C E L E B RATE
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"America's Sea - 'Keep'lIt Shining! n
The
Gulf of Mexico Symposium
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Issues and Opportunities
December 10-12, 1992 . Innisbrook Tarpon Springs, Florida
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11 America's Sea - Keep It Shining! "
The
Gulf of Mexico Symposium
December 10-12, 1992 . Innisbrook . Tarpon Springs, Florida
Sponsors
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Gulf of Mexico Program
U.S. Department of Commerce
National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Soil Conservation Service
U.S. Department of Interior
Minerals Management Service
Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Navy
U.S. Air Force
U.S. Coast Guard
Florida Cooperative Extension Service
Pinellas County Government
The Gulf of Mexico Sea Grant Programs
Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi/Alabama, and Florida
Busch Entertainment Corporation
St. Petersburg/Clearwater Area
Convention & Visitors Bureau
Florida Department of Community Affairs
Florida Coastal Zone Management Program
Simpson Paper Company
National Estuary Programs of
Tampa, Sarasota, Barataria-Terrebonne,
and Galveston Bays
CONOCO, Inc.
International Paper - Mill
Moss Point, Mississippi
Gulf of Mexico Foundation
Florida Power Corporation
Freeport McMoRan
Post, Buckley, Schuh & Jernigan, Inc.
Waste Management of North America South
Wheelabrator EOS Inc.
Barnett Bank of Florida
Danka Industries, Inc.
Ogden Martin Systems
Martin Marietta Specialty Components, Inc.
Florida Retail Federation
Florida Phosphate Council
BFI Waste Systems
Scott Paper Company
Amoco Oil Company
Southeastern Fisheries Association, Inc.
Pinellas Economic Development Council
Discover Florida's Suncoast, Inc.
Fiber Arts Institute
Tampa Bay Regional Planning Council
EVA-TONE Inc.
Tampa Tribune and Times
GTE Florida
Roberts Communications & Marketing, Inc.
The Beirne/Glennon Team
Maddux Report
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Points of view expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the
views or policies of the Gulf of Mexico Program nor of any of the
contributors to its publication. Mention of trade names and commercial
products does notconsititute endorsement of their use. Permission granted
to reprint with credit to author and the Gulf of Mexico Program. This
report was prepared for the Gulf of Mexico Program.
J. Douglas Jacobson, editor
Sue Hampton, editorial assistant
Judy Yates, editorial assistant
Donald E. Sweat, production manager
Terry A. Murphy, typesetting and design
Jack V. Olson, donated back cover photo
To obtain copies, contact:
Gulf of Mexico Program Office
John C. Stennis Space Center
Building 1103, Room 202
Stennis, MS 39529-6000
(601) 688-3726
Printed on recycled paper.
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Acknow ledgments
Organizations that sponsored this symposium are listed on the title page. The support of these groups
was invaluable and sincerely appreciated. The individuals who volunteered to register participants,
assist exhibitors, operate projectors, record sessions, and, even, perform in the "Marine Gang" are not
otherwise mentioned; they know that this symposium would have been impossible without their help.
The sponsors thank the staff responsible for planning and conducting various sessions, the speakers and
poster presenters for their time and energy in sharing information about their work, and the staff of
Innisbrook for their excellent logistical support and unfailing courtesy. Most importantly, the sponsors
thank the attendees for giving their time and infectious spirit without which the tasks we have pledged
could not be accomplished.
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Preface
LaJuana Wilcher, Assistant Administrator for Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, likened
to "frontiersmen" the more than 1600 attendees of the second biennial Gulf of Mexico Symposium.
Their frontier was defined as "where a person confronts a fact." The confronted fact was that of "conquered
and diminished resources where, you, the foot soldiers of this frontier, face the daunting task of restoring
the balance of nature for the good of the Gulf and all its symbiotic creatures." Administrator Wilcher
called this symposium "a watershed event where people who care are breaching cultural, generational,
economic, and academic parapets toward a better world for us all."
The Partnership for Action, described as the "Magna Carta of the Gulf of Mexico" formally acknowledged
the relationship amoung the partners which comprise the Gulf of Mexico Program. Citizens, industry,
and government are poised for a broad frontal attack on the problems threatening the Gulf with guidance
provided by the Partnership for Action.
The symposium proceedings describe the ideas, plans, and progress of 150 speakers; 43 technical
posters presenting activities of the public, academics, and members of professional environmental
communities representing industry; and local, State, and Federal government agencies concerned with
the Gulf of Mexico. The scope of these activities is as broad as the Gulf and as varied as the life along
its shores.
The Gulf of Mexico Symposium is a biennial, public report card on the environmental quality of the
Gulf. It is intended to foster a greater understanding and exchange of information on the many complex
issues facing the Gulf today and to generate and solicit enthusiastic support for solutions. Its sponsors
are interested in preserving the unique legacy of "America's Sea."
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Introduction
The second biennial Gulf of Mexico Symposium
convened at Innisbrook, Tarpon Springs,
Florida, at 9:00 a.m., Thursday, December 10,1992,
under the banner America's Sea - Keep it Shining.
Barbara Sheen Todd, co-chairman of the Symposium
Planning Committee, noted in her welcoming
remarks that, although the Gulf of Mexico Program
was largely funded by various government and
private entities, its success would be due to the
efforts of cooperating citizens and citizens' groups.
Therefore, it was fitting that this symposium focused
on environmental education issues and student
activities that reflect the opportunities available for
impacting existing environmental problems. Ms.
Todd noted that the Gulf of Mexico Program is
characterized by the breadth of its umbrella of
interests and that "every attendee is a messenger to
citizens about the importance of the Gulf of Mexico."
Jon Cannon, Director of the Gulf of Mexico Program,
used his opening comments to introduce attendees to "A
Partnership for Action," a 15-minute videotape produced
by the Program. The videotape defines the Gulf as a
holistic ecosystem in which partnership is essential and
coordinated action is required. Copies of the videotape
are available through the Program Office. Mr. Cannon
stressed that, while examples of successes such as the
Boaters Pledge, oyster reseeding, septic tanks, and
seagrass plantings are important, much work remains to
be done to cope with the loss of wetlands, the decline in
sustainability of wildlife and fish production, and the all
too prevalent public perception of the Gulf as a limitless
resource that can provide for society's needs while
suffering numerous abuses, such as nutrient
overenrichment, massive erosion and habitat loss, and
trash dumping. Mr. Cannon also noted that the Gulf of
Mexico partnership would be signed later in the day at
a ceremony in which authorized representatives of each
local, state and federal agency, and a citizen's
representative would formally pledge their cooperation
and joint resources to meeting the challenges facing the
Gulf and to protecting the Gulf from future degradation.
Mr. Cannon likened the partnership to an "environmental
Magna Carta."
At 10:30 a.m., a ceremony in Carnelian Hall marked
the formal opening of the Symposium. After making
brief, informal remarks, Martha Prothro, Deputy
Assistant Administrator, Office of Water, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, and Barbara Sheen
Todd, Symposium Co-Chairman and Chairman of the
Gulf Program's Citizens' Advisory Committee, jointly
cut the ribbon and admitted attendees into the exhibit
hall. Ninety-one exhibitions and forty-three poster
presentations were held in this location.
Deputy Administrator F. Henry Habicht II, U.S. EPA,
was the featured speaker at the luncheon preceding the
Partnership for Action Signing Ceremony. Mr. Habicht
recognized the contribution of the volunteers in the
success of the symposium and noted that the same spirit
drove those volunteers who endeavored to keep
America's Sea shining. He described the Gulf Program
as a "window on the future of environmental protection."
The Gulf Program is a window because it is a working
example of how government can obtain and maintain the
perspective of people and thus focus resources for the
maximum development of sustainable programs. The
Gulf Program is a window because it is a transformation
of the way we, as a government and a people, deal with
complex, multi-faceted problems. The Gulf Program is
a window because, for the first time, it brings the resources
of diverse, often opposing, legislative, academic,
industrial, and private environmental interests together
to define, prioritize, and solve problems for the greater
good. The Gulf Program's unique approach should
restrict the Law of Unintended Consequences which
always seems to be in effect when one group, no matter
how good its intentions, offers a one dimensional solution
to problems existing in a multi-dimensional realm.
The signing of the Partnership for Action confirms
the relationship and provides the mechanism by which
the Gulf of Mexico Program may become codified by
Congressional action. Mr. Habicht noted that several
bills to make the Gulf Program permanent will be
introduced in the 103rd Session of Congress.
The Partnership for Action allows the Gulf Program
to expand to include other nations rimming the Gulf and
make the Program truly responsive to the integrated
ecosystem that is the Gulf of Mexico.
After the presentation of the colors, the Pledge of
Allegiance, and the national anthem, played by the
Seminole High School Band, Ms. Prothro officiated
during the signing of the Partnership For Action.
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Dr. Sylvia Earle, Consultant to the NOAA Chief
Scientist, proved to be the highlight of December 11th's
luncheon. Dr. Earle reiterated the "holistic ecosystem"
theme of the symposium by showing that the Gulf of
Mexico is part of the world ocean - an interrelated system
that both controls, and is controlled by, its environment.
In comparing the Gulf of Mexico and the Persian Gulf,
Dr. Earle noted that about 200 million years ago the
Gulf of Mexico was a very shallow region to which
great volumes of sea water were added a little at a time.
Subsequently evaporated, the sea water left great layers
of salt that created magnificent domes and concentrated
the mineral wealth of the region. The American
industrial revolution of the 20th century was powered
by this mineral concentration. Similarly, the Persian
Gulf has been developing layers of salt during the past
100 million years, and even today, portions of the area
are characterized by tidal flats which are flooded and,
then, evaporated, leaving behind layers of salt and
wind-blown dust.
The Gulf of Mexico is relatively deep (12,000 ft. in
the Sigsbee Abyssal Plain) while the Persian Gulf is
rarely deeper than 300 ft. and averages less than 100 ft.
The Gulf of Mexico continental shelf - where most
aquatic animals and plants live - covers an area greater
than 170,000 mi2; the Persian Gulf - which is all at
continental shelf depths - is about 72,000 mi . Both
areas are "chock-a-block full of critters," particularly in
shallow-water seagrass beds where both epifauna and
infauna are vital components of the ecosystem.
Because the ocean is a dynamic system that is
constantly mixing - vertically, horizontally, and
temporally - it is easy to get the impression that its very
size protects it. Two years after six to eight million
barrels of Kuwaiti oil blackened the marshes of the
Persian Gulf, the fish are, by and large, safe to eat,
although oil is 18 in. below the surface. Timing is
critical. In the Gulf of Mexico, during the August coral
spawning season, polyps rise to the surface after a full
moon and are spread to distant sites for repopulation.
If an oil spill a fraction of the size of the Kuwaiti spill
occurred in the Gulf of Mexico during the coral spawning
season, protected coral reefs, such as the Flower
Gardens, could be obliterated.
The ocean is dynamic but must be given time to heal.
Environmental rules and regulations are intended to
provide that time; environmental rules are not needed
where common sense is available. What we do - or fail
to do - Despoils the planet, but what we do - as evidenced
by the people at this symposium - gives cause to hope.
At the Dec. 12th luncheon, Dr. William Seaman, of
the Florida Sea Grant Program, presented awards to the
five Sea Grant Science Project Winners. Voted best of
the best were:
Hadley Sikes - Carbon Concentration by Emiliania
huxleyi,
Robyn M. Hasselle - Tiny Toxic Tyrants Clean up
Man-Made Mishaps: A Study of Pseudomonas
aeruginosa,
Paul R. Constant - Nutrients' Effect on Codium
Algae,
Katherine Schaudt - Predicting Seasonal Hurricanes
in the North Atlantic,
Ryan Matherne - The Effects of Cobalt-60 on the
Germination Rates of Spartina alterniflora.
Dr. Douglas Lipka, Co-Chairman of the Symposium,
presided over the Wrap-Up Session later in the afternoon.
The audience applauded the Symposium Committee on
its success in increasing student participation relative to
the 1990 Symposium. The Symposium Committee was
challenged to increase minority participation by the same
amount at the 1994 Symposium. After accepting that
challenge and a resolution of appreciation from the Gulf
of Mexico Program's Citizen Advisory Council, the Gulf
of Mexico Symposium was adjourned.
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GULF OF MEXICO PROGRAM
A Partnership for Action
Protecting, Restoring, and Enhancing
the Gulf of Mexico and Adjacent Lands
VISION: Our vision is of a Gulf of Mexico flourishing in all its natural richness and variety - beaches glistening in the sunlight, thriving coastal
vegetation, and abundant fish, shellfish and waterfowl. The Gulf ecosystem is of incalculable value in itself, but our vision also embraces the many
human uses of the Gulf which are part of the cultural fabric of the region and which are critical to the economic well being of both the region and the
n tit ion.
The incomparable beauty and resources of the Gulf of Mexico are threatened. The Gulf receives waste from much of the nation. Coastal marshes
and seagrasses are being lost. This source of the nation's sustainable harvest of seafood is at risk. Many miles of the Gulf's beaches are washing
away or are needessly fouled. . &
Our challenge is to meet this threat by harmonizing the diverse interests focused on the Gulf and ensuring that they do not cause or contribute to the
destruction of the very resources on which they rely.
Meeting this challenge requires cooperation by all of us, with the Gulf of Mexico Program facilitating new forms of collaboration and partnership
amoung individuals, communities, industries, states and the nation. Through good stewardship and concerted efforts, no overall net loss of wetlands
can be achieved and critical wetland habitats can be restored; multitudes of waterfowl and shorebirds will continue to fill our skies and coastal
wetlands; and our beaches can be made free of litter. Our legacy will be that our grandchildren and their grandchildren will be able to swim in these
waters, and play m the sand, consume the Gulf's delicacies, and support thier families in a healthy Gulf economy.
Goal: The Goal of the Gulf Of Mexico Program is to protect, restore, and enhance the coastal and marine waters of the Gulf of Mexico and its
coastal natural habitats, to sustain living resources, to protect human health and the food supply, and to ensure the recreational use of Gulf shores
beaches and waters - in ways consistent with the economic well being of the region.
Five-Year Environmental Challenges: We, who share a common vision for the Gulf of Mexico, issue the following environmental challenges
to ourselves and to others allied in our efforts to restore and maintain the environmental and economic health of the Gulf Within the next five years
through an integrated effort that complements existing local, state, and federal programs, we pledge our efforts to obtain the knowledge and resources
Significantly reduce the rate of loss of coastal wetlands.
Achieve an increase in Gulf Coast seagrass beds.
Enhance the sustainability of Gulf commercial and recreational fisheries.
Protect human health and food supply by reducing input of nutrients, toxic substances, and pathogens to the Gulf.
Increase Gulf shellfish beds available for safe harvesting by 10 percent.
Ensure that all Gulf beaches are safe for swimming and recreational uses.
Reduce by at least 10 percent the amount of trash on beaches.
Improve and expand coastal habitats that support migratory birds, fish, and other living resources.
Expand public education/outreach tailored for each Gulf Coast county or parish.
Whereas the President of the United States of America on January 10, 1992 proclaimed 1992 as the Year of the Gulf of Mexico and- whereas the
Congress of the United States of America through Public Law 102-178 designated 1992 as the Year of the Gulf of Mexico, we pledge our cooperation
to build the support and obtain the resources necessary to meet these challenges and to attain our long term goaf of protecting America's Sea
Governd/of Alabama
Soil Conservation Service
U.S. AirForce
Governor of Florida
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
.
U.S. Ar
Food & Drug Administration
my
NASA
National Parks Service
U.S. Coast Guard
U.S. EPA
December 10, 1992
CAC Chairman
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Contents
Acknowledgements i
Preface ii
Introduction iii
Summary of Presentations from the
Concurrent Sessions
I. Florida Educators' Panel
Teachers Team Up to Teach About Estuaries and the Economy
Rick Meyers 2
Seaside Science: Hands-on Learning About Salt Marshes and Energy Flow
for Elementary Students
Gary Perkins 3
The Project That Wouldn't Die
Carol J. Leonard 3
Sharing Success in Environmental Education
Kate Muldoon 4
What's a Manatee Doing in a Geography Classroom?
