PRINTING XMDOSTft AMD
            USE CLUSTER PROFILE
         Regulatory Impacts Branch
Economics, Exposure and Technology Division
 Officfe of Pollution Prevention and Toxics
    U.S.  Environmental  Protection Agency
           Washington, DC  20460
                 June 1994

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                              CREDITS
 The information  presented in Tables  4  and, 5  is  reproduced with
 permission of A.F. Lewis & Company,  Inc.  from:   Blue Book Marketing
 Information Reports. A.F. Lewis  &  Co.,  Inc.,  New York, New York
 Copyright 1991.

 The illustrations  used in  Figures 11,  12,  16,  23,  and  25 are
 reproduced  with permission  of  Ayer Company Publishers,  Inc;,
 Manchester,  New Hampshire from:   Graphic Arts Manual.  Janet Field,
 Senior Editor,  Arno Press,. New York, New York, Copyright 1980.

 The illustrations used in Figure 20  are reproduced with permission
 of Delmar Publishers, Inc.  from:   Printing Technology.  3rd Edition,
 J.  Michael  Adams,  DaVid  D.  Faux,  and  Lloyd  J.  Reiber,  Delmar
 Publishers,  Inc., Albany,  New York, Copyright 1988.
                      CONTRIBUTORS/REVIEWERS
This  report was  prepared for  the  U.S. Environmental  Protection
Agency by Mathtech, Inc.,  Falls  Church,  Virginia.   The EPA Project
Officers were  Susan Krueger  and Catherine  Ramus of the Regulatory
Impacts  Branch,  Economics,   Exposure,  and .Technology  Division,
Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics.  Valuable assistance in
.the preparation of the report was provided  by:   Nelson Ho and Gary
A. Jones of  the Graphic Arts Technical  Foundation,  Dale G.  Kalima
of R.R. Donnelly  & Sons Co.,  Marc.ia Kinter of  the Screen Printers
International   Association,   Thomas  Purcell   of   the   Printing
Industries   of  America,   and  Gregory  Tyszka   of  the  Gravure
Association  of America.

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                           Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY			 ES-1

PART ONE:  PRINTING INDUSTRY PROFILE

  I.  OVERVIEW	•	 1-1

 II.  COMPANIES AND PLANTS	•	• • 1-9
    '  A.  Number of Companies and Plants	 1-9
      B.  Geographic Distribution	. . . . .	 . 1-10
      C.  Companies and Plants by Printing Process  		.... 1-14
      D.  Size of Companies and Plants		 1-17

III.  VALUE OF SHIPMENTS, INTERNATIONAL TRADE, AND  INDUSTRY
      OUTLOOK		'.--•	 1-19
      A.  Value of Shipments		.		1-19
      B.  International Trade	 1-23
      C.  Outlook for Major Printing  Markets	 1-23
           1.  Magazine and Periodical Publishing .	 1-27
           2 .  Catalogs and Directories  	,	,'. 1-27
           3 .  Direct Mail  .	-.' . . .	. . .	 1-28
  .         4.  Labels and Wraps	 1-28
           5.  Advertising Inserts and Coupons	, . 1-29
           6.  Other Advertising and  Free Circulation Papers ... 1-29
           7.  Annual Reports		 1-29
           8.  Business Forms	••'•	 1-30
           9 .  Business Communication	 1-30
          • 10.  Manuals and Technical  Documentation	 1-30
          11.  Convenience or "Quick" Printing  	 1-31
          12.  Books	 1-31 _

PART TWOS  PRINTING PROCESS PROFILE

  I.  PRINTING PROCESSES OVERVIEW '	 V		2-1

 II.  PREPRESS OPERATIONS		.'		• • • •'• 2-8
      A.  Introduction	 . .	 ... .................... 2-8
      B.  Typesetting and Composition .... .	 2-8
     ' C.  Copy Assembly  and Process  Photography	 2-9
      D.  Image Carrier  Preparation. ....	"2-10
    '     1.  Photomechanical Image  Carrier Preparation	 2-13
          2 .  Light-sensitive Coatings	 2-13
              a.  Photopolymeric Coatings	 2-14
              b.  Diazo  Coatings .	 2-14
              c.  Bichromated Colloid Coatings  	 	 2-15
                                   111

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                           Table of Contents
                              (continued)
PART TWOS  PRINTING PROCESS PROFILE (continued)

III.  IMAGE CARRIER PREPARATION AND PRESS OPERATIONS	..'... 2-16
      A.  Lithography	 2-16
          1.  Lithographic Platemaking	 2-16
              a.  Surface Plates	 2-16
              b.  Deep-etch Plates		 ... ,. ....... 2-17
              c.  Bi-Metal Plates	 2-17
          2.  Lithographic Presses and Printing	 2-18
              a.  Sheetfed Offset		2-18
              b.  Heatset Web Offset		2-18
              c.  Non-heatset Web Offset		2-24
          3.  Volume of Output and Percentage of Total Market .. 2-24
          4.  Number and Relative Size of Printing Companies ... 2-24
      B.  Gravure 	.-..'..'.	 .... . . ... .. 2-31
          1.  Gravure Cylinder Making	 2-31
              a. . Conventional Gravure ......................... 2-32
              b.  Direct-Transfer Gravure ...................... 2-32
              c.  Variable-area/Variable-depth Gravure  ......... 2-33
              d.  Laser Imaging	 2-33
              e.  Electromechanical Engraving	 2-33
          2.  Gravure Cylinder Plating		 2-34
          3.  Gravure Presses and Printing	 2-34
              a.  Publication Gravure	 2-38
              b.  Packaging Gravure	 2-39
              c.  Product Gravure	 2-43
          4..  Volume of Output and Percentage of Total Market .. 2-43
          5.  Number and Relative Size of Printing Companies .:. 2-43
      C.  Flexography	• •.- • •	 2-50
          1.  Flexographic Platemaking	'.....	 2-50
          2.  Flexographic Presses and Printing ................. 2-50
          3.  Volume of Output and Percentage of Total Market .. 2-53
          4.  Number and Relative Size of Printing Companies ... 2-53
      D.  Letterpress	 2-53
          1.  Letterpress Platemaking	 2-53
              a.  Original Plates	 2-60
              b.  Duplicate Plates	• «	2~62
          2.  Letterpress Presses and Printing	 2-63
          3.  Volume of Output and Percentage of Total Market .. 2-65
          4.  Number and Relative Size of Printing Companies ... 2-65
      E.  Screen Printing	'.	 2-69
          1.  Screen Preparation	 2"-69
              a.  Screen Fabrics	 . . .,	 2-69
           •   b.  Stencils 	.,	, . ,	 2-69
          2.  Screen Presses and Printing	 2-70
          3.  Volume of Output and Percentage of Total Market .. 2-77
          4.  Number and Relative Size of Printing Companies ... 2-77

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                            Table of  Contents
                               (continued)
PART TWO:  PRINTING PROCESS PROFILE (continued)

III.  IMAGE CARRIER PREPARATION AND'PRESS  OPERATIONS (continued)

      F.  Plateless Processes  	.	,	  2-77
          1.  Description .:»................	  2-77
          2.  Specific  Piateless  Processes	 .  2-77
              a.  Electronic Printing ...-. . .. . . >		  2-81
              b.  Ink-jet ..Printing	,._.,	 .  2-r82 .
              c.  Magnetfogfaphy	 . .	.. .	  2-82
              d.  Thermal Printing  . ..	  2-83
              e.  Ion Deposition  Printing.......................  2-83
              f.  Direct  Charge Deposition Printing	  2-83
              g.  Mead  Cycolor  Photocapsule Process	. .  2-83
          3.  Volume of Output,  and  Percentage  of Total Market  . .  2-84
         .4.  Number and  Relative Size of  Printing Companies  ...  2-84

 IV.  PQSTPRESS OPERATIONS .	 . .  2-85
      A.  Introduction  . .	,	 . .-.	  2-85
      B.  Cutting	  2-85
      C.  Folding	 f . . . .-	.,.  2-86
      D.  Assembly	••••	2-87
      E.  Binding	2-87
          1'.  Binding Methods	  2-88
          2.  Covers . . .	„	  2-89
      F.  In-Line Finishing	 .  2-90

 V.   TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS ...........	'. . . . .	,	  2-91
      A.  Trends in Prepress Technology	  2-93
          1.  Front-End Platforms (Desktop Publishing)  	  2-93
          2 .  Telecommunications	...»	 .-	2-94
          3 .  Proofing		 . . . •	'...-.-...  2-94
          4.  Direct-to-Plate and Direct-to-Press Technologies  .  2-95
      B.  Trends in Press Technology	  2-96
          1.  General Press Trends	 .' 2-96
              a.  Inks	•	2-96
              b.  Dampening Systems	 ^		  2-97
              c.  Press Cleaners	 .  2-97
              d.  Process Color	  2-98
          2 .  Offset Printing	 .;	,	;.....  2-98
              a.  Waterless Plates	'. ....... 2-99
          3.  Rotogravure Printing  .	.........;........  2-100
          4 .  Flexographic Printing	  2-101
          5.  Plateless Printing	  2-101
              a.  Electronic Printing	  2-102
              b.  Ink-jet Printing  	;	. .	... .	  2-102
              c.  Thermal Printing	  2-103
              d.  Ion Deposition  Printing... . . .	  2-103
              e.  Magnetography	  2-103
      C.  Postpress  Technology  . .		2-103
REFERENCES
•R-l
                                   V

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                           Table of Contents
                               (continued)
APPENDICES

A.  SIC Major Group 27 Printing, Publishing, and Allied
      Industries  	 	 	
B.  Top 101 North American Commercial and Publication
      Printers	
C.  Top 100 U.S. Screen Printers	

D.  Top 100 North American Quick  Printing Operations
                                                                 Page
A-l


B-l

C-l

D-l
                                   VI

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                            List Of Tables
 1.

 1.

 3.

 4.

 5.

 6.
 7.
 8.
 9.
10.
11.
Selected Statistics for Major Group 27 — Printing,  -
  Publishing, and Allied Industries, 1991 .......... ....... 1-3
Selected Statistics for Major Group 27 — Printing,
  Publishing, and Allied Industries, .1987 ..... . . .... ---- .  . 1-4
Description, Applications, and Percent Distribution of
  Major Printing Processes ........ ....... .....;........... 1-8
Total Number of Operating Plants by Employee Size,
  EPA Region, and .State .... ........... ....... ..... ........ 1-11
U.S. Total Number of Plants by Press Type and Employment
  Size
Printing and fmblishing Industry Trends . . ................ . 1-22
Trends and Forecasts for Major Industry Categories ........ 1-24
U.S. Export and Import Trade Patterns ................ ..... 1-26
U.S. Printing Industry Forecast 1990 to 2000 . . ............ 1-27
U.S. Market for Printing Inks . . . , ....... ".- ............. . ---- 2-5
Estimated Domestic Consumption of Raw Materials for
  Printing Inks .......... .......... ............ .......... . 2-6
                                  VII

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                             List Of Figures
  1.   Printing Industry Overview	;.......,.- 1-2
  2.   Applications  of Major  Printing Processes  	......] 1-7
  3 .   USEPA Regions	 1-10
  4.   Geographic  Distribution  of Printing Plants  	 	 1-13
  5.   Number  of Plants  by Press  Type	 1-15
  6.   Printing Plant Size 	.	 1-18
  7.   Market  Shares for Printing Industry Segments  	 1-21
  8.   Trends  in Printing Technology	2-2
  9.   Flow  Chart  of a Typical  Printing Process	 2-4
10.   Image Carrier Technologies 	 2-11
11.   Image Carriers	 2-12
12.   Simplified  Lithographic  Press Layout  	 2-19
13.   Sheetfed Offset	  2-20
14.   Heatset Web Offset	 2-25
1,5.   Non-heatset Web Offset		 2-28
16.   Rotogravure Press	, .'.	 2-36
17.   Publication Gravure 	......,,.	 2-40
18.   Packaging Gravure	 2-44
19.   Product Gravure	 2-47
20.  Webfed  Rotary Flexographic  Press and Three Roller Ink
       System	 2-51
21.   Publication Flexography	 2-54
22.   Packaging Flexography	 2-57
23,  Unit-design Perfecting Rotary Press and Rotary Letterpress
       Press Typically Used for Magazine Publishing .	 2-64
24.  Letterpress	,	 2-66
25.  Flat-bed  Screen Press and Rotary Screen Press 	 2-72
26.  Screen  Printing 	,	 2-73 -
27.  Electronic  Printing	 2-78
28.  Technological Trends in Printing Industry	 2-92
                                 Vlll

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                        EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
USE CLUSTER PROFILE

     This report.presents  a profile of the printing industry and
defines  a use  cluster.    Prepared  as background  for  the U.S.
Environmental   Protection   Agency  (EPA),   Office  of  Pollution
Prevention and Toxics' analysis of printing use cluster chemicals,
this report present's  an overview of the chemicals,  technologies,
and processes used in the  printing industry.   Based on published
information, this  report's preparation involved neither original
research nor an industry survey.                        -

     A  use  cluster is  defined as a set  of competing chemicals,
processes,  or  technologies..   Traditionally,  EPA assessed the
potential hazards  and  exposure  scenarios  of  specific chemicals,
and, generally, left  the evaluation of potential substitutes as a
post-risk  assessment  consideration.    The use  cluster approach
considers • all   substitutes  within  a  given  use,  and   leaves
consideration of alternate uses as a potential follow up activity.

     Extremely  limited information  was found  on  the  volume of
chemicals used  in  the printing industry; however, information was
found on inks and  ink raw materials.  In 1991, the U.S. market for
printing  ink was  1.9  billion pounds.  The printing ink market is
expected to grow at an average annual  rate of 2.2 percent  through
1996  when, the  domestic market  is expected  to  total  almost 2.2
billion pounds.    Of  the  raw  materials   consumed in  U.S. ink
•manufacture  in  1991,  excluding water, hydrocarbon  and  oxygenated
solvents  accounted for 35 percent, resins for  26  percent, oils
 (minerals oils  as well as natural and synthetic drying oils) for 19
percent, pigments'  for 17 percent,, and a wide range of additives for
the remaining three percent.  Similar information was not available
for cleaning solvents or other chemicals used in the industry.
 PRINTING INDUSTRY

     •The printing industry  is  comprised of  firms  engaged ^ in
 printing as well as firms which perform services  for the printing
 trade,  such  as  platemaking and  bookbinding.   The  industry  also
 includes  firms   engaged  in  publishing  newspapers,  books,   and
 periodicals,   regardless  of - whether  or  not  they  do  their  own
 printing.   Firms  functioning  outside of  what  is  traditionally
 defined as the printing and publishing industry also perform
 printing and related  activities.    For  example,  firms in  many
 industries do printing in order to produce materials for internal
 use (i.e.,  in-plant  printers).   Other examples include:   firms
 doing  textile printing;  manufacturers  of products,  especially
 packaging,  that contain incidental printing;  and manufacturers of
 printed circuit boards.                                       •

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      There are several  estimates  of the number  of  firms in  the
printing and publishing industry.   Based on Census data, in 1987
there were about 58,000 firms operating a total of almost 62,000
establishments.  The number of firms had increased to  about 60,000
in 1993. ^  However, the Census estimate does not include firms that
do^printing or related operations but whose primary activity is  not
printing or publishing.  A.F. Lewis Co., Inc.,  a leading source of
statistics for the industry,  estimates  that in the late 1980s there
were ^ almost  70,000  establishments  in the U. S.  performing some
combination  of  prepress, press,  or postpress operations.  Almost
60,000 of these  establishments were  believed to have  presses.   It
is believed,  however,  that these data  excluded most of  the screen
printers.   Their inclusion leads to an estimate of about 100,000
printing establishments  in the U.S.

      While the industry  accounts for a significant portion of  the
Nation's total volume of goods and services, it also represents  the
largest   conglomeration  of   small   businesses  in  the  domestic
manufacturing sector.    Nearly  80 percent  of  the plants  in  the
industry employ  less  than 2.0 people.  Most firms in  the industry
serve.local or regional markets,  though some  printers and many
publishers reach national and international markets.

      In  1987, the  industry  employed  approximately  1.5 million
people with  an annual  payroll  exceeding  $33  billion.   While
employment remained  steady,  payroll increased  to  $39 billion  in
1993.  The Bureau of the Census  estimates that in 1987, the total
value  of shipments  for  the printing and publishing industry was
over  $136. billion and by-1991  was  almost  $157 billion.    When
taking  inflation  into   consideration,   however,   the  industry
experienced  a decline  in value of shipments  of more  than  2.0
percent  over  that period.• The  total value of shipments for 1993
was expected to  be over $176 billion,  which  in constant dollars
represents  a return to  1987  levels.   These  estimates, however,
exclude perhaps $90 to  $100 billion worth of printed goods produced
by  in-plant  printers   and   quick  printers   and  by  packaging
manufacturers.  The industry's poor performance during  1987 through
1991 was due primarily to overall sluggish economic growth during
the period, particularly the  recession of 1990 to 1991.  Based  on
constant dollar sales,  the printing industry is expected to grow by
3.8 to 5.3 percent annually between  1990 and 2000.  Strong growth
in the industry will  result from a recovering U.S. economy as well
as  demographic  trends  favorable  to   the  industry   such  as  a
substantial  growth  in  the number  of  households  and school-age
children.
                                     f   ;   !• "'I ,  . Jilj/ll'1 '' n ' . ' ' !f  "' ''  ,' '  ,    '' '"
     The printing industry is a very diversified and sophisticated
industry owing to the multiplicity of printing processes utilized.
The five most common printing processes,  lithography;  letterpress,
flexography,  gravure, and  screen printing,  currently account  for
about  97 percent of the  value of the output of the U.S. printing
industry.  Based on the  estimated value of 1990 shipments by the

                          . •  ES-2

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U.S.  commercial  printing industry, lithography  accounted for 47
percent  of  the  market;  greivure,  19  percent;  flexography,  17
percent; letterpress, 11 percent; and screen printing, 3 percent.
The  importance  of  letterpress,  until  the  1940s  the  dominant
printing process,  is declining very rapidly and is being replaced
by lithography and flexography.


PRINTING PROCESS BACKGROUND

     Some of the printing processes have several major subprocesses
based  primarily  on  the  types  of substrate or  products printed.
Lithography is divided into three subprocesses:   sheetfed offset,
heatset web offset,  and non-heatset web offset.   Gravure includes
publication  gravure, .packaging  gravure,  and  product  gravure.
Flexography  consists of publication  flexography and  packaging
flexography.

     In  addition  to the five  major  printing  processes  already
mentioned,  there  are various plateless printing processes.   All
comparatively new technologies,  these include:  electronic printing
processes such as xerography and laser printing;  ink jet printing;
magnetography; thermal printing;  ion  deposition printing; direct
charge  deposition printing;  and  the Mead Cycolor  Photocapsule
process.  Plateless  printing processes  are gradually becoming an
important force in the industry because of their relative ease of
use and  the growing application  of computer  controlled printing
operations.  Although plateless processes accounted for only about
three percent of total U.S.  printing industry  output in 1991, they
are forecast to have a 21 percent market share by 2025.

     The  five  major printing processes are distinguished by the
method of image transfer and by the general type of image carrier
employed.    Depending upon  the  process,  the  printed image  is
transferred  to  the substrate either  directly or indirectly._  In
direct printing  the  image  is transferred directly from the image
carrier  to  the  substrate.    The  direct  printing processes  are
gravure,  flexography,  letterpress,  and  screen printing.    In
indirect, or offset, printing,  the image, is first transferred from
the  image  carrier  to   the blanket  cylinder  and  then  to  the
substrate.     Lithography,   currently,  the  dominant  printing
technology,  is an  offset process.

     Image  carriers  can generally  be classified as  one  of four
types:   relief>  planographic,  • intaglio,  or  screen.' '  In relief
printing, the image  or printing area  is raised above the nonimage
areas.   Of the  five major printing  processes,  .those relying on
relief printing are  letterpress and flexography.  In planographic
printing, the image  and nonimage areas are on  the same plane.  The
image  and nonimage areas are defined  by differing physicochemical
properties.    Lithography  is  a  planographic process.    In the
intaglio, process,  the nonprinting area is at a common  surface level

                               ES-3

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 with the substrate while  the  printing area,  consisting of minute
 etched  or  engraved  wells  of differing  depth  and/or  size,  is
 recessed.  Gravure is an intaglio process.  In the screen process'
 (also known as porous printing), 'the  image is transferred-to the
 substrate by brushing ink through a porous mesh which carries the
 pictorial or typographic image.


 PRINTING PROCESS DESCRIPTION

      Each printing process can be divided into, three major sleeps.:
 prepress, press, and postpress. Prepress operations encompass that
 series of  steps during which the  idea  for  a  printed  image  is
 converted into  an image  carrier  such as  a plate,  cylinder,  or
 screen.   Prepress operations include composition and typesetting,
 graphic   arts  photography,  image  assembly,  and  image  carrier
 preparation.     Press  refers  to   actual   printing  operations.
 Postpress primarily involves the assembly of printed materials and
 consists  of binding and finishing operations.
                           1  ,„        , .  " •     ii ', '  in	•' "u , ,   ' , •   '  . i • •'
      Within each process,  a  variety  of  chemicals  are  used,
 depending on the types of operation involved.  Prepress operations
 typically involve photoprocessing chemicals and solutions.   Inks
 and cleaning solvents are the major types of chemicals used during
 press operations.   Depending on  the finishing  wdrk  required,
 postpress operations can use large  amounts  of  adhesives.   This  is
 especially  true  where  the production  of books and  directories  is
 involved.   Of all  the chemicals used in a  typical printing plant,
 inks  and organic cleaning  solvents  are the  categories used in the
 largest quantities.   Many of  the  chemicals used in 'the  printing
 industry are potential hazards  to human health and the environment.
               : '    '.    ' .    ! ;• •'••  '•'  ' '  :" •.; .••:•!•/•:•:>'' ;•&•'•%'• / "••':' '•',< •'• :';';:- :.- ,'••'.'
      The printing industry has been experiencing a period of great
 change, much  of  it fueled  by the already  widespread and  still
rapidly growing application of computers to the printing industry.
In addition to the rapid growth of plateless technologies discussed
above, major industry trends include:
     o

     o
Increased automation;

Continued rapid .development  in  computer-based front-end
platforms  (e.g., desktop publishing);

Advances in  telecommunications  and the introduction  of
digital data exchange standards;
                  'I1   '        ' ''    I1 '',  ' ' \'' '"' :,   ''   •  "  ',.;.,'
                         .'.".''  I,, ., '" .;•'.," I'1 •" '.•..'• '   ' ."i ,
Development  of  new image   carrier  and  image carrier
preparation  technologies  including direct-to-plate  and
direct-to-press  processes  and  waterless  lithographic
plates that do not require a dampening  system;
                               ES-4

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Increasing  use of  no- and  low-VOC  (volatile  organic
compound) fountain .solutions, press cleaners, inks, and
adhesives; and,

Increased recycling of ink.
                    • ES-5

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        PART ONEs




PRINTING INDUSTRY PROFILE

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 1.
OVERVIEW
     The definition of the printing industry used in this  study is
•based  primarily on the  Bureau of the  Census'  definition as  set
 forth  under Standard Industrial  Classification (SIC)  Code Major
 Group  27 — Printing, Publishing, and Allied Industry.  A  complete
 outline of Major Group 27 is presented in Appendix A.  It should be
 noted, however, that various industries outside Major Group 27  are
 also  engaged in printing and related  activities  and that,  when
 possible, these industries have been addressed in the study. These
 include  firms doing textile  printing,  manufacturers of  products
 that  contain incidental  printing,  and manufacturers  of  printed
 circuit boards.

     .Major  Group  27  is  comprised of firms engaged in printing by
 one  or more common processes,  such  as lithography, letterpress,
 flexography,  gravure, and screen printing, as well as firms which
 jperform  services  for the printing trade,  such as platemaking  and
 bookbinding.    The  industry  also   includes   firms  engaged   in
 publishing  .newspapers,  books,  and.  periodicals,   regardless   of
 whether  or  not  they do their own printing  (SIC  1987).

     Tables 1 and 2 summarize some of the  important  statistics  for
 Major  Group 27  available from the Bureau of the Census.    Table 1
 presents  the  data  available  from   the  1991  Annual Survey   of
 Manufactures,  the latest year  available.   Table 2 presents more
 detailed data from the 1987 Census of Manufactures;  (The Census is
 conducted every five years but as of  May 1994,  the results of  the
 1992  Census  were not yet available.)   Finally,  1993   printing
 industry statistics available from the 1993 U.S. Industrial Outlook
 are presented in  the text.

     In  1987,  there were by  conservative  estimate about 58,000
 firms  in   the  industry  operating   a  total   of  almost 62,000
 establishments.  By 1993  the number of firms had increased to about
 60,000,  though  an estimate of the total number of  establishments
 operated by these  firm was not available.  Industry  employment in
 1987 was approximately 1.5 million people with an annual payroll
 exceeding $33 billion.   Employment remained constant at around  1.5
 million  people  through 1993 but annual  payroll  grew  to almost  $39
 billion  (BOC 1990a; BOC  1990b;  BOG 1990c; USIQ  1993).

     The. economic  performance  of  the printing  and publishing
 industries  is affected by a number of  factors, including rate of
 population  increase, level of  educational  attainment,   personal
 consumption expenditures, availability of leisure time,   level of
 U.S. business activity (e.g.,  business formations, advertising,  and
 financial  market activity),  and competition from the electronic
 media  (USIO 1992).   In 1987,  the total  value of shipments for  the
 industry was over $136 billion and by  1991 was almost $157  billion.
 However,  in constant dollars,, the value of  shipments in  1991  was
 more than 2.0 lower than in 1987. The total value of shipments  for
                                1-1

-------
             PRINTING INDUSTRY OVERVIEW


In 1987, the Printing and Publishing Industry:

      Consisted of at least 58,000 firms operating 62,000 establishments

      Employed 1.5 million people

      Had an annual payroll in excess of $33 billion

      Accounted for shipments valued at over $136 billion

      Represented the  largest conglomeration of small businesses in  the
      manufacturing sector

      80 to 85 percent of the plants in the  industry employed fewer than 20
      people.

The industry is expected to grow by 3.8 to 5.3 percent annually between 1990 and
2000.

The five most common printing processes currently account for 97 percent of the
value of the output of the U.S. printing industry.

The five processes and their 1991 market shares are:

      Lithography - 47%
      Gravure-19%
      Flexography -17%
      Letterpress-11%
      Screen Printing -3%
         Figure  1.  Printing Industry  Overview
                             1-2

-------
      Table.1.  Selected  Statistics for  SIC Major Group 27 --
         Printing,  Publishing, and'Allied Industries,  1991
                                       All Employees


Industry Category
271 Newspapers
272 Periodicals
273 Book Publishing
274 Miscellaneous Publishing
275 Commercial Printing, Total
2752 Lithographic
2754 Gravure
2759 NEC
276 Manifold Business Forms
277 Greeting Cards
278 Blankbopks & Bookbinding
279 Printing Trade Services
Total
employees
(000)
428.4
110.6
125.8
65.0
556.0
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
46.3
23.9
70.4
61.6
Production
Workers
(000)
145.1
20.7
55.0
22.6
400.7
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
32.2
12.5
53.9
44.5
1
Payroll
(Mil $)
10308.7
3661.0
3699.9
1779.7
14135.4
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
1269.2
609.1
1394.6
1884.3
Value of
Shipments
(Mil $)
33702.1
20345.1
20736.1
9762.0
51948.1
37762.0
3239.0
10760.4
7233.5
3809.9
4571.4
4576.5
GRAND TOTALS
                                1488.0
787.2
38741.7   156,684.6
N.A. -.Not available.

NOTE:  An establishment's shipments include those products assigned to an
industry (primary products),  those considered primary to other industries
(secondary products), and receipts for miscellaneous activities
(merchandising, contract work,  resales, etc.).

Source:  BOG 1993.
                                    1-3

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-------
1993 -was expected to t>e over $176 billion which in constant dollars
represents  a return  to  1987  levels  (BOG  1990a;  BOG  1990b;  BOG
1990c; BOG  1993;  USIO 1993)..    These  estimates,  however, exclude
perhaps $90 to $100 billion worth of printed goods produced by in-
plant printers and quick printers and by packaging manufacturers.
The  industry's  poor performance  from 1987 through  1991 was. due
primarily to  overall  sluggish economic growth during the period,
particularly  the recession of 1990  to 1991  (USIO 1993).  However,
based on constant dollar sales,  the  industry is expected to grow by
3.8 to 5.3 percent annually through  2000 (SRI 1990).   Strong growth
in the industry will result from a recovering  U.S. economy as well
as  demographic  trends  favorable  to  the industry such  as  , a
substantial growth in the number of  households and school children
(USIO 1993).

     While  the industry.accounts for a significant portion of the
Nations' total volume of goods and services, it also represents the
largest  conglomeration  of  small  businesse's  in   the  domestic
manufacturing sector.   Nearly  80  percent  of the plants  in the
industry  employ  less than 20  people  (BOG  1990a; BOG  1990b;  BOG
1990c).   Most  firms  in  the  industry serve local or regional
markets,  though  some  printers and many publishers reach national
and international markets  (USIO 1992).

     The  five   most   common   printing  processes,   lithography,
letterpress,  flexography, gravure,  and screen printing, currently
account for about 97 percent of  the  value of the output of the U.S.
printing" industry (Bruno  1990; Bruno 1991) .  Based on  the estimated
value of 1990 shipments by the U.S.  commercial printing industry,
lithography accounted for 47  percent of the  market; gravure,  19
percent;  flexography,  17 percent;  letterpress,  11  percent;  and
screen printing, 3 percent  (Bruno 1991). -   .          '

     The  five major printing processes are distinguished by the
method of image transfer and by the'general type of  image carrier
(or plate) employed.  Depending upon the process, the  printed image
is transferred to the substrate either directly or indirectly.  In
direct printing, the image is transferred directly from the image
carrier  to   the  substrate.    The direct  printing processes  are
gravure,  flexography,  letterpress,  and  screen  printing.    In
indirect, or offset, printing, the image is first transferred from
the image carrier  to  an  intermediate  cylinder called the blanket
cylinder  and then to the substrate.   Lithography,  currently the
dominant  printing  technology, is an  offset process (Kirk-Othmer
1982),

     Image  carriers can generally  be classified as one of four
types:   relief,  planographic,  intaglio,  or  screen.   In relief
printing,' the image or printing area  is raised above the nonimage
areas.    Everyday office  equipment  such   as  rubber stamps  and
.typewriters offer simple illustrations of relief printing.  Of the
five major printing processes, those relying on relief printing are
letterpress,  which  typically  uses   cast  metal   plates,   and
flexography,,  which employs elastomeric plates..
                               1-5

-------
     In planographic printing, the image and nonimage areas are on
the  same plane.   The  image  and nonimage  areas are  defined by
differing  physicochemical  properties.   The non-image  areas  are
treated  to be hydrophilic,, or water  loving, and will  not accept
ink.   The image areas, on the  other hand,   are  treated  to be
hydrophobia and  oleophilic  or water repellant  and  oil receptive,
and ink will adhere to these areas.  Lithography  is a planographic
process  (Adams 1988).

     In  the intaglio process,  the nonprinting area is at a common
surface  level with the substrate and the printing area, consisting
of minute etched or engraved cells of  differing depth and/or size,
is recessed.  Gravure is an intaglio process (Adams 1988).

     In  the  screen process (also known as  porous  printing),  the
image is transferred  to the substrate  by brushing  ink through a
porous mesh which carries the pictorial or typographic image  (Kirk-
Othmer 1982; McGraw-Hill 1987).

     In  addition to  the  five  major  printing processes  already
discussed, there are  a number  of  other printing technologies in
use.   These include various  electronic,  electrostatic, magneto-
graphic,  thermographic  ion-deposition,  ink-jet,  and Mead Cycolor
printing processes.   Currently,  these processes  account for only
about three percent of the  market.  However, their market share is
expected to increase to over 20 percent by 2025 (Bruno 1990; Bruno
1991).

     Further  description  of  the five  major printing processes,
their applications, and their current and projected market shares
are presented- in Figure 2 and Table 3.
                                1-6

-------
                APPLICATIONS OF THE MAJOR
                     PRINTING PROCESSES
   LITHOGRAPHY
         Magazines
         Newspapers
         Books
         Envelops
         Labels and tags

   FLEXOGRAPHY
         Packaging
         Newspapers

   GRAVURE
         Packaging
         Advertising
         Magazines
         Bank Notes
         Stamps

   LETTERPRESS
         Magazines
   -      Newspapers
         Books

   SCREEN
         Signs
         Electronics
         Fine Arts
         Ceramics and Glass
         Textiles

   PLATELESS
         Short-Run Business
   Forms
         Manuals
         Bar and Batch Codes
         Tickets
      Stationery
      Greeting Cards
      Advertising
      Packaging (Folding
      Paper Boxes)
      Magazines
      Directories
      Art Books
      Annual Reports
      Tissue Products
      Wall Coverings
      Films and Laminates
      Stationery
      Advertising
      Decals
      Nameplates and Panels
      Containers and Other
      3-Dimensional Items
      Personalized
Computer Letters
      Sweepstakes Mailers
      Tags
      Checks
Figure 2.   Applications of the Major Printing Processes
                              1-7

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II.   COMPANIES AMP PLANTS

      Various sources estimate  that there  are between 62,000  and
70,000 establishments in the U.S. printing and publishing industry.
 (These estimates, however, are believed to exclude many if not most
of the 40,000-plus plants with screen presses, so  the actual number
of establishments may be closer to 100,000.)  Nearly 60 percent of
these establishments are found in only ten states:  California,  New
York,  Illinois,  Texas, Florida, Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  New Jersey,
Michigan,  and Massachusetts.  Almost 60,000 of the 70,000 industry
establishments are believed to have presses of which about 54,000
have  lithographic presses.  Gravure presses  are found at the fewest
number of  plants; only about  1,100 plants have these  types  of,
presses.     Establishments  without  presses  are  trade  services
supporting the industry such as platemakers and  binders.  From 80
to 85  percent of  all  establishments in the industry have fewer than
20 employees. However,  plants with flexographic or gravure presses
tend   to  have  a larger  number of  employees  than  plants  with
letterpress, lithographic,  or screen presses.


