EPA744-R-97-004a
May 1997
Training Curriculum
for Alternative Clothes Cleaning
prepared by
The Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
under EPA Grant #X823854
for
Economics, Exposure and Technology Division
Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics
US Environmental Protection Agency
401M Street SW
Washington, DC 20460
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fllodule i Introduction 1
1.1 Course Objectives 1
1.2 What is Wet Cleaning 2
1.3 Who Should Take This Course? . 2
1.4 Why Do We Need a New
Way to Clean? 3
1.5 A Brief History of
Wet Cleaning 4
fllodule 2 Health, Safety and
Environmental'Regulations 9
2.1 What Are the Hazards? 9
2.1.1 Acute and Chronic
Exposure 9
2.1.2 Exposure to
Workers and Others ... 10
2.1.3 Environmental Effects . 11
2.1.4 Environmental Health and
Safety in Wet Cleaning . 12
2.2 Who Makes the Rules? ...... 12
2.3 What Rules Are Currently
in Effect? 13
2.3.1 Occupational Safety and
Health Act 14
2.3.1.1 Permissible Exposure
Limits (PEL) 14
2.3.2 Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act 15
2.3.3 Clean Air Act 16
2.3.4 Comprehensive Environ-
mental Response, Compen-
sation and Liability Act
(CERCLA,1980) and
Superfund Amendments
and Reauthorization Act
(SARA, 1986) 16
2.3.5 Sewer Or Septic Discharge
17
2.4 What Are the Potential
Liabilities? 18
module 3 Front Fiber to garment... 23
3.1 Fibers, Yarns and Fabrics 23
3.1.1 What Is a Fiber? 23
3.1.2 Yarns 25
3.1.3 Fabric Types 26
3.2 The Effect of Cleaning
on Fibers 28
3.2.1 Fiber Strength 28
3.2.2 Elasticity and
Dimensional Stability . . 29
3.2.3 Absorbency and the Effect
of Water On Fibers ... 30
3.2.4 Effect of Chemicals ... 32
3.2.5 Effect of Heat 35
3.3 TheEffect of Cleaning
on Fabrics 36
3.3.1 Shrinkage 36
3.3.2 Colorfastness 37
3.3.3 Textile Finishes 37
3.4 Garment Construction 38
3.5 How to Identify Fibers 39
flloduk 4 Boils, Odors, Stains
and Separation 45
4.1 Soils, Odors and Stains 46
4.1.1 Soils 46
4.1.2 Odors 46
4.1.3 Stains 47
4.2 Separating Soils, Odors and Stains
from Fabrics 48
4.2.1 Processes 48
4.2.2 Chemical Agents 49
module 5 garment Cleaning
Methods 53
5.1 Current and Alternative Garment
Cleaning Methods 53
5.1.1 Dry Cleaning 54
5.1.2 Carbon Dioxide:
Supercritical and Liquid 54
5.1.3 Ozone Cleaning
System 56
5.1.4 Ultrasonic Cleaning ... 56
5.1.5 Wet Cleaning 57
5.2 A Comparison of Dry Cleaning
and Wet Cleaning Methods ... 57
5.2.1 Preparation 58
5.2.2 Washing and Drying .. 58
5.2.3 Finishing and
Assembly 60
module 6 Overview of
Wet Cleaning 63
6.1 Front Counter 64
6.2 Garment Measuring 65
6.3 Sorting 66
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6.4 Testing for Colorfastness 67
6.5 Stain Removal 67
6.5.1 Stain Removal
Equipment 68
6.5.2 Stain Removal
Agents 70
6.6 Cleaning with Water 70
6.6.1 Wet Cleaning
Machine 70
6.6.2 Detergents 71
6.6.3 Know Your Water 72
6.7 Drying 73
6.8 Finishing .... 74
fllodule i Hands-On
Wet Gleaning 77
7.1 Sorting 77
7.2 Stain Removal 78
7.3 Wet Cleaning 78
7.4 Drying 79
7.5 Finishing 79
Module 8 Economics of
Wet Cleaning 81
8.1 Understanding and
Finding Costs 81
8.1.1 Capital Costs 81
8.1.2 Operating Costs 82
8.1.3 Intangible Costs 82
8.2 Converting From Dry to Wet .. 83
8.2.1 Environment Canada's
Test Conversion 83
8.2.2 The Greener Cleaner
Demonstration Shop .. 84
8.3 Identifying and Comparing Costs
of Dry vs. Wet Cleaning 85
fllodule g Available Wet
CleaningEquipment 95
9.1 Wet Cleaning Machines 95
9.2 Dryers 96
9.3 Wet Cleaning Equipment Features
and Specifications 97
fllodule 10 Facility function
and Design 101
10.1 Adapting the Staff to
Wet Cleaning Procedures 101
10.2 Designing a Functional
Floor Plan 102
fllodule n Labeling Liability 105
11.1 Proposed Changes in
Care Labeling 105
11.2 The Current Situation 106
flppendixfl 107
Machine Manufacturers 107
Detergent Manufacturers 108
flppendixB ill
Organizations Ill
Government Agencies ,~...... 112
AppendixC .• 113
References 113
Liftofftyuref
Figure 3-1 Fiber Classifications 24
Figure 3-2 Fibers And Yarns 25
Figure 3-3 Woven Fabrics 26
Figure 3-4 Knits 27
Figure 3-5 Fiber Strength . 29
Figure 3-6 Abrasion Resistance ...... 29
Figure 3-7 Elasticity and Dimensional
Stability 31
Figure 3-8 Absorbency 31
Figure 3-9 Effects of Bleaches . .. 33
Figure 3-10 Effects of Acids .... 34
Figure 3-11 Effects of Alkalies 34
Figure 3-12 Effects of Organic Solvents 35
Figure 3-13 Fiber Identification
by Burning 41
Figure 4-1 How Surfactants Work 50
Figure 5-1 Dry Clean Process 59
Figure 5-2 Wet Clean Process 59
Figure 6-1 Wet Clean Process Flow ... 64
Figure 6-2 Recommended Sites for
Garment Measurement 65
Figure 8-1 Cost Comparison
Worksheets (One-Time
Investment Costs) 86-88
Figure 8-2 Cost Comparison
Worksheets (Annual
Operating Costs) 89-94
Figure 9-1 Summary of Wet Cleaning
Machine Features 98
Figure 9-2 Summary of Wet Cleaning
Dryer Features 99
Figure 9-3 Summary of Wet Clean
Machine Features 99
Figure 9-4 Wet Clean Dryer
Features 100
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The Toxics Use Reduction Institute would like to thank the following individuals
for their expert advise and dedication to the project. The time, energy and expertise
channeled into the development and review of the draft manual is greatly appreci-
ated. The opinions, methods and findings in this manual are not necessarily sup-
ported by these reviewers.
Mike Achin — Laidlaw Corporation
Ken Adamson — Langley Parisian
Steve Anderton — JLA
' Charles Anton — Anton's Cleaners
• Janet Beloin — U.S. EPA - New England
William Bernard — Caled Chemical
' Carmelia Bernard! — North East Fabricare Association
' Fred Bernard! — North East Fabricare Association
' Peter Blake — North East Fabricare Association
' -Brad Gumming — Environment Canada
Kevin Daley — Aqua Clean
Ralph Daniels — Daniels Equipment
Chris Dolan — Aquatex Inc.
Bill Eyring — Center for Neighborhood Technology
Tom Fleck — Unimac
' Noam Frankel — The Greener Cleaner
h George Franz — Executive Office of Environmental Affairs/Office of Technical Assistance
h EricFrumin — UNITE
K Ann Hargrove — The Greener Cleaner
h Janet Hickman — Dow Chemical Company
Sylvia Ewing Hoover — Center for.Neighborhood Technology
K Ohadjehassi —U.S. EPA
Doug Kelly — Aquatex
'' Myeong Loewe — Utopia Cleaners
h Jon Meijer — International Fabricare Institute
• Sylvan Menezes — Panda Cleaners
Dave Nobil — Nature's Cleaners
h Max Oh — Town & Country Cleaners
K Jo Patton — Center for Neighborhood Technology
h Michael Perry — Ed's Cleaners
David Porter — Garment Care
h Steve Risotto — Center for Emissions Control
K Carol Rougvie — JSI Center for environmental Health
• Deborah Savage — Tellus Institute
'' Mary Scalco — International Fabricare Institute
' Bill Seitz — Neighborhood Cleaners Association - International
Paul Stray — Stray Construction ; ,
John Tipps — Clean Concepts
Cynthia Vasquez — Center for Neighborhood Technology
Jinelle Walker — Illinois Fabricare Association
Jurgin WaShaussen — Veit
' Jack Weinberg — Greenpeace
h Diane Weiser — Ecofranchising
K Manfred Wentz — R.R. Streets
h Advisory Committee member
The following members of the Toxics Use Reduction Institute contributed to this manual:
Jack Luskin
Teena Manning
Jodie Siegel
This material is based upon work supported by the United States Environmental Protection Agency under Grant #X823854.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect
the views of the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
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Objective: To introduce students to course objectives and
background.
This training course teaches garment care professionals and staff about
a new way to clean garments. This new technique is called wet clean-
ing. The Toxics Use Reduction Institute at the University of Massa-
chusetts Lowell has developed this course to explain how wet clean-
ing works and how to operate a wet cleaning facility. The course also
explains how to convert from a dry cleaning facility to a wet clean-
ing facility.
This course gives participants the information and experience they
need to:
m Understand how wet cleaning works
m Understand how to set up and run a wet cleaning facility
m Understand how wet cleaning and dry cleaning affect the
environment, the health of workers, and public health in
general
m Gain first-hand experience by actually cleaning garments
using the wet cleaning method
The course manual is divided into eleven training modules. Each
module explains a topic related to the wet cleaning method. The
objectives of each module are listed at the beginning of the module.
Certain words in this manual are printed in bold and italic type.
These are special terms, such as "machine wet cleaning" or "cellu-
lose." Each module contains a section titled "What Does That Mean?"
that defines these special terms.
WordsprlHted
lubold and
Italic are
defined In a
section called
"Whatdoes
tHatMeaM?"ln
eacnmodule
fllodule I i
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Wet cleaning Is
tot ft an old
Hietnodanda
Hew Method for
clewing
iHtftls course,
participants
wlltlearn
about cleaning
garments
using tfte wet
cleaning
process.
Wet cleaning is both an old method and a new method for clean-
ing garments. Water has been used to clean clothes for centuries.
Inventors, scientists and engineers have also been working for centu-
ries to discover new methods to clean clothes quickly and efficiently.
By the 1930's, the dry cleaning method became very popular as an
affordable and efficient method for cleaning a wide variety of gar-
ments.
One concern with dry cleaning, however, is that it uses chemicals
that can be hazardous to garment care workers and to the environ-
ment. Because of these hazards, scientists and engineers began look-
ing for a cleaning method that does not use hazardous chemicals.
They came up with a number of new methods which are addressed
in Module 5. One new method is machine wet cleaning, which uses
water and detergents to clean clothes.
It is not the use of water that makes wet cleaning a new method
for cleaning clothes. New computer-controlled wet cleaning machines,
new dryers, new detergents and new spot removers are what make
wet cleaning a new method. The new washing machines and dryers
have controls that allow them to safely and efficiently clean a wide
variety of garments in water. New detergents and spot removers are
made of ingredients that are safer for workers and the environment,
yet are as safe and effective at removing soils, stains and odors as dry
cleaning solvents. Equipment, detergents and skill all contribute to
successful wet cleaning
In this course, participants will learn about cleaning garments using
the the wet cleaning process. It is hoped that after taking this course,
participants will be motivated to add wet cleaning methods to their
daily operations.
This course was developed for dry cleaning shop owners, managers,
skilled operators or entrepreneurs who want to wet clean all or some
of the garments processed in their shop. The course is designed to
help garment care professionals make decisions about using wet clean-
ing in their daily operations. The course explains not only the wet
fllafsadiuiettf Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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cleaning method itself, but also explains the costs and benefits of wet
cleaning.
The course assumes that the participants understand the commer-
cial dry cleaning process. This makes it easier for participants to un-
derstand the differences and similarities between wet and dry clean-
ing. The training that accompanies this manual is centered around
creative activities that will allow participants to use their experienc-
es, knowledge and enthusiasm in the learning process.
The professional garment care industry is currently experiencing one
of the greatest periods of change since it began. Two forces are driv-
ing this change: technology and regulations. The garment care in-
dustry is working on new equipment, new detergents and new clean-
ing methods. Some of this new technology is available now. Some of
it is still being developed and tested. Environmental regulations are
forcing many industries to change their processes. These regulations
have also affected dry cleaners.
Dry cleaning using organic solvents such as camphene, benzene,
gasoline and Stoddard solvent began in the mid-1800's. Since then,
the garment cleaning industry has continually changed to keep up
with consumer demand, new developments, and new regulations.
The 1930's and 1940's were profitable years for the industry. It wasn't
until the 1950's that the industry hit its first growth challenge: the
automatic home washer and dryer. These new machines allowed con-
sumers to clean more of their clothes at home. The 1960's dealt the
biggest blow to the industry with the introduction of wash and wear
clothing. In the 1970's the popularity of easily cleaned polyester fab-
rics meant that even fewer clothes were being taken to the cleaners.
The coin-operated and discount dry cleaner arrived to challenge neigh-
borhood businesses in the 1980's. In the 1990's, casual office wear
has become more acceptable. This has caused the market for dry
cleaning services to shrink again. Although casual office wear reduc-
es the market for traditionally dry cleaned garments, it also provides
a new marketing opportunity for wet cleaners.
The dry cleaning industry is also being affected by environmental
regulations that have been introduced since the 1970's. These regula-
EnvlroHmeHtal
regulations are
industries to
change tfteir
processes.
flloduk I 3
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tions are driving the industry to develop cleaning processes that do
not use hazardous chemicals. Several new cleaning processes are cur-
rently being researched. The goal of this research is to create new
processes that do not harm the environment, but are also efficient,
effective and profitable.
These new processes include cleaning with liquid carbon dioxide,
ultrasonics, ozone, and wet cleaning. At the time this manual was
written, wet cleaning was the only practical, environmentally sound
and potentially profitable new method. Therefore, the focus of this
manual is on wet cleaning.
In this country, 80% of professional cleaners use perchloroethy-
lene (or "perc") as their dry cleaning solvent and the remaining 20%
use petroleum. Because most cleaners use perchloroethylene, this
manual compares wet cleaning with perchloroethylene dry cleaning.
SPA's
Deslgnftr
Environment
condHcteda
In May 1992, an International Roundtable on Pollution Prevention
and Control in the Dry Cleaning Industry was assembled by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and its Design for the
Environment Program (DfE). The roundtable was created to consid-
er the health and environmental concerns associated with perchloro-
ethylene dry cleaning. The roundtable participants included profes-
sionals from the dry cleaning industry and allied trades, researchers,
environmentalists and government officials. These participants formed
a partnership that evaluated many methods for reducing the risks to
test study of garment care workers and the environment that are associated with
multiprocess the use of perchloroethylene.
wet cleaning, In November and December of 1992, the EPA's Design for Envi-
ronment (DfE) staff conducted a test study of multiprocess wet clean-
ing at the New York School of Dry Cleaning in New York City. In
multiprocess wet cleaning, garments are inspected and pre-treated if
necessary. The garments are then spot cleaned, steam cleaned or hand
washed.
In this test, the cost and effectiveness of wet cleaning was com-
pared to perchloroethylene dry cleaning. The results of the test are
described in the EPA's report "Multiprocess Wet Cleaning — Cost
and Performance Comparison of Conventional Dry Cleaning and an
/i fllaj$adiujettjToxiaU$e Reduction Institute
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Alternative Process," EPA 744-R-93-004, September 1993. The re-
sults stated that under certain situations, multiprocess wet cleaning
can be technically feasible and economically competitive with per-
chloroethylene dry cleaning.
One possible problem this study identified was that multiprocess
wet cleaning may require more manual labor than dry cleaning. Ad-
ditionally, the long term effects on garments were not evaluated. For
this reason, dry cleaners may not want to use the multiprocess wet
cleaning method. Since the test was done, however, new wet cleaning
machines have become readily available, The wet cleaning machines
reduce the amount of cleaning that needs to be done by hand. This
makes machine wet cleaning more efficient than multiprocess wet
cleaning, and more attractive to dry cleaners.
A second problem related to wet cleaning has been Federal label-
ing requirements. Current United States Federal Trade Commission
(FTC) care labeling rules discourage dry cleaners from wet cleaning
garments labeled "dry clean only." The FTC published two requests
for public comment on their labeling rules, one in June, 1994, and
another in December, 1995. The FTC wanted to know if it should
change these rules in order to (among other things) help the EPA's
goal of pollution prevention in the dry cleaning industry. These rules
are currently under review.
The DfE roundtable was also given the job of developing pollu-
tion prevention awareness and practices in the dry cleaning industry.
One of the products of this group is the Cleaner Technology Substi-
tutes Assessment (CTSA). This study is designed to evaluate garment
cleaning methods that could be used instead of perchloroethylene
dry cleaning. The study looks at these alternative cleaning methods
from environmental, health, and economic points of view. Another
role of the study is to communicate information about alternative
cleaning methods.
In order to gather information for the study, a demonstration
project has been established with partial funding from the EPA. The
goals of the demonstration are to examine some of the issues and
concerns surrounding garment wet cleaning. This project has result-
ed in a partnership between a private entrepreneur and the Center
for Neighborhood Technology (CNT) in Chicago. CNT is a Chica-
go-based non-profit organization dedicated to environmentally sound,
...under
certain
situations,
multiprocess
wetcleanlng
technically
feasibleand
economically
competitive
with
dry cleaning,
module I 5
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local economic development. The demonstration involves a garment
care shop, "The Greener Cleaner," which opened to the public in
May 1995. "The Greener Cleaner" uses machine wet cleaning.
A garment wet cleaning business depends on customer acceptance
in order to be successful. CNT evaluated "The Greener Cleaner" by
Many using customer survey cards and by having volunteers evaluate how
commercial well garments were cleaned. Complete results of the CNT study can
cleaners use be obtained by contacting CNT directly. (CNT's address is listed in
wet cleaning Appendix B.) , ,
080critical Wet cleaning technologies have proven to be viable in Europe. In
supplement the past few years, these wet cleaning technologies have begun to
to tnelr spread in the United States. Many commercial cleaners use wet clean-
s/few/^ ing as a critical supplement to their cleaning process, and there are a
process, growing number of wet clean-only facilities across the U.S. The
USEPA's Design for Environment program has a brochure on wet
cleaning (doc. # EPA 744-K-96-004) which list wet cleaners nation-
wide. See Appendix B for EPA's information hotline and website for
the most current information
6 fflaHachusetts Toxic* toe Reduction Institute
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multiprocess wet cleaning — a wet cleaning process in which gar-
ments are inspected and pre-treated if necessary. The garments
are then spot cleaned, steam cleaned or hand washed.
machine wet cleaning — a process for cleaning textiles in water by
professionals using special equipment and detergents. Machines
carefully control mechanical action, temperature and humidity. It
is normally followed by restorative finishing procedures.
organic solvent— a solvent that contains carbon in addition to oth-
er substances.
perchloroetbylene — an organic solvent frequently used in dry clean-
ing and as a spot cleaner. Other names for perchloroethylene are:
tetrachloroethylene, PCE, and perc.
pollution prevention — solving pollution problems by preventing
the pollution from occurring in the first place. This is frequently
done by eliminating or reducing the amount of materials, hazard-
ous or otherwise, that are used in a process, so that less pollution
is created. Elimination is the preferred method of pollution pre-
vention.
solvent — a liquid that is able to dissolve other materials. Water is
the most common solvent. Most solvents are only able to dissolve
certain types of materials.
module II 7
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Objective: This activity is designed to introduce new problem
solving skills.
Task: Without lifting your pen or pencil from the paper,
connect all nine dots with four straight lines.
Do not retrace lines or fold the paper.
8 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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Objective*: By the end of the module participants will be able to:
H Understand the worker, environmental, and public health
and safety issues involved in the wet cleaning and dry
cleaning processes
u List the Federal and state agencies that create regulations
governing the garment care industry
m List and describe the major regulations that apply to wet
and dry cleaning
Regulations are one of the primary forces that are changing the com-
mercial cleaning industry. These regulations have been created be-
cause Federal and state governments are concerned about the poten-
tial hazards involved in garment cleaning processes. This module
describes these hazards, the agencies that regulate the garment clean-
ing industry, and the regulations that are currently in effect.