Susan Ferrell 5
II. Technical Issues Forum
A. Marine Debris
MARPOL V: Responsibilities for Enforcement and International Aspects
William Prosser 7
Report on the Implementation Relating to the Prevention of Pollution by
Ships Known as MARPOL Annex V
John E. Schuler 8
Responsibilities of the Shipping Industry and How They Are Being Addressed
Ted Thorjussen 9
B. Toxic Substance and Pesticides
Contaminant Levels in Sediment and Biota in the Gulf of Mexico Estuaries
J.K. Summers 10
Sediment Quality and Toxic Inputs to the Gulf of Mexico
Catherine Fox 11
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C. Habitat Degradation
Impact of a Persistent "Brown Tide" Algal Bloom on the Laguna Madre of South Texas
Edward ]. Buskey 12
Seagrass Die-off in Florida Bay
Michael]. Durciko 14
Ecological Condition of Benthic Habitats in Gulf of Mexico Estuaries
J.K. Summers and John M. Macauley 15
CoastWatch Change Analysis Program (C-CAP): An Overview
Ford A. Cross 16
Wetland Value Assessment: A Methodology for Prioritizing Wetland Projects
Authorized by the Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection, and Restoration Act
LoijdC. Mitchell and Richard E.Boe 18
D. Nutrient Enrichment
Introduction and Status of the Impacts and Effects of Nutrient Enrichment
in the Gulf of Mexico
Dugan S. Sabins 20
Policy Considerations for Recycling Wastewater Through Hydrologically
Altered Wetlands
Andrea M. Breaux and John W. Day 21
Nutrient-Enhanced Coastal Ocean Productivity (NECOP) -
Mississippi-Atchafalaya River Study
DonAtwood 22
Aquaculture and Constructed Wetlands
Gale Martin 23
Sources and Quantities of Nutrients and What Might Be Done about the Problems
L. PeteHeard 24
E. Coastal and Shoreline Erosion
Coastal and Shoreline Erosion Action Agenda for the Gulf of Mexico
Sally Davenport 25
Coast of Florida Erosion and Storm Effects Study
Tltoinas D. Smith 26
Determining Shoreline Change: Methods and Examples from the Gulf of Mexico
S. Jeffress Williams , 27
E Public Health
Risks of Exposure to Environmental Contaminants: FDA versus EPA
Clyde Hotiseknechet 28
Case Study - Human Health Risk from Exposure to Mercury in Fish
TbmAtkeson 28
Applied Risk Analysis A Case Study of the Calcasieu Estuary in Louisiana
DianneDugas 30
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G. Living Aquatic Resources
Living Aquatic Resources as Indicators of Ecosystem Health
Bradford E. Brown, Herb E. Kumpf, and Karen A. Steidinger 32
Status of Aquatic Resources in the Southwestern Gulf of Mexico
Alejandro Yanez-Arancibia 33
Ecosystem Working Group of Living Aquatic Resources (LARS)
Bernard Yokel 34
Mass Mortalities of Aquatic Resources
William Fisher 34
Impact of Fishing on the Ecosystem
Douglas Fruge ; 35
H. Freshwater Inflow
Florida Issues and Opportunities in Management of Freshwater Inflows
Ernest D. Estevez 36
Comprehensive Study of the Alabama-Coosa-Tallapoosa and the Apalachicola-
Chattahoochee-Flint River Basins
Robert Allen 37
Freshwater Inflow Requirements for Nueces Estuary
Bruce Moulton 38
III. Educators'Forum
A. Educational Opportunities: Grants, Networking Who, How, Where & Why?
Prospects for a Career in Science: The Myth versus The Reality
James I. Jones 40
In Search of Funding: Preparing a Winning Proposal
Heidi Smith 41
Educational Networking through Environmental Experiences
John ]. Dindo 42
B. Educational Programs: A Key to the Future
Shoreline Erosion Education: A Hands On Approach
Eddie Seidensticker and Robert W. Nation 43
Teacher Training/Student Enrichment: Project Sea Oats
David Lloyd Scott 44
Wetland Weekend: An Environmental Education Experience for
Middle School Students
Paul V. Hamilton 45
Marine Education Field Experiences for Teachers and Students
Rick Tinnin 46
National Environmental Education Act
Brad Smith 47
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C. Science and Technology: Pathways for Learning
Gulf Literacy: Promoting Scientific Literacy Regarding Gulf of Mexico
Environmental Issues
John Trmobridge 48
The IBM Personal Science Laboratory System as a Tool for Environmental
Modeling in Middle School
John D.Davis and Tom Scott 49
Share the Thrill of Discovery With The Jason Project
Andrea S. Davis 50
D. Alternative Teaching Tools: Puppets, Poets, and Things That Go Splash
in the Gulf
Using Natural Science Museums as Teaching Resources
Libby Hartfield 51
Marine Gang: Theater Used as a Teaching Tool
Ann Hartman 52
E. Youth at Risk: Everybody Belongs
From Trust Games to Environmental Action: Coastal Environmental Program
forYouth-at-Risk
Sonya Wood 53
Youth-at-Risk: Teaching Kids to Survive in the Real World
MargoLipka 54
E Global Environmental Education: What the World Needs Now
Developing a Global Perspective of the Marine Environment Through
Educational Exchange Programs
William R. Younger 55
Global Environmental Education: A Summer Opportunity for Middle School Teachers
Sharon H. Walker 56
A Global Model for Environmental Education
Dietlind Smith Hernandez 57
G. Society, Economics, and Environmental Education: People, Money, and Power
Studying the Human Dimension of Environmental Problems: A Critical Missing
Component to Environmental Education and Environmental Problem Solving
Shirley Laska 58
The Complementary Nature of Environmental and Economic Systems
PaitlH.Templet 59
Project CEED: Coastal Education for Economic Development
Paillette ]. Thomas 62
Horror Stories Sell More Than Newspapers: Weaving Tales of Social and Economic
Issues as a Teaching Method
ManjTJjorpe 62
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H. Curriculum Development: You Can Get There From Here
USS My School
Linda Maraniss 54
Environmental Curriculum: An Overview of Classroom Development
and Evaluation of Existing Materials
Bonnie Holtib 55
Developing Regionally-Based Environmental Science Activities
Lyle M. Soniat 66
IV. Citizens7 Action And Community Involvement Forum
A. Shore & Coastal Erosion: Proactive Measures to Prevent Beach
and Shoreline Erosion
Dunes Day in Brazoria County
Charles G. Moss 67
Measures for Stabilizing Coastal Dunes in Alabama and Georgia
Donald Surrency 68
B. Restoration and Construction of Coastal Wetlands
The Christmas Tree Marsh Restoration Project - Jefferson Parish, Louisiana
Jean Westbrook 69
Evaluating the Created and Restored Intertidal Wetlands at the Chevron Refinery,
Pascagoula, Mississippi
/. Daniel Allen 70
Cooperative Habitat Creation Efforts in Galveston Bay, Texas
Linda R. Shead 71
C. Living Resources: Protecting Wildlife in the Water and Along the Gulf Coast
Participation of Recreational Anglers in Tag and Release Studies:
Cobia Study as an Example
Jim S, Franks 72
Protecting Nesting Habitat for Coastal Birds
Richard T. Paul 73
Ecotourism and Human Effects on Marine Species:
Dolphin Feeding Cruises in the Gulf and Other Marine Mammal Issues
Jeffrey Brown 75
D. Development and Land Use Planning: Uniting Citizens, Communities, and
Industry for Protecting the Environment While Planning for the Future
How Farmers Manage Wetlands for Wildlife Habitat
Laurance W. Carter 77
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E. Citizen Monitoring: Citizen and Community Efforts to Monitor the Environment
Around the Gulf
Citizen Efforts to Reduce Marine Debris
Heidi B. Lovett 77
Coordinating Volunteer Marine Mammal Stranding Networks
GhmBarron 78
Monitoring of Hutton Branch, Carrollton, Texas
Carl V.Anderson 79
E Water Quality I: Preventing Nutrients from Reaching Surface Waters
Using A Constructed Wetland to Improve Catfish Production
Truman Roberts 80
Florida Neighborhoods: Neighborhood Involvement in Local Environmental
Protection
Tracy Floyd 80
Consumer Awareness of Phosphorous and Phosphate/Non-Phosphate Detergents
Evva L. C. Wilson ; 81
G. Water Quality II: Industry and Community Involvement for Reducing or
Eliminating Toxics and Pesticides from Ground or Surface Waters
Dow Chemical's Waste Reduction Programs and Community Advisory Panel
Christine E. Baldridge 82
Managing Pesticides for Crop Production and Water Quality Protection
Arthur G. Hornsby 83
H. Building a Gulf Constituency: Encouraging Individuals and Organizations
To Make a Difference for the Gulf of Mexico
Grassroots Organizing: Reaching Out to Minorities and Communities of Color
Scolt Douglas 91
Building a Gulf Constituency: Creating Environmental Projects With Punch
Heidi Smith, Ingrid McClelland, Honey Rand, and Anita Hooker 92
Organizing for Community Involvement in Difficult Situations
Joy Tmoles Cummings 93
V. Students'Forum
A. Sea Grant Science Project Winners - The Best
Carbon Concentration by Emiliania huxleyi
Hadley Sites 95
Tiny Toxic Tyrants Clean Up Man-Made Mishaps:
A Study of Psendomonas aeruginosa
RobynHasselle 96
Nutrients' Effect on Codium Algae
Paul Constant 97
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Predictirvg Seasonal Hurricanes in the North Atlantic
Katherine L. Schaudt 98
The Effects of Cobalt-60 on the Germination Rate of Spartina alterniflora
RyanMatherne 99
B. The Environment as an Outdoor Classroom
Wesson Elementary School PARKnership Program
Georgia Harris 100
A Constructed Wetland Model in a Recreational Park
JeanniePham IQQ
The Natural Environmental Lab
Theresa Taylor and Trey Sutton 101
Take A Class Outdoors (TACO)
Leigh Greenhaw 101
C. Water-Quality Activities and School
Bonita Imperial River Project (BIRP)
McKenzie Hansen 102
Project F.U.R. (Fight Urban Runoff)
Sue Ellen Lyons and Eric Zimmerman 103
The Water Quality Event at the Science Olympiad
Jaime Lakin 104
The Weeks Bay Estuary Project
Sydney Vest 105
D. Addressing Broader Issues
Student Involvement in Local Environmental Politics
Jeremy Conner 106
Project HERMIT CRAB: Helping Environmental Research and Monitoring in
the Coastal Regions and Beyond
Jennifer Franke and Kim Kennedy 107
The Earth - Everyone's Responsibility (TEER)
Jessica Burton 108
E. Make It Happen in the Field
Bird Island Habitat Restoration Project
Page Provenzano 109
Save Our Swamps (SOS)
Eric Costing ; no
Chief Reef: Creating a Winning Video on the Constructive Use of Plastics
to Build an Artificial Oyster Reef
Phil Snow -. . . Ill
Starting a Recycling Program
Aimee Sandifer HI
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E Hands-On-Training
SAML-NSF Minority Work-Related Experience Aboard National Marine
Fisheries Service Research Vessels
AJonzo Hamilton
Raceland Jr. High Conservation Club and FFA
KorySt.Pe'andSladeBesson .......................................... 115
G. Environmental Programs to Enhance the Learning Experience
Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium - Discovery Hall Program
Margaret Gordon ................................................. 116
Project Marine Discovery: Sea Camp
Walter A. Skupien III .............................................. 116
Outreach and Youth Programs Outside the School
Jflso» Baca ............... .....................................
Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College/Gulf Coast Research
Laboratory Intern Program
Robyn May, Melissa McCraney, L. Hollis Melton, and Charles P. Egerton .................. 118
H. Widening the Environmental Horizon
Kids for Saving the Earth: Case History of What a Kid Can Do
Susan L. Korody ................................................. 119
Linking Children to Environmental Action Projects
David Smith Hernandez ............................................. 120
A Project for Future Problem Solvers to Tackle Tough Issues
Daniel Cohan [[[ 121
The Next Generation in the Environmental Movement
Robert A. Thomas ................................................ 121
VI. Cooperative Programs
A. Galveston Bay National Estuary Program
Managing Galveston Bay: New Solutions for a Gulf Estuary
Frank Shipley, Samra Jones-Bufkin, and Herbert Hudson ........................... 123
B. Sarasota Bay National Estuary Program
The State of Sarasota Bay: Implications for Managing Coastal Waters
Mark Alderson and Dave Tbmasko . . , ..................................... 124
C. Tampa Bay National Estuary Program
Watershed Management Initiatives of the Tampa Bay National Estuary Program
Dick Eckenrod, Holly Greening, and Mary Kelley Hoppe ............................ 126
D. Barataria-Terrebonne National Estuary Program
An Ecological Exploration of Coastal Louisiana's Barataria-Terrebonne
Estuarine System: Its Uniqueness and Importance
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The Barataria-Terrebonne Estuarine Complex: Priority Problems and
Possible Solutions
Richard A. DeMay 128
The Impact of Hurricane Andrew's Force on the Barataria and Terrebonne Estuary:
Lessons Learned
Kerry St. Pe 129
F. Florida Coastal Management
Development of a Management Plan for the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
Billy D. Causey 130
State/Federal Partnership Issues
Paul Johnson 131
Management Issues of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
Dennis M. Riley 132
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary - Water Quality Issues
Peggy H. Mathews 133
Development of the Water Quality Protection Program for the Florida Keys
National Marine Sanctuary
FredMcManus 134
G. Offshore Operators and Coastal Vessel Traffic Systems
The Offshore Oil and Gas Producing Industry Environmental Stewardship
Operations in the Gulf of Mexico
Bernie Herbert 136
VTPS (Vessel Information and Positioning System):
A Private Initiative Vessel Traffic System
John C. Timmell 137
VII. Technical Poster Session 139
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Summary of Presentations
from the
Concurrent Sessions
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I. Florida Educators' Panel
Teachers Team Up To Teach About Estuaries And The Economy
Rick Meyers
Manatee County Public Schools
Bradenton, Florida
A small group of middle school classroom teachers
produced an interdisciplinary curriculum model for their
peers to use in the classroom and during student field trips.
All area businesses and private residents are directly or
indirectly affected by the health of the estuary, a cornerstone
of our local environment and its economic vitality. Therefore,
this model focuses on "the estuary and the local economy."
Teacher training consists of:
a voyage on the Carefree Learner, a floating
classroom built and staffed by Sarasota teachers -
activities include grassflats seining, water sampling,
bird watching, lectures on bay life, and shell
collecting,
exploration of estuary restoration sites, such as the
Sarasota Bay walk these projects restore natural
shorelines which are vital and productive habitats
for marine life and wading birds,
a visit to a commercial fishery, enabling teachers to
learn the processing of fish product going to the
market,
a sojourn on Tampa Bay to an uninhabited barrier
island this daylong venture investigates the
geology and biology of the island's ecosystems, and
during all of these trips, teachers are asked to pay
particular attention to man's impact upon the
environment, noting that, whether a resident,
tourist, industrialist, or environmentalist, they have
a vested interest in the physical and economic
health of the estuary.
It is in this health that they have a voice.
Using their custom-designed lessons and field trips,
teachers have built on the strengths of their students and are
now revising for next year.
The primary environmental issues being addressed are:
altering the mangrove coast in regard to
development and keeping natural areas intact,
the need for high water quality standards to educate
students in their responsibilities to treat their
natural resources,
people must live within Florida's environment for it
to continue to exist as it is presently,
beach renourishment,
non-point source pollution, and
understanding life requirements of endemic plant
and animals, displacement of natural species by
exotics.
The most significant educational benefits have been:
5,000 middle school students in Manatee County,
Florida will experience first-hand the fragile
ecosystems of Sarasota Bay and Tampa Bay,
involving local businesses and organizations,
demonstrating how environmental strands are
intertwined through all subject areas,
expanding knowledge of the coastal ecosystem and
demonstrate the interdependence of Florida's
environment and the economy,
demonstrating the importance of protecting
Manatee County's coastal watershed,
understanding that once the resources are depleted,
they cannot be replaced or renewed in our lifetime,
and
providing, through this experience, a vested interest
in the student to protect the local ecosystem and the
community.
Without the financial and strategic support from the
Sarasota Bay National Estuary Program, the Tampa Bay
National Estuary Program and the Environmental Education
Foundation of Florida, Inc., this program would not be
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Seaside Science: Hands-On Learning About Salt Marshes And
Energy Flow For Elementary Students
Gary Perkins
Pasco County Public Schools
Port Rickey, Florida
The Stanford Early School Achievement Test (SESAT) is
administered to Pasco County kindergarten students in
the fall semester each year. Since the test is given within the
first month of school, scores reflect the impact of pre-school
and early home experiences rather than formal kindergarten
instruction.
District-wide results indicate markedly lower results in the
Environmental Content Cluster, which tests knowledge of the
natural and social environments. While there has been a
steady increase in performance across all subtest areas of the
SESAT over the past years, the environmental section always
remains the lowest.
The discrepancies in this area are most notable in schools
with students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. The
literature suggests that positive early experiences in science
assist children from all socioeconomic levels in language and
logic development.
Recently, work done at the Mystic Marinelife Aquarium,
in Connecticut, and the University of Rhode Island has shown
a positive attitude change results from children handling live
specimens. The Seaside Science Program utilizes this
approach to stimulate interest in the natural world and the
activities are designed to be accomplished by parent/child
teams.
The program provided the parents with skills for the
development of their child's natural curiosity, promoted a
positive attitude towards education, encouraged growth in
knowledge of the natural world, increased reading skills, and
demonstrated that science can occur outside of school. Teams
were encouraged to continue exploring the~ coastal
env-ironment, and many have made it a regular portion of their
activities. '
The Project That Wouldn't Die
Carol J. Leonard
Lemon Bay High School
Englewood, Florida
Most good teachers are willing to try something new, to
take risks. Most new projects are worth doing once,
some projects are worth repeating, and some are so special
that they continue to grow and expand. This is the story of
one such project that has evolved and continued in spite of
many obstacles. What makes this project special is an amazing
blend of high school and elementary students that were
recognized and supported, not only by the teachers and the
students involved, but the school principals and community
members, as well.
In 1983, the author attended a FMSEA (Florida Marine
Science Education Association) conference during which
stocking doll manatees were made. The idea was brought
back to the author's school chapter of the Save-The-Manatee
Club. It later expanded its scope and grew into the Lemon
Bay High School Environmental Club, which is now 83
members strong. A major focus of this club continues to be
raising awareness of environmental issues, including the plight
of the Florida manatee.
The doll project began as an after school club activity in
which each member made a doll. Because doll making is
more appropriate for younger children, members suggested
bringing the materials to an elementary school. Funds were
raised, materials purchased and prepared, and the club took
a trip to a local elementary school classroom. The following
year, materials were included for the teacher before the visit
to teach the students about manatees, such as worksheets with
dot-to-dot puzzles and coloring pages. The highlight of the
mini-unit was the high school students' visit and making the
dolls. To bring the students there, the bus driver volunteered
to drive them during his layover.
Each year, the project grew. After-school sessions were
held for club members to train new members and prepare the
packets for each elementary school student. The packets
included directions, an already-threaded sewing needle,
patterns, stockings, and two beads for the doll's eyes. With
the principal's blessing, club members obtained teachers'
signatures to excuse them from the day's classes.
But problems arose." The bus could not be used free of
charge, so arrangements were made for parents to drive the
students to the elementary school. When this practice was
later discouraged, the local chapter of the Littoral Society
endorsed the project and provided rides. As the requested
number of elementary student participants increased, funding
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the purchase of materials became a real problem. With
year-round water restrictions, one of the best fundraisers, car
washes, was no longer an option. Again, community groups
came to the rescue of the program, donating funds for materials.
Also, candy sales and drawings were held to obtain enough
materials for three classrooms.
Club members expanded the awareness projects and joined
a community effort to document the presence of manatees in
local waters. In 1989, a sighting report form was developed,
and students prepared a large map of the area on which each
sighting was recorded with a flagged pin. The mapping project
is now in its fourth year.
A life-size manatee model was made as part of a float of
an animal refuge for the Labor Day parade, and it has been
used in three parades and to increase public awareness at other
events. Students have prepared exhibits and manned booths.
They received certificates for the President's Environmental
Youth Award signed by President George Bush. Field trips
with a manatee theme have been taken to places like Epcot
Center and Homosassa State Park, as well as to the Lowry
Park Zoo in Tampa and the Crystal River to swim with the
manatees.
The most popular and requested activity is the elementary
school field trips in which high school students work with
small groups (2-3) of elementary students to make a stuffed
doll to take home and share the story of the Florida manatee
with their family and neighbors. Last year, 100 dolls were
made in four elementary school classes, and packets are being
prepared currently to use in this year's version of the doll
project.
To succeed, a project of this type needs more than dolls.