      A.   Number of•Companies and Plants

           Based  on 1987 Bureau of the  Census data1,  the printing,
publishing, and allied  industries were comprised of 61,851 plants
operated by 58, 097 companies, a ratio of about 1.1 plants per  firm.
By 1993 the number of firms  had increased to about 60,000, however,
information on the number of plants these  companies  operated  was
not available (BOG 1990a; BOG 1990b; BOG 1990c;  USIO 1993).

     .The number  of firms  and plants in the printing,  publishing,
and allied  industries  reported by the Bureau of the  Census does
not,  however, capture all plajits that have  presses.   For example,
the Census data  do not include  many companies such as packaging,
.textile,  and electronic manufacturers which do  printing  that  is
incidental to 'their  primary business.
     1  The Bureau of the Census prepares the Census of Manufactures every five
years.   (At.the'time this report was prepared , the results of  the 1992 census
were not available,  so the 1987 data were used.)  For the purpose of the Census
of Manufactures,  the Bureau of the Census  defines a company as  a  business
organization consisting of one or more establishments under common ownership or
control.  For the  census, each individual manufacturing establishment (or plant)
in operation at any  time during the census year is required to submit a separate
reporting form describing its activities to the Bureau of the Census  (BOC 1990a) .
The Census  of  Manufactures  report for the printing, publishing  and allied
industries  (SIC  Code Major  Group  27) compiles  company, establishment,  and
employee statistics  for all of the sub-industry categories (outlined in Table 1)
based on the data  contained in the establishment reports submitted to the .Bureau
of the Census.                .

      -  ..     '            •       1-9      -'.;'    .       -        .

-------
     More  comprehensive  data  on  the  printing  and  publishing
industry is  available from A.F. Lewis  & Company,  Inc.,  a market
research company specializing in the graphics arts  industry.  Table
4 presents the A.F.  Lewis estimate of the total number of operating
plants in the  industry in 1990.  The table is grouped by employee
size,  EPA region,  and state  (see Figure  3  for states  by EPA
region).   Operating  plants  include  those  establishments which
perform any combination of prepress, press, or postpress services.
Of  the 69,714  plants,  an  estimated  59,636  have presses.   The
remainder represent trade services supporting  the  graphics arts
industry (A.F. Lewis).


       B. Geographic Distribution

          Table  4  and  Figure  4  present   information  on  the
geographic  distribution  of  operating  plants in   the  printing
industry.  As can be seen in the Table,  EPA regions. 2, 4, 5, and 9
each account for more than ten percent  of totaloperating plants,
and combined account for over 62 percent of all plants.  Ten states
account for nearly 60 percent of all operating plants; the top four
account for one-third of the total.  The 10 states and their share
of total operating plants are as follows  (A.F. Lewis):
               California  (Region 9)
               New York.(Region 2)
               Illinois  (Region 5).
               Texas  (Region 6)
               Florida  (Region 4)
               Pennsylvania (Region 3)
               Ohio (Region 5)
               New Jersey  (Region 2)
               Michigan  (Region 5)
               Massachusetts  (Region 1)
12.4%
 8.1%
 7.1%
 6.1%
 4-4%
 4.4%
 4.3%
 3.9%
 3.7%
 3.0%
                                              MAINE
                     Figure 3.   USEPA Regions
                               1-10

-------
         Table 4.
                   Total Number  of  Operating  Plants by Employee Size,
                         EPA Region, and State, 1990


EPA REGION/STATE
REGION 1
CONNECTICUT
MAINE
MASSACHUSETTS
NEW HAMPSHIRE
RHODE ISLAND
VERMONT
s
Total Region ' 1
REGION 2
NEW JERSEY
NEW YORK"
Total Region' 2
REGION 3
DELAWARE
MARYLAND
PENNSYLVANIA
VIRGINIA
WASHINGTON, DC
WEST VIRGINIA
Total Region 3
REGION 4
ALABAMA
FLORIDA
GEORGIA
KENTUCKY
MISSISSIPPI
NORTH CAROLINA
SOUTH CAROLINA
TENNESSEE
Total Region 4
REGION 5
ILLINOIS,
INDIANA
MICHIGAN
MINNESOTA
OHIO
WISCONSIN
Total Region 5
REGION 6
ARKANSAS
LOUISIANA
NEW MEXICO
OKLAHOMA
TEXAS


1-4

456
187
888
178
143
71
1923

1036
2223
3259

39
382
1332
492
139
128
2512

333
1487
614
353
150
676
277
491
4381

2229
836
1214
715
1383
839
7216

511
409
147
214
2163


5-9

284
67
. 483
90
75'
34
1033

749
1398
2147

37
272
705
294
107
'5
1490

170
806
351
183
83
359
134
297
2383

1137
403
629
366
662
452
3649

195
178
74
113
1095
Number

10-19

182
31
293
61
54
38
659

457
956
1413

19
217
459
179
92
35
1001

95
' '418
221
101
56
231
76
166
1364

694
218
372
228
469
' 267
2248

118
90
40
71
486
' of Emp.

20-49

126
24
228
37
43
17
475

247
649
896

24
130
309
127
45
25
660

68
220
118
65
25
131
50
112
789

497
156
199
152
277
172
1453

56
46
16
48
322
loyees

50-99

65
11
. 99
10
17
9
211

124
231
355

' 4 •
45
139
46
15
9
258

14
76
57
30
12
61
18
51 •
3 19

208
51
92
60
134
86
' 631

16
20
8
10
118


100+

54
10
87
13
11
12
187'

99
183
282

3
49
131
50
10
9
252

14
50
46
19
7
48
15
56
255

198
49
56
72
100
81
556

11
13
2
11
91

mn«- — f
J. OUclJ.
Plants

1167
330
2078
389
343
181
4488

2712
5640
8352

126
1095
3075
1188
408
281
6173

694
3057
1407
751
333
1506
570
1173 •
9491

.4963
1713
2562
1593
3025
1897 "
15753

907
756
' 287
467
4275
% of
T?ar*Vi
CiCLCll
Region

26.0
7.4
46.3
8.7
7.6
4.0
100.0

32.5
67:5
100.0

2.0
17.7
49.7
19.2
6.6 •
4.6
100.0

7,3
32.2
14.8
7.9
3.5
15.9
6.0
12.4
100.0

31.5
10.9
16.3
10.1
19.2
12.0
-100.6

13.6
11.3
4.3
7.0
63.9
% of
nif-.*- -a 1
J. 0L.CLJ.
Plants

1.7
0.5
3.0
0.6
0.5
0.3
6.4

3.9
8.1
12.0

0.2
1.6
4.4
1.7
0.6
0.4
8.9

1.0
4.4
2.0
1.1
0.5
2.2
0.8
1.7
13.6

7.1
2.5
3.7
2.3.
4.3
2.7
22.6

1.3
1.1
0.4
0.7
6.1
Total Region  6  . 3444   1655
                                 805
                                        488
                                               172
                                                      128   6692  100.0
                                                                           9.6
                                         1-11

-------
n|;
Table 4.
: • . ',:'" 	 i", •' •. •; ! -.•''['*•• i,;-1! ''i-iii'!1!-;1*11,1!11"''1-1-! ••; <"•'.
Total Number of Operating Plants by Employee Size,
EPA Region, and State, 1990 (continued)
Number of Employees
EPA REGION
KKOXOH 7
IOWA
KANSAS
MISSOURI
NEBRASKA
Total Region 7

MQIOS 8

COLORADO
MONTANA
NORTH DAKOTA
SOUTH DAKOTA
UTAH
WYOMING
Total Region 8
lUtOION 9
ARIZONA
CALIFORNIA
HAWAII
NEVADA
Total Region 9
JUCOIOH 10
ALASKA
IDAHO
OREGON
WASHINGTON
Total Region 10
XJ.S. TO33UU

Percent Of Total
1-4

453
405
763
298
1919



635
143
102
138
203
« 57
1278

396
4421
113
84
5014

60
124
472
556
1212
32158

46.1
5-9 10-19 20-49 50-99

273
182
419
147
1021



290
48
46
47
105
30
566

211
2203
54
57
2525

39
59
238
263
599
=======
17068

24.5

131
104
229
72
536



145
24
25
32
50
. 9
285

105
1029
30
33,
1197

• 13
34
91
154
292.
======
9800

14.1

86
82
158
51
377



68
16
14
15
36
11
160

73
604
15
27
719

7
23
63
94
187
6204

8.9

50
36
51
17
154



28
3
3
6
13
3
56

16
208
7
5
236

0
4
20
32
56
2448

3.5
— ---- Total
% of
Each
100+ Plants Region

18
29
.59
12
118
i .


23'
3
3
1
9
1
40

13
155
3
3
174

1
3
15
. 25
44
2036

2.9

1011
838
1679
597
4125


•': , ' 'ii»
1189
237
193
239
416
111
2385

814
8620
222
209
9865

120
247
899
1124
2390
69714



24.5
20.3
40.7
14.5
100.0



49.9
9.9
8.1
10.0
17.4
4.7
100.0

8.3
87.4
2.3
2.1
100,0

5.0
10.3
37.6
47.0
100.0



n • '.Jin .,' r :," 'vi; ."it; 	 .•;'(•" "i (;. ;t ,'tjljiiisil!1 ,>! I'jfT :'f i!"1;*™
% of
Total
Plants
„ 	 	 ' • '••"'••••-: .••••}• •: 	 '.
1.5
1.2
2.4
0.9
5.9
, ' 	 ', ' ,;,;. ' ,.".'! iiJN " ../'I

.' ' ' ' ., '. . , " 	 ! , ' ''IJj '.li, ',! ' .,„'
1.7
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.2
3.4

1.2
12.4
0.3
0.3
14 . 1

0.2
0.4
1.3
1.6
3.4


A . _,. 	 • • ' ' 	
ltot«-  Operating plants include: commercial printing;  business forms printing;
       converters; newspaper printing and publishing;  in-plant reproduction and
       prepress; and, trade services.

Source:  A.F. Lewis 1991  (Table 1-200, September 1990).
                                      1-12

-------
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                                       1-13

-------
      C.    Companies and Plants by Printing Process,

           The number  of plants  by  press type  is  summarized  in
 Figure 5.  Detailed data on the number of plants by  major printing
 process  is presented in Table  5.  It should be noted that data  for
 the various processes  and subprocesses presented in  this table  are
 from   various years, primarily 1988 through 1991. The data on  the
 total number  of  plants with  letterpress  presses, however,  is from
 1982.   While recent  data was available on  the  total number  of
 plants with gravure and screen presses, no breakdown of plant size
 was available'for these processes.

      Table 5  shows that of a total of  59,636  plants with printing
 presses, 54,472, or 91.3 percent,  have offset lithographic presses.
 Of  the plants with lithographic presses, about  92 percent have
 sheetfed presses and 11 percent  have webfed  (adds to  greater than
 100 percent because some plants have both types of presses).  Only
 1,587  plants  in the U.S. have  flexographic presses  (A.F. Lewis
 1991).   Based  on  a  member survey,  the  Gravure Association   of
 America reported that  there were 1,090 plants with gravure presses
 in  1989  (GAA  1989).  According to A.F. Lewis,  350 to  400 of these
 plants were printing publications while  the remaining plants were
 performing printing incidental to the production of  packaging or a
 wide  range, of products  such as  wall  coverings (Lewis 1992) .,   It
 should be  noted that both flexographic and gravure presses  tend be
 found in medium  to large size  plants  (A.F. Lewis 1991; GAA 1989).

      In.1982, the  latest year for.which data  are available, 20,786
 plants had letterpress presses.  More recent  data was  available on
 the number of plants with sheetfed letterpress presses; in 1988,
 such presses  were  in 18,961 plants.  Data  on  the number  of plants
 with  rotary  letterpress presses  was not available.   Industry
 sources believe that the number of plants with letterpress presses
 is  declining  (Purcell).

     According  to the  Screen  Printing International Association
 (SPAI) there  are more  than  40,000 plants in the U'. S. with screen
presses of which 19,000 are  involved in textile printing  (Kinter
 1993)  .   This  estimate  does  not  include an  unknown but possibly
 substantial number of plants that use screen presses to print cans
 and containers  as well as  electronics plants  that  use  screen
printing in the production of  electronic circuitry.
                                           • • •    ''   •   '  '
     Additional  information  on the number of plants operated and
types of presses used by the top 101 North American commercial and
publication printers is provided in Appendix B.  Appendix B shows
that the  total number of lithographic press' units  used by these
companies far  out number all other types of press units
                               1-14

-------
               NUMBER OF PLANTS BY PRESS TYPE
                             LATE 1980s
As many as 100,000 plants with presses

•     Lithographic presses - over 54,000 plants
            92 percent with sheetfed presses
            11 percent with webfed presses

•     Letterpresses - at least 19,000 plants

•     Rexographic presses -1,600 plants

•     Gravure presses -1,100 plants

•     Screen presses - over 40,000 plants
            Figure 5.  Number  of Plants by Press Type
                                  1-15

-------
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1-16

-------
combined.  Appendix C lists  the  top  100  U.S.  screen printers and
shows their major product lines.   The majority of these companies
specialize in printing garments and decals (Kinter 1992, 1993) .  It
is unclear how many of the plants  with screen printers are captured
in A.F.  Lewis', estimate  of the  total number  of plants  in the
industry.
     D.
Size of Companies and Plants
          Typically, a printing plant is small.  Approximately 46
percent of the total operating plants  shown in Tables 3 and 4 have
less than five employees,, 24.5 percent have between five and nine
employees, and 14.1 percent have between 10 and nineteen employees.
In  total,  nearly  85  percent  of  all  plants  in the  printing,
publishing  and allied industries  have  fewer than 20  employees.
Approximately  12  percent employ between 20 and  99 people.   Less
than .three percent of  all  operating  plants  have  100 or  more
employees  (A.F.  Lewis).   Information on printing industry plant
size is summarized  in Figure 6.

     According  to U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census  data,  there  is  an
average ratio.of only 1.1 plants to every company in the industry.
The low ratio of plants  to companies means that the vast majority
of companies in the .printing, publishing and allied industries will
also have fewer than twenty employees.

     As noted  above,  the majority  of  plants  and companies in the
printing  industry  are   small.  .  This  is  especially  true  in
lithographic  printing  where  about   85  percent  of  plants  with
lithographic presses employ fewer  than 20 people  and roughly half
employ less than five.  Similarly,  plants with letterpress tend to
be small.   In 1982, over 83 percent  of plants  with  this type of
press had fewer than 20  employees  and almost 46 percent had fewer
than five (A.F.  Lewis  1991).   The  majority of plants with screen
presses also have  fewer  than 20  employees (Kinter. 1993).

     Plants with flexographic and gravure presses tend, however, to
be larger than plants using  other types of presses.   .Almost 55
percent  of plants with flexographic  presses  have  20  or  more
employees compared to less than 16 percent in the printing industry
as a whole.   No  breakdown  of  the  size  of plants  with gravure
presses was available, but industry  sources  report  that gravure
presses are typically found at medium  to large printers  (GAA 1989) .
Information was available, however, for gravure commercial printing
 (SIC 2754), a major sector of the  gravure industry.   In 1987, 27
percent of  the plants in this sector had 20 or more employees  (BOG
1990b) .
                               1-17

-------
                         PLANT SIZE
80 to 85 percent of all operating plants have fewer than 20 Employees:
      Less than five employees
      5 to 9 employees
      10 to 19 employees
      20 to 99 employees
      100 or more employees
46%
25%
14%
12%
 3%
Typically, plants with lithographic, letter, and screen presses are small:

      85 percent of plants with lithographic presses employ fewer than 20 people
      Over 83 percent of plants with letterpresses employ fewer than 20 people
      A majority of plants with screen presses employ fewer than 20 people

Generally, plants with f lexographic and gravure presses are larger than plants with
other types of presses:

      Almost 55 percent of plants with flexographic presses have 20 or more
      employees
      27 percent of the plants in the commercial printing sector of
      the gravure industry have 20 or more employees
             Figure  6.   Printing Plant Size
                             1-18

-------
III. VALUE OF SHIPMENTS, INTERNATIONAL TRADE. AND INDUSTRY OUTLOOK

     The Bureau  of  the Census estimates that in  1987,  the total
value pf shipments  for the printing  and publishing industry was
over $136 billion and by 1991 was almost $157 billion.  However, in
constant dollars, 1991  sales  were  over  2.0 percent lower than in
1987.  The  total value of shipments  for 1993 was  expected to be
over $176 billion which in constant dollars represents a return to
1987 levels.  These estimates exclude perhaps $90 to $100 billion
worth of printed goods produced'by in-plant and quick printers as
well as by packaging manufacturers. In  1990, U.S. exports related
to  the  printing  and publishing industries  outpaced  imports by
almost two to one.  Canada was our  largest trading partner in this.
area followed closely by the European Community.  Based on sales,
the printing  industry  is  expected  to grow by 3.8  to 5.3 percent-
annually between 1990  and 2000'.   Areas  of particularly strong
growth are expected to be:  direct mail,  inserts  and coupons, other
print  advertising  and free  circulation newspapers, . and  quick
printers.                                                     '   ,


     A.,   Value of Shipments

          Table 6 presents information on the value of shipments by
industry  category  for  the  printing,   publishing,  and  allied
industries during the period 1987 through 1992.   Unless otherwise
noted, value of shipments for all years  are given in,constant 1987
dollars.   In  1987,. value of  shipments  for the  industry totalled
$136.2 billion.   By  1991,  the total value  of shipments  of the
printing and publishing industry was  estimated  to be almost $157
billion in current dollars.  However,  in constant 1987 dollars the
1991 value of  shipments  totalled only about $133  billion, a decline
of over 2.0 percent from 1987.  The estimates of  the total value of
shipments  excludes,  however,  in-plant,   quick,  and  packaging
printing which,  according  to  Bruno, produced  roughly'$90 to $100
billion worth of printed goods in 1989  (Bruno 1990).  Printing is
also an important incidental activity in the electronics industry
where screen and,  to  a much lesser degree,  lithographic printing
processes are  used in the production of all  types of electronic
circuitry  (Kinter 1992).  No estimate of the value of printing.in
the 'electronics  industry was found.

     Firms  in  two industry  segments,  commercial  printing and
newspapers,  accounted  for  56.9  percent  of the  total  value of
industry  shipments  in  1991  (20  percent   and  36.9  percent,
respectively).   Other industry segments covering firms involved
primarily in printing  (i.e., periodicals,  books, business forms,
and greeting cards)  accounted for an additional 28.9 percent of the
value of shipments  (USIO 1992).
                               1-19

-------
                                                                      I  III
     The remaining 14.2 percent of the total value of shipments is
accounted  for by firms  .engaged in publishing,  bookbinding,  and
printing trade services,  that may or may not actually be engaged in
printing.   Firms involved  in book publishing  and miscellaneous
publishing  accounted  for  8.2   percent  of  the  total  value' of.
shipments.  Firms specializing in the  production of blankbooks and
binders and in bookbinding  accounted for 2.7  percent.   Lastly,
firms providing printing trade  services  such  as platemaking and
typesetting accounted  for the remaining 3.3  percent of the total
(USIO  1992).    The  break down  of  printing industry  segments by
market share  is summarized in Figure  8.

     The total value of shipments for the printing, publishing, and
allied  trade  industries  is  expected to increase  by about  2.5
percent  to  $136.5  billion  (constant  1987  dollars)  in  1992.
However, during the  five year period  1987 thrdugh 1991, the total
value of  the shipments for  the  printing and publishing industry
declined at an annual average rate of  almost 0.6 percent.  Decline
in value of shipments  during the five year period was greater for
manifold business forms,  newspapers,  and blankbooks and binders.
The value of  shipments for  these three industries declined at an
average annual rate of 5.8, 4.4,  and 3.6 percent,  respectively.
Three additional industry categories experienced a smaller overall
decline during the period: bookbinding, miscellaneous publishing,
and periodicals  (USIO  1992).

     Only three industry categories showed moderately strong growth
in value of shipments (in constant 1987 dollars)  during the period.
Platemaking services grew at  an average annual rate of 3.1 percent,
book printing at  2.6 percent,  and  commercial printing at  2.4
percent (USIO  1992).
                               1-20

-------
                MARKET SHARES FOR PRINTING
             INDUSTRY SEGMENTS, 1987 AND 1991
         (BASED ON ANNUAL TOTAL VALUE OF SHIPMENTS)
NEWSPAPERS
PERIODICALS
BOOK PUBLISHING
BOOK PRINTING
MISCELLANEOUS PUBLISHING
COMMERCIAL PRINTING;
MANIFOLD BUSINESS FORMS
GREETING CARDS
-BLANKBOOKS & BINDERS
BOOKBINDING
TYPESETTING
PLATEMAKING SERVICES
                    TOTAL
1987
23.4%
12.7
2.4
9.3
5.7
32.9
5.4
2.1
2.1
0.9
1.3
1.7
100.0
1991
20.0%
12.6
2.7
9.5
5.5
36.9
4.4
2.4
1.9
0.8
1.3
2.0
100.0
   Figure 7.  ' Market Shares for Printing Industry Segments
                             1-21

-------
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Source: USIO 1992.
1-22

-------
     -Table 7 provides  additional  information' on recent trends in
four major industry categories (i.e. ,  newspapers, periodicals, book
printing, commercial printing)  for the  period 1987 through 1992.
In' addition  to value  of  shipments for each  category/  the table
provides  information  on  total  employment,  number  of  production
workers and  their  average hourly earnings,  capital expenditures,
and trade data  (USIO 1992).
     B.
International Trade
          Table 8 provides information on U.S. imports and exports
related to the printing  and publishing industries.   In 1990, the
latest year for which information was  available, the value of U.S.
exports outpaced  imports by almost two to one  ($3.1  billion in
exports compared to $1.9 in imports)  (USIO 1992).
     As might  be expected,  Canada is  the  single largest trading
partner of the U.S.  for goods and services produced by the printing
and publishing industry.   In 1990, Canada  accounted  for over 27
percent of exports and 29 percent of imports.  The countries of the
European Community account for a slightly larger  percentage of our
total trade in this area than Canada -  22.8  percent of exports and
40.3 percent of  imports.  In 1990, the only region with which the
U,S. had a trade deficit in the area of printing and publishing was
East Asia excluding Japan (USIO 1992).


     C.   Outlook for the Maior Printing Markets

          Table  9 presents a forecast of industry trends for. the
period 1990 through 2000.  It should be noted that the table is not
directly comparable to  Table 5 above.   Table 9  uses  a different
breakdown  of  industry  categories  than Table  6  does;   it  also
excludes the category of  newspapers.   On the other hand, Table 9
includes at  least one industry category not  covered  in Table 6,
quick printers.

     Table  9   shows  that  growth in the industry is  expected to
average between 3.8 and  5.3 percent  annually,  a higher rate of
growth than  experienced in  recent years.   Areas of particularly
strong growth  are expected  to be:  other advertising (i.e., print
advertising other than  direct mail and coupons  and inserts) and
free circulation papers  (eight to nine percent  annually); quick
printing  (five, to  eight  percent);  and direct mail  (five to six
percent)  (SRI  1990).
                               1-23

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                                               1-26

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           Table 9.  U.S. Printing Industry Forecast 1990 to 2000
     Industry Segment

     Magazines and Other
       Periodicals
     Catalogs and Directories
     Direct Mail
     Labels and Wraps
     Inserts and Coupons
     Other Advertising arid Free
       Circulation Papers
     Annual Reports and Related
       Products
     Business Forms
     Business Communications
     Manuals and Technical
       Documentation
     Quick Printing
     Books
     Printing Trade Services

          Industry
                                                    Forecast
                                                 Annual Percent
                                               Growth 1990 - 2000*
  2
  3
  5
  0
  3
3
4
6
2
4
  8-9
  4
  1
  2

 -2
  5
  1
  3
5
2
3

0
8
2
4
3.8  - 5.3
      *  Based on constant 1988 dollars.

      Source:  SRI 1990.
     A  number  of major more  traditional  areas  of printing  are
expected to grow at well below  the industry average  during  the
decade.   Book printing  and business form printing are expected to
experience growth of only  one  to two  percent annually while  the
printing of magazines and other periodicals is expected to increase
by two  to three percent per year (SRI 1990).


           1.    Magazine and Periodical Publishing

                Growth in the magazine and other periodicals market
is expected to average  two  to  three percent  annually through  the
end  of  the decade.   The  outlook  in the market is  for a greater
number   of  titles,   shorter press  runs  per  title,  and  greater
emphasis on local and  regional editions of national magazines as
well as the personalization of advertising.   Offset printing will
continue to dominate this market (SRI  1990).


           2.    Catalogs and Directories

                During   the  1990s,   growth  in  the  catalogs  and
directories' market  is expected to average  three to four percent
                                 1-27

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annually.   Rising distribution costs  and. competition from other
^advertising media will result in the consolidation of Catalog firms
as  they seek  lower  production costs  and  alternative methods of
product delivery  (SRI  1990) .      '

     The strongest growth in the market during the decade will be
for business-to-business catalogs  (e.g., office supply catalogs).
Overall there  should continue to  be moderate growth in the mail-
order  catalog  segment  of   the  market  although  the number of
specialty  catalogs  published will  decline.    Due to increased
postage  costs,  catalogs distributed  through the  mail  will be
smaller and use lighter papers.   (SRI  1990).

     Directory printing  is  expected to increase over  the next few
years.  Growth will be  fueled primarily by the  demand for local
directories and abridged versions  of large directories  . Demand for
large  business directories will  grow  but  at a  slower rate than
before  (SRI 1990) .


          3.   Direct  Mail

               Direct  mail  is expected to be one of  the fastest
growing areas  in the printing industry during the  1990s.   It is
anticipated that  growth  in  the industry will average  five to six
per cent annually.   Major  changes will occur in the  direct mail
printing business segment  by the year 2000.  The  industry will
consolidate through  acquisitions  and specialization.   The direct
mail printer will  see  the number of jobs increase.   However,
production runs will be  smaller as mailing lists  are  continuously
refined to  target select  groups.  Growth in telecommunications
technologies will permit a greater level of direct contact between
the customer and the printer, thus allowing for more .revisions and
faster  turnaround  of direct mail materials.    In  response to
customer demand for more frequent  revisions and faster turnaround,
the industry- will make  increasing use of  in-line  printing  (SRI
1990) .
4 .
               Labels and Wraps
               The labels and wraps segment of the printing market
is  expected to  experience  an average  annual rate of  growth of
between  zero and two percent during the 1990s, one of the lowest
rates  in the  industry.   This weak growth will result  from the
decline  in the growth of the number of packaged goods .  However, a
greater  variety  of package  sizes will result in more but shorter
production runs.  To meet customers needs,  label and wrap printers
will have to provide greater customization,  higher quality images,
and the  ability  to work with more  complex materials.
                               1-28

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          5.   Advertising Inserts, and Coupons

               The  advertising inserts  and  coupons  segment  is
expected to grow between three and four percent annually during the
1990s, a rate somewhat lower than that anticipated for the printing
industry as a whole.  Printers  specializing in advertising inserts
and coupons  may lose market  share  to daily newspapers who  are
expected to  compete for this  type  of business in order  to keep
their  large  flexographic  presses  operating  at  near  capacity.
Competition  can also be expected from operators  of  non-heatset
offset presses, another  area where overcapacity exists (SRI 1990}.


          6.   Other Advertising and Free Circulation Papers

               During the 1990s this market segment is expected to
be the industry growth leader with an expected annual growth rate
of eight to  nine percent.   "Other advertising"  refers to printed
advertising  other  than direct  mail  and coupons  and  inserts.
Examples  include  booklets,  brochures,   and  circulars  directly
distributed to consumers.   Printers  of other advertising materials
will be influenced by the need  for smaller, specialized production
runs  as  well as by  the need  for a  greater variety  of  products,
especially materials tailored  to  sell to a specialized audience.
Advertisers  will  insist  on   the  increased  use  of  color  and
distinguishing features in their advertising.  Quick printers will
put  economic pressures  on larger  printers  as  they attempt  to
capture a larger portion of this market for themselves (SRI 1990).

     Free circulation papers, currently produced primarily by small'
local printers-, are expected to experience moderate growth into the
late  1990s.    However,  during  the  decade  this  market  will
increasingly  attract the interest  of large printers, and,  as  a
result,  small  local  companies  will  see their share of the market
decline.  Growth and increasing competition in the free circulation
paper market will require printers to use more color and to improve
the overall quality of their product.  Furthermore, printers will
make  increasing use of flexographic  presses  instead  of  the non-
heatset  offset  presses  that now dominate printing in this market
(SRI  1990).
          7.   Annual Reports

               During  the  1990s,  growth  in the  annual reports
market  is  expected to  average four  to five  percent  annually.
Because  corporate clients  are extremely conscious  of the image
portrayed by their annual  reports,  this segment of the_printing
industry  continually pushes the industry as  a whole  to higher and
higher  standards in color  production.   Most commercial printers
avoid  this highly specialized,  demanding area   of  business.
Presently,  there are only about 30 large printing firms involved  in

                               1-29

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 producing annual reports and the number of companies in this market
 segment is not expected to show any marked change over the next ten
 years (SRI 1990).


           8.    Business  Forms

                At  one  to  two  percent  annually,  growth  in  the
 business form printing market  will be well  below growth  in  the
 printing industry as a whole during .the nineties.  A growing number
 of  small  and medium-sized printers  are expected  to enter  this
 market where  they will be competitive with larger firms when small
 to medium volume runs  are  required.  However,  the  growing  ability
 of  personal  computers  equipped with  laser  printers to generate
 forms on demand could potentially result in loss of market share by
 both large and  small printers (SRI 1990).


           9.    Business Communication

                During   the   1990s,   growth   in   the  business
 communications   printing   market   (e.g.,  preprinted  letterhead,
 envelopes  and memo  forms)  is  expected to average  two to  three
 percent annually.   Growth  in demand for business communications
 products  will   decline  due  to:    the growing  versatility  of
 telecommunications technology (E-mail, voice mail, etc.) reducing
 the . need  for printed business  communications materials; high
 quality computer  driven   electrostatic  and   ink-jet  printers,
 facsimile  machines,   and  color copiers  allowing businesses  to
produce much of  this  material  in-house;   and  cost  conscious
businesses making greater  use of generic printed products  such as
memo pads  and phone message pads  (SRI  1990).

                           • '  •''','.  •   ',  V !  ': '• v,!V''v''t : ' ' '•'" •'•'K.V''' .';! '
           10.  Manuals and Technical Documentation

               This  is the only printing market  sector that'  may'
actually experience negative  growth during the  1990s.  During  the
decade  the market  for  manuals and  technical  documentation  is
expected to decline by as much as two percent annually or, at best,
to remain  flat.   The largest client  of this  market  has been  the
U.S. government, particularly the  Department of Defense.   The  two
major factors affecting this market are: 1) reduction in the U.S.
defense  budget  and  2)  the  development  of  the DOD Computer Aided
Logistics  System  (CALS)  which  will  provide  on-line  access  to
technical  documentation,  engineering  drawings, parts lists,  and
other pertinent data.  With fewer new defense systems procurements,
the demand for technical manuals is declining  and will continue to
decline  unless  the  present  world  political  situation   changes
dramatically  (SRI 1990).
                               1-30

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          11.  Convenience or "Quick" Printing

               Convenience or quick printing will be  one  of the
major  growth areas of  the printing  industry during, the  1990s..
Growth  in  the market ,is  expected  to  be. between five  and eight
percent annually.  Quick printers are distinguished not so much by
a particular printing technology as by a commitment  to very fast
job turnaround.  Traditionally,  quick printers relied primarily on
xerographic  reproduction;  however,  many  now  employ  presses,
especially small sheetfed lithographic presses,  or act as brokers
for full-service printers  (SRI 1990).                     ,

     Quick printers will capture a growing share of business that
previously would have gone to  small-  and medium-size commercial
printers.   Traditional printers  have  long 'been able to provide
higher quality products than the average quick printer.  However,
new equipment that allows" the delivery of higher quality products
coupled  with a  growing demand for rapid turn-around  by cost-
conscious  clients has  increased the  market for quick printing
services.   Many quick printers  also offer consultation, design,
composition, and desk-top publishing services.  They use personal
computers, -electronic mail, and  facsimile to communicate directly
with their  customers.   The market  share  for quick  printers will
continue  to grow well into  the  late  1990s  as additional new
technologies come on line.  These new systems will result in  lower
production  costs  and  will  help  quick  printers  remain  very
competitive with traditional printers,  particularly in the low-end
color printing market  (SRI 1990).

     Appendix  D lists the top  100  North American quick printing
operations for 1990.