Most of the regulations that are currently in effect are designed to
limit the amount of perchloroethylene that comes in contact with
workers and the environment. Perchloroethylene, also known as perc.,
can be a hazard to workers and to the environment if it is not used
and disposed of properly.
2.1.1 flcuteG Chronic Exposure
There are two types of exposure to perc: acute and chronic. Acute expo-
sure to perc occurs when people are exposed to perc for a short amount
of time (under 24 hrs). Acute exposure to perc may cause drowsiness,
nausea, and irritation of the eyes, skin and respiratory tract.
Regulations
are one of the
primary farces.
that are
changlngtHe
commercial
cleaning
Industry,
Perccanbea
hazardto
worker sand
to the
environment
Ifltlsnot
usedand
dlsposedof
property.
fllodule II 9
-------
Workers a re
atan
especially
ftlghrlskof
occupational
exposurelH
shops where
'transfer
machines"
a re used.
Chronic exposure may occur when people are exposed to perc re-
peatedly over a long period of time. Garment care workers have the
biggest risk of chronic exposure, because they can be repeatedly ex-
posed to perc at work. The public can also be at risk, however, when
perc from a dry cleaning plant gets into the local air and water. Chron-
ic exposure to perc can cause central nervous system damage, and to a
lesser degree, lung, liver and kidney damage. The central nervous sys-
tem effects include irritability, headaches, fatigue and vertigo.
There is ongoing debate about whether or not perc is a carcino-
gen, or cancer-causing substance. Different agencies have taken dif-
ferent positions on this question. The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) considers perc a suspected carcinogen. The National
Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH) recommends
that perc be handled as a human carcinogen. The International Agency
for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified perc as a probable carcin-
ogen in 1995.
2.1.2 Expowre to Workers and Other*
Workers are at an especially high risk of occupational exposure in
shops where "transfer machines" are used. Transfer machines are
dry cleaning machines where the washing and drying take place in
two physically separate machines. After the wash cycle is finished,
workers have to manually transfer clothes saturated with perc from
washers to dryers. During this transfer, workers may be exposed on
the surface of the skin, such as arms and hands, when their skin
comes in contact with the wet clothes. This is called dermal expo-
sure. Even more important, workers may be exposed to perc when
they breathe in the fumes while transferring the clothes. This is called
inhalation exposure.
Currently, there are about 10,000 transfer machines in use. Car-
bon adsorbers and refrigerated condensers are used to control emis-
sions and are currently installed in about half of the transfer ma-
chines in operation. Newer machines do not require workers to phys-
ically transfer clothes from the washer to the dryer. These newer
"closed loop dry-to-dry" machines also have many safety features
that help prevent perc from coming in contact with workers or the
environment. Dry-to-dry machines allow a dry cleaner to process a
10 fllauadiwettt Toxics Use Reduction Institute
-------
load of garments without coming in contact with perc-saturated
clothes. Transfer machines can no longer be sold in the U.S., so all
the dry cleaning equipment currently available includes these new
controls.
People who work in dry cleaning shops have the highest risk of
exposure to perc. People living near or above these shops who spend
a great deal of time at home, such as the elderly or pregnant women,
also can be exposed to perc for extended periods of time.
2.1.3 Environmental Effects
The use of perc, regardless of the type of equipment used, may result
in some emissions to the air, water or soil.
Perc evaporates quickly when released to soil or surface water
(rivers, lakes, oceans, etc). When exposed to sunlight, it breaks down
rapidly. When perc gets into water, it does not significantly affect
organisms that live in the water. In general, it is not absorbed by
aquatic organisms and does not tend to build up in their bodies. A
small percentage of the perc in water, however, will be absorbed by
microorganisms and enter the food chain.
Currently, there are over 30,000 dry cleaners in the United States,
80% of whom use perc. The total amount of perchloroethylene used
for dry cleaning in this country in 1994 was estimated at over 11
million gallons (approximately 147 million pounds). After it has been
used, perc may end up as:
m emissions into air
m emissions into water and soil
m hazardous waste
Perc is one of the ten most common contaminants found in
groundwater. A Federal survey reported that perc, from all commer-
cial and industrial sources, is present in about 26% of U.S. ground-
water supplies. The California Air Resources Board estimates that
30% of the total perc used—3.3 million gallons—ends up as hazard-
ous waste. It is estimated that recyclers can recover up to 80% of the
waste generated—2.64 million gallons. Although these recovery fig-
ures are impressive, the fact remains that hundreds of thousands of
gallons of waste are generated each year which could potentially con-
taminate the environment.
People IIving
Hearorabove
these shops
also can be
exposedto
percfor
extended
periods of
time.
fllodule II 11
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Wetcleanlng
doesnot
produce
hazardous
waste or air
emissions.
One
environmental
healthand
safety concern
that does apply
to wet cleaning
tstneuseof
toxjcsolvents
during stain
removal.
2.1.4 Environment, Health and Safety in UlrtGeanin?
Because perc is not used in the wet cleaning process, wet cleaners do
not need to worry about perc related environmental health and safe-
ty problems. Wet cleaning uses water as the solvent. The detergents,
stain removal agents and finishes used in wet cleaning are generally
non-toxic. Companies that produce wet cleaning detergents, stain
removers and finishes are sensitive to environmental and toxicologi-
cal concerns and are producing products that are phosphate free and
biodegradable.
Data collected by the Center for Neighborhood Technology at the
Greener Cleaner show that wet cleaning does not produce hazardous
waste or air emissions. Workers, customers and people who live and
work near a dry cleaner might benefit from the introduction of wet
cleaning and the resulting decrease in the use of perchloroethylene.
One environmental health and safety concern that does apply to
wet cleaning is the use of toxic solvents during stain removal. A new
shop with a 100% wet cleaning operation would probably not use
toxic stain removal agents, but a shop that has used perc and con-
verted totally or partially to wet cleaning may still use these chemi-
cals at the stain removal board. Non-toxic stain removal agents are
currently available from several different sources and should be used
on garments that will be wet cleaned. If the plant operator or owner
continues to use toxic stain removal agents, the waste generated by
the process should be treated as hazardous waste.
r(ft*<*>*«^«rtSTt " f »"i-iTT*'*."S>'nv'*
ofllake* the Rules?
The federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
and state labor departments are in charge of ensuring the safety and
health of workers inside the plant. The federal Environmental Pro-
tection Agency and the state departments of environmental protec-
tion are in charge of regulating pollutants emitted or transferred from
the plant. This is because the legislature and regulatory agencies have
always considered worker health and safety issues to be separate
from environmental protection issues. Some state agencies are start-
ing to combine environmental protection with worker health and
safety. This has resulted in state programs to reduce the use of toxic
12 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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chemicals in processes. However, the regulations that are currently
in effect are still mainly divided into environmental regulations and
health and safety regulations.
This section presents the minimum compliance requirements of a
dry cleaner based on the Federal regulations. Individual states can
make regulations of their own that are even stricter than the Federal
regulations. When states make their own regulations, the garment
cleaning industry only needs to report to and follow the rules of that
state. For example, New York and California are two states that
have decided to make their own regulations. Anyone who intends to
own or operate a professional garment care facility should research
state and local regulations to determine which regulations apply in
his or her state.
Since 1970, the U.S. Congress has passed several laws designed to
protect and improve environmental and public health. The laws set
standards for limits of chemical releases to air, water and soil. These
laws originally targeted industries that use large quantities of toxic
substances. As these industries have come into compliance, the focus
has turned toward industries that use small quantities of toxic sub-
stances.
The federal regulations outlined below apply to dry cleaning opera-
tions. Perc is listed as a hazardous substance under the Occupational
Safety and Health Act (OSHA), the Resource Conservation and Re-
covery Act (RCRA) the Clean Water Act (CWA), the Clean Air Act
(CAA), and the Comprehensive Emergency Response, Compensa-
tion and Liability Act (CERCLA). A dry cleaner that uses perc must
comply with these regulations.
Complying with these regulations can affect a dry cleaner's profit
margins. The costs associated with compliance include:
m liability insurance
• permitting fees
m hazardous waste disposal fees
m equipment upgrades
m contaminated site clean up
• time spent learning and complying with regulations
module II 13
-------
Sntftlngtoa
cleanlngand
dry cleaning
canprovlde
relleffrom
regulatory
requirements
Iwposedon
dry cleaners,
Tfie
Occupational
Safety and
HealtnActof
19FO was
passedto
protect the
nealtnoftne
worker In the
workplace
environment.
Shifting to a mix of wet cleaning and dry cleaning can provide
partial relief from some of the regulatory requirements imposed on
dry cleaners.
For example, some of the Clean Air Act regulations are based on
how much of a toxic chemical is used by a facility. Small garment
cleaning businesses with a dry-to-dry machine installed before 1991
are required to upgrade their equipment under the CAA if they pur-
chase more than 140 gallons of perc each year. By switching some
cleaning to wet cleaning, a business may be able to reduce its pur-
chases below the 140 gallon limit. Once below 140 gallons, the busi-
ness would be exempt from the upgrade requirement.
2.3.1 Occupational Safety and Health flct
The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 was passed to pro-
tect the health of the worker in the workplace environment. The Act
is administered by the Occupational Safety and Health Administra-
tion (OSHA). The Act sets limits on the amount of toxic materials
that workers can be exposed to in their workplaces.
2.3.1.1 Permiwable Exposure Limits (PEL*)
Both long-term and short-term exposure limits have been established.
These limits are called the Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs). The
long-term limits refer to a worker's allowable average exposure dur-
ing a normal 8-hour workshift of a 40-hour work week. The average
exposure limit takes into account how long a worker is exposed to
different levels of the chemical. This average is call the Time Weight-
ed Average (TWA). The overall average exposure for any 8-hour work-
day of a 40-hour work week cannot be greater than the PEL.
The current long-term PEL for perc is 100 parts per million (ppm).
In 1989, because of concerns about whether the 100 ppm limit is
low enough to protect workers, OSHA reduced the limit to 25 ppm.
Dry cleaners had until December 31,1991 to meet the new standard.
In fact, many dry cleaners have installed control equipment to con-
trol emissions so that they meet the 25 ppm PEL. However, soon
after the 25 ppm standard was issued, a suit was filed by industry
groups to challenge the new limits and a court decision threw out the
25 ppm limit. As a result, currently OSHA can only enforce a PEL of
14 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
-------
100 ppm but still recommends that dry cleaners limit indoor air emis-
sions of perc to 25 ppm. Several state occupational agencies continue
to enforce the 25 ppm limit. In addition, the American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) and the perc manu-
facturers also recommend 25 ppm as an 8-hour TWA. Currently,
negotiations are under way to reduce the PEL again, with some pub-
lic interest groups recommending levels as low as 5 ppm.
In addition to the long-term PEL, two short-term exposure limits
have been established by OSHA. These are designed to protect workers
from high exposures that might occur occasionally throughout the
work day. In dry cleaning, this might occur when opening the ma-
chine to remove the clothes, when cleaning the still or filter housings,
when cleaning out the button trap, or at any other time when perc
vapors are in close contact with the worker.
The OSHA short-term PELs for perc are 200 ppm averaged over
15 minutes, and 300 ppm averaged over 5 minutes. The 5 minute
maximum (peak) exposure can only occur once in any 3 hour peri-
od. ACGIH recommends a short-term exposure limit of 100 ppm,
averaged over 15 minutes.
2.3.2 RewurccComervationandRecovpnjflct
Subtitle C of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
of 1976 regulates what is done with hazardous waste that is generat-
ed at facilities. The regulations only apply to facilities that generate
more than 100 kilograms (220 pounds) per month of hazardous
wastes. Facilities that generate less than this amount are considered
small quantity generators and are exempt from this regulation.
Waste that contains perc is one of the hazardous wastes regulated
under RCRA. In the case of a dry cleaner, this waste could consist of still
bottoms, cartridge filters and filter muck. This waste must be disposed
of at a licensed hazardous waste facility (40 CFR §260- 270).
Some water used in the dry cleaning process becomes contami-
nated with perc. This occurs when water is used by emission control
devices and perc filtration devices, and when water is used to main-
tain these devices. Waste water generated by dry cleaners, even though
only slightly contaminated, is considered hazardous waste under
RCRA. The hazardous waste code for this type of waste is F002.
Solid wastes
and waste
waterfront
wetcleaHlng
processes
a re not
considered
hazardous
under7&RA.
(nodule II is
-------
The Clean
AlrAct
added? ere to
tttellstof
hazardous
air
pollutants.
WetcteaHlng
processes
arenot
regulated
uttdertfte
CleanAlr
Act.
Separator water is also considered hazardous waste because it may
contain as much as 150 ppm of perchloroethylene.
Solid wastes and waste water from wet cleaning processes are not
considered hazardous under RCRA. Some stain removal agents may
also generate hazardous waste.
2.3.3 Ito Own Air Act (1977) and Clean flir flct Amendment* (1990)
The Clean Air Act of 1977 (CAA) and the Clean Air Act Amend-
ments of 1990 (CAAA) also affect dry cleaners. The CAAA added
perc to the list of regulated hazardous air pollutants. In September
1993 the CAAA put out the National Emission Standards for Haz-
ardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP), which regulates emissions of perc
by dry cleaners. These standards limit the amount of emissions of
regulated hazardous air pollutants including perc.
The CAAA requires that dry cleaners keep track of their use of
perc and its disposal. It requires dry cleaners to change their operat-
ing procedures and modify their existing equipment to meet new air
emissions standards. It also requires that all newly purchased dry
cleaning machinery be equipped with control technology. These stan-
dards also prohibit the sale of transfer machines. Federal law re-
quires that the industry be in compliance with the perc NESHAP by
September 23,1996.
New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) were put into effect
in 1984 for petroleum based dry cleaners. The NSPS's are enforced
only in Clean Air Act non-attainment areas—those areas that do not
meet national standards for ambient air quality. The NSPS's set lim-
its on solvent loss in drying, set standards on the use of filters, and
require leaks to be repaired in a timely fashion.
Wet cleaning processes do not emit hazardous air pollutants that
are regulated under the Clean Air Act.
2.3.4 Comprehensive Emergency Response, Compensation and Liability flct
(1980) and Juperfund Amendments and ^authorization flct (1986)
The Comprehensive Emergency Response, Compensation, and Lia-
bility Act of 1980 (CERCLA), commonly referred to as Superfund,
allows the EPA to respond to potential or actual releases of hazard-
ous substances that threaten public health, welfare or the environ-
16 fllajjadiuicttj Toxics UK Reduction Institute
-------
ment. Superfund also authorizes the EPA to require parties responsi-
ble for environmental contamination to clean up or pay back the
Superfund for costs incurred by EPA to clean it up.
The CERCLA hazardous substance release reporting regulations
(40 CFR Part 302) require the person in charge of a facility to report
certain releases of hazardous substances. If the amount released is
greater than the limit specified in the regulation (40 CFR § 302.4),
then the person in charge must contact the National Response Cen-
ter (NRC). This may trigger a response by the EPA or a number of
state or Federal emergency response agencies.
When a site is found to be contaminated, present or past land-
owners or dry cleaners can be held liable for any contamination found.
The contamination may have resulted from a variety of situations,
such as:
m contaminated waste water leaking through sewer pipes
• perc leaks during operation of a dry cleaning machine
• dumping of wastes
The materials used in wet cleaning are not a source of liability
under the CERCLA.
2.3.5 tourer or foptic Discharge
Water discharge from a dry cleaning or wet cleaning facility is sub-
ject to restrictions depending on the size of the facility and whether
the discharge is to a publicly owned treatment facility or to a septic
system. Specifically, the following restrictions apply:
» contact water (separator and vacuum water) must be disposed
of properly as hazardous waste or may be evaporated under
an EPA policy decision
m boiler blowdown water is regulated on a state by state
basis
B vacuum water from the finishing equipment must be disposed
of as hazardous waste
m waste from the stain removal board must be treated as hazard-
ous waste
The waste water generated by a wet cleaning operation is dis-
charged either to a municipal sewer—Publicly-Owned Treatment
Works or POTW—or to a private septic system. Cleaners should
The tttateria/s
used in wet
cleaniHgare
Motasource
ofllablUtif
UMdertfte
CERCLA.
module IV 17
-------
Cleaners
should always
check wit It
thefrtocal
POTW.state
agencifor
Municipality
before
discharging
Into either a
seweror
septic
systgftf.
A cleaner WHO
wakes a
partlalor
totalswltch
to wet
clean Ing Is
sufyectto
limited
regulations,
andlnsonte
cases, no
regulations
atalt,
always check with their local POTW, state agency or municipality
before discharging into either a sewer or septic system since they
may require that waste water must be non-toxic in order to avoid
polluting the environment. This will ensure that it is legal to dis-
charge their waste water and that no permits are required. For aver-
age size wet cleaning facilities, a discharge permit, a pretreatment
system, or monitoring of discharge may not be required by the Pub-
licly-Owned Treatment Works.
Discharge to septic systems is regulated by the local municipali-
ties and the state. Waste from a professional cleaner is considered
industrial waste, and, in many states, discharge into a septic system
is prohibited.
The local regulating authorities, appropriate state agencies and
the POTW should be notified during the planning stages of any wet
cleaning or dry cleaning facility to determine any applicable regula-
tions or permitting requirements.
When new regulations are passed that restrict dry cleaning facilities,
the public becomes more aware of the public health and environ-
mental risks of perc. The professional fabricare industry, primarily
composed of very small "mom and pop" operations, has been hard
hit by these new regulations.
Landlords are wary of renting to dry cleaners because of the poten-
tial liability associated with perc. The cost of compliance and the po-
tential for retroactive liability has affected the profit margin of many
operations, forcing some owners to go out of business. Some families
that in the past might have passed the family dry cleaning business
down to the next generation must now be mindful that current retro-
active liability laws may transfer past liability to the new owner.
These regulations have had far-reaching effects on the dry cleaning
industry. Not only do dry cleaners need to comply with new Federal
regulations by implementing expensive pollution control technology,
they need to consider that their home state could pass even stricter
regulations in the future. A cleaner who makes a partial or total switch
to machine wet cleaning (or water based cleaning) is subject to limited
regulations, and in some cases, no regulations at all.
18 flla$5adiu$ett$ Toxics Use Reduction Institute
-------
acute exposure — contact with a substance that occurs over a short
period of time
biodegradable — able to be broken down into non—harmful sub-
stances by natural processes in the environment, such as sunlight,
rain and wind
CAA — Clean Air Act of 1977
CAAA — Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
carcinogen — a substance that causes cancer
CERCLA — Comprehensive Emergency Response, Compensation,
and Liability Act
chronic exposure — contact with a substance that occurs over a long
period of time
CWA — Clean Water Act
dermal exposure—exposure to a substance when the substance comes
in contact with the skin
emission — the release of a substance into the air, water or ground
exposure — coming in contact with a substance. The contact can be
on the skin, through breathing into the lungs, or by eating or
drinking.
inhalation exposure -— exposure to a substance that occurs when
something in the air is breathed into the lungs
NESHAP — National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollut-
ants .
NSPS — New Source Performance Standards
OSHA— Occupational Safety and Health Administration; the part
of the Federal government that administers the Occupational Safety
and Health Act of 1970
PEL — Permissible Exposure Limit; the maximum amount of a sub-
stance that a worker is allowed to come in contact with based on
a daily or weekly average
fllodule II 19
-------
perc — a short name for perchloroethylene
jRCRA — Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976
toxicology — the science that studies the effects, antidotes and detec-
tion of poisons or adverse effects of chemicals on living organ-
isms.
SARA — Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
Superfund — another name for CERCLA
TWA — Time Weighted Average; the method used to calculate a
worker's average exposure to a substance
vertigo — dizziness
20 fllajjachujettj Toxic Use Reduction Imtitute
-------
Health, Safety and Environmental Regulations
Unknown MSDS's
Objective: This activity is designed to introduce participants
to the content and meaning of Material Safety Data
Sheets (MSDS's).
The pages following these instructions contain
MSDS for four products. In each of your groups,
try to identify what product is described by each
MSDS.
fllodule II 21
-------
22
-------
: By the end of the module participants should be
able to...
m Understand the relationship between fibers, yarns, fabrics
and garments
m List and describe the effect of cleaning on fibers
m List and describe the effect of cleaning on fabrics
m Test a garment to find out what type of fiber it is made of
A customer walks into a cleaning shop and puts a garment on the
counter. To the customer, the garment is only a shirt, or a pair of
pants, or a dress. When a cleaner looks at that same garment, he or
she sees much more than that. The cleaner sees that the garment is
made from a particular type of fabric, and the fabric is made from a
particular type of fiber.
