviee
- Energy efficient operation (operate on line
power only)
End-of-Life Management
- Maximize material recycling of components
not reused
- Service or reconditioning operations should
minimize use of paints and solvents
- Minimize wastes including air emissions,
liquid effluents and hazardous and non-
hazardous solid wastes from refurbishing
operations
Manufacture
- Minimize supplier packaging
• non hazardous •
- Packaging containing recycled material
(post-consumer content specified)
- Reusable trays for parts in factory
Ufa/Strain
- Minimize product packaging
• use Electronic Packaging Guidelines
• non hazardous inks. etc. -
- Optimize number of phones per packags
- Specify packaging containing recycled
material (post-consumer content specified)
- Use recycled paper for manual
- Minimize material variety for packaging
End-of-Ule Management
-Use recyclable packaging
- Use packaging containing recycled matenals
- Use reusable shipping containers
Manufacture ...
- Use DFE guidelines, checklists, other OF€ tools
- Encourage suppliers to discontinue use of ODS
in parts manufacturing
g inons on product packaging - Provide product disposal instructions
AIR & WASTE • Vol. 44 • May 1994 • 659
117
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Ill III
CRITICAL REVIEW
pr
in reducing impacts from .
vhould be designed to withstand both
xftration. When cushioned packaging .« requ.red. member, ,
^development team need to collaborate to ensure that cush
not amplify ^rations and thus damage critical
t lite ccle
¥lenSnt!. (br mosl reusable packaging sys-
tems Tnclude: collection or return mfrastructure; V°<**™«"
inspecting items -tor defects or contamination: repair, cleaning.
and e urbishing capabilities: and storage and handing system.
Unless such measures are in place or planned, packag.ng may be
discarded rather than reused. Manufacturers and d.stnb tors
ce to collect.
Ihe development team neeu w couauvi.-^ - -"•""- cri[ic:l| discarded rather than reused. tvianui«.iu.=.» «,.« -.„..„--.-
"rung doe. not amplify vibrations and thus damagecnucal m.cR k aj un|ess infrastructure ,sm place to collect.
parts,--. One of the mo,, e.tective *af <° mee^ tdver e return, inspect, and restore packaging for Bother service _
ScMen aoals for packaging is packaging reduction. A.averse K producers can reduce these infrastructure needs is by
.i^^nKiv-iatid with packaging can be lessened oy aisino- ,ul;r«,«iurt in hulk. Some system will still be required
mz is packaging reduction. Adverse
i *itn packaging can be lessened by distnb-
opna.e products unpackaged. reus.ng packag.ng.
, e products so they requ.re less packaging, and using
material for packag.ng.
cannot reuse pacNasi»6 mil...™ — .
return, inspect..^.J^ P^^SSSTSd-Uby
proauci in DU.K. ou.ne system will still be required
wholesale packaging, but it should be much less
! products v^^s.^. -~ - = comp|ex than that needed to handle consumer packaging. When
ial for packaging. oroducts are sold in bulk- customers control ail phases of reuse tor
ig uem^ithout packaging is the simplest approach to produce^are so.o^ ^ ation and other ,.
(Lion. In the past, many consumer products such as ttorown pacK g g^ ^^^ when customers th
^dnvers-fasteners-andoiheritemswereotteredunpactogei ^22?^,, times. customers who use new packaging for
•y can still be hung on hooks or placed in bins that^provide =™e^ h erall consurne more packag.ng than
-> «whiIeallowin-eCUSt°TeraCCWrLr?nrDatr cusfomers who buy prepackaged products. This is particularly
of merchandisine avoids unnecessary plastic wrapping, paper Customer • £ ^ single.use bulk packaging."-'
^TScompSsite matenals. Whoiesa.e packagmg can also.be ^™J3£S i> another approach to packaging reduc-
Sinatel in many cises. Such as when "n^^™^ tion Sturdy products may require less packag.ng while also
- — «• '«- w»"k«« «« are returned after delivery. tion y 11 ^ ^^^^ Dependmg on the ^ ,very
svstem someproductscan safely be sh.pped without packaging of
- . . ^ . i I.'.^K rannirc nrimarv and secondary
e iminatea in many cases, sucn .»»„=,, ul"-"";"~ ;-Jeli _,
^rs^Pssb"»vs^rsseSn
dDtSi Wholesale items that require packaging are commonly
YP" .. '. , , r.,^ nc rnnW«. wire baskets, wooden
Reusable pacKagins v-.«»« »•- . ,-nmmonlv svstem. some products can saieiy DC SIUHH^"- * JL^
Option. Wholesale items that require packaging «e =°™'y S^n± EvPen when products require primary and secondary
ZPpedinreusableconta,nerssuchastanks.w,rebasketS.wooden ^^^^^^inttgrityduringdeHvery.productmodi-
iknnbc .ind nlastic bOXCS.
shocks, and plastic boxes.
T,bk VI. Legal rc^rcmcm, m.«x for AT&T LCD demons.rauon prcjec, for a business tc.cphcne.
f US RtguUtionsff roduct Safety Standards
- Clean Air Act Amendments; CFC labeling
rwitftmem {Aprt 15.1993)
UiKttrwtiterUboatones
. ui 7*60 fabncated parts: use of regnnd and
recyciec matenals
2 Foreion Regulations/Product Safety Standards
- Blue Angel and other relevant standards
Uw/Sirviei
- Underwriter laboratones
• UL 1459-product satety
. UL 94-flammat)illty test (must meet
UL 94-HB at minimum)
-PFCAelephones .^^«.
- Proposed ban on polybrominated lire
retardants (European Community)
-Canadian Safety Specs
• CSAC22.2
- European Safety Specs
«EN 60 950 (IEC 950; safety, network capability,
EMC, susceptibility)
• EN 41003
• EN 71 (lead pigments and stabilizers in
plastic parts)
End-of Ule-Manio«ment
- Product .should meet applicable statutory
requirements .
• product should not contain hazardous
.materials under BCRA
. pigments and other plastic additives
should not contain heavy metals
- Electronic Waste Ordinance (Germany. Jan.
1 1994)
- UL flammability test: approval of recycled
resins difficult
- Previous flame retardant banned in Europe
which prohibits recycling of old terminals
- Proposed ban on polybrominated fire
retardants (EC)
Manufacture
- Clean Air Act
- Oean WatetAct
- CERCtJMSARA-313)
-RCRA
-EPCRA
-OSHA
EiH-oMJft MMHsnwrt
- Recycling and refurbishing operations must
not violate anti-trust provisions of Sherman
Act
- "or'jran'sporut.on ot hazardous materials)
iging complies with German packaging; ordinance
Mimriictwt
- ISO Marking Codes for plasttcs
Ust/Stnin
-FTC Guidelines
End-el-Ute MinigOTtrat
- Recycled content
• - FTC Guidelines: definitions for labeling
- ISO Marking Codes for plastics
- Provide information on returning product
(German electronic waste ordinance)
- Specific claims on packaging
• Green Dot Program
6SO • May 1994 • Vol. 44 • AIR & WASTE
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ncations ma> decrease' packaging needs. Designers can further .
reduce the amount ot packaging used by avoiding unusual product ,
features or shapes that are difficult to protect.
Reformulation is another tvpe of product modification that
mav reduce packaama needs for certain items, such as those
contaimns insredie'ncfin diluted form that can be distributed as -
concentrates." In some cases, customers can simply use concen- ,
trates ,n reduced quantities, while in others, a reusable container
can also be sold in conjunction with concentrates that allows
customers to dilute the product as appropriate.