          12.  Books

               Growth in the book printing market is  expected Jto be
very slow in the 1990s,  averaging only one to two percent  annually.
Publishers  will pressure printers  to  reduce production costs in
order  to keep  the retail  price  of books as low as possible.  _The
number of book printers has declined by more than  40 percent  since
1977;  even  greater consolidation in the industry will occur over
the  next few  years as more  and more medium  to  large capacity
printers  are  squeezed  out  of  the  market.     This _ will  open
opportunities  for smaller book  printers to enter the  industry in
support of small, specialized publishers who have a need for  short
runs.  However, improvements in technology will  produce less  waste
and  reduce labor  requirements,  thus making  short  run jobs more
attractive  to  large printers  (SRI 1990).
                               1-31

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       PART TWO:




PRINTING PROCESS PROFILE

-------

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 I.
PRINTING PROCESSES OVERVIEW1
      This section presents a preliminary identification of the use
 clusters in the printing industry.  'These use clusters  define sets
 of  competing chemicals,  processes,  and  technologies  used in the
 industry and identify the environmental and health considerations
 associated with the members of  each set.  The use cluster approach
 allows  risk  evaluations to be performed on  all members  of the
 cluster  and  facilitates   the development   of  risk  reduction
 strategies by identifying viable substitute chemicals, processes,
 and technologies.

      The printing industry is a very diversified and sophisticated
 industry owing to the multiplicity of printing processes utilized.
 These  processes   include  lithography,  gravure,   flexography,
 letterpress,  and  screen printing,  as  well as  a number  of more
 recently developed plateless  printing  processes.   According to
 Michael Bruno's  Status  of Printing,  lithography,  gravure,  and
 flexography are the dominant processes,  accounting for more than 83
 percent of total  U.S. printing  industry output.  Lithography alone
 accounts  for  nearly 50 percent  of  all domestic  output.    The
 importance of letterpress,, until the 1940s the  dominant printing
 process,   is  declining  very rapidly  and  is being replaced  by
 lithography and  flexography.   The  various  plateless  printing
 processes are gradually becoming  a major  force in the industry
 because of their  relative ease  of  use and the growing application
 of computer controlled printing operations.  In 1991, the plateless
 processes accounted for only about three  percent of  total U.S.
 printing industry output.  However,  these processes are  forecast to
 have  a  21 percent market share  by  2025   (Bruno  1990,  1991).
 Industry trends are summarized  in  Figure 8.

      Some of the printing processes have several major subprpcesses
 based primarily  on the types  of  substrate or products printed.
 Lithography is divided  into three  subprocesses:   sheetfed offset,
 heatset web offset, and non-heatset web offset.   Gravure includes
 publication gravure,  packaging  gravure,  and  product  gravure.
 Flexography consists  of  publication flexography  and packaging
.flexography.    The  various  plateless  printing  processes,  all
 comparatively new technologies, include:  electronic printing, ink
    1  Except where otherwise noted,  the description of prepress,  press,  and
postpress operations is a synthesis of information from  the following sources:
Adams 1988; Field 1980; Kirk-Othmer 1982; McGraw-Hill 1987; SRI 1990.  Please see
the Bibliography for full citations.

                                2-1

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   Trends In  Printing Technologies

                     1991-2025
   Market Share
60%
50% -
40% -
30%
20% -
10% -
   Lithography  Gravure Flexography Letterpress  Screen   Plateless



                      Process
                        " '      i    i
              ,L          •  t: •  '   '
                     • '•  ' :: '•<'     i



                ••1991   £232025
       Figure 8.  Trends in Printing Technology

            (Source:  Bruno 1990,  1991)
                       2-2

-------
jet printing, magnetography, ion deposition printing, direct charge
deposition printing,  and the  Mead Cycolor Photocapsule  process
(Bruno 1991).

     Each of the printing processes can be divided into three major
steps:   prepress,  press,  and postpress.   Prepress  operations
encompass that series of steps  during which the idea for a printed
image is converted into an image carrier  such as. a printing plate,
cylinder or. screen.   Prepress  operations include,composition and
typesetting,  graphic  arts photography, image assembly,  and image
carrier preparation.  Press refers to actual printing operations.
Postpress primarily involves  the assembly of printed materials and
consists of binding and finishing  operations.  Figure 9 presents a
flow chart of the typical steps in the printing process.

     Within  each  process,   a  variety  of  chemicals  are  used.
Prepress operations typically involve photoprocessing chemicals and
solutions.   Inks and cleaning solvents   are the major types  of
chemicals used during press operations.  Postpress operations can
use large amounts of adhesives, especially where the production of
books and directories is involved.  Of  all the chemicals used in a
typical printing plant, inks  and organic  cleaning solvents are the
categories ordered and used in the largest quantities.  Many of the
chemicals used  in  the printing industry  are potential hazards to
human health and the environment.  Occupational  exposure to many of
these chemicals are  currently  regulated  by  the U.S.  Occupational
Safety and Health Administration  (GATF 1992b).

     Extremely  limited information was  found on  the volume  of
chemicals, especially specific-chemicals,  used in  the  printing
industry.   As  noted  above,  inks  and  cleaners are  the  chemical
products used in the  largest quantities by the printing industry.
No data on the quantity of cleaners used in the industry was found,
however, information  on volumes of ink and  ink raw materials was
available.

     In  1991,  the U.S. market for printing ink was  1.9  billion
pounds.  The market is  expected to grow at an average annual rate
of 2.2 percent  through  1996 when  the domestic market for printing
is  expected  to total  almost  2.2 billion  pounds.    Additional
information on the 1991 and estimated  1996 U.S. market for ink by
printing process is presented in  Table 10.                 .

     Table 11   shows  the estimated amount  of  solvents,  resins>
pigments,  and  additives consumed in   the domestic  production of
printing inks.

     With  the  exception of  image  carrier  preparation,  prepress
operations .are similar for  the  five  major printing processes.
Therefore, prepress  operations,   including a general overview of
image carrier preparation, are discussed below in Section II.  No
discussion of prepress  activities is included for the plateless

                               2-3

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                     DESIGN
MANUSCRIPT
PREPARATION
    ART
PREPARATION
TYPOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAPHY
COMPOSITION
GRAPHIC ARTS
PHOTOGRAPHY
                                           J
                    STRIPPING
                     & FILM
                   COMPOSITION
                  IMAGE CARRIER
                   PREPARATION
                  (PLATE/CYLINDER/
                     SCREEN)
-Prepress
                    PRINTING'
                    -Press
                     BINDING
                   FULFILIiMENT
                                                          -Postpress
      Figure 9.   Flow Chart of a Typical Printing Process
                     (Source:  Field  1980).
                              2-4

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Table 10.  U.s; Market for Printing Inks (millions of pounds)
Printing
Process
Lithographic
Gravure
Flexographic
Letterpress
Other
Total
1991
836
477
363
154
110
1,940
1996
946
. 528 '
441
101
141
2,156*
Average Annual
Growth Rate
1991 - 1996
( Percent )
2.5
2.0
4.0
-8.0
5.0
2.2
* Column does not add .due to rounding
Source:  SRI 1993
                                2-5

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Table 11.  Estimated Domestic  Consumption of  Raw Materials
for Printing  Inks,  1991
Raw Material
Hydrocarbon and Oxygenated
Solvents
Resins
Rosin Esters & Adducts
Metallized Rosin
Hydrocarbon Resins
Alkyds
Acrylics
Nitrocellulose
Polyamides
Miscellaneous2
Resin Subtotal
Oils
Pigments
Additives
Total
Millions of
Pounds
6601
132
106
99
33
55
2
15
44
486
363
330
66
1,905
Percent of
Total
35
7
6
5
2
3
0.1
1
2
26*
19
17
3
100
*  Subtotal does  not add due to  rounding

1  Printers use an additional 495 to 660 million pounds of solvents
at  press  side  to  dilute  inks  supplied  by  the manufacturer  in
concentrated form.
               -:1   '     . '   ••  *   '! •   '''.      ' : ,}'. '•'''•••• '••:.#:'.'; !'!••'•• ', •',"'.' 'f,'1-'';.-'!':'  ',' •'•*','  ' *', * \
2    Includes  polyurethanes,  cyclized rubber,  shellac,  casein,
melamines, and others
                                '  '   ,   .'•'.•:' ":k ' '• '." "it": •'?''• ;  ''•:.. >. •• :! ," •'• .• • <,i
Source:   SRI 1993.
                                  2-6
                                             i* '•;!,' !'•,!!:"i '',: /ifiM,',„:,.air1

-------
processes because in -these processes almost all preparatory steps
are  accomplished  using  computers.    Section_  III  presents  a
description of image carrier preparation and printing for each of
the  five  major printing processes.   This section  also includes
brief  discussions  of a  number of plateless  printing processes.
Because the use of chemicals is most extensive_ during image carrier
preparation and printing operations,  the chemicals used throughout
the  entire  printing process  (i.e.,  pre- through postpress)  are
discussed in this section.   Postpress operations,  fairly similar
for all printing processes, are described in Section IV.  Section
V discusses technological trends in the printing industry.
                                2-7

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II.  PREPRESS OPERATIONS

     A.   Introduction

          Prepress consists of those operations required to convert
the original  idea for a  printed image into a  printing plate or
other  image  carrier.    Prepress steps  include  composition and
typesetting,  graphic arts photography,  image assembly, and  image
carrier  preparation.    With  the  exception  of  image  carrier
preparation,  the  prepress process is similar  for the five major
printing processes.   Plateless  process.do most  of  the prepress
steps using a computer.
     B.   Typesetting and Composition

          During  composition,  text, photographs  and artwork are
assembled to produce a "rough layout" of the desired printed image.
The rough layout is a detailed guide used in the preparation of the
paste-up or  camera ready copy  from which an image carrier can be
produced.

     Traditionally,  rough layouts and pasteups were composed by
hand using:  drafting boards;  light tables;  various paste-up tools
such as technical  pens,  rulers, and cutting tools; and adhesives.
The text used in the paste-up was typeset and printed mechanically.

     However, composition has changed dramatically with the advent
of computers.   Both type and artwork can be generated and edited
using  computers.   Computer systems  can  be  equipped with both
optical character  recognition and photographic  image scanners and
digitizers so that pretyped material and photographic images can
easily be incorporated into the document being composed.  With the
systems now becoming available,  the computer can directly  drive the
typesetting  and image carrier preparation processes once the page
or entire document is laid out  and  ready for printing.

     Typesetting  operations  assemble the' type  characters into
pages.   There  are a number of methods  of typesetting  including
manual assembly of pieces of metal type,  mechanical assembly of
lines of type, and phototypesetting.  Until  the 1950s,  the majority
of  typesetting was performed  using  the Linotype machine which
produces  a  "slug"  or line of  type from molten  metal.   Similar
machines   produced  single    characters   of    type.      Today
phototypesetting devices have almost completely replaced manual and
mechanical methods of typesetting.
                              •.•"..••;. .,.;•• ).•.; •<5:'1'.',i;i;"i;	'':', .  : 1';;.••;'";. •/ '••'>" \ •; "v;.
     Phototypesetting devices,  first demonstrated  in  the late
nineteenth  century,  were introduced  commercially  in  the_ early
1950s.  They rapidly overtook the Linotype and similar machines  in
importance.   In phototypesetting,  individual type characters  or
symbols  are exposed  onto  photographic film or paper.   In early

                             •   2-8

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mechanical photo-typesetting units,  entire fonts of characters were
stored as negatives on film.  In the later generations of computer-
driven phototypesetters,  the image, is  generated electronically,
and, in the latest generation of units,  a laser is used to project
the image onto the photographic film  or paper.   Phototypesetting
produces high contrast,  high resolution images ideal for printing
purposes.   Other  computer  driven  output  devices,  which include
strike-on,  line,  ink-jet, and  laser  printers,  do  not  currently
produce  images  of sufficient  quality for  use in  large-scale
commercial printing purposes  though they are used extensively in
in-plant printing  applications.


     C.   Copy Assembly and Process Photography

          Copy assembly consists  of  bringing all  original work
(text,  pictures,   and   illustrations)  together  and  preparing
photographic images. * The photographic  images are in the form of
either positive or negative films and  are used for photomechanical
image carrier preparation.  Copy must be set up correctly  to ensure
the  finished image  carrier will  produce  a  high  quality print.
Assembled copy that is ready for the photographic  process  is called
a flat.   When copy of various  sizes  and shapes  is assembled for
transfer to film the process is called image assembly or stripping.

     The printing industry depends heavily  on the  use  of highly
specialized  photographic  equipment,  methods,  and materials to
produce hi-gh quality printed material.  Process photography refers
to the photographic techniques used in graphic arts.  Prior  to the
'invention of electronic  page making systems, virtually all printing
processes   employed photomechanical   methods  of  making   image
carriers.

     Two important types of photography used in the preparation of
image carriers are line  and halftone photography.   Neither of these
processes  can  be used  to print a  true  continuous-tone photograph
(i.e., a  photograph with intermediate or graduated tones)  though
halftone   can -achieve  the   illusion  of   continuous   tones.
Letterpress, lithography, screen printing and some gravure methods
involve both these, types  of photography.

     Line  photography is used to produce high contrast  images on
film.   Image  areas on  the film  are solid  black; • little  or no
illusion  of intermediate tones  can be achieved with this method.

     As noted above, by using halftone photography the illusion of
intermediate tones can  be achieved for letterpress, lithography,
lateral dot gravure, and screen printing.  In halftone photography,
continuous-tone  images  are broken  down  into high-contrast dots of
equal  density  but varying sizes and shapes.   (Depending  upon the
                                2-9

-------
 type and quality'Of printing being done, the density of dots varies
 from 24 to 120 per centimeter).   If,  forexample, very small  dots
 are used in one area of aij image,  that  area appears  to be  lighter
 than those areas of  the  image where  larger  dots are used.   This
 occurs  because more  of  the lighter color substrate remains  visible
 in the  areas where the  very small  dots  are used.
      D.
Image Carrier Preparation
           Some form of image carrier is used in each of the  five
printing processes  that  now dominate  the industry.   The image
carrier,  often a plate, is used to transfer ink in the form of the
image to  the substrate.  The image carrier must pick up ink  only in
the  areas where ink  is  to be applied to  the  final image  on the
substrate,  It must also reject  ink in the areas of the. image where
it is not wanted.  Figures 10 and 11  describe the basic principles
of the image carriers used for  the major printing processes.

     Relief plates used in letterpress and flexographic printing
have raised areas  that pick ink up from the inking source.   Non-
printing areas are recessed below the level of the  inking  rollers
and therefore  are  hot coated with ink.
               iif  . •, •  ,      , |  ., ,,-! ,    ; :      |     ||

     The  reverse of a relief plate, the printing areas of a  gravure
image carrier  are  recessed below the level ofthe non-printing
areas.    The  depressions,  referred  to as  cell's,   pick  up small
amounts  of ink as  they pass through  an ink fountain.  The ink is
then passed to the substrate from the cells.   The  surface of the
plate is  constantly'scraped clean with a doctor blade so  that no
ink_is retained except in the cells.  Most gravure presses use a
cylindrical image carrier, although some sheet-fed gravure presses
and intaglio plate printing presses  use a flat plate.

     Planographic plates, used in offset lithography, 'have both the
•image and non-image areas on the  same-plane.   The  image and  non-
image  areas   of  the  plate   are   each  defined  by  differing
physicochemical  properties. ' The image  areas  are  treated to be
hydrophobia (water-repellant) and oleophilic (oil  receptive).  Ink
will adhere  to these  areas„ .  The non-image areas,  on  the other
hand, are treated  to be hydrophilic  (water loving), and will hot
accept ink.                          ,

     The  image carrier in  screen  printing consists of  a  porous
screen.    A stencil or mask  of an impermeable material ,is overlaid
on the screen  to create the non-image area.  The image is printed
by forcing ink through the stencil openings and  onto  the substrate.
The  stencil  openings  determine the  form  and  dimensions  of  the
imprint produced.
                               2-10

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                  PLATE TECHNOLOGIES
RELIEF PRINTING

      The image area is raised above the non-image area

      Examples include letterpress and flexography
                         • '                 .•/.-''
PLANOGRAPHIC PRINTING

      The image and non-image areas are on the same plain

      The image and non-image areas are defined by differing physicochemical
      properties

      Lithography is a planographic process

INTAGLIO PRINTING                                    .

      The image area is recessed and consists of etched or engraved cells of
      differing sizes and/or depths

      Gravure is an intaglio process

SCREEN PRINTING

      The image area consists of a porous screen defined by a stencil of a non-
      porous material.                          .
PLATELESS PROCESSES

      Electronic

      Magnetographic

      Ion-Deposition

      Mead Cycolor Photocapsule
Electrostatic

Thermal

Ink-Jet
        Figure 10.   Image Carrier Technologies
                            .2-11

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                   Relief (letterpress)
                    plate •
                                              -impression surface
                                              ' paper
                                               ink

                                              * raised printing surface
                   Intaglio (gravure)
                    m                  //.
                   plate-
                                               impression surface
                                               paper

                                               recessed ink cups
                   Planography (lithography)
                   plate ^ water-receptive surface  coating
                                               impression surface
                                               paper
                                               ink
                                               ink-receptive plate
                    1                     I
                   Stencil
                   (screen)
squeegee blade
ink
      -screen
      -paper
      - impression surface
Figure  11.    Image  Carriers  (Source:    Field  1980.   Reproduced
         by permission of Ayer  Company  Publishers,  Inc.)
                                      2-12

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     The  primary method of  image  carrier preparation  is  the '
photomechanical process where a printing image is produced from a
photographic  image.    Typically,  with  this  process,  a  light
sensitive coating is  applied to a plate  or other type  of  image
carrier.  The plate  is then  exposed to a negative or positive of a
photographic  image.    The  exposed plate  then _ undergoes  further
processing  steps.   The  individual photomechanical  image carrier
preparation  processes are  described in greater  detail below. •
There are  other methods of  image  carrier preparation:   manual,
mechanical, electrochemical, electronic,  and electrostatic.   Some
of  these  processes,   such   as   the  manual  and  the  mechanical
processes,  are of  little  or  no commercial  importance.   Other
processes,  such as  trie  electromechanical preparation  of gravure
cylinders, are discussed below where relevant.


          1.   Photomechanical Image Carrier Preparation

               Photomechaniccil  image carrier  preparation  begins
with a  plate, cylinder  or  screen that has  been treated with a
light-sensitive coating.   (The  types of  light-sensitive coatings
used are discussed in the following section.)   The coated plate is
exposed to light that has first  passed through  a transparent image
carrier such as a film positive  or negative ^  The exposed plate is
then processed  to produce a plate with  defined printing and non-
printing areas.   Typically, the exposed  areas on the plate are
resistant to  the developing solutions used to process the plate,
though in some cases the opposite is  true.  In  either case, during
processing the soluble areas of the coating are washed away while
the insoluble areas remain on the plate.              ,

  ~   At this point image carriers produced  from film negatives are
essentially finished.  The  insoluble  areas of coating remaining on
the plate  become the  ink  carrier during printing.   Letterpress
plates and lithographic  surface plates are produced this way.

     With image  carriers made  from  film positives,  the insoluble
coating serves as a protective barrier during a further processing
step called etching.  The coating on  this type  of image carrier is
often referred to as a "resist" because it resists the acid used to
etch the plate surface.  Image carriers produced by this method are
used in lithography,  gravure, and screen printing.


          2.   Light-sensitive  Coatings

                The  three most important light-sensitive coatings
used on image carriers are photopolymers, diazos, and bichromated
colloids.   Each of  these  coatings  are discussed  in more detail
below.     Silyer-halide  and  electrostatic   coatings  are  used
infrequently ."for  special  purpose  plates  used in  duplicating
equipment.

                             '  2-13

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                a.    Photopolymeric Coatings
                        ,'•'"' ''",'"',''«                         *
                     Today, most  image carriers are made using any
of a number  of  different  types of photopolymeric coatings.  These
coatings  are characterized by the type  of reaction they undergo
upon exposure to light:  photopolymerization, photocrosslinking,
photoarrangement, and photodegradation.  A well known example of a
photopolymer   coating    is   Kodak   Photo   Resist    (KPR),   a
photocrosslinking   polymer,  which   is  used  in  image  carrier
preparation  for all major printing  processes as well  as in the
preparation  of  printed  circuit boards.

     Depending  on  the type of image  carrier being produced,  the
hardened  photopolymer coating may remain oh the image carrier as
either   the   image  or   non-image   area  following  processing.
Photopolymer coatings are  characterized by wearability, temperature
and humidity stability, and long storage  life.  Some also exhibit
good solvent resistance.   For  example,  if baked prior  to ,use,
lithographic plates produced using photopolymer  coatings can be
used for  press  runs  in  excess of one million impressions.
               b.   Diazo Coatings
                               ,, ' '      ,   '"!, ii I1 . ' r ','' ''' li:!:,:!!,;, !"" '!;:,! •  „ '• Hi ,'  "  ,  : " -;, !l  ,. '' •
                    Diazo  coatings,   introduced in  the printing
industry  around  1950,  are   used  primarily   for  coating  both
presensitized  and  wipe-on  lithographic  surface  plates .    For
presensitized  plates,  the diazo coating  is applied  by a machine
called a whirler which spreads the coating on the rotating plate ,
With wipe-on plates the coating is applied by the platemaker with
a sponge  or a roller applicator instead  of by the usual whirler
method.  Diazo coatings are very thin and susceptible to abrasion
and wear during the printing run and generally  are used for short
press runs of 75,000 impressions or less.  However, pre-lacquered
plates,  plates  supplied  by  the  manufacturer with  a  lacquer
impregnated  in   the   plate  coating,   offer   superior  abrasion
resistance  and can be used  for  press runs in  excess of 100,000
impressions.   Most diazo plates have negative-process coatings,
though positive process coatings are  also usedl   Diazo coatings
are   used  to  presensitize   deep-etch  and   bi -metal  plates .
Additionally, diazo is used to sensitize some colloid coatings .

     The diazo resin most often used for plates is the condensation
product  of  4-diazodiphenylamine salt  with formaldehyde.   Diazo
oxides such as pyridol [l,2-a]benzimidazol-8-yl-3 (4H) -diazo-4 (3H) -
oxo-1-naphthalenesulfonate are also used  (Kirk-Othmer) .
                                 '       '                      ' ''
      ,            .       , .       ,                 .  ,   . ,
     Diazos are not  usually affected by temperature and relative
humidity  and  have a relatively  long storage life.   They can be
processed by  automatic plate processing machines  which speed up
production and result in much higher  quality plates than manual
methods.  Automatic processing equipment can perform plate coating

                               2-14  ....... ' ............. ' ..................................... ............ - ..... .....

-------
•and exposure  all in one continuous process.
used extensively in newspaper printing.
These machines are
               c.   Bichromated Colloid Coatings

                    Bichromated colloid coatings were widely used
until the early 1950s; limited use continues today.  They consist
of a light sensitive bichromate and a collodion.  The bichromate of
choice  is  ammonium bichromate,  with potassium bichromate used in
special processes  such as collotype.  A  collodion is an organic
material  that is capable of  forming  a strong continuous coating
when  applied  to   the  image  carrier.     Collodions  used  for
photoengraving are  shellac, glue, albumin, and polyvinyl alcohol.
Albumin, casein, alpha protein, polyvinyl alcohol,  and gum arable
are used  for lithography.   Gelatin is used  mostly for gravure,
screen  printing, and  collotype.    The colloid is formed when the
finely divided bichromate and the collodion are mixed.  Applied to
the  image carrier  and  exposed  to light,  the colloid  forms an
continuous, -insoluble  coating.   .     -    ,
                               2-15

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III. IMAGE CARRIER PREPARATION AND PRESS OPERATIONS

     A.   Lithography            .

          1.   Lithographic Platemakinq
               Lithography uses  a planographic plate,  a type of
plate  on which the  image  areas  are neither  raised nor indented
 (depressed) in relation to the non-image areas.  Instead the image
and non-image  areas, both on essentially the same  plane  of the
printing   plate,   are   defined   by   differing   physicochemical
properties.

     Lithography is  based  on  the principal that  oil and water do
not mix.   Lithographic plates  undergo chemical  treatment  that
render  the image  area of  the plate  oleophilic (oil-loving)  and,
therefore, ink-receptive and the non-image area hydrophilic  (water-
loving) .  During printing, ink is applied to the oleophilic image
area of  the plate.   Water  applied to the hydrophilic area of the
plate prevents ink from migrating into the non-image  area.  During
printing  operations  water  is  applied-to the plate by a dampening
system.   The water  is applied in the form of a fountain solution
which consists primarily of water with small quantities of chemical
additives  intended  to lower the  surface tension  of the water and
control pH.  Traditionally, isopropyl alcohol was used  to control
surface tension but in recent  years it has been largely replaced by
glycol ethers, especially 2-butoxy ethanol.  This substitution was
motivated  by  a variety of  factors,  including   concerns  about
isopropyl. alcohol's  possible  health' effects,  market pressures to
reduce VOC emmissions, and regulations requiring reductions in VOC
emmissions  (Buonicore; DeJidas).

     Surface,   deep  etch, and bi-metal plates, the are  three main
types  of  plates   used  in   lithographic  printing  today,   are
categorized according to how  the printing and non-printing areas
are formed.  The type of plate used by-the printer depends largely
on the length of the press run.  Surface plates, the  least durable
of the three  types  of'plates, are used for shortruns;  deep-etch
for runs requiring up to 400,000 impressions; and bi-metal plates
for runs requiring up to several million  impressions.
               a.   Surface Plates

                    Surface plates are made with an aluminum base
metal  treated with a  naturally  oil-receptive,  light-sensitive
coating.   During  processing,  the coating  is  exposed  to light
through  a photographic negative or positive,  thus  rendering the
image on the plate. The coating is then removed from the non-image
areas making them  water-receptive.   These plates are used mainly
for  short runs  due  to their  poor wear properties.   However,
                                             .'. T
                                                                   ffif	:	t:>'B>
                               2-16,

-------
applying  a  layer  of  lacquer to  the  image  area  substantially
increases the number of copies that can be printed.
               b.
Deep-etch Plates
                    Deep-etch plates also have  a water receptive
coating on a  base-metal  of aluminum.  Images are  created on the
plates by  creating an oxide  coating on the  plate in  the image
areas, then applying an image bearing coating that adheres to the
oxide  and  not  to  the base  metal.   The  image  becomes slightly
countersunk during the processing.  These plates are characterized
by their long runs, usually in excess of 100,000 impressions.  For
runs  of  greater than 400,000 these  plates  can be  copperized or
anodized.


     '          c.   Bi-Metal Plates

                    Bi-metal plates take advantage of the affinity
of some  metals for ink  and of others for  water.   For example,
copper and brass are ink receptive while metals such as chromium,
aluminum, and stainless steel have  an affinity to water.  Bi-metal
plates are made of  two electroplated metal layers.  Once processed,
the ink receptive metal layer is the  image area and the  layer -with'
an affinity for water is the non-image area.  Copper-surfaced and
chromium-surfaced plates are the two  main types of bi-metal plates
produced today.  The chromium-surfaced plate is popularly called a
tri-metal plate because it consists of an aluminum base, followed.
by a  layer of  copper  or -brass, and finally a - surf ace layer of
chromium.                             •

     The plates are supplied either presensitized or ready for in-
plant coating.  The coating is  generally exposed with a negative
when  using copper-surfaced plates and -is  always exposed - with a
positive when using chromium-surfaced plates.  The exposed areas of
the coating  forms a hardened stencil  that protects  the  surface
layer of metal.  An etching solution  is then applied to  remove the
unprotected areas  of . the  surface  layer  of  metal and  expose the
underlying layer.  On processed  copper-surfaced plates,  the copper
layer  forms  the image area  and the exposed underlying layer of
aluminum or stainless  steel forms the non-image area.  On chromium-
surfaced plates,  the  chromium  forms the  non-image area  and the
exposed underlying layer of copper or brass forms the image area.
Bi-metal plates are very  durable  and  are   capable  of  press runs
ranging into  the millions  of  impressions.                     •
                               2-17

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           2.    Lithographic Presses  and Printing
                      "  ' '  •••,•• "•• ' ' ." :'. ;      I
                Lithography is well suited for printing both  text:
and illustrations in short to medium length runs of up to 1,000,000
impressions.   Feed  stock can be either, sheet  or web.

     There are  three basic  lithographic  press  designs:   unit-
design,  common impression cylinder design, and blanket-to-blanket
design.  The unit-design press is a self-contained printing station
consisting of a  plate  cylinder,   a  blanketcylinder,   and an
impression cylinder.  Two or more  stations may be joined to perform
multi-color printing.  Figure 12 shows  a typical layout for a unit--
design press.   A common impression cylinder press consists of two.
or  more  sets  of plate and  blanket cylinders sharing  a  common
impression cylinder.  This allows two or more  colors to be printed
at a single  station.   A blanket-to-blanket press  consists  of  two
sets of plate and blanket cylinders without an  impression cylinder.
The- paper is  printed on both sides simultaneously as it  passes
between  the two blanket cylinders  (Field).
                        •I  ' • ..." . ' ' '  ,    '     '",  ', '   tr, i"!1,, ' ,i, i'  ,  ' ' i . !• ,,",»! ' " .. '

     As noted  in the introduction, lithography can be divided  into
three subprocesses:  sheetfed offset, heatset  web  offset,  and  non-
heatset  web offset.    The  three subprocessesand  the  types of
chemicals  used in each  are  discussed below.
              ; a.
Sheetfed Offset
                    The sheetfed offset process is used mainly for
relatively short runs in the production of commercial and packaging
products.   The inks used go  through an oxidatiye polymerization
drying process generating very little  fugitive volatile organic
compound  (VOC) emissions.  The majority of emissions  that do occur
are  from  the VOCs  in  the   circulating  fountain  solutions   and
solvents  used in cleaning presses,  blankets ,  Ink fountains,   and
rollers.  Major categories of  chemicals used in the sheetfed offset
process  include film  developers  and  fixers,   inks,  blanket   and
roller washes, and fountain solution concentrate. Isopropyl alcohol
is widely used in fountain solutions though alcohol substitutes are
also available (GATF 1992b) .   A process  flow  diagram as well as
information on the chemicals used in this  process are presented in
Figure 13 .     .....     '                  ......... ' ........... "" '"
               b.   Heatset Web Offset

                    The heatset web offset process is used
primarily for long jobs at high speed (up to 40,000 impressions per
hour)  for the  production of  magazines,  other  periodicals,  and
catalogs.  "Web" refers to the continuous sheets of paper, supplied
in roll  form,  that are used in this type of printing. The web is
cut into individual pages or sheets only after printing.   Inks used

                               2-18

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           da/npening-
           solution
           fountain V
           plate  _
           cylinder
          ink fountain
         feed
         pile
impression
cylinder
additional units
for multicolor
printing
pile
Figure 12.   Simplified  Lithographic  Press Layout
(Source:   Field  1980,   Reproduced by permission
         of Ayer Company Publishers,  Inc.)
                        ' 2-19

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  SHEETFED OFFSET OPERATION
         PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
8
ART DESIGN, ORIGINAL PICTURE/FILM


PHOTOGRAPHY, COLOR SCANNING,
SEPARATION, PROOFING, STRIPPING,
TYPESETTING, PHOTOTYPESETTING


FILM PROCESSING AND ASSEMBLY









PLATEMAKING


PRESS MAKEREADY


PRINTING, COATING


LAMINATING, EMBOSSING,
BRONZING, STAMPING


DIECUTTING, INSERTING, COLLATING,
FOLDING, STITCHING, GLUEING,
TRIMMING, BINDING



PRODUCT
                                        PREPRESS
                                        PRESS
                                       POSTPRESS
 Figure 13.  Sheetfed Offset (Source:  GATF 1992b)
                   .2-20

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         SHEETFED  OFFSET (cont'd)
    CHEMICAL/CHEMICAL COMPOUND USAGE

In reference to each step in the process flow diagram:

1.    Adhesive, cleaning solvent
2.    Color scanner cleaner, deletion fluid

3.    Film developer and fixer, film cleaner, film system cleaner,
      image cleaner/preserver, antistatic spray, adhesive

4.    Plate developer and finisher, plate toner, plate system cleaner

5/6.   Fountain  solution  concentrate, fountain solution  defoamer,
      fountain solution additive, isopropyl alcohol, alcohol substitute,
      gum arable, phosphoric acid
      Sheetfed offset ink, ink preserver, tack reducer

      Blanket wash, roller wash, type wash, glaze remover, UV-ink cleaner,
   .   sheetfed ink remover, plate preserver, roller  lubricator, copperizing
      solution, rubber rejuvenator, blanket hardener, image remover, metering
      roller cleaning solvent
      Varnish, UV-varnish, silicone coating

      Anti-setoff powder
  7.   Adhesive, ink, bronze powder,  metal foil
  8.   Adhesive
      Specialty operations:  ....
       Lamination (glue, varnish, plastics)
       Stamping (metal foil)
       Thermography (polyamide resin)
       Cellophane window (glue)
       Numbering (ink)
       Bronzing (copper/nickel powder)
         Figure  13.    Sheetfed Offset  (continued)
                               2-21

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             SHEETFED OFFSET (cont'd)
                   MAJOR CHEMICALS USED
Operation/Process
    Prepress
     Film/glass cleaner
     Equipment cleaner
     Film developer
     Film fixer

     Plate developer

     Plate finisher/
      replenisher

     Image preserver
     Color proofing

    Press

     Ink, varnish

     Coating
     UV-ink
     Fountain solution
  Major Chemicals Used (Volumes of
Individual Chemical Used Vary Greatly)
Acetone, hexane, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, ethanol,
n-propanol, perchloroethylene, 2-butoxy ethanol,
isopropanol
Isopropanol, hexane, acetone
Sodium sulfite, sulfosalicyclic acid, hydroquinone,
potassium sulfite, potassium hydroxide,
butyl-diethanoiamine
Ammonium thiosulfate, sodium acetate, acetic acid,
aluminum sulfate
Benzyl alcohol, diethanolamine, polyvinyl alcohol,
ethylene glycol, acetic acid
Dextrin, mineral spirit, sodium hydroxide,
N-methylpyrrolidone, sodium sulfite, potassium
hydroxide
Stoddard solvent, phosphoric acid
n-Propanol
Petroleum distillates, vegetable oil, resin, rosin,
dryers, pigments containing barium and copper
Polydimethyl siloxane
Acrylates, pentaerythritol tritetracrylates
Isopropanol, 2-butoxy ethanol and other glycol ethers,
gum arabic, ethylene glycol, phosphoric acid .
             Figure  13.  Sheetfed Offset  (continued)
                                   2-22

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            SHEETFED OFFSET (cont'd)
             MAJOR CHEMICALS USED (cont'd)
Operation/Process

    Press (cont'd)

    Wash solvent/plate
     cleaner
    Copperizing
      solution
    Glaze remover

    Postpress

    Glue
    Bronzing powder
 Major Chemicals Used (Volumes of
Individual Chemical Used Vary Greatly)
Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons,
mineral spirits, acetone, methylene chloride, xylene,
toluene, glycol ethers, vegetable oils, fatty acids,
surfactants
Ethylene glycol, isopropanol, methylene
chloride
Toluene, methanol, acetone
Paraffin wax
Copper, zinc, aluminum, stearic acid
           Figure 13.  Sheetfed Offset  (continued)
                               2-23

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in this process are dried by evaporating the  ink oil, usually with
a recirculating hot  air system although direct flame impingement
and infrared drying  systems continue in limited use (Buonicore).
Ink  oil  evaporated  and   emitted  through  dryer  stacks  is  a'
potentially significant source of VOC emissions.  Major chemicals
used are  quite similar to those  used, in sheetfed  offset (GATF
1992b) .   A process  flow diagram  as  well as  information  on the
chemicals used in this process are presented in Figure 14.
               c.
                    Non-heatset Web Offset
             •       The non-heatset web offsetprocess is a high
speed  process  used  largely in  the  production  of  newspapers,
journals, directories,  and forms.  The  inks  used usually do not
require drying, therefore, the VOC emissions generated during the
use of this printing process  are quite small.  Dampening and inking
systems (including dampening  chemistry and ink formulations) differ
significantly from heatset web offset..  The other major chemicals
used in this process, however, are quite similar to those used in
heatset web offset (GATF 1992b) .  A process flow diagram as well as
information on the chemicals used in this process  are presented in
Figure 15.