To successfully wet clean the garment, the cleaner must under-
stand how the fabric and fiber will react to the cleaning process.
Fabrics and fibers react differently in water than they do in perchlo-
roethylene or other dry cleaning solvents. Even an experienced fabri-
care professional must pay careful attention to fabric and fiber when
wet cleaning.
This module describes the characteristics of fibers and fabrics.
This module also explains the effect of the cleaning process on fibers
and fabrics.
3.1.1 What b a Fiber?
A fiber is a fine hair-like structure that is either natural or man-made.
Natural fibers come primarily from plants and animals. Plant fibers
TtiIs module
describes the
characteristics
of fibers and
fabrics.
module III 23
-------
A fiber tea
•fine hair-Ufa
structure
thatIseither
Haturalor
man-wade,
come from the seeds of plants like cotton, or from stems like linen,
ramie, hemp, or jute. Animal fibers come from the hair of certain
animals. For example, the hair of sheep is used to make wool and the
hair of goats is used to make cashmere and mohair. Silk fibers are
spun by silkworms.
Manufactured fibers, also called man-made fibers, were devel-
oped to provide properties that natural fibers do not have. Manufac-
tured fibers are divided into two main categories: synthetic fibers
and regenerated fibers. Synthetic fibers are created from polymers
that come from chemicals like petroleum. Nylon, polyester and acrylic
are all synthetic fibers. Regenerated fibers are created from polymers
that come from natural materials. Rayon and acetate are both regen-
erated from cellulose, a material that occurs naturally in plants. Fig-
ure 3-1 shows the major classifications of fibers.
Manufactured fibers are made using a process that is very similar
to the process a spider uses to make strands for its web. Long chains
of molecules called polymers are made into a liquid. This liquid is
forced through tiny holes. As the liquid comes out of the holes, it
hardens into fiber strands called filaments, or strands of "endless"
length.
Both natural and manufactured fibers can be made directly into
fabric, such as felts and nonwoven textiles. However, fibers are usu-
ally twisted or grouped together into long strands called yarns. The
yarns are then used to make a wide variety of knit and woven fab-
rics, as well as lace.
.1
natural Fiber*
I
Manufactured Fiber*
'
Cellulose Rubber Protein
1 1
1
Seed
cotton
dapek
1
Bast
linen
ramie
jute
hemp
1
Animal Hair
wool
cashmere
camel
mohair
alpaca
llama
vicuna
I
Extruded
silk
Modified cellulose '
acetate „ I
triacetate
,,.jrfl,. ,, i; ';"',i, -
Regenerated' , Inorganic Synthetic '
*s t * glass ," riyldh^ ' „ „
r ' „ ceramic acrylic •> ,, '
\ metalic t
Cellulose r /-*'''
Ra^op , /" J , ' '
viscose ' V
cuprammoKiutn *
high wet «)odttlus^ , ( '
° „ # *< & / „« &
ma5$adiu{ett$ Toxio U$e Reduction Institute
-------
The length of the fiber helps to determine the properties of the
yarn and of the fabric that is made from that yarn. Almost all natural
fibers range in length from less than one inch up to 36 inches. These
are called staple fibers. The exception to this rule is silk. The silk
worm spins filaments of silk that can be up to 1,600 yards long. Like
silk, all manufactured fibers are also spun as filaments. Unlike silk,
there is no limit to the length of manufactured fibers. However, these
fibers can be cut into short or "staple" lengths if necessary.
3.1.2 Varm
Yarns are used to make a wide variety of knit fabrics, woven fabrics
and lace. The type of fiber used to make a yarn and the way the yarn
is made determine the properties of the yarn and of the final fabric.
These properties include strength, abrasion resistance, elasticity, lus-
ter, hand and overall surface characteristics.
In many cases, fibers are twisted to make yarn. Increasing the
twists or turns in a yarn will increase strength, crease resistance and
abrasion resistance. Yarns that are more loosely twisted make softer
fabrics.
Some yarns are made from a single type of fiber, while other yarns
are made from more than one type of fiber. Multiple ply yarns are
stronger than single yarns. Fancy yarns, like boucle or chenille, can
be made to create decorative effects, and may take special care in
cleaning. Figure 3-2 shows several different types of fibers and yarns.
Filament fibers are typically sleek and smooth. The surface of
fabric made from filament fibers is therefore also sleek and smooth.
fa MS a re
usedto
Ht a kea wide
variety of
woven
fabrics and
lace.
module III 25
-------
Thebastc
fabric types
can be
classified
as woven,
knitted,
lace and
HOHWOYeH,
Natural staple fibers tend to be rougher. The surface of fabric made
from staple fibers will also be rougher, due to the exposed fiber ends.
For example, nylon and silk fibers have round, smooth surfaces, and
therefore nylon and silk fabric may feel smooth and slippery. Wool
fibers have a round scaly surface, making wool fabrics feel bulky and
slightly rough.
3.1.3 Fabric %«
The basic fabric types can be classified as woven, knitted, lace and
nonwoven. Woven fabrics consist of two sets of parallel yarns that
are interlaced to form a fabric. The lengthwise yarns are called
"warp." Warp yarns are held under tension throughout the weaving
process. The crosswise yarns are called "weft" or "filling." Some
examples of woven fabrics are plain, twill and satin weaves, as well
as certain pile fabrics like velvet, velveteen and corduroy. Figure 3-3
shows some examples of woven fabrics.
The weaving process tends to create fabrics that are strong and do
not lose their shape. The heavier the fabric and the tighter the weave,
the more durable the fabric will be. This assumes, of course, that the
yarn and fiber are also strong and stable. Fabrics that are tightly wo-
ven with delicate yarns, for example, can still be very fragile.
Knitted fabrics consist of one or more continuous yarns that are
looped through themselves to form interconnected chains. Weft knits
are the most common type of knits. Weft knits use one continuous
yarn to form the fabric through a series of loops, and are easy to snag
and run. Warp knits use a series of continuous yarns to form the
" " "^ffiw/nffirtcs
Plain
26 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
-------
fabric, giving the fabric more stability and less tendency to run. Fig-
ure 3-4 shows examples of warp and weft knits.
Knit fabrics tend to be more comfortable than woven fabrics be-
cause they stretch. This is an advantage for the person who wears the
fabric. It can cause problems for the cleaner, however, because this
tendency to stretch can cause the fabric to lose its shape when it is
handled. Knitted fabrics also tend to shrink. Fortunately, knitted fab-
rics can be 'blocked' or stretched to recover their original shape and
size.
Because some fabrics are constructed of loosely twisted yarns,
pilling is often a problem. When a knitted fabric is rubbed repeated-
ly, small balls of fiber called "pills" build up on the surface of the
fabric. This is called "pilling." Cleaners need to be careful not to
cause pilling when they rub the surface of a knit fabric to remove soil
or stains.
Lace is made of yarns that are knotted, twisted, or looped to pro-
vide a fragile, sheer pattern. When cleaning garments with lace, great
care must be taken not to break the delicate yarns.
Nonwovens are fabrics made by bonding together a web of fibers
through physical or chemical means. Felt is an example of a non-
woven fabric. Felt is made primarily from wool fibers. The felting
process uses moisture, heat, mechanical action and chemical action
to take advantage of the natural tendency of wool fibers to stick
together. The result is a dense, bulky fabric. Imitation suede is anoth-
er example of a nonwoven fabric.
Knitted
fabrics
conslstof
one or more
continuous
ifarMs that
a re looped
through
themselves
toforni
Interconnected
chains.
module III 27
-------
£a eft type
officer
reacts
differently
to the wet
cleaning
process.
The effect of
wateroH
fiber
strengtnls
very
Important
fortne wet
cleaner In the
stain
removaland
cleaning
stages of
garment
care.
Nonwpven fabrics tend to be weaker and more easily damaged
by rubbing than woven or knit fabrics of the same weight. This is
because nonwoven fabrics are made directly from fibers, and there-
fore do not benefit from the strength of yarns. Nonwoven fabrics are
often used for interfacing. Nonwovens can be bonded to a fabric to
make it more stable. This can cause problems for the cleaner. One
problem is that the cleaning process can dissolve the adhesive and
cause the two fabrics to separate, or "delaminate." Another problem
is that one fabric may shrink more than the other, which can cause
puckering.
Jiinvonfikn
Each type of fiber reacts differently to the wet cleaning process. How
a fiber reacts depends on a number ,of factors, including strength,
elasticity, dimensional stability, absorbency and the effect of chemi-
cals and heat. These factors have a clear influence on the way a gar-
ment should be handled in the wet cleaning process.
3,2.1 Fiber Strength
Fiber strength is a measure of the amount of force needed to cause a
fiber to break. It is also called tenacity, and it is measured in grams/
denier. Fiber strength can change when the fiber is exposed to water.
Cotton and linen are the only fibers that get stronger when exposed
to water. Rayons and acetates are examples of fibers that get signifi-
cantly weaker in water. Polyesters and olefins, which are among the
strongest of the common fibers, do not get weaker or stronger. The
strength of these fibers is not affected by water at all. Figure 3-5
shows the wet and dry strength of different fibers.
The effect of water on fiber strength is very important for the wet
cleaner in the stain removal and cleaning stages of garment care.
Because the strength of fibers can change when the fibers are wet,
care must be taken when applying any force to wet fibers. For exam-
ple, rayons and acetates, since they get significantly weaker in water,
could be damaged by scrubbing or harsh agitation. Figure 3-6 shows
the resistance of different fibers to abrasion.
z8 flla$sadiu$etts Toxio U$e Reduction Institute
-------
3.2.2 Oastidtij and Dimensional Wility
Elasticity is the ability of a fiber to go back to its original length after
being stretched. Fibers that have good elasticity are those that return
to their original length when stretched. Cotton, linen and rayon have
poor elasticity, while wool, nylon, polyester and olefins are very elas-
tic fibers. Fabric structure, which will be discussed in the next sec-
tion, also has an influence on elasticity.
The dimensional stability of a fiber is its ability to maintain its
original shape. Fibers with good dimensional stability do not shrink
Elasticity Is
the ability of
aflbertogo
back to its
original
length after
being
stretched.
fllodule HI 29
-------
or stretch during cleaning. Fibers with poor dimensional stability
may shrink or stretch during cleaning.
Wool and rayon fibers have poor dimensional stability. They tend
to shrink if not treated with care when exposed to water. When a
rayon garment shrinks, it can often be stretched back to its original
shape in the finishing process. However, when a wool garment shrinks,
it can be difficult to return it to its original shape. Proper care when
cleaning garments can prevent shrinkage. For example, wool fabric
should never be cleaned using moisture with heat, or moisture with
vigorous agitation, because these combinations can cause felting and
thus permanent shrinkage.
Even some fibers with good dimensional stability can lose their
shape during the cleaning process. Synthetic fibers tend to have good
dimensional stability, but exposure to high temperatures can perma-
nently change their shape. Figure 3-7 shows the elasticity and dimen-
sional stability of common fibers.
3.2.3 flbwrbenqj and The Effect of Water On Fibers
A fiber's A. fiber's ability to take up moisture is referred to as absorbency. In
technical terms, absorbency is called moisture regain. Moisture re-
gain is a measure of the weight of the moisture a fiber absorbs com-
pared to the weight of the fiber itself. It is measured at a standard
referred to as temperature and humidity, usually 70° F and 65% humidity. If 100
absorbeHcit. grams of a fiber absorbs 5 grams of moisture, then the fiber has a
moisture regain of 5%. Cotton, for example, has a high moisture
regain of 7%. One hundred grams of cotton will absorb 7 grams of
moisture. Polyester, on the other hand, has a low moisture regain of
only 0.2%. One hundred grams of polyester will only absorb 0.2
grams of water. Figure 3-8 shows the standard moisture regain for
common fibers.
Fibers with a high moisture regain are also called hydrophilic or
"water-loving" fibers. These fibers possess the ability to absorb wa-
ter with ease. All natural fibers, as well as rayon and acetates, are
examples of hydrophilic fibers. These fibers tend to swell when ex-
posed to water.
The fact that these fibers tend to absorb water is both an advantage
and a disadvantage to the cleaner. The primary advantage is that stain
30 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
-------
J;:I;fe
>^v
"I
;^£tietateC v >, -
> >"A^yttc^^f^\°;
T'dgotfbw.,
>> "jLitttsn
:^;^v5* ;:,;?'•
a/^;;;%:;r
,;!; O/4* ; ^ „*, \
"*"" *- ? „* """j'*' ^ ~" v -
'4^ &*ya»- „ - . ^
;" ;,f:MSbrf , „
, f«s&%
poor
good
poor
" poor-' ,
fair ^
^ excellent
excellent 'v
* ^
poor
.good -
' 'excellent
>;"nimensfan ^ " '
-^ > ^
'good . ^ ^ ' . ' »
x,good : ' - * - -
good if not exposed toN
high temperatures
good jf not fexposed to - *•>'*,
high tempef aturds < *C
good if no| exposed to
high temperatures
. good if not exposed to '- ^
high temperatures
, poor • , •
, good ,
poor v ^
removal is easier, because water and detergent are easily absorbed into
and flushed out of the fiber. The primary disadvantage is that swollen,
saturated fibers can also cause increased shrinkage, wrinkling and loss
of shape of the garment.
Fibers with a low moisture regain do not absorb water or absorb
only small amounts of water. These fibers are referred to as hydro-
phobic or "water-fearing."
Synthetic and inorganic fi-
bers such as polyester and
nylon are hydrophobic.
These fibers tend to wrin-
kle less when processed in
water. In fact, synthetic fi-
bers keep their original
shape when processed in
water, just as natural fibers
tend to keep their shape
when processed in dry
cleaning solvents. „ .
^iV * sS"*'*| % percentage of f tie dry weight at*7(J°F and
Synthetic
ft bers keep
their original
shape when
processed/H
water
/ Acefate
* Acrylic
Cotton
Ltvett^ '
° 'Mo dacryltc
:/^fo# >
' , < Olefin ,
s * Polyester ,
x;&aya/t ' •
v - '-Silk
\ ,-Wool ' '
6.0-
1.0-
7,0-
8.0-
£5
2.5.
11.0- , , -
12;0
0.4-4.0 ' >
-4.0-4,5
! 0,01 -Al
,0.2-
,11,0
0.8
-15.0
11.0
13,0,
- 18.0
module III 31
-------
A number of
different
chemicals
are useful
forgetting
outsells
andstalns,
andfbr
Identifying
fa Me types.
The majority of garments today consist of blends of natural and
manufactured fibers. Because synthetic fibers do not tend to be af-
fected by water, these garments can be easier to clean than garments
made entirely of natural fibers.
Some natural fibers are treated with special processes to make
them easier and safer to clean. Two of these processes are merceriz-
ing and Sanforizing™. Mercerizing is a process in which cotton fi-
bers, yarns or fabrics are held under tension in a cold alkali bath.
This strengthens the cotton fibers, makes them shinier, and allows
them to absorb dye better.
The Sanforizing™ process is a pre-shrinking process. This means
that the fabric manufacturer shrinks the fabric on purpose. Once the
fabric is shrunk, it is sent to a clothing manufacturer to be made into
garments. The result is that the garments will not shrink more than
two percent when washed and dried in home machines.
3.2.4 Effect of Qiemicah
A number of different chemicals are useful for getting out soils and
stains, and for identifying fabric types. However, these same chemi-
cals can also damage certain fibers. It is important for the garment
care professional to understand the effect of certain chemicals on
fibers. These chemicals include bleaches, alkalies, acids, and organic
solvents.
Bleaches — Bleaches are used to remove color or stains from fab-
rics. There are two types of bleaches commonly used in fabric care:
oxidizing bleaches and reducing bleaches. Oxidizing bleaches in-
clude hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), sodium perborate, and sodium hy-
pochlorite (NaCIO), also known as chlorine bleach. Reducing bleaches
include sodium bisulfite, sodium hydrosulfite and titanium stripper.
Of all the bleaches used in garment cleaning, chlorine is the most
harmful to fibers. Most other bleaches could be used safely.
Acrylics and polyesters are resistant to damage from all types of
bleaches. Cotton, linen, and rayon fibers are not harmed by reducing
bleaches, but can only withstand weak chlorine bleaches for short
periods of time. Wool and silk—and animal fibers in general— will
deteriorate and dissolve in chlorine bleaches, but are more resistant
to other bleaches. Some synthetic fibers, such as nylon and modacrylic,
32 fllassachujetts Toxio Use Reduction Institute
-------
may also be harmed by chlorine bleaches. Figure 3-9 shows the resis-
tance of different fibers to bleaches.
Acids and Alkalies — Acids and alkalies are used in laboratories
for fiber identification and in cleaning to remove difficult stains like
rust or blood. As might be expected, acids and alkalies each have
different effects on fibers. Synthetic fibers are generally resistant to
alkalies and acids, with some exceptions. Acrylic and polyester are
sensitive to strong alkalies athigh temperatures. Acetate, nylon 66
and polyester will decompose in strong acids.
The natural fibers are affected differently by acids than alkalies.
Plant fibers that contain cellulose are sensitive to acids, but are typi-
cally not damaged by alkalies. In fact, exposing cotton to alkalies
strengthens the cotton fibers. This is the basis of a process called
mercerization, which was discussed in the previous section. The pro-
tein, or animal fibers, are generally unaffected by acids, but are dam-
aged by even weak alkalies. Figures 3-10 and 3-11 show the effect of
acids and alkalies on different fibers. , •
Organic Solvents — Organic solvents, like perchlorqethylene,
petroleum and acetone, are used to remove a variety of oil-based
stains from fabrics. Natural fibers, both animal fibers and cellulose
fibers, either resist organic solvents or are unaffected by them. This
fact has allowed these fibers to be cleaned in dry cleaning solvents
like perc and petroleum with little or no damage to the fibers. Syn-
thetic fibers, however, may be damaged by organic solvents. For ex-
ample, acetate and modacrylic dissolve in acetone, which is used to
Organic
solvents, like
.j ^ x ^
^Cj*O.f
;?Styada&y^ ^
^^> Nylon " ' ^
! -, polyester **'*i' -
'-*. .^.i&pyo^ , ' "
" «!^fe \ . \
\V-TxK:- s-'n'i
resistant to oxidizing bleaches .\ ~ *
jalghly resistant - '" r . .
'resisteot-.but^clilociitebieacne^'wHl " ^
de^r.oy if anconfeoiled ^ * , " ,
, similar to cottoo ' "> -Jv- ,4 ^ - * •* '% "
some .fibers may be Jhaft»,ed by chlorinel^leacfi
x may be harmed by"chl6rme bleach
5 Highly Jr^sist^tt- V -*„ s "' A '-,
sisiitar to cotton -•'•*' * ,»
, deteriorates in chlorine bleach, ; \ . ' ° „
w|ii yejlow atid dissolve-jn^chlorirfe blestch.
petroleum and
acetone, are
ftsedto
remove a
variety of oil-
basedstalHS
from fabrics,
fllodule HI 33
-------
remove nail polish and paint stains. The olefin fibers (polypropylene,
polyethylene) will dissolve in solvents like perc in temperatures above
160° F. Since temperatures in a perc dry cleaning machine do not get
this high, it is possible to dry clean these fibers. Figure 3-12 shows
the effects of organic solvents on different types of fibers.
There is one major difference between the effects of organic sol-
vents and the effects of water on fibers. The application of some
organic solvents to some synthetic fibers, may cause the fibers to
melt or dissolve. If this happens, there is no way to reverse this effect.