One year, club members prepared a game and made a
classroom set to deliver to a local elementary school. The
club president wore his high school letter jacket with his many
pins and ribbons while visiting the classroom. Being an
Olympic competition year, the Olympic Games were on TV
and in the news each day. One little third grader looked up
at the boy and asked, "Were YOU in the Olympics?" That
illustrates the magic of the project.
The project may be expanded in the future by creating a
training team of Environmental Club members that, not only
would train new freshmen club members, but, also, other high
school clubs.
There is a familiar maxim "to learn something best, teach
it to someone else." What can be more special than matching
students across the ages? This project will not die.
References
Florida Game & Freshwater Commission, The .
No. 2., Tallahassee, Florida, Spring 1988.
Sharing Success In Environmental Education
Kate Muldoon
Office of Environmental Education
Florida Education Center
Tallahassee, Florida
Sharing.Suc.ccss in Environmental Education is a new award
program initiated in 1991-92 by Florida Commissioner
of Education Betty Castor to identify and recognize Florida's
finest school-based environmental education programs.
The program has four purposes. First, it offers examples
of effective programs implemented by local schools with
community and business participation, illustrating essential
components of Florida's new school improvement and
accountability initiative, Blueprint 2000.
Second, "Sharing Success" highlights how schools sustain
existing programs, and it provides information on and
encourages the development of new programs, despite recent
budget cuts. Community participation is a strength of the
school programs recognized by the Sharing Success awards.
In many of the programs, students performed environmental
service for their communities at the same time that parents,
local businesses, and other community members began
participating more fully in activities at the school. A mutual
respect emerged during this process.
Third, "Sharing Success" identifies and communicates the
common factors that make school-based programs successful,
and transferable. Many of the award-winning programs have
common characteristics. For instance, some are based on
annual themes that schools select to unite teachers, students,
and parents in reaching common objectives, such as learning
about coastal issues, recycling, or water-conserving
landscaping. Programs also have been created to address a
need recognized by the community or school. For example,
some schools started landscaping projects to beautify an
unattractive campus, developed learning activities to teach
urban students mathematics by measuring and graphing
physical data in saltwater aquariums, or adopted
multidisciplinary, hands-on environmental learning to interest
at-risk students in school. Other schools participated in beach
clean-ups and maintained cumulative records for a marine
conservation-oriented nonprofit organization, or adapted
existing programs, such as "The Voyage of the Mimi", to have
students investigate coastal issues relevant to their
communities.
Most of the programs employ innovative or creative
strategies, such as peer teaching in which students teach other
students. Other techniques include using a "team" of teachers
from different disciplines to teach courses, focusing on local
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environmental issues to reinforce conceptual learning and
stimulating student learning about government through
interaction with public officials. The most successful
programs periodically assessed outcomes, using both objective
and subjective means, such as tests, reports, presentations,
videos, and portfolios. Many evaluated student attitudes and
behavioral changes resulting from program participation.
Some programs track long-term changes in students, such as
career choice or continued participation in community issues.
Programs reported that, in some cases, parental attitudes and
behavior toward the environment improved as a result of
student interaction. Several programs survey students and
teachers annually to solicit suggestions for the next year.
Systematic evaluation boosts accountability and credibility
and guides improvements.
Fourth, "Sharing Success" encourages existing programs
to improve by offering examples'of how other schools
developed award-winning programs. Results of the program,
including profiles of the winning schools and sections on
research and resources, are available in Natural Selections.
the 1992 "Sharing Success" Directory.
As recipients of awards, these programs should continue
to generate community and parental support, enabling them
to recruit more volunteers, obtain funding and donations more
easily, and secure other forms of assistance to sustain
programs.
The Office of Environmental Education (OEE), Florida
Department of Education, developed and carries out the
program, with assistance from a broad-based Advisory
Committee composed of representatives from business, state
agencies, and non-profit organizations. In late 1991, the
Committee first developed awards standards, and then it
reviewed and ranked nominations from schools, participated
in site visits to schools, and made final award
recommendations to the OEE.
In April 1992, the Committee selected 35 meritorious
programs from the 68 submitted for consideration. Three
Programs of Excellence were selected to receive a framed
certificate and new environmental education materials of their
choice, valued at $300. Seventeen Programs of Quality each
received a certificate and environmental education materials
valued at $100. Fifteen Programs of Promise each received
a certificate and environmental education materials valued at
$50. Commissioner of Education Betty Castor presented the
certificates to school representatives in a special ceremony
just prior to Earth Day 1992.
What Is A Manatee Doing In A Geography Classroom?
Susan Ferrell
Turkey Creek Junior High
Hillsborough County Schools
Tampa, Florida
What comes to mind when one hears the word geography?
Most people think of memorizing states and capitals,
labeling maps, naming continents and oceans, latitude and
longitude, and knowing the location of countries around the
world. Well, all those items are important and part of
geography, but there is so much more.
The author's motto is, "Everything is connected to
geography." More than just the name of a country make it
unique; its culture, climate, plants, and animals are important.
And to keep a place unique, all that is there naturally should
remain.
At the beginning of the school year, the author tries to be
interesting and enthusiastic about geography for her students.
To keep the students' interest level high, the author starts off
the school year with what is familiar, like one's own backyard.
For the author's students, Florida is their backyard.
Geography curriculum in the State of Florida requires
teachers to cover the world during the seventh grade. To do
this, little time can be spent on any one area. Students are
cheated because the curriculum moves so fast. Even though
there isn't much time for Florida, time is made for it because
it is important.
Now, to explain the title of this paper, "What Is A Manatee
Doing In A Geography Classroom?" One must be willing to
accept the fact that everything can be connected to geography.
Once one sees the light, coming up with materials is the easy
part.
In the beginning of this paper, the word unique is used.
Florida is a very unique state, and anyone who lives there
should feel honored to share it with some unique animals and
habitats. For instance, there is only one Everglades, the only
coral reef along the continental U.S., the manatee, panther,
and a variety of other wildlife found nowhere else. This is
where the manatee fits in.
In the author's unit on Florida, students locate various
places where manatees are known to live. In comparison, a
county map is color coded according to population. Questions
are asked of the students, such as, "Where are there
concentrations of people?" and "People who live near the
water enjoy what type of recreation?" It doesn't take long
for students to figure out the connection between manatee
deaths and the number of boats in that area.
Students also design T-shirts and create slogans to make
people more aware of the manatee. Letters are written to
local and state government officials requesting that they enact
legislation to help the manatee. Students have drawn examples
of boat propeller covers. After students have viewed videos
and seen pictures of injured manatees, most come to the same
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conclusion the manatee must be helped. Now, if only this
concern would stay with them as adults, the manatee might
win its battle for survival.
A good way to end a lesson about the manatee is to actually
visit one. One place manatees can be found in the wild is
near power plants which discharge warm water. During
periods of cold weather, manatees gather near power plants.
Tampa Elcctric's Big Bend Power Plant, near Apollo Beach,
is a great place to see them. Most power plants welcome
students who have come to see manatees.
A very nice place to view captive manatees in their natural
habitat is Homosassa Springs State Park. Blue Springs State
Park, near Orange Park, Florida, is the home of many wild,
"adopted" manatees that spend die winter at the park on a
regular basis. Of course, it is not possible for all students to
visit manatees, so manatees are brought to classrooms through
pictures and video.
An important part of this lesson, as with any lesson taught
about the environment, is making connections. The manatee's
survival is not an isolated problem with an isolated solution.
A good example is the Everglades. The entire Everglades
ecosystem will not survive if only the small area within the
National Park boundaries is protected. Humans are only part
of a complex web of life. They have no right to put themselves
at the top, only an obligation to fit in as well as possible
without damaging the web.
Children must understand that everything they do effects
something else. They should be taught to act in a positive
and responsible manner when it comes to the environment.
Through education, both positive and negative can be
stimulated in children so they can make a decision based on
trial and error.
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II. Technical Issues Forum
A. Marine Debris
MARPOL V:
Responsibilities For Enforcement And International Aspects
William Prosser
U.S. Coast Guard
New Orleans, Louisiana
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has 180
member countries which are interested in all aspects of
shipping. In 1973, IMO adopted the International Convention
for the Prevention of Pollution by Ships, known as MARPOL
73/78. It consists of five annexes, each dealing with a
particular class of pollution. Annex V regulates the discharge
of garbage from ships. It took effect on December 31,1988
and has been ratified by 52 countries.
The United States ratified it through enactment of the
Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act of 1987.
Two major issues of MARPOL V are the requirements to
control the discharge of garbage into the sea and identify
onshore reception facilities for ship garbage. The Coast Guard
drafted regulations to administer MARPOL Annex V. The
regulations apply to all inspected or uninspected marine craft,
fixed and floating platforms, associated vessels, and
recreational vessels. It also requires all terminals and ports
capable of receiving garbage from ships to be inspected.
Subpart D establishes the parameters for what garbage can
be disposed in the sea and how far offshore. Dumping plastics
is strictly prohibited; they are the worst hazard to marine life.
The Gulf of Mexico Program and other agencies are having
this information translated into other languages to disseminate
it widely. There is a need to ensure that all crews can read,
understand, and obey the regulations on discharging garbage.
Enforcing MARPOL V on ships calling on U.S. ports
begins when the vessel gives advance notice of its arrival,
which is entered in the Marine Safety Information System
computer. The Coast Guard has access to this system at all
major ports. It determines if a vessel is making its first U.S.
port call, whether it is in compliance or has any deficiencies
from other port calls, and if the ship's paperwork is current.
The petty officers check the file systems of local ports for
particular violations or vessel alerts, and the data is given to
the boarding officers.
Not all vessels are boarded every time they come into a
U.S. port. There are too many in port at any particular time,
and the Coast Guard does not have the personnel to do this.
Therefore, the vessel history contained in computer records
are used to identify which vessels to board. When a vessel
is boarded, an inspector will have to check for compliance
with regulations. The regulations are reviewed before
boarding, and then the vessel records and other items are
checked.
The Coast Guard inspector may be accompanied by a U.S.
Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection
Service representative, and they will check off items on two
detailed forms to determine if a ship is in compliance with
MARPOL. Later, the Petty Officer meets with the ship's
Master to review the paperwork.
The inspectors review pollution record books for proper
entries and determine if the vessel has gone into any ports
anywhere in the world or the U.S., if it discharged garbage
en route to the U.S., and if it has the proper receipts to show
that this has been done. They will check the vessel's waste
management plan to see that it is posted and located where
crews have access to and can read it. They check to see .that
placards are posted, are in the proper language, and located
in places where garbage and foodstuffs are handled. They
inspect the areas used for collecting, processing, storing, and
discharging ship-generated garbage. They also determine if
plastics have been mixed in with other wastes. After the
inspection is completed, the inspectors meet with the Master,
Mates, and crew and determine if the vessel is or is not in
compliance with MARPOL regulations.
A port must have a Certificate of Adequacy in order to
receive ships and their cargo. The facility submits an
application to the Coast Guard Marine Safety Office to ensure
that the vessel operator knows there are means to remove and
store garbage and waste. The certificate must be present
before vessels can dock.
New Coast Guard guidelines have stricter standards and
will increase enforcement initiatives to remedy past violations
by ships from other countries. Enforcement has been extended
to the 200 mile limit of the Economic Exclusive Zone, and
if any discharge occurred, or if garbage is not handled in
compliance, the Coast Guard will take action. First offenders
receive a $10,000 civil penalty assessment, $20,000 for a
second offense, and $25,000 for repeated offenses.
It will take more than the United States and Mexico to
remove all of the garbage from the Gulf of Mexico. Countries
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in the Wider Caribbean must be involved. The IMO and
World Bank are involved, and a workshop on reception
facilities and marine waste will be held in early 1993. These
forums are important because many less-developed nations
have no garbage collection facilities, but, instead, dump into
rivers or on land. Therefore, financing must also be made
available in addition to technology. Once all countries in the
Wider Caribbean have reception facilities, the area can receive
MARPOL Special Area Designation.
Many other initiatives are being undertaken to reduce the
amount of debris in the Gulf of Mexico. Education is highly
emphasized, and the information must be presented in
languages that each person can understand. The Coast Guard
is planning seminars, port studies, and training programs
within port areas in the U.S. and will disseminate educational
information. The Coast Guard has an outreach program for
the fishing industry through vessel coordinators in the Gulf
States. These officials work with ports and local commercial
fishing industry associations to educate the industry as well
as conduct compliance inspections on vessels and at marinas.
The Coast Guard Auxiliary has done a lot to help the Gulf
of Mexico Program and disseminate information on rules and
regulations on MARPOL V. In addition, they have taken the
program into the classroom to teach rules and regulations and
individual responsibility in regard to the environment, as well
as marine safety.
Report On The Implementation Of The Treaty Relating To The
Prevention Of Pollution By Ships Known As MARPOL Annex V
John E. Schuler
Project Manager
Browning-Ferris Industries, Inc.
Shipboard Waste Services
Houston, Texas
Clean beaches. Clean seas. Regrettably, tiiese are
becoming just a fading childhood memory. We are all
too familiar with shorelines marred by floating garbage, oil
spills, and litter of the modern world. The images of seabirds
trapped in discarded six-pack rings, or turtles poisoned by
indigestible wastes have been seen the world over, but it
doesn't have to be that way. The general public wants progress
and demands a clean marine environment. Responsible
marine executives and users of the sea want the same thing.
Not only is it common sense in today's times, but, ethically,
it is mandatory to be environmentally responsible. Together,
we can help make these visions of a cleaner marine
environment a reality. There are many sources of marine
pollution, but let us focus on one key issue, the trash generated
by oceangoing vessels.
In recent years, there has been growing international
pressure to restrict the dumping of waste into the oceans.
Communities and businesses are concerned about unsightly
and unhealthy littering of seashores and other areas used for
recreation. Ethics, livelihoods, and money are all at stake.
Rigorous new rules on ocean dumping of waste and its
proper disposal are now in place and supplement other laws
aimed at cleaning up the world's oceans and shorelines. These
new regulations, covered by die International Protocol
Relating to the Prevention of Pollution by ships, or Marpol
Annex V, restricts the discharge at sea of certain types of
garbage. Additionally, the Marine Plastic Research and
Control Act of 1987 prohibits the dumping of plastics at sea
within the 200 mile Exclusive Economic Zone surrounding
the United States coastline. Infringement of these regulations
are not only damaging to the marine environment but costly
to the violator. Failure to follow tiiese regulations can result
in civil penalties up to $25,000.
Marpol Annex V is not the only law affecting the improper
disposal of waste generated by oceangoing vessels. The
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), through
the Animal, Plant, Health Inspection Service (APHIS), is
charged with protecting the nation's agricultural interests.
Through its APHIS programs, USDA monitors the disposal
of wastes derived in whole or part from fruit, vegetables, meat
and poultry, as well as packaging material that might carry
disease or infection that could damage or destroy our nation's
crops or livestock industry (7 CFR 330.400 and 9 CFR 94.50).
The land based disposal of these wastes is a business for
the expert. Under current USDA regulations, APHIS wastes
must be treated by either steam sterilization or incineration
prior to landfilling. Fortunately, there are solutions. At BFI
Shipboard Waste Services, a division of Browning-Ferris
Industries, Inc. (BFI), experts understand the problem of
marine pollution and have solutions in place. Its unique
service is to provide the maritime industries with a one-call,
all inclusive solution to their waste disposal requirements.
BFI is one of the world's largest publicly-held companies
providing collection, transportation, process for recycling,
and disposal of a wide range of commercial, industrial,
medical, and residential solid wastes. BFI Shipboard Waste
Services has a comprehensive, efficient collection and disposal
program for marine wastes. How does it work? A simple
telephone call sets the process in motion.
BFI Shipboard Waste Services provides its programs at
major ports in the United States, Canada, and other countries.
Its experience in the development of currently approved
Marpol Annex V disposal procedures is the maritime industry's
guarantee that its wastes are handled in an environmentally
responsible manner.
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When a vessel docks, BFI Shipboard Waste Services
provides it the appropriate containers to properly dispose of,
or package for recycling, its wastes. These containers are
then loaded onto specially designed vehicles and transported
to licensed waste facilities where disposal, treatment, or sorting
occurs. BFI guarantees the public and maritime industries
that shipboard wastes are handled in an environmentally
responsible manner.
In order to educate the maritime industry on the provisions
of regulations such as Marpol Annex V, BFI Shipboard Waste
Services distributes, as a public service, plastic laminated
"placards" outlining the waste discharge restrictions of current
international treaties. These "placards" serve as a constant
reminder to the crew and passengers of oceangoing vessels
of the discharge provisions and penalties for non-compliance.
Currently, they are available in English and Spanish.
Information in other languages will be available soon.
In summation, BFI Shipboard Waste Services is committed
to a marine environment free of floating garbage and beaches
littered with debris. Through continued enforcement of
existing regulations, enhancement of international treaties,
and increased education in the maritime industry, the public
demand for a cleaner environment will become a reality. BFI
will carry out this goal efficiently, safely, and in an
environmentally-responsible manner with respect to the role
of government in protecting the public interest.
Responsibilities Of The Shipping Industry And How They Are
Being Addressed
Ted Thorjussen
President
West Gulf Maritime Association
Houston, Texas
The ship owners' responsibilities appear to be rather simple.
They must comply with governing laws and international
treaties. One such treaty is MARPOL Annex V, which governs
the disposal of waste at sea.
The ship's owner establishes procedures to follow on-board
and, then, leaves it up to the vessel's Master and officers to
implement and enforce them. Having to comply with
international treaties is nothing new. There are currently
some 20 treaties in effect world-wide, requiring about 60
different certificates to be carried and with which the vessel
must comply. It is important for the instructions to be simple
and easily understood, and it is sometimes necessary to provide
instructions and placards in more than one language.
In the final analysis, it is also the responsibility of the ship
owner to make certain that the officers and crew follow the
instructions. Towards this end, the ship owner must rely on
the captain to motivate everyone on-board do their share.
The sanctions and/or penalties against a crew member are
somewhat nebulous, although frequent reprimands due to
non-compliance or disregard of instructions will be observed
in the individual fitness reports. For the Master and officers,
their license is at stake for non-compliance with international
treaties.
Fortunately, most of these treaties are so long in the making
that ample lead-time is available for planning and preparation.
Marpol Annex V is first and foremost a prohibition against
dumping plastics into the sea, but it also prohibits all dumping
all garbage except ground food waste if Special Area
Designation has been made. The ship owner must address
the disposal of all trash and garbage in addition to plastic
materials.
How have operations changed and what must be done that
wasn't required before?
These international agreements, including Marpol Annex
V, are part of the curriculum at the maritime schools and
training centers. It is taught at the traditional maritime
colleges, and also at new schools in Third World countries
to ensure high quality crews from countries that are major
providers of seafarers.