          3.   Volume of Output and Percentage of Total Market

               •In  1991  lithographic  printing"accounted"  for 17
percent  of  the total  value  of  U.S.printing  industry output
(excluding  instant and  in-plant printing).   However,  by 2025,
lithography's share of the total U.S. market is expected to decline
to 35 percent, due largely to competition from flexography and the
various  developing plateless printing  technologies  (Bruno 1990,
1991).                        .


          4.   Number and Relative Size  of  Printing Companies

               Of a total of 59,636 plants  with printing presses,
54,472, or 91.3 percent, have offset lithographic presses:  Of the
plants with lithographic presses, about 92 percent have sheetfed
presses and 11 percent have web-fed presses (some plants have  both
types of presses)  (A.F. Lewis 1991).

     As discussed  in Section II of this report,  the overwhelming
majority  of   companies  in  the  printing  industry  are  small
businesses.  This is especially true in lithographic printing where
about 85 percent of plants with lithographic presses employ fewer
than  20 people and  roughly half  employ  less  than  five.   The
relatively  small  number  of  plants  with web-fed  lithographic
presses,  however,   tend to  be considerably  larger.    Almost  60
percent  of  these plants' have more  than 20 employees  (A.F. Lewis
1991).             "        _    	/" ;\;;;';	;  ."    	'


                               2-24 ' '  '"  '"' """':	'"""""'""'" ' " "'" '""

-------
   HEATSET WEB OFFSET OPERATION
            PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
l.
2.
3.



4.


.5.


6.



7.



8.



9.
ART DESIGN,  ORIGINAL PICTURE/FILM
   PHOTOGRAPHY, COLOR SCANNING,
 SEPARATION,  PROOFING, STRIPPING,
   TYPESETTING, PHOTOTYPESETTING
   FILM PROCESSING AND ASSEMBLY
           PLATEMAKING
         PRESS MAKEREADY
  PRINTING, IMPRINTING, COATING
      SLITTING, PERFORATING,
        CUTTING, FOLDING
  PLATELESS PRINTING (INK JET,
    LASER PRINTER),  STAMPING
     INSERTING, COLLATING,
      STITCHING, GLUEING,
      TRIMMING, BINDING
                    PRODUCT
                                            PREPRESS
                                     PRESS .
J
POSTPRESS
   Figure 14.  Heatset Web Offset  (Source: GATF 1992b)
                       2-25

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         HEATSET WEB  OFFSET (cont'd)
          CHEMICAL/CHEMICAL COMPOUND USAGE
In reference to each step in the process flow diagram:
1.    Adhesive, cleaning solvent
2.    Color scanner cleaner, deletion fluid
3.    Film developer and fixer, film cleaner, film system cleaner, image
      cleaner/preserver, antistatic spray, adhesive
4.    Plate developer and finisher, plate toner, plate system cleaner
5/6.   Fountain solution concentrate, fountain solution defoamer, fountain
      solution additive, isopropyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol substitute, gum
      arabic, phosphoric acid
      Heatset web offset ink, ink preserver, tack reducer, UV-ink
      Blanket wash, roller wash, glaze remover, ink remover, plate preserver,
      roller lubricator, copperizing solution, rubber rejuvenator, blanket hardener,
      image remover, metering roller cleaning solvent
      Varnish, silicone coating
 7.    None
 8.    Adhesive, ink, metal foil
 9.    Adhesive
      Specialty operations:
       Stamping (metal foil)
       Laminating (varnish)
       Numbering (ink)
          Figure 14.   Heatset Web Offset (continued)
                                 2-26

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  HEATSET WEB  OFFSET  OPERATION  (cont'd)
                      MAJOR CHEMICALS USED
Operation/Process

    Prepress

     Film/glass cleaner

     Equipment cleaner
     Film developer

     Film fixer

     Plate developer

     Plate.finisher/
      replenisher
     Image preserver
     Color proofing

    Press

     Ink, varnish

     Fountain solution

     Wash solvent/plate
      cleaner

     Glaze remover

    Postpress

     Glue
  Major Chemicals Used (Volumes of
Individual Chemicals Used Vary Greatly)
Acetone, hexane, 1,1,1 trichloroethane, ethanol, n-propanol,
perchloroethylene, 2-butoxy .ethanol, isopropanol
Isopropanol, hexane, acetone
Sodium sulfite, sulfosalicyclic acid, hydroquinone, potassium
sulfite, potassium hydroxide, butyl-diethanolamine
Ammonium thiosulfate, sodium acetate, acetic acid, aluminum
sulfate
Benzyl alpohol, diethanolamine, polyvmyl alcohol, ethylene
glycol, acetic acid
Dextrin, mineral spirit, sodium hydroxide,
N-methylpyrrolidone, sodium sulfite
Stoddard solvent, phosphoric acid
n-Propanol
Petroleum distillates, vegetable oils, resin, rosin, dryer,
pigments containing barium and copper
Isopropanol, 2-butoxy ethanol and other glycol ethers, gum
arabic, phosphoric acid, ethylene glycol
Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, mineral spirits, acetone,
methylene chloride, xylene, toluene, isopropanol, glycol
ethers, vegetable oils, fatty acids, surfactants
Toluene, methanol, acetone
Paraffin wax, isopropanol, trichloroethylene, toluene,
ammonia, amines
              Figure  14.   Heatset Web  Offset (continued)
                                      2-27

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NONHEATSET WEB OFFSET OPEEATION
           PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
 1.
 2.
 3.
 4
 5.
 6.
 7.
 8.
ART DESIGN, ORIGINAL PICTURE /FILM


PHOTOGRAPHY, COLOR SCANNING,
SEPARATION, PROOFING, STRIPPING,
TYPESETTING, PHOTOTYPESETTING


FILM PROCESSING AND ASSEMBLY


PLATEMAKING


PRESS MAKEREADY


PRINTING, IMPRINTING
t

SLITTING, PERFORATING/
CUTTING, FOLDING

-
SHEETING, INSERTING,
LABELING, STAMPING, COLLATING,
STITCHING, GLUEING,
TRIMMING, BINDING


PRODUCT
                                        PREPRESS
                                        PRESS
                                       POSTPRESS
 Figure 15.  Non-heatset Web Offset (Source:  GATF 1992b)
                     2-28

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     NONHEATSET WEB  OFFSET (cont'd)
       CHEMICAL/CHEMICAL COMPOUND USAGE
In reference to each step in the process flow diagram:

1.

2.
3.
      Adhesive, cleaning solvent, glass cleaner
      Color scanner cleaner, deletion fluid
      Film developer and fixer, film cleaner, film system cleaner, image
      cleaner/preserver, antistatic spray, adhesive
4.     Plate developer and finisher,, plate toner, plate system cleaner
5\6.   Fountain solution concentrate, fountain solution defoamer, fountain
      solution additive, isopropyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol substitute, gum
      arable
      Nonheatset web offset ink, ink preserver, tack reducer, UV-ink
      Blanket wash, roller wash, glaze remover, UV-ink cleaner, sheetfed ink
      remover, plate preserver, roller lubricator, copperizing solution, rubber
      rejuvenator, blanket hardener, image remover

 7.   None
 8.   Adhesive, ink, metal foil
      Specialty operations:

       Stamping (metal foil)
       Thermography (polyamide resin)
       Numbering (ink)
        Figure 15.   Non-heatset Web Offset  (continued)
                                 2-29

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         NONHEATSET WEB OFFSET (cont'd)
                       MAJOR CHEMICALS USED
Operation/Process

    Prepress

     Film/glass cleaner

     Equipment cleaner
     Film developer

     Film fixer

     Plate developer

     Plate finisher/
      replenisher
     Image preserver

    Press

     Ink
    Fountain solution


    Wash solvent/plate
      cleaner
    Glaze remover   ,

    Postpress

    Glue
  Major Chemicals Used (Volumes of
Individual Chemicals Used Vary Greatly)
Acetone, hexane, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, ethanol, n-propanol,
perchloroethylene, 2-butoxy ethanol, isopropanol
Isopropanol alcohol, hexane, acetone
Sodium sulfite, sulfosah'cych'c acid, hydroquinone, potassium
sulfite, potassium hydroxide, butyl-diethanolamine
Ammonium thiosulfate, sodium acetate, acetic acid, aluminum
sulfate
Benzyl alcohol, diethanolamine, polyvhiyl alcohol, ethylene
glycol, acetic acid
Dextrin, mineral spirit, sodium hydroxide,
N-methylpyrrolidone,  sodium sulfite
Stoddard solvent, phosphoric acid
Soybean oil and other vegetable oils, hydrotreated & solvent
extracted naphthenic distillates and paraffin oils, alkyds and
other resins, rosin, dryers, clays, carbon black, pigments
containing barium and copper
Isopropanol, 2-butoxy ethanol, gum arabic, dextrin, phosphate
salts, silicates, surfactants, polyols, ethylene glycol,
dipropylene glycol, synthetic cellulose, isopropanol
Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, ethanol, mineral spirits,
acetone, glycol ethers, vegetable oils, fatty acids
Toluene, methanol, acetone
Paraffin wax, isopropanol, trichloroethylene, toluene
            Figure  15.  Non-heatset Web Offset  (continued)
                                      2-30

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      B.    Gravure

           1.    Gravure Cylinder Making

                Currently,  the dominant gravure printing process,
 referred to  as rotogravure,  employs  web presses  equipped with
 cylindrical,  copper-clad plates.  In gravure printing, the image is
 transferred from a sunken surface.  The  image area o'f a gravure
 cylinder consists of a pattern of depressions or cells  etched into
 the cylinder.   Following Etching, the cylinder is completed  by  the
 application of  an  electroplate  of chromium which  improves  its
 durability.

      A number of other types of gravure presses are currently in
 use.   Rotary  sheet-fed gravure  presses are used when high quality
 pictorial   impressions  are  required.    They  find  limited use,
 primarily  in  Europe.   Intaglio  plate printing presses are used in.
 certain  specialty applications such as printing currency and  in
 fine  arts  printing. - Offset  gravure presses are used for printing
 substrates with irregular surfaces  or on films and plastics.

      The cylinders used in rotogravure printing can be from  three
 inches in diameter by two  inch wide  to three feet in diameter by 20
 feet  wide.   Publication presses are from six  to eight feet wide
 while presses used for printing packaging rarely exceed five  feet.
 in width.   Product  gravure presses show great variation in  size,
 ranging  from  presses with cylinders two inches wide, designed  to
 print wood grain edge trim,  to cylinders 20 feet wide, designed to
 print paper towels.                     -  -    ' ,

      Five   different  processes,  conventional,  direct-transfer,
 variable-area/variable-depth,  laser,  and  electromechanical, have
 been  used, to prepare  gravure cylinders.   The first  four  use a
 chemical process to etch cells .on the cylinder  while the   fifth
 process  uses  an electronically controlled mechanical  process   to
 engrave  cells on the cylinder.   Electromechanical  engraving has
 almost entirely replaced  chemical  etching iri  the preparation  of
 gravure  cylinders.   Currently, the electromechanical  process   is
 used to prepare 100 percent of publication gravure cylinders and 95
percent of packaging- and product gravure cylinders.  The remaining
 five percent of product and packaging gravure cylinders,  intended
 for various special applications, are prepared either  by the direct
 transfer  or  the laser process  (Tyszka  1993).     The  cost   of
preparing gravure cylinders using any process  is high when compared
 to other types of image  carriers.  The primary advantage of gravure
 cylinders  is  that they have  a long service life and will yield a
very large number of impressions without degradation.    Each of.the
 five processes  are discussed in greater detail below.
                               2-31

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               a.
                    Conventional Gravure
                    The conventional process ofpreparing gravure
cylinders  uses  either bichromate-sensitized  carbon  tissue  or
special photographic transfer film as the light-sensitive coating
and etchant resist.  Carbon tissue consists of a pigmented gelatin
coating on a paper substrate.  It is sensitized with a bichromate
solution immediately before it is used.  The cylinder preparation
process is the same whether the carbon  tissue or photographic film
are used.
                I       ,     ' ..I' ' ,     ,   • ' '   i| •• " ; I nf '!,! , i , '•  ' ' ''	' I .,,!'''••• i1'  J'  ., 1 , ' ".
     During the cylinder preparation process,  the resist is exposed
twice using a high intensity ultraviolet light,  one time to each of
two different glass positives.   The first exposure  is through a
continuous-tone positive.   The second exposure is through a gravure
screen consisting  of  transparent  lines (150  to 175  per inch) and
opaque dots  (Buonicore).

     During the first exposure, the bichromated  gelatin  is hardened
in proportion to the optical density of the positive image.  During
the second exposure,  maximum hardening of the  gelatin occurs in
areas under the transparent lines in the screen while the pattern
of opaque  dots prevents hardening in  other areas.   The sheet of
carbon   tissue  and  hardened  .gelatin  carrying  the  image  is
transferred to a copper-clad cylinder.  Traditionally, the image is
then etched into the cylinder with acid.  The more heavily exposed
areas of the gelatin are more resistant to the effects of the acid.
In these areas no etching will occur or only shallow cells will be
etched into  th'e copper cylinder.   Deeper cells will be etched on
the  copper  cylinder in  areas  where  the  gelatin  received less
exposure.   The process results  in a regular pattern of un-etched
high spots  (lands)  and cells of varying depths.  In the U.S., the
conventional  process  for  gravure cylinder preparation  has been
replaced by  the  electromechanical process.
               b.
Direct-Transfer drravure
                     In the direct-transfer process, photographic
polymer  plates  replace  the  glass  photo'plates  used_  in  the
conventional gravure cylinder preparation process.  A special wrap-
around positive  consisting  of  a  combination of  half-tone  and
screened solids is  used to  transfer the image  to the cylinder
 (Buonicore).  The half-tone image is contact printed onto a copper
cylinder that has been treated with a photopolymer emulsion.  _The
cylinder is then etched using a  process  similar to that  described
for   the  conventional  gravure  cylinder  preparation  process.
Cylinders  prepared by the  direct-transfer process  are  currently
used primarily  for  printing specialty packaging.
                               2-32

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               c.   Variable-area/Variable-depth Gravure

         •  '         Cylinders prepared by  this  process were once
used  for most multi-color  printing in  the  United States.   The
method combines elements of the  two previously described processes
for gravure cylinder preparation. A half-tone and a continuous-tone
image are both contact printed on to a sheet of sensitized carbon
tissue and gelatin.  The carbon  paper/gelatin sheet is transferred
to the copper cylinder.  The cylinder is etched producing a pattern
of  discontinuous  ink  cells  of  varying  size  and  depth  which
correspond to the areas of light and shadow on the continuous and
half-tone composite image.  Cylinders prepared by this process are
typically used in very long press runs because of their good wear
characteristics.   In the U.S.,  the variable-area/variable depth
process  for gravure cylinder preparation has been replaced by the
electromechanical, process.


             .  d.   Laser Imaging                               .

                    A proprietary system developed in Japan uses
laser technology to  image a cylinder  treated with a photopolymer
resist.  However,  once the resist has been exposed,•traditional
chemical etching techniques are  used to prepare the  cylinder.  This
process  finds limited  use  in  the  preparation  of cylinders  for
packaging and product gravure printing (GAA 1991).


               e.   Electromechanical Engraving

                    The   electromechanical  cylinder   engraving
process, introduced  in the late 1960s,  has  largely  replaced the
chemical etching process for the preparation  of gravure cylinders.
.Electromechanical  engraving  is performed using  a  computer-
controlled lathe-type  cutting machine.   The lathe  uses a diamond
tool to  engrave a pattern of variable size and depth cells on the
copper cylinder..  Engraving speeds range  from 2,000 to 5,000 cells
per second with a  speed of  3,200 cells per second being typical.
At 3,200 cells per  second,  a  typical  30  inch by 40 inch cylinder
would require two hours and 20 minutes to engrave.

     An  electronic signal that  is'varied to represent values from
zero  to  100 percent  controls  the cutting of corresponding size
cells on the cylinder.  Typically, the  electronic signal originates
from a drum scanner (or one of the more recent and faster, scanning
technologies  such as  the  high-speed drum scanner  or the flat-bed
scanner).  The image to be engraved is mounted on the drum of the
scanner  and  as  the  drum  spins,  the  image   is  scanned by  a
combination  microscope and  electronic eye  mounted  on  the scan
carriage.                                              •
                               2-33

-------
     With early electromechanical engravers, what was seen by the
electronic  eye of  the  scanner was  immediately engraved  on the
gravure  printing cylinder.   Today,  however,  entire  images are
scanned  into computer memory  to  be  used  whenever needed.   The
computer storage  of scans has a number of  advantages:   cylinder
quality can be improved because stored images can1 be previewed for
errors;  images can be electronically manipulated;  images  can be
engraved as  often as  desired without loss  of  quality;  and entire
cylinders can be engraved in  one nonstop pass of  the engraving head
(GAA 1991).

     Recently direct digital  engraving has become widespread.  With
this process the image  can  be created and manipulated  using an
image  handling  computer.   Therefore,  the steps  of  creating,
copying, and rescanning  film, and the loss of quality inherent in
these steps, can be avoided  (GAA 1991).


          2.   Gravure Cylinder Plating

               Today virtually all  finished gravure cylinders have
a copper surface coated with a  thin layer of chromium.  The copper
carries the, engraved image while the chrome provides a protective
layer against  the friction of the doctor blade and the printing
substrate (GAA 1991).

     Both  the  copper and  chrome   layers  are  applied  using  an
electroplating process.  •Copper plating is  used for plating base
copper onto repaired cylinders  and  for replating the image carrier
layer onto the base copper layer of previously used cylinders.  The
electrolyte  used  in the acid plating process consists of copper
sulfate, sulfuric acid,  deionized  water, and small quantities of
organic additi.ves.  Use  of a cyanide based electrolyte for copper
plating is restricted to  the  original manufacture of cylinders  (GAA
1991).

     Chrome plating is applied  in a very thin layer so as  to change
the  shape   of  the  cells engraved  in  the  copper  as  little as
possible.  For most applications the chrome  is plated in  layers of
about  six  microns  (0.00023  inches),  though  thicker  layers are
applied  to  protect cylinders from  the abrasive  inks used in some
product gravure printing  (GAA 1991).   The primary electrolyte used
in  chrome  plating  consists  of   chromic  acid,  , sulfuric  acid,
deionized water, and small amounts of organic, additives  (GAA 1991) .
          3.   Gravure Presses and Printing

               The  gravure process has its  origins  in the early
seventeenth  century  when the  intaglio  printing  process  was
developed to replace woodcuts  in illustrating the best books of the
                               2-34

-------
time.   In early intaglio printing, illustrations were  etched on
metal, inked, and pressed on paper.               •

     Gravure, still also known as intaglio printing, makes use of
the ability of ink to adhere to a slight scratch or depression on
a polished metal plate.   Today almost all gravure printing is done
using  engraved  copper  cylinders protected  from  wear  by  the
application of a thin electroplate of chromium.   During printing,
the surface of the engraved cylinder is flooded with ink with the
excess  removed  by a  mechanical  wiper known  as a  doctor blade.
Paper  or  another  substrate  is   brought  into  contact  with  the
cylinder with sufficient pressure that  it picks  up the ink left in
the depressions.  Characteristic  of this method of  printing is a
sharp, fine image.

     Web-fed gravure  presses  account for almost all publication,
packaging,  and  product .gravure  printing.   These presses  are•
generally  custom manufactured machines designed for a specific
range  of products.    The typical press  is highly  automated  and
consists  of  multiple print units.   The printing mechanism in a
rotogravure press consists  of a gravure cylinder and  a smaller,
rubber  clad  impression cylinder.   A typical modern rotogravure
press is shown in schematic form in Figure 16.  Rotogravure presses
do not use elaborate .trains of inking rollers like those in certain
types of presses. Instead, low-viscosity inks  are flooded onto the^
printing cylinder from an ink fountain.  Excess ink is wiped from
the cylinder by a doctor blade.  During printing the paper passes
between the impression roller .and the gravure cylinder.  The rubber
covered impression roller applies pressure to the paper and the ink
in the cells on the cylinder is transferred to the paper.

     Other types  of  gravure presses in commercial  use  today  are
sheet-fed, intaglio  plate,, and offset  gravure.  These types of
presses are used primarily for -special printing applications.

     Sheet-fed gravure is used when very high quality impressions
are required. Uses include the production of pictorial impressions
for art books/and posters and short runs of high quality packaging
material such as cosmetics cartons.  Sheet-fed gravure presses are
also  used for overall  coating of products printed by sheet-fed
offset to provide high brilliancy to  the printed sheet and for the
application of metallic inks that cannot be applied by the offset
method.   Additionally,   sheet-fed gravure presses are  used to
produce proof copies prior to large rotogravure runs (GAA 1991).

     The  sheet-fed  gravure press differs  from  the  web-fed press
primarily in that paper is delivered to the  press as  pre-cut sheets
instead of a continuous web.  The printing mechanism in a typical
sheet-fed  gravure press  consists of a  gravure cylinder  and an
impression  cylinder  of  the same  size.   The plate itself is  a
flexible metal sheet  wrapped around a carrier cylinder equipped
                               2-35

-------
             single-color station
                 dryer
     impression roller
   doctor
   blade
LJ
                          printing
                          cylinder
                  ink fountain
             additional stations for
             multicolor printing
                                                                    sheets
                                                                   folder
                                                                     rewind
Figure 16.   Rotogravure Press  (Source:   Field 1980.   Reproduced
         by permission of Ayer Company  Publishers,  Inc.)
                                   2-36

-------
 with a gripper to hold the plate in place during printing.   The gap
 in the  cylinder is fitted with a protective cover once the plate
 has been mounted.   This  cover prevents  ink  from collecting in the
 gap and  consequently producing an unwanted image on the substrate.
 Ink is  flooded  onto the plate  from a   fountain  roller.    In
 multicolor printing,  air may be directed at the plate to slightly
 dry the ink  and thus assure proper  trapping of  the  ink  in the
 cells.   A  limited number of sheet-fed gravure presses use a flat
 plate instead of a cylinder as  the image carrier  (GAA 1991).

     Intaglio plate printing is used to produce stamps, currency,
 bank notes,  securities,  and stationary items such as invitations
 and business  cards 1  It is also used for fine  arts printing.  Most
 intaglio plate presses use gravure printing cylinders.  However, a
 flat gravure  plate  is used for fine arts printing.  Intaglio plate
 printing presses differ from other gravure presses  primarily in the
 inking system which is designed  to handle thick paste-like ink (GAA
 1991).              /        .                                •

     The offset  gravure press is a standard gravure unit to which
 a  rubber-covered transfer roller has been added.  The image to be
 printed  is transferred from the gravure printing  cylinder to the
 roller.    The  transfer  roller then  prints  the image   on .the
 substrate.   The transfer  of  the image from  the  cylinder  to the
 roller   is   similar  to   the   transfer method  used  in  .offset
 lithography.  Offset gravure presses are used to print substrates
 with irregular surfaces such as wood veneer or decorated metal (GAA
 1991).  •  -

     Another  type of offset gravure press,  the flexo gravure press,
 is  currently used  for printing clear  film overwraps  for paper
 towels and tissues  as well as high quality plastic shopping bags.
A  flexo  gravure- press is  a flexographic press on which the anilox
 roller has been replaced by a gravure printing cylinder (GAA 1991) *•

     In  order to fill  the tiriy  cells on the printing cylinder or
plate,  very  low  viscosity inks  must  be used^in gravure printing.
The  inks are maintained  in a low viscosity state by the  use  of
 solvents.  The solvents must be  evaporated quickly so that  the ink
will dry before the paper reaches the next printing station on the
press.    This  is  necessary because wet inks cannot be overprinted
without  smearing and smudging.  Therefore,  high volume air dryers
are placed after each printing station.  The solvent-laden air from
 the  dryers is passed  through  either  a solvent recovery system or
 solvent vapor incinerator.  A typical recovery system uses beds of
activated  carbon  to  absorb  the solvent.    Saturated beds  are
regenerated by steam.  The solvent  laden  steam is then condensed
and  the  water and solvent separate by gravity.   Greater  than  95
percent  of  the  ink  solvents  are recovered  using this  process
 (Buonicore).   The .solvents can either be reused  or  destroyed  by
 incineration.                  .
                               2-37

-------
                                       .,,(' •' 
-------
a competitive edge  in  the printing of mass-circulation magazines
because the  process offers high  speed,  high quality  four color
illustrations on  less  expensive paper,  variable cut-off lengths,
and flexible folding equipment.  These presses can have as many as
ten printing stations - four for color and one for monochrome text
and illustration  in  each  direction so that  both sides  of the web
can be  printed  in one  non-stop operation.   They can  handle web
widths  of up to 125 inches and are equipped to print  most large
format  publications in circulation  today.   Publication 'gravure
presses can also be  fitted with cylinders of  differing diameters to
accommodate varying page  sizes.                           ,

     The  major  types  of  chemicals used in publication gravure
include adhesives,  metal plating  solutions,  inks, and cleaning
solvents.  In terms  of  chemicals, publication gravure differs from
packaging and product  gravure primarily in  its  heavy reliance on
toluene-based ink (GATF 1992b).   The  publication gravure industry
has had little success with  water-based inks  (Buonicore).•  The
industry has found that in publication gravure where the substrate
is always paper stock,  water-based inks have not been capable of
printing commercially acceptable quality productions runs of 2,000
to  3,000  feet  per  minute.   A process  flow  diagram as  well as
information on the chemicals used  in this process arey presented in
Figure  17.
               b.
Packaging Gravure
                    Packaging  rotogravure presses  are  used for
printing  folding  cartons as well as a  variety of other flexible
packaging materials.   In addition to printing, packaging gravure
presses are equipped to  fold,  cut,  and crease paper  boxes in a
continuous process.  Packages are usually printed on only one side,
so the number of print stations is usually about half 'that required
for publication gravure presses.  However,  in addition  to printing
stations  for  the  four basic  colors, packaging  gravure presses may
employ printing stations  for the application of metallic inks and
varnishes as well as laminating stations designed to apply,foils to
the paper substrate prior to printing.

     Packaging  gravure  presses  are designed with  the accurate
cutting  and  creasing needs of  the  packaging material in  mind.
However,  image  quality is generally less  important in  packaging
printing  than in  most other types of printing and, subsequently,
receives  less emphasis.

     The  chemicals  used  in packaging gravure  are  similar to those
used in publication gravure.  However,"  the inks used in packaging
gravure are largely alcohol- and not toluene-based  (GATF 1992b),.
Water-based inks  are being  successfully  used for lower quality,
non-process printing  on  paper and paperboard packaging and  for
                               2-39

-------
         PUBLICATION GRAVURE
            PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
l.
2.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
ART DESIGN,  ORIGINAL PICTURE/FILM
   PHOTOGRAPHY,  COLOR SCANNING,
 SEPARATION,  PROOFING,  STRIPPING,
   TYPESETTING,  PHOTOTYPESETTING
                CYLINDER MAKING
        CYLINDER PROOFING
         PRESS .MAKEREADY
        PRINTING,  COATING
      SLITTING,  PERFORATING,
        CUTTING,  FOLDING
             LABELING
             INSERTING,  COLLATING,
              STITCHING,  GLUEING,
               TRIMMING,  BINDING
                     PRODUCT
                                            PREPRESS
n
PRESS
                                           POSTPRESS
  Figure 17.  Publication Gravure (Source:
                       2-40

-------
         PUBLICATION GRAVURE  (cont'd)
         CHEMICAL/CHEMICAL COMPOUND USAGE


  In reference to each step m me process flow diagram:

  1.    Adhesive, glass cleaner

  2.    Photographic processing solution, cleaning solvent

  3     Chromium plating solution, polishing compound, etching solution, copper plating
        solution,  nickel plating solution, sulfuric acid solution, degreasing salt, dechroming
        solution                                                      .

  4.    Cylinder  cleaner, gravure ink, cylinder cleaning solvent, roller cleaner, toluene,
        alkane hydrocarbons

  5/6.   Gravure ink, imprinting inks, ink remover, splicing cement, ink jet inks

  7.    None

  8.    Adhesive, cleaning solvent, adhesive remover

  9.    Adhesive, adhesive remover
Figure 17.  Publication Gravure  (continued)  (Source:  GATF  1992b).

                                  2-41

-------
            PUBLICATION  GRAVURE (cont'd)
                      MAJOR CHEMICALS USED
Operation/Process

    Prepress

     Film/glass cleaner

     Equipment cleaner
     Film developer

     Film fixer

     Cylinder making
    Press

    Ink, varnish

    Wash solvent


    Postpress

    Glue, adhesive
  Major Chemicals Used (Volumes of
Individual Chemicals Used Vary Greatly)
Acetone, hexane, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, ethanol, n-propanol,
perchloroethylene, 2-butoxy ethanol, isopropanol
Isopropanol, hexane, acetone
Sodium sulfite, sulfosalicyclic acid, hydroquinone, potassium
sulfite, potassium hydroxide, butyl-diethanolamine
Ammonium thiosulfate, sodium acetate, acetic acid,
aluminum sulfate
Barium chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, aliphatic petroleum
distillates, ammonium oxalate, ammonium molybdate, barium
formate, calcium benzoate, chromic acid, citric acid, copper  ~
sulfate, dicarboxylic acid, cupric tetrafluoborate, ethyl
acetate, ethylenediamine, formaldehyde, copper, hydrogen
peroxide, hydrochloric acid, muriatic acid, isopropanol,
phosphoric acid, sodium hydroxide, sulfuric acid, zinc
chloride
Hexane, mineral spirits, heptane, lactol spirits, petroleum
naphtha, VM&P naphtha, toluene, xylene, alcohols
Toluene, aliphatic and other aromatic hydrocarbons, ethanol,
mineral spirits, acetone, isopropanol
Paraffin wax, toluene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, isopropanol
 Figure  17.   Publication Gravure  (continued)  (Source:  Mathtech)
                                                        10! ' •'!•',:	"
                                     2-42

-------
printing on non-absorbent packaging substrates such as plastics,
aluminum,  and laminates (Tyszka 1993).   Use of water-based inks is
axpected to increase;  however,  problems still limit their use at press
speeds above 1,000 feet per minute (Budnicore).   A process flow
iiagram as well as information on the chemicals used in- this process
ire presented in Figure 18.
               c.
                    Product Grcivure
                    The continuous printing surface found on gravure
press cylinders provides the "repeat"  required to'print the continuous'
patterns found on textiles, and a variety of other products.  In the
:extile industry, a gravure heat transfer process using subliming dyes
Ls used to print images, on paper.  These images are then transferred
Erom the paper to a fabric (usually polyester)  through a combination
   heat and pressure.   The gravure process is also used to print
continuous patterns on wallboard, wallpaper,  floor coverings,  and   % •
plastics.