Material reduction may also be pursued in packaging design.
Many packaaina designers have already managed to reduce ma-
terial' use while "maintaining performance. Reduced thickness of
corr'ueated containers (board grade reduction) provides one ex-
ample. In addition, aluminum, glass, plastic, and steel containers
have continually been redesigned to require less material for
delivering the same volume of product.
A Life Cycle Design Demonstration
Requirements
The matrix method of formulating requirements was recently
applied to desianing a business telephone in a demonstration
project conducted between the authors and AT&T." Radical
departures from previous designs were not deemed feasible for
this next generation product. Given this and other constraints, the
project concentrated on a partial, consolidated life cycle consist-
ina of manufacturing, use. and end-of-life management stages.
Examples of some environmental and legal must and want design
requirements formulated by the project team are listed m Tables
V and VI. These matrices'resulted from seven "green product
realization" team meetings attended by representatives from prod-
uct line management, marketing, research design, product eng^
neering. and environmental health and safety engineering. Tables
V and VI contain some examples of the critical requirements
relevant to this particular design and also certain considerations
for the future. - . , ., .' u .1.
The environmental requirements in Table V contain both
elements defined in terms of results, and elements specifying how
a desired result is to be achieved. Results-oriented requirements
address quantitative corporate goals for reducing CFC emissions,
toxic air emissions, process wastes, and paper consumption as
Table VII. Definitions of accounting and capital budgeting terms relevant to LCD.'^ "»>
Accounting
full Cost Accounting
A method of managerial cost accounting that allocates boft
direct and indirect environmental costs to a product, product
line, process, service, or activity. «Bk,,«e«e
Not everyone uses this term-the same way. Some include onty costs
that affect the firm's bottom line, while others include the full range
of costs throughout the life cycle, some of which do not have any
indirect or direct effect on a firm's bottom line.
Life Cycle Costing In the environmental field, this has come to mean all costs associ-
ure wae uosimy ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ throughout -^ llfe cy^, from matenals
acquisition to disposal. Where possible, social costs are quantified;
if this is not possible, they are addressed qualitatively.
Traditionally applied in military and engineering to mean estimating
costs from acquisition of a system to disposal. This does not
usually incorporate costs further upstream than purchase.
Capital Budgeting
Total Cost Assessment
Long-term, comprehensive financial analysis of the full range of
internal (i.e. private) costs and savings of an investment This tooi
evaluates potential investments in terms of private costs, excluding
social considerations. It does include contingent liability costs.
well as increasina use' of recycled paper. Other requirements
specify mechanisms to facilitate pans/components reuse and
maten'al recycling, especially of plastic housings.
Local, state, federal, and international regulations and stan-
dards provide a framework f.or the legal requirements outlined in
Table VI. Leaal requirements relevant to this design range from
EPA reeulations. FTC Guidelines, and Germany's Packaging
Ordinance to International Standards Organization (ISO) mark-
ing codes for plastics and UL requirements. Such diversity in
leaal requirements for widely-sold products can be a barrier to
realizing environmental improvements.
As an example of the conflicts that arise between requirements.
one environmental want requirement for this project states that
recycled materials be .used for new products. However, a legal
' must requirement calls for housings of telephone equipment to
comply with Underwriter Laboratories (UL) specifications UL
746. Standard for Polymeric Materials-Fabricated Pans. Re-
cycled resins that meet the material testing and certification
procedures required for this standard are not now available, either
from internal recycling programs or commercial vendors. Even if
this conflict did not exist, use of recycled materials for housings
might still be impeded by other types of want requirements. In
order to be marketable, a desk top product must also comply with,
perceived cultural requirements for flawless surface quality and
perfectly matched colors. These attributes may not be possible to
achieve with recycled materials'because, they'have, experienced
additional heat cycles and typically contain at least trace amounts
of contaminants.
Strategies Used in the Demonstration Project :
This demonstration project also provides a practical example :
i of applying several environmental strategies to satisfy require- .
ments. Only a few strategies pertaining to a single product
» component, the housing, will be discussed here. Environmental
I requirements for the manufacturing stage state that material for
I the housing be recycled and recyclable, toxics eliminated, and
i waste reduced. Ehd-of-Hfe requirements state that the housing be :
' reusable or at least recyclable.
: Material recyclability and toxics reduction during manufactur- .
j ing were achieved by using a thermoplastic resin with good
! recyclability (ABS - acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) that con-
tained no stabilizers or colors formu-
lated with heavy metals. The chosen
resin also does not rely on polybromi-
nated fire retardants. which are the sub-
ject of proposed bans in Europe. Manu-
facturing scrap was reduced by speci-
fying a textured housing. A textured
surface-for external plastic parts, such
as the housing, hides minor molding
flaws better than a high-gloSs, smooth
surface, thus increasing molding yield
and reducing waste from this process.
Other features were intended to en-
sure that at end-of-life. the housing can
be turned into an uncontaminated and
readily recyclable or reusable material
by means of low-cost automatic pro-
cesses. The design accomplished this
by avoiding glue joints and incorpora-
tion of foreign material such as metal
inserts, paints, and stick-on labels which
cannot be practically separated from
the base polymer.
In addition. AT&T has a network of
reclamation and service centers which
AIR & WASTE • Vol. 44 • May 1994 • 6«1
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CRITICAL REVIEW
receives both leased phones jn3 traae-ms tor new
Expending on their condition, the phones are either r
aW'wW or (eased acaih. or scrapped and recycled. 'Because the
centers can return «Tll serviceable phones to another tour ot duty
as i-ell as properlv recycle those"'beyond repair, the company
conirofc aspects ot'product and material life extension. Designs
jocusing on these strategies thus benefit the company and are
easier to implement
Design Evaluation •
Analvys and evaluation are required throughout the product
development process, If environmental requirements tor the
produ-H system are well specified, design alternatives can be
checked directly against these requirements. Tools tor design
evaluation range from comprehensive analysis tools such as life
evc'le assessment (LCAI to the use of single environmental metrics.
In each caw design solutions are evaluated with respect to a full
spectnim of criteria which includes cost and performance.
LCA and Its Application to Design
Methodology. LCA consists of several techniques for identi-
fying and evaluating the adverse environmental effects associated
with > product system." « « « "• The most widely recognized
framework for LCA consists of Inventory analysis, impact assess-
Table VH1, Policy options thai could affect material flows "> <-CD.'*>
mem. 'and'improvement assessment components. At present.
inventory analysis is the most established methodology ot LCA.
For an inventory analysis, material and energy inputs and outputs
for the product system are identified and quantified." Impact
assessment which is still under development, applies quantitative
and qualitative techniques to characterize and assess the environ-
mental effects associated with inventory items. Impacts are
usually classified as resource depletion, human health and safety
effects ecological degradation, and other social welfare eftects
relating to environmental disturbances. Improvement analysis
uses life cycle inventory and/or impact assessment methods to
identify opportunities for reducing environmental burdens. Other
efforts have also focused on developing streamlined tools that are
not as rigorous as LCA (e.g.. Canadian Standards Association).
In principle LCA represents the most accurate tool tor design
evaluation in LCD and DFE. Many methodological problems.-
however, currently plague LCA. thus limiting its applicability to
design « Costs to'conduct an LCA can be prohibitive, especially
to small firms, and time requirements may not be compatible with
short development cycles."' "' Although significant progress has
been made towards standardizing life cycle inventory analysis."