Most older vessels found the best way to comply was to
use 55-gallon drums at strategic locations to collect plastics.
Compactors and grinders are also frequently installed on
board. If plastic materials originate primarily from foods or
household goods, the amount generated is rather small, and
it does not take many drums to provide storage, even for
extended voyages. As older vessels are phased out of service,
they will no longer be contributors to garbage in the ocean.
Over a period of time, 20 years is considered by many as a
normal operating life, a particular ocean-going vessel will be
totally out of the picture.
As the ship owner contemplates replacing ships in the
fleet, a modern system for waste management and disposal
is included in the plans for the new building. There are
basically two alternatives to choose from. One, which for
obvious reasons appears to be the most popular, is disposal
by incineration. This system will not only take care of solid
waste, but oily waste, slop, and other unusable, oil-tainted
leftovers. After the incineration process, only a small amount
of ash remains. Indeed, many vessels have been refitted with
incinerators to make sure they leave behind nothing but their
wake.
The second alternative is proper on-board segregation and
storage for disposal in port. This system also can be managed
with extreme efficiency, particularly where the ship regularly
trades in certain ports where it is easy and economical to
-------
off-load what needs to be disposed.
A modern vessel operating under that system could be a
container ship on a fixed run between Europe and the United
States. The round-trip takes about six weeks. All plastic
materials are collected continuously in die galley and on a
daily basis from all cabins. It is then compacted and stored.
On every deck, there are two chutes, one for glass, the other
for paper. The glass falls directly into a receptacle where it
breaks into small pieces. The paper chute goes directly into
a compactor. At a designated port in North Europe, the paper,
plastic, and glass containers are off-loaded, and empty
containers are put back on board for die next round-trip. Slop
is pumped off, and all these services are provided without
additional cost to the vessel. It is included in the port fees
paid for dockage and other services.
On modern vessels, overboard fluid discharge is monitored
for clarity and purity. If a discrepancy is detected, the
automated system shuts down and redirects fluids into holding
tanks. Nothing substandard can be pumped overboard unless
tampering occurs.
Another effect of Marpol Annex V has been that ship
owners have changed their buying habits, avoiding plastics
to the greatest extent possible. Once that trend became clear,
providers of food and goods found it to their competitive
advantage to offer substitute packaging and, thereby, retain
the ship owner's business. Styrofoam cups are gone - sailors
are back to good, old ceramics with their name on them.
The opportunity to have garbage and waste removed from
the vessel varies greatly from port-to-port and
continent-to-continent. It is generally held that northern
Europe offers the best service. The removal process and
facilities are provided by the port authority, and the cost is
included in the normal harbor expense. In the U.S., the
facilities are, generally, privately owned, and the removal
process is handled by contractors engaged and paid by the
vessel, resulting in large differences in price and services. It
is important that gains continue to be made to improve the
availability of disposal at an economical price.
One procedure that seems to work well was introduced by
one of the large national waste management firms. Empty
boxes are provided in advance to terminals and vessel agents
or delivered to the vessel upon arrival. After the ship's crew
has filled the boxes, the contractor will pick up and arrange
for proper disposal. This method is also approved to handle
galley waste restricted by the U.S.D.A. Animal Plant and
Health Inspection Service, and it has proven efficient and
reasonable in a number of Gulf ports.
B. Toxic Substances And Pesticides
Contaminant Levels In Sediment And Biota In
The Gulf Of Mexico Estuaries
J.K. Summers and J.M. Macauley
U.S. EPA, Environmental Research
Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida
R. Heard
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory,
Ocean Springs, Mississippi
G. Gaston
Department of Biology, University of Mississippi,
Oxford, Mississippi
In 1991, the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
Program (EMAP) initiated a long-term monitoring program
to assess the ecological status and long-term trends of the
estuaries of the Louisianian Province. The Louisianian
Province consists of the biogeographic region from Anclote
Anchorage, FL, around the Gulf Coast to, and including, the
Rio Grande, TX.
The area evaluated includes all tidally-influenced water
bodies, or estuaries, greater than 2 km in surface area. These
include271argeestuaries(MobileBay,AL;MississippiSound,
MS; Lake Pontchartrain, LA; Galveston Bay, TX), large tidal
rivers (Mississippi River), and 154 small estuaries/tidal rivers
(WithlacoochieRiver,FL;GrandBay,AL;BackBayofBiloxi,
MS; Amite River, LA; and Lavaca Bay, TX).
EMAP-E focuses on determining the status of response
indicators to ascertain a measure of the ecological condition
of the estuaries of the province. It is unique among monitoring
programs in that it is nationwide in scope, focuses on
ecological status and trends, and is based on unbiased
sampling. These characteristics allow the data to be used to
represent large biogeographic regions so that statements
concerning the status of die estuarine resources as a whole
can be made with a known level of confidence. EMAP-E is
also active in other biogeographic regions of the country using
10
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the same sampling design, indicator collection methods, and
assessment approaches.
The samples are taken primarily in late summer (July and
August) in the Louisianian Province. A total of 202 sites
were selected to be sampled during a 7-week interval in 1991.
Sampling included collecting habitat and water quality
information (temperature, dissolved oxygen concentrations,
salinity, clarity), deploying continuous monitoring apparatus
for water quality (obtaining bottom dissolved oxygen
concentration every 15 minutes for 24 hours), collecting
sediments (benthic evaluation, sediment toxicity testing,
organic content, grain size, and contaminant concentrations),
fish trawling (characterization of fish communities,
examination of pathology incidence, and tissue contaminant
concentrations), and benthic dredging (to characterize large
bivalve communities and marine debris).
Benthic evaluations (species-level abundance,
composition, and biomass) were completed for 3-5 replicates
at each site. While full distributions of the data were compiled
for each indicator, as well as several species- or group-specific
indicators (percentage of community that were amphipods),
an overall index of benthic condition was developed using
the following approach. A subset of the collected sites was
determined to represent locations having poor environmental
conditions (high sediment contamination and low dissolved
oxygen concentrations), and a second set of sites was selected
as reference sites having good environmental condition (little
or no sediment contamination and high dissolved oxygen
levels day and night).
The approach was to statistically analyze this subset to
determine which benthic characteristics best differentiated
between poor and good environmental quality. The result
showed that the combination of benthic biodiversity and
proportions of the benthic community represented by bivalves
and tubicifid worms could be combined in an index score
that correctly classified poor sites and good sites without any
error, explaining about 90% of the variability observed in the
data set. This analytical result, the Benthic Index, was then
applied to all the benthic data collected from the 202 sites in
the Louisianian Province. Once the scores were determined,
their distribution was examined to assess the percentage of
estuarine sediments in Gulf of Mexico estuaries characterized
by poor benthic community structure. Approximately 30%
of the sediments in the estuaries could be described as having
this level of poor benthic community structure low
biodiversity and, either, a low proportion of bivalves, or a
high proportion of tubificid oligochaetes.
The frequency of external pathologies in finfish is another
ecological response that can represent the condition of an
estuary. The incidence of external pathologies was determined
from an examination of all fish collected at the sites. Over
5,000 fish were examined. In the Louisianian Province, the
background rate of occurrence of external pathologies (finrot,
lesions, discolorations) was 0.7 + 0.3%. Most groupings of
fish in Gulf of Mexico estuaries did not display pathology
frequencies different from the background expectation (catfish
1%, demersal fish 1%). However, commercial and
recreational fish displayed a combined pathology rate of 1.5%
(Atlantic croaker, permit, seatrout), and pelagic fish showed
a rate of 3.2% (seatrout, permit, menhaden).
The bottom waters of Gulf estuaries were examined to
determine the extent of hypoxia during the sampling period
by mooring a continuous monitoring device approximately
0.3m above the bottom. Using an algorithm determined in
earlier studies, the minimum concentration, the average
nighttime concentration, and the concentration at dawn were
used to determine the sites that experienced hypoxia ( ppm)
greater than 20% of the time during the sampling period. In
addition, instantaneous measures of dissolved oxygen were
taken at each site. About 6% of the bottom waters of the
estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico were continuously hypoxic
throughout the sampling period, while an additional 6% were
hypoxic in a cyclic manner, with the hypoxia occurring for
more than 40% of the nighttime hours. Thus, the total
proportion of the bottom waters displaying hypoxia in Gulf
estuaries was 12%.
Sediment Quality And Toxic Inputs To The Gulf Of Mexico
Catherine A. Fox
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Science and Technology
Washington, D.C.
States bordering the Gulf of Mexico discharge hundreds of
thousands of pounds of toxic pollutants into the Gulf
waters each year. Most notable are Texas and Louisiana, with
their massive petrochemical complexes that generate more
toxic waste in total volume and on a per capita basis than any
other state in the nation. Although Florida is an exception,
the Gulf states also produce the most dangerous chemicals,
those that cause either cancer, birth defects, or nerve damage.
Recognizing the importance of assessing the amounts,
kinds, and potential impacts of toxic releases into Gulf
estuaries, the Toxics and Pesticides Subcommittee of the Gulf
of Mexico Program developed two important databases - the
Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) and the Contaminated
Sediments Inventory. This paper provides an overview of
the information contained in these databases and discusses
briefly the results of preliminary evaluations designed to
identify both chemicals and estuaries of concern of the Gulf
coast.
The TRI identifies and quantifies point and non-point
source inputs of toxic chemicals to the Gulf specifically,
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industrial and municipal discharges, pesticide inputs from
agricultural activities,'and produced waters. Data retrieval
for industrial and municipal activities for the year 1989 came
from EPA's Toxics Release Inventory System and Permit
Compliance System. The information was evaluated based
on chemical toxicity, volume of receiving water, and waste
water treatment reductions at Publicly Owned Treatment
Works. Data retrieval for agricultural activities for the years
1987 and 1989 came from NOAA's Resources for the Future
Database. The information was evaluated for chemical
toxicity, propensity for bioaccumulation, and soil half-life.
Data on oil and gas activities came from a preliminary report
published by Avanti, Inc. Because produced water discharges
occur further offshore, this information was not evaluated by
estuary.
Results of theTRI evaluation indicated that approximately
13 million pounds of toxic substances were discharged from
industrial and municipal sites into the Gulf of Mexico in 1989.
Calculated toxicity indices showed Galveston Bay to be the
most susceptible, followed by Calcasieu Lake, Tampa Bay,
Brazos River, Corpus Christi Bay, Sabine Lake, Escambia
Bay, Mississippi Delta Region, Mobile Bay, and
Atehafalaya/Vermilion Bay. The ten most toxic chemicals
released to Gulf estuaries were ammonium sulfate, chlorine,
ammonia, chromium, hydrazine, copper, zinc, cyanide
compounds, cthylbenzene, and sulfuric acid.
Approximately ten million pounds of pesticides were
applied to agricultural fields in Gulf coastal counties in 1987,
and five million pounds were used in 1989. According to
NOAA's rating index, potential contamination of the Laguna
Madrc estuary was greatest in 1987, followed by Tampa Bay
and Charlotte Harbor. When the index was applied to the
1989 database, Laguna Madre again was depicted as having
the greatest potential contamination, followed by
Atchafalaya/Vcrmilion Bays and Matagorda Bay.
In 1991, produced water discharged from oil and gas
platforms and coastal processing plants in near coastal waters
of Louisiana and Texas contained approximately 28 million
pounds of metals (minus calcium and magnesium) and 2.5
million pounds of organic pollution.
The Contaminated Sediments Inventory (CSI) contains
coastal sediment chemistry and biological effects data
collected by State, Federal, and academic sources for the past
13 years. The database, which contains almost 27,000 records,
consists of detailed information on each sample collected, as
well as QA/QC information, when available. Data consists
largely of bulk sediment chemistry information, a large
proportion of which utilizes detection limits above many
threshold effects levels. Due to the nature of the CSI, Florida's
draft sediment quality guidelines were used to evaluate the
data to identify both chemicals and estuaries of concern.
It is noteworthy that evaluation of bulk sediment chemistry
data on many chemicals, particularly pesticides, is difficult.
In addition, characterization of Florida's coastal sediment was
more complete than much of the rest of the Gulf coast.
Therefore, it is likely that many areas not listed may be a
concern, but data is limited at this time. Consequently, the
information contained in this database should be used keeping
these limitations in mind.
Analysis of the CSI showed that Tampa Bay ranked highest
in potential ecological impact caused by contaminated
sediments. Galveston Bay, Escambia Bay, Ten Thousand
Islands, Choctawhatchee Bay, Calcasieu Lake, St. Andrew
Bay, Apalachicola Bay, Perdido Bay, and Mobile Bay also
ranked high as potential hot spots based on historical sediment
quality data. Gulfwide contaminants of concern were also
identified with chlordane leading the list, followed by
phenanthrene, anthracene, mercury, silver, 2,4-DDD,
chrysene, nickel, zinc, and 4,4-DDD.
A Gulf of Mexico Toxics Characterization Report
integrating the results of the Toxics Release Inventory and
Contaminated Sediments Inventory, including fish advisory
information, also has been written. Information is presented
on a Gulf-wide and estuary-specific basis.
To receive a copy of the three reports and data bases, please
contact: Catherine Fox, (202) 260-1327
C. Habitat Degradation
Impact Of A Persistent "Brown Tide" Algal Bloom On The Laguna
Madre Of South Texas
Edward J. Buskey
Marine Science Institute
The University of Texas at Austin
Port Aransas, Texas
Regions of the South Texas coast centered around the
Laguna Madre have experienced a dense algal bloom
since January 1990, referred to as the brown tide. This nearly
monospecific bloom has been caused by high densities (1-5
x 109 cells I"1) of a small (4-5 m diameter) chrysophyte. This
dense, persistent algal bloom has reduced the penetration of
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sunlight in the Laguna Madre, shading out seagrass beds and
disrupting sport fishing.
The Texas brown tide shares many similarities with brown
tides which have occurred repeatedly in the northeastern U.S.,
especially in Long Island Sound and Narragansett Bay. The
northeastern brown tide is caused by high densities of the
chrysophyte Aureococcus anophagefferens, causing extensive
damage to important commercial populations of shellfish.
The Texas brown tide is caused by a different, unidentified
species of chrysophyte that is slightly larger thanAureococcus.
Most studies of toxic and nuisance phytoplankton blooms
began after the bloom was well established, making it difficult
to determine the factors causing the bloom and analyze its
effects due to the lack of pre-bloom data. In this case, the
researchers were fortunate to have been studying the Laguna
Madre ecosystem for nearly a year in the same area where
the brown tide occurred. Before the brown tide, the upper
Laguna Madre was characterized by relatively clear waters
overlying extensive seagrass beds, making it a popular area
for sport fishing.
In January 1990, populations of the brown tide chrysophyte
occurred in the upper reaches of Baffin Bay in the Upper
Laguna Madre. The onset of the brown tide bloom in these
regions followed an unusually hard freeze in South Texas in
December 1989 that caused widespread fish kills in the Laguna
Madre. Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) concentrations
increased abruptly preceding the bloom (up to 20 mole I"1),
but they declined to lower concentrations during the bloom.
High DIN concentrations may have been caused in part by
decomposition of organisms killed in the freeze, and this
nutrient pulse may have helped fuel the initiation of the bloom.
A prolonged period of drought preceded the freeze, raising
salinity above 50%. A crash in the planktonic and benthic
filter feeding populations coincided with the establishment
of the brown tide in the upper reaches of Baffin Bay. The
high salinity and rapid drop in temperature may have
decimated grazer populations in these shallow waters,
releasing the brown tide from grazing pressure when it was
first established.
Concentrations of brown tide cells ranged from 0.5 - 6 x
10 cell ml" throughout the course of the bloom, and
chlorophyll a concentrations approached 80 g I"1. The most
obvious impact of this dense concentration was the dramatic
reduction in water transparency. It reduced underwater
irradiance to 60-70% of pre-bloom levels in the Laguna
Madre, which is normally characterized by extensive seagrass
beds. The highest brown tide concentrations, and lowest light
penetration, usually occurred during spring and summer, when
most photosynthetic activity in seagrass occurs.
Zooplankton are the major consumers of phytoplankton
in most marine systems. It is puzzling that zooplankton
populations have not increased during this algal bloom and
that these grazers have not brought the bloom under control.
Zooplankton populations were abundant before the onset of
the brown tide bloom, with mesozooplankton populations
dominated by the copepod Acartia tonsa. These populations
declined sharply at the beginning of the bloom and remained
low in areas impacted by the brown tide. The size of adult
copepods was significantly lower in brown tide areas, and
adult female copepods had significantly reduced egg
production rates. The brown tide may be too small to be
grazed efficiently by copepods, but it is within the range of
sizes that microzooplankton prefer. Microzooplankton
populations, composed mainly of ciliates, were responsible
for grazing approximately 90% of the daily standing stock of
phytoplankton before the bloom. But, they also declined
during the brown tide, grazing less than. 5% of the brown tide
standing stock per day.
The brown tide also had a dramatic effect on the benthic
organisms of the Laguna Madre. In 1989, the macrofauna
community was abundant and diverse. From August 1989 to
January 1990, however, abundance increased while diversity
and biomass decreased. The benthic community in Baffin
Bay was dominated by a single species, the polychaete worm
Streblospio benedicti, a typical pattern in disturbed benthic
communities. During the onset of the brown tide, abundance,
biomass, and diversity decreased to near zero in the benthos.
The density of larval fish was also severely reduced in
areas impacted by the brown tide. In pre-brown tide samples
from the Laguna Madre, catches of larval bay anchovy
averaged 150-250 larvae per 100 m3. During the brown tide,
catches averaged only 50-80 larvae per 100 m3. Black drum
and spotted sea trout larvae fared much worse. Pre-bloom
densities averaged 4-5 larvae per 100 m3 for spotted seatrout
and 20-30 larvae per 100 m for black drum. During the
brown tide, very few larvae of either species were taken, and
densities averaged 0.5 larvae per 100m3. In the nearby Port
Mansfield Channel, which has not been impacted by the brown
tide, both bay anchovy and black drum densities have been
almost an order of magnitude higher during the brown tide
years than in pre-bloom collections. Larvae of spotted sea
trout are rare in these collections, however. Egg densities
observed in the brown tide impacted areas indicate that
spawning activity is normal, suggesting that, either eggs fail
to hatch, or that larval fish survive poorly in areas impacted
by the brown tide.
The brown tide is still present in the Laguna Madre, having
persisted for over 34 months, which may be the longest-known
monospecific phytoplankton bloom ever documented.