Acetate
Acrylic
Cotton
Linen
Modacrylic
Nylon 66
Olefin
, Polyester
Rayon
Silk
Wool
soluble in acetic acid (33% or stronger);
decomposed by strong acids ' '
resistant to most acids ,
similar to rayon * x
similar to rayon -
resistant to most acids ( . ,~
decomposed by strong mineral acids, resistant 'to
weak acids / " " *
very resistant ,- "-
resistant to most mineral acids; "disintegrated by
96%sulfuric • ~ " >„ ' ',;;
disintegrates in cold concentrated acids
similar to wool, but more sensitive " „ '„ - -
generally unaffected by acid • "
fr>*
PI n
KB
S-
i
P
p"
i
L
-
U
m
jl
|
OTWtft •% 11 - XT^Ot
pure 3»11 £ff
Acetate
Acrylic
Cotton _
Linen
Modacrylic
Nylon 66
Olefin
Polyester
Rayon
Silk
W°°l
~~ ' „ "•?*••::• tj-^s-'-y--',- ~- ~— — v. - ^ . . *•,'.-•
little effect from weak- alkalies
resists weak alkalies
swells when treated with caustic soda,
but is not damaged
very resistant
resistant to alkalies
little or no effect , '
very resistant
resistant to cold alkalies ' "
no effect by weak alkalies; swells and loses I "
strength in concentrated alkalies
similar to wool, but damage is slower
attacked by weak alkalies; destroyed by
strong alkalies
Massachusetts Toxics U$e Reduction Institute
-------
When water is applied to natural fibers, the fibers may shrink or lose
their shape. Some of these effects can be reversed, and both of these
effects can be avoided. ,
3.2.5 Effect of Heat
The effect of heat on fibers is an important factor in both the clean-
ing and finishing of garments. A cleaner should ask himself or herself
a number of questions before applying heat to a fiber:
m Does this fiber melt or decompose, and if so, at what tempera-
ture?
m Does this fiber shrink when it is heated?
H Does this fiber stretch when heated under tension?
m Can this fiber be heat-set, or become fixed in a certain state
after heating? .-..,.
H If I heat this fiber for a long time, will it damage the fiber and
make the fabric useless?
Natural fibers do not melt or soften when they are heated. This
allows them to be exposed to high temperatures. In fact, fabrics made
from natural fibers may actually need these high temperatures to
remove wrinkles in the finishing process. Dry heat has very little ef-
fect on natural fibers. However, these fabrics may shrink or stretch if
exposed to hot water or to moist heat, and must be closely moni-
tored to achieve the desired result. Wools and rayons require partic-
ular care in moist heat.
The effect of
heat OH
fibers Is an
important
factorln
both the
clean tog and
finishing of
garments.
flloduie HI 35
-------
During
cleaning,
wateror
solvenPcan
caHsetke
fabricto
"relax, "This
canresufrln
shrinkage.
Synthetic fibers have softening or sticking points ranging from
260°F (olefins) to 490°F (acrylic). The lower this softening point, the
more care must be taken when using heat in .the care of a garment.
Too much heat can cause a fabric to stick to pressing equipment or
to become permanently heat-set in an undesirable state. .
„ ^ ^ , >
fȣ (rat or Cleaning on Fauna
Wet cleaning can negatively affect fabrics in three main ways:
• fabrics can shrink or stretch
• colors can bleed
• textile finishes may be removed
Understanding these effects can make a cleaner more successful.
3.3.1 Shrinkage
The most common form of shrinkage is called "relaxation shrink-
age." During the manufacturing process, fibers and fabrics are con-
stantly stretched in the warp, or length, direction. After manufactur-
ing, the fabric wants to "relax" and return to its natural length. Dur-
ing cleaning, water or solvent can cause the fabric to "relax." This
can result in shrinkage.
Relaxation shrinkage usually occurs the first time the garment is
cleaned. Woven fabrics generally shrink more lengthwise. This is the
direction of the warp yarns when the fabric was woven. Knitted fab-
rics tend to shrink in both directions.
There are three other main types of shrinkage: natural shrinkage,
progressive shrinkage, and differential shrinkage. "Natural shrink-
age" depends on the properties of fibers. For example, wool and
rayon tend to shrink, while polyesters do not.
Shrinkage in wool is often called "felting." Felting can occur when
heat, moisture, and mechanical action are applied to wool fabric. This
causes the wool fibers to interlock and results in shrinkage. A "felted"
fabric feels thicker and more compact than the original fabric.
"Progressive shrinkage" occurs when a fabric shrinks more each
time it is cleaned. This is an important point to note, because even if
a garment has been cleaned before, it may continue to shrink.
36 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
-------
Differential shrinkage may occur when a garment is constructed
of two or more fabric types. Each fabric may shrink differently, caus-
ing puckering of the seams or baggy linings.
3.3.2 (olorfattnes*
Colorfastness is the tendency of a fabric to hold or lose its color. A
fabric that is "colorfast" will not lose its color and "bleed" on other
garments during cleaning.
Color can be added to a polymer, a fiber, a yarn, a fabric, or a
garment. Color is added using dyes or pigments. Different dyes are
used for different fibers, providing varying levels of colorfastness.
The more completely the dye penetrates the fiber, the better the col-
orfastness of the fabric will be. Manufactured fibers tend to be the
most colorfast. Because the fiber is dyed as a polymer, the color is
deeply imbedded in the fiber structure. When dyeing is done at a
later stage in the manufacturing process, colorfastness may suffer.
Some fabrics are printed using pigments, not dyes. These pigments
sit on the surface of the fiber and may be sensitive to rubbing or
abrasion.
Fabric can lose its color for a number of reasons, including:
m exposure to water or chemicals such as acids, alkalides,
bleaches or perc.
m exposure to light, especially sunlight
m exposure to atmospheric gases
• m exposure to heat
m perspiration
m abrasion or rubbing
Garments must be tested for colorfastness before they are cleaned.
This is especially important for dark fabrics and for garments that
are made of both dark and light fabrics. Experienced garment care
professionals, no matter what the cleaning method, will learn which
types and colors of fabrics are the problems or "bleeders."
3.3.3 Textile Fuii$he$
Finishes are applied to fibers, yarns and fabrics for a variety of rea-
sons. They can be used to modify the appearance of the fabric to
provide a shine or soft feel to the fabric surface. Finishes can also be
ColorfbstHess
1st fie
tendency ofa-
fabric to hold
or lose Its
color.
module III 37
-------
arewadeof
different
parts, AH
tfteseparts
htustbe
considered
when
garment.
applied to fabric to reduce its shrinkage, help prevent it from wrin-
kling, or improve its resistance to water or soil.
Finishes can be applied to fabric by mechanical or chemical means.
The finish can be:
• permanent, which means it lasts as long as the fabric lasts
• durable, which means it lasts for a relatively long time
• temporary, which means it lasts for a relatively short time
One of the finishes that is used on fabric is called "sizing." Sizing
is a chemical treatment that adds body and luster to fabrics. In this
process the microscopic spaces between the individual fibers are filled
with starch or resin. This reduces the amount of water the fabric will
absorbed, which means the fabric will not swell as much when it is
cleaned with water.
The starch and gelatin sizings used on cottons and rayons are
usually temporary and may be removed by water.When the sizing is
removed, fabrics can shrink, lose their shape, or lose their surface
finish. Some more durable resin sizings last somewhat longer on the
fabric surface, and are not affected as much by water.
Garments are made of many different parts. All these parts must be
considered when cleaning the garment. The first part to consider is
the fiber and fabric that the garment is made of. A garment can be
made from a single-fiber fabric, a multi-fiber fabric (or blend), or
more than one type of fabric.
• A garment that is made from only one type of fiber should be
cleaned according to the properties of that fiber. For example,
a wool sweater should not be cleaned in hot water with vigor-
ous agitation. A rayon blouse should be treated very delicately
and may need some reshaping or stretching during the finish-
ing process.
• A garment made from a fabric blend—such as wool/polyester
or polyester/rayon—should be cleaned with the properties of
the more delicate or sensitive fiber in mind. For example, a
wool/polyester blend should be treated as if it were wool, and
a polyester/rayon blend should be treated as if it were rayon.
38 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
-------
m Garments that are made of several types of fabrics can present
two major problems. If the fabrics are very different colors—
such a navy blue and white—the darker color must be tested
for colorfastness before the garment is cleaned. If the fabrics
are made of different fibers, shrinkage may occur at different
rates in the different fabrics. The garment should be cleaned
with the properties of the more delicate or sensitive fiber in
mind, to best prevent either fabric from shrinking.
In addition to the fiber and fabric, other parts of the garment also
need to be considered:
« Care must be taken on certain garments that seams, collars,
and lapels do not pucker. These parts of the garment are often
made of different materials that shrink at different rates. For
example, when the fabric shrinks at a different rate than the
thread or fused interfacing, puckering can occur. Often, this
puckering can be fixed during finishing, but it is better to avoid
the problem than to fix it.
m Delicate garments may be prone to seam ravelling and edge
fray, especially if the seams are not secured with proper tailor-
ing. Seams should be inspected before the garment is cleaned
in order to determine if this will be a problem.
m Plastic buttons and non-fabric trims are typically a problem
for dry cleaners because plastic and non-fabric trims can melt
or stick when they come in contact with perc. This is not a
problem with the wet cleaning process because water will not
damage these types of materials.
Finishes a re
appliedto
fibers, ifarns
andfabrics
fora variety
ofreasoMS,
Garment care professionals should know how to identify the fiber
content of a garment. Knowing the types and percentages of fibers in
a garment will help the cleaner determine the best care and treat-
ment.
Federal law requires that certain information be provided with
each garment, including fiber content and care labelling. These la-
bels are usually attached permanently to the garment. This is not
(Hodule III 39
-------
care
should
theftber
cotttentof
agartnettt.
required by law in all circumstances, however, and consumers will
often remove labels for reasons of comfort. -
If a garment has no identifying label, the cleaner should take the time
to identify the garment's fiber content.
The burn test is a simple method of fiber identification. This test
can be done on almost any garment where there is an unexposed
area from which a small sample can be clipped. Never try to do the
burn test on a piece of fabric that is still attached to the garment.
Different fibers have distinct odors and appearances when they are
burned. Exact identification can be difficult, but the cleaner will al-
most always be able to narrow the identification down to one of three
categories: cellulose, protein, or synthetic. Based on this information,
the cleaner can determine the best method for cleaning the garment.
Figure 3-13 shows the burning characteristics, odor of residue, and
appearance for several cellulose, protein and synthetic fibers.
40 fllasiadiujctU Toxio Use Reduction Institute
-------
Burning
Characteristic*
< g&fitff* •*
'r"< cotton ^
1?? ?U*
*T^ ;
yellow flame,- melts ^
yellow £fam% continues to% :
! burn when flame* removed
tyellow flatne, cp,ntinue$°td~
burn when flame removed '
yellow flame, continues tosi
acetic acid or -vinegar
^ burning wc-eki, \ ;
-'
or paper -, *
burning wood
or paper
^burning wood I" \'
or paper - „
Ijafd bead — canndt cru°sh
grey fluffy ash
grey Haffy ash ;- !x \
, grey fluffy ash
•Pifefflf v.
^:;/;;
N barrisjn short jumps, does
not -bsurn when fJamexemoved „
burns hi short jumps, 'does
no,tLbum when flame removed
burning hair " „ v
^burning fiair
crushable biaclc beadr .
"• crashable black bead „
^^^
&&^
|V0H;/r
%?^fvr:;:
. v * polyestef "
L ^"N- ^ •** ^
J •* % ^ ^ ^ "v^
% -> \x ^ ^ ^\ , ^
p 4 Adapted %mya
U*. *»Underst •;•. ^xs . -
^ignites and btirns
j \
melts, does^ not burn whetl
flame is removed * ' "x '.
melts,, does nbt burn when
_ flame i& removed
^meltSj burns with sooty
smoke^contiriues to burn < " '„
when flame ^emoyed ,
shrinks front'llame ani°
^melts^mk^ self-extinguish
hj-elts • *
•v^^'^1''* X* h-(
ble by JarteJUsmg, EFI, anrf Torto% PJiylk
fexttles., Poutth Ed|tto% MaeMilla^, MY, 1
acrid ' .
\ acrid *'
burning -wax
chemical odor * , •
N .
x strong " s. " '
.pungent or^sweet odor
s musty
'% N • \ ' .
s> ' * d * * ' ° "» * •, •-
?«. " „ , " '
j . ^ <- >
, hard black bead —
- cannot crush- a
hard bead — p artnot crush
•>. o
amber" bead -7-,
cannot crush, ">"
'hard* bead — cannot crush
hard bead — cannot crush
soft, sticky, gummy
* „ " < » \ '
,- » ^ . -^ V *
modulo III
-------
abrasion — the wearing away of material by rubbing against anoth-
er surface
abrasion resistance — the ability of a fiber or fabric to withstand
surface wear and rubbing
acid —• a substance with a pH less than 7
akali — a substance with a pH greater than 7
cellulose — a basic raw material from the cell walls of plants, used in
manufacturing rayon, acetate, and triacetate fibers
dimensional stability — the ability of a fiber or yarn to withstand
shrinking or stretching
elasticity — the ability of a fiber or fabric to recover its size and
shape after stretching
filament— an indefinitely long fiber, measured in yards or meters
hand—the qualities of a fabric that are felt when the fabric is touched,
such as softness, firmness, elasticity, and resilience
bydropbiHc — having an affinity for water; "water loving"
bydropbobic — having no affinity for water; "water fearing"
laminate — to compress or bond thin layers together
luster — to have a shiny or reflective surface
moisture regain — the amount of moisture a textile absorbs as a
percent of the textile's dry weight
oxidizing bleach — a bleach that whitens by adding oxygen to the
substance
pH— a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a material
polymer — a chain-like structure of many molecules used to make
man-made fibers
reducing bleach — a bleach that whitens either by removing oxygen
from a substance or by adding hydrogen to it
staple fiber — a fiber of relatively short length, measured in inches
or centimeters
tenacity — the strength of a fiber
flliMadniietb Toxin Use Reduction Institute
-------
Fiber and Fabric — Burn Test-
Objective: This activity is designed to give participants practi-
cal experience in performing the burn test, which is
a simple method of identifying fibers. The follow-
ing items are considered:
m melting and/or burning characteristics
a odor of the fumes-, and
m appearance, shape, feel, and color of the residue
or remains after burning.
Tatkf: You will be given a piece of aluminum foil about a
foot square. All work should be done over this foil.
You will also be given small swatches of fabric.
Separate the fabric into individual yarns. Hold one
end of the yarn with a pair of tweezers that were
also supplied.
First, hold the free end of the yarn close to the
flame of a match. Do the fibers melt, shrivel up or
harden? (Melt test). Next, put the yarn into the
flame to seethe burning characteristics of the fiber
(burn test). Any reaction to the flame should be
noted such as; shrinking back from the flame, drip-
ping, color of smoke and whether the fabric is self-
extinguishing once the flame is removed.
Sample
1.
2.
3.
4.
Melt Test
Burn Test
fllodule HI
-------
,
XftAriWriv*
— Fiber Identification by Tensile Strength
Objective: This activity is designed to give, participants an
understanding of how fibers react when exposed to
water. Participants will be classifying fibers based
on their reaction to being saturated with water.
Ta$k: The instructor will give you two strands of two
types of fibers to identify. Working in groups of
two, first hold the fiber at each end and pull ends
apart to determine how much pressure needs to be
applied to snap the strand. Record on a scale of
1-5 the pressure required for the strand to break.
Next, repeat this process after adding a drop of
water to the center of the strand. Finally, switch
and allow the other partner to perform both tests.
Complete the following chart for the fibers that
you are given.
Fiber type
Typel
Type 2
Reaction to water
Stronger or weaker?
Fiber type
Cotton or Rayon?
flhfsathutttb Toxics Use Reduction Institute
-------
By the end of the module participants should be
able to...
n Identify the sources of soils, odors and stains
m Understand how mechanical processes and chemical
agents separate soils, odors and stains from garments
m List the appropriate cleaning techniques for removing
soils, odors and stains
Customers bring garments to commercial cleaners for many reasons.
Several of the most common problems are:
• the garment is soiled with dirt
m the garment has a spot or stain
• the garment has an objectionable odor
• the garment is wrinkled or creasecl
m the garment has lost its color or brightness
m the garment has lost its desired shape or finish
m the garment has been worn once and needs to be "cleaned"
before it can be worn again
Each of these conditions presents the commercial cleaner with a
specific problem. If the cleaner uses the wrong cleaning process, there
is a risk of damaging the garment. If the cleaner relies on the general
cleaning process, there is a risk that the garment will be cleaned but
the specific problem will remain. The cleaner must use the specific
cleaning process that will solve the problem without damaging the
garment. This will guarantee that the customer will be satisfied when
the garment is returned.
Ifthe
cleaner
uses the
wrong
cleaning
process,
the re Is a
rlskof
damaging
the
garment.
module IV 45
-------
Soils, odors
andstalHS
aresotoeof
tkemost
challenging
problems
cleaners
Soils, odors and stains are some of the most challenging problems
that cleaners must solve. It is important to get as much information
as possible from the customer about the source of the soil, odor or
stain. If the source is known, it is much easier to choose the correct
process to remove the problem.
4.1.1 foih
Garments can become soiled from many different sources.
These include:
• inorganic dust, dirt and particulates from the air
• inorganic dirt from rubbing the garment on dirty surfaces
• organic oils from soot and pollen
• food and drink
• blood and urine
• greases, tars, adhesives or other thick, sticky substances
• aged skin cells that have flaked off the body
With the exception of the organic oils and greases, most of these
soils do not penetrate deeply into the fibers of the fabric. However,
many of these soils may be tightly attached to the garment. Soils can
be hard to remove when:
• they have been ground into the fabric structure by a strong
force
• they are attached to the fabric by electrostatic bonding with
the fibers
• the ragged surfaces of the soil particles cling to the surface of
the fabric
Soil can be removed by:
• dry mechanical agitation such as beating or scrubbing
• dry mechanical spinning
• flushing with a water, surfactant or solvent solution
The fabricare professional can also combine these methods if a
single method does not remove the soil.
4.1.2 Odor*
There are several sources of objectionable odors. These include:
46 fltosadnnettf Toxio UjcRcdudon Injtltutc
-------
M decomposing perspiration and body oils ground into the gar-
ment
• organic contaminants from foods, solvents, greases or oils
• bacteria or mites attracted to organic contaminants on the gar-
ment
• particles of smoke and soot from cigarettes or fires
• synthetic volatile organic compounds—such as fuels, paints,
and solvents—that have been transferred to the garment
Odors typically suggest that some organic process is taking place
on the garment. Either a volatile compound is evaporating, or a food
particle or body cell is decomposing, or bacteria are metabolizing.
The odor itself is not on the garment, but the source of the odor is.
The techniques that can remove odor are:
8 removing the source of the odor by agitation, steaming or
washing with a water, surfactant or solvent solution
• "airing out" the garment over time in an oxygen rich atmo-
sphere to allow the source of the odor to completely decom-
pose
B disinfecting the garment with a bleach or peroxide
• heating the garment to promote rapid oxidation
m masking the odor with a more dominant odor or perfume (this
method does not remove the odor; it only covers up the odor
temporarily)
The cleaner can also combine these methods if a single method
does not remove the source of the odor.
4.1.3 ftairo
Stains tend to color a fiber in much the same way that a commercial
dye does. Sources of stains include:
• ink
• dye
• solvents
• food and drink
• perspiration
• blood
Some stains are drawn up through the fibers by capillary action,
the same way juice or coffee is soaked up by a paper towel. These
Odors
typically
thatsoHie
organic
pro cess Is
OH t fie
garment.
module IV
-------
stains stick to the surface of the garment and yarns, but do not pen-
etrate the fibers. Other stains soak into the fibers themselves. De-
to color a fiber pending on the type of fiber, stains that penetrate into the chemical
structure of a fiber may "set" over time. These stains can be very
difficult to remove.
The more a stain contrasts with the color of the garment, the
more of a problem it is. A red ink stain on a white shirt must be
completely removed, but a red ink stain on a red, floral garment may
only need to be hidden. The stain can be hidden by reducing its color
so that it blends into the background.
Stains can be removed or hidden by:
• flushing with a water, surfactant or solvent solution
• bleaching or dyeing
The cleaner can also combine these methods if a single method
does not treat the stain successfully.
same way
tttata
commercial
dye do es,
aratin? ioiMdon and ftaim 1
m fabric*. .__< _r_"_, s^'-j
Separating soil, odor sources and stains from fabric is a two-step
process: "get it off" and "keep it off." From the point of view of wet
cleaning, this process consist of:
• wetting a fabric and the soil, odor source or stain in order to
separate the problem from the fabric
• holding the soil, odor source or stain away from the fabric to
prevent it from soiling the fabric again during the cleaning
process
Different separation techniques are effective at separating differ-
ent soils, odor sources and stains. Some of these techniques are nie-
chanical processes; others involve the use of chemical agents.
4.2.1 Proce««
Mechanical agitation removes dirt from a garment by either direct
force or by breaking and pulverizing dirt particles. Breaking and
pulverizing results in smaller particles, which are able to leave the
fabric structure more easily. These smaller particles are able to leave
the fabric more easily than larger particles. Mechanical agitation does
48 fflajf achwetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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not work for all soils, however. For example, mechanical agitation
alone may remove sand from a garment but may not be as effective
at removing ground-in dirt. Other techniques are also required for
removing stains.