.5.4,,».,:. results can still vary significantly.'" '=> Such discrepan-
cies can be attributed to differences in system boundaries, rules for
allocation of inputs and outputs between product systems, and
Life Cycli Stagi
Raw materal
extraction and processing
Regulatory Instrument*
Regulate mining, oil, and gas nonhazardous solid
wastes under the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA). . .
Establish depletion quotas on extraction and import
of virgin material.
—•
Tighten regulations under Clean Air Act. Clean Water
Act. and RCRA.
Regulate nonhazardous industrial waste under RCMA.
Mandate disclosure of toxic materials use.
Raise Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards for
automobiles. •
Mandate recycled content in products.
Mandate manufacturer takerback and recycling of products,
Regulate product composition, e.g., volatile organic
compounds or heavy metals.
Establish requirements for product reuse, reliability, or
biodegradability.
Ban or phase out hazardous chemicals
._
Mandate consumer separation of materials for recycling.
Tighten regulation of waste management facilities
under RCRA.
Ban disposal of hazardous products in landfills and
Mandate recycling diversion rates for various materials.
Exempt recyclers of hazardous wastes from RCRA
Establish a moratorium on construction of new landfills
and incinerators.
Establish surcharges on wastes delivered to landfills
or incinerators.
Economic Instrument*
Eliminate special tax treatment for extraction of
virgin materials, and subsidies for agriculture.
Tax the production of virgin material.
. —-.._ -.— —
Tax industrial emissions, effluents, and
hazardous wastes.
Establish tradable emissions permits.
Tax the carbon content of fuels.
Establish tradable recycling credits.
Tax the use of virgin toxic materials.
Create tax credits for use of recycled materials.
Establish a grant fund for clean technology
research. '
Establish weight/volume-based waste disposal
fees
Tax hazardous or hard-to-dispose products.
Establish a deposit-refund system for packaging
or hazardous products.
Establish a fee/rebate system based on a
products energy efficiency.
Tax gasoline. .
-
Tax emissions or effluents from waste
management facilities.
Establish surcharges on wastes delivered to
landfills or incinerators.
"r,!1;. i , , . ••'"«!!!:! ' '• : i "f
662 • May 1994 • Vol. 44 • AIR & WASTE
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ja->
are available for assessing global impacts.
Integration of LCA and Design. LCA and more streamlined
approaches can potentially be applied in needs analysis, require-
ments specification, and evaluation of conceptua through de-
tailed design phases. Although numerous life cycle inventories
have been'conducted for a variety of products.- only a small
fraction have been used for product development. Proctor and
Gamble is one company that has used life cycle inventory studies
to °uide environmental improvement for several products.^ One
of their case studies on hard surface cleaners revealed that heating
water resulted in a significant percentage of total energy use and
air emissions related to cleaning..:' Based on this information.
opportunities for reducing impacts were identified which include
designing cold water and no-rinse formulas or educating consunv
ers to use cold water.
The Product Ecology Project represents anotherexample wnere
life cvcle inventory and a valuation procedure are used to support
product development..:- For this project, the Environmental
Priority Strategies in product design (the EPS system) evaluates
the environmental impact of design alternatives with a single
metric based on environmental load units An inventory is
conducted using the LCA Inventory Tool developed by Chalmers
Industriteknik and valuation is based on a willmgness-to-pay
model, which accounts for biodiversity, human health, produc-
' tion. resources, and aesthetic values. This system enablesi the
• designer to easily compare alternatives, but the reliability of the
outcome will be'heavily dependent on the valuation procedure.
Several LCA software tools and computerized databases may
make it easier to apply LCA hi design. Examples of early attempts
^his"ea.nclude:SimPro. developed bythe Centre of Environ-
mental Science (CML). Leiden UM^'*vN«»w™:lUCA
inventory tool, developed by Chalmers IndustntekmkmGcKeborg,
Sweden;'and PIA. developed by the Institute for Applied Environ-
' mental Economics (TME)in The Hague. Netherlands [available
from the Dutch Ministry for Environment and Informatics (BM1)|.
These tools can shorten analysis time when exploring design
alternatives, particularly in simulation studies, but data availabil-
ity and quality are still limiting. In addition to these tools, a general
ouide to LCA for European businesses has been compiled which
provides background and a list of sources for further informa-
tion.""
Other Design Evaluation Approaches
Environmental Indicators. In contrast to a comprehensive life
cvcle assessment, environmental performance parameters or moi-
cators can be used toeyaluate design alternatives. Savin-Chandra;"
introduced the following setbf environmental indicators:, percent
recycled decidability. life, junk value, separability, life cycle
cost, potential recyclability. possible recyclability. useful lite and
utilization, total and net emissions, and total hazardous fugitives.
Manv of these indicators can be calculated relatively easily, the
last two however.require life cycle inventory data to compute.
Watanabel': proposes a Resource' Productivity measure for
evaluating "industrial performance compatible with environmen-
tal preservation." The resource productivity is defined as:
(Economic value added) x (Product Lifetime)
(Material consumed-recycled) * (Energy consumed for
production, recycling) + (Lifetime energy used)
where the individual terms in the denominator are expressed in
monetary units. -Loneer product life, higher material recycle, and
less material and energy consumption all contribute to a higher
resource productivity. Watanabe has applied this metnc in evalu-
ating three rechargeable battery alternatives. While resource
productivity incorporates many environmental concerns, it is not
comprehensive because costs associated with toxic emissions and
human and ecosystem health are ignored. In addition, the value
added component of the numerator includes other factors besides
environmental considerations, Despite these limitations, this
metric is'relatively simple to evaluate and accounts for resource
depletion, which correlates with many other environmental im-
Matrix Approaches. DFE methods developed by Allenby» ".
use a semi-quantitative matrix approach for evaluating life cycle
environmental impacts. A graphic scoring system weighs envi-
ronmental effects based on available quantitative information for
each life cycle stage. In addition to an environmental matrix and
toxicology/exposure matrix, manufacturing and social/pohtica
matrices are used to address both technical and non-technical
aspects of design alternatives. .
Dow Chemical Company has also developed a matrix tool for
assessing environmental issues across major life cycle stages of
the product system. Opportunities and vulnerabilities are as-
sessed for core environmental issues, including safety, human
health, residual substances, ozone depletion, air quality, climate
change resource depletion, soil contamination, waste accumula-
tion and water contamination. Corporate resource commitments
may then be changed to more closely match the assessed oppor-
tunities and vulnerabilities. ..
ComputerTools. ReStarisadesignanalysistoolforevaluating
recovery operations such as recycling and disassembly."' A
computer algorithm determines an optimal recovery plan based on
tradeoffs between recovery costs and the value of secondary
materials or parts.