Although there have been no massive fish kills or other acute
affects to capture the public's attention, the brown tide's impact
on seagrass beds and planktonic and benthic diversity may
cause fundamental, long term changes in the Laguna Madre
ecosystem.
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Seagrass Die-Off In Florida Bay
Michael J. Durako1, T. R. Barber1, J. B. C. Bugden2, P. R. Carlson1, J. W. Fourqurean, R. D.
Jones2, D. Porter3, M. B. Robblee , L. A. Yarbro1, R. T. Zieman5, J. C. Zieman5
1 Florida Marine Research Institute, St. Petersburg, Florida
^Department of Biological Sciences and Drinking Water Research,
Florida International University, Miami, Florida
^Department of Botany, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
^Everglades National Park, Homestead, Florida
^Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia
Rapid and widespread mortality of the seagrass Thalassia
testudinum (turtle grass) in Florida Bay at the southern
tip of the Florida Peninsula is continuing. Since 1987, more
than 4,000 hectares (ha) of seagrass beds have been lost, and
an additional 23,000 ha have been affected (Robblee et al.,
1991).
Die-off has been most widespread in central and western
Florida Bay, affecting about 30% of the dense seagrass beds
of this region. However, in early 1989, an isolated, dense
Tlialassia bed in Sunset Cove experienced significant die-off.
Sunset Cove is over 30 km east of the main area of die-off;
it is adjacent to the Everglades National Park boat dock where
the research vessels that sample in die-off areas are moored.
Die-off at this location indicated that a transmissible agent
might be involved in this phenomenon.
Die-off appears to be density dependent and, thus far, has
only been observed in areas that previously supported very
dense 7/»a/a«/a-dominated populations. Many patches
appear to spread and coalescence in a contagious distribution
pattern. Older die-off patches are frequently revegetated by
Halodule; the presence of Thalassia rhizomes in .sediment
cores confirms that an unvegetated, or Halodule-dominatsd
patch, has developed after a die-off event.
Die-Off Associated Changes In Thalassia Community
Structure
Short-shoot and rhisome apical densities, leaf lengths, and
leaf area indices generally decrease along transects from
visually healthy beds to die-off patches. The transition zone
between die-off patches and apparently healthy beds is
characteristically abrupt, reflecting the rapidity at which
die-off occurs. High leaf numbers for isolated survivor
short-shoots result from rapid leaf initiation rates and are
probably a response to loss of the leaf canopy and an increase
in light availability. Overall reductions in values of several
shoot-specific parameters between 1989 and 1990 coincided
with a shift in demographics to a younger population. This
shift reflects recolonization of die-off patches rather than an
increase of stress and illustrates the importance of
demographic information for correct interpretation of changes
in seagrass structural and dynamic characteristics.
Potential Causative Agents In Die-Off
The contagious distribution patterns, density dependence,
spread rates, and leaf necroses associated with die-off of
Thalassia suggest the involvement of a pathogenic organism.
The marine slime mold Labyrinthula, related to the pathogenic
species involved in the catastrophic wasting disease of the
temperate eelgrass, Zostera marina, is the most common
eucaryotic organism isolated from affected Thalassia during
die-off episodes. Seedling bioassays of toxicity and
pathogenicity of chemical and biological system elements
indicated no acute toxicity associated with water, sediment,
or plant material from the die-off sites. All seedlings
inoculated with Labyrinthula developed necrotic lesions.
Labyrinthula infection also reduces photosynthetic capacity
and increases respiration rates.
Measurements of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) activities,
an index of cumulative, chronic hypoxic stress, suggested that
hypoxic stress of below-ground Thalassia tissue may play a
role in the die-off phenomenon. Because carbonate sediments
lack significant amounts of iron to precipitate sulf ide produced
by bacterial sulfate reduction, root and rhizome hypoxia may
be exacerbated by high concentrations of dissolved sulfide in
sediment porewater. Sulfide concentrations approach levels
which may cause cytotoxic effects in October, a period of
peak intensity of die-off. Etiological studies of a die-off
episode showed that elevated porewater sulfide and rhizome
ethanol concentrations preceded the appearance of necrotic
Labyrinthula lesions on Thalassia leaf blades by two months.
Measurements of oxygen transport rates through healthy and
diseased shoots indicated that diseased shortshoots exhibit
reduced conductance of oxygen, thereby making Thalassia
more susceptible to hypoxia and sulfide toxicity - which may
be the proximal cause of death.
Seagrass Recovery Potential
Isolated survivor Thalassia short-shoots have the ability
to initiate new lateral growth, but the rate of shoot initiation
is quite low. Dead branch rhizomes and short-shoots are
frequently observed, suggesting cyclic recurrence of the
die-off. The occurrence of flowering short-shoots and
seedlings is very patchy, and no flowering short-shoots or
seedlings have been observed in Rankin Lake, the basin most
affected by the die-off. These observations suggest that
recovery of Thalassia will be, primarily, by vegetative growth
of surviving plants.
Photoquad and map patch data also indicate a general trend
toward vegetative recolonization by Thalassia at the individual
patch level. However, basin level observations of frequency
14
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of occurrence, abundance, and density reveal that recovery
of Thalassia in Rankin Lake is being outstripped by rapid
recolonization of the pioneering species, Halodule wrightii.
System Responses To Seagrass Die-Off
Water column nutrient characteristics have been
significantly affected by the mortality and decomposition of
seagrass in Florida Bay. Inorganic nutrient levels are highest
in basins experiencing die-off and in areas now devoid of
living seagrass. Total organic carbon and total organic
nitrogen concentrations are 6-fold higher in Central Florida
Bay compared to the adjacent Gulf of Mexico, probably the
result of decomposition of seagrass necromass originating
from the die-off. Thus, seagrass die-off is adding both
inorganiq and organic nutrients to the normally oligotrophic
waters of Florida Bay. This eutrophication may be a driving
force behind the damaging algal blooms that are presently
occurring in various portions of the Bay.
Conclusions
Anthropogenic nutrients and xenobiotics are unlikely
contributors to the die-off phenomenon in Florida Bay. The
recurring episodes of rapid, but patchy, mortality are distinct
from the gradual loss of seagrass due to eutrophication reported
in other estuaries. A growing body of evidence suggests that
environmental stresses weaken Thalassia, making it
vulnerable to disease (Figure 1). Reduced freshwater flow
into Florida Bay due to drought and diversion of upland runoff
has caused significant increases in salinity changing the Bay
from an estuary to a marine lagoon. This change, coupled
with the lack of major storm perturbations in the recent past,
has allowed Thalassia to develop very high densities and
biomass in basins adjacent to the Everglades shoreline. Water
temperatures and salinities were elevated during the recent
drought period, with salinities exceeding 65% in Rankin Lake
in the spring of 1990. The shallow water and restricted
circulation of Florida Bay, coupled with the lack of buffering
by freshwater sheetflow from the Everglades, and exacerbated
by increased seagrass biomass and necromass, probably
amplified the effects of these recent temperature and salinity
fluctuations. These events may have acted synergistically to
precipitate and then propagate the widespread and recurring
outbreaks of seagrass die-off that are still ongoing.
References
Carlson, P. R., M. J. Durako, T. R. Barber, L. A. Yarbro, Y.
deLama, and B. Hedin, Catastrophic mortality of the seagrass
Thalassia testudinum in Florida Bay, Fla. Dept. Environ.
Reg., Offc. Coastal Zone Mgmt., Annual Completion Report
Grant CM-257, 52 pp. 1990.
Robblee, M.B., T.R. Barber, RR. Carlson, MJ. Durako, J.W.
Fourqurean, L.K. Muehlstein, D. Porter, R.T. Zieman, and
J.C. Zieman, Mass mortality of the tropical seagrass Thalassia
testudinum in Florida Bay (USA), Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 71:
297-299. 1991.
Ecological Condition Of Benthic Habitats In
Gulf Of Mexico Estuaries
J.K. Summers and J.M. Macauley
U.S. EPA, Environmental Research
Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida
T. Wade
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
W. Benson
University of Mississippi
Oxford, Mississippi
In 1991, the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
Program (EMAP) initiated a long-term monitoring program
to assess the ecological status and long-term trends of the
estuaries of the Louisianian Province. The Louisianian
Province consists of the biogeographic region from Anclote
Anchorage, FL around the Gulf Coast to, and including, the
Rio Grande, TX.
This evaluation includes all tidally-influenced water bodies
greater than 2 km2 in surface area. These include: 27 large
estuaries (Pensacola Bay, FL; Mobile Bay, AL; Mississippi
Sound, MS; Lake Borgne, LA; Laguna Madre, TX), large
tidal rivers (Mississippi River), and 154 small estuaries/ tidal
rivers (Watsons Bayou, FL; Pelican Bay, AL; Bayou Casotte,
MS; Belle River, LA; and Cedar Bayou, TX).
EMAP-E focuses on determining the status of response
indicators to ascertain a measure of the ecological condition
of the estuarine resources of the province. EMAP-E is unique
among monitoring programs in that it is nationwide in scope,
focuses on ecological status and trends, and is based on
unbiased sampling. These characteristics allow the data to
be used to represent large biogeographic regions so that
statements concerning the status of the estuarine resources as
a whole can be made with a known level of confidence.
EMAP-E is also active in other biogeographic regions of the
15
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country using the same sampling design, indicator collection
methods, and assessment approaches.
EM AP-E focuses its sampling efforts in late summer (July
and August) in the Louisianian Province. A total of 202 sites
were selected to be sampled during a 7-week interval in 1991.
Sampling included the collection of habitat and water quality
information (water temperature, water column dissolved
oxygen concentrations, salinity, water clarity), the deployment
of a continuous monitoring apparatus for water quality
(collection of bottom dissolved oxygen concentration every
15 minutes for 24 hours), the collection of sediments (for
benthie evaluation, sediment toxicity testing, sediment
characterization in terms of organic content, grain size, and
contaminant concentrations), fish trawling (characterization
offish communities, examination of pathology incidence, and
tissue contaminant concentrations), and benthie dredging
(characterize large bivalve communities and marine debris).
Approximately 125 contaminants were evaluated at 202 sites
distributed throughout the Gulf of Mexico estuaries. These
contaminants included alkanes and isoprenoids, PAHs, PCBs,
pesticides, heavy metals, and butyltins. The criteria used to
determine whether a contaminant exceeded an acceptable level
are the Long and Morgan criteria that reflect concentrations
resulting in ecological effects in at least 10% of the organisms
or populations exposed to that concentration. No Long and
Morgan criteria exist for alkanes or tributyltins, for which we
used 5,000 ppb and 1 ppb for criteria, respectively.
About 11 % of the sediments in Gulf estuaries contained
greater than 5,000 ppb total alkanes and isoprenoids. The
primary contributors to these exceedances were pristane and
phytanc and located west of the Mississippi Delta in Louisiana
and Texas. Only 4% of the sediments showed total PAH
concentrations greater than the Long and Morgan criteria
(4,000 ppb). The primary contributors to this PAH exceedance
were fluorene, naphthalene, and phenanthrene. Individually,
these excesses ranged from 1-9% of estuarine sediments
Gulfvvide. No individual PCS congeners or total PCB's
exceeded 25 ppb or 400 ppb, respectively, in Gulf estuarine
sediments.
Tributyltin was measurable in about 13% of the estuarine
sediment of the Gulf of Mexico and exceeded 5 ppb for 4%
of those sediments. Tributyltin exceeding 5 ppb was found,
primarily, in small estuaries, while concentrations between
1-5 ppb were mainly found in the Mississippi River and some
large estuaries in Texas. About 62% of the estuarine sediments
in Texas had measurable tributyltin, while 26% of Florida
estuarine sediments contained this contaminant. Less than 6%
of the sediments in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama
contained tributyltin.
Of the pesticides examined, only total DDT, chlordane,
dieldrin, endrin, and hexaclorobenzene exceeded the 10%
Long and Morgan criteria in Gulf estuarine sediments. These
exceedances ranged from 1 % for DDT and hexachlorobenzene
to 23 % of sediments for dieldrin. None of these contaminants
was observed in edible fish tissues in concentrations exceeding
the FDA action limits. While no criterion for Mirex is
available from Long and Morgan, 0-0.11 ppb were observed
in sediments. However, Mirex concentrations in the edible
flesh of shrimp, Atlantic croaker, and catfish edible tissue did
not exceed FDA action limits. No toxaphene was observed
in Gulf estuarine sediments, but, 7% of croaker and 3% of
catfish examined contained toxaphene levels in edible tissue
exceeding the FDA action limit of 500 ppb.
Of the heavy metals determined from Gulf sediments,
arsenic (1%), chromium (10%), lead (%), mercury (22%),
nickel (16%), and zinc (6%) exceeded Long and Morgan
criteria (criteria do not exist for aluminum, selenium, and tin).
Concentrations of arsenic, mercury, zinc, and chromium
occurred in edible tissues of shrimp, croaker, and catfish in
exceedance of FDA action limits for mercury and World
Health Organization guidelines (mercury is the only metal
for which FDA has set action limits). Arsenic levels exceeded
2 ppm in 4% of shrimp, 3% of croaker, and 8% of catfish
examined. Mercury exceeded 1 ppm and zinc exceeded 60
ppm in 1% and 2% of catfish, respectively. Chromium
exceeded 1 ppm in 4% of shrimp. These tissue residue
exceedances were observed primarily along the Mississippi
River corridor and in northwestern Florida and Alabama
estuaries, although local exceedances were observed
throughout the Gulf Coast.
Coastwatch Change Analysis Program (C-Cap): An Overview
Ford A. Cross, Donald W. Field
and Randolph L. Ferguson
National Marine Fisheries Service
Beaufort, North Carolina
/"Xuanti
yj'adjac
activities
quantifying changes in the areal extent of wetlands and
'adjacent uplands is critical in linking land-based human
; to the productivity of the coastal ocean. Changes
due to human population growth and its impacts on fishery
habitat, adjacent uplands, water quality, and living marine
resources occurs faster and more pervasively than scientists
could monitor in the past.
There has not been sufficient long-term monitoring of
changes in fisheries habitat and land cover for the coastal
region of the nation. In response, NOAA's Coastal Ocean
Program instituted the CoastWatch: Change Analysis Program
(C-CAP) using satellites and aerial photography to monitor
the areal extent, functional status, and changes in location
and acreage of wetlands and uplands.
16
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This information is needed to determine the biological
consequences of changes in quality and quantity of estuarine
and coastal habitats. It is essential for models and statistical
means of relating habitat change to changes in fisheries
production.
The C-Cap Change Detection Protocol
A major focus for C-CAP has been the development of a
standard protocol for mapping submerged aquatic vegetation
(SAV), emergent coastal wetlands, and adjacent uplands. It
includes sources and procedures for data acquisition,
processing, and presentation and is based primarily on
information generated at regional workshops in South
Carolina, Florida, Rhode Island, Washington, and Michigan.
Numerous meetings concerning statistical validation and
classifying wetlands and uplands also played a role in
developing the protocol. Nationwide acceptance of it will
allow comparable data to be obtained by the national program
regardless of which agency funds or conducts the effort. It
will be reviewed by the 200 or so Federal, state, and academic
officials who attended the workshops prior to its completion
in Fiscal Year 1993.
Protocol Testing
In order to test and refine the procedures outlined in the
protocol, C-CAP initiated two "prototype" studies. The
Chesapeake Bay was used as a prototype for change detection
of emergent wetlands and uplands using satellite imagery,
and coastal North Carolina was used as a prototype for
mapping and change detection of SAV using aerial
photography.
Chesapeake Bay Prototype
The Chesapeake Bay habitat change analysis was
conducted by comparing Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM)
imagery for 1984 and 1988-89. Conducted by personnel at
the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, the study area
encompassed four TM scenes covering over 30,000 square
miles. Field verification and statistical validation consisted
of initial field tests with USFWS's National Wetlands
Inventory, preliminary field tests by 40 specialists for the
Salisbury, Maryland quadrangle, an error estimation workshop
to design a statistical validation approach for habitat change
analysis, and statistical validation of the prototype based on
the workshop and field work performed by the Chesapeake
Research Consortium.
North Carolina Prototype
The National Marine Fisheries Service Beaufort
Laboratory, with joint funding from C-CAP and the
Environmental Protection Agency Albemarle-Pamlico
National Estuary Program, is near'mg completion of its effort
to map SAV in eastern North Carolina from Bogue Inlet to
the Virginia border. Aerial photography for the project has
been conducted by the Photogrammetry branch of NOAA's
National Ocean Service, Coastal and Geodetic Services. The
final photographs to complete the coverage were taken in fall
1991 and spring 1992. Photointerpretation, habitat signature
verification, and compilation will be completed by December
1992. Three SAV habitat charts have been published as a
result of these efforts.
Protocol Development Research
Based on the two prototype studies and the Salisbury field
test, C-CAP has funded research to refine the protocol.
Presently, C-CAP protocol development research is focused
on error estimation in change detection data bases, the effects
of tides on detecting emergent wetlands with TM imagery,
and improving techniques for detecting forested wetlands.
Research on C-CAP protocol development is being conducted
at the University of South Carolina, North Carolina State
University, universities of Rhode Island and Connecticut,
University of Virginia, University of Maine, University of
New Hampshire, and the NMFS Beaufort Laboratory.
Regional Change Analysis
As both prototype projects wind down, C-CAP will focus
more effort on regional programs to expand the geographic
coverage of the change detection data base. To accomplish
this task, cooperative efforts have begun in the following
areas: Galveston Bay, Texas; St. Croix River estuary and
Passamaquoddy Bay in Maine and Canada; Columbia River
and Willapa Bay in Oregon and Washington; Russell Fiord
and Hubbard Glacier near Yakutat, Alaska; South Florida
where Hurricane Andrew struck; SAV in the northern Gulf
of Mexico (Tampa, FL to Brownsville, TX); SAV in Florida
Bay; and SAV in coastal Massachusetts.
Wetland Functional Health Assessment Using Remote
Sensing
In addition to change detection analysis, C-CAP is also
working to determine the feasibility of using remote sensing
to measure the health of emergent wetlands. As a preliminary
effort, scientists at the University of Delaware completed a
literature search and review to summarize the feasibility of
remotely sensing biomass, productivity, and the functional
health of coastal marshes. Also, in 1992, a pilot study in
Louisiana marshes was conducted jointly by scientists from
the University of Delaware and Louisiana State University
(the latter funded by EMAP) to relate spectral characteristics
of marsh to aboveground biomass density.