     The chemicals used in product gravure are similar to those used
In both publication and packaging gravure.  However,  product gravure
ises both water- and solvent-based inks (GATF 1992b).  The industry
las used water-based inks successfully on medium-weight papers and on
lonabsorbent substrates such as plastics,  aluminum, and laminates
(Tyszka 1993).  However, problems such as paper distortion and curl
persist with lightweight papers  (Buonicore).   A process flow diagram
as well as information on 'the chemicals used in this process are
presented in Figure 19.


          4.   Volume of Output and Percentage of Total Market

               In 1991 gravure printing accounted for 19 percent of
;he total value of U.S. printing industry output (excluding instant
and in-plant printing).  Between 1991 and 2025, gravure's market share
Ls expected to decline to 16 percent of the total U.S. market.
Sravure will continue to be the dominant process for the printing of
Long-run products such as mass-circulation magazines and catalogs, and
certain types of packaging.  However,  the long-run products market is
relatively mature and little growth is expected  (Bruno 1990, 1991).


          5.   Number and Relative'Size of Printing Companies

               Based on a member survey, the Gravure Association of
America reports that there were  1,090 plants with gravure presses in
1989 (GAA 1989).  Gravure printing is generally used by medium to
large size printers (Lewis 1992).
                                 2-43

-------
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
          PACKAGING GRAVURE
            PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
ART DESIGN, ORIGINAL PICTURE/FILM


PHOTOGRAPHY, COLOR SCANNING,
SEPARATION, PROOFING, STRIPPING,
TYPESETTING, PHOTOTYPESETTING


CYLINDER MAKING

•
CYLINDER PROOFING -'-"-Z.


PRESS MAKEREADY


PRINTING, COATING
.

LAMINATING, DIECUTTING


INSERTING, COLLATING,
FOLDING, STITCHING, GLUEING,
TRIMMING, BINDING


PRODUCT
                                          PREPRESS
                                         . PRESS

                                         POSTPRESS
                                           _l
   Figure 18.  Packaging Gravure (Source: GATF 1992b).
                      2-44

-------
         PACKAGING GRAVURE (eont'd)
       CHEMICAL/CHEMICAL COMPOUND USAGE

 In reference to each step in the process flow diagram:

 1.   Adhesive, glass cleaner

      Photographic processing solution; cleaning solvent
2.

3.
       Chromium plating solution, polishing compound, etching solution, copper plating
       solution, nickel plating solution, sulfuric acid solution, degreasing salt, dechroming
       solution
 4.     Cylinder cleaner, gravure ink, cylinder cleaning solvent, roller cleaner

 5/6.   Gravure ink, imprinting inks, ink remover, splicing cement, isopropyl alcohol, ink
       jet inks

 7.     Adhesive, cleaning solvent, adhesive remover

 8.     Adhesive, adhesive remover
Figure  18.   Packaging Gravure  (continued)  (Source: GATF  1992b).

                              .  2-45

-------
             PACKAGING GRAVURE  (cont'd)
                      MAJOR CHEMICALS USED
Operation/Process

    Prepress

     Film/glass cleaner

     Equipment cleaner
     Film developer

     Film fixer

     Cylinder making
    Press

    Ink, varnish
    Wash solvent


    Postpress

    Glue, adhesive
  Major Chemicals Used (Volumes of
Individual Chemicals Used Vary Greatly)
Acetone, hexane, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, ethanol, n-propanol,
perchloroethylene, 2-butoxy ethanol, isopropanol
Isopropanol, hexane, acetone
Sodium sulfite, sulfosalicyclic acid, hydroquinone, potassium
sulfite, potassium hydroxide, butyl-diethanolamine
Ammonium thiosulfate, sodium acetate, acetic acid, aluminum
sulfate
Barium chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, aliphatic petroleum
distillates, ammonium oxalate, ammonium molybdate, barium
formate, calcium benzoate, chromic acid, citric acid, copper
sulfate, dicarboxylic acid, cupric tetrafluoborate, ethyl acetate,
ethylenediamine, formaldehyde, copper, hydrogen peroxide,
hydrochloric acid, muriatic acid, isopropanol, phosphoric
acid, sodium hydroxide, sulfuric acid, zinc chloride
Toluene, xylene, mineral spirits, acetone,  methyl ethyl
ketone, methyl isobutyl ketbne, ethyl acetate, isopropyl
acetate, n-propyl acetate, butyl acetate, n-butyl acetate,
ethylene glycol monoethyl ether, methanol, ethanol,
isopropanol, tri-decanol
Ah'phatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, ethanol, mineral spirits,
acetone, toluene, isopropanol
Paraffin wax, toluene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, isopropanol
   Figure 18.   Packaging Gravure (continued)  (Source:  Mathtech) .,
                                      2-46

-------
1.
2.
3.



4.



5.



6.


7.



8.
            PRODUCT GRAVURE
            PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
ART DESIGN,  ORIGINAL PICTURE/FILM
   PHOTOGRAPHY,  COLOR SCANNING,
 SEPARATION,  PROOFING,  STRIPPING,
   TYPESETTING,  PHOTOTYPESETTING
         CYLINDER MAKING
        CYLINDER PROOFING
         PRESS MAKEREADY
             PRINTING
      SLITTING,  PERFORATING,
         CUTTING,  FOLDING
       LAMINATING,  GLUEING
                     PRODUCT
                                            PREPRESS
                                     PRESS
~T
                                   POSTPRESS
    Figure 19.  Product Gravure (Source: GATF 1992b)
                       2-47 .

-------
            PRODUCT GRAVURE (cont'd)
        CHEMICAI/CHEMICAL COMPOUND USAGE
 In reference to each step in the process flow diagram:

 1.    Adhesive, glass cleaner

 2.    Photographic processing solution, cleaning solvent

 3.    Chromium plating solution, polishing compound, etching solution, copper plating
       solution, nickel plating solution, sulfuric acid solution, degreasing salt, dechroming
       solution

 4.    Plate cleaner, gravure ink, cylinder cleaning solvent, roller cleaner

 5/6.   Gravure ink, imprinting inks, ink remover, splicing cement, isopropyl alcohol, ink
       jet inks

 7.    None

 8.    Adhesive, cleaning solvent, adhesive remover
Figure 19.   Product Gravure (continued)  (Source:   GATF  i992b).

                                 '2-48
                                                       ::::i:'; • •* «•. ;s; m. ?; I;; • <. •';;:,,, i; ;i;'.'; •• A, iW/'j
                               1' :,-:," i".;.,;, ::.,,|,: i',;,..; it..,	•;;,	iv: .s-SiSSi	• .iiiit.;;tiJl*^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^   	ssn	{^MifciM	sniii	:,''.'	Hi	flu,;- :.ii:«Jii»^^^^^^^^^^^      I

-------
Operation/Process

    Prepress    ,

     Film/glass cleaner

     Equipment cleaner
     Film developer

     Film fixer

     Cylinder making
PRODUCT GRAVURE  (cont'd)
       MAJOR  CHEMICALS USED

               Major Chemicals Used (Volumes of
            Individual Chemicals Used Vary Greatly)
    Press

     Ink, varnish



     Wash solvent


    Postpress

     Glue, adhesive
            Acetone, hexane, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, ethanol, n-propanol,
            perchloroethylene, 2-butoxy ethanol, isopropanol
            Isopropanol, hexane, acetone
            Sodium sulfite, sulfosaUcyclic acid, hydroquinone, potassium
            sulfite, potassium hydroxide, butyl-diethanolamine
            Ammonium thiosulfate, sodium acetate, acetic acid, aluminum
            sulfate
            Barium chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, aliphatic petroleum
            distillates, ammonium oxalate, ammonium molybdate, barium
            formate, calcium benzoate, chromic acid, citric acid, copper
            sulfate, dicarboxylic acid, cupric tetrafmoborate, ethyl acetate,
            ethylenediamine, formaldehyde, copper, hydrogen peroxide,
            hydrochloric acid,  muriatic acid, isopropanol, phosphoric
            acid, sodium hydroxide, sulfuric acid, zinc chloride
            Toluene, xylene, mineral spirits, acetone,  methyl ethyl
            ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone, ethyl acetate, isopropyl
            acetate, n-butyl acetate, ethylene glycol monoethyl ether,
            methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, tri-decanol
            Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, ethanol,mineral spirits,
            acetone, toluene, isopropanol
             Paraffin wax, toluene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, isopropanol
     Figure 19.   Product Gravure  (continued)  (Source:   Mathtech)
                                      2-49

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      C.    Flexocrraphy

           1-    Flexographic Platemaking

                Flexographic plates are relief plates made of either
 rubber   or   ultraviolet   light   sensitive    polymers    (i.e.,
 photopolymers) .   The  first  step in making a rubber  flexpgraphic
 plate is  the production of  an engraving  of  the  job  using  a
 photomechanical process.  Once finished,  the engraving is placed in
 a mold press.  The mold is produced by pressing the mold material,
 which can be  either plastic or glass,  against  theengraving under
 controlled temperature and pressure.  The resulting mold  is  then
 used to make a rubber flexographic plate; a rubber sheet is  pressed
 into the mold under pressure and elevated  temperature.

      The production of  photopolymer flexographic  plates  is  a
 direct-to-plate process that does not require an original plate or
 mold.   The process  differs  depending on whether solid sheets  of
 photopolymer  or  liquid  photopolymer  are used,  though  the  two
 processes are similar in general outline.   Inboth processes  the
 plates are made in  ultraviolet exposure  units.  A negative of  the
 job  is placed between the photopolymer and the ultraviolet light
 source.    The photopolymer  sheet or  liquid  is then  exposed  to
 ultraviolet light, hardening the image area.  Lastly,  the plate is
 processed to  remove the unhardened non-image area.  Photopolymer
 plates are replacing  rubber plates because they  offer superior-
 quality  and performance at  a  lower cost.
          2.
Flexographic Presses and Printing
               Flexographic  presses  combine  features  of  both
letterpress  and .rotogravure printing.    Like  letterpress,  the
process  uses relief plates  and,  like rotogravure,,  it  uses low-
viscosity,  fast-drying inks.  Typically,  the  plates are made of
low-cost  rubber or  photopolymer.  .Inexpensive,  durable  plates
coupled with simple printing techniques and the use of a two roller
system to  distribute ink onto the plate  cylinder allow for easy
makeup and cleanup.  As a result, flexography is one of the least
expensive printing processes.  Flexographic presses are capable of
producing good quality impressions  on many different substrates.
Figure 20 presents schematics of a web-fed rotary press and a three
roller ink system typical of those used in flexographic printing.

     The  five types  of printing presses used  for  flexographic
printing are the stack type, central impression cylinder  (CIC), in-
line,  newspaper unit,  and  dedicated 4-,  5-,  or  6-color  unit
commercial publication flexographic presses.  All five types employ
a plate cylinder, a metering cylinder known as the anilox
                               2-50

-------
                            JflU/v
                           y  BY
                           y   .   \y  •
                     JL
          J L
        Infeed & Tension Control
Printing & Drying
                                         Outfeed & Rewind
          Anilox Roll
       Fountain Roll
                    Plate Cylinder
                         Plate
                   Impression
                   Cylinder
                                          Substrate
  Figure 20.  Web-fed Rotary Flexo.graphic Press (top) and
Three Roller Ink  System  (Source:   Adams  1988.  Reproduced by
permission.  Printing Technolocrv, 3rd Edition by J. Michael
 Adams, David D.  Faux and Lloyd Reiber,  Delmar Publishers,
           Inc.,  Albany, New York,  Copyright  1988)
                           2-51

-------
roll that applies ink to the plate, and an ink pan.
use a   third _ roller as  a. . fountain', ' roller/ and ^'^in^
doctor blade for improved ink distribution.
                                                     Some presses
     The  stack press is  characterized. by one or more  stacks of
printing stations arranged vertically on either side of the press
frame.   Each stack has  its  own plate  cylinder which  prints one
color of a multicolor impression.  All  stations are driven from a
common gear train.  Stack presses are easy to  set up arid can print
both sides  of  the web in one pass.   They can be  integrated with
winders, unwinders, cutters,  creasers, and coating  equipment.  They
are very  popular for milk carton printing.   A drawback of stack
presses is  their poor registration; the  image position on every
printed  sheet  is  not as  consistent as  in many other printing
processes.

     Central  impression  cylinder  (CIC)   presses  use  a  single.
impression cylinder mounted in the press frame.  Two to eight color
printing stations surround the central  impression cylinder.  Each
station  consists of  an  ink  pan,  fountain roller,   anilox roll,
tloctor blade, and plate cylinder.  As the web  enters the press it
comes jlnto  contact with  the impression cylinder and  remains in
contact  until  it  leaves the  press.    The.  result  is  precise
registration which  allows CIC presses to produce  very good color
impressions.
      *                        •                 •

     The in-line flexographic press is similar to the stacked press
except the  printing stations are arranged  in a horizontal line.
They are all driven by a common line shaft and .may be coupled to
folders, cutters, and other postpress equipment. These presses are
used  for printing bags,  corrugated board,  folding boxes,  and
similar products.

     A newspaper flexographic' press consists of multiple printing
units, each unit consisting of two printing stations arranged back-
to-back in a common frame.  The  use  of paired  stations allows both
sides of  the web to  be  printed in one pass.   Multiple printing'
stations  are required to print  the 'many  pages  that  make,  up a
typical newspaper.  Single and double .color decks, stacked units,
or 4-, 5-,  or  6-color units are sometimes positioned above those
units where the publisher wants  to provide single or multiple spot
color, spot color for both  sides  of the web,  or process color,
respectively (Buonicore).

     Commercial publication flexographic presses are compact high-
speed presses with wide web  capability  that utilize dedicated 4-,,
5-, or 6-color units.  Typically, two four-color units are paired
in  one  press  to  allow printing  on  both  sides   of  the  web.
Publication  flexographic presses generally incorporate infrared
dryers to ensure drying  of the  waterborne ink after each side of
the web is printed  (Buonicore).
                               2-52

-------
     There  are two primary reasons why  flexography is gradually
becoming  a major player  in the printing  industry:   1)  it is a
relatively simple operation; and 2) it is easily adapted to the use
of water-based inks.   The widespread use  of water-based inks _ in
flexographic .printing means  a  large  reduction in  VOC  emission
compared  to  the  heatset  web  or gravure  printing  processes.
Publication  flexography  is  used  mainly  in  the production  of
-newspaper,  comics,  directories,  newspaper inserts, and catalogs.
Packaging  flexography  is  used for  the  production  of   folding
cartons, labels, and packaging materials.  Large quantities of inks
are used during normal runs on flexographic presses; however, some
printers  are  able to recycle  a  majority  of  their spent  inks  and
wash waters.

     Major  chemicals  used  in  flexography   include  platemaking
solution, water and solvent based inks, and blanket/roller  cleaning
solvents.   Figure 21 presents a process  flow diagram as well as
information on  the chemicals  used  in  publication flexography.
Figure 22 presents this information for packaging flexography (GATF
1992b) .


           3.    Volume  of  Output  -and Percentage of  Total Market

                In 1991,  flexqgraphic  printing  accounted for ill
percent  of  the  total value  of  U.S.  printing  industry  output
 (excluding instant  and in-plant  printing).  Between 1991 and 2025,-
however,  flexography's share of  the market is expected to  increase
to  21  percent.-   Growth areas for  flexography .which  recently
replaced  letterpress  as  the major relief printing process,  are
expected  to be preprinted labels  for corrugated boxes,  pressure
sensitive labels,  newspaper inserts,  comic books,  and  directories
and  catalogs  (Bruno 1990, 1991).


           4.  '  Number and Relative Size of Printing Companies

                Of a total of 59,636 plants with printing  presses,
only  1,587,   or   2.7   percent,   have   flexographic   presses.
Flexographic  printers, however, tend  to be larger  than  printers
using  other   processes.     Almost  55  percent  of plants 'with
 flexographic  presses  have  20  or more employees compared to  less
 than 16 percent  in the  printing industry as  a  whole  (A.F.  Lewis
 1991).
      D.   Letterpress                                      '

           1.   Letterpress Platemaking

                Letterpress and flexographic plates are made using
 the same basic technology.  The two basic types of plates used in
 letterpress  printing are  original  plates and  duplicate plates.
 Only duplicate plates are used in flexography.

                                2-53

-------
2.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8
     PUBLICATION FLEXOGRAPHY

           PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
ART DESIGN, ORIGINAL PICTURE/FILM


PHOTOGRAPHY, COLOR SCANNING,
SEPARATION, PROOFING, STRIPPING,
TYPESETTING, PHOTOTYPESETTING


FILM PROCESSING AND ASSEMBLY


•





PLATEMAKING


PRESS MAKEREADY


PRINTING, COATING


LABELING


INSERTING, COLLATING,
FOLDING, STITCHING, GLUEING,
TRIMMING, BINDING



PRODUCT
                                        PREPRESS
                                        "1
                                        PRESS
                                       POSTPRESS
                                         _J
Figure 21.  Publication Flexography (Source:  GATF 1992b)




        '' • '     :   , '"2-54

-------
   PUBLICATION FLEXOGRAPEY (cont'd)
      CHEMICAL/CHEMICAL COMPOUND USAGE

In reference to each step in the process flow diagram:
1.   Glue, cleaning solvent, class cleaner
2.   Glue
3.   Film fixer, film developer, film cleaner, antistatic spray
4.   Platemaking photopolymer, plate washing, defoamer, plate etching compound,
     plate cleaning liquid, isopropyl alcohol
5.   Microbial agent
6.   Flexo ink (solvent- or water-based), varnish blanket and rolle.r wash, ink
     cleaner/remover, plate preserver
7.   Adhesive
8.   Adhesive         .           ,
      Figure 21.   Publication Flexography  (continued)
                             2-55

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       PUBLICATION  FLEXOGRAPHY (cont'd)
                      MAJOR CHEMICALS USED
Operation/Process

    Prepress

     Film/glass cleaner

     Equipment cleaner
     Film developer

     Film fixer

     Flexoplatemaking
      solution
    Press

     Ink

     Wash solvent/plate
      cleaner
     Wash solution
    Postpress
     Glue, adhesive
  Major Chemicals Used (Volumes of
Individual Chemicals Used Vary Greatly)
Acetone, hexane, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, ethanol, n-propanol,
perchloroethylene, 2-butoxy ethanol, isopropanol
Isopropanol, hexane, acetone
Sodium sulfite, sulfosalicyclic acid, hydroquhione, potassium
sulfite, potassium hydroxide, butyl-diethanolamine
Ammonium thiosulfate, sodium acetate, acetic acid, aluminum
sulfate
Methacrylate monomer, organic
phosphorous compounds, petroleum distillates, anionic
surfactants, potassium hydroxide
Benzisothiazolinon, ethylenediamine, ammonium hydroxide,
antimicrobial agents, isopropanol, toluene
Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, ethanol, mineral
spirits, acetone, toluene
Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether, amines, ammonia
Paraffin wax
           Figure 21.   Publication Flexography (continued)
                                                    ,1V.'••;1,I'll1! 'l*	':•
                                      2-56

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
 6.
 7.
 8.
      PACKAGING FLEXQGRAPHY
           PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
ART DESIGN, ORIGINAL PICTURE/FILM


PHOTOGRAPHY, COLOR SCANNING,
SEPARATION, PROOFING, STRIPPING,
TYPESETTING, PHOTOTYPESETTING


FILM PROCESSING AND ASSEMBLY


PLATEMAKING


PRESS MAKEREADY


PRINTING, COATING


LAMINATING, DIECUTTING


INSERTING, COLLATING,
FOLDING, STITCHING, GLUEING,
TRIMMING, BINDING


PRODUCT
                                        PREPRESS
                                        PRESS
                                        POSTPRESS
                                          _J
  Figure 22.  Packaging Flexography (Source: GATF 1992b)

                      2-57

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     PACKAGING FLEXOGRAPHY (cont'd)
       CHEMICAL/CHEMICAL COMPOUND USAGE


In reference to each step in the process flow diagram:

1.    Adhesive

2.    Cleaning solvent, adhesive

3.    Film fixer, film developer, film cleaning solvent

4.    Platemaking fluid, spent platemaking fluid neutralization compound, muriatic
      acid

5.    Plate cleaning solvent,  ink, plating cleaning solution

6.    Plate cleaner, plate preserver, flexo ink, varnish, roller cleaning solvent

7.    Adhesive, adhesive remover

8.    Adhesive, adhesive remover

      Specialty operations:

       Lamination (glue)
       Figure 22.  Packaging Flexography  (continued)
                              2-58

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        PACKAGING FLEXOGRAPHY (cont'd)
                      MAJOR CHEMICALS USED
Operation/Process

    Prepress

     Film/glass cleaner

     Equipment cleaner
     Film developer

     Film fixer

     Flexoplatemaking
      solution
    Press

     Ink
     Wash solvent/plate
      cleaner

     Wash solution

    Postpress

     Glue, adhesive
  Major Chemicals Used (Volumes of
Individual Chemicals Used Vary Greatly')
Acetone, hexane, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, ethanol, n-propanol,
perchloroethylene, 2-butoxy ethanol, isopropanol
Isopropanol, hexane, acetone
Sodium sulfite, sulfosalicyclic acid, hydroquinone, potassium
sulfite, potassium hydroxide, butyl-diethanolamine
Ammonium thiosulfate, sodium acetate, acetic acid, aluminum
sulfate
Methacirylate monomer, organic phosphorous compounds,
petroleum distillates, anionic surfactants, glycol' ethers,
sodium hydroxide
Benzisothiazolinon, ethylenediamine, ammonium hydroxide,
antimicrobial agents, isopropanol, toluene, n-propanol,
n-propyl acetate, ethyl alcohol, n-heptane
Aliphatic arid aromatic hydrocarbons, ethanol, mineral
spirits, acetone, toluene, isopropanol, methyl isobutyl ketone,
diethylene glycol ether, methyl ethyl ketone
Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether, amines, ammonia
Paraffin wax, toluene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, isopropanol
             Figure 22.   Packaging Flexography  (continued)
                                      2-59

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      Original plates are made by photomechanical means from artwork
 or photographs that have been converted to either line or half-tone
 negatives.     The  negatives   are  used  to  produce   either   a
 photoengraved or photopolymer  plate.    When the original plates
 themselves  are used for printing, they  are  called direct  plates.
 Generally,  direct  plates are  used for very short  press  runs.
 Duplicate plates, cast in molds made  from original plates, are used
 for  longer  press runs.
                                                                  i u inniii uiiLLii i	u	i	11,, LI i,
                a.    Original  Plateg

                     Today,  original plates  are made  either  from a
variety of metals  by acid etching methods or from photopolymer
plastics.  Metal plates are commonly referred to as photoengravings
or  engravings.   The  three  types  of  engravings used, line, half-
tone,  and  combination,  are dependent  on  the type  of  film negative
used to expose  the  plate prior  to- engraving.  Photoengravings are
made in units smaller than the size of the press cylinder allowing
several to'be mounted on the cylinder to  produce a complete  image.
Because rotary  presses dominate the market, lett'erpress' printing
generally  requires  curved  plates.

      A second type  of letterpress  plate,thewraparound plate, is
made using the  same  general  process  as  usec: £or photoengraving.
However, letterpress wraparound plates are mounted in one piece and
cover the  entire surface of the cylinder..  Wraparound letterpress
plates  are used for both dry  offset and  direct printing.

      Photoengraved plates are produced on 16 gauge zinc,  copper, or
magnesium.  Copper is usually  used  for halftone plates and zinc and
other metals for line engravings.   Photosensitive  coatings used in
plate preparation are bichromated shellac for zinc and magnesium
plates  and bichromated  glue for copper plates.  Photocrossiinking
polymers are also used for some plates.  After exposure, the metal
plates  are subjected  to an  acid bath wherethenon-printing areas
are  etched away by the acid.   Large non-printing  areas  may be
removed by mechanical routing.  Nitric acid is frequently used to
etch zinc and magnesium plates' while  a ferric chloride solution is
used for copper plates.

     A major problem  during etching is undercutting, the unwanted
sideways etching that can undercut the resist and adversely  effect
dot  size and line width on  the  plate.  Today .a technique known as
powderless etching is used to prevent this problem.   In powderless
etching, the etching  bath consists of anemulsionof nitric acid,
oils,  and  a wetting  agent.   As the acid attacks  the  plate,  the
wetting agent and oil form  a banking agent that cTIhgs to the sides
of the etched areas  and prevents sideways etching.  This system has
been adopted for  use  on  zinc, magnesium, • copper  and aluminum
plates.   Chemically, the  emulsions  used for etching  copper and
aluminum plates are quite  different  from those used for zinc and
                               2-60

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magnesium  plates.   Powderless  etching  can be used  for original  "'
photoengraved plates as well as wraparound plates.

     Photopolymer plates  can be used for original and wraparound
applications  or for making  duplicate plates.   The  photopolymer
plates in use today are typically proprietary products and include
Dycril,  Nyloprint,   Letterflex,.- Dynaflex,  NAPP,  and  Merigraph
plates.

     Du Pont Dycril plates1, introduced in 1959, are used in a wide
variety of flat, rotary, and wraparound letterpress applications as
well  as  letterset  applications.    These plates  also serve  as
patterns for making duplicate plates.  Dycril plates consist of a
layer  of  light-sensitive plastic  bonded  to a metal  or  film
substructure.   When the plate  is  exposed to UV  light  through a
halftone or line type  negative,  the exposed areas of the plastic
coating is polymerized and becomes hardened. The unexposed coating
can be washed away using an alkaline spray.

     Nyloprint  plates,  produced by BASF, Corp.,  are made  of a
photosensitive  nylon layer bonded  to a backing material,  usually
aluminum,  steel, or distortion  resistant foil.   These plates are
used on cylinder presses for printing magazines and other long run
j obs.      '                                      .•'.-•

     Letter flex plates, manufactured by W. R. Grace &  Co., are used
extensively in  newspaper and book  printing.   They  consist  of a
liquid  photosensitive  prepolymer   applied as  a coating  to  a
polyester sheet. A machine performs both the coating and exposure
process in one operation.  The liquid prepolymer is converted to a
solid polymer on exposed areas of the sheet.  The liquid prepolymer
remaining on the unexposed areas is then removed.   Used on cylinder
presses, Letterflex plates are very durable. :

     Dynaflex plates,  used primarily by the  newspaper industry,
consist  of a dry  prepolymer photosensitive  coating on a  metal
substrate.    Once  exposed,  processing  is   similar  to  other
photopolymer plates.   The  unexposed areas of  the plate is easily
removed by water.

     NAPP plates, developed in Japan but manufactured in the U.S.
by-Lee Enterprises,  Inc., use a denatured polyvinyl alcohol coating
bonded to a steel or aluminum backing.  The plates  are delivered to
the printer in  a presensitized  state that are ready for exposure
without any other processing.  After exposure, the plate is washed
in water to remove the unexposed material.  These plates are used
primarily  for  letterpress  applications  but ' they can be  easily
adapted to gravure and lithographic operations.

     Merigraph  plates, developed in Japan but manufactured in the
U.S.  by  Hercules,   Inc.,   use   a   liquid unsaturated  polyester
                               2-61

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photopolymer  similar  to that found  on  the" Letterflex plate.
machine is used to coat the plate just prior to exposure.
               b.   Duplicate Plates
                    A duplicate is a plate cast in a mold made from
an original plate.  Duplicate plates are used because they can be
made from a number  of  durable materials resulting in plates with
longer  service  lives   than  is  possible with original_ plates.
Furthermore, if a duplicate plate is damaged, a new duplicate can
quickly be produced from the original.  Curved duplicate plates are
produced to fit modern press cylinders.
     Duplicate   plates  fall   into  four   general   categories:
stereotype, electrotype, plastic, and rubber. Each of these types
of plates are described in greater detail below.
     Stereotype  plates are  used only for  letterpress newspaper
printing.  A stereotype plate is prepared by first making a_paper-
mache mat  or mold from the original plate.   Molten metal is then
poured  into 'the paper-mache mold  to form the press  plate.   The
metal used depends on  the  length of  the press run.  For long runs
nickel, chromium, or iron  are used.
     Electrotype  plates  are used in letterpress operations where
high  quality  is  required.   This  includes  commercial printing,,
books,  and magazines.  An  impression  or  mold,of the original is
made using hot plastic.   The mold  is  then plated with silver to
make it conductive.   The coated mold is then electroplated with a
thin layer of copper or  nickel.  The  resulting shell is removed
from the- mold and backed with  molten  metal to give it strength.
The face can then be plated with nickel, iron, or chromium for  long
press  runs.

     Plastic and rubber plates are prepared in a process similar to
the  one used to make electrotype plates.   The use of plastic or
rubber makes the plates  very  lightweight and low-cost.  Plastic
plates  are  made  from  thermoplastic  vinyl resins.    Currently,
however, use of this type of plate is not widespread due largely to
the  toxicity of the vinyl monomers  used.

     Rubber plates can be molded from  either natural  or synthetic
rubber or some combination of  the  two.  These plates  are used on
flexographic presses for printing wrapping paper, bags, envelopes,
corrugated boxes,  milk   cartons, and  any  application where  the
flexible characteristics of rubber assist printing on irregular and
rough  surfaces.  These plates  are  also used for special  "central
impression presses"  used to print flexible films used in packaging.
                                2-62

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          2.    Letterpress Presses and Printing

               Letterpress printing  dates back  to the  earliest
methods,  for  applying  an image  to paper.   The  three types  of
letterpress presses in use today are platen,  flat-bed,  and rotary
presses.   Schematic representations of two of  the most common types
of letterpress presses, the unit-design perfecting rotary press and
the rotary letterpress typically  used for magazine printing,  are
shown in Figure 23.

     Platen presses  have been in continuous use  since Gutenberg
first invented the printing press.  A platen press is  made up of
two  flat surfaces called the  bed and  the  platen.   The plate
containing the image is  placed on the bed and locked  down.   The
platen provides a  smooth backing for the paper or other substrate
that  is  to be printed.   The'plate is inked and  then  the platen
presses  the substrate against the plate producing the impression.
Some  platen presses  are  arranged with the bed and platen in the
verticalpplane.        .

      The plate is  inked  with  an inking.roller  that transfers ink
from  an  inking plate to  the  image carrier.   Ink is placed on the
inking plate by an ink fountain roller.  The platen style press has
been  widely used in printing small-town newspapers since the late
1800s.   The  printing area is usually  limited  to  a maximum of 18
inches  by 24 inches.    These  presses  are  also  used  to print
letterhead,  billheads,  form's,  posters,   announcements,  and many
other types  of  printed products,  as well  as  for  imprinting,
embossing, and hot-leaf  stamping.

      Flat-bed cylinder presses  use either vertical or horizontal
beds.  These presses can  print either one or two-color ^impressions.
Flat-bed cylinder  presses, which operate in a manner similar to the
platen press,  will print stock as large as 42 inches by 56  inches.
The .plate is locked to a  bed which passes over an inking roller and
then  against  the  substrate.    The  substrate  passes  around an
impressipn cylinder  on its way from the feed stack to the delivery
stack.   Ink  is supplied  to the  plate  cylinder by an inking roller
and an ink fountain.  Flat-bed cylinder presses are slow, having  a
production rate of not more than 5,000 impressions per  hour. As_a
result,  much  of the printing formerly done on this type of press is
now done using rotary letterpress or lithography.   The horizontal
bed press, the slower of the two types of flat-bed cylinder press,
is no longer manufactured in  the United  States.

      Rotary  presses are currently the most  popular type of press
used in letterpress  operation.   They can be either sheet-fed or
web-fed and,   in construction, are similar to  other sheet-fed  and
web-fed presses.    Like  all  rotary  presses,  rotary  letterpress
requires curved image carrying plates.  The  most popular types of
plates used are stereotype,  electrotype,  and molded plastic or
                                2-63

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                 plate
                 cylinder
             inking roller
                             impression
                             cylinder
                                              folder
   plate
^cylinder
                                                inking
                                                "roller
                                          ink fountain
              paper roll
                    plate cylinder
              inking
              roller
             ink
             fountain
                                             impression
                                             cylinder
                   paper roll
                                              folder
Figure 23.   Unit-design Perfecting Rotary Press  (top)  and
 Rotary Letterpress.Typically  Used for Magazine Printing
  (Source:   field  1980.   Reproduced by  permission of  Ayer
                   Company Publishers,  Inc.')
                               2-64

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 rubber.  When printing  on  coated papers, rotary presses use heat-
 set  inks and are equipped with dryers, usually'the high-velocity
 hot  air  type.                       .
                i             .          •
     Web-fed rotary  letterpress  presses, are  used primarily  for
 printing newspapers.   These presses are designed to print both
 sides  of the web simultaneously.   Typically, they  can print up to
 four pages across the web;  however,  some  of the new presses  can
 print  up to  six pages across.a 90-inch web.   Rotary letterpress is
 also used  for long-run commercial, packaging,  book,  and magazine
 printing.                          -

     Major chemicals used  in letterpress printing,  very similar to
 those  used  in  lithography,  include  film  developers  and  fixers,
 inks,  and  blanket and roller washes (GATF 1992b).   A  process flow
 diagram  as  well as  information  on  the  chemicals used  in this
 process  are  presented in Figure 24.