Cost Analysis
Cost analysis for product development is often the most influ-
ential tool guiding decision-making. Life cycle costs can be
analyzed from the perspective of three stakeholder groups: manu-
facturers or producers, consumers, and society at large. TableVll
shows definitions for some accounting and capital budgeting
terms relevant to LCD. '
For life cycle design to be effective, environmental costs need
to be allocated accurately to product centers. Environmental costs
are commonly treated as overhead. Methods such as activity
based costing (ABC) may be useful in properly assigning product
costs in many situations, resulting in improved decision mak-
ing •'« i« Property allocating environmental costs can be one ot
the most powerful motivators for addressing environmental issues
in design. ~
MHMMM
AIR & WASTE • Vol. 44 • May 1994 • 663
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CRITICAL REVIEW
imorturutelv because the current market system does not
juitv reflect env ironmenul costs, prices tor goods and serv ices do
n'M "reflect iota! costs or benefits. For this reason, a design that
minimizes environmental burden may appear less attractive than
an environmenlallv interior alternative. The most important
dement of unrealized costs in design are externalities such as
those resulting from pollution', which are borne by outside parties
isflcietvi not involved in the original transaction (between manu-
facturers and customers!, For example, pollution costs to society
are difficult to properlv address within a company it the pollution
K emitted within permissible limits. Corporations choosing to
reduce these emissions and internalize the associated costs can
find themselves at a competitive disadvantage unless their com-
witiiors do so as well, " Methods for evaluating and internalizing
externalities are also limited. Despite these problems, manufac-
turers can benefit from pursuing design initiatives which produce
taneibie costs reductions through material conservation, reduc-
tion in waste management costs, and reduced liability costs.
\humfir9fresourcesareiivaflableK) identify full environmental
costs" »* " In the EPA Pollution Prevention Benefits Manual, costs
ore divided into (bur categories: usual costs, hidden regulatory costs.
habiluv costs, and less tangible costs. Usual costs are the standard
dpitaf and operating expenses and revenues for the product system.
while hidden costs represent environmental costs related to regula-
tion «c c,. permitting, reporting; monitoring). Costs due to non-
compliance and future liabilities for forced cleanup, personal injury.
aftd property damage as well as intangible costs/benefits such as
effects on corporate irriaee are difficult to estimate.
From a consumer's perspective, life cycle costing is a useful
tool aiding in product selection decisions. In traditional use. life
eyciecostsconsist of the initial purchase priceplus operating costs
for consumables, such as fuel or electricity, and servicing not
covered under warranty as well as possible disposal costs."'
Providing estimates of life cycle cost can be a useful marketing
strategy for environmentally sound products. The most compre-
hensive definition of life cycle costs is the sum of all internal and
external costs associated with"a product system throughout its
entire life cycle.'-"^ At present; government regulation and
related economic policy instruments appear to be the only effec-
tive methods of addressing environmental costs to society.
Future Directions
Government Policy
Government plays an important role in promoting life cycle
design throueh both regulatory and voluntary programs. The US
Conarcss Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) recently con-
ducted a thorough study of policy options for promoting green
product desien " Althoueh existing market incentives and envi-
ronmental regulations have been somewhat effective in promot-
ing sustainable practices. OTA concluded that Congress can
foster further progress in this area by supporting: research, infor-
mation for consumers, policies that internalize environmental
costs, arid cobrdiriatin e arid harmonizing various programs. Table
Vlll outlines reeulatory and market-based incentives to internal-
ize environmental costs associated with a product system.
Clearly the greatest role government plays is in establishing
regulations forVvironmental protection. The media-specific
regulatory framework formerly practiced by the US EPA was
effective in dnvme environmental impact reduction, but the
aeerky's recent pollution prevention strategy"1 improves on past
practice by adopting a multimedia approach to environmental
protection which acknowledges the life cycle framework. The
proactive and systemf-oriented characteristics of pollution pre-
vention are particularly relevantto life cycle design. Design itself
can be viewed as the most proactive, direct action one can take to
achieve pollution prevention.
I, ' ,' l|1!!1"^1 ' " , "' ,,' "I, '! ! I1' !!'!'!
• - f . . . , . . ,
It remains to be seen whether regulations can be rewritten to
promote the LCD approach for reducing environmental burdens.
One effort in this direction by EPA is the Source Reduction
Review Project i SSRP). This program evaluates how, the formu-
lation and implementation of new regulations can be made
consistent with preserving source reduction opportunities. At
present. 17 industrial categories including pulp and paper produc-
tion, metal products and machinery, degreasing operations, and
polystyrene production are targeted by SSRP.
The government also has a major responsibility in supporting
research to develop and coordinate the environmental databases
necessary for LCD. The lack of environmental data is currently
a major limitation for decision makers in product development.
In addition, corporations which must already meet a variety of
government reporting requirements could modify and expand
their information gathering to serve both internal decision-mak-
ing needs and the needs of outside stakeholders. With such an
expanded system, perhaps encouraged by government support.
an environmental profile (energy use. resource inputs, and wastes
produced) of product systems at each life cycle stage would be
publicly available. However, proprietary information would
have to be protected. In the US Congress. Representative Brown
of California recently proposed the Environmental Technologies
Act (H R 36031 for funding to support further research in LCA.
Other countries are pursuing a variety of strategies to promote
LCD In Germany, the Packaging Ordinance, several ecolabelmg
programs, and various proposed waste ordinances promote ex-
tended producer responsibility and thus encourage impact reduc-
tions. In the Netherlands, the UNEP-Cieaner Production
Programme recently established a new working group on Sus-
tainable Product Development. The Secretariat of the group is
based at the Interfaculty Department of Environmental Science at
the University of Amsterdam.
Education
Education can be one of the most effective means of promot-
ing sustainable development and life cycle design. However.
industry programs for environmental design are frequently tar
aheadof their academic counterparts. In general, engineering and
industrial design curricula at the university level are not -yet
emphasizing pollution prevention or focusing on integrating
environmental issues into design. Many faculty are still in the
command and control mode of teaching environmental protec-
tion For this reason, new curriculum topics must compete with
established subjects which are less effective in conveying the type
of background essential to LCD. Faculty in engineering, busi-
ness and industrial design need to treat environmental issues as
an important element of" their design and management courses.
Until agreaternumberof faculty and administrators recognize the
value of such innovative topics, teaching in this area will only
occur sporadically. . ,
Despite this lack of attention, efforts to introduce environ-
mental aspects into design education do exist. P«>!?'|am* <«' J«
Rhode Island School of Design. UCLA. Carnegie Melon, the
University of Michigan, Grand Valley State University (Michi-
gan) and the University of the Arts in Philadelphia have begun
fo develop some educational resources. UCLA produced an
engineering problem set that incorporates LCA and pollution
prevention into calculations illustrating a variety of engineer-
ine orinciples.'" Class exercises illustrating a design tor
ecydabili'ty strategy were produced at Grand Valley State-
while the National Pollution Prevention Center (NPPC) at the
University of Michigan developed a refrigeration design case
for chemical and mechanical engineering students which ex-
plores the use of non-CFC refrigerants and strategies to meet
DOE energy efficiency requirements.'"
654 • May 1994 • Vol 14 • AIR & WASTE
-------
Professional education courses are also being developed to
train engineers. Jesianer-;. and other product development partici-
pants about LCD/DFE at the NPPC. the University ot Wisconsin..
and the IEEE •• Institute pf'Elecmcal and Electronics Engineers)
annual International Symposium™ Electronics and the Environ-
ment. .' , . •.
Industry
Industry is responsible for implementing the designs which
will lead to a sustainable economy. Beyond responding to cus-
tomer demands, industry can-also, play an important role in.
fosterin" sustainable development by creating-innovative, envi-
ronmentally responsible designs. Many corporations recognize
the product life cycle as a useful framework for addressing
environmental issues in product development. .Although this
framework is recognized, corporations are just now attempting to
translate corporate goals and policies into life cycle design pro-
erams, In order to implement life cycle design, corporations need
10 provide proper training to their employees in life cycle prin-
ciples use internal and external resources that support LCD more
effectively, andestablish betterenvironmental performance metrics
for evaluating their products. In addition, compame&should work
to make environmental data as readily available to development
teams as cost and performance data, which can be a primary role.