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Wetland Value Assessment: A Methodology For Prioritizing
Projects Under The Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection, And
Restoration Act
Loyd C. Mitchell
Ecological Services, Layfayette Field Office
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Layfayette, Louisiana
Richard E. Boe
Ne\v Orleans District
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
New Orleans, Louisiana
nphc Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection, and Restoration
JL Act of 1990 provides funding for constructing long term
restoration, protection, or enhancement projects for
Louisiana's coastal wetlands and their dependent fish and
wildlife resources.
Section 303 of the Act requires that projects proposed for
funding be prioritized according to cost effectiveness after
evaluating the effects of each project on wetland quality. The
Wetland Value Assessment (WVA) methodology was
developed to quantify the projected changes in fish and wildlife
habitat quality and quantity, and the results are combined with
economic data to measure cost effectiveness.
The WVA consists of four community-level habitat models
developed to estimate the suitability of Louisiana's fresh,
brackish, and saline marshes and cypress-tupelo swamps as
habitat. WVA development was guided by three constraints.
First, community habitat models were deemed more
appropriate than species-based models to address the different
responsibilities and goals of the six resource agencies making
up the Coastal Wetlands Act implementation Task Force.
Second, the Task Force's emphasis on restoring and protecting
vegetated wetlands required that the WVA be sensitive to
changes in those areas. Finally, because ranking the proposals
is required quickly, the WVA was designed to use existing or
easily obtainable data.
The WVA is a community-level modification of the
species-based Habitat Evaluation Procedures developed by
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service 1980). The WVA operates under the assumptions
that optimal habitat can be characterized and that existing or
predicted conditions can be compared to that optimum to
provide an index of habitat quality, which is estimated through
the WVA habitat models.
Each WVA model consists of variables considered
important in characterizing fish and wildlife habitat, a
Suitability Index graph for each variable, and a mathematical
formula that combines the Suitability Indices for all variables
into a single value for wetland habitat quality (the Habitat
Suitability Index).
Habitat variables for each wetland type were selected
according to three criteria: importance in characterizing
habitat quality, case in estimating and predicting based on
existing data, and sensitivity to changes caused by typical
wetland projects proposed under the Coastal Wetlands Act.
Variables were selected based on general knowledge of
parameters thought to be important in characterizing fish and
wildlife habitat in coastal marsh or swamp systems, and by
reviewing variables used in species-based Habitat Suitability
Index (HSI) models published by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service.
Suitability Index (SI) graphs representing how habitat
quality changes relative to changes in variable values were
constructed for each variable in each wetland type. Thus, a
numeric value, ranging from 0.1 to an optimum of 1.0,
describes the habitat quality of a wetland area relative to each
variable.
The final step in WVA model development was to construct
a formula combining all SI variables into a single HSI for the
overall habitat quality of the area evaluated. The HSI uniquely
defines the aggregation of Si's for each wetland type depending
on how the formula is constructed. Each variable's importance
relative to others in the HSI formula can be increased by
assigning an exponent and raising it to the appropriate degree.
A larger exponent will increase the influence of that variable's
SI.
Because the Task'Force has determined that the Act's
primary focus is vegetated wetlands, variables addressing
aquatic vegetation and emergent marsh were weighted to the
second and third power, respectively, to increase their role in
determining the HSI's. An exception is the formula for the
saline marsh model, where the aquatic vegetation variable is
not weighted due to its scarcity in Louisiana tidal saline
marshes. Finally, the aquatic organism access variable was
weighted to the second power in the brackish and saline marsh
models to reflect their importance in providing estuarine
habitat.
All HSI formulas developed for the WVA use a geometric
mean to aggregate Si's within a wetland type. This is used
when the relationship between variables demonstrates some
compensation (i.e., a low SI for one variable will be partially
compensated by a high SI of another); however, optimum
conditions exist only if all Si's are equal to 1.0. A geometric
mean is computed by multiplying the Si's together and raising
the resulting product by the reciprocal of the sum of all SI
18
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exponents. Like Si's, the HSI ranges from 0.1 to 1.0.
The benefits of a proposed project are estimated by
predicting how habitat conditions and model variables will
change with and without the proposed project. HSI's are
established for baseline (pre-project) and for future with- and
without-project conditions in selected target years. Those
HSI's are then multiplied by the acreage of wetland type
known or expected in the target years to arrive at Habitat
Units. Habitat Units represent a mathematical product of
quality (HSI) and quantity (acres) at a point in time. The
"benefit" of a project can be quantified by comparing HU's
of the with- and without-project scenarios. The difference
between the two represents the net project benefit in terms
of habitat quantity and quality.
To be compatible with normal Federal accounting
procedures, the HU's resulting from the with- and
without-project conditions are annualized, averaged over the
project life, and compared to determine the net gain in Average
Annual Habitat Units (AAHU's) attributable to the project.
Net gain in AAHU's is then divided into averaged annualized
cost data to arrive at a cost per AAHU and ranked in order
of cost effectiveness (cost per AAHU).
References
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Habitat evaluation procedures
(HEP). Div. Ecol. Serv. ESM 102, U. S. Fish and Wildl.
Serv., 141pp. (1980).
Table 1. Wetland Value Assessment Habitat Model Variables.
Description Models
Percent of wetland area covered by emergent vegetation
Percent of open water area dominated by aquatic vegetation
Marsh edge and interspersion
Water duration in relation to marsh surface
Percent of open water area 1.5 feet deep,
in relation to marsh surface
Mean high salinity during the growing season
(March through November)
Average annual salinity
Aquatic organism access
Water regime
Water flow/exchange
Average high salinity
all marsh models
all marsh models
all marsh models
all marsh models
all marsh models
fresh marsh
brackish and saline marsh
all marsh models
cypress swamp
cypress swamp
cypress swamp
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D. Nutrient Enrichment
Introduction And Status Of The Impacts And Effects Of Nutrient
Enrichment In The Gulf Of Mexico
Dugan S. Sabins
Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality
State Co-Chair, Nutrient Enrichment Subcommittee, Gulf of Mexico Program
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
One of the key areas first addressed by the Gulf of Mexico
Program Nutrient Enrichment Subcommittee was the
Status of the impacts and effects of nutrient enrichment in the
Gulf of Mexico and determining identifiable trends. This
information, coupled with knowledge of the sources and
quantities of nutrients entering the Gulf, was determined to
be critical to understanding the extent of nutrient enrichment
and finding a solution.
The basic biological responses to nutrient enrichment are
increases in phytoplankton production, biomass, abundance,
and, in some cases, changes in species composition. Less
obvious, indirect effects include changes in secondary
production, altered energy flow pathways, altered habitats,
oxygen depiction (hypoxia), and, in the extreme, fish kills.
A review of the available data and information on impacts
and effects of nutrient enrichment showed four primary areas
of concern in the Gulf and adjacent waters. They are:
zones of hypoxia that affect fisheries and their
supporting food webs,
noxious algal blooms that have toxic effects on
marine life and human consumers,
phytoplankton shading of submerged aquatic
vegetation, and
alteration of the trophic structure of phytoplankton
communities.
Although there are other areas of concern, these four
exemplify the growing interest in the eutrophication in the
Gulf of Mexico.
Hypoxia refers to conditions of low dissolved oxygen. In
the Gulf of Mexico, hypoxic conditions have been defined
as dissolved oxygen levels below 4 mg/L (Whitledge, 1985),
although some have defined it as below 2 mg/L (Rabalais,
1987, 1988). In the northern Gulf of Mexico, hypoxia has
been associated with nutrient enrichment from the Mississippi
River. The input of nitrogen and phosphorus to the River
and the Gulf Coast, which leads to hypoxic conditions, has
increased greatly over the last three decades.
On the Continental Shelf of the northern Gulf of Mexico,
hypoxia develops as early as April and continues as late as
October. Dissolved oxygen concentrations below 2 mg/L
have occurred over a large area of the Continental Shelf from
the Mississippi River Delta to the Upper Texas Coast.
Hypoxia has also been observed in Wolf and Perdido bays,
Mobile Bay, Mississippi Sound, and Lake Pontchartrain. On
occasions, total oxygen depletion, or anoxia, has been
observed. Severe hypoxia has caused mass mortalities of
benthic organisms and fish in several areas of the Gulf (Boesch
and Rabalais, 1991).
Some species of algae have toxic effects on marine life
and may contaminate shellfish. Excessive algal blooms are
sometimes called red tides and plague the entire Gulf.
Typically, the toxin released by red tide algae is a neurotoxin
causing serious health effects in humans when ingested
through contaminated shellfish. While there is no consensus
on the relationship of red tides to nutrient enrichment, there
is some indication that red tide algal population explosions
are associated with nutrient imbalances.
Algal population blooms associated with excessive nutrient
loading has been shown to reducfc the level of sunlight
penetrating the water column. This shading reduces the
photosynthetic activity of microorganisms and submerged
aquatic vegetation. In some cases, the turbidity caused by
nutrient enrichment eliminated large areas of seagrass beds.
An example can be found in Hillsborough Bay in Florida
(Johansson and Lewis, 1991). The loss of seagrass beds
impacts other plant and marine life that are dependent on
them and, if unconnected, causes severe declines in desirable
species of fish and shellfish.
Although there are many factors that influence changes in
phytoplankton and consumer fish populations, the supply,
relative availability, and timing of nutrient inputs is one of
the most important. Any significant shifts in the
phytoplankton community structure may upset the balance of
important aquatic food chains. There is evidence that changes
in phytoplankton communities are occurring globally in
response to nutrient enrichment, and, in some cases, this has
led to an increased abundance and seasonal dominance of
noxious, harmful, or toxic species. It has been shown that
the sinking and decomposition of nutrient enriched algal
populations causes increases in hypoxia and anoxia in both
the water column and along the sea floor.
One area where phytoplankton species shifts have occurred
is in the northern Gulf influenced by the Mississippi River
where the silicate to nitrate ratio has decreased from 4:1 to
approximately 1:1 over the last three decades (Turner and
Rabalais, 1991). The reductions in silicate concentrations are
20
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believed to be the primary factor in the shift from diatoms to
flagellate and cyanobacterial phytoplankton communities.
The shift from diatoms to other phytoplankton species effects
the structure of the invertebrate and fish communities,
impacting the entire food chain.
Assessing the status of the effects of nutrient enrichment
is a challenging problem. The Nutrient Enrichment
Subcommittee has reviewed large amounts of published and
unpublished literature on Gulf environments, but the data
bases are diverse and often insufficient in resolution or
duration to indicate trends. In many cases, information is
nonexistent or inaccessible. Several useable data sets,
however, have been retrieved, examined, and summarized in
a subcommittee sponsored report (Rabalais, 1992). The
subcommittee is continuing to collect and review large
amounts of unanalyzed data worthy of more detailed analysis
in an effort to further address nutrient enrichment problems
in the Gulf of Mexico and prepare an Action Agenda to
determine and implement solutions.
References
Boesch, D. and N. Rabalais, "Effects of Hypoxia on Continental
Shelf Benthos: Comparisons Between the New York Bight
and the Northern Gulf of Mexico," Pages 27-34 in: R.V. Tyson
and T.H. Pearsons (eds.), Modern and Ancient Continental
Shelf Anoxia. Geological Society Special Publication N. 58,
The Geological Society, London, 470p. 1991.
Johansson, J. and R, Lewis, "Recent Improvements of Water
Quality and Biological Indicators in Hillsborough Bay, A
Highly Impacted Subdivision of Tampa Bay, Florida, U.S.A.",
A manuscript submitted to the International Conference on
Marine Coastal Eutrophication, March 21-24, 1990, Bologna,
Italy, 16 p. 1991.
Rabalais, N., "Oxygen Depleted Waters on the Louisiana
Continental Shelf," Pages 314-320 in: Proceedings of the
Seventh Annual Information Transfer Meeting. Minerals
Management Service. November 4-6. 1986. OCS Study MMS
87-0058, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management
Service, New Orleans, Louisiana. 1987.
Rabalais, N., "Hypoxia on the Continental Shelf of the
Northwestern Gulf of Mexico," Pages 81-87 in: T. Mitchell
(ed.), Physical Oceanography of the Louisiana-Texas
Continental Shelf. Proceedings of a Symposium. May 24-26,
1988, Galveston, Texas, OCS Study MMS 88-0065, U.S.
Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, New
Orleans, La, 198 p. 1988.
Rabalais, N., "An Updated Summary of Status and Trends in
Indicators of Nutrient Enrichment in the Gulf of Mexico",
Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium, Prepared for Gulf
of Mexico Program, Technical Steering Committee, Nutrient
Enrichment Subcommittee, Publication No. EPA/800-R-92-004,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Gulf
of Mexico Program, Stennis Space Center, Mississippi. 421 p.
1992.
Turner, R. and N. Rabalais, "Changes in the Mississippi River
water quality this century: Implications for coastal food webs."
BioScience 41 (3): 140-147. 1991.
Whitledge, T, "Nationwide review of oxygen depletion and
eutrophication in estuarine and coastal waters," Executive
Summary, Report to U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean
Service, Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessment,
Ocean Assessments Division. Brookhaven National
Laboratory, Oceanographic Sciences Division, Upton,
New York. 28p. 1985.
Policy Considerations For Recycling Wastewater Through
Hydrologically Altered Wetlands
Andree M. Breaux
John W. Day
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
The two major environmental problems that, currently,
most affect Louisiana are a high rate of coastal wetland
loss and high levels of surface water pollution. The application
of secondarily treated wastewater to wetlands is proposed as
a means of dealing with these problems. The benefits of
wetland wastewater treatment include improved surface water
quality, increased accretion rates to balance subsidence,
improved plant productivity, and decreased capital outlays
for conventional treatment systems.
Wetland treatment systems can be designed and operated
to restore deteriorating wetlands to previous levels of
productivity. Hydrologically altered wetlands in the
Louisiana coastal zone have been selected as appropriate for
receiving municipal, and some types of industrial, effluent.
While the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has
determined that wetland wastewater treatment is effective in
treating municipal effluent, it has discouraged the use of
natural wetlands for this purpose. As a result, hydrologically
altered wetlands in the Louisiana coastal zone are being
neglected and, ultimately, lost while scarce funds are being
applied to the construction of artificial wetlands to treat
municipal effluent. Effluent discharge to existing wetlands
can be incorporated into a comprehensive management plan,
similar in scope and objective to river diversion projects,
designed to increase sediment and nutrient input into subsiding
wetlands in the Louisiana coastal zone.
Criteria were developed for selecting both appropriate
industries as dischargers to wetlands and appropriate receiving
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wetlands. Industries were chosen based on the biodegradable
nature of their effluent, on their current discharge into polluted
surface water bodies, and on their proximity to wetlands.
Wetlands were selected based on an absence of priority uses,
on the degree of isolation and hydrologic alteration, on a size
large enough to accommodate conservative hydraulic loading
rates and provide back up receiving wetlands, on the rate of
subsidence to ensure permanent burial of nutrients, and on
the presence of spoil banks, or similar features, that could
provide gradients suitable for nutrient removal.
To illustrate the potential for secondarily treated effluent
to enhance degraded wetlands, three case studies are presented,
including one food processor and two municipalities. The
food processor produces potato ch ips and has been discharging
its secondarily treated effluent to a partially impounded
forested wetland for the past seven years. The impoundment
appears to have led to the deterioration of one segment of the
forest, although not adversely affecting an adjacent segment.
Results of field studies indicate that nutrient levels in the
effluent decreased with passage through the wetland and that
the effluent has filled in the open water area and encouraged
the replacement of formcr-but-dying woody vegetation with
young woody vegetation.
The second case study involves the City of Thibodaux,
Louisiana, where acypress-tupelo swamp of low productivity
receives secondarily treated effluent from a population of
about 17,000 people. A baseline study was carried out for
two years, measuring primary components of the ecosystem
before effluent application began in March of 1992.
Preliminary data indicates mean reductions in nitrate of 98%,
and 44% in phosphate, from the effluent pipe to the wetland
discharge point approximately 1,600 meters away.
The third wetland wastewater treatment study is being
conducted at a site receiving municipal effluent from the town
of Breaux Bridge, Louisiana, population 6,000, for almost 40
years. No visible stress is evident from the vegetation in the
immediate vicinity of the current discharge pipe. A two-year
study will analyze the productivity of the vegetation and
compare it to other cypress-tupelo swamps in the southeastern
United States. Parameters to be measured include stem
growth, litterfall, herbaceous biomass, water and soil nutrient
levels, benthos, and nekton.
Wetland treatment systems, such as the three described
above, can be established in hydrologically altered areas as
experimental systems designed to imitate the critical functions
of previously healthy wetlands nourished routinely by
sediments and nutrients. In attempting to replace wetlands,
whether they were lost due to human alterations of the
environment or naturally-occurring subsidence, the addition
of sediments and nutrients to wetlands through effluent
application constitutes a form of wetland restoration. The
authors' basic hypothesis is that wetlands improve water
quality and that added sediments and nutrients will benefit
subsiding wetlands. Maintaining coastal wetlands will
prevent the loss, not only of water purification functions, but
also of flood control benefits, wildlife habitat and diversity,
direct economic use, education, and research.
Nutrient Enhanced Coastal Ocean Productivity (NECOP) -
Mississippi-Atchafalaya River Outflow
Don Atwood
Director, Ocean Chemistry Division
NOAA Atlantic Oceanographlc & Meteorological Laboratory
Miami, Florida
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is
responsible for stewardship of the nation's coastal
resources, including living marine resources. The NOAA
Coastal Ocean Program (NCOP) provides a focal point
through which the Agency, together with other organizations,
makes significant strides toward accomplishing this
stewardship.
The Mississippi River basin drains approximately 40% of
the U.S., and runoff from the basin integrates the short term
climatic and anthropogenic signals from that area. They are
released into the northern Gulf of Mexico through two point
sources the main stem Mississippi River accounts for 2/3
of the outflow and the Atchafalaya for 1/3 of the outflow as
it drains into Atchafalaya Bay.
During the past 60 years, population growth and
agricultural development within the Mississippi drainage
basin has resulted in significant increases in nutrient loadings
to the River and the Gulf of Mexico. A major concern is that
micronutrient loadings, which stimulate production of fresh
water and marine productivity, have changed drastically in the
River and its outflow region. In other words, nitrate loads in
the River have increased three fold, and phosphorous loads
have also increased. At the same time that phosphorous has
increased, silicate, a nutrient essential for development of
diatom skeletons, has decreased.
The Gulf of Mexico has extensive commercial and
recreational fisheries which have an annual value in excess of
$1.5 billion, and these resources may be threatened by the
increases in nutrient levels.