Water is a powerful solvent that can help separate certain soils
and stains from fabrics. Some soils dissolve in water that is used to
clean a garment. The mechanical force of water flushing can also
remove some soils, even though the soils themselves do not dissolve
in water.
Adding certain chemicals to water can help water clean more ef-
fectively. These chemical additives decrease the surface tension of the
water. This allows the water to penetrate the fabric more rapidly and
thoroughly. These chemical additives are called "surfactants" because
of their effects on surface tension.
Steaming and heating a garment also assist in separating soils and
stains from a fabric. Heat can melt or soften particles. Steam can
cause particles to expand or lose their electrostatic charges.
Finally, drying can assist in soil separation as particles curl, break
or change shape during the evaporation process. A dehydrated parti-
cle or cell is less likely to decompose rapidly or to attract bacteria
and, therefore, less likely to generate odors.
4.2.2 Chemical flints
Detergents. Detergents are a particular kind of surf actant. Detergents
penetrate into tight spaces such as those between fibers and soils.
Surfactants ease the process of separation by surrounding the soil
particle and easing it away from the fabric and into the water. Once
a surfactant has surrounded a soil particle and released it from a
fabric, the problem is to keep the soil particle from attaching itself to
the fabric again. Electrostatic charges help solve this problem.
Most surfactants and most fabrics carry negative electrostatic
charges in water. These charges repel each other. Every time a soil
particle surrounded by surfactant comes close to the fabric, the neg-
ative charges repel each other. This keeps the soil particles from re-
attaching themselves to the fabric. The soil particles stay suspended
in water until they are flushed away in a rinse. Figure 4-1 illustrates
this process.
Mechanical
agitation
removes dirt
from a
garHtentbif
either direct
force or If i/
breaking and
pulverizing
dirt
particles.
fllodulc IV
-------
Detergents
penetrate
Into tig fit
spacessucft
as those
between
fibers and
soils,
, Detergent Molecules
; surround the dirt, and
I weaken Its attach-
I /#«#£ aft? aftfe clotftes
7>fcf4? chemical action
separates the dirt
front the clothes.
f he separated dtrt ',
dgesHotattbchteihe,
clothesagatH frejatf&e
,. Jtjs surrounded, ty
r detergentkolecitfes, *
Surfactants (detergents) are made up of two different parts. One
portion has an attraction to water which allows the detergent to be
soluble in water. The other repels water but is attracted to fatty and
oily compounds. When surfactants are dissolved in water that con-
tains fabric with fat or oil spots, the surfactants are attracted to the
fat or oil. Because surfactants are also attracted to water, they tend to
pull the fat or oil away from the fabric and into the water. This helps
remove these spots from fabrics.
Soaps. Soaps are a surfactant that is made when fatty acids are
combined with alkali. Many soaps include extra alkali. This increas-
es the effectiveness of the soap. Because most dirt is slightly acidic,
the alkali in soaps tends to neutralize the dirt. This releases the chem-
ical bonds that exist between the dirt and the fabric.
Synthetic Solvents. There are many synthetic surfactants and sol-
vents on the market. Many of these solvents are made from petro-
leum. The most common synthetic solvent used for garment cleaning
is perchloroethylene. Stoddard solvent, which is distilled from petro-
leum, is also commonly used in dry cleaning.
Bleaches and Oxidizers. Bleaching does not clean garments; it
merely disinfects them. Whitening, odor removal and some organic
stain removal is often accomplished by disinfection. Disinfection kills
bacteria and mites that may accumulate on organic soils.
Disinfection is accomplished by oxidation. Chlorinated bleaches
oxidize and dissolve organisms that can then be flushed away in rins-
50 fllaijachujctts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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es. The speed of oxidation can be increased by exposing fabrics to
certain forms of oxygen such as ozone or peroxide.
Digesters. The separation of some organic materials such as food
or blood from a fabric can be accomplished by biological means.
Enzymes are biologically active organisms that eat and digest organ-
ic soils such as food and blood. This loosens the soils and breaks
them down into other materials that can be rinsed away.
Finishing Agents. Finishing agents are used for a number of pur-
poses. For example, they restore body, resilience and smoothness to
garments after processing. They also make fabric more soil resistant.
This is accomplished by forming a film around the surface of the
fiber. The film makes it more difficult for soil to become attached to
the fiber. If soil does become attached to the fiber, the film also makes
it easier to remove that soil.
module IV
-------
capillary action — the movement of a liquid in-between fibers
electrostatic bonding — bonds formed by the transfer of electrons
from one atom to another
inorganic — not derived from living organisms
metabolize — to transform a nutrient from a useful substance to a
waste
organic — derived from living organisms
oxidation — the combination of a substance with oxygen
surfactant— a substance that helps remove material from a surface
by reducing the surface tension between the material and the sur-
face to which it is attached
volatile organic compound (VOC) — an organic compound that
evaporates easily; technically, a hydrocarbon (except methane and
ethane) with a vapor pressure greater than or equal to O.lmm Hg
Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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Objective?! By the end of the module participants should, be able
to...
m List and describe the steps required to clean garments
using dry cleaning
m List and describe the steps required to clean garments
using wet cleaning
m Identify three additional alternative methods for cleaning
garments
This module describes dry cleaning and the alternatives processes
that are currently available or under development. This module also
compares conventional dry cleaning with the wet cleaning process.
Most of the commercial garment cleaning in the United States is cur-
rently done using the dry cleaning process. In the future, however,
new cleaning processes may also be widely used. Some of these new
processes are:
n carbon dioxide
m ozone
a ultrasonic cleaning
• wet cleaning
All of these processes have been or are currently being studied as
methods for commercial garment cleaning. Only wet cleaning is cur-
rently ready to be used as an alternative to dry cleaning on a large
commercial scale. The other processes require further testing and
development.
Only wet
clean lug is
currently
read if to be
used as an
alternative
to dry
cleaning.
module V 53
-------
5.1.1 DnjGeanin?
Conventional dry cleaning treats garments in either perchloroethyl-
ene or petroleum. Perchloroethylene is the solvent used in 80% of
dry cleaning plants. Petroleum is used in the remaining 20%.
The machinery used with these solvents has been modified over
time resulting in four "generations" of machines. All four genera-
tions are still in use at this time. The first generation has separate
washers and dryers, and operators transfer garments from the wash-
CoHveHtlonal er to the dryer. For this reason, these are called "transfer machines."
dry cleaning The second generation combined the washer and dryer into one
treats unit. The third generation added controls to help reduce perchloro-
garwsHtslH ethylene vapor emissions. The fourth generation included additional
either controls that recycle the air in the machine in order to further reduce
percMoroetHtflene vapor emissions. As a result of these improvements, workers are ex-
orpetroleHW, posed to less perchloroethylene vapor and the machines themselves
use less perchloroethylene.
Dry cleaning has proven itself to be an efficient, affordable, cost-
effective process for cleaning a wide variety of fibers and fabrics with-
out causing damage to garments. The primary drawback to dry clean-
ing is that perchloroethylene and petroleum solvents are hazardous
substances. Because of the hazards, the use of these solvents is be-
coming increasingly regulated.
In order to comply with present and future regulations, the gar-
ment care industry has two options. First, the manufacturers can
develop another generation of dry cleaning equipment with more
effective controls. These machines would use less perchloroethylene
and petroleum solvents, and release less of these solvents into the
workplace and the environment. Second, the industry can invest in
alternative cleaning processes that do not depend on hazardous sol-
vents. In both cases, dry cleaning facilities will need to replace older
equipment with new equipment.
5.1,2 Carbon Dioxide: Supercritical and Liquid
Research is being conducted using carbon dioxide (CO2) in both the
supercritical and liquid state as a method of cleaning clothes. Car-
bon dioxide possesses several qualities that make it a desirable alter-
native for clothes cleaning:
54 masjachuiettsToxio Use Reduction Institute
-------
m
m
•
m
it is not toxic to humans
it is easily recycled
it is an inexpensive solvent
it does not cause damage to ozone in the atmosphere
, it does not cause metal to corrode
it is non-flammable
it does not pollute ground water or soil
.• it is readily available
Liquid carbon dioxide has become the primary focus of much of
the research because it is safer to use and handle than supercritical
carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide is a molecule formed naturally when two oxygen
atoms join one carbon atom (C+O+O=CO2). Under normal circum-
stances, carbon dioxide is an inert gas. Carbon dioxide is familiar to
everyone. When we breath in, our bodies absorb oxygen from the
air. When we breath out, much of what we exhale is carbon dioxide
gas. Carbon dioxide gas is typically found in very low concentra-
tions in the atmosphere.
Under conditions of high temperature and pressure, CO2 reaches
a state called the supercritical phase. Grease and oils dissolve when
they come in contact with CO2 that is in the supercritical phase. This
makes supercritical CO2 an effective cleaner. Supercritical CO2 has
other advantages as well. When the pressure is reduced, grease and
oil that are dissolved in the supercritical CO2 separate from the CO2.
The grease and oil can then be disposed of, and the CO2 can be
reused.
Supercritical CO2 has been used by the manufacturing industry to
clean metal parts for some time. It has been tested in limited situa-
tions to determine if it can be used to clean garments. Further testing
is required to determine if supercritical CO2 is effective, affordable,
and safe to use as a garment cleaner.
Liquid CO2 exists at lower temperature and pressure than super-
critical CO2. Liquid carbon dioxide was originally developed by the
aerospace industry for cleaning optical and electrical parts. It has
been modified to dry clean garments.
Liquid CO2 has no surface tension, which helps it separate dirt
and grease from fabric. It can also be combined with surfactants to
Carbon
dtoxjde
possesses
several
qualities
that make It
adesirable
alternative
for clothes.
cleaning
module V 55
-------
Ozone(O3)
das the
ability to
disinfect,
deodorize
andbleacft
fabrics.
Ultrasonic
clean tog Is
currently
being
Investigated
as a possible
alternative to
conventional
dry cleaning.
make it more effective. Like supercritical CO2, liquid CO2 can be
recycled during the cleaning process. It has been reported that liquid
CO2 can clean leather, furs and fine garments without causing dam-
age or degradation.
5.1.3 Ozone Qeanin?ty$tem
The Ozonated Water Continuous Cleaning System is a new process
that is still being studied but is available commercially on a limited
basis. The theory behind the process is that ozone (O3), working as
an oxidizing agent, has the ability to disinfect, deodorize and bleach
fabrics. Ozone can be added to water, in much the same way that
carbon dioxide is used in carbonated soft drinks. Ozonated water
can be combined with detergents to produce a garment that is cleaned,
disinfected and deodorized.
The garment remains on a hanger throughout the wash, rinse,
extraction and drying cycles. The ability to let the garment, remain
on the hanger during the cleaning process reduces the amount of
labor used for finishing. The tendency of the garment to crease and
wrinkle is decreased because each garment is processed individually.
The company conducting the research suggests that with this pro-
cess there is a reduced amount of labor required. The researchers
report no shrinkage, change of shape, or wrinkling and claim that
ornamental buttons do not need to be removed. They also state that
it is cost effective to process clothes using this process.
5.14 Ultrasonic Cleaning
Recent research cooperatively funded by the U.S. Department
of Energy and Kansas City Plant and Garment Care, Inc. determined
that agitation for a continuous-flow, water-based clothes washing
process could be provided by ultrasound. When clothes cleaned with
ultrasound were examined, the clothes were clean enough to encour-
age researchers to continue developing this process.
Ultrasonic cleaning works by the pressure of ultrasonic waves di-
rected at the fabric through a solution of water and soaps. Ultrasonic
waves are sound waves at a frequency that is higher than the human
ear can hear. Ultrasound works because molecules of soil are more
dense than molecules of fiber. The energy from the ultrasound ex-
56 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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cites the molecules of soil and causes them to separate from the fab-
ric.
Ultrasonic cleaning is currently being investigated as a possible
alternative to conventional dry cleaning. The method has been shown
to be effective, but more testing is required to determine the effect of
ultrasound on various fabrics.
5.1.5 UJetCleanin?
Cleaning garments with water is an age-old technology which is cur-
rently attracting attention from consumers and cleaners interested in
using an environmentally friendly method. Unlike traditional laun-
dering methods, wet cleaning combines the gentle mechanical action
of hand washing with the convenience of machine laundry. The suc-
cess of wet cleaning is dependent upon more than just the machine
itself. Wet cleaning machine operators need to be knowledgeable in
the area of fiber science because wet cleaning requires a certain amount
of observation and skill. Success is also dependant upon the combi-
nation of quality detergents, proper training and commitment to the
process.
Wet cleaning uses a wet cleaning machine, detergents, additives,
stain removal agents and a specialized dryer. Conventional additives
to the wet cleaning process are not considered environmentally haz-
ardous.
The cleaning process consists of essentially the same steps as con-
ventional dry cleaning. Basically the process can be broken down
into sorting, stain removal, wet cleaning, ,drying and finishing. A
more detailed description of the process is provided in the Module 6,
entitled Overview of Wet Cleaning.
Dry cleaning and wet cleaning are currently the two most efficient,
affordable and cost-effective processes for cleaning garments. Figure
5-1 illustrates the dry cleaning process. Figure 5-2 illustrates the wet
cleaning process. In general, these two cleaning processes are similar.
Cleaning
garments Is
currently
attracting
attention
from
consumers
andcleaners
interestedin
us Ing an
environmentally
friendly
method,
module V 57
-------
Drycleaning
and wet
cteanlngare
the two
most
efficient,
affordable
andcost-
effsctlve
processes
forcleanlng
garments.
Dri/cleaners
wouldbe
HSIng one
setof
generalrules
forsortlng,
and the wet
cleaners
woHldbe
tislng
anotherset
ofrules.
The basic steps in each process are preparation, washing, drying, and
finishing and assembly. The differences are in the details of each step.
5.2.1 Preparation
In both processes, the cleaner inspects, sorts and removes stains from
the garments before washing. Inspection is basically the same for dry
and wet cleaning. In both cases, the cleaner inspects the garments to
determine what problems may occur in the cleaning process and to
determine the best way to clean the garments.
If two dry cleaners were given the same garments and asked to
sort them, they probably would not sort them the same way. If two
wet cleaners were given the same test, they probably would not sort
the garments the same way, either. Even so, the dry cleaners would
be using one set of general rules for sorting, and the wet cleaners
would be using another set of rules. The general rules for sorting are
different because the cleaning processes are different. Module 6,
Overview of Wet Cleaning, describes the general rules for sorting for
wet cleaning in more detail.
The differences between cleaning with solvents and cleaning with
water also result in differences in the stain removal process:
• Because the wet cleaning machine removes some water-based
stains, these stains do not have to be removed before washing.
• Pretreated garments need to be dry before they can be put in a
dry cleaning machine. Pretreated garments do not need to be
dry before going into a wet cleaning machine. In fact, it is
better in some cases to make sure that pretreated garments do
not dry out, because this can cause rings to form on the fabric.
This means that the wet cleaner can remove stains and imme-
diately put garments in the wet cleaning machine.
• Several manufacturers have developed stain removers specifi-
cally for wet cleaning. Many of these products are less toxic
than stain removing agents that are used for dry cleaning.
5.2.2 lUin?andDrp?
The washing and drying processes are the heart of the differences
between dry cleaning and wet cleaning. These differences include:
58 fllassachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
-------
Dry cleaning machines and wet cleaning machines have differ-
ent controls.
With the exception of older transfer machines, most dry clean-
ing machines both wash and dry. Wet cleaning machines only
wash garments. Separate dryers are used for drying garments.
Many of these dryers have been developed specifically for wet
cleaning.
'^SW-^'V /?. f •&?%<>^4X4*,% f"- £<&.;; v-c?^?,-^^**
"tf&ff^- «-*''•*
^'x ^sV'V"*'^ ""X
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;-~ .***^;f^>s'4n;' ^-*v't- ^,,f,,'<<<1 v '.
"1 "•*•' -^"1'" \$p«i>*fttterf". \<"?''' " <>*,'^',',
N< i •s. ^5 T^, X\ -C*-v -^t-ft •«- * * x * i « * N . d,
«->< ;;*,*.,i**w^-. «--ja.*' >^ , f .', -,s, -.v\,Af s \\ *
"Xe ,x>;r'-?«<«/£**#!;*>*' ,o '.-,, • '< *• v ;- >^
^JC^u;u^^^\v>-v^^^^0-:-W' : l*'>-<>v^^;.'>v!v? ^V ^airemissions i»a|-occur'only vv|ien.'
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r "o-r5* '**'»
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--- -.vwj,t?r,a»ir *
.A, * > •<
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^(
Sp
,t
^ ^ / , - **v ^«^t^^ S -w
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Coarflii
softeners
- x*/S;":^*PPr.'! jatslaf ^«8»e
r '','''* * **">*"* *° *" 4
i,
TANK |
Heated ftir
_L
,<
HAN 6
DR?'
Clean, !)ry . FjnishfRg
Clothes & Assembly
fllodule V 59
-------
Tfte washing
anddri/lng
processes
aretfteheart
ofthe
differences
betweendrif
cleaHlHgand
wePcleanlHg
m Some wet cleaners choose to partially or completely air dry
certain garments. This can require more space in which to hang
the garments. It can also increase turnaround time.
• Somewhat more care is initially required to monitor the wet
cleaning process in order to ensure that garments are cleaned
successfully. The cleaner must have a good knowledge of fi-
bers, fabrics, and the effects of the wet cleaning process.
• Dry cleaning machines use organic solvents like perchloroeth-
ylene or petroleum as the primary cleaning agent. Water, de-
tergent and sizing are added to increase the efficiency of the
dry cleaning process. Wet cleaning machines use water and
detergent as the primary cleaning agent. Soap, sizing, condi-
tioner and softener are added to the wet cleaning process.
• The waste products produced by dry cleaning machines in-
clude air and water that are hazardous. Special filters and con-
trol devices are required to minimize the amount of toxic waste
that comes in contact with workers and the environment. These
hazardous wastes also expose dry cleaners to liability if the
waste is not disposed of properly. Wet cleaning machines do
not produce hazardous waste, though some stain removal
agents may be hazardous.
5.2.3 Fmwhin?andfl«emblij
Garments that have been wet cleaned will require more work in the
finishing step. This happens most often when the cleaner is learning
the wet cleaning process. Less time will be required to finish these
garments as the cleaner and the finisher gain more experience with
the wet cleaning process. The purchase of state-of-the-art finishing
equipment can help shorten finishing time.
60 fflassachusettj Toxi« Use Reduction Institute
-------
inert gas — a gas that does not react with other substances under
normal conditions
ozone — three oxygen atoms bonded together; a layer of ozone sur-
rounds the earth high up in the upper atmosphere and blocks out
harmful rays of the sun
supercritical CO2 — Carbon dioxide in a certain range of tempera-
ture and pressure that has properties of both a gas and a liquid.
Supercritical CO2 penetrates fibers and fabrics like a gas but re-
moves soils like a liquid. L
toxic — harmful to life
module V 61
-------
WllWJTFi|l|>li ''"IT
Garment Cleaning Methods
Process factors identification
Objective: This activity is designed to give participants the
opportunity to identify the factors which are criti-
cal to wet cleaning.
Tajk: In your groups, develop a list of factors (elements)
that you believe are critical to the clothes cleaning
process. These factors should apply to both wet
and dry cleaning.
1.
2.
3-
4.
S.
(eg. time)
62 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
-------
Objective*: By the end of the module participants should be
able to....
m Understand how and why the wet cleaning process works.
There are a number of factors that are critical to using the wet clean-
ing process successfully:
m well trained and skilled personnel
m processing garments according to manufacturers' instructions
m quality detergents
m appropriate finishing techniques
Most of these are also factors that apply to dry cleaning. In fact,
the wet cleaning process is similar in many ways to dry cleaning.
Several of the skills used in professional dry cleaning are transferra-
ble to wet cleaning, including:
a testing for colorfastness
ii sorting of garments
m stain removal techniques
m pressing
m finishing
Because so many skills are transferrable, the skilled professional
dry cleaner is at a distinct advantage over someone who has no pre-
vious cleaning experience.
Figure 6-1 illustrates the basic wet cleaning process flow. Each
manufacturer of wet cleaning equipment, however, recommends slight
variations on this process for their machines, including different prac-
tices for sorting, choice of chemicals, machine program cycles, dry-
ing times and humidity levels at the end of the drying cycle.