' of environmental health and safety professionals.
Many new products represent significant reductions in envi-,
rdnmental impacts. Whirlpool's recent non-CFC. energy effi-
cient refrigerator design demonstrates how market incentives and
regulations can promote environmental design improvements.
This design won the S30 million award offered by a consortium of
utility companies, while also using 25% less energy than man-
dated by the Federal Energy Standard and eliminating use of
ozone-destroying GFCs. . .
In general, however, environmental improvements nave been
incrementally focused on one or two elements of the product
svstem or limited life cycle stages, rather than the full product life
cycle system. Designers are thus not yet pursuing innovative life
cycle strategies that represent a more direct pathway towards
sustainable development. The challenge for industry is to take a
leadership role by adopting a broader systems approach. This will
require, full collaboration with partners from government, envi-
ronmental groups, and academia.
Conclusion <
Our present rates and patterns of resource consumption and the :
corresponding waste generation and dispersion of pollutants are j
unsustainable. Achieving a sustainable economy for a rapidly ,
expanding world population of over 5 billion demands fundamen- .
tal and dramatic changes for both the industrialized world and ;
developing countries. Although the public, industry, and govern-
ment generally recognize this need, the response has net always
been well focused. Green design and related concepts have been
proposed as one possible means of achieving a sustainable economy,
even though they often lack clear definitions of system bound-
aries, goals and objectives, principles, and environmental metrics.
Life cycle design and related approaches are being developed
to establish a more coherent means of integrating environmental
issues into product development. Life cycle design and Design for
Environment are generally indistinguishable; although they origi-
nated from different points/they are converging ^ the same set of
goals and principles. For both, the product life cycle serves asthe
unifying system that links economic activities and societal needs
with their full ecological consequences. This life cycle design
framework is the most logical way to prevent shifting adverse
impacts between media (air, water, land) and life cycle stages.
Concurrent design of product system components (product, pro-
cess distribution, and information/management) is also an impor-
tant principle of both LCD and DFE.
At present, implementing the life cycle design framework
requires significant organizational and operational changes in
business. Each product system is highly interconnected to other
product systems, forming a complex web which is often difficult
to disentangle for a product development team.
In order'to effectively promote the goals of sustainable devel-
opment, life cycle designs must successfully address cost, perfor-
mance, cultural arid legal factors. Environmental objectives clearly
cannoTbe pursued in isolation from these other factors. Strategies
for reducing a product system's environmental burden, presented
in Table IV. are generally well known to designers. The ultimate
challenge in life cycle design is to choose the best .strategies and
synthesize them into designs that satisfy the full spectrum of
requirements. Technology and thermodynamics constrain design
capabilities, but societal values strongly influence product accep-
tance. Design changes for fostering sustainable development may
thus have to be accompanied by changes in behavior.
Individually and collectively, designers and other participants
in product development shape the environmental profile for a
product system. Access to reliable environmental data .may be
considered the greatest internal need for those implementing life
cycle design: Participants must have access to the same quality of
information regarding environmental impacts that they have for
cost and performance evaluations. ,
- Once this information is available, the development team then
requires metrics for evaluating environmental impacts associated
with the product system. At present, simple tools for determining
environmental profiles give an incomplete picture, while more
elaborate tools such as LCA are still under development and have
many practical limitations in design. In addition, because mcom-
' mensurable data is a fundamental problem in environmental
i evaluation, it will always be necessary to make value judgments
! regarding dissimilar environmental impacts. Design analysis is
1 further complicated when environmental criteria are compared
with cost, performance and other factors. Although designers
: routinely make difficult choices, environmental analysis of life
i cycle issues adds another layer of complexity to a process that is ,
'• already under significant time and cost pressures. Despite these
' '.imitations, designs that enhance resource efficiency, reduce
'• liabilities associated with residuals and other environmental bur- ,
dens and achieve competitiveness are obviously beneficial. ,
In addition to these internal factors, external forces play a
critical role in determining whether life cycle design goals for
; achieving sustainable development can be met. The complexity
; of interrelationships between internal and external factors in life
i cycle design was shown in Figure 7. Acorporation'senvironmen-
1 tal management system, must be responsive to external factors
; influencing design such as government regulations, market forces,
. infrastructure, and state of the environment, as well as scientific
• understanding and public perception of risks. Current regulations
and economic instruments are not optimal for supporting lite
cycle design. The federal government is just beginning to recog-
nize the need for regulations and policies that promote sustainable
development, but changing to a more sustainable system will be
difficult. New policies and practices may have to be phased in to
minimize economic dislocations. If a more sustainable economic
system can be realized, interdisciplinary participation will then be
the key to developing product systems that reflect multistakeholder
(suppliers, manufacturers, consumers, resource recovery and waste
managers, public, regulators) needs. mW.mfn
Life cycle design can be treated as an optimization problem to
maximize value-added activities (i.e., satisfying basic societal
needs) while minimizing resource consumption and waste disper-
sion activities. Designers play a major role in defining and solving
—-
MR & WASTE • Vol. 44 • May 1994 • 665
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CRITICAL REVIEW
J«sign problems but designer; alone cannot meet the life cycle.
Jcsign goal of harmonizing economic and ecological processes.
Such a fundamental change m direction requires the full partici-
pation ol all members ot society
Acknowledgements ° , • ' ,
We wish to thank Jonathan Bulkle>. Director of the National
Pollution Prevention Center iSPPO for his contributions to this
research and his review of this manuscript. We also thank John
Waison and other members of the AWMA Cruical Review Sub-
committee: and Jonathan Koch (NPPC) for their useful com-
ments Members of the External Advisory Committee for NPPC
and Scott Noesen of Dow. Chemical provided case studies and
participated in many valuable discussions of this subject.
Funding tor Life Cycle Design Research and Demonstration
Protects was provided by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Actncy under Cooperative agreement #817570. However the
contents of this paper do not necessarily reflect the views and
policies of le US EPA. nor does mention of the trade names or
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use. Life Cvcle Design Demonstration Projects with AT&T
Bell Labs and Allied Sienal. Inc.. Filters and Spark Plugs tested,
the practical application of our life cycle design framework, which
Has given us valuable insizht in preparing this review. Mary Ann
Curran (EPA Project Officer) and many of her associates at the
Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory in Cincinnati. Werner
Glantschnig and his colleagues at AT&T, and Anthony Carpma
and Gordon Jones and the product development team at Allied
were instrumental in conducting this research.
The AT&T Foundation Industrial Ecology Fellowship also
provided partial funding for preparation of this manuscript. Fi-
nally OAK also thanks his wife Elizabeth A. Glynn.
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Seflcf* V R J«dJ D Seller* C.'mrtarative fcnerev and Environmental
lm(Uvt» »i«f S.MI Drinv Deliverv S>stems, Franklin A>»ICUICS. Prairie illas
i«* Laboramrv in Design Intelligent Packagil
nf Ciwlercm-e. Sev ilia. Esoaria. 2" January
0«uit>uii»fl Vk.tlJ Pj
Kwkun C«iH>fv *
•mtuf. ft(« Swrte
StolSr^R T B 'c
"
Ji>J DM Mencrc-.
t: and Pnwex. Improve-
jl »i Env.mnmental
!^,^' Huppcv R M Lnkreiicr. H. A. LJo d, Hj».