           3.   Volume of Output and Percentage of  Total Market

                Prior to the Second World War  letterpress  was  the
 dominant printing process,  but since the  mid-1940s  it has been
 gradually  replaced  by other printing  processes.    In  1991,
 letterpress  printing accounted for 11 percent of the total value of
 U.S. printing  industry output  (excluding  instant and  in-plant
 printing).  However, between 1991 and 2025,  letterpress' market
 share  is expected to decline dramatically  to only  four percent of
.the  total  U.S. market.  By 2025, letterpress will no longer rank as
 a major  printing process.  Gra.vure has largely replaced letterpress
 in  the   printing  of   long-run   magazines and   catalogs  while
 flexography  is  replacing it  for printing  paperbacks,   labels,
 business forms,'newspapers.,  and directories (Bruno 1990,  1991).


           4.,   Number and Relative Size of  Printing Companies

                In  1982,  the.  latest  year for  which  data  are
 available, 20,786 plants  used letterpress  presses.  More recent
 data,  was   available  on  the  number  of   plants   with  sheet fed
 letterpress  presses; in 1988, there were 18,961 plants with this
 type of  press.  In 1982, over 83 percent of  plants with letterpress
 presses  had  fewer than 20 employees and almost  46 percent had fewer
 than five.   In 1988, almost  85  percent of plants with  sheetfed
 letterpress  presses had fewer than 20 employees and 44 percent had
 fewer  than five (A.F. Lewis 1991).
                                2-65

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1.
2.
4.
5.
7.
               LETTERPRESS
            PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
ART DESIGN, ORIGINAL PICTURE/FILM

-
PHOTOGRAPHY, COLOR SCANNING,
SEPARATION , PROOFING , STRIPPING ,
TYPESETTING, PHOTOTYPE SETT ING

.
FILM PROCESSING AND ASSEMBLY


PLATEMAKING


. • , PRESS MAKEREADY


PRINTING


DIECUTTING, INSERTING, COLLATING,
FOLDING, STITCHING, GLUEING,
LAMINATING, TRIMMING, BINDING


PRODUCT
                                          PREPRESS
                                          ~l
                                          PRESS
POSTPRESS
     Figure-24. Letterpress (Source:  GATF 1992b)
                      2-66

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                LETTERPRESS (coht'd)
      CHEMICAL/CHEMICAL COMPOUND USAGE


In reference to each step in the process flow diagram:

1.    Adhesive, cleaning solvent

2.    Color scanner cleaner, deletion fluid

3.    Film developer and fixer, film cleaner, film system cleaner, image
      cleaner/preserver, antistatic spray, adhesive

4.    Plate developer and finisher, plate toner, plate system cleaner

5.    Letterpress ink, blanket wash,, roller wash, copperizing solution, anti-setoff
      powder

6.    Adhesive, ink

7.    Adhesive

      Specialty operations:

       Lamination (glue, varnish, plastics)
       Cellophane window (glue)
              Figure 24.  Letterpress  (continued).

                        :        2-67

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         LETTERPRESS OPERATION (cont'd)
                      MAJOR CHEMICALS USED
Operation/Process

    Prepress

    Film/glass cleaner

    Equipment cleaner
    Film developer

    Film fixer

    Plate developer

    Plate
     ress

    Ink, varnish


    Ink thinner
    Wash solvent

    Linotype

   Postpress

    Glue
   Major Chemicals Used (Volumes of
Individual Chemicals Used Vary Greatly)
Acetone, hexane, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, ethanol, n-propanol,
perchloroethylene, 2-butoxy ethanol, isopropanol
Isopropanol, hexane, acetone
Sodium sulfite, sulfosalicyclic acid, hydroquinone, potassium
sulfite, potassium hydroxide, butyl-diethanolamine
Ammonium thiosulfate, sodium acetate, acetic acid, aluminum
sulfate
Surfactant, Benzyl alcohol, diethanolamine, polyvinyl alcohol,
ethylene glycol, thiol compounds, acetic acid
Photosensitive polymers
Petroleum distillates, vegetable oil, resin, rosin, toluene,
isopropanol, xylene,
pigments containing barium and copper
Hydrotreated or solvent extracted naphthenic distillates
Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, ethanol, turpentine,
acetone
Lead, zinc, tin
Paraffin wax, methanol, hexane, acetone,  ethylene dichloride,
methyl ethyl ketone, polyglycol dimethacrylates, methyl
cyanoacrylates, toluene
                  Figure 24.   Letterpress  (continued).
                                    2-68
                                                                    .

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     E.   Screen Printing          .       .

          1.    Screen Preparation '   ' .

               A typical  image carrier  used in screen  printing
consists of a  screen  made from a very finely woven  fabric.   The
image  is  defined by  a  stencil or mask,which  is adhered, to  the
fabric screen.  Ink will pass through the fabric except where the
stencil  is  applied,   thus  forming  an  image  on  the  printing
substrate.  The fabric is  typically stretched taught over a wooden
or metal  frame.   The resulting shallow container formed by the
frame  will hold a quantity  of ink  which is pressed through the
fabric  by a  squeegee  that  is .drawn  across the  screen  by  the.
printing press.


               a.   Screen Fabrics

                    Silk  was the original material  used to make
screens for screen printing.  Today,  various synthetic material are
the dominant screen materials.,  By far  the most widely used fabric
is monofilament polyester followed by multifilament polyester and
nylon.  Other screen  materials include:   calendared monofilament
polyester, metallized monofilament polyester, carbonized polyester,
glass, wire mesh, and stainless steel.   Screens made of  the same
material can differ  in thread diameter,  number of threads-per-inch,
.and  choice of mono-  or multifilament  fibers.    Need for  various
characteristics such  as wearability and dimensional stability will
help determine the fabric selected for a particular screen printing
job.   Diameter  of  mesh  thread and number of  threads  per inch
determine the amount of ink transferred to the substrate during the
printing process  (Buonicore  and SPAI 1991).
                b.    Stencils

                     The stencil,  used  to  cover the non-printing
 area of the screen,  must be of a material that is  impermeable  to
 the  screen printing ink.  Materials used for stencils include plain
 paper,  shellac  or lacquer coated paper,  lacquer film, photographic
 film  and  light-sensitive emulsions.   Stencil  types  available
 include:    hand-cut  film,  photographic  film,  direct  coating,
 direct/indirect photostencil,  and wet-direct photostencil.

      A hand-cut film  stencil,  is made  by  hand cutting  the image
 areas from a  lacquer  film sheet on a paper backing.    A  liquid
 adhesive is then Used  to bond the  stencil to  the  screen fabric.
 Once the adhesive  has dried,  the  film's  paper backing  sheet  is
 removed.

      Two   types   of   photographic    film,   presensitized  _and
 unsensitized,  are available for use in the preparation of stencils.

                            .  • 2-69

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Presensitized film is ready to use as purchased, while unsensitized
film must first be treated with a photosensitization solution.  In
preparing the stencil,  the film is exposed to a positive film image
in a vacuum frame.  It is then developed in a solution that renders
the unexposed image areas soluble in water.   The soluble areas are
removed and the remaining film  is bonded to the screen fabric.

     In the direct coating process, a light-sensitive emulsion is
applied to  the  entire  screen and allowed to  dry.   The  screen is
then exposed to a film'positive image.   The  non-image areas of the
emulsion  harden upon  exposure.    However,  the  coating in  the
unexposed image areas remains soluble and is removed with a spray
of warm water.  Several coats of the light-sensitive material are
applied and smoothed to achieve a long wearing screen.
     The preparation of direct^ indirect' stencils combines elements
of both the photographic film and the direct coating methods.  An
unsensitized photographic film is laminated to the screen and then
sensitized by the direct application of a photosensitive emulsion.
The exposed stencil is processed in a manner similar -to that used
in the preparation  of  stencils  produced  by the photographic film
and  the direct  coating methods.    The  direct/indirect  process
produces highly  durable stencils  that  are used  in applications
where high print quality is required.
    ,A recent development in.stencil preparation is the wet-direct
photostencil process.  To prepare a stencil using this process, &
film positive  is  held in direct contact with a  wet photopolymer
emulsion.   The emulsion hardens when  exposed to UV  light.   The
unexposed  areas of  emulsion are  then removed  yielding  a  very
durable, high quality screen.
          2.   Screen Presses and Printing

               Reduced to its basics, screen printing consists of
three  elements:    the  screen which  is the  image  carrier;  the
squeegee; and ink.     The screen is placed  in a wooden, steel, or
aluminum frame and pulled taught.   Proper tension is essential to
accurate color registration.   The stencil  is then applied to the.
non-image areas  of  the screen to render them  impervious to ink.
The image areas remain porous.

     The squeegee is a blade that  is drawn across  the screen to
force  ink through its  porous image areas and onto the substrate.
Many factors such as composition, size  and  form, angle, pressure,
and speed of the blade  determine  the quality of the impression.  At
one time most blades were made from rubber which, however,  is prone
to wear and edge nicks  and has a  tendency to  warp and  distort.
While  blades  continue  to be  made  from  rubbers  such as neoprene,
most are now  made from polyurethane which can produce as many as
25,000  impressions without  significant  degradation of the image.

     '   '    ."''        ' '- •'•	 '•'  ' ''• 2-76"

-------
     A  significant  characteristic of  screen  printing is  that  a
greater thickness of the ink can be applied to the substrate than
is possible with other printing techniques.   This allows for some
very interesting effects that are not possible using other printing
methods.  Because of the.simplicity of the application process,  a
wider  range of  inks  and dyes  are available  for use  in  screen
printing than for use in any other printing process.

     Until  relatively  recently all screen printing  presses were
manually operated.  Now,  however,  most commercial and industrial
screen printing is done on single and multicolor automated presses.
Three  types of  presses are  used by the screen printing industry:
flat-bed  (probably  the most widely used), cylinder,  and rotary.
Flat-bed and cylinder presses are similar in that both use a flat
screen  and a  three step  reciprocating process  to  perform the
printing operation.  The screen is first moved into position over
the substrate,  the  squeegee is then pressed  against  the mesh and
drawn over the image area, and then the screen  is  lifted away from
the substrate to complete the process.  With a flat-bed press the
substrate  to  be printed is positioned  on a  horizontal print bed
that  is parallel  to  the  screen.    With a  cylinder press  the
substrate  is mounted on a cylinder  (Field 'and Buonicore}.

     Rotary screen presses are designed for continuous, high speed
web  printing.    The screens  used on  rotary  screen  presses are
seamless thin metal cylinders.  The open-ended cylinders are capped
at both ends and  fitted into blocks  at the  side of the press.
During printing, ink is pumped into, one end of the cylinder  so that
a fresh supply  is constantly maintained.  The squeegee is a free
floating  steel  bar inside  the  cylinder and  squeegee pressure is
maintained and  adjusted by magnets  mounted  under the press _bed.
Rotary screen presses  are most often used for printing textiles,
wallpaper,  and  other  products   requiring  unbroken continuous
patterns.   Figure 25 depicts two types of screen presses, flat-bed
and rotary.                         ,

     Screen printing is arguably the most versatile of all printing.
processes.    It  can  be  used  to  print on   a  wide  variety of
substrates, including  paper,  paperboard, plastics, glass,  metals,
fabrics,  and many other  materials.   The major chemicals used
include screen emulsions, inks,  and solvents,  surfactants, caustics
and  oxidizers  used in screen  reclamation.    The inks used vary
dramatically  in their formulations  (GATF 1992b).  A  process  flow
diagram as well as  information on  the chemicals  used  in  this
process are presented in Figure 26.
                               2-71

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              squeegee
                  »r_
                         paper sheets
              squeegee    screen
                     0     0  ~"U     0
               paper roll
                             magnet force
Figure 25.   Flat-bed Screen Press  (top)  and Rotary Screen Press
     (Source:   Field 1980.  Reproduced by permission of Ayer
                    Company Publishers,  Inc.)
                               2-72

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4
             SCREEN PRINTING
            PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
       ART DESIGN,  ORIGINAL PICTURE/FILM
          PHOTOGRAPHY,, COLOR SCANNING,
        SEPARATION,  PROOFING, STRIPPING,
          TYPESETTING,  PHOTOTYPESETTING
          STENCIL & SCREEN PREPARATION
                  SCREEN MAKING
              FOOTPRINT,  PRINTING
              -SCREEN RECLAMATION
                     PRODUCT
                                            PREPRESS
PRESS
POSTPRESS
    Figure 26.  Screen Printing (Source:  GATF 1992b).

             . -         ' 2-73             • '

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                                                                   IllIIIIIII Illlllllll 111
           SCREEN PRINTING (cont'd)
      CHEMICAL/CHEMICAL COMPOUND USAGE
In reference to each step in the process flow diagram:

1.    Adhesive, cleaning solvent

     Cleaning solvent, film fixer and developer
2.

3.

4.

5.
     Mesh preparation compounds, abrading compounds, degreasers, aclhesives,
     stencil/emulsion systems, blockout solution
                  \         .
     Screen printing ink, haze remover

     Ink remover, stencil remover
          Figure 26.   Screen Printing (continued)
             „ i       ,      '                 I
                            ,2-74

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     SCREEN PRINTING OPERATION  (cont'd)
                      MAJOR CHEMICALS USED
Operation/Process

    Prepress

     Film developer

     Film fixer

   ,  Stencil emulsion
     Postpress

     Screen reclamation
      solvents
  Major Chemicals Used (Volumes of
Individual Chemicals Used Vary Greatly)
Sodium sulfite, sulfosalicyclic acid, potassium hydroxide,
potassium sulfite, hydroquinone, butyl-diemanolamine
Ammonium thiosulfate, sodium acetate, acetic acid,
aluminum sulfate
Polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl acetate, benzoate esters, citrate
esters, trihexyl ester acetate, trimethylolpropane triacrylate,
pentaerythritol tetracrylate, sodium citrate, phthalocyanine
pigments, diazonium salts
                            Glycol ethers, aromatic and aliphatic petroleum distillates,
                            ketones, esters, mono- and multifunctional acrylate
                            monomers, acrylate oligomers, isocyanates, acrylic, vinyl,
                            urethane, styrene, ceUulosic, polyamide, epoxy, polyester
                            and melamine resins, silicones, amines, pigments
                            containing lead, chromium, and cadmium
 Mineral spirits, toluene, xylenes, limonenes, terpenes,
 acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, cyclohexanone, butyrolactbne,
 ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, ethylene glycol mono butyl ether
 acetate, propylene glycol mono methyl ether acetate,
 propylene glycol mono ethyl ether acetate, diethylene glycol
 mono butyl ether acetate, dipropylene glycol mono methyl
 ether acetate, isoprppanol, diacetone alcohol, benzyl alcohol,
 terpineol, ethylene glycol mono methyl ether,  ethylene glycol
 mono ethyl ether
                 Figure  26.   Screen Printing (continued).

                                       2-75

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      SCREEN PRINTING OPERATION (cont'd)
                      MAJOR CHEMICALS USED
Operation/Process
  Major Chemicals Used (Volumes of
Individual Chemicals Used Vary Greatly)
    Postpress (conU

    Screen reclamation
     solvents (cont.)
    Screen reclamation
     surfactants
    Screen reclamation
     caustics
    Screen reclamation
     oxidizers
Ethylehe glycol mono butyl ether, propylene
glycol mono methyl ether, propylene glycol mono ethyl
ether, propylene glycol mono butyl ether, diethylene glycol
mono ethyl ether, diethylene glycol mono butyl ether,
dipropylene glycol mono methyl ether, dipropylene glycol
mono ethyl ether, dipropylene glycol mono butyl ether,
N-methylpyrrolidone,
Alkybenzene sulphonates, alkyl sulphates, alkyl ether
sulphates, aliphatic phosphate esters, alkyl sulphosuccinates,
alkyl phenol ethoxylates, ethoxylated fatty alcohols, EO-PO
block copolymers, tetra alkylammonium halides/phosphates,
betaines, alkylimidazoline carboxy acids
Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, sodium
carbonate, trisodium phosphate
Sodium metaperiodate, sodium hypochlorite, periodic
acid, enzymes
               Figure 26.   Screen Printing  (continued)
                                    2-76

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          3.    Volume of 'Output and Percentage of Total Market

               In 199.1,  screen printing accounted  for  less than
three percent of the total value of• U.S. printing .industry output
(excluding instant and in-plant printing).  Between  1991 and 2025,
screen printing  market share  is  expected to  show little  or no
growth (Bruno 1991).


          4.    Number and Relative Size of Printing Companies

               The  Screen   Printing   Association  International
estimates that there are  at  least  40,000  plants in the U.S. with
screen presses  (Kinter .1993).   This estimate does not include an
unknown number of electronics  plants  that use screen printing in
the production of electronic circuitry (Kinter 1992). The majority
of screen printing plants are small businesses with fewer than 20
employees  (Kinter 1993).


     F.   Plateless Processes

          1.   Description

               The various plateless printing processes are quite
different  from  the  five major conventional  printing  processes
described above.  Unlike  traditional processes, the new_processes
do not  use printing plates'  or any other  type  of physical image
carrier.  Instead, they rely on sophisticated computer software and
hardware to control  the printing elements.  Currently, however, the
plateless processes are  restricted largely to in-plant and quick
printing applications.

     In  terms of chemical  use, the  plateless processes  have  a
number   of  advantages   over   traditional  printing  processes.
Typically, make-ready preparations are  done  electronically  so the
various chemicals associated with prepress operations are largely
avoided.   Plateless processes  do not  require solvent washes and
with a  few exceptions  (e.g.,  ink jet printers) dry (solventless)
inks are used.   Though the chemicals  used in plateless processes
depends  on the particular process  involved, important chemicals
include . Freon  11,  inks,  and  hydrocarbon based,  solvents  (GATF
1992b) .  A process flow diagreim for electronic printing  as well as
information  on the  chemicals used are presented in  Figure 27.
           2.
Specific Plateless Processes
                A  number   of   commercial   plateless_   printing
 technologies  were identified including:   electronic printing,  ink
 jet printing, magnetography, ion deposition printing, direct charge
 deposition printing, and  the Mead Cycolor Photocapsule  process.
 Each  of these systems is discussed briefly below.
                               2-77

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         ELECTRONIC PRINTING
           PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
1.
2.
3.
ART DESIGN, ORIGINAL PICTURE/FILM


SEPARATION, PROOFING, STRIPPING


FILM PROCESSING AND ASSEMBLY




-
PRESS MAKEREADY


LABELING, STAMPING, COLLATING,
FOLDING, STITCHING, GLUEING



PRODUCT
                                         ~\
                                        PREPRESS
                                          PRESS
                                         POSTPRESS
 Figure 27.  Electronic Printing (Source:  GATF 1992b).

                     2-78

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       ELECTRONIC PRINTING (cont'd)
      CHEMICAL/CHEMICAL COMPOUND USAGE


In reference to each step in the process flow diagram:
            t
1.   None

2.   None

3.   Cleaning solvent

4.   Water and solvent based inks, petroleum hydrocarbon additives, ink depositing
     solvents

5.   Adhesive

     Specialty operations:

      Ink jet (water and solvent based inks),
      Laser printer (freon and acetone),
      Electropress (solvent based inks and petroleum based ink
      solvents)
        Figure  27.   Electronic Printing (continued) .

                .         •    2-79

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           ELECTRONIC PRINTING (cont'd)
                   MAJOR CHEMICALS USED
Operation/Process

   Prepress

    None

   Press

    Ink
    Processing
     material
    Wash solvent
   Postpress

    Glue
  Major Chemicals Used (Volumes of
Individual Chemicals Used Vary Greatly)
None
Petroleum distillates, isopropanol, aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons, pigments
Freon 113, acetone, petroleum hydrocarbons,
Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, ethanol, mineral spirits,
acetone, isopropanol
Paraffin wax
            Figure 27.   Electronic Printing  (continued)
                                 2-80

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               a.   Electronic. Printing

                    The. most  important electronic  processes  are
xerographic  and  laser printing.    With  one  major  exception,
xerographic and laser printers operate on similar principals.   In
both processes an  image is recorded on a drum in  the  form of an
electrostatic charge.  The electrostatic charge is then transferred
to a sheet of  some material,  generally paper.   A conductive fine
dry powder, the toner, is then spread on the paper.  The toner is
attracted  to  the  electrostatically  charged  areas  of  the paper,
thereby converting the electrostatic image  into a visual one.  The
paper is then heat  treated  to melt and affix the toner to the paper
(Adams 1988; Bruno  1990; Hawley 1981).

     Laser  printing and xerography differ in  how  the  image is
inputted and how the electrostatic image is formed on the drum.  In
xerography,  light  reflected  off  a  hard  copy  of  the   text  or
pictorial image  (e.g., a printed or  illustrated page) is projected
on to the drum though a camera lens.  In laser printing the image
is inputted in digital form from a computer.  A laser is then used
to project the image onto  the  drum (Adams 1988; Bruno 1990; Hawley
1981).

     The  input  and output capabilities  of  electronic  printing
continue to improve.  For example', raster image processing has made
the  integration  of text and graphic  images much easier.    (Until
recently,  most computer output  devices formed  text and graphic
images  as  a series of  dots.   With  raster image processing,  the
image is  formed as a series of  lines.)   The  resolution of laser
printers  is good  but  still  falls   far  short of  the ' resolution
achieved   with  phototypesetters.     To   produce  high  quality
reproductions of fine type and halftone screen images, a resolution
of at least 1,500 line per inch is required. However, in  1990, the
highest resolution laser  printers could achieve was a density of
1,200 X 600 dots per inch  (dpi)  while most  achieved resolutions of
only 300 X 300 dpi.

     Currently,  electronic printing is used, primarily for  short-run
in-plant and quick printing.  Another use is  for the production of
proof copies  of  printed materials which will be printed using one
o'f the. traditional printing technologies.  These proof copies' are
much less  expensive  than  phototypeset  proofs.     In   desktop
publishing,  electronic printing  is  often used to produce  a camera
ready  copy of a document  that is  then printed  using one  of the
traditional printing technologies.  According to Michael Bruno, the
current markets  for desktop publishing include demand publishing,
book review copies, college texts,  workbooks, technical  manuals,
and  parts  catalogs (Adams  .1988;  Bruno 1990).
                               2-81

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                                                                      iiiiiiiiiiiiiii
               b."    Ink-jet Printing

                     Ink-jet printers operate by spraying a pattern
of individual  ink  droplets onto a substrate.  The application of
the  dot matrix image  is  controlled by computer  input.   The twp-
types  of ink-jet  printers differ  in whether  the  "jet"  of ink
droplets is continuous, or occurs only when a drop  of  ink is needed
to form part-of the dot matrix image.  In continuous spray systems,
an electric charge is used to deflect ink drops  not needed to form
the  image to an ink recycling unit.  In a drop-on^demand system,
drops of ink are produced  only when  they are needed to form part of
the  image.    Drop-on-demand  systems are  less complicated than
continuous systems and use less ink; however,  they print much more
slowly  (Adams 1988).

     The advantage  of  ink-jet printing is the speed with which it
can  do addressing  and print variable  information on repetitive
forms.   For  these  reasons  ink-jet  printers are credited with
revolutionizing  the direct mailing  business.  Other applications
include  printing  bar  and  batch  codes and printing  variable
information  on  computer  letters,  sweepstakes  forms,  and  other
personalized direct mail advertising as well as on payroll checks
and other business forms.   Furthermore,  because  it is a non-impact
printing process, jet-printers can  be used to print on almost any
surface  despite the material,  texture,  shape,  or resistance to
surface pressure.  Because of this versatility, ink-jet printing is
used to print on substrates as varied as p-£as£j_cs^ sandpaper, and
pills  (i.e., Pharmaceuticals)  (Adams 1988; Bruno  1990).

     The  major  disadvantage  of  ink-jet  printers   is  the  low
resolution  of  the images  produced.  The poor  resolution  is the
result  of at  least three factors:  even on the best machines no
more than 300 dots per square inch are possible; a certain percent
of the dots applied are misdirected; and the dots of inks used tend
to spread as they dry  (Adams 1988).   ;
               c.
Maqnetoqraphv
                    Magnetography is similar to electronic printing
except that a magnetic, and not an 'electrostatic, photoconductor is
used.  T,he toner must, of course, be magnetic material.  Magneto-
graphic printing is competitive with traditional printing methods,
such as lithography,  for small runs of up to about 1,500 copies.
Drawbacks include slow speed, high  toner costs, and the 'inability
of currently available printers to do color process printing .(Bruno
1990) .         '          	,	
                               2-82

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               d.   Thermal Printing

                .In thermal printing, an  image  is  formed by a
chemical reaction  that  occurs when portion^  of  a  thermal-coated
paper are subjected to heat.   The printing element consists of one
or more heated pins or nibs.  Currently thermal printers find use
in facsimile machines  and other office applications.  A shortcoming
of thermal print is that it  tends  to  fade  over time.   In certain
applications  such  as fax  machines,  thermal printers  are  being
replaced by electronic printers using plain paper (GATF 1992b).


               e.   Ion Deposition Printing

                    The  ion  deposition process is  similar  to
electronic printing and other electrostatic  processes.   The four
basic  steps  of the process  are:    1)  an electrostatic  image is
generated on a rotating drum using a directed array  of ions; 2)
toner  is attracted to the  latent  image  on  the drum;  3)  the toned
image  is  transferred  to plain paper by  cold pressure fusion; 4)
toner  residue  is removed from the  drum  by  a doctor blade and the
drum is ready  for  re-imaging  (Bruno 1990).

     Ion  deposition  printers  are  used   in  various  business
applications  such  as  printing invoices,  reports, manuals, forms,
letters and proposals  as well as in specialty printing applications
such as tags,  tickets, and checks  (Bruno 1990).


               f.   Direct Charge .Deposition  Printing

    ."..",'           In direct charge deposition printing, the image
is  generated by a direct  voltage  carried  by ionized,  air.   The
process differs from  ion deposition printing  in  that the  image is
projected  on  to   a dielectric belt  and not a drum.    A major
advantage  of  the direct   charge  deposition  printers  is  the
durability of  both the dielectric belt and the imaging head which
can  produce  up  to   200,000  pages  and  five  million^ pages,
respectively,  before replacement.    This   technology   is   used
primarily for printing business forms  (Bruno  1990).


               g..   Mead Cvcolor Photocapsule Process

                    The Mead Cycolor Photocapsule Process combines
microencapsulation technology used in carbonless copy paper  with
photopolymerization   technology found in UV • curable inks.   The
process uses two coated materials,  the Cycolor film and the Cycolor
receiver  sheet.  The  coating on the Cycolor  film is embedded with
millions  of  microcapsules that contain a liquid acrylic  monomer,  a
yellow,  cyan,  or magenta  leuco  dye   base,  and  one _ of  three
photoinitiators.   Each  of  the photoinitiators is sensitive  to the

                               2-83

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spectrum of visible light corresponding to the final color of the
leuco dye  itself.   Leuco dyes are dyes which  have been rendered
colorless  by  the addition of a  chemical  group referred  to  as  a
color block.  The  color  block can be removed and the appropriate
color developed by reacting the dye with an acid.  When the cycblbf
film is exposed to colored light,  the photoinitiators sensitive to
the particular  color  cause the monomer to polymerize and harden.
The contents  of the  unexposed microcapsules remain in  a liquid
state (Bruno 1990).

     The Cycolor receiver sheet is coated  with  an acid resin that,
during processing, reacts with the leuco dyes in the film to remove
the color  blocks and  form color  dyes.   The receiver sheet can be
either paper or a  transparency.To  print the receiver sheet, it
and  the exposed Cycolor  film   are  brought  into  contact  under
pressure by feeding them between  two  rollers.   The pressure breaks
the unexposed microcapsules  on the film,  releasing the colorless
leuco dyes, monomer, and photoinitiator.  Subsequently, the leuco
dyes react with the coating on the receiver sheet to form colored
dyes and the monomer hardens as well.  The result is a continuous
tone color image  (Bruno 1990).
     Currently, the Cycolor process is used for color copiers, 35mm
slide printers, color computer printers for desktop printing, and
color video output for electronic imaging  (Bruno 1990).
          3.   Volume of Output' and Percentage of Total Market

             •  In  1991,  the  various  plateless printing processes
accounted  for only  three percent  of  the total  value  of  U.S.
printing industry output (excluding instant and in-plant printing) .
However, plateless printing  is expected  to  experience explosive
growth "over  the  next 35 years and is  forecast to  account for 21
percent of the market by 2025  (Bruno 1991).
            1 •" !    , ".  ' ". .                 I    MM'

          4.   Number and'Relative Size of Printing Companies

               No  information  was found on the current number or
relative  size of  companies  or plants using  plateless printing
processes.     However,   many   of  these  processes,   especially
xerographic, electronic, and ink-jet printers, are widely used by
thousands of  "quick" printing  services, the majority of which are
small businesses.  These printing technologies are also_used on an
enormous scale in the office environment and their use in  the home
is becoming commonplace.

                               2-84

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 TV.  POSTPRESS OPERATIONS

     A.    Introduction                      JS

           Postpress  operations consist of  four major processes:
 cutting,   folding,  assembling,  and binding.    Not  all  printed
 products,  however,  are subjected  to  all  of the  processes.   For
 example, simple folded pamphlets do not undergo binding.

     There are many additional  lesser postpress  finishing processes
 such as varnishing,  perforating,  drilling,  etc.   Some  types of
 greeting cards are dusted with  gold bronze.  Printed metal products
 are, formed into containers  of various sizes and shapes. Many metal
 toys are  prepared in  the  same manner.   Containers  may  also be
 coated  on  the inside  ,to protect  the eventual  contents.   Other
 substrates may  be subjected to  finishing processes that involve
 pasting, mounting,  laminating, and collating.    There are also a
 number of postpress operations  unique to screen printing including
 die cutting,, vacuum forming, and embossing.

  *   A limited number and volume of chemicals are used in postpress
 operations.  The major type of  chemicals used in postpress are the
 adhesives  used in binding and  other assembly operations.  Because
 chemical usage  is  limited,  only a brief  overview of each of the
 four major postpress  operations  is  provided in  the following
 sections.  In-line finishing,  an automated process that links the
press directly with postpress  operations,  is also discussed.


     B.    Cutting

           The machine  typically used for  cutting large web-type
 substrates into individual pages or sheets is called a guillotine
 cutter or  "paper cutter".  These machines  are built in many sizes,
 capacities, and configurations.   In general, however, the cutter
consists of a flat bed or table that holds  the stack of paper to be
cut.  At the rear  of the cutter the stack of paper rests against
 the fence or back guide which is adjustable.  The  fence allows the
operator to accurately position the paper for  the specified cut.
The side guides  or walls of the cutter are  at exact right angles to
the bed. A clamp is lowered into contact with the top of the paper
stack to hold  the stack in place  while  it  is cut.   The cutting
blade itself is  normally powered by an electric engine operating a
hydraulic pump.  However, manual- lever cutters are also still in
use.

     To assist the operator in  handling large reams of paper which
can weigh as much as 200 pounds, some tables are designed to blow
air through small openings  in the bed of the  table.  The air lifts
 the stack of paper slightly providing a near frictionless^ surface
on which to move the paper stack.
                               2-85

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     The cutter operator uses a cutting layout to guide the cutting
operation.  Typically,  the  layout  is  one  sheet from the printing
job that has been ruled to show the location and order of the cuts
to be made.               ,      "                  .
     Though cutting is generally considereda pbstpress bperation,
most lithographic and gravure web presses have integrated cutters
as well as equipment to perform related operations such'as slicing
and perforating.  '       '     	•	  '	
   1  C.   Folding      '

          Folding  largely  completes  postpress  operations  for
certain products such as simple folded pamphlets.  Other products
are  folded  into bunches, known as  signatures,  of from  16  to 32
pages.  Multiple signatures are then assembled and bound into books
and magazines.  Though folding is generally considered a postpress
operation, most lithographic and gravure web presses are equipped
with folders".	      	'	-	 	'	_'

          Three different folders are used in modern print shops.
They range in complexity from thei bone "folder•'"to  the buckle folder.
Bone folders have been  used  for  centuries and are made of either
bone or plastic. These  folders are simple shaped pieces of bone or
plastic  that are passed over the  fold  to form a  sharp crease.
Today,  they continue to be used,  but only for .small,  very high
quality jobs.'      '     _ 	 '	

     Knife folders use a thin "knife to force the paper between two
rollers  that are counter-rotating.   This  forces  the paper to be
folded at the point where the knife contacts it. A fold  gauge and
a moveable side bar are.used to position the paper in the machine
before the knife forces the paper between the rollers. The rollers
have knurled surfaces that grip the paper and crease it.   The paper
then  passes out  of the  folder  and  on  to a  gathering station.
Several  paper paths, knives  and roller  sets can be  stacked to
create  several folds  on the  same  sheet  as  it passes  from one
folding station to another.

     Buckle  folders differ from knife folders  in that the sheet is
made to buckle and pass between the two"rotating rollers of  its own
accord.  In a buckle folder,  drive rollers cause the  sheet  to  pass
between  a set of closely spaced folding  plates.   When  the sheet
comes in contact with the sheet gauge, the drive rollers continue
to drive the paper causing it to buckle over and then pass between
the  folding  rollers.
                               2-86

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     D.
Assembly
          The assembly process brings all of the printed and non-
printed  elements  of  the  final product together prior to binding.
Assembly usually  includes three steps:  gathering, collating, and
inserting.                .                       .

     Gathering  is the process of placing signatures  next to one
another.  (A signature is a bunch of printed sheets  ranging from 16
to 32 pages.)   Typically,  gathering is used for assembling books
that have page  thicknesses of at least 3/8 inch.