During the past decade, a consistent seasonal hypoxia has
developed along the entire Inner Louisiana Shelf. During these
events, bottom water oxygen levels decline below 2 mg/1, and
it extends over thousands of square miles during the summer
months each year. The oxygen levels are below values needed
for healthy fisheries stocks, which is causing an especially
high rate of mortality on benthic species, such as shrimp.
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NOAA'S Contribution
As part of NCOP, a program was established to determine
the impacts of nutrient enrichment on the Northern Gulf of
Mexico coastal ecosystem. Emphasis was placed on the huge
nutrient signal emanating from the Mississippi-Atchafalaya
River outflow to determine the impact of anthropogenically
caused changes in this signal, such as increases in nitrate and
phosphorous and declines in silica. The project started in
1990 as a NOAA cooperative effort with state academic
institutions; NOAA labs in Florida, Mississippi and Michigan
were involved, as were universities in Texas, Louisiana,
Mississippi and Florida. Federal vessels were used, as well
as contract vessels from Texas A&M University, University
of Texas, and the Louisiana University Marine Consortium.
Research and monitoring were focused on learning the
impacts of changed nutrient loading, especially regarding
development of annual hypoxia in shelf bottom waters. The
researchers sought to determine whether nutrient control
strategies are necessary and what is the likely impact of them
if they are implemented.
NOAA Findings
Results of the NCOP program in the Northern Gulf of
Mexico show that the Mississippi Atchafalaya River outflow
nitrogen and phosphorous nutrient load drives extremely high
production of marine algae (phytoplankton) along the
Louisiana Shelf. This high population of algae is rapidly
grazed by zooplankton which excrete the resulting organic
mass as fecal pellets that rapidly sink to bottom waters along
the shelf. In summer, when the water column is stratified by
both surface warming and the flow of low salinity river water
on that surface, renewal of oxygen in these bottom waters is
"cut off', allowing decay of the sinking organic matter to
deplete oxygen to values so low organisms can not survive.
At the same time, declines in silica concentrations in the
outflow have resulted in a shift of diatom population to species
with lighter silica skeletons. These lighter diatoms sink at
lower rates and have a longer residence time in the water
column which exacerbates oxygen depletion. Records
revealed in sediment cores collected in the chronically hypoxic
area show that these conditions probably started at the same
time the Mississippi drainage basin was developed and the
onset of huge nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizer applications,
which started in the 1930's.
A model has been developed integrating the knowledge
gained in NCOP into a useful research, monitoring, and
management tool. The model is especially useful to define
the present status of the system and reveal the impacts of
nutrient control strategies that might be effected. The model
will continue to improve as additional research is conducted
and incorporated, and as it is used in monitoring the northern
Gulf of Mexico to assess its status and its optimal management
and use.
Aquaculture And Constructed Wetlands
Gale Martin
Mississippi Soil and Water Conservation Commission
Jackson, Mississippi
In 1990, a demonstration. project was initiated by the
Mississippi Soil and Water Conservation Commission
(MSWCC) to evaluate catfish culture systems operated by
Mr. Truman Roberts of Purvis, Mississippi. The overall
objective of the project was to determine if the innovative
approach used by Mr. Roberts could alleviate problems related
to water quality and quantity normally encountered with
traditional catfish farming protocols in the region. Mr.
Robert's aquaculture operation utilizes several systems to
recirculate water through constructed wetlands prior to return
into the fish production ponds. The only water resource used
in these culture systems is surface water.'
The MSWCC's general approach was to systematically
monitor various water quality indicators, including total
ammonia nitrogen, total solids, total phosphorous, chemical
oxygen demand, total nitrite nitrogen, PH, dissolved oxygen,
and productivity indicators, including chlorophyll and
phaephytin. Such monitoring was conducted in production
ponds and constructed over 1 '/2 years in two culture systems.
Pond 1 became operational in March 1989, and pond 2 became
operational in August 1990.
Pondl
With respect to water quality, results obtained demonstrate
that the wetlands associated with pond 1 play a significant
role in reducing ammonia nitrogen, total solids, BOD, and
total phosphate. With few exceptions, concentrations of these
parameters in water entering the constructed wetland are
substantially greater than concentrations of treated effluent
water returning to the production pond. Also, it appears that
retention of organic carbon, phosphorous, and organic nitrogen
within the wetland occurs. This is demonstrated by values
for these parameters in sediments of the production pond
often being less than concentrations within the wetland filter
sediments.
However, results of our analyses to date suggest that
substantial accumulation of these materials is not taking place
in wetland sediments; concentration changes are suggestive
of seasonal cycles, but values obtained in June of 1992 are
similar to those obtained in August of 1990.
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Pond 2
Although pond 2 was initially filled and stocked with catfish
in August 1990, the constructed wetlands with which it is
associated were not planted until June 1991. Even as recently
as May 1992, wetland plants had not yet become well
established within the filter cells; we note very little impact
of these wetlands on water chemistry. However, we anticipate
that as the plants become established, an improvement of water
quality will result, as noted for pond 1.
Fish production data provided by the culturist documented
that approximately 34,000 and 31,400 pounds of fish were
produced during the two successive culture periods during
which we studied pond 1. The fish harvest from pond 2 yielded
28,670 pounds.
Results
We noted few water quality or culture problems during the
Study. During the first year, monitoring of phytoplankton
populations in pond 1 showed that phytoplankton were
abundant throughout most of the study period. However,
phytoplankton concentrations remained low when compared
to non-recirculating ponds in the region. Continual
rccirculation through a constructed wetland filter was probably
advantageous in controlling algal blooms in the production
pond. Cyanobacteria were dominant in the plankton samples
taken during the summer months, but they were not numerous
enough to cause persistent oxygen depletion.
One incidence of oxygen depletion accompanied ammonia
and nitrite buildup, and some fish mortality resulted from a
sudden die off of an algal bloom in pond 1 in the Autumn of
1990. There were no recorded incidences of off-flavor in
harvested fish during the study period; however, a few fish
with brown blood disease were collected during the period
when nitrite concentration in the pond was elevated. In
February of 1992, total alkalinity in pond 1 was O.Omg/1
CaCOS equivalent. This problem was alleviated by the
addition of 800 pounds of agricultural limestone to the
production pond.
Results and conclusions from this demonstration project
are encouraging with regard to the overall objectives of Mr.
Roberts, the Mississippi Soil and Water Conservation
Commission, the Mississippi Department of Environmental
Quality, and other agencies. Use of constructed wetlands is
a good management tool for catfish production in areas where
groundwater is limited in availability or expensive to pump.
Moreover, the ability to grow large quantities of fish in
recirculating surface water also will provide for the
conservation of water resources.
The MSWCC is hopeful that support for additional
evaluation of these culture systems will become available in
the future and feels that it is essential to continue to assess
filter performance as the systems continue to age and determine
the long term consequences of nutrient accumulation in the
wetland filter sediments.
Sources And Quantitites Of Nutrients And What Might Be Done
About The Problems
L. Pete Heard
Soil Conservation Service
Federal Co-chair, Nutrient Enrichment Subcommittee, Gulf of Mexico Program
Jackson, Mississippi
There are many actions that will be necessary to reduce
nutrient loadings in the Gulf of Mexico and eliminate the
problems that have been identified.
Overall, the Gulf is probably not over-enriched with
nutrients, but some parts of it are. For instance, several of
the bays and estuaries are overloaded, including Tampa Bay,
Mobile Bay, the Laguna Madre, Lake Pontchartrain, and the
Louisiana Inner Continental Shelf.
Of the total sources of nutrients entering the Gulf from
the United States, about 3/4 of the nitrogen and phosphorus
come in via the Mississippi and Atchafalaya River systems.
Phosphorus is the nutrient of most concern as it contributes
to cutrophication in fresh water. Nitrogen deposition is the
greatest concern in marine ecosystems. In estuaries, water
bodies where fresh and salt water meet and mix, die situation
is more complex. In some places and at some times,
phosphorus is the most limiting nutrient, although nitrogen
is at other places and times.
A substantial part of total nutrient loadings enter the
Mississippi before the river converges with the Ohio at the
southern tip of Illinois. It is apparent that this part of the
load cannot be controlled without action upstream.
While the nutrient loading in the Mississippi appears to
have a substantial impact on the Louisiana Inner Continental
Shelf and some impact on Lake Ponchartrain, the
overabundance of nutrients in the Mississippi does not affect
the entire Gulf. Tampa and Mobile bays, the Laguna Madre,
and other areas are not particularly affected by the nutrients
in the Mississippi River. Some corrective measures can be
implemented which will benefit those areas without
consideration of the Mississippi River drainage area.
Fertilizers, sewerage treatment plants, malfunctioning
septic tanks, industry, concentrated animal feeding operations,
and atmospheric deposition all combine to deliver the loads
the Gulf receives, and some corrective action may be necessary
in each of the major source areas before the problem is solved.
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The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
permitting process has been in place for about 20 years. While
this system has produced dramatic reductions in some classes
of water pollutants and moved society closer to the goal of
fishable-swimmable water established in the Clean Water Act,
total nitrogen and phosphorus are not among the pollutants
which have been completely controlled by this system.
Therefore, permit limits on these nutrients may be needed.
Section 208 of the Clean Water Act and Section 319 of its
amendments have gone along way toward reducing non-point
source pollution, but more effort is needed.
When many people hear about nutrient over-enrichment,
their response is "That's what farmers are doing to us."
Although agriculture contributes to nutrient overloading, it is
not wholly, perhaps not even predominantly, a problem caused
by agriculture.
There are many urban and suburban contributions. For
example, do most people know how much phosphorus is used
in their households? Which suburbanites have never applied
more fertilizer to their lawn than needed? After all, it doesn't
cost much when you are just working on a small yard.
How many septic systems exist that always work correctly?
How many pet owners clean up all of their pet's waste in the
yard? The typical city has about one dog per four people,
and most pet waste is not treated in the local sewage treatment
plant. What golf course or city park is there which might
get a little too much fertilizer once in a while?
A substantial amount of nitrogen is deposited in rainfall.
Some comes from lightning, part of it originates in automobile
engines, and part of it comes from electrical power plants.
The point is that everyone contributes to the problem, and
the solution will require that each of us contribute to that as
E. Coastal And Shoreline Erosion
Coastal And Shoreline Erosion Action Agenda For
The Gulf Of Mexico
Sally Davenport
Texas General Land Office
Austin, Texas
Erosion for the most part is a natural process that has
affected the Gulf Coast for thousands of years. Erosion,
however, has only threatened humans in the short time that
towns and cities have grown along the Gulf of Mexico's
beaches and bays. Erosion has become a critical problem as
it threatens buildings, roads, and other infrastructure as well
as beaches, marshes and other habitat as natural barriers that
have bufferred devastating storms are lost.
Erosion is a problem in all Gulf Coast states, and it is a
serious problem in certain areas. For instance, parts of
Louisiana and Texas retreat 65 feet per year. Erosion rates
of 15 feet per year can be found in many other areas of the
Gulf coast. Primary causes of coastal erosion are almost
infinite coastal storms, reduced or diverted river sediment
loads, and relative sea level rise all pose threats. Another
cause of erosion is dredging navigational channels and canals,
especially when this material is removed completely from a
system and placed in upland disposal sites or other places
where it can't return to the sediment load. Some coastal
protection projects are human developments, such as seawalls,
jetties, and breakwaters. Now, for the first time, erosion must
be viewed as a Gulf-wide problem to provide environmentally
sound remediation.
The Coastal and Shoreline Erosion Subcommittee of the
Gulf of Mexico Program is composed of Federal, State, and
local agencies and citizens involved or concerned with coastal
erosion. The goal of the subcommittee is to evaluate erosion
Gulf-wide and determine which past approaches to shoreline
stabilization have been successful and which should be
avoided. The subcommittee is also developing an Action
Agenda that will identify Gulf Coast shoreline trend changes
and promote public education, all with the goal of reducing
erosion of the Gulf Coast.
The scope of the Coastal and Shoreline Erosion Action
Agenda hopes to address mainland shorelines, barrier islands,
major bays and estuaries, major waterways, and peninsulas.
A map showing the Gulf shoreline erosion problems will be
published soon, but the bays have not yet been mapped.
Perhaps the most valuable result of the subcommittee's work
has been the start of a dialogue between the various agencies
involved with coastal management.
In some places, people need to be educated that erosion is
occurring rapidly, forcing some structures to have to be moved.
A provision of the Flood Insurance Act provides 40% of a
home's value to homeowners that move homes in imminent
danger of collapse. The same act allows that person, who
has flood insurance, to get 110% of the home's value if it is
demolished and removed. These are examples of alternatives
to limit the loss of life and property due to nature's rapid
destructive powers.
A number of demonstration projects are being conducted
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to limit erosion. Recent trends have moved from hard
structures, such as groins and seawalls, to a softer method of
beach replenishment and protection, such as planting
vegetation as a barrier to allow dunes and low tidal areas to
revcgctatc themselves. In areas along the Texas Coast where
the Soil Conservation Service and Sea Grant program have
planted vegetation, sediment has quickly collected,
demonstrating the success of these traps.
Vegetation trapping has limitations, especially its high cost.
Its success for massive beach replenishment projects is
unknown, and it won't work in areas with high bluffs and
heavy wave action because the beaches will not be able to
restore themselves.
The State of Texas is way behind Florida, which has been
dealing with its erosion problems for many years and builds
beaches regularly. In many cases, Texas towns are realizing
what they have and what they are losing. Galveston, which
built a 10-mile long seawall in the early 1900's, has awakened
to the fact that it has lost its beach. There is no beach in front
of its seawall, and the citizens approved a bond package for
a project with the Corps of Engineers to replenish the beach
in between the groins that stick out into the Gulf of Mexico
using sand removed from channel maintenance areas.
A Shore and Beach Preservation Committee was organized
for the State of Texas, but it does not have close to the number
of members as does the Florida Shore and Beach Preservation
Association. It is, however, a good beginning.
Texas is drafting a coastal management program - albeit
15 years behind other states, but it is being done. There is
significant interest for, not only solutions to erosion, but,
solutions to the loss of habitat and other coastal problems.
Coast Of Florida Erosion And Storm Effects Study
Thomas D. Smith
Coastal Engineer, Jacksonville District
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Jacksonville, Florida
nphe Coast of Florida Erosion and Storm Effects Study
JL (COFS) is a cooperative effort of the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers (USAGE) and the State of Florida. The study
is jointly funded and managed through the USAGE
Jacksonville District and the Florida Department of Natural
Resources Division of Beaches and Shores. The COFS was
authorized by Congress in 1985, and it is the first large scale
study of the Florida Coast since the 1974 National Shoreline
Study.
Study Interests
National interest in the study was generated by
approximately 90 projects comprised of coastal and
navigation works. Operation and maintenance costs for
existing projects in the study area is over $32 million per
year. The 15 constructed shore protection projects were
implemented at a cost of over $100 million.
The State of Florida's involvement in the study is critical
due to its responsibility for up to 75% of the non-Federal
share of shore protect ion projects. The State is also responsible
for permitting construction activities as a part of its Coastal
Zone Management Plan. The study will assist the State in
determining what lands are the most beneficial for its land
acquisition program.
Study Authorization
Congressional authorization supported the
recommendations of the 1985 reconnaissance report which
recommended reviewing all of the USAGE Chief of Engineers'
previously published shore protection and inlet-related
navigation reports. This authority enabled coupling coastal
and navigation projects which often functioned independently.
In addition, the reconnaissance report called for developing
a comprehensive body of knowledge pertinent to coastal
erosion and storm effects.
Post-storm monitoring is employed by the COFS to
quantify the effects of major storms on the Florida shoreline.
These efforts include aerial photography, site inspections,
beach profile surveys, wave hindcasting, and storm surge
investigations. Hurricane Andrew, which struck South Florida
in August 1992, was the first storm to be monitored under
this authority. The post-storm monitoring of Hurricane
Andrew resulted in the collection of a wealth of data which
will be used to calibrate coastal numerical models and serve
as input to coastal zone management.
COFS Regions
The COFS divides the Florida shoreline into five study
regions. From the Florida panhandle through the northeast
coast, these regions are defined as the following:
a. Region I - Florida/Alabama border to the St. Marks
River.
b. Region II - St. Marks River through Monroe County.
c. Region III - Dade County through Palm Beach County.
d. Region IV - Martin County through Brevard County.
e. Region V - Volusia County through Nassau County.
Studies are ongoing in Region III (which includes Dade,
Broward, and Palm Beach Counties), and the draft feasibility
report is scheduled for completion in 1994. Region IV
includes Martin, St. Lucie, Indian River, and Brevard Counties.
Region IV studies are being initiated in 1993 and will involve
deployment of directional wave gages, among other work
items.
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Study Geographic Information System
A Geographic Information System (GIS) is being
implemented to facilitate both the review of previous reports
and the development of a comprehensive body of knowledge
pertinent to Florida's coastal zone. The system willbe comprised
of one centralized data base with developing and updating data
base elements accomplished by the State and the USAGE.
Quality assurance and control standards will be met before
elements are accepted in the corporate data base. Access of the
information by the public and government agencies will be
controlled at the central repository through electronic
networking. The major components of the COFS GIS are the
coastal engineering, geotechnical, environmental, and
economics data and analyses required to meet the goals of the
study.
Wave Data Collection and Analysis
Wave and water level data is crucial in the development of
viable planning alternatives for shore protection projects. The
COFS has funded wave data collection at two locations in Region
III to verify hindcast model results. Wave gages, such as the
ones at Palm Beach and Hallandale (Region III), will be deployed
to determine the effects of Cape Canaveral, Canaveral Harbor,
and other areas of complex bathymetry on the incident wave
climate in Region IV.
Conclusion
It is with a spirit of cooperation and coordination that the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the State of Florida join
together in the Coast of Florida Erosion and Storm Effects Study.
Findings and recommendations of the study promise to result
in enhanced stewardship of a national treasure that is enjoyed
by millions of people each year the Florida Coast.
Determining Shoreline Change:
Methods And Examples From The Gulf Of Mexico
S. Jeffress Williams
U.S. Geological Survey, Res ton, VA
Shea Penland
Louisiana Geological Survey, Baton Rouge, LA
Randolph McBride
Louisiana Geological Survey, Baton Rouge, LA
Asbury Sallenger, Jr.
U.S. Geological Survey, St. Petersburg, FL
Shoreline changes around the Gulf of Mexico are the results
of a combination of complex natural processes, such as
sea-level rise, subsidence, sand starvation, and storms, and the
effects of human activities over the past two centuries. These
detrimental changes to the coast are creating widespread
environmental problems with few easy and no permanent
solutions. Dealing in a cost-effective manner with present day
coastal erosion problems and planning for future conditions will
require a combination of solutions (construction setbacks, beach
nourishment, hard structures) that should be based on long-term
societal needs as well as sound scientific knowledge of coastal
processes and the recent geologic evolution of coastal landforms
undergoing change.