A M M Ansem>.P G Egjek. R. «n Du.n. and H
ik Enunmmenul Lite C^k A«e^itwm »l
N - Gu!de. Center
,»< Envirmimcmjl Stwrwc, Leiden, Uidtn. \ciherlands. 1>w-
WIiMs lot Life-Cvcle A>«u.m«m: A Code uf Pracn« • SET AC
uMiMs i-
vT!xt,hO|. Se«mb»a. Portuful. * March I9JI Pen^icbla. FL. SocKty of
,13?
Guinee J 8 H A Ldoie Hoes, and G'Huppes "Quantitative life cycle
3,««m«nt 01 products I Goal definition and inventory ' Journal ot Cleaner
PfChJUCttGfl I HO H t'l^WJt ?• 1^ ,
Wh,ie Men L,. and Karen Shapiro "Life Cycle Ai«>«mfn': *Se™™ .„..
Ooiiuoa ' Env.ronmemal Sc,ence & Technology 2.. no 6.1993, 016-10 ,
4CcnM Ann 'Broad-Based Environmental Life Cycle Assessment."
EovHonmenul Science and Teehnology 2'. no 3.199? 1.430-4 36
Jvs«*»Hkhl Cnatrs"\oi the Parties to the Montreal Protocol. Synthesis of the
ftcpontoTiKeOwn* SewnitOc. Environmental Effects, and Technology and
Economic A»>. and Business ,n the Environment LondonL 993
'HI Savin-Chandra. D Design tor Env^ronmentability, 1991 ASME Design
Theorv and Methodology Con.erence. Miami. FL. 1991 Pittsburgh. PA:
School ol Computer Science. Carnegie Mellon University. 1991
132 Waunabe" SeiKhi. Resource Productivity as a New Measure tor Industnal
Pertormance. Sony Corporation. 1993,
13.x Navm-Chandra. D. "The Recovery Problem in Product Design, Journal of
EnoineenngDesign5.no I 119941:67-87
134 Kaplan Robert S -Management accounting tor advanced technological
environments." Science 245. no, 4920 119«9|: 819-823, ,
135 Cooper. Robm. and Robert S. Kaplan. "Measure costs right: make the right
decision " Harvard Business Review Sep-Oct 119881: 96-103.
136 Popoff Frank P.. and David T. Butzelli. "Full-Cost Accounting ' Environ-
mental Science and Technology 27. no. 1 11993): 8-10.
137 Pollution Prevention Benefits Manual. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Office of Policy. Planning, and Evaluation & Office of Solid Waste.
138 Lund.' F?oben T. "Life-Cycle Costing: A Business and Societal Instrument."
Manazement Review 67. no. 4 119.781: 17-23.
139 Life Cvcle Cost Assessment: Integrating Cost Information into LCA. Project
Summary Sandia National Laboratories. Albuquerque. NM. 1993
140 US Congress Office of Technology Assessment. Green Products by Design
Choices for a Cleaner Environment. US Government Printing Office.
Washington, DC.'1992.
141 US Environmental Protection Agency, "Pollution Prevention Strategy
Federal Register 56. no. 38 (19911: 7849-7864.
142 Allen. David T.. N. Baksham. and Kirsten S. Rosselot. Pollution Prevention:
Homework & Design Problems for Engmeenng Curricula. New York. N.T
' American Institute of Chemical Engineers. Center for Waste Reduction
Technolomes and American Institute for Pollution Prevention. 1992.
143. Desisn for Recycling Team. Teaching Environmentally Responsible Design.
' Edito'r Shirley t, Fletschman. Grand Valley State University. Grand Rapids.
Michigan. 22 October. 1992.
144. Naser. Samer. Gregory Keoleian. and Us, T, ThompsonJRefngerai
Case. National Pollution Prevention Center. Ann Arbor. Ml. iw«. i
:i ,iiiir
11 • .411
668 • May 1994 • Vol 44 • AIR & WASTE
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Pollution Prevention and
industrial Ecology
NATIONAL POLLUTION PREVENTION CENTER POR HIGHER EDUCATION
Industrial Ecology
Annotated Bibliography
Annotations written by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Futures-Group; Ernest Lowe, Indigo Development;'and.Andy Garner,
NPPC research assistant. .
Allen, David. "Using Wastes as Raw Materials:
Opportunities to Create an Industrial Ecology."
Hazardous Waste & Hazardous Materials 10, no. 3
(Summer 1993): 273-277.
Developing an understanding of Industrial Ecology
(IE) and implementing Design for Environment (DfE)
requires a sophisticated understanding of waste
streams and the processes and products that generate
them. Data deficiencies and methodological issues
complicate this necessary effort Allen demonstrates
how data on industrial and municipal wastes can be
used to assess the potential utility of waste streams
as raw materials. He also briefly examines case
studies of lead, cadmium, and chromium waste
flows and provides useful waste flow diagrams.
Ailenby, Braden R. "Achieving Sustainable Develop-
ment Through Industrial Ecology." International
Environmental Affairs 4, no. 1 (1992): 56-68.
In the first section, Allenby applies a "Type I, n, ffi"
approach to show how our current industrial eco-
nomic system is unsustainable. IE will help society
reach the sustainable Type EH level Allenby includes
useful diagrams of the Type HI level He emphasizes
that IE must "subsume all human economic activity"
and will require changes to all aspects of society. In
the second section, Allenby emphasizes the need for
"institutes of IE" and then outlines the main tasks
and fundamental characteristics of these institutes.
— '."Integrating Environment And, Technology:
Design For Environment." In The Greening of
Industrial Ecosystems, edited by Braden R. Allenby
and Deanha J. Richards, 137-148. Washington:
National Academy Press, 1994.
Design for Environment (DfE) is the first attempt di-
rectly based on IE principles to create a systems-
based, multi-dimensional methodology to incorpo-
rate environmental constraints and considerations
into the design process. Allenby gives a useful
overview of the key elements of DfE and how to
implement them, and then provides a DfE test case
based on options for lead solder use in electronics.
Allenby also creates a matrix system for DfE applica-
tions and provides diagrams to use with the matrix.
Allenby, Braden R., and Deanna J. Richards. The
Greening of Industrial Ecosystems. Washington:
National Academy Press, 1994.
A collection of articles that build on earlier concep-
tual work on industrial ecology. The works strive
to develop the context of industrial ecology with
chapters oh energy, wastes, pollution prevention,
law, economics, and the role of government, along
with giving examples where aspects of industrial
ecology are already emerging such as in the auto
industry and telecommunications. The book
concludes by identifying future roles- of universities
and institutes; it also details areas where research
efforts are needed.
National Pollution Prevention Center lor Higher Education • University of Michigan
Dana Building, 430 East University, Ann Arbor Ml 48109-.1115
Phone: 313.764.1412 • Fax: 313.936.2195 • E-mail: nppcOumich.edu
May be reproduced
freely for non-commercial
educational purpose*.
Annotated Bibliography • 1
March 1995
-------
Ayres, Robert. U Toxic heavy Metals: Materials
Cycle Optimization." Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, USA 89 (February 1992):
815-820. _ ' ^'^ _ ''_;i| ^".'"' .\'. '.^ ' ."_
Ayres uses the case of the toxic heavy metals to
show that long-term ecological sustainability is
incompatible with an open materials cycle. He
proposes a system of materials cycle optimization
whereby the materials cycle is closed by accomplish-
ing- (1) banning or discouraging dissipative uses of
toxic heavy metals, and (2) increasing recycling of
materials that are not replaceable in principle.