     Collating  is the process  of  gathering  together individual
sheets of paper instead  of signatures.                  .

     Inserting  is the process of combining signatures by placing or
"inserting"  one inside another.   Inserting is  normally used for
pieces whose final thickness will be less than one-half inch.

     Assembly  processes  can  be manual,  semiautomatic  or. fully
automatic.   In  manual assembly operations,  workers hand assemble
pieces  from stacks of sheets  or signatures laid  out on tables.
Sheets or signatures  are picked up  from the stacks in the correct
order and either  gathered,  collated,  or 'inserted to form bindery
units.   Some printers use  circular  revolving  tables to as'sist in
this process.   However, due  to the  high cost of  labor,  manual
assembly is used  only for small jobs.

     Semiautomatic assembly is completely automated  except that
stacks of sheets  or  signatures must be manually  loaded into the
feeder units.   During semiautomatic inserting,  operators at each
.feeder station open signatures and place them at the "saddlebar" on
a moving conveyer.   The number  of stations  on the  machine is
determined  by   the   number . of  signatures   in   the  completed
publication.    Completed units  are removed  at the  end of  the
conveyer and passed on to the bindery.

     Automatic assemblers are similar to semiautomatic  units except
that a machine  and not a person delivers the sheets or signatures
to the feeder station and places them on the conveyor.   In order to
improve  efficiency,  automatic  assemblers  are  typically placed in
line with bindery equipment.


     E.   Binding

          Binding is  categorized by the method used to hold units
of printed material together.  The three most commonly  used methods
are adhesive binding, side binding,  and saddle binding.   Three
types of covers  are  available  to  complete the binding process:
self-covers, soft-covers, and casebound covers.
                               2-87

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          1.   Binding Methods

               Adhesive  binding,  also  known as padding,  is  the
simplest form of binding.  It is 'used for note pads and paperback
books, among other products.
                                                                  "HI*II I1 '"I," iiiviiJL'lIIII >
     In the adhesive  binding process,  a pile of paper is  clamped
securely together in  a press.  A liquid glue is then applied with
a brush to the  binding edge.   The  glue most commonly used  in
binding is a water-soluble latex that becomes impervious to water
when it dries.  For note pads, the glue used is flexible and will
easily  release an individual sheet of  paper when  the  sheet  is
pulled away from the binding.  Adhesive bindings are also used  for
paperback  books,  but these  bindings  must  be  strong  enough  to
prevent pages  from pulling out during normal use.  For  paperback
book binding,  a hot-melt glue with much greater adhesive strength
than  a water-soluble  latex  is applied.   A piece of gauze-like
material is inserted  into  the glue to provide added strength.
     In side binding, a fastening device is passed at a right angle
through a pile of paper.  Stapling  is an example of  a simple form
of  side binding.    The three  other types  of side binding  are
mechanical, loose-leaf, and  side-sewn binding.

     A common example of a form of mechanical binding is the metal
spiral notebook.  In this method of binding,  a series of holes are
punched or drilled through the  pages and cover and then a wire is
then  run through  the  holes.    Mechanical  binding  is  generally
considered  as permanent;  however,  plastic   spiral  bindings  are
available that can be removed without either tearing the pages or
destroying  the binding material.   Mechanical binding  generally
requires some manual labor.

     Looseleaf  bindings  generally allow  for  the  removal  and
addition of pages.   This  type of binding includes the well known
three-ring binder.

     Side-sewn binding  involves drilling an odd number of holes in
the binding edge of the unit and then clamping the unit to prevent
it from moving.   A needle and thread is then passed through each
hole proceeding from one end of the book to the other and then back
again  to  the beginning point.   This type o'f stitch  is  called a
buck-stitch.  The thread  is  tied off to  finish the process.  Both
semiautomatic  and automatic machines are  widely used to perform
side-stitching.  The main disadvantage of  this type  of binding is
that the book will not  lie  flat when opened.

     In saddle  binding one or more signatures  are fastened along
their folded edge of the unit.  The term saddle binding comes from
an open signature's  resemblance to an  inverted riding saddle.
Saddle binding  is used extensively for news magazines where wire
stitches  are placed in the  fold of the signatures.   Most saddle

              ••• '	     '••• " •• '2-88'" ' 	 "	'	  '	

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stitching is performed automatically in-line during the postpress
operations.  Large manually  operated  staplers  are  used for small
printing jobs.

     Another  saddle  binding  process  called Smythe  sewing  is  a
center sewing process.  It is considered to be the highest quality
fastening method used today and will produce a book that will lie
almost flat.
          2.
Covers
               Self-covers are made from the same material as the
body  of the  printed product.   Newspapers  are the most  common
example of a printed product that uses self-covers.

     Soft covers are made from paper or paper fiber material that
is somewhat heavier or more substantial than the paper used, for the
body of the publication.  This type of cover provides only slight
protection for the contents.  Unlike self-cover,  soft  covers almost
never  contain part of the message or text of the publication.   A
typical example  of the soft cover  is  found on paper-back books.
These  covers are  usually cut  flush with  the inside  pages and
attached to the signatures by glue,  though they can also be sewn in
place.

     Casebourid  covers  are the rigid covers generally  associated
with  high-quality bound books.    This  method  of  covering  is
considerably  more  complicated than  any of  the  other methods.
Signatures are trimmed by a three-knife trimming machine to produce
three  different  lengths  of signature.  This forms  a  rounded  front
 (open)  edge to give the finished book an attractive appearance ,and
provides  a back edge shape  that is compatible with that of the
cover.   A backing is  applied by clamping  the  book  in place and
splaying  or mushrooming  out  the  fastened edges  of  the  signatures.
This  makes the rounding operation permanent and produces a  ridge
for the casebound  cover.  Gauze and strips of paper are then  glued
to the back edge in a process called lining-up.  The gauze is  known
as "crash" and the paper strips are called "backing paper."   These
parts  are eventually glued to the  case  for improved strength and
stability.  Headbands are applied to the head and tail  of the-book
for decorative purposes.

      The  case is made of two  pieces  of thick board, called binder's
board, that  is glued  to the  covering  cloth  or leather.   The
covering, material can be printed either before or after gluing by
hot-stamping or screen methods.

      The  final step in case binding consists of applying end sheets
 to attach the case to the body of the book.
                                2-89

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      F.    In-Line Finishing
           Historically,  the finishing  operations  described above
were labor-intensive operations handled either in-house or by trade
shops.     Even  when  performed  in-house,   finishing  operations
generally were not  integrated with the presses or with each other.
Today, web presses are often linked directly to computer controlled
in-line  finishing equipment.   Equipment is available  to perform
virtually all major  post-press  operations  including  cutting,
folding,  perforating,  trimming,  and stitching (Adams).
      In-line  finishing  equipment  can also  be  used to  prepare
materials  for  mailing.    The  computer   can  store  and  provide
addresses  to  ink-jet or  label printers,  which then  address each
publication in  zip  code order (Adams).

      One  of  the  most  important  results  of  computer  in-line
finishing is the introduction of demographic binding, the selective
assembly of a publication based on any one or  more of a number of
factors  including geographic  area,  family structure,  income,  or
interests.  For example, an advertisement will  appear only in those
copies of a magazine  intended for distribution in the advertisers
selling area.   Demographic binding has proven to i>e  a successful
marketing  tool  and is  already widely used,  especially by major
magazines  (Adams).
                                        • 'il	 !	It •,	Jim"!	 :i, liili-ilHUiH.;*-. •' il"•'."'VS?,"",",is 1f 'ii1:!1. ,'H "i '"(I1 >'!;!! "I:'''? »',:""!!:'"I' liti'll	H
     One  comparison  found  that  the use  of  in-line  finishing
equipment can reduce  the number of operators  and helpers required
for an off-line finishing operation by almost half, while at least
doubling the rate of  production (Adams).
                               2-90

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V.   TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS

     The print ing'Indus try has been experiencing a period of change
that promises to be greater than any it's  experienced  since the
introduction of automated printing presses.  Much of the change is
3eing fueled by the  already widespread  and  still  rapidly growing
application of computers  to the printing  industry.   Major trends
include:

     Prepress

     o    Continued rapid development in computer-based front-end
          platforms  that  allow users to  create,  manipulate,  and
          store text, graphic images, and entire documents prior to
          printing;             .

     o    Improved telecommunications and introduction of' digital
          data exchange standards that will allow the exchange of
          text, graphics,, and  entire documents between different
          press systems;
          Development  of
          technologies;
                 direct-to-plate   and  direct-to-press
     Press
          Increasing automation of press operations;

          Introduction of waterless lithographic plates that do not
          require a dampening system;

          Introduction of a new generation of low- or no VOC non-
          alcohol fountain solutions and of low-VOC press cleaners;

          Growing use of low-  or  no  VOC ink technologies such as
          vegetable  oil-  and water-base  inks,  high-solids inks,
          ultraviolet  and  electron  beam   curable   inks,   and
          chemically, reactive inks;

          Overall  trend  toward reduction or replacement  in the
          press room of chemicals that pose a potential hazard to
          human health or the environment;
          Increased recycling of ink;

                               market
Ma j or   growth
technologies ;
                           in
for  plateless   printing
     Postpress

     o    Increasing automation of postpress operations;

     o    Growing use  of  in-line  finishing; and

     o    Increasing use  of water-base adhesives.

                               2-91

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                    TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS
                   IN THE PRINTING INDUSTRY
    PREPRESS
          Rapid development in computer-based front-end platforms (e.g. desktop
          publishing)
          Improved telecommunications and introduction of digital data exchange
          standards
          Direct-to-plate and direct-to-press technologies
    PRESS
          Automation
          Waterless lithographic plates that do not require dampening systems
          New generation of non-alcohol fountain solutions and low-VOC press
          cleaners    .
          Low- or no VOC ink technologies such as vegetable oil- and water-base
          inks, high-solids inks, ultraviolet and electron beam curable inks, and
          chemically reactive inks
          Ink recycling
          Plateless printing technologies
          Reduction in the use of materials that pose a potential hazard to human
          health or the environment
   POSTPRESS
          Automation
          In-line finishing
          Water-base adhesives
Figure  28.   Technological  Trends in the  Printing  Industry
                               2-92,

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     In   the   following   sections,   new   products,   emerging
technologies, and other factors affecting the printing industry are
explored in more detail.


     A.   Trends in Prepress Technology

          Prepress  technologies  made major  strides in  the  late
1980s and early 1990s and rapid progress will continue throughout
the current decade.  Most  of  the prepress  tasks at both prepress
shops  and printers  are - now performed  using  a  combination  of
computer hardware and software commonly referred to as a front-end
platform  (Bruno 1990; SRI 1990).
          1.'  Front-End Platforms (Desktop Publishing)

               Front-end platform (FEP)  is  a  term used  by, the
industry to describe the combination of desktop computer hardware
and peripherals  and sophisticated software  that allow  users ^ to
create, manipulate,  and store  text,  graphic images,  and entire
documents prior to printing.  These systems are found not only in
the printing industry  but  in  literally  thousands  of homes and
offices across  the  country,    FEPs  and desktop  publishing will
continue to  develop and grow in  importance  well into mid-decade
(SRI 1990).

     Using  FEPs,  the  lay  person  can  perform  many  prepress
operations and  produce a high  quality copy ready  for printing.
When used properly, a primary benefit of this emerging technology
will be a significant reduction in the cost of producing lay-outs
ready for the plate maker.   This,  in  turn, will make it profitable
for printers to -accept shorter-run jobs.   According  to  the Graphic
Arts Technical Foundation (GATF), however, lay persons rarely use
FEPs properly when preparing materials for printing.  Instead their
limited'knowledge of the printing process often creates, more work
for the printer  (Jones  1993).

     Important  new  products  available  for prepress functions
include:              ,

     o    Graphics-oriented Workstations.  FEPs,  now based largely
          on  low-cost  personal  computers,  will  .evolve -toward
          graphics-oriented workstations  rurining production-level
          software.    The  software  will  be  based  on   products
          originally developed  for  CAD/CAM  applications  (Bruno
          1990;  SRI  1990).                                    ,

     p    Color  Electronic Prepress  Systems  (CEPS).  CEPS provide
          the capability to  perform complete  color  page  makeup
          including color balciricing -and correction.  Newer systems
          will be priced economically thus reducing the price-per-

                                2-93                          ,

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           printed-page.    CEPS  willbe  capable  of  performing
           integrated text and graphics functions in both black and
           white and color.   It will be  possible  to fully network
           CEPS with other digital equipment including-, for example,
           modems for telecommunications, and directly-driven image
           carrier preparation systems (Bruno 1990;  SRI 1990).
           Digital  Scanners. _ i Lower	cost	flat-bed	scanners,, are
           expected to  largely replace the  drum scanners  in new
           systems by,1994. These systems use charge-coupled device
           (CCD)  technology as the primary imaging element.   Flat-
           bed scanners will  be used in both color and  black and
           white work and will be capable of scanning a complete
           page at a time.   These  systems  will be driven by either
           personal  computers, graphics  workstations,  or  CEPS.
           Initially,  the cost of these systems  will be  high,  but
           will probably decline to levels affordable to  the small
           to medium size print shop by mid-decade (SRI 1990).
           2.    Telecommunications
    '.,••..                I    II         I I  I II I Illl I I I  II   I  I I I  I I  III III
„, '    ' „''','                 .4                         1
                According to a report prepared for the Printing 2000
Task Force, by 1995 prepress systems will be able to transmit text7
graphic  images,   and even  entire  documents  between  different
printers' hardware systems (SRI 1990).  Already, two ANSI standards
for digital  data exchange  in  the printing  industry have  been
published and  four  additional  standards are uiider  deveTiopinent
 (Bruno 1990)-.
      Continuing    improvements    in    high-speed/highvolume
 telecommunications  coupled with  the  growing, use  of  jfronf-end
 platforms will  lead to the increasing globalization of the printing
 and publishing  industries.  More and  more frequently customers will
 use printers   located  at  great  distances or  even  in  foreign
 countries (SRI  1990).
           3.    Proofing

                The increasing use of telecommunications and local
 area networks,  coupled with workstations, will  result  in faster,
 more accurate proofing of materials being readied for the press at
 a significant reduction in cost.  Remote or "soft" proofing (i.e.,
 proofing from an electronic medium as opposed to a hardcopy),  will
 be used in initial checking of materials.
      During the  1990s  it will become  possible to produce  high-
 quality color proofs  from digital  inputs.   Advances  in  digital
 proofing will be  facilitated by the continuing development of high
 quality ink-jet  printers  to  produce  color and  black-and-white
                               2-94

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proofs.   The ink-jet technology  will  be particularly  useful to
:extile houses,  architectural firms, and advertisers (SRI 1990).


          4^   Direct-to-Plate and Direct-to-Press Technologies

               A  variety of  techniques  that  allow the  direct
application of an image  to a printing plate or other image carrier
without'various intermediate steps  are  under development or just
sntering commercial use.

     Direct-to-plate (or computer-to-plate) technology is expected
to play  a major role in  offset  printing by the  mid-19.90s.   The
introduction of direct-to-plate processes in offset printing does
lot require  additional  technological breakthroughs.   Instead, it.
calls for the integration and refinement of existing technologies.
Image  laser  setters are available  as  are silver and  zinc oxide
plates  sufficiently  sensitive  for  use  in  the  direct-to-plate
process.  Additional refinements required'include modification of
Laser  image  setters to accommodate  a  wider range  of  materials,
greater  laser power,  and increased plate coating sensitivities.
rhese improvements coupled with photopolymer  plates will allow the
introduction, of   digital-to-plate  technology   to  traditional
commercial printing operations (SRI 1990)...  Large and medium size
printers are expected to move rapidly to the use of direct-to-plate
technologies.  The  trend  will  then slow significantly as smaller
printers (20 or  fewer employees), which account for the majority of
printing plants., make the transition (Purcell)-.

     In addition to direct-to-plate technologies, direct-to-press
(or computer-to-press)  systems are  now becoming available.   In
these systems,  computer  controlled equipment  allow the application
of the image directly to the printing cylinder while the cylinder
is mounted on the press.  For example,  Heidelberg USA has a press
that includes an imaging system that will  create a waterless plate
directly on  the press unit.  The use of this and similar systems
are reported to result  in major  reductions  in plate preparation
time as well as press downtime (Petersen  1992).

     By the mid-1990s, as  much as 7 percent of all  printed material
will be produced using direct-to-plate  systems.   Some industry
analysts expect this to increase  to as much  as 50 percent by 2000
(SRI  1990).   However,  as noted  above,   other analysts  are less
optimistic because  they expect the transition to direct-to-plate
technology  to  be slow  among  the large number  of small .printers
(Purcell).
                               2-95

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     B.
Trends in Press Technology

1. •  General Press Trends
               a.
                    Inks
          '•	''*' " •   ' The  major ""environmental	reictof	"driVing	the'
development of  new ink  technologies is  the  need to  reduce VOC
emissions which  are subject to  increasingly  stringent state and
Federal regulations.   In response to VOC requirements and other
health,  safety,   and  environmental  concerns  with  solvents  and
pigment systems,  new  and, improved vegetable oil-based and water-
based  inks  will  appear during the 1990s  and currently available
ultraviolet and electron-beam curable inks'will be widely used by
all the major printing technologies.  In general,  the new inks will
resist smearing,  emit fewer volatile organic compounds, and make
the use of color  in new markets possible  (Bruno 1990; SRI 1990).
     Inks  based on soybean  oil are increasingly  popular in the
U.S., where they are currently used mainly in nonheatset web offset
printing.  'ln"l987,  five newspapers were experimenting with soy-
based inks in the U.S.; by 1990 these inks were being used by_over
1,000 newspapers.  Newspapers use primarily  color  soy-based inks,
replacing  inks based on petroleum distillates  (Bruno 1990).
     Water-based inks generally contain small amounts of solvents,
typically analcohol.  Water-based screen printing inks, however,
do not  contain alcohols:   Although water-based inks are now used
primarily in flexographic and gravure packaging printing,  their use
is spreading to other areas'of printing except lithography.  Water-
based .inks  can not be used  in lithographic printing because the
process depends on the affinity of the image area of the plate for
oil-based  inks  and  of  the  non-image area for water   (Branco;
Centaur;' Kinter 1993';"' SRI  1990)	 	" 	

     Another approach being  taken by  industry in  reducing VOCs  is
the  use of  high solids  ink,  particularly  for  certain products
printed using heatset lithography. By increasing the solids  (i.e.,
pigment and/or resin) content of the,.ink,  the solvent  level  can  be
reduced from  as much  as  45  percent  by  weight to  30 percent
 (Centaur; McGraw-Hill).
     A number of no-solvent technologies that "emit, no VOCs are also
available including ultraviolet (UV)  and electron beam (EB) curable
inks.   UV and EB inks  polymerize or "cure".,upon exposure  to the
energy  source indicated by their names.   In general these  inks
consist   of   an  oligomer,   a  reactive  diluent  (usually   a
multifunctional  acrylate) ,  and a  pigment.   UV inks  also  require a
photoinitiatbr.   A  number  of health  risks  are associated  with
exposure to the multifunctional acrylates found .in these inks.  UV
and EB inks are generally more expensive than conventional inks and
the capital  costs of the curing  equipment  is  high.   However,.the

                               2-96
                                                                 111 111 III 111 111 111 111 I

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curing systems use much less energy than the drying systems often
required for conventional inks.  Additionally, UV and EB inks dry
almost  instantaneously so  their  use. can  increase productivity.
These 'inks  provide high  gloss print that is both  chemical and
abrasion resistant. UV and  EB inks are used in lithography, screen
printing, letterpress,  and flexography (Centaur; GCIU; McGraw-Hill;
SRI 1990) .

     Another no-solvent  technology is  chemically  reactive inks.
Typically,  these  are  two component systems  that polymerize upon
mixing.  To  date,  however, chemically reactive inks  have found only
very limited commercial use  (McGraw-Hill).


               b.   Dampening Systems

                    Since the  1950s,  isopropyl  alcohol  (IPA) has
been widely used  in fountain solutions  for  dampening systems on
lithographic presses.  However, due  to  increasingly strict state
and  Federal control of  VOCs,  the  trend  is  towards the  use of
alcohol-free  fountain  solutions.    Glycol  ethers  have been the
primary replacement for alcohols in fountain solutions.   2-Butoxy
ethanol, a glycol  ether, is  currently the major substitute for IPA;
however," its use requires process  changes (Branco; Petersen 1991).

     Another alternative  is waterless plates that  do not require
the use of  dampening systems.  Waterless plates are discussed in
more detail in section IV.B.2,a of this report.
               c.
                    Press Cleaners
                   . Currently,, there are three primary categories
of  press  cleaners:    chlorinated  solvents,  aromatic  petroleum
distillates,  and  aliphatic  petroleum distillates.'   Potential
substitutes  include:   2-butoxy  ethanol;  N-methylpyrrolidone; D-
limonene; and low vapor pressure mixtures of aliphatic and aromatic
petroleum  distillates  (Branco).  .Others  consist  of surfactants,
surfactant  and solvent  mixtures,  or  non-volatile oils  such as
vegetable oil  (Hicks;  Petersen 1991).

     Traditionally, presses have been cleaned  manually.   Today,
however, automatic press cleaning systems  are  widely available.
Compared to manual  cleaning  of presses, these systems shorten press
down-time and reduce (though do not eliminate)  solvent use  (Hicks) .

     Most newspapers now use dry-type. (i.e.,  solventless) automatic
blanket washers.  According to industry sources, while dry systems
do not clean as well as manual or automatic systems using solvents,
they are viable substitutes  (Hicks).
                             '  2-97

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               d.
          Process Color
                                             i1 ill'I'1* '"!'! !',J|1|!i'',',,: "!'.'•
                    Process color techniques allow the creation of
virtually any color by overprinting some combination of translucent
inks  of only  four colors:   cyan,  magenta,  yellow,  and black.
Improvements in turnaround time and quality will cause the use of
process color to grow in the 1990s.  This growth will  be fed by the
continued  preference  of consumers  for  color  images   in  daily
newspapers   and  news   magazines.     Other   factors   include:
technological developments that allow economies in short-run^of fset
color printing, new prepress systems for processing color images,
and the availability of acceptable quality from laser printers and
color copiers .  Other factors that will contribute to  the  growth of
process  color  including:    the  development  of  water-based and
vegetable  oil-based  inks suitable for use  in all major printing
processes and the introduction of integrated prepress systems that
simplify the preparation of color pages and reduce color processing
costs  (SRI 1990) .
          2.   Offset Printing

               in  the  1990s,  there  are expected  to  be modest
improvements in offset platemaking and ink technology.  The major
trend in lithographic printing,  however,  will be in the  automation
of printing press operations  (SRI 1990) .

     Microcomputer technology will be employed in the areas of data
collection and process control.  Microcomputers now available _ run
at the speeds required to monitor and adjust the operation of high-
speed presses.   Furthermore, extremely  sensitive and  responsive
sensors  are now  available  that  are  capable of monitoring the
performance  of  printing   presses   in  'real-tiiae.      These  two
technologies have  been  integrated to create closed-loop  control
systems that can monitor and control nearly every aspects of the
modern high-speed press  (SRI  1990).
     During the 1990s, the increasing application of automation to
offset  printing will  increase  speed,  reduce waste and  improve
quality  as  well  as  reduce  labor  requirements.    Areas where
automated  monitoring or control  are  either being  implemented  or
studied  include  (SRI 1990) :

                changing and unloading;
     o

     o

     o
Paper roll replacement;

Inking control;

Temperature control  of inks,  water, press  dryers,  and
chill rollers;
                               2-98
                                                                   	PI'

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     o    Registration;

     o    Paper speed.and tension control;

     o    Press cleaning;      :                      •

     o    Web tear detection; and

     o    In-line finishing.                         •

     Waterless plates,  an important development  in lithographic
plates, are discussed below.   Other changes in 'offset technology'
will include modest improvements in plate technology, including the
commercial introduction of laser-exposed plates and wider presses
that will  allow faster  printing speeds  (2500  'to 3000  feet per
minute) and signatures of up to ,72 pages  (SRI 1990).


               a.   Waterless Plates    .                      ,

                    Waterless  plates  are a  type  of lithographic
plate that requires no water to prevent  the  non-image areas of the
plate from accepting ink.  The  non-image areas of waterless plates
are coated with silicone rubber which has such low surface energy
that it will not be wet by ink.  However, early waterless plates,
introduced in  the  U.S.  in 1970, had poor scratch resistance and
durability.  Furthermore, they were sensitive to heat, and elevated
temperatures caused toning of non-image areas.  These plates were
withdrawn from the market in 1977.  A second generation  of plates
was introduced  in  Japan in the  late  1970s  that largely overcame
these problems.  Today  waterless plates are in widespread use _in
Japan  and  are  beginning to achieve commercial  acceptance in the
U.S. (Bruno 1990; Stanilus).

     Waterless plates require  the use  of special waterless inks
based on high viscosity modified phenolic or modified hydrocarbon
resins  arid  high  boiling  point  nonaromatic  or  alpha-olefin
hydrocarbon  solvents.    The   inks  are  higher  viscosity  than
conventional offset  inks.  Because of  their special rheological
properties, the inks need to be maintained within a narrow range of
temperatures  during  printing,.    For this  reason  presses  using
waterless plates must be equipped with  chillers  (cooling systems)
or  printers must .stock a variety of  inks designed for  use  under
different  temperature conditions (Lustig and Stanulis).   Cooling
systems  are optional on  most new presses and  retrofitting of
existing units is usually possible  (Toray).

     There are disadvantages to using waterless plates:  the plates
are more expensive and less durable than conventional lithographic
plates and'processors for waterless plates run about $40,000. The
inks  used are  also   more  expensive.    Furthermore,  chillers for
presses using  waterless plates cost between $60,000 and $100,000

                               2-99

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                                        ....... ,!!;.: ..... I ill!::,:1,: •' •",!,! '' ilfff'ili* TI'iH IfL'iil'H'
                                                      .
                                                     M!!*'!' ''! ..... 'Lali "J"i ; "'It ''"
                                                                   lliHil'M I'KIIII!!!"!!1 .............. Mini
 (American  Printer  and Branco).    This  technology' has  increased
energy  requirements over .traditional  technology.   Plate and  ink
chemistry differences  also need  to. be  examined(Kalima 1993).

     From an environmental  and health and safety  standpoint,  the
advantage of waterless plates is  they do not require dainpening and,
therefore, print  without the alcohol and other chemidals used in
dampening  systems  (Stanilus).    However,  theplatedeveloping
chemistry issolvent based  (Jones  1993].
          3.   Rotogravure Printing
                                                                 iiiiii i HiII111 ill
               A steady decrease in the time required for cylinder
preparation as well as increasing automation will keep rotogravure
competitive  with   both  lithographic  offset   and   flexographic
printing.   ' '      ;     	 '	:	'	

     Historically, the major disadvantage of the gravure process in
comparison to other printing processes has been  the  substantially
greater  amount  of  time  required-  for  cylinder   preparation.
Automation and the development of a number of direct-to-cylinder
preparation techniques have reduced the time required for cylinder
preparation;  however,  gravure  still  remains   uneconomical  for
smaller press runs.  The minimum number  of impressions  is usually
dictated by economics  and the type of product'.    tLS".publication
gravure printers seldom print below 500,000 copies while in  other
parts of the world publication print orders of 100,000  to 200,000
copies are. not uncommon.   On the other hand, a  specialty gravure
(i.e., wall covering)  run may total only a few; hundred' yards  of.
printed material (Tyszka
     During  the  1990s,  a numberof direct-to-cylinder  techniques
currently  either under development  or in  the early  stages  of
commercializatiQn promise to decrease gravure cylinder preparation
time significantly.   For  example,  a computer-to-cylinder  system
that uses  a  laser  to  carve cells  in  a polymer  coated gravure
cylinder has recently been'installed  in a number of U.S. printing
plants.    German companiesareleading  in the  development  of
photopolymer cylindersfor gravure presses (Adams 1988; Bruno 1990;
SRI 1990).

     Automation of rotogravure presses will" occurat a"slower rate
than for offset  presses due primarily  to  the very large size  of
rotogravure i presses	However,	widespread	automation	of cylinder	
changeover  and of "paper	roll	transport	and	r6ad"ihg	has	already	
occurred.  The introduction  of  fully  automated presses  controlled
by a single operator is  expected by the  late 1990s (Bruno 1990; SRI
1990) .
     A  number of  other  significant  changesareanticipated  in
rotogravure printing during  the next  few years.  Special polymers

                          . •    2-100

-------
and other new materials will partially replace copper and steel in
cylinders thereby reducing weight and making higher press operating
speeds possible.   Although gravure remains  heavily dependent on
solvent-base inks, a growing amount of water-based and ultraviolet-
curable  inks  will  be  used;  however,  acceptable  water-based
publication gravure inks have yet  to be identified.  Wider presses
will be introduced, allowing increased output  (Bruno 1990; Jones
1993; SRI 1990).

          4.   Flexoqraphic Printing

               Important   improvements   will    occur   in  . both
flexographic plates and  inks.   The use of photopolymers in plate
manufacture will  both  lower the cost  and  improve  the  quality of
flexographic plates.  Edge sharpness will improve approaching that
achieved with offset.   Improvements in the density and consistency
of the water-based color  inks used in f lexography are also expected
(SRI 1990) ..

     A major problem 'in  flexographic  printing  has  been so-called
plate or  image plugging.  However, this problem will  be largely
overcome  as a result  of  improved  wash-up devices and  inking
systems.   This will  result in black-and-white  halftone quality
approaching that achieved with offset printing (SRI 1990).

     Continuing   improvements   in  process  color   printing  by
flexography will  make the process increasingly  competitive with
lithography in the medium-quality magazine market (Bruno 1990).


          5.   Plateless Printing

               A variety of plateless technologies are currently in
use.  These processes,  expected to undergo continuing improvements
and refinements during  the  1990s, .include:   electronic printing;
ink-jet printing;  thermal printing;  ion deposition printing; and
magnetography.  Anticipated market trends for these processes are
discussed below.   The  technologies  themselves  are described in
Section III.F.2 of this  report.

     Plateless technologies  are currently important primarily in
the office, in-plant, and quick printing markets.   They are also
important in direct mailing and personalized advertising.   These
markets are  expected to be the  growth leaders in the printing
industry during the 1990s.  As plateless technologies improve and
become widely available,  a growing Share of the business  that would
formerly  have  been done  by  small-  to medium-size  commercial
printers using traditional technologies will instead be done in the
office or at the quick printer  (Bruno  1990; SRI 1990).

     In 1990,  plateless  processes  accounted for only about three
percent of  the total  value of the  output of the  U.S. printing

                              2-101    '   •  "

-------
             - tii
market.    However,  these  processes'  market  share  will  grow
explosively in the next 35 years, accounting for 11 percent of the
market by the year 2000 and 21 percent  by 2025  (Bruno 1990).
               a.
                               Printing
                    Electronic  printing  is	used  primarily for
short-run office, in-plant,  and quick printing.  Quick printing is
eSectXto be one of the fastest growing segments of the printing
industry in the foreseeable  future and its growth will be fueled in
part  by the  continuing  increase  in the quality and economy of
llectronic printing  technologies  (SRI 1990).  For  example,  there
havfbeen d?amatic improvements in  the quality of  color copiers
ThISe copiers are soon expected to be competitive with traditional
printing methods in the  short-run  (500  to 10,000  copies)  color
market  (GATF  1992a).

     Laser printers,  connected to personal computers  in both_the
office  and home environments, will become widespread   Currently
prices  are falling and low-end laser printers are ayailable_for as
little  as $600.  More sophisticated printers capable of using the
Postscript page definition  language are available  for well  under
$2,000  (SRI 1990)
     Use of high dot-density color electrophotography machines with
dot densities ranging from 400 dots per inch  (DPI) to 2000 DPI will
becoml more widSyuIed in the office, in-plant,  and fast-services
               The quality of the  printed output will increase
                "                                        er  s
            s
            1990s "but printing speed will continue to be very slow
 when compared to other methods  (SRI 1990) .

      Another . growth  area  for  electronic  Dinting  is  in_ the
 production  of relatively  inexpensive  proof  copies  of  Pnted
 materials  that  will  be printed  using one  of  the  tr
 printing technologies (Adams 1988; Bruno 1990) .

          '' •••'•$•••  : '-.,  '°\':^\^'^
                b.   Ink- "iet Printing.