Tnestilled
professional
dry cleaner
Is at a
distinct
advantage
over
someone
who nas no
previous
cleaning
experience.
flloduleVI 63
-------
Clean, flry finishing ,
counter
needs to be
staffed
wltkalert
and well-
trained
personnel,
The cleaning shop needs to be staffed with alert and well-trained
personnel. The counter person needs to examine each garment for
defects such as sun damage, tears, missing adornments, seams and
hems in need of repair or stains. If possible, the following things
should also be determined:
• the origin of the stain
• the customer's occupation
• whether the customer has tried removing the stain
• what chemical stain removers may have been used
• how long the garment has been stained
• whether the garment has been put through a dryer.
In a professional cleaning plant, the front counter person is very
likely the only person who meets the customer. A counter person
who is well-trained, reasonably paid, and actively appreciated bene-
fits the plant in three ways. First, he or she tends to treat customers
in a courteous and friendly manner. Second, he or she will be more
skilled at identifying soils and stains. Third, he or she will be less
likely to look for another job, which will save the cost of training a
replacement.
fllaKachujetti Toxics Uje Reduction Imtitute
-------
In cases where the wet cleaner is inexperienced or is trying to in-
crease the percentage of garments that are wet cleaned, it is a good
idea to measure garments. This will allow the cleaner to ensure that
the garment did not change shape or size as a result of wet cleaning.
The cleaner should measure garments before any cleaning steps have
been performed and again after the garment has been cleaned. Once
the cleaner is comfortable with the wet cleaning process and the types
of garments that can be safely cleaned, there will be less need to
measure.
To make comparison easier, and to avoid any confusion, the cleaner
should use a standard procedure to measure garments. To make sure
garments are measured the same way each time, follow these guide-
lines:
H Use inside seams on legs and sleeves
m Measure the right side of the garment
m Close the waist and double the measurement
It tea good
Idea to
measure
garments,,,,
to ensure
tft at tfie
garmentdld
not change
shape or
size as a
resultofwet
cleaning,
IlloduleVI 6s
-------
• Do not include the waistbands on pants or cuffs on shirts in
measurements
• Note any additional measurements that are taken
Figure 6-2 shows the recommended sites for measuring garments.
Sorting garments for wet cleaning differs from sorting garments for
Sorting dry cleaning. Each wet cleaning machine and dryer manufacturer
garments recommends their own individual sorting procedure, but they all make
ftirwet the same general recommendation: similar garment types should be
cleaning processed together.
differs from Wet cleaning machine programs have been developed specifically
sorting for certain fabric and garment types. Examples of these programs
garments include: Outergarments. This program is designed for garments that
fir dry can withstand the greatest amount of mechanical action, heat and
cleaning. exposure to water. Items processed in this cycle include non-wool
coats, dockers, non-wool sport jackets and cotton bedspreads.
Delicates. Garments processed in this cycle can only withstand a
limited amount of mechanical action, exposure to water and drying
time. Some examples of this type of garment include rayons, silks,
acetates and fine beaded washables.
Wools. This fabric by its nature can only withstand a minimum
amount of mechanical action, heat and exposure to water. Wool and
wool-blend garments processed in this cycle include coats, suits and
sweaters.
Heavier weight garments of the same fabric type may require ad-
ditional drying time. Manufacturers sometimes recommend additional
sorting for these garments, either before wet cleaning or as they are
transferred to the dryer.
Wet cleaning machines produce the best results if the wheel is
filled to the recommended capacity. Recommendations range from
50% to 60% capacity, depending on the manufacturer. In order to
reach the recommended capacity, the cleaner might choose to mix
some of the sorted loads.
If the cleaner mixes sorted loads to make a full load, or if a gar-
ment has the fiber content tag removed, he or she should always use
the least aggressive cycle for wet cleaning and drying. For example, if
66 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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the cleaner is unable to identify the fiber content of a sport coat, it
should be processed on the wool cycle to ensure that it is not dam-
aged by the process.
Some garments "bleed" when they are cleaned in water. To help solve
this problem, certain detergents contain agents that reduce the amount
of dye a garment will lose in the wet cleaning machine. These agents
can be added to the wash cycle. These agents do not guarantee that a
garment will not bleed, however. Garments made of fabrics that have
dramatically different colors—such as navy blue and white—should
always be tested for colorfastness.
A wet cleaner with limited experience should test as many as 1 in
4 garments. This number will drop as the cleaner becomes more
knowledgeable and comfortable with the process. It is difficult to say
how many garments an experienced wet cleaner will test because the
comfort level will vary among cleaners. Experience has shown that
somewhere in the vicinity of i in 10 to 1 in 15 garments will be
routinely tested for colorfastness.
The cleaner should test for colorfastness with a 1:4 solution of
wet clean detergent to water. A clean white cloth should be moist-
ened with solution and rubbed on the suspect area with light pres-
sure. If color is transferred to the cloth, then it is likely that the gar-
ment will bleed during the wet cleaning process. Color loss can be
minimized by using vinegar or one of a number of commercially avail-
able products.
Stain removal is a critical part of the professional garment cleaning
process. Many garments are brought in to be processed for this pur-
pose alone. The cleaner's goal is to remove the maximum amount of
stains in the minimum amount of time with the least amount of dam-
age possible to the fabric.
Each garment should be examined thoroughly but quickly for any
stains before processing. For an experienced cleaner this inspection
A wet
cleanerwitH
limited
experience
sHouldtest
fllodulc VI 67
-------
The
cleaner's
goal is to
remove the
MOXjHtUHt
awouHtof
StalHSlH
the
awouHtof
tltne with
the least
amoUHtof
damage
posslHeto
thefabrlc.
should only take a few seconds per garment. This is time well spent
considering how much time and effort can be lost trying to fix the
problem later. The inspection table should be about three feet by
three feet and lighting should consist of full spectrum fluorescent
lighting mimicking natural light as closely as possible. ,
This inspection will catch any stains the counter person may have
missed. This inspection can also help identify the source of the stain.
Odor, location, appearance and feel can also be helpful in identifying
the stain. Once the stain is identified, the cleaner can choose the proper
stain removal agent.
The wet cleaning machine will remove some water-based stains.
Water-based stains typically make up 70% of the stains a cleaner
encounters. The fact that these stains do not have to be removed by
hand will save the cleaner time. If the cleaner wants to remove water-
based stains at the inspection table, he or she can use the same mix-
ture of 1 part detergent to 4 parts water that is used to test for color-
fastness. Using a flat brush or spatula, apply the mixture to the stains
and tap gently.
Grease-based stains must be removed before the garment is pro-
cessed in the wet cleaning machine. Grease-based stains make up
30% of the stains a cleaner encounters. If a grease-based stain is not
removed before washing, there is a risk that the stain will be set on
the garment in the dryer.
Intermediate stain removal is a process where a heavily stained
garment or one with a problem stain is inspected for stains before it
is put into the dryer. In wet cleaning, because garments need to be
handled between the wet cleaning machine and the dryer, the cleaner
has an opportunity to inspect garments before they are dried. If stains
or soil are still present on the garment, the cleaner can again work on
the garment at the stain removal board. This eliminates the possibil-
ity that the stain will be set in the garment during the drying process.
6.5.1 to Removal Equipment
A professional garment cleaner should invest in a quality stain re-
moval board that is comfortable for the worker. Two types of boards
are available: cold boards and hot boards. Both cold and hot boards
can be made from several different materials, including synthetic
68 fllattachuietfe Toxic Use Reduction Institute
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materials, plastic laminate, stainless steel or glass. Both cold and hot
boards also have a screened area into which soil and liquid are vacu-
umed. Cold boards come equipped with pressurized air and vacuum
as an option. Hot boards come standard with vacuum, steam and
pressurized air.
The following tools are also useful for removing stains:
Steam spray guns. Using a steam spray gun makes stain removal
much more efficient. However, steam should be used with care be-
cause it can also cause problems:
n heat from the steam can activate certain chemicals and cause
damage to the garment
m heat from the steam can set the stain
m pressure from the steam spray gun can distort delicate
fabrics
Water spray guns. Water spray guns can be connected to either
the plant water supply or to a steam condensate line. Connecting the
water spray gun to a steam condensate line will provide a more con-
stant pressure.
Spatula. Spatulas work by massaging the stain removal agent with
a back and forth or tamping motion into the stained area without
damaging the fabric. They can be made of bone, metal or plastic.
Spatulas must not have any burrs or sharp edges that could snag,
pull or otherwise damage fibers. The type of motion used with the
spatula should be appropriate to the fabric being worked on. For
example, a gentle motion should be used on sensitive fabrics.
Brushes. Brushes must be used with caution. They can be useful
on a raised stain to break up the soil build-up. If the brush is equipped
with a padded head, the head can be used to break up stains or on
delicate fabrics such as satins and silks. Many cleaners color code
brushes so that the same brush is always used with the same stain
removal agent. For example, a cleaner might use black brushes for
solvent-based dry cleaning stain removal agents and white brushes
for water-based stain removal agents.
Cloths. Supplies of clean, print free, absorbent cloths are also a
necessity at the stain removal board. Excess moisture and colored
stains can be absorbed using these cloths. Grease stains can be flushed
out more easily with an absorbent cloth underneath the fabric to
absorb the soil and water.
A
professional
garment
cleaner
should
invest I'H a
ajralitif stain
removal
boardtnatis
comfortable
fortfte
worker.
module VI 69
-------
Successful
wetcleanlng
depends in
parton
matcnlngtne
features of
the wet
cleaning
machine, the
detergent
andthe
properties of
the water.
Drying Equipment. In wet cleaning, garments can go directly from
the stain removal board to the wet cleaning machine for processing.
This means that the cleaner does not have to wait for garments to
dry after stains have been removed.
6.5.2 tain Removal fluent*
Several manufacturers have developed stain removal agents specifi-
cally for wet cleaning. Most companies produce four basic stain re-
moval agents:
• a degreaser that can be used on any grease-based stain such as
lipstick, cooking oil or motor oil
• a stain remover for tannin-based stains such as coffee
and tea
• a protein remover for stains such as blood and egg
• a neutral stain remover which is a gentle product for stains
such as ground-in dirt
Stain removal agents that have been developed specifically for
wet cleaning also tend to be non-toxic.
>,6 (leanin? urith UJater ,
Successful wet cleaning depends in part on matching the features of
the wet cleaning machine, the detergent and the properties of the
water. The cleaner should select a wet cleaning machine with the
unique features that precisely match his or her needs. The cleaner
must match the type of detergent to the type of fiber and fabric that
is being processed. The cleaner must also be aware of the properties
of the water, because hard and soft water have different effects on
the wet cleaning process.
6.6.1 UJet Cleaning dlachine
The basic technology of the wet cleaning machine is a drum for tum-
bling and a frequency controlled motor which is controlled by a mi-
croprocessor. This allows the wet cleaner to precisely control the ro-
tation of the wash drum. This precise control produces a cycle that
mimics the gentleness of hand washing and provides very smooth
acceleration and deceleration.
70 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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Cycle programs for wet cleaning machines control drum rota-
tion, timing, temperature, addition of chemicals, water level and ex-
traction. Some machines come with preprogrammed cycle programs.
The cleaner can also custom-design the cycle programs based on in-
formation from the chemical and detergent manufacturers. Cycles
can be created, deleted or altered by the cleaner at any time to im-
prove the performance of the machine.
It is critical to properly match the cycle with the garment being
processed. Many fabrics require unique cycles to be programmed
because the fiber is so delicate that even mild agitation could cause
damage to the garment. Machine RPMs and agitation can be pro-
grammed to meet the needs of the fabric or garment.
There are a number of different wet cleaning machines on the
market. Each machine has a unique set of features. Before purchas-
ing a wet cleaning machine, a cleaner should carefully determine his
or her requirements. The cleaner should examine the features of the
various wet cleaning machines to determine which one has the fea-
tures that match those requirements.
Wet cleaning machines also vary greatly in styles and prices. Each
cleaner must determine what type of system suits his or her particu-
lar business needs. The level of sophistication of the wet cleaning
machine and the percentage of cleaning volume that will be pro-
cessed in water should be considered when selecting equipment. While
one cleaner may find a need for a highly programmable wet cleaning
system with all the bells and whistles, another may find that a less
sophisticated home-style washer can meet his or her needs.
6.6.2 Determents
Detergents play a critical role in the success of a wet cleaner. Deter-
gents have been formulated to prevent permanent damage from oc-
curring when certain fabrics are cleaned in water. The three major
functions of detergents in the cleaning process are:
m protecting the fiber against damage
m removing dirt
a keeping dirt suspended in the wash water so that the dirt does
not redeposit on the clothes during the cleaning
process
Tftebasic
technology of
the wet
cleaning
machine is a
drumfbr
tumblingand
afreqpencif
controlled
motor which is
controlled by a
microprocessor.
module VI 71
-------
Detergents
havebeen
forttfuloted
toprevent
permanent
damage
occurring
when
certain
fa Mesa re
cleanedln
water,
Other
factors to
consider
when wet
cleanlngare
the
temperature
of the water
andlts
hardnessor
softness.
Detergents work most efficiently in warm water. Warm water helps
to increase the surface activity of the chemicals in the detergent. Most
manufacturers recommend a water temperature of about 80°F. How-
ever, some detergents are formulated to work just as well in cold
water. This gives the cleaner the option of using cold water for items
that would be damaged by washing in hot water.
Surface activity takes place on the surface of the fabric, where the
fibers, the detergent and the soil meet. When detergent foams on the
surface of the fabric, the action of the detergent breaks the connec-
tion between the soil and the fabric. The detergent detaches the soil
from the fabric, and the soil becomes suspended in the wash water.
The detergent also acts as a surfactant to keep the soil suspended in
the wash water. This prevents the soil from becoming attached to the
fabric again. Instead, the soil is washed away when the wash water is
flushed. , ,
The cleaner can also choose detergents that help prevent color
loss and protect protein fibers such as wool. Detergents with a slight-
ly acidic pH lessen the tendency of dye to bleed. Detergents at an
alkaline pH are damaging to protein fibers, slightly acidic detergents
work best with wools. Antishrink and antifelt agents and condition-
ers are sometimes added to the detergent to prevent shrinking, stretch-
ing and felting.
6.6.3 Know Vour Water
Other factors to consider when wet cleaning are the temperature of
the water and its hardness or softness. The temperature of the wash
and rinse water is critical to the success of wet cleaning. Water that is
too cold when it enters the wash drum may not properly clean gar-
ments. Warm water is necessary to obtain the greatest efficiency of
dirt removal. On the other hand, if the water used in the wash or
rinse cycle is too warm, it can cause a change in the shape, size Or
texture of the garment. Water that is extremely soft may require de-
creasing the amount of detergent and increasing the amount of sizing
added per load.
72 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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The drying of wet cleaned garments requires as much care as wet
cleaning itself. If garments are tumbled in the dryer for too long, the
mechanical action can damage the fabrics. In order to minimize the
mechanical action, drying is typically done at high temperatures for
a brief period of time.
The dryer capacity should be twice the capacity of the wet clean
unit. In other words, if your wet cleaning machine capacity is 20 Ibs.,
your dryer capacity should be 40 Ibs. This is necessary to allow for
adequate mixing. With adequate mixing, heated air circulates through-
out the dryer and dries the garments quickly and evenly. This mini-
mizes shrinkage, deformation, and wrinkling.
The dryer should have controls that monitor temperature and
humidity levels in either the drum or the exhaust air. Tests have shown
that the most shrinkage occurs when the humidity in the drum drops
below ten percent. Most manufacturers therefore recommend drying
fabrics to between 10 and 14 percent residual moisture.
Currently, there are three types of dryers available. The first are
home dryers, which are typically time and temperature controlled.
These dryers do not monitor humidity levels. The other two types of
dryers have been developed specifically for use in the wet clean pro-
cess. One measures the moisture in the dryer exhaust air and com-
pares it with the moisture in the room air. The other is equipped with
humidity sensors in the drum that actually measure the residual mois-
ture in the fabrics. Both types of dryers are designed to achieve the
same purpose: to dry the fabrics to a desired moisture level in as
short a time as possible with as little mechanical action as possible.
Even though sophisticated dryers are available, some fabricare
specialists who wet clean garments allow certain garments to partial-
ly or completely air dry. Professional cleaners who air dry garments
need to have additional space to hang the garments. Air drying also
requires more time, so turnaround time may increase.
Tit e drying of
wetcleaned
garments
retires as
HtHcncareas
wet cleaning.
Itself
fllodule VI 73
-------
The
finishing of
garments
Is a critical
partoftne
processor
either a wet
ordri/
cleaner,
The finishing of garments is a critical part of the process for either a
wet or dry cleaner. Even if the garment has been cleaned impeccably
it will be unacceptable if it has not been finished in a professional
manner. Consumers expect that a professionally cleaned garment will
look as good or better than it did when it was purchased.
Certain garments can become a challenge when processed in a
wet cleaning machine. Excess wrinkling, shrinkage or stretching can
occur that requires additional attention. A skilled finisher working
with quality finishing equipment will find that these garments may
require some additional processing time. As finishers become more
experienced with the wet cleaning process, they will develop the skills
that will allow them to produce a fine product while minimizing
finishing time.
Certain techniques can be used to help prevent finishing prob-
lems. In order to decrease the amount of wrinkling, garments should
be taken out of the dryer immediately after the cycle is completed or
the drying time is finished. The dryer should be large enough to al-
low clothing adequate room to tumble properly. State-of-the-art fin-
ishing equipment can also help the cleaner achieve the desired gar-
ment finish
74 fllajsachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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1:4 solution — a solution of 1 part detergent and 4 parts of water;
for example, 1 cup of detergent and 4 cups of water
felting — tangling, shrinking or matting of fibers, generally caused
by exposing them to heat, moisture and mechanical or chemical
action
frequency controlled motor— a motor that allows precise control of
the tumbling rate, as well as smooth acceleration and decelera-
tion
microprocessor — a small device, often called a "computer chip,"
that uses a program to control the operation of a machine
pH — a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a material
residual moisture — the amount of moisture remaining in a fabric
after drying
KPM — revolutions per minute; the number of times a drum turns
every minute
module VI 75
-------
76
-------
By the end of the module participants should be
able to...
m Understand the wet cleaning process based on first-hand
experience
m Operate a wet cleaning machine and perform routine
maintenance
In this module, participants will learn how to operate and maintain a Iff this
wet cleaning facility. At the same time, participants will discuss skills module,
that are common to wet and dry cleaning, such as sorting, spotting, participants
pressing and finishing. will learn
Participants will split up into five groups, with each group ob- ftowto
serving and participating at different wet cleaning stations. The five operate and
stations are sorting, stain removal, wet cleaning, drying and finish- maintain a
ing. wet cleaning
facility.
Section 6.3 in the previous module covers general information on the
sorting process. The following additional steps will be covered at the
sorting station:
• Sort loads according to machine manufacturers' and detergent
manufacturers' instructions
H Suit pieces should be sorted into same load
m Sort complete full loads and half loads
n Ties should be pinned inside pant leg or put in a mesh bag
m Put all knit sweaters in mesh bag
flloduleVlI 77
-------
Section 6.4 in the previous module covers general information on
testing for colorfastness, and Section 6.5 covers stain removal. The
following information and steps will be covered at the stain removal
station:
• Start in the morning with dark loads, because dark loads tend
to have fewer stains. This means that dark loads can be put in
the washer more quickly. While the dark loads are being
washed, the cleaner can remove stains from light-colored gar-
ments.
• Stain removal agents should be biodegradable and non-toxic.
If dry cleaning solvents are used, waste should be collected
and disposed of as hazardous waste.