Ayres also includes a very useful diagram of the
current material-process flow.
Beer, Stafford. Platform for Change.
New York: John Wiley.1980.
-. Brain of the Firm. 2d ed.
New York: John Wiley, 1981.
-; TTje Heart of Enterprise.
New York: John Wiley, 1979.
Beer's Viable System Model offers a dynamic orga-
nizatiohal structure grounded in the understanding
that organizations are living systems interacting with
larger living systems. It is a vital tool for managing
the transition to industrial ecology.
CaUenbach, Ernest, Fritjof Capra, and Sandra
Marburg. Ecomanagemeht: The Elmwood Guide
to Ecological Auditing and Sustainable Business.
San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 1993.
This survey and workbook is valuable for its sys-
temic integration of the technical and organizational
auditing of a business's ecological performance.
Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants.
-Accounting and the Environment: Unearthing the
Answers." A special issue of CA Magazine 124
(March 1991): 16-50.
Papers contribute to the rethinking of accounting/
auditing practices, including accounting models that
reflect environmental costs, revision of standards,
tax incentives, ethical analysis, and a survey of
approaches to eco-auditing.
Commoner, Barry". Making Peace With the Planet.
New York: Pantheon Books, 1990.
"Science and politics, the private sector and public
policy, the right to consume and the price of that
right—all of these issues must be dealt with together."
Dillon, Patricia S. "Implications of Industrial Ecology
for Firms." In The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems,
' edited by Braden R. Allenby and Deanna J. Richards,
201-207. Washington: National Academy Press, 1994.
Implementation of advance environmental practices
requires more than generation of data; it requires
that the business and capital planning of a firm,
and its organizational structure, be such that the
data can be acted upon. Dillon outlines some
common and successful features of company
product responsibility programs and identifies
future challenges to this process.
Duchin, Faye. "Input-Output Analysis and Industrial
Ecology." In Greening of Industrial Ecosystems, ed-
ited by Braden R. Allenby and Deanna J. Richards,
61-68. Washington: National Academy Press, 1994.
Natural, systems-based input-output models of
economic activity (capable of sophisticated but well-
understood mathematical manipulation) can be
important resources as IE principles are implemented.
Work along these lines is already underway.
Duming, Alan. Asking How Much Is Enough.
Washington: World Watch Institute, 1991.
Valuable exploration of the transition from "the
consuming society" to "a culture of permanence."
Frosch, Robert A. "Industrial Ecology: A Philosophical
Introduction." Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences, USA 89 (February 1992).
Frosch first parallels the industrial ecology system
with the natural ecosystem to emphasize that IE
would maximize the economical and efficient use of
waste materials and products at the end of their lives
as inputs to other processes and industries. (Like
many other scholars, he is applying IE to the produc-
tion process.) He focuses on the waste end of the
production process and outlines several issues that
must be addressed, especially the importance of the
environmentally sound design of wastes and how
that affects the design of products and processes.
2 • Annotated BtoUogrmpHy
-------
Frosch, Robert A., and Nicholas E. QaWopoule^.;;.
•Strategies for Manufacturing." Scientific American
261 (September 1989): 144-152.
Hie authors first describe the current 8^ *"*«;
mental crisis to emphasize IE as a solution. Then they
outline the fundamental elements of an industrial
-ecosystem, including new trends in manufacturing.
Next the authors discuss the workings and shorty
comings of three industrial subsystems (iron/steel,
petroleum/plastics, and platinum-group metals) to
provide insight into how subsystems can be unproved
to develop an industrial ecosystem. The authors also
discuss options for industrial and consumer waste-
nunimizanon. The article concludes with a discus-
sion on the transition to and implementation of It
{barriers, solutions, etc).
Towards an Industrial Ecology." In The
Treatment and Handling of Wastes, edited by A.D
Bradshaw, et al. New York: Chapman & Hall (for the
Royal Society), 1992.
The article begins with a discussion that outlines
the need for an IE approach (Le, resource depletion).
Then the authors give a useful description of the IE
concept, including the constraintsito widespread
implementation of ffi practices. The authors exam-
ine three subsystems of the manufacturing network
(iron, plastics, and platinum-group metals) to provide
insight into what is lacking and how the ecosystem
approach could help. The authors also include a
section on byproducts and wastes in these sub-
systems and the consumer side of the problem.
The article ends with a discussion of how improved
economic, educational, and societal structure will be
required to approach an ideal IE system.
Graedel, T.E., and B.R. Allenby. Industrial Ecology.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995.
The first university textbook covering the subject
that provides a comprehensive introduction to It.
The authors examine a wide range of perspectives
within industrial ecology-societal, environmental,
legal and economic It discusses life cycle assessment
methodologies and provides a complete presentation
of practical approaches to design for the environment.
The authors also consider prospects for the future,
encouraging thought about industry-envkonment
relations on nme scales of several generations. The
book includes 85 student exercises and is an excellent
educational resource for IE-related courses in engi-
neering, business, policy, law and public health.
Gross, Neil. The Green Giant? It May Be Japari."
Business Week (February 24,1992): 74-75.
Reports on Japan's marketing and R & D lead in a
broad range of environmental technologies.
Gupta, M.P. Sushil. Towards Designing an
Informatioh-Flow-Structure of Resource Wastes
for National Planning." Systems Research 3, no. 3
(1988).
Independent work that relates to industrial
metabolism, input-output work, and environmental
information systems.
Hoffman, Robert, Bertram Mclnnis, and Harry
Van Druhen. "An Overview of the Sustainable
Development Demonstration Framework." Robberts
Associates, 1988.'
This paper describes a sophisticated conceptual
framework for tracking multiple interactions among
industrial, economic, social, and natural systems; it
also covers methods and software for simulating
these interactions. The authors' "Whatif" simulation
program is a Mac H environment for running the
Sustainable Development Demonstration Frame-
work or for developing other models; they are
developing a model for product life cycle analysis.
International Institute for Sustainable Development
and Deloitte & Touche. Bus/ness Strategy for Sus-
tainable Development, Leadership and Accountability
for the '90s. Winnepeg:J992.
A valuable guide for companies moving to more
comprehensive environmental management.
Includes sections on strategic choices, enhancing
management systems, accountability and stake-
holder relations, corporate reporting, and a model
"sustainable development report."
Jelinski, L.W., I.E. Graedel, R. Laudise, D. McCall,
and CK N. Patel. "Industrial Ecology: Concepts and
Approaches." Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences, USA 89 (February 1992): 793-797.
This paper served as an introduction to the confer-
ence It gives a brief overview of the concept of IE
and briefly describes the different sections of the
proceedings and the basic elements of the papers in
each section. At the end, the authors offer a synopsis
of the conference, giving some useful adjectives to
characterize industrial ecology.
-------
Meneray.
Kaoleian, Gregory A., Werner J. Glantschnig, and
William McCann. "Life Cycle. Design: AT&T Demon-
stratton Project." Proceedings of IEEE International
Symposium on Electronics and Environment,
San Francisco, 2 May 1994. Piscataway, NJ:
IEEE Service Center, 1994.
Researchers at the University of Michigan applied
their life cycle design framework in a research pro-
ject with Optical Imaging Systems (OIS). OIS is a
U S manufacturer of high-performance, active-matrix
liquid crystal displays/one of the leading flatpanel
display technologies. The study evaluated OIS's
environmental management system and how envi-
ronmental performance may impact competition
in the industry. Metrics were developed to measure
environmental performance in a factory simulation
mode£ Strategies for improvement are recommended
according to incremental, reengineermg, and future
approaches.