                     Continued   technological  improvements  will
 stimulate the increased use of ink- jet printers in the printing

    £•                              "™SS1

 use  for this technology, however, is  expected  to remain in the
 oflice°ren^ronLnt:  jS-J.t printers                   '*

                               2-102

-------
the office environment for engineering graphics and other business
applications.    Higher quality  color ink-jet printers  will be
developed  in  response to  the  growing  amount  of sophisticated
graphics software available for  personal computers (SRI 1990).


               c.   Thermal Printing

                    Thermal  printers  will  continue  to  enjoy a
limited increase in market share during the  1990s.   This growth
will be stimulated by improvements in resolution, color capability,
and reduced  paper cost.   However, a  number  of drawbacks remain,
including the need  for special papers, a low rate of output, and,.
despite improvements,  comparatively  poor  image quality.  Thermal
printing is  currently used in facsimile machines and other office
applications (SRI 1990).
               d.
          Ion Deposition
                    Ion deposition printing, an emerging technology
similar to electronic printing and other electrostatic processes,
will show marked improvement during the mid-1990s.  Currently, this
technology is used primarily in the office  environment where it is
used to print  forms,  reports,  and other business  documents.   One
area where this technology is expected to be applied in the 1990s
is in multiple-color  printing.   However,  ion deposition printing
will require considerable development and refinement before it can
compete with laser printing (Bruno 1990; SRI 1990).
               e..
          Magne t ogr aiphv
                    Magnetography is similar to electronic printing
except that a magnetic, and not an electrostatic, photoconductor is
used.   The use of magnetography is limited to a  few  specialty
printing markets  such as printing  identifier  labels,  bar codes,
pressure  sensitive  labels,  and glossy  substrates.    No  major
improvements  in  this  technology  are expected   in  the  1990s.
Furthermore, due  to  shortcomings such as  slow speed,  high toner
costs, and the inability to do  color process printing little or no
market growth is anticipated (SRI 1990).
     C.
Postpress Technology'
          Until recently the automation of postpress operations has
been limited, and, for many printers, postpress operations remain
labor intensive.   One  source  estimates  that nearly 80 percent of
the cost of some print jobs is material  handling.  Because much of
the  labor in postpress  operations  involves  materials handling,
                              2-103

-------
there is the opportunity to decrease postpress costs substantially
through further automation .{Bruno 1990; SRI 1990) .
     The major  development in postpress  technology, has been the
introduction of computer-controlled in-line finishing systems that •
directly link the press with postpress operations.   In comparison
to off-line finishing, these in-line systems can typically finish
three to four times the number of units per hour with roughly half
the personnel (Adams 1988; SRI 1990).

     In addition to traditional binding and finishing operations,
some in-line finishing' systems can perform a number  of specialized
operations such as  addressing and demographic binding. Demographic
binding refers to the selective assembly of a publication based on
any of several factors including geographic area/ family structure,
income, or interests.  The technique can be used, for example, to
include advertisements only in those copies  of a magazine that will
be  received by persons  in the  advertisers selling area (Adams
1988).     Selective binding  techniques  used  to  target  printed
products to selected geographic areas and markets are widely used
today and have  been proven1 to be very effective marketing _ tools „
The use of' this technology will continue to expand at a  rapid rate
due,   primarily,  to the  intense interest shown  by advertising
agencies and other direct marketing organizations  (Bruno 1990; SRI
1950).  _  '	  '   ^  "•;    ;;°"	';	                    ';•;;  •

     Water-based   adhesives  have  long  been  used in  printing
facilities  operations.   However,  an important chemical trend in
postpress1 operations is the increasing use water-based adhesives in
place  of solvent-based  adhesives containing  toluene  and methyl
ethyl ketone;'"          _  '     	• 	''	•

     During  the 1990s,  the introduction  ofrobots  for postpress
materials tracking and handling is anticipated (Bruno 1990).
                                              !	N'l	
                               2-104

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                APPENDIX A

            SXC Major Group 27:
Printing, Publishing, and Allied Industries

-------
	II	I	HI        ,

-------
     Major Group 27.—PRINTING, PUBLISHING, AND ALLIED
                                  INDUSTRIES

                            The Major Group as a Whole


    This major group includes establishments engaged in printing by one or more common
processes, such as letterpress; lithography (including offset), gravure, or screen; and those es-
tablishments which perform services for the printing trade, such as bookbinding and plate-
making. This major group also includes  establishments engaged in publishing newspapers,
books, and periodicals, regardless of whether or not they do their own printing. News syndi-
cates are  classified in  Services, Industry 7383. Establishments primarily engaged in textile
printing and finishing fabrics are classified in Major Group 22, and those engaged in printing
and stamping on fabric articles are classified in Industry  2396. Establishments manufactur-
ing products that contain incidental printing, such as advertising or instructions, are classi-
fied according to the nature of the products—for example, as cartons, bags, plastics film, or
paper.
Induitiy
 Group  Industry
  No.     No.
271
      NEWSPAPERS: PUBLISHING. OR PUBLISHING AND PRINTING

2711  Newspapers: Publishing, or Publishing and Printing

        Establishments primarily engaged in publishing newspapers, or in publish-
      ing and printing newspapers. These establishments carry on the various oper-
      ations necessary for issuing newspapers, including the gathering of news and
      the preparation of editorials and advertisements, but may or may not perform
      their own printing. Commercial printing is frequently carried on by establish-
      ments engaged in publishing and printing newspapers, but, even though the
 .   .  commercial printing may be of major importance, such establishments are in-
      cluded in this industry. Establishments not engaged in publishing newspapers,
      but which print newspapers for publishers, are classified in Industry Group
      275. News syndicates are classified in Services, Industry 7383.
272
                  Comnmcul printing and nempap*r
                    publishing combined
                  Job printing and nttnpapar publishing
                    pornhinad
                                                     Newapaptr branch office*, editorial and
                                                       advertising
                                                     Nempaperr publishing and printing,
                                                       or publishing only
      PERIODICALS: PUBLISHING, OR PUBLISHING AND PRINTING

2721  Periodicals: Publishing, or Publishing and Printing

        Establishments primarily engaged in publishing periodicals, or in publishing
      and printing periodicals. These establishments carry on the various operations
      necessary for issuing periodicals, but may or may not perform their own print-
      ing. Establishments not engaged in publishing periodicals, but which  print
      periodicals for publishers, are classified in Industry Group 275.
                  Comic books: publishing and printing,
                    or publishing only
                  Magazines: publishing and printing, or
                    publishing only
                  Periodicals: publishing and printing, or
                    publishing only
                                                     Statistical reports (periodicals), publish-
                                                       ing and printing, or publishing only
                                                     Television schedules:  publishing and
                                                       printing, or publishing only
                                                     Trade journals, publishing and print-
                                                       ing, or publishing only
                                        A-l

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 ladoatry
 Greap
   No.
273
Industry
  No.
         2731
      BOOKS	  .  •	

      Books: Publishing, or Publishing and Printing

        Establishments primarily engaged in publishing, or in publishing and print-
      ing, books and pamphlets. Establishments primarily engaged in printing or in
      printing and binding (but not publishing) books and pamphlets are classified
      in Industry 2732.	'	'	'	'	
         2732
 274
 276
                     Book dub publkhing and printing, or
                      publiafainic only
                     Books: publishing and printinf. or pub-
                      tkhinf only
                     Marie books: publishing and printing,
                      or publkhing only
                                                            ParapblMc publishing and printinf, or
                                                             publishing only
                                                            Textbooks- publishing and printing, or
                                                             publishing only
      Book Printing  [          .'.•.'.,,'.    ' , ,. .     :, ',.,...''	.,   ,                  ,.	
        Establishments  primarily engaged in  printing, or in printing and binding,
      books and pamphlets, but not engaged in publishing. Establishments primarily
      engaged in publishing, or in publishing and printing, books and pamphlets are
      classified in Industry 2731. Establishments engaged in both printing and bind-
      ing books, but primarily binding books printed elsewhere, are classified in In-
      dustry 2789.
                     Boob: prating or printinf and bind-
                       Jfif » not publishinf
                     Marie books: printinf or printing and
                              t pubusbinf
                                                            Panphists: printinf or, printfnf and
                                                             bindinf, not publiininf
                                                            Ttxtbook*: printinf or printinf and
                                                             bindinf. not publiininf
       MISCELLANEOUS PUBLISHING

2741   Miscellaneous Publishing
                  Establishments primarily engaged in  miscellaneous publishing activities,
                not elsewhere classified, whether or not  engaged in printing. Establishments
                primarily engaged in offering fiyanein'l, credit, or other business ttervices, and
                which may publish directories as part of this service, are classified in Division
                I, Services.                                         .
                     Atlawc publkhing and printing, or
                       publiihiBfonly
                        '
                       and prinnnf, or publimhing only
                     CaltBdan: publahing and printinf. or
                       publiahifif only              •
                     Caulocc publkhing and printinf. or
                       publfcbinfonly
                     Dincteiwr publiihing and printinf. or
                       pubikhmfonly
                     Glob* conn  (mapfl:  publfehiaf  and
                       printiair . or pubUifainf only
                     Guidac  publkhing and printinf. Or
                                                            Marie, shott: publishinf and printinf.
                                                              or publkhing only
                                                            Patterns.'pspir, incliadinf clothinf pat-
                                                              tems:  publkhing and  printinf, or
                                                              publishing only
                                                            Rao*  track programs: publishing and
                                                              printinf, or publishinf only
                                                            Racing forms: publishing and printinf,
                                                              or publishinf only
                                                            Shopping newt publishing and print-
                                                              ing, or publkhing only
                                                            Technical manual* and paptn: publish-
                                                              ing and printing, or publillhing only
                                                            Tclsphon* directories: publishinf and
            Mips: publkhing and printinf. or pub-                       printing, or publkhing only
             Ushinf only                                       Yearbooks: publishinf and printinf, or
            Mieropubushinf                                       publishinf only
            Multimedia oducational kits: publishing
             and printinf, or publishinf only

       COMMERCIAL PRINTING

 2752  Commercial Printing, Lithographic

         Establishments  primarily engaged in  printing by the  lithographic process.

       The greater partof the workin.this industry is performed on a job or custom

       basis; but in some cases lithographed calendars, maps,  posters, decalcomanias,
                                                   A-2

-------
 Indurtry
  Group
   No.
275
 Industry
   No.                                                       '
       COMMERCIAL PRINTING—Con.

2752  Commercial Printing, Lithographic—Con.

       or other products are made for sale. Offset printing, photo-offset printing, and
       photolithographing are also included in this  industry. Establishments primari-
       ly engaged  in lithographing books and  pamphlets, without publishing, are
       classified in Industry 2732. Establishments primarily engaged in publishing or
       printing greeting cards are classified in Industry 2771. Establishments primar-
       ily engaged in preparing lithographic or  offset  plates and in related services
       are classified in Industry 2796. Establishments primarily engaged in providing
       photocopying services are classified  in Services. Industry 7334.
                      Advertising poster*, lithographed
                      Atlases, lithographed
                      Billhead!, lithographed
                      Bread wrappers, lithographed
                      Business forms, except manifold: litho-
                       graphed
                      Calendar*, lithographed: not published
                      Card*, lithographed
                      Circular*, lithographed
                      Color card*, paint: offset printing
                      Color lithography
                      Coupon*, lithographed
                      Dacalminanin  (dry tranafera), litho-
                       graphed
                      Faihion plate*, lithographed
                      Instant printing, except photocopy serv-
                       ice '      •
                      Label*, lithographed
                      Letter*, circular and form: lithographed
                      Lithographing on metal or paper
                      Map*, lithographed
                      Menu*, lithographed
                      Newspapers,  lithographed: not  pub-
         2754
                                                                  Periodic*]*, lithographed: not published
                                                                  Photo-of&et printing
                                                                  Photolithographing
                                                                  Pianographing
                                                                  Playing card*, lithographed
                                                                  Postcard*, picture: lithographed
                                                                  Poster*, lithographed
                                                                  Printing  from  lithographic or  offset
                                                                   platea
                                                                  Printing, commercial or job: lithograph-
                                                                   ic and offset
                                                                  Printing, lithographic
                                                                  Quick printing, except photocopy serv-
                                                                   ice
                                                                  Schedule), transportation: lithographed
                                                                  Stall, lithographed
                                                                  Souvenir card*, lithographed
                                                                  Tag*, lithographed
                                                                ,  Ticket*, lithographed
                                                                  Trading (tamps, lithographed
                                                                  Transferring design* (lithographing)
                                                                  Transforfl, decalcomania and dry: litho-
                                                                   graphed
            ^^                                 '                 Visiting card*, lithographed
            Onset printing                                     •      Wrapperu, lithographed

       Commercial Printing, Gravure

         Establishments primarily engaged in gravure printing. Establishments pri-
       marily engaged in making and preparing plates for printing are classified in
       Industry 2796.                                ,
                      Bread wrappi
                                 cgr
                      Bniineai form*, except manifold: gra-
                       vure printing
                      Calendar*, gravure printing: not pub-
                       lishing
                      Card*, except greeting: gravure print-
                     •  ing
                      Catalogs: gnvun printing (not publish-
                       ing)
                      Circular*: gravure printing
                      Color printing: gravure
                      Coupon*: gravure printing
                      Directories: gravure printing (not pub-
                       lishing)
                      Envelope*: gravure printing
                      Facsimile letter*: gravure printing
                      Faihion plate*: gravura printing
                      Gravure printing
                      iiu[ijintit»g* gravure
                      Intaglio printing
                      Labels: gravure printing
                      Letter*,  circular and'  form:  gravure
                       printing
                      Magazine* gravure printing (not pub-
                       lishing)
                      Map* gravure printing (not publishing)
                      Menus: gravure printing
                                                                 Music, oheet gravure printing (not pub-
                                                                   lishing)
                                                                 Newspaper*: gravure printing (not pub-
                                                                 Periodical*: gravure printing (not pub-
                                                                   lishing)  ,
                                                                 Photogravure printing
                                                                 Playing cards: gravure printing
                                                                 Postcard*, picture: gravure printing
                                                                 Potters: gravure printing
                                                                 Printing, commercial or job: gravure
                                                                 Printing: gravure, photogravure, rotary
                                                                   photogravure, and rotogravure
                                                                 Rotary photogravure printing
                                                                 Rotogravure printing
                                                                 Scheduled,  transportation:   gravure
                                                                   printing
                                                                 Scale gravure printing
                                                                 Souvenir card*: gravure printing
                                                                 Stationary: gravura  printing
                                                                 Telephone diractoriee, gravure printing:
                                                                   not publishing
                                                                 Ticket*: gravure printing
                                                                 Trading stamp*: gravure printing
                                                                 Visiting cards: gravure printing
                                                                 Wrappers: gravure printing
                                                   .   A-3

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 Wtacry
  Croup
   He.
275
 Industry

       COMMERCIAL PRINTING—Con.

2759  Commercial Printing, Not Elsewhere'Classified

          Establishments primarily engaged in commercial or job printing, not else-

       where classified.  This industry includes general printing shops, not elsewhere

       classified, as well as shops specializing in printing newspapers and periodicals

     ,  for others.

                                                                      Musk, sheet: except  lithographed er
                                                                       gravure (not publishing)
                                                                      Newspaper*,  printed:  except  litho-
                                                                       graphed or gravure (not publishing)
                                                                      Periodical*,  printed:   except  litho-
                                                                       graphed or gravure (not publishing)
                                                                      Plstelea* engraving
                                                                      Playing card*,  printed: except litho-
                                                                       graphed or gravure
                                                                      Postcard*, picture: except lithographed
                                                                       or gravure printed
                                                                      Poster*, including billboard: except lith-
                                                                       ographed or gravure
                                                                      Printing from  engrnved and etched
                                                                       plate*
                                                                      Printing, commercial or job: engraved
                                                                       plat*
                                                                      Printing, commercial or job: except lith-
                                                                       ographic or gravure
                                                                      Printing, flexographic
                                                                      Printing, letterpress
                                                                      Printing, screen: except on  textile* er
                                                                       finished fabric article*
                                                                      Schedule*, transportation: except litbo-
                                                          i             graphed or gravure
                                                                      Screen printing on   gUia. plastics.
                                                                       paper, and metal, including highway
                                                                       sign*
                                                                      Seal*: printing  except lithographic or
                       Announcement*, engraved
                       Bag*. rlr^***' printed only, except lith-
                         ographed or gravure (bags not msae
                      v  in printing pl»ntii
                       Banknote*, engraved
                       Bread wrapper*, printed: except litho-
                         graphed or gravure
                       niiiinm form*, except manifold, litho-
                         graphed or gravure printed
                       Calendars, printed: except lithographed
                         orgravure
                       Garde, except greeting card* engraving
                        •of
                       Card*,  printed: except greeting, litho-
                         graphed or gravure
                       Catalog!, printed: except lithographed
                         or gravure (not publishing)
                       Circular*, printed:  except lithographed
                         or gravure ...... ....................
                       Color printing: except lithographed or
                         gravure
                       CtHipoci*! printed: except lithographed
                      ,:  or gravure
                       Currency , engraving of
                                 ias. printed:  except litho-
                                    .
                         graphed or gravure
                       Directories.  printed:  except  litho-
                         graphed or gravure (not publishing)

                       Envelope*, printed: except lithographed
                         or gravure
                       Fathioo plate*,  printed: except litho-
                         graphed or gravure
                       Flexotraphic printing
                       Gummed  label*  and eeal*. printed:
                         except lithographed or gravure
                       Halftone*, engraved
                       Imprinting, except lithographed or gra-
                         vure
                       Invitation!, engraved
                       F shels, printed: except lithographed or
                        Letter
276
                                                                      Security certificates, engraved
                                                                      Souvenir card*: except lithographed or
                                                                        giavure
                                                                      Stationery: except lithographed or gra-
                                                                        vure
                                                                      Stock certificate*, engraved
                                                                      Tags, printed: except lithographed or
                                                                      Telephone  directories,  except  litho-
                                                                        graphed or gravure foot publishing)
                                                                      Thermography. except lithographed or
                                                                        gravure
                                                                      Ticket*, printed: except lithographed or
                                                                        gravure
                                                                      Trading (tamps,  printed: except litho-
                                                                        graphed or gravure
                                                                      Visiting  card*, printed:  except litho-
                                                                        graphed or giavure
                                                                      Wrapper*, printed: except lithographed
                                                                        orgravure '
                   .   iprinting
             Letters, circular and form: except litho-
       	,,11  graphed or gravure printed
             M*c*T*it*.   printed:   except  litho-
               graphed or gravure (not publishing)
             Man*, engraved
             Mips, printed: except lithographed or
   	"i*1 ' gravure (not publishing)
             Menus, except lithographed or gravur*
          "I"!!  printed

        MANIFOLD BUSINESS FORMS

2761   Manifold Business Forms

          Establishments primarily engaged in designing and printing, by any process,
        special forms for use in the operation of a business, in single and multiple
        sets, including  carbonized  or interleaved  with carbon or otherwise processed
        for "multiple reproduction.
                                                           A-4

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 Inductry
 Croup
  No.
276
 luduttxy
  No.
       MANIFOLD BUSINESS FORMS—Con.
2761   Manifold Business Forms—Con.
                                                                     FanfoU form*
                                                                     Sales book*
                                                                     Strip form* (manifold bi
                                                                                         ifoi
                                                                                             *i
                                                                     Tabulating card  eel  form*  ihiminei
                                                                      form!)
                                                                     Unit wta (manifold bniinie* formi
277
         2771
            Autographic register form*, printed
            Butine** form*, manifold
          •  Computer forma, manifold or continu*
             oui (exclude* paper (imply linedl
            Contaauou* forma, office and buauww
             carboniied or multiple reproduction

       GREETING CARDS

       Greeting Cards

         Establishments primarily engaged in publishing, printing by any process, or
       both, of greeting cards for all occasions. Establishments primarily engaged in
       producing  hand painted greeting cards are  classified  in Services,  Industry

       8999.
 278
         2782
                     Birthday card*, except hand painted
                     Chriitma* carda, except hand painted
                     Euter card*, except hand painted
                                                            Greeting carda, except hand painted
                                                            Valantiae carda, except hand painted
       BLANKBOOKS, LOOSELEAF BINDERS, AND BOOKBINDING AND
            RELATED WORK

       Blankbooks, Looseleaf Binders and Devices
          Establishments primarily engaged in  manufacturing blankbooks, looeeleaf
       devices, and library binders; and in ruling paper.
                     ACOOUflt IKHrfceT
                     Album*
                     Binder*, looeeleaf
                     Chart and graph paper, ruled
                     Checkbook!
                     Diane*
                     Inventory blinkbooki
                     Ledger* and ledger abeet* '
                     Library binder*, looeeleaf
                                                             Looerienf derieei end biadete
                                                             Lr9T*l*'f form* and filler*, pen ruled
                                                              or printed only
                                                             Memorandum baoka, printed
                                                             Paper ruling
                                                             PaMbook*
                                                             Receipt book*
                                                             Record albumi
                                                             Sample book*
                                                             Scrapboota
          2789  Bookbinding and Related Work
                   Establishments primarily engaged in edition, trade, job, and library book-
                binding. Also included in this industry are establishments primarily engaged
                in book or paper bronzing, gilding, and edging; in map and sample mounting;
                and in other services related to bookbinding. Establishments primarily bind-
                ing books printed elsewhere are classified in this industry, but those primarily
                binding  books printed in the same  establishment are classified'in Industry
                Group 273.
                      Beveling of card*
                      Binding only: book*, pamphlet*, magi-
                       zinee,etc.
                      Book gilding, bronzing, edging, deck-
                       ling, einbcneini[. and gold Btamping
                      Bookbinding: edition, job, library, and
                       trade
                      Bronzing book*, card*, or paper
                      Display mounting
                      Edging book*, card*, or paper
                      MegatiTiBii binding only
                      Mounting  of map* and atmple*. for the
                       trade
                                                             Pamphlet*, binding only
                                                             Paper  bronzing, gilding, edging, and
                                                               deckling
                                                             Paper cutting, except die-cuttinj?
                                                             Rebiading book*, migerinte  or pam-
                                                               phlete
                                                             Switches and (ample*, mounting for
                                                             .  the trade
                                                             Trade binding gerriee*
                                                    A-5

-------
  Qroup
   No.
279
 Intfaatrr
  No.
       SERVICE INDUSTRIES FOR THE PRINTING TRADE

2791   Typesetting
         Establishments primarily engaged in typesetting for the trade, including ad-
       vertisement typesetting.
                    Adtutiaanant miaaattlng
                    Cctnpommel, hud: for th* printing
                      'trad*  	
                    Ccopoauioo. machina: *.g, linotype
                      moootyp*—for tfa* printing tnd*
                                                           Phototypeietting
                                                           TjiUMIlini fin till |ii inline I mil
                                                           Tjpaaailing. cotnpnur cootrollad
         2796
       Platemaking and Related Serricea
         Establishments primarily engaged  in making plates for printing  purposes
       and in related services. Also included are establishments primarily engaged in
       making positives or negatives from which offset lithographic plates are made.
       These establishments do not print from the plates which they make, but pre-
       pare them for use by others. Engraving for  purposes other than printing is
       classified in Industry 3479.
                     Color atpantMoa tor printing
                     Ekctnryp* plataa
                     Elactrotyping for th« tnd*
                     Embi»n« pUu» for printing
                     Eafnnnf oo copper, itxl. wood, or
                      rubb«f pUm for printing purpani
                     Eaficrinc oa (train printinc pUtM
                      udc^indm
                     Enfnrinc, «•«! line for printing pur-
                                                                    Lttta
                                                                              «t«.pnip«lr«tiooof
                     Etcning oa copper. itMl. wood, or
                      rubew pUtw for printing putpaM
                     Ftangnphie pUtM. prapumtiOD of
                     Gnran pi*U* and qrlindcn, prapin-
                      tianef
                                                            Uthognphie plate*. po*iti«n or n*ga-
                                                             tin*: prap*ntion of
                                                            OBnt  pUu«, pontrm or Mgattvw:
                                                             pTVpHTKIOtt Of
                                                            Photnognrinffortfattmit
                                                            Plata* and eylindan, rotogcDTim print-
                                                             ing: prapuation of
                                                            Plata*, printiag: pnfuration of
                                                            Staraoqrp* plata*
                                                            Stano^ping for tba tnd*
                                                                          I!
                                                                                                            	I	 ','
                                                  A-6

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           APPENDIX B

Top 101 North American Commercial
     and Publication Printers

-------
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-------
         APPENDIX C




Top 100 U.S. Screen Printers

-------
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                   APPENDIX D
            i    '        • •  .
Top 100 North American Quick Printing Operations

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OO.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:  1994-523-884/81373 •

-------
                            REFERENCES
Adams, J. Michael,  et.  al. '.1988.   Printing Technology,  3rd ed.
Albany, NY:  Delmar Publishers, Inc.

AF   Lewis    1991    Blue  Book  Marketing  Information Reports;
ararJnic Art's  Industry Analysis bv Plant Size. Equipment, Product
Specialties"!New York, NY:  A.F. Lewis & Co., Inc.
American Printer.   1991.   "Running On Empty:;  Waterless  Printing
BoaStS Quality and Ease of Operation for Some Printers."   American
Printer .  August,  pp.  46  -  48.          .               ?

               U.S.  Department of Commerce, Bureau of  the Census.
               "f  .M«niTf azures .   Industry   Series  -   Newspapers,
BOC.
 QR7
     dical
                               .
              .      ar>H Mi -q^ellaneous Publishing (Industries 2711,
2721. 2731. '2732. and 2741)~   Washington,  DC:  Government Printing
Office.  Publication No. MC87-I-27A.

BOC    1990b.   U.S.  Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
1987 Census of Manufactures.  Industry Series - Commercial -Printing
^[n"d — Manifold  Business  Forms  (Industries  2752. 2754, — 2759, — and
2761) .  Washington, DC:  Government  Printing Office.  Publication;
No. MC87-I-27B.                              '.-•'.

BOC    199 Oc.   U.S.  Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
?%7  census of  M^f^tures. Industry   eries  - "reefing r  Cards ;
    7 cnsus  o  M^ures.
 Bookbinding-  Panting Trade Sprvi res  (Industries 2771 r 2782,   _'
 2791.  and  2796).   Washington,  DC:   Government  Printing Office.
[Publication No. MC87-I-27C.

 BOC   1993    U.S.  Department of Commerce,  Bureau of the Census.
    *       l  gnr-v^v of Manufactures;   Geographic Area_ Statistics.
I Washington,  DC:    Government Printing  Office.    Publication No.
lM91(AS)-3.  •  '                                        '_ ' '  .

Isranco, Dolores M. , et.  al.   1991.  A Guide to Pollution Prevention
' fII Iheet-feci nff^t Lithographers.  Tufts University Department of
 Civil  Engineering,  Medford,  MA.     Prepared  for  the  Printing
 Industries of New England.   August.
        Michael "H.
          90:    *•
                     1990,   Michael H. Bruno's Status of  Printing,
                            -        Report.    Salem,  NH:    GAMA
 Communications.

 R™™  Michael H   1991.  Michael H- Bruno's  Status  of Printing,
 ?SS?  TteSat?:  '  A"  State-of-^-Art  RePoTT    Salem,   NH:    GAMA
 Communications.
                                 R-l

-------
                            REFERENCES
                            .(continued)


 Buonicore, Anthony J.  and Wayne  T.  Davis,. editprs.   1992   Air
 .Pollution Engineering Manual.  Chapter 11,  "Graphic Arts Industry"7
 Air &  Waste  Management Association.  Van Nostrand Reinhold, New
 York,  NY.  pp. 371-400.

 Centaur.  1984.  Economic Profile of the Printing Ink Industry (SIC!
 .2893)•  Final Report.   Centaur Associates,  inc., Washington, DC
 Prepared  for the  U.S.  EPA under  contract  no.  68-03-6412  task
 orders 83-08 and 84-13.  August 24.

 DeJidas, Jr., Lloyd P.   1992.   "Alcohol Substitutes:  Making Them
 Work for  You."   GATFWORLD.   Graphic Arts  Technical  Foundation
 Pittsburgh, PA.   Vol. 4, No.  1.  p. 21
               L    \         .
 Field,  Janet N.  (ed.).   1980.  Graphic Arts Manual.
 Arno Press,  Musarts Publishing Corp.
         New York, NY:
 GAA-  .1989.   Profile Survey of the U.S. Gravure Industry.  Gravure
 Association of America,  New York,  NY.   p.  INTRO-15.
 GAA.   1991.   Gravure Process and Technology.
 of America,  Rochester,  NY.
   Gravure Association
GAM.  1991.  "GAM 101 Official Industry Ranking of the Top Printing
Firms."   Graphic Arts Monthly.  August.              .
GATF.  1992a.  "1992 Technology Forecast.
Foundation,  Pittsburgh,  PA.   pp.  9-10
Graphic Arts Technical
GATF.   1992b.   C.  Nelson Ho.   "Printing Industry and Its  Chemical
Usage" and "Chemicals Used in the Printing Industry."  Graphic Arts
Technical  Foundation,  Pittsburgh,  PA-.   (Work  performed  under
contract to Mathtech,  Inc.,  Falls  Church, VA).
                                '•   •  '  :,   •! •'   .:•''"' I . .   :•  ''  ' . ' '
GCIU.  _  no  date.     "Ultraviolet  Inks  and  Coatings,"   Graphics
Communications  International Union.  Produced through a grant from
the New York State Safety and Health Training and Education Program
under Contract  No. C005455.

Hawley,  Gessner   G.   (ed.).    1981.    The  Condensed   ch^mi
Dictionary, 10th ed.  New York, NY:  Van Npstrand Reinhold Co.
Hicks, Jennifer.  1991.  "A Clean Sweep:  Reduced Makeready, Print
Quality  Guide  Move  to  Automatic  Blanket  Washers."    American
Printer.  August,  pp. 34 -' 36.                          	
                               R-2

-------
                           REFERENCES
                           (continued)
Jones    1993 .   Letter with  comments on  the draft  Use Cluster
Analysis of  the Printing  Industry  from Gary A.  Jones,  Manager,
Office  of  Environmental  Information,  Graphic  Arts _ Technical
Foundation,  Pittsburgh,  PA to Susan  Krueger ,  U . S .  Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC.  October 5.

Kalima    1993     Letter  with comments on. the  draft Use Cluster
Analysis   of  the  Printing   Industry  from  Dale   G.,  Kalima,
Environmental Supervisor,  R.R. Donnelley & Sons Co.,, Lisle, IL to
Susan Krueger,  U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
DC.  October  12.

Kinter     1992     Personal communication between  Marcia Kinter,
Screen 'Printing Association International, Fairfax VA and Patrick
Godfrey, Mathtech, Inc.,  Falls Church, VA, February.

Kinter.  1993.   Comments on the r»™ff. nse Cluster Analysis  of the
Printing  Industry.   Marcia Kinter,  Screen  Printing Association
International, Fairfax, VA.  .September 28.              ,
Kirk-Othmer.   1982.  .Bruno, MH.  "Printing Processes. "  In: Q
Othmer Encyclopedia  of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed. ,  vol .  19 .   New
York,  NY:   Wiley- Interscience.  pp.  110  -  163.

Lewis    1992.   Personal communication between Timothy Lewis,  A.F.
Lewis ' & Co.,  Inc.,  New York,  NY.  and Patrick Godfrey, Mathtech,
Inc.,  Falls Church,  VA,  February.

Lustig,  Theodore.  1990.   "Waterless  Of f set  Inks ."   Graphic  Arts
Monthly.  December,   pp. 108+.

McGraw-Hill.   1987.   Bruno, MH.   "Printing."   In:   McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia  of  Science and Technology.  6th ed. ,  vol. 14.   New
York,  NY:   McGraw-Hill, Inc.  pp.  276 - 314.

 Petersen,  Debbie. 1991.  "A Delicate Balance: Weighing the Merits
 of Replacing  High-VOC  Chemicals  With "Friendly" Substitutes to
 Slash Air Emissions ."  American Printer.  August,  pp. 26 - 30.

 Petersen,   Debbie.   1992.   "The  State of the Plates."   American
 Printer.  February,  pp. 26 - 29.

 Purcell.  1993.  Comments on the draft use cluster Analysis of the
 Printing Industry.  Thomas Purcell, Printing Industries of America,
 Alexandria, VA.        •      ,     •         '
 Quick  Printing.   1991.   "Quick Printing Top  100:
 Record Sales."  Quick Printing.  June.

                                 R-3
Slow Growth,

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 Screen Printing.   1990.
 November.
                            REFERENCES
                            .(continued)
'Screen  Printing 100."  Screen Printing.
 SIC.   1987.   Standard Industrial  Classification Manual.  1987.
 Washington, DC:  Government Printing Office.  Publication No.  PB87-
 100012.   pp.  126 - 131.
 SPAI.    1991.    Industry Profile  Study.
 Printing Association International.
                  Fairfax,  VA:   Screen
SRI.    1993.    "Printing  Inks   (Worldwide)."    In:    Specialty
Chemicals.   SRI. International, Menlo 'Park,  CA.  January.
                                          11 • "  / ;,»I- , ,i "'  ' • '   '  , '     f
SRI.   1990.   Printing 2000.   Prepared by  SRI  International, Menlo
Park,  CA for the Printing 2000 Task Force,  Printing  Industries of
America, Alexandria,  VA.   SRI Project 7656.   August.

Stanilus, Catherine.   1990.  "The Toray Waterless Plate  System."
High Volume  Printing.  February,  pp. 50  -  51.
Toray.    No  date  [1991].
Industries, Inc., Japan.
     'Toray Waterless  Plate."
Toray
Tyszka.   1993.    Letter with comments on  the draft Use Cluster
Analysis  of  the  Printing Industry  from  Gregory  Tyszka,  Vice
President  Technical  Services,  Gravure  Association  of America,
Rochester,  NY  to  Susan  Krueger,  U.S.  Environmental  Protection
Agency, Washington, DC.   October 12.

USIO.   1992.   U.S.  Department of  Commerce,  International Trade
Administration.    1992   U.S.  Industrial  Outlook.   Section  25,
"Printing and  Publishing."   Washington,  DC:  Government Printing
Office.

USIO.   1993.   U.S.  Department of  Commerce,  International Trade
Administration.    1993   U.S.  Industrial  Outlook.   Section  24,
"Printing and  Publishing."   Washington,  DC:  Government Printing
Office.
                               R-4

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