• Excellent lighting will enhance results
• Test for colorfastness
1
Ieamn? :
7^-> 77.7T-v y „ _,
Section 6.6 in the previous module covers general information about
the wet cleaning process. The following information and steps will
be covered at the wet cleaning station:
• Match machine program to load size and type
• If using for both wet cleaning and laundry, switch machine to
wet clean cycle
• Use only EPA-approved soaps and detergents
• If the water is very soft, decrease detergent and increase sizing
to protect fabric
• Watch for cracks in the door tubing that can cause leaking
• Take clothes out upon completion of cycle
• If using for both wet cleaning and laundry, rinse between cy-
cles
• Clean drum after waterproofing or fire retardant cycle
• Clean suit pieces in the same load
• Process jackets in the afternoon so the jackets have time to
hang overnight
• When cleaning down garments use a quick fill and extract cy-
cle to completely wet the down
78 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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Section 6.7 in the previous module covers general information about
drying. The following information and steps will be covered at the
drying station:
m Use a large enough dryer for adequate tumbling
m Use the shortest cycle possible to prevent relaxation
damage
m Take clothes out immediately after processing
H Do not dry clothes to less than 10% humidity
m Air dry garments when necessary
H Very fine and loose weave sweaters should be dried flat
• Molded black plastic form hangers work best
Section 6.8 in the previous module covers general information about
finishing.The following information and steps will be covered at the
finishing station:
•m Finish garments only when the amount of moisture in the gar-
ment is the same as the amount of moisture in the air of the
cleaning facility
H Less finishing time is required if the finisher uses stretching
equipment
• Conditioners, including starches, can reduce finishing time on
some garments
m To bring back nap, brush suedes with a copper wire brush
toward the nap
m Heavy wool coats should be brushed with a carding brush to
pick up the pile
H Wipe velvet with a velvet brush to get all the pile going in the
same direction
fllodule VII 79
-------
8o Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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Objective: By the end of the module participants will be
able to:
B Identify the costs associated with all cleaning facilities,
both wet and dry
m Identify the costs that are specific to wet cleaning
m Identify the costs that are specific to dry cleaning
a Compare the costs of wet and dry cleaning
A dry cleaner who is considering a complete or partial conversion to
wet cleaning will certainly ask the following questions:
m What will it cost to convert to wet cleaning?
m What will it cost to operate a wet cleaning facility once I have
converted?
m How do these costs compare with my current costs for dry
cleaning?
a Will I make money or lose money by converting?
The information in this module gives a dry cleaner the tools to
answer these questions.
There are many ways to look at the cost of doing business. One way
is to divide the various costs into categories. For example, we can
separate costs into capital costs, operating costs and intangible costs.
8.1.1 Capital Com
Capital costs are one-time investments. These are the costs of items
that a cleaner buys once and uses repeatedly in his or her daily oper-
ation. Capital costs include such items as:
money or lose
mo He if by
converting?
module VIII 81
-------
Sows of the
costs, such
as liability
attdpubttc
/Mage, are
HOtas
obvious as
others,
m new equipment and installation
• new buildings.
These items themselves do not get "used up" in the course of
doing business. These items generally do not get replaced very often,
but they can be depreciated.
8.1.2 Operating (om
Operating costs are ongoing expenses. Generally, operating costs
are for items that get "used up" in the course of doing business, or
for items that the cleaner pays for on an "as used" basis. These items
include:
• consumable materials, such as detergent, sizing, conditioners
and stain removers
• utilities, such as water and electricity
• labor, both direct and indirect, including cleaning, stain re-
moval and finishing
• waste disposal
• regulatory compliance
8.1.3 Intangible CoM
Intangible costs are costs that are difficult to measure in dollars
and cents. Unlike capital costs or operating costs, intangible costs
represent things that a cleaner cannot see or touch but still affect the
cleaner's bottom-line. These costs often include:
• public image
• community goodwill
• product quality
• financial liability related to correctly transporting and dispos-
ing of hazardous waste
Some of the costs listed above—such as financial liability and public
image—are not as obvious as others. This can make it difficult to
completely identify certain costs, like the cost of using perc. If perc,
still bottoms, cartridge filters and filter muck are disposed of illegal-
ly, the dry cleaner who generated this waste can be made to pay for
cleaning up a hazardous waste site. Negative publicity surrounding
the hazardous waste cleanup can cost as much or more in lost busi-
ness as the cleanup itself.
82 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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8.2.1 Environment Canada'* Test (onvwnon
In August 1995, Canada's federal environmental agency, Environ-
ment Canada, began a project to test the costs and benefits of con-
verting from dry cleaning to wet cleaning. Environment Canada pro-
vided funds to completely replace conventional dry cleaning equip-
ment with wet cleaning equipment at a facility in Hamilton, Ontar-
io. The intent of the project was to clean as many garments as possi-
ble using the wet cleaning process. Funding was provided with the
agreement that only wet cleaning would be performed at the facility.
It was felt that if the dry cleaning equipment remained in the
facility, the cleaners would tend to use equipment they were comfort-
able with rather than become skilled at wet cleaning. For this reason,
all the dry cleaning equipment was replaced. All garments that need-
ed to be dry cleaned were taken to another facility for processing.
Care labels were used only as a guide to help decide whether a gar-
ment should be wet cleaned or dry cleaned. Care labels were not
followed rigidly.
Because the project was not complete at the time this training
manual was being written, it is not possible to include detailed re-
sults. However, some preliminary information is available.
The information gathered during this project was for the purpose
of comparing the performance and cost of dry cleaning versus wet
cleaning. Information for the first quarter of facility operation shows
that 51% of the total garments taken in were processed in the wet
cleaning machine. During the second quarter, the information shows
that 75% of the total garments taken in were processed in the wet
cleaning machine.
The results of Environment Canada's project to date have shown
that the costs of wet cleaning are almost identical to the costs of dry
cleaning. More projects need to be done, however, in order to deter-
mine if Environment Canada's results are true for wet cleaning costs
in general.
The intent of
tneproject
was to
process as
tttanif
garments as
possible
us ing the
wet clean Ing
process,
module VIII 83
-------
8,2.2 The Greener Cleaner Demonstration Shop
The Center for Neighborhood Technology (CNT) is an independent,
nonprofit research and technical assistance organization with a tra-
dition of working with industry partners to find practical solutions
The to environmental problems. Through funding from the USEPA, CNT
results of initiated the Alternative Clothes Cleaning Demonstration Project with
Environment the g°al of evaluating the performance and commercial viability of
Canada's wet cleaning. The CNT research project included:
project to • the design, monitoring and evaluation of all aspects of a com-
datenave mercial shop, The Greener Cleaner, using only wet cleaning,
showHtHot and
tnecostsof * data collection at two shops relying on both water and tradi-
wetcleaning tional dry cleaning solvents.
are almost CNT partnered with a private investor to design The Greener
Identlcalto Cleaner as an average commercial dry cleaning operation in size,
tnecostsof prices, and fabric, fiber and garment types cleaned. The difference
drtf cleaning. was that all items brought in for cleaning were wet cleaned.
"Working with an Advisory Committee, two tests were designed
to measured performance issues on separate groups of garments.
• In the first test, CNT measured performance through custom-
er satisfaction and through intensive evaluations of a random
sample of garments cleaned at The Greener Cleaner. These in-
tensive evaluations were conducted by independent evaluators,
who inspected 460 customer garments before and after clean-
ing.
• The second test compared the performance of wet cleaning
and dry cleaning on 52 sets of identical garments. All the test
garments specified dry cleaning in their care instructions and
many were selected as likely "problem garments" for wet clean-
ing. In each set, one garment was wet cleaned, one dry cleaned
and the third was stored and used as the "control" to help
evaluators judge the changes in the cleaned garments.
The Greener Cleaner also served as a true demonstration shop —
several hundred cleaning professionals, consumers and regulators have
taken advantage of the opportunity to tour the shop during business
hours, watching the wet cleaning process from start to finish and
interviewing shop personnel. When The Greener Cleaner opened its
84 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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doors in May, 1995, fewer than 10 cleaners were using wet cleaning
equipment systems. A year later there were well over 100 cleaners
with wet cleaning systems and a significant percentage of those visit-
ed The Greener Cleaner prior to making their decision.
For a full copy of the full report, contact CNT (see Appendix B).
The following pages contain a set of draft worksheets developed by
Tellus Institute of Boston that can be used to identify and compare
the costs of wet cleaning versus dry cleaning. The worksheets are
divided into two categories: one-time investment costs (also referred
to as capital costs) and annual operating costs. These worksheets can
be very useful to a cleaner who is considering different options for
improving his or her facility.
The one-time investment cost worksheets can be filled out once
for each option that the cleaner is considering. For example, these
worksheets could be filled out once for upgrading existing dry clean-
ing equipment and once for replacing dry cleaning equipment with
wet cleaning equipment. This will allow the cleaner to compare the
one-time costs of each option.
The annual operating cost worksheets can be used to compare
the operating cost of an existing dry cleaning operation with the es-
timated cost of a similar wet cleaning operation. Dry cleaning costs
can be taken from a cleaner's existing accounting records. Wet clean-
ing costs can be estimated based on manufacturer's specifications for
wet cleaning machines and on the results of studies such as Environ-
ment Canada's test project and the Center for Neighborhood Tech-
nology's study of "The Greener Cleaner. "An equipment distributor
may also be able to help with cost estimates.
module VIII 85
-------
y1 TNT
One-Time Investment Cort*
Project Title:.
Date:
Purchased Equipment
(Purchase, Tax, Delivery)
Protective Equipment, e.g. eyewash station
Solvent Leak Detector
Perchioroethylene Storage & Handling Materials
Spill Containment System
Solvent Filter System
Steam Cabinets for Steam Stripping Cartridge Filters
Housing for Draining/Drying Cartridge Filters
Water Softening Unit
Water Cooling Unit (Chiller)
Refrigerated Condenser
Thermometer for Condenser Coil Temperature Measurements
Water Separator
Solvent Filtration/Distillation Unit
Muck Cooker
Azeotropic Control Devices
Rag Filter
Wastewater Carbon Adsorber
Wastewater Evaporator
Other Water Treatment/Recycle System
Vapor Carbon Adsorbers
Dry Cleaning Machine
Wet Cleaning System
Domestic Washer and/or Dryer
Pressing Equipment
SUBTOTAL
COST
New System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
*These worksheets are in draft form. For final copy contact Tellus Institute (see Appendix B).
86 fflauadiwettt Toxics Utt Reduction Institute
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One-Time Investment (ort$
Project Title:.
Date:
Construction/Installation
(Labor, Supervision, Materials)
Shop Labor &c Supervision
Contractor/Vendor Fees
Construction Equipment Rental
Demolition
Old Equipment/Rubbish Hauling 8c Disposal
Plumbing/Piping
Electrical Systems
Ventilation/Exhaust Systems
SUBTOTAL
COST
New System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
Permitting (City, County, State, Federal)
(Labor, Supervision, Materials)
Shop Labor Sc Supervision
Contractor/Vendor Fees
City, County, or State Business License
City or County Health Department Permit
Perchloroethylene Use Permit
Wastewater Evaporator Permit
SUBTOTAL
COST
New System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
flloduleVIH 87
-------
One-Tme Investment Costs
Project Title:
Start-up/Training
(Labor, Supervision, Materials)
Training in Equipment Operation
Training in Equipment Maintenance
Training in Dry/Wet Cleaning
Safety Training
Cleaning Test Runs
Start-up Supplies
SUBTOTAL
COST
New System
$
$ .
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
One-Time Investment (ort fommanj
Project Title:.
Date:
Category Subtotals
COST
Purchased Equipment (page 1)
Construction/Installation (page 2)
Permitting (page 2)
Start-up/Training (page 3)
TOTAL
New System
$
$
$
$
$
Salvage Value
Sale of Used Equipment
SUBTOTAL
COST
Old System
$
$.
$
88 fllattachusetb Toxics Use Reduction Institute
-------
flnnual Operating Goto
Project Title:.
Date:
Cleaning Supplies
(Purchase, Delivery, Storage)
Perchloroethylene (including any taxes)
Detergent for Dry Cleaning Charge
Solvent Filters
Solvent Filter Additives
Detergent/Soap for Wet Cleaning
Finisher/Sizer
Starch
Water Repellent
Odor Neutralizer
Fabric Softener
Spotting Chemicals
Spotting Brushes/Bone Scrapers
SUBTOTAL
COST
Current System
$
$
$
$ ,
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
New System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
Clothes Handling Supplies
(Purchase, Delivery, Storage)
Order Tickets/Receipts
Garment Tags
Staples
Durable Bags/Baskets
Nets
Hangers
Drapery Tubes and Bands
Safety Pins and Other Clips
Plastic Garment Bags
SUBTOTAL
COST
Current System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$•
$
$
$
New System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
module VIII 89
-------
Annual Operating Co^
Project Title:.
Date:
Labor and Supervision
(Wage or Salary, Fringe Benefits)
Management
Cleaning
Spotting
Pressing
Counter
Training
Advertising
SUBTOTAL
COST
Current System
$
$
$
$
$_
~-
$
$
$
$
$
$
New System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
Utilities
Water
(for cleaning, steam generation, cooling)
Electricity
Fuel
Sewer
Refrigerant
SUBTOTAL
Current System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
New System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
COST
go flla($achu$ett$ Toxics Use Reduction Institute
-------
flnnual Operating Costs
Project Title:.
Date:
Maintenance & Waste Management
(Labor & Materials)
Monitoring Perchloroethyiene Mileage
Monitoring Pressure Gauges
Perchloroethyiene Vapor and
Liquid Leak Repair
Cleaning Solvent Storage Tank(s)
Changing Cartridge Solvent Filters
Changing Polishing Filters
Precoating Tubular Solvent Filters
Regeneration of Tubular/
Disc Solvent Filters
Water Cooling Unit (Chiller) Maintenance
Condenser Maintenance
Water Separator Maintenance
Solvent Still Draining and Cleaning
Muck Cooker Draining and Cleaning
Replacing Wastewater Carbon
Adsorber Filters
Wastewater Evaporator Maintenance
Wastewater Treatment/
Recycle Unit Maintenance
Replacing Vapor Carbon Adsorbers Filters
Cleaning Button Trap
Cleaning Lint Trap
Other Cleaning Machine Maintenance
SUBTOTAL
COST
Current System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$ - .. -
$
New System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$ .
$
$
$
$ .
$'
$
$
$
$
$
$
1
$ ' '
$
$
$ •
$ .
91
-------
flnnual Operating Cort$
Project Title:.
Date:
Waste Storage, Hauling & Disposal
(Labor, Supervision, Materials)
Perchloroethylene
Used Solvent Filters & Prefilters
Spent Carbon from Vapor/
Wastewater Adsorbers
Filter Muck
Muck Cooker Residue
Solvent Still Sludge
Water Separator Wastewater
Water Treatment/Recycle Unit Sludge
Refrigerant
Lint 8c Rags
Solvent Containers
Spotting Chemicals/Containers
SUBTOTAL
COST
Current System
$
$
$
$
$
$ .
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
New System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
Regulatory Compliance
(Labor, Supervision, Materials)
Permitting
Training
Monitoring/Testing
Inspections/Audits
Labeling
Manifesting
Recordkeeping 8c Reporting
Spill Containment/Clean-up
SUBTOTAL
COST
Current System
$
$
$
$
$ .
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
New System
$
$
$
$
$
.$
$
$
$
$
$
$
92 fllaisadiuf etts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
-------
flnnual Operating Costs
Project Title:.
Date: '-—
Liability and Insurance
Legal Fees
Fines/Penalities
Site Cleanup 8c Monitoring
Personal Injury
Property/Natural Resource Damage
General Business Insurance
Pollution Liability Insurance
SUBTOTAL
Current System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
New System
$ •• .'
$
$
$
$
$ .
$ . .
$
$
$
$
COST
Advertising Materials
Signs ' ; -
Business Cards
Flyers
Postage
Advertising Fees
SUBTOTAL
COST
Current System
$ --.-..
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
New System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
Off-Site Services
-
Shirt laundering
Leathers
Tailoring
SUBTOTAL
Current System
$
$ , -
$ -
$
$
New System
$ . -
$
$
$ .
$ :
COST
module VIII 93
-------
sheets
flnnual Operating Co$t$
Project Title: -
Date:
Claims
COST
Cost for Damaged Clothing
SUBTOTAL
Current System
$
$
$
New System
$
$
$
flnnual Operating Cort$ Summary
Cleaning Supplies (page 1)
Clothes Handling Supplies (page 1)
Labor and Supervision (page 2)
Utilities (page 2)
Maintenance & Waste Management (page 3)
Waste Storage, Hauling & Disposal (page 4)
Regulatory Compliance (page 4)
Liability and Insurance (page 5)
Advertising Materials (page 5)
Off-Site Services (page 5)
Claims (page 6)
TOTAL
Current System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
New System
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$ .
$
$
Category Subtotals
Enter; Total CURRENT Operating Costs
$
Enter; Total NEW Operating Costs
$
Annual Change in Cost/Savings (Current-New) $
94 fllasjadnjsetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
-------
Objective*! By the end of the module participants should be
able to...
n List and describe the range of features offered by currently
available wet cleaning equipment
Wet cleaning equipment can be divided into two categories:
m wet cleaning machines, or washers
m dryers that have been specifically developed for the wet clean-
ing process
Both wet cleaning machines and dryers are available with a wide
range of standard and optional features.
Wet cleaning machines have been designed to process a wide range
of garments, including garments that are usually dry cleaned. Manu-
facturers have focused on mechanical agitation and programmable
controls to give the wet cleaner flexible options for safe, efficient
cleaning.
Some of the new wet cleaning machines use a gentle, rolling ac-
tion to minimize the risk of damage to fabric. These machines pro-
vide wash speeds as low as 5 to 10 rpm and programmable wash
action that allows for minimal agitation, such as 1 second on and 60
seconds off. Other wet cleaning machines use air bubbles to provide
gentle agitation. Gentle wet cleaning machines also have program-
mable spin speeds for extracting water from garments. Extraction
cycles can be set to match the garment and fabric weight, so that the
maximum amount of water is removed for each type of garment.
Additional controls are available for water use, water level, tem-
perature, heating, and automatic chemical injection. These features
allow wet cleaners to precisely control the wet cleaning process. These
Wetcleanlng
machines
have been
designed to
process a
wide range of
garments,
Including
garments
that are
usually dry
cleaned.
IHodule IX 95
-------
All
currently
available
wetcteanlng
Machines
canbeused
as either a
wetclean
systemora
standard
laundry
machine.
controls also allow the wet cleaner to automatically process garments
that would ordinarily be hand washed.
The drum capacity or load size of wet cleaning machines ranges
from 10 to 135 pounds. An important fact to keep in mind is that the
wet cleaning capacity of the machine is 50-60% of the laundry ca-
pacity. This means that if the cleaner plans to routinely process 25
pound loads on a wet cleaning cycle, the machine purchased should
have a minimum capacity of 50 pounds.
The amount of water used per wet cleaning cycle should be con-
sidered when choosing a wet cleaning machine, particularly in areas
where water and sewer costs are high. Studies done in Chicago and
Canada show that switching from dry to wet cleaning may increase
water use. However, the studies also show that wet cleaning was still
economically favorable to dry cleaning.
Machines with automatic detergent feeds should also have either
an alarm on the detergent and/or additive tanks, or an automatic
shut off. These features ensure that detergents and finishes are added
when garments are processed. Processing garments without deter-
gents and finishes can result in wasted labor, detergents and utility
costs. The machine should also be equipped with enough detergent
dispensers to allow the cleaner to process the full range of garments
that he or she wishes. If skins are to be processed, the machine needs
to be equipped with 2 dispensers in addition to the dispensers needed
for normal garments on the wet clean cycle.
All currently available wet cleaning machines can be used as ei-
ther a wet clean system or a standard laundry machine. This allows
the cleaner to process shirts and "dry clean only" garments in one
machine. Another advantage to purchasing a wet clean system is the
ability to process skins. Leathers and furs are generally a high profit
item for the professional cleaner and the ability to process them in-
house can increase profits.
A number of dryers have been developed specifically for wet clean-
ing. Most machines have programmable temperature and humidity
controls that help the cleaner precisely set the amount of moisture
that remains in the garment at the end of the drying process.
96 fflaHadiujetts Toxic Use Reduction Institute
-------
Even though the dryers have sophisticated temperature and humidi-
ty controls, the cleaner must pay careful attention to the load size and
the mix of garments and fabric weights. Because different fabrics dry at
different rates, sorting garments by fabric type and weight is even more
important for drying than it is for wet cleaning. Cleaners can also pro-
gram drying cycles specifically for loads that contain a mix of fabrics,
but care is needed to ensure that all garments dry properly.
Both electric and steam dryers use considerable energy. An electric
dryer may need up to a 100 amp service to run properly. Cleaners who
are considering installing a new dryer need to find out if they need to
install 100 amp service to run it. One dryer manufacturer will be mod-
ifying their machine from a three phase to a single phase in the future,
but for now the 100 amp service is necessary. If the cleaner is consider-
ing a steam dryer, he or she must determine if the current boiler has the
capacity to support the dryer. A gas dryer should not be used in a shop
that uses perc.
Though garments should be removed from the dryer when they are
still slightly moist to prevent shrinkage, it is often necessary to let the
garment dry completely before finishing. It is possible to let the gar-
ments air dry, or to purchase equipment to speed up this final drying
process. Wind whips are available to blow dry garments, especially those
with heavy areas like shoulder pads and thick waist bands. Drying cab-
inets can be used to dry garments that may be damaged by agitation of
any sort.