Kteiner, Art. "What Does It Mean to Be Green?"
Harvard Business Hev§w 69 (July-August 1 991 ):
38-47;
:, . , „ , . .. , .., : , , , . , . , ,
The article focuses on three important questions
Kleiner feels any company's environmental agenda
should include: (1) What products should a company
bring to market? (2) How much open disclosure of
poUufion and health information should companies
support? (3) How can companies reduce :waste at
the source, and how can they engage in pollution
prevention? The'rnird and most relevant question
is a discussion of the basic principles behind IE arid
how they can be implemented.
33=85=-
*
Low6i gmest. "Industrial Ecology: An Organizing
Framework for Environmental Management."
Totai Quality Environmental Management 3, no. 1
(Autumn 1993): 73-85.
^ ^ ^^ & ^ ^ summary Q{ ^
currently relevant issues /elements of IE. Lowe .
begins with a background section on ffi and then
explains the analogy between IE and natural systems.
He ^ Deludes numerous examples of current IE
initiatives. Lowe then gives very good explanations
of me main tOols for applying IE principles (e.g.,
DfE> industrial metabolism, etc.). The article ends
with a brief discussion of the relationship between
ffi ^ TQM.
^.^ R and Cnaries E Hutchinson. "Envi-
r(Jnme'nta, Education." Proceedings of the National
Acadjemy of Sciences, USA 89 (February 1 992):
864^867.
authors stress the need for a new profession
toenvironmental^^m^
-Q{ ^^ nevv profession and present an
two-year education program to produce
J Q£ ^ ^^lementin successful environ-
pe°P P Thg authors ^ pro.
dtable as a focal point
industrial, governmental, and public
on environmental matters.
4 • Annoutrt Bbbogrtpfty
-------
Meadows, Donella, Dennis Meadows, and Jorgen,
Banders. Beyond the Limits: Confronting GlobO^
Collapse, Envisioning a S^ainableFu^mt^
River Junction,VT: Chelsea Green Publishers, 1992.
A sobering update of the global modeling published
as Limits to Growth in 1972. The systems dynamics-
based Worlds model has evolved, and the global
ecosystem has been even more degraded in the 20
vears since. The authors project scenarios for :
sustainable development and for global collapse.
Patel, C; Kumar N. "Industrial Ecology."
of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 89 (Feb-
ruary 1992): 798-799.
Patel outlines several of the most environmentally
harmful aspects of the current industrial system. ^
He proposes utilizing the "cradle-to-reincarnation
production philosophy (basically IE applied to the
production process), calling for environmentally
sound production-processes, recycling of wastes,
lowered impacts on the environment, etc. He also
proposes an industry-university-government round-
table to set the strategy and agenda for process.
Pavlik, Bruce M., et al. Oaks of California.
Los Olivos, QA: Cachuma Press, 1 992.
An excellent introduction to ecology through study
of a specific type of ecosystem.
Snyder, Robert. "Companies Invent New Methods
To Measure Enviro-Performance." Environment
Todays, no. 4 (May 1992).
Trds short artide describes new corporate irutiatives
for measuring environmental performance/impacts.
Snyder discusses several elements of this new type
of grading (i.e., TQEM) and gives specific examples
from industry.
Socolow, R., C. Andrews, F. Berkhout and V. Thomas.
Industrial Ecology and Global Change. New York.
Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Focuses on how humankind can continue to indus-
trialize without disrupting and destroying natural
ecological systems. Directed toward readers who
already have an understanding of the importance
of this issue and consequently have the desire to
participate in effectively implementing appropriate
strategies. Five main sections discuss: (1) the
industrialization of society, (2) the main natural
systems cycles, (3) toxic chemicals in ^environ-
ment, (4) industrial ecology in firms, and (5) pokcy-
making in the context of industrial ecology. The
articles address critical issues such as recycling,
solar energy, chemicals in agriculture, industrial
innovation, and international perspectives.
Stahel, Walter. "Product Life As A Variable: the
Notion of Utilization." Science and Public Policy 13,
no. 4 (August 1986): 196-203. .. •
Reflecting his work at the Product life Institute, -
Geneva. This work implies a transition from manu-
facturing per se to interlinked manufacturing of
highly durable products and continuing service as
a mode of business.
-The Utilization-Focused Service Economy:
Resource Efficiency and Product-Life Extension."
In The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems, ed*ed
by Braden R. Allenby and Deanna J. Richards, 178-
190. Washington: National Academy Press, 1994.
"Resource efficiency" and "product-life extension"
are terms developed in Europe to describe a^con-
sumer economy based on the replacement of the
Industrial Revolution product-oriented materials
dispersion economy with a utilization-oriented
product-life extension service economy, where
nationality, not physical goods, are the &**&*.
commodity. Stahel discusses the two types of closed-
loop production systems for waste minimization
that will lead to sustainable development: (1) reuse
of goods and (2) recycling of goods. Stahel favors
reuse over recycling as a process that resulte in a
more long-term and environmentally beneficial
utilization/optimizaton of goods.
Starr Chauncey. "Education For Industrial Ecology."
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
USA 89 (February 1992): 868-869.
Starr believes that industrial ecology will require
broadly educated engineers who can integrate their
technology with the social political, environmental,
and economic aspects of its applications. He sees a
new era for engineering education as engineers will
have to take into account the end-use, obsolescence,
and disposition of technological products under the
IE framework.
-------
Tibbs, Hardin. "Industrial Ecology—An Agenda for
Environmental Management." Pollution Prevention
Review2, no 2 (Spring 1992).
the best overview of work in industrial ecology
through mid-1991: An updated version of TiT?bs'
paper "(fan be found in Whok Earth Review 77
(Winter 1992): 4-19.
Tpdd, Nancy and John. Bioshelters, Ocean Arks,
City Farming: Ecology as the Basis of Design.
San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1984.
The Todd's work in biological design at New
Alchemy Institute provides a powerful parallel
understanding of many themes in industrial ecology.
Todd, Rebecca. "Zero-Loss Environmental
Accounting Systems." In The Greening of Industrial
Ecosystems, edited by Braden R. Allenby and
Deanna J. Richards, 191-200. Washington:
National Academy Press, 1994.
Implementation of advanced environmental prac-
tices, such as DfE/IE, requires that management
receive accurate information on costs created and
avoidedbyvarious options. This does not happen
under current accounting systems, where environ-
mentally related expenditures are frequently lumped
into overhead. Todd advocates a zero-loss environ-
mental information accounting, coritfbl, and account-
ability system, which will (1) record and monitor the
flow and disposition of all inputs and (2) take into
account all costs in the production process.
U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment.
"Biopolymers: Making Materials Nature's Way."
September 1993. #PB94-107638.
sive background paper on the potential
for substituting biologically based materials for
polluting, chemically based polymers.
Original produced on Hammermill Unity DP,
a 50% post-consumer/50% pre-consumer recycled paper
iriade from de-inked old newspapers and magazines.
Publl»hedby:
Th« National Pollution Pr»v«irtlon C«nt«r
for HJghir Education
University of Michigan, Dana Building
430 East University Ave.
Annlrtxjr, Ml 48109-1115
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strategies for addressing(relevant environmental problems; and
establish a national network of pollution prevention educators.
In addition to developing educational materials and conducting
research, the NPPC also offers an internship program, profes-
sional education & training, and conferences.
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