Figure 9-1 summarizes the features that are available on five gentle wet
cleaning machines. Figure 9-2 summarizes the features for five dryers.
Figures 9-3 and 9-4 compares these new machines to conventional dry-
ers and commercial equipment.
This information was originally published by Environment Cana-
da's Green Clean Project in October, 1995. Wet cleaning technology is
developing rapidly and machines available today may have different
features than those described in the figures. For a copy of the full report
contact Environment Canada (see Appendix B).
A number of
dryers have
been
developed
specifically
for wet
cleaning*
module IX 97
-------
" Machine itt
Machuie#2
Machine P
Machine #4
> MacbiaefS" ,>
I AWM^ ^4»h Cycle lime
SsawHett Option?
Ibu *•
y— faifireawcim ban exehinga ?
tearicTHe« Option?
flimreaoxe Control HS/Moduiition?
—!)«& ooH wtter fad control
^*—fil frost bottim or top ?
if&terJfedKuEatiort Dating Cyde ?
futt tfcqde Ttnfc Option ?
:tot Sigi'.i!i
uV Door Iqccn'on?
*3tt,5QSc70ilB'
Yes
lOtoJOrpm
(prog-lrpmiaa)
0.1 to 60 sec
0.1 to 50 sec
programmable
250 to 1000 rpm
(prog-irpminccj
Yes
^/jDirecttosump)
'""' No
.(Catkin planned)
Yes {dual also)
No
"(prog.,pre-mixed)'>
top HI!
Yes (50 settings)
Optional
Optional
upto£
up to 6
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
up to 100
(ptog.lij)tttinet)
Oto?9Ssec
(prog. 1 ipm ma.)
15-30 minutes
Yes
(Direct to sump)
No
(Option planned)
Yes
Yes
"(3 auto,pre-nuxed)°
bottom fill
Yes (8 settings!
Optional
Optional
up to 6
up to 6
Yes
Yes
.Yes >.
tes
Ito&isec/
fully "<
must set rrunually
20-30 wastes
Yes \'
(Direct w sump)
No
{Option planned)
Yes
botttjmfill ,-
No
Optional
tip to?
up'tog
Yes"
¥« (
^choices- ^
U-40, minutes
' Yes ,
s Yes1
"(auto^n
s bdtto&fill
43rjjn
•fes(Noihfo), v<
'Kft*
<- Zstaadatd
Yes ^ '
98 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
-------
fllodule IX 99
-------
Domestic
Dryer
(Laundry)
Commercial'
^Drjrwr
(Laundry) <• /
Commercial
"[ Dryer t,
(WCleaa) ,' 1
^Qs|npcrature/Heating Control ?
I Kdanual Tepaperature Adjust ?
y * if 11Will !*iiw*'1,1*11 .
Programmable Microprocessor ?
L'rogrammable Microprocessor
tl^rogratnmable Drying Cycles ?
•Programmable Cooling Cycles ?
• A .... -jc Drying Cycle for Moisture? *
lenipera'ture'SensorStsiplay ?
1 »!*•«»«* § J*i
'WiilM.lsM »
'£/j j ^ ^ r -\i a «rei» j Bwraf* «iw w*;
mble Temperature / Moisture ?
tljjiJi. IJjiiJUlik at, Jb ra M> nutw, my .IL tBJL.HIJLIU ff ,...!,„.... ,4^^ jjiiMwiiifc ^
(hot/cold)
No
No
No
No
No
Mo
N?,; ;
No
Yes fsome)
Yes
c ~ <
Yes ^o
No
JNfo
Yes
Yes (some)
r
Yes
#! Yes-{some}
100 fllastidiuietb Toxio Use Reduction Institute
-------
By the end of the module participants should be
able to...
• Understand the level of retraining that will be required to
adapt personnel to the wet cleaning process
• Design a functional wet cleaning facility
A properly trained staff and a cleaning facility with a functional lay-
out are two requirements for a successful wet clean business. Shops
should be designed with work load, staffing and turn-around time in
mind. Converting to wet cleaning means that staff will need to be
trained to understand the differences between the wet and dry clean-
ing processes. When new wet cleaning equipment is installed, the
cleaner should take advantage of this opportunity to improve the
layout of the facility if possible.
As in dry cleaning, the wet cleaning process places an emphasis on
teamwork. Counter personnel need to thoroughly inspect garments
for stains. When a counter person finds a stain, he or she needs to
ask the customer about the origin of the stain and how long it has
been on the garment. This person should also be able to answer most
questions about the wet cleaning process as compared to dry clean-
ing. If necessary, counter personnel can pass these questions on to
the owner or cleaner.
The garment then needs to be processed in compliance with the
established procedures of the shop. Stain removal personnel who are
familiar with dry cleaning need to be retrained to use water-based
stain removal agents and to remove only grease-based stains and
A property
trained
staffanda
cleaning
facility with
aflfHct/onaf
layout
a re two
requirements
fora
successful
wet clean
business,
module X 101
-------
finishing
personnel
may require
tHe most
GHiOHHtOf
retraining
because wet
cteanlngcan
cause
garments to
wrinkle or
snrlnkHtore
tnanlndry
cleaning.
heavily soiled protein-based stains. Most water-based stains will be
removed in the wet cleaning machine.
Sorting skills are transferrable from dry to wet cleaning, though
the sorting categories may be different. Sorting personnel need to
follow the specific instructions that come with the wet cleaning ma-
chine and with the detergents that are being used.
Personnel that are accustomed to operating a dry cleaning ma-
chine should have no trouble adapting to the wet cleaning machine.
The principle of selecting an appropriate wet cleaning program for
the load is similar to dry cleaning. Some training may be required to
learn how to properly program a particular wet cleaning machine
for different types of fabrics.
Personnel responsible for drying garments need to keep in mind
that a percentage of moisture needs to remain in wet cleaned gar-
ments after drying. Most wet cleaning operations in this country fin-
ish the garments after they have been allowed to hang for 12-15
hours. The cleaner may also choose to air dry some garments if there
is enough time. The cleaner needs to manage the schedule to allow
for these drying times.
Finishing personnel may require the most amount of retraining
because wet cleaning may cause garments to wrinkle and/or shrink
more than in dry cleaning. Quality finishing equipment, combined with
more experience, can cut down on the amount of time for finishing.
The amount of time it takes to completely process garments from
front counter to final finishing and assembly partly depends on how
well the cleaning facility is designed. Equipment should be laid out in
a way that streamlines the flow of garments through the plant and
allows the staff to complete tasks with as few steps and movements
as possible. When a piece of equipment is replaced, the new piece
should not automatically be placed in the same spot. Replacing one
or more pieces of equipment is an opportunity to improve the exist-
ing layout.
To properly analyze an existing or proposed cleaning plant, the
cleaner should create a scale drawing of the facility. This drawing
wz fllattadiuttttjToxiaUie Reduction Imtitute
-------
should include the location of all doors, windows, partitions, ma-
chinery and conveyors, as well as hookups for water and electricity.
The cleaner can use this drawing for two purposes:
m to verify that all the equipment fits in the space available, and
that all the equipment can be connected to the necessary wa-
ter, electrical, steam and ventilation systems
m to trace the path that each garment takes from the time it en-
ters the building until it leaves, to plan for efficient work flow
The most efficient work flow paths are roughly a circle or a "U"
shape. Work flow paths that backtrack or repeatedly cross over them-
selves are warning signs that the layout needs to be improved. The
best work flow for a particular plant depends on the size and shape
of the building, the types of garments that are cleaned, and the spe-
cific procedures used by a particular cleaner.
Most wet cleaned garments are taken out of the dryer when they
reach a 10-15% humidity level. Therefore, when redesigning an ex-
isting plant or building a new one, space must be provided for stor-
ing garments while they are air drying. Additional drying equipment,
such as wind whips and drying cabinets, can also affect the layout of
the facility.
ThetHOSt
efficient
workflow
paths are
rough I if a
circle or a "U"
shape.
module X 103
-------
104
-------
By the end of the module participants should be
able to...
m Understand the current state of garment care labeling
liability associated with wet cleaning
Under a Federal Trade Commission (FTC) regulation (36 FR 23883,
1971; amended 48 FR 2273, 1983), apparel manufacturers are required
to attach care labels stating a single care method for the proper and safe
care of a garment. Because only one care method must be on the label,
manufacturers may use a "dry clean only" label even though wet clean-
ing may be a safe option. Since wet cleaning is a "new" and developing
care method, appropriate care instructions have not yet been developed.
As a result, there is not yet a Federal Trade Commission approved wet
clean label. This means that if a fabricare specialist deviates from a la-
bel's recommended cleaning method and damage occurs, the customer
may try to make the cleaner liable for any damage.
The United States government is in the process of reviewing the
FTC Care Labeling Regulations. In a June 15, 1994 "Request for
Comments Concerning Trade Regulation Rule on Care Labeling of
Textile Wearing Apparel and Certain Piece Goods," the FTC requested
public comment on the modification of the current care labeling reg-
ulations in the following three areas:
1. whether to use symbols instead of words;
2. whether to provide information for consumers about whether
a garment could be both washed and dry cleaned;
3. clarification of manufacturers' testing requirements
On December 28, 1995, the FTC published a proposed rule and
further request for comment. Though the deadline for comments was
March 13,1996, no final rule has been published. Several groups are
Since wet
clean Ing Is a
"new"and
developing
care method,
appropriate
care
Instructions
nave not yet
been
developed.
flloduk XI 105
-------
Oneoftne
cars
symbols
tnattne
H.3.
government
Is
considering
Is a wet
clean
symbol.
Ultimately,
tne cleaner Is
responsible
forcnooslng
tnebest
methodof
clean Ing a
garment, and
tne cleaner Is
also liable fir
tneresHlt.
working on care labeling practices for the fabricate industry, both in
the United States and in Europe.
One of the care symbols that the U.S. government is considering
is a wet clean symbol. Adding a wet clean symbol to the labeling rule
would reduce the risk involved with wet cleaning by allowing a cleaner
to return garments damaged by wet cleaning to the manufacturer for
payment. The labeling rule changes are being proposed partly be-
cause professional cleaners would like to wet clean garments cur-
rently labeled "dry clean only."
Common sense and the current care label rules leave wet cleaners
with three choices for cleaning a garment:
• clean the garment according to the care label, if one is attached,
even if that means sending the garment out for dry cleaning
• wet clean the garment, after examining the garment and deter-
mining that wet cleaning will not damage the fabric :
• reject the garment because it is too soiled, not colorfast, or not
appropriate for wet cleaning
If a garment is damaged by the wet cleaning process, the fabricare
specialist can use the same customer relation techniques that are used
by dry cleaners. If, for example, the color of a skirt from a suit has
become slightly brighter after wet cleaning, the operator could offer
to process the jacket for free so that it would match the skirt. The
cleaner can save the cost of paying for the skirt and win back the
customer's confidence.
Ultimately, the cleaner is responsible for choosing the best meth-
od of cleaning a garment, and the cleaner is liable for the result whether
the garment is wet or dry cleaned. Following the care label can re-
duce this liability, but cannot remove it completely. Even when the
recommendation on the care label is followed, cleaners often accept
liability for damage to garments. This allows the fabricare specialist
to satisfy the customer and increase the chance of repeat business.
With proper training and skill, wet cleaning more garments should
not increase the number of claims for damaged garments. Experi-
ence to date has shown that a skilled wet cleaner should not have
any more claims than an equally skilled dry cleaner.
106 fllaHachujetts Toxic* U$e Reduction Institute
-------
endix A
As demand increases, manufacturers are developing and marketing
new equipment. For that reason, the information in this appendix
may not include all current resources.
UMGeanin? Machine;
Aqua Clean
Neal Milch, Kevin Daley
Aqua Clean Systems, Inc.
461 Doughty Blvd.
Inwood, NY 11696-1384
516-371-4513
Fax 516-371-4204
Aquatex
Chris Dolan
Iowa Techniques Inc.
PO box 1322
Cedar Rapids, Iowa 52406
319-365-9788
Fax 319-364-6502
DAE WOO Air-Power Washer
CNAInc.
1111 Plaza Dr. #750
Schaumburg, IL 60173
708-995-9600
Fax 708-995-9609
Fashion Ace Equipment
Hyok Su Kwon
514 Warren Blvd.
Bromall, Pa. 19008
610-353-6707
Miele Kreussler (not currently in
US market)
Bernard Sessman
Miele Professional
22D Worlds Fair Drive
Somerset, NJ 08873
908-560-0899
Fax 908-560-7469
Pellerin Milnor Corporation
Leroy Trevigne
PO Box 400
Kenner, LA 70063-0400
504-467-9591
Fax 504-468-9307
Appendix A 107
-------
Schulthess
John Tipps
Clean Concepts
Technology Inc.
2154 West NW Highway
Suite 200
Dallas, Texas 75220-4220
1-800-765-0682
Fax 214-409-03 8 8
UniMac
Tom Fleck
3595 Industrial Park Drive
Marianna, FL 32446-9458
904-526-3405
Fax 904-526-1509
Ultrasonic Cleaning
Allied Signal Aerospace
Tom Hand,
D/ME1-7, 2B3S
P.O. Box 419159
Kansas City, MO
64141-6159
816-997-3614
Fax 816-997-7081
Garment Care
David Porter
•2018 Swift St.
N. Kansas City, MO 64116
816-221-1066
COz Cleaning
Caled Chemical
William Bernard
26 Hanes Drive
Wayne, NJ 07470
201-696-7575
Fax 201-696-4290
Determent Manufacturers
Caled Chemical
Mike Meilor
26 Hanes Drive
Wayne, NJ 07470
201-696-7575
Fax 201-696-4290
CNAInc.
1111 Plaza Dr. #750
Schaumburg, IL 60173
708-995-9600
Fax 708-995-9609
Fabritec/Stamford Research
Bob Knippling
200 Industrial Road
Cold Spring, KY 41076
606-781-8200
Fax 606-781-8280
Laidlaw
Michael Achin
6625 Scottsdale Road
Scottsdale, AZ 85250
602-951-0003
Fax - 602-991-1563
108 fllattadiutttt; Toxia Use Reduction Institute
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R.R. Streets
Manfred Wentz
184 Shuman Blvd.
Naperville, IL 60563-8464
708-416-4244
Fax 708-416-4266
Wet Cleaning Technologies
David Lafer
130 Morristown Road
Bernardsville, NJ 07924
908-766-6404
Appendix A 109
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endix B
Center for Neighborhood
Technology
2125 West North Avenue
Chicago, IL 60647
312-278-4800
Fax 312-278-3840
Federation of Korean Dry
Cleaning Associations
54 East Avenue
New Canaan, CT 06840
203-966-8192
Greenpeace U.S.
Jack Weinberg
1436 U St. NW
Washington, D.C. 20009
202-462-1177
International Fabricare Institute
Mary Scalco
12251 Tech Road
Silver Spring, MD 20904
301-622-1900
800-638-2627
Fax 301-236-9320
Neighborhood Cleaners
Association
Bill Seitz
252 W. 29th Street
New York, NY 10001
212-967-3002
Fax 212-967-2240
North East Fabricare
Association
Peter Blake
343 Salem Street
Wakefield, MA 01880
617-245-6688
800-442-6848
Fax 617-224-0166
Tellus Institute
Deborah Savage
11 Arlington Street
Boston, MA 022116-3411
617-266-5400
Fax 617-266-8303
Toxics Use Reduction Institute
1 University Avenue
Lowell, MA 01854
508-934-3275
Fax 508-934-3050
http://www.turi.org
Appendix B m
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UCLA-Pollution Prevention
Education & Research Center
Jessica Goldheart
3250 Public Policy Building
Los Angeles, CA 90095-1656
310-206-4450
Fax 310-825-1575
Government fl?enci«
Environment Canada
Brad Gumming
Pollution Prevention &
Abatement Division
Environment Canada
4905 Dufferin St.,
2nd Floor
Downsview, Ontario
M3H 5T4
416-739-5883
U.S. EPA
Design for Environment
401 M Street, SW (7406)
Washington, DC 20460
202-260-1678
Fax 202-260-0981
http://www.epa.gov/docs/dfe/dryclean
Pollution Prevention Information
Clearinghouse (PPIC)
202-260-1023
Fax 202-260-0178
e-mail: ppic@epamail.epa.gov
112 Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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endix C
Behery, Hassan, Fundamentals of Textiles, Clemson University, Pro-
fessional Development Series., PD 22 A, 1986.
Blackler,Catie, Richard Denbow, William Levine, Kathy Nemsick and
Ruth Polk, A Comparative Analysis of P ere Dry cleaning and an
Alternative Wet Cleaning Process, Ann Arbor, Michigan: Nation-
al Pollution Prevention Center for Higher Education, April 18,
1995.
Ernsky, K., Principles of Aquatex Washing System, September 26,
1995.
Environment Canada &c Green Clean Project Participants, Final Re-
port for the Green Clean Project, Environment Canada, Oct. 1995.
Federal Trade Commission, Proposed Rules, Federal Register 16 CFR
Part 423, Vol. 59, No. 114, June 15,1994, pp. 30733-30735.
Federal Trade Commission, Proposed Rules, Federal Register 16 CFR
Part 423, Vol. 60, No. 249, December 28,1995, pp. 67102-67108.
Hackman, J. Richard, Greg Oldham. Work Redesign. Reading, Mass.,
Addison Wesley, 1980.
International Fabricare Institute, Fundamentals of Dry Cleaning
Operations, Silver Spring, Maryland: IFI, July 1996.
Kao, Fu-Jung, Samuel P. Sawan, PhD., Supercritical Fluids as Substi-
tutes for Dry Cleaning Solvents: Evaluation of Enzyme Activity
for Satin Removal, Toxics Use Reduction Institute, University of
Massachusetts Lowell, Technical Report No. 28, 1995.
Moser, Leon, "Introduction to Textile Fibers, Properties, and End
Uses," presentation to USEPA Design for Environment Technical
Work Group, North Carolina State University, January 27,1994.
References 113
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Price,Arthur, Allen C. Cohen, JJ.Pizzutois Fabric Science, 6th edi-
tion, New York, NY: Fairchild Publications, 1994.
Rice, Bonnie, Jack Weinberg, Dressed to Kill, A Greenpeace/Pollu-
tion Probe Report, Prepared for Pollution Probe, April 1994.
Schwass, C.J., and Jane Rising (IFI), SEFA's Wet Cleaning Work-
shop, Southeast Fabricare Association, 1995.
Sietz,William, Daniel Eisen, Fabrics Today and Dry Cleaning, Neigh-
borhood Cleaners Association, New York.
Sietz,William, Daniel Eisen, Principles & Practices of Dry
Cleaning, New York School of Dry Cleaning, Inc, New York.
Tortota, Phyllis G., Understanding Textiles, Fourth Edition, New
York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1992.
US EPA, Clearing the Air on Clean Air: Strategies for Perc Dry clean-
ers, Video Teleconference, Sponsored by: Tennessee Dept. Of En-
vironment and Conservation, Tennessee Valley Authority, The
University of Tennessee Center for Industrial Services, U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency, May 12, 1994.
US EPA Office of Compliance Sector Notebook Project, Profile of
Dry Cleaning Industry, (EPA document # EPA 310-R-95-001),
U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C., September 1995.
US EPA, International Roundtable on the Pollution Prevention and
Control in the Dry Cleaning Industry — Proceedings, National
Technical Information Service, May 27-28, 1992. (EPA Docu-
ment #EPA/774/R-92/002 ), Washington, D.C.: US EPA, Novem-
ber 1992.
US EPA, Multiprocess Wet Cleaning Cost and Performance Compar-
ison of Conventional Drycleaning and an Alternative Process (EPA
document # EPA 744-R-93-004.), September 1993.
Vasquez, Cynthia, Wet Clean Machines, Chicago, Illinois: Center for
Neighborhood Technology, August 1995.
n/j fllauadiusetti Toxics Use Reduction Institute
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Wallace, Debora, Edward Groth III, Ellen Kirane, Barbara Warren
andjean Halloran, Upstairs, Downstairs: Perchloroethylene in the
Air, in the Apartments above New York City Dry Cleaners, Con-
sumers Union of United States, New York, October 1995.
Wolf, Katy, "Case Study: Pollution Prevention in the Dry Cleaning
Industry: A Small Business Challenge for the 1990s," Pollution
Prevention Review, (Summer 1992):314.1
References 115
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