Working closely with other Federal agencies, academic
researchers, and geoscience agencies in each of the five states
bordering the Gulf of Mexico, the U.S. Geological Survey is
conducting field investigations through the National Coastal
Geology Program. The main objectives are to quantify and
carefully document coastal and wetland changes that have taken
place in the recent geologic past, up through historic times, and
to enhance the scientific understanding of coastal sedimentary
processes.
The USGS coastal investigations underway throughout the
five Gulf states are in varying stages of completion, but
provisional assessments of the entire region show that erosion
in many places is critical and a serious hazard to people and
development along the shoreline. In fact, results from the
completed Louisiana Barrier Island Erosion Study document that
much of the Mississippi River deltaic plain of south-central
Louisiana is undergoing rates of land loss higher than any other
region of the United States and, possibly, the world.
Computer-generated maps have been prepared depicting barrier
island changes over the past century and the implications of
continued erosion. Such information on the Isles Dernieres and
other barrier islands is included in a large format color atlas, the
Louisiana Barrier Island Erosion Study Atlas of Shoreline
Changes in Louisiana from 1853 to 1989. published as
Miscellaneous Investigations Series I-2150-Aby the USGS. A
second atlas showing historic seafloor changes is in the final
stages of preparation, and it and a series of papers to be published
in a special issue of the Journal of Coastal Research constitute
the final products from the 5-year Louisiana Barrier Island
Erosion Study. _
Dealing with coastal erosion and land loss is a long term
process that is likely to become even more urgent in the near
future with population increases and continued development of
the coastal zone, potentially exacerbated by accelerated sea-level
rise due to natural and anthropogenic climate changes. The
various solutions available should be decided on long term
(decades) coastal management plans based on sound scientific
results and judgements.
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E Public Health
Risks Of Exposure To Environmental Contaminants:
FDA Versus EPA
Clyde Houseknecht
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
The Food and Drug Administration and the Environmental
Protection Agency often have widely differing estimates
of human health risks due to the consumption of chemically
contaminated fish and shellfish. Many of these differences
can be explained by an examination of the regulatory
authorities which govern each agency. EPA is responsible for
administering the Clean Water Act (CWA) and the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). FDA's
legislative mandate is governed by the Food, Drug and
Cosmetic Act (FDCA). FIFRA and FDCA require cost-benefit
analyses of proposed regulations while the CWA does not.
This presentation described differences in estimates of
exposure due to the application of the three acts and will
illustrate these differences with examples.
Case Study - Human Health Risk From Exposure To
Mercury In Fish
Tom Atkeson
Florida Department of Environmental Regulation
Tallahassee, Florida
The toxicity of mercury is a subject that societies have
dealt with for hundreds of years, yet it reoccurs often.
Recently, mercury has become a concern in Florida and the
Gulf States.
While investigating concerns about fish contamination near
a hazardous waste site, mercury became a factor. Rather than
finding many contaminants at that site, only mercury was
found in somewhat-elevated concentrations. This led to a
multi-year monitoring project and the discovery that Florida,
like many other areas, has extensive fish contamination by
mercury.
The problem affects about one million acres in the
Everglades. There, largemouth bass and other species of fish
contain so much mercury that the State Health Officer
recommended none be consumed. Another million acres in
other parts of the State are under limited health advisories.
Mercury levels are lower than the Everglades, but officials
recommend that the fish be eaten no more tihan once a week,
or once a month by children or women of child bearing age.
The advisory was unprecedented as there never had been a
warning by public health officials against consuming fish or
game.
Some news stories on mercury exposure imply that many
of the risks are not known. While this may be true in the
case of low-dose, chronic exposure to synthetic chemicals,
the extrapolation of animal studies to humans, or the problems
that these present for assessing cancer risk, humans have been
exposed to mercury for thousands of years. Many people
have been poisoned on the job, through medicines, and through
food.
What then is mercury? Mercury is a metal, a naturally
occurring element found in soils, air, and water. It is liquid
at room temperature and conducts electricity. Mercury occurs
in the earth's crust as cinnabar -- mercury sulfide, or HgS.
One of the unique characteristics of mercury, being a liquid,
is that it is appreciably volatile, contributing to its toxicity in
the occupational setting. This property and its effects were
known and carefully described hundreds of years ago.
Mercuric nitrate was used for many years to make a fine grade
of felt. Workers who were exposed to the mercury for many
years became known for their odd speech, bizarre personalities
and staggering, ataxic gait. However, despite its long history
as a toxin, mercury has been used in a myriad of medicinal
preparations and treatments, from Ancient Greece to the
present.
The Japanese discovered the hazards of environmental
mercury poisoning from an acetaldehyde and industrial
intermediates plant on Minamata Bay. This plant used
mercury in several ways, and organic and inorganic forms of
mercury were discharged into Minamata Bay in large
quantities. All the cats in the fishing villages around the bay
died, and people became ill shortly thereafter. It took 15 years
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to link the discharge of wastes into Minamata Bay and the
illness of the villagers.
The answer illustrates two phenomena that were not
understood prior to that time. One is biotransformation, by,
which inorganic forms of mercury released into the
environment are changed into methylmercury, the most toxic
form, through natural processes. The second phenomenon is
biomagnification, whereby small concentrations of
methylmercury in surface waters are concentrated 5-6 times
in fish. Thus, small amounts of low-toxicity forms of mercury
discharged into a water body can be biotransformed into
methylmercury and biomagnified to levels in fish that can be
toxic to humans consuming them.
Perhaps the most extensive poisoning occurred in Iraq in
the early 1970's. Seed grain treated with methylmercury
fungicide was shipped to Iraq, where it was milled into flour
and baked into bread. Prior to processing it, the grain was
washed to remove pink stain with which it was colored to
signal that it was treated and poisonous. The stain came off,
but the methylmercury did not. About 500 people died in
local hospitals, and over 5,000 were treated for non-lethal
doses. It is estimated that those figures are only about 10%
of the total victims because, due to the remoteness of the area,
many victims were not treated.
There are many other examples of methylmercury
poisoning from diversions of seed grain to human use,
representing environmental tragedies of incredible
proportions. However, they provide a basis for
understanding the health risks of mercury.
At approximately 200 ng/ml of mercury in blood, the
clinical effects of methylmercury poisoning, such as visual
processing deficits and peripheral neuropathies, show up in
a small percentage of adults exposed. There is concern about
subclinical effects below 200 ng/ml, particularly in children,
but these have not been demonstrated conclusively at the
present time. At a few hundred ng/ml, the clinical syndrome
of Minamata disease, stocking and glove parasthesias,
coordination problems, sensory deficits (visual and hearing,
primarily), and cognitive effects, become apparent in a
substantial fraction of those exposed. The LD50 in humans,
or the lethal dose for 50% of humans exposed and a datum
that is not usually available, is about 3,000 ng/ml.
Risk assessment for mercury is straightforward because
its toxicity in various forms is reasonably well understood,
as are the dose-response relationships to exposure. Much of
the work has been done already by expert committees of three
standard-setting bodies. Their findings are published as the
Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), or the Risk Reference Dose.
The ADI for mercury reflects the amount one can ingest before
exceeding a threshold after which health effects are exhibited.
The values are:
Organization
World Health Organization (WHO)2'3
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
U.S.P.H.S. Agency for Toxic Substances
and Disease Registry (ATSDR)5
ADI
(g/kg/day)
0.43
0.32
0.02
If the WHO ADI of 0.43 g/kg/day is used, and if the
plausible assumptions of a 70 kg adult eating 32 g of fish per
day (equivalent to one 8 oz. meal/week) is used, the risk
equation reduces to a maximum contaminant level of about 1
part per million (ppm), approximately the FDA guideline for
fish, shellfish and other aquatic organisms.
MCL = ADI x Body Weight - 0.43 g/kg/d x 70 kg ~ 1 ppm
Avg. Daily Consumptions! g/d
The following items from Eisler's monograph on mercury
hazards to fish and wildlife, although somewhat modified,
provide an excellent summary of the history and toxicology
of mercury:
1. Mercury has no known biological function --
it is not an essential nutrient and there is no
countervailing benefit to exposure,
2. Low-toxicity forms are transformed to
high-toxicity forms by natural processes,
3. Methylmercury is highly biomagnified -
bioconcentration factors are approximately 106,
4. Mercury is a mutagen and teratogen causing
fetotoxic, cytochemical, and histopathological
effects,
5. High body burdens in fish and wildlife can be
found in remote areas high levels can be
found in lakes far from its sources implicating
long-distance atmospheric transport and a
cumulative effect, and
6. The difference between natural background levels
and harmful levels is small predacious
fish typically accumulate the highest levels of
mercury in their flesh.
Mercury is a global problem, and a myriad of emission
types contribute to atmospheric loadings which are transported
widely and result in increased deposition in watersheds and
water bodies worldwide. Health advisories due to high levels
of mercury exist in 26 states, Canada, Scandinavia, and western
Europe.
A great deal of testing has been done on fish in Florida to
determine the extent of mercury contamination. Among the
species popular with anglers and commercial fishermen, no
problem has been found. About 20 years ago, there was
concern about swordfish and tuna having consistently elevated
levels of mercury, and a similar concern was raised recently
about shark. Extensive testing revealed that about 70% of the
shark marketed in Florida exceeds the FDA guideline of 1.0
ppm, but no action has been taken yet.
References
D'ltri, P.A., and P.M. D'ltri, Mercury Contamination: A Human
Tragedy. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 311 pp. 1977.
Who, Evaluation of certain food additives and the contaminants
mercury, lead and cadmium. Sixteenth report of the Joint
FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, Tech. Rep.
Sen No. 505. 1972.
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Who, Environmental Health Criteria 101: Methylmercurv. World
Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. 1990.
EPA, Mercury Heallh_EfFects_Update: Health Issue Assessment.
Final Report. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Health & Environmental Assessment, EPA-600/8084-019F.
1984.
ATSDR, Toxicological profile for mercury. Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry, ATSDR/TP-89/16. 169 pp.
1989.
Eisler, R., Mercury Hazards to Fish. Wildlife and Invertebrates:
A Synoptic Review. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological
Report 85(1.10), Contaminant Hazard Reviews Report No. 10.
90 pp. 1987.
Applied Risk Analysis A Case Study Of The Calcasieu
Estuary In Louisiana
Dianne Dugas
Director, Section of Environmental Epidemiology
Department of Health and Hospitals, Office of Public Health
New Orleans, Louisiana
William Hartley
Assistant Professor, Tulane Medical Center
School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine
New Orleans, Louisiana
The degradation of water quality has resulted in increasing
reports of chemically contaminated fish and seafood and
has raised concerns regarding the potential for adverse health
effects from consumption of recreationally-caught fish. The
specific health risk assessment approaches used by the Office
of Public Health are demonstrated based on contamination of
fish in the Bayou d'Inde area of the Calcasieu Estuary.
Traces of chemical contamination with hexachlorobenzene
(HCB) and hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) and
polychlorinatcd-biphenyls (PCB) were detected over a 2-year
period between 1989 and 1991 by the Office of Public Health
and the Department of Environmental Quality.
The mean concentrations for PCB, HCB, and HCBD were
20, 110, and 180 micrograms per kilogram (ppb) in the edible
portions of blue catfish, seatrout, and other species.
Using a basic risk assessment approach, a determination
was made regarding the potential for these chemicals to
individually result in systemic (non-cancer) toxicity and
evaluate the collective cancer risk. To make the determination,
the toxicological data base for PCB, HCB, and HCBD were
evaluated to determine the safe doses (mg/kg/day) for systemic
effects and the cancer potency factors.
A search of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
databases resulted in the following risk assessment
information:
PCB
HCB
HCBD
V
Table
Absorption
Factor
0.9
0.5
1.0
Of Risk Assessment Values
Reference Dose
(svstemic)
none
.0008 mg/kg/day
.002 mg/kg/day
Cancer Potency
Factor
7.7 (mg/kg/day)'1
1.7 (mg/kg/day)"'
0.08 (mg/kg/day)"1
Using the above values, the exposure doses of PCB, HCB, and HCBD were calculated based on the following factors:
Dose = (concentration in fish)(consumption')(absorption factor)
(body weight)
or
Dose - Cmg/kgl (kg/day) CAP) = mg/kg/day
(70 kg)
30
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The exposure doses for PCB, HCB, and HCBD were based on one meal/week (mw), two meals/month (mm), and one
meal/month (mm). It was assumed that the average meal size was 8 ounces, or approximately 225 grams. The results were
as follows:
c
Exposure
Assessment Results
"\
Dose (mg/kg/day)
PCB
HCB
HCBD
V
1 mm
f.03 kg/dayl
7.7 x 10"6
2.4 x 10"5
7.7 x 10"5
2 mm
r.015 kg/dayl
3.9 x 10'6
1.2x 10"5
3.8 x 10'5
1 mm
[.0075 kg/davl
1.9x 10'6
5.9 x 10"6
1.9x 10'5
J
It is clear that none of the above exposure doses exceed the safe doses for HCB and HCBD for non-cancer (systemic)
effects. In the case of PCB's, acute effects would not be expected based on existing toxicity information.
The next step was to estimate the total cancer risks based upon potency factors developed from animal data extrapolated to
humans using a body weight to surface area correction factor. The lifetime (70 year) cancer risks for the contaminants were
calculated as follows:
Cancer risk (R) = Dose (mg/kg/day) x Potency Factor (mg/kg/day)"1
The resulting lifetime risks were as follows:
C
PCB
HCB
HCBD
Total Risk
V
1 mw
5.9 x 10'5
4.0 x 10~5
6.2 x 10"6
1.1 x 10"4
Cancer Risk
2 mm
3.0 x 10"5
2.0 x 10'5
3.1 x 10'6
5.3 x 10"5
1 mm
1.5 x 10'5
l.Ox 10"5
1.5 x 10'6
2.6 x 10'5
Following EPA guidelines, it is appropriate to add total
cancer risk. The resulting total cancer risk for one meal per
week slightly exceeds the acceptable risk (1 x 10"4) for a
Louisiana fish consumption advisory. The consumption of
two meals per month yields a risk of 5.3 x 10"5, which is
below the acceptable risk level. Hence, an advisory
recommending that consumption offish and seafood be limited
to 2 meals per month was issued for Bayou d'lnde on February
3, 1992.
References
Integrated Risk Information System, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. (1992).
Ratard, R., Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals, Office
of Public Health, "Fish Consumption Advisories," Baton
Rouge, Louisiana. (1992).
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G. Living Aquatic Resources
Living Aquatic Resources As Indicators Of Ecosystem Health
Bradford E. Brown
NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service,
Southeast Fisheries Science Center, Miami, Florida
Herman E. Kumpf
NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast
Fisheries Science Center, Panama City, Florida
Karen A. Steidinger
Florida Department of Natural Resources,
Sf. Petersburg, Florida
LMES, LAR, GOOS, LMR, long term monitoring, marine
ecosystems health indicators. How are these acronyms
and phrases meaningful to people concerned about the Gulf
of Mexico?
LMES, or Large Marine Ecosystems, are regions with
unique bathymetry, hydrography, and productivity and strong
interaction of the subsystem to its living resources compared
to organisms outside mat subsystem.
LARS, or Living Aquatic Resources, include the full range
of microorganism, plant, and animal kingdoms. They respond
to their environment, indicating ecosystem health, and are
self perpetuating.
GOOS, or Global Oceans Observing Systems, is the U.N.
International Oceanographic Commission's (IOC) term for
monitoring the world's oceans and their role in global climate
change and the production of renewable natural resources.
IOCARIBE is a regional component of IOC for the Gulf of
Mexico and the Caribbean.
The Gulf is more than the shallow estuarine edge, even
though the cstaurine-coastal waters coupling is crucial to its
fecundity. It is a large, open ocean with a substantial
continental shelf driven by two primary currents. One of
these geotropic flows is the Loop Current which moves north
in the Gulf of Mexico after entering between the Yucatan
Peninsula and Cuba. Eastern circulation becomes part of the
Gulf stream. Anticyclonic eddies spin off and move over the
shelf. A westerly component forms major eddies along the
Texas and Mexican coasts. Also, meteorological and seasonal
conditions affect currents and impact the number and
dispersion of organisms. The other system is the Mississippi
River, which drains 2/3 of the U.S. and fans out in the Gulf.
Acritical part of stewardship is understanding the interface
of ecosystems, including sea surface-air, sediment-benthic
organisms, and wetlands-estuaries.The importance and
severity of local ecological changes and human impacts on
coastal areas is well recognized. The ultimate test is the
impact on the entire ecosystem and LARS. Identification of
indicator species is critical in determining the extent and
cause of disturbances.
What is needed to identify and track such impacts is large
area, long term monitoring, which varies in popularity over
time due to resources and proponents, and its value is the
subsequent analysis of trends. Successful monitoring requires
significant government involvement, development, and
commitment.
Federal and state efforts are addressing monitoring needs
to assess ecosystem health. Several laboratories of NOAA's
Southeast Fisheries Science Center are conducting such
research. The Pascagoula Laboratory leads in monitoring
shrimp and bottom finfish populations with faunal surveys.
Additional surveys are being developed to monitor reef
resources and smaller pelagic species not easily sampled by
bottom trawling and regular ichthyoplankton surveys are
conducted for this early, sensitive life stage. Other labs are
conducting complimentary assessments.
The Gulf of Mexico scientific community is developing a
greater understanding of the physical oceanography and
processes through federal research initiatives and major
academic efforts. The SEAMAP Program, a cooperative effort
in resource assessment between the Gulf States and the
National Marine Fisheries Service, provides and coordinates
monitoring studies. The Gulf States Marine Fisheries
Commission is coordinating this work.
Several Mexican programs, federal and academic,
contribute to the basic knowledge of the Gulf of Mexico. The
Institute Nacional de Pesca surveys turtles, fish and shellfish,
and ichthyoplankton. Such monitoring must be better
integrated at the full Gulf of Mexico level to the degree
considered necessary by the GOOS.
EPOMEX, a joint program between the Universidad
Autonoma de Campeche and the Secretaria de Education
Publica, was formed to coordinate studies of the ecology,
fisheries.and oceanography of the Gulf. Programs are
underway in ecology and management, coastal ecosystems,
pollution and environmental impact, geology, demersol
tropical fisheries resources, and oceanographic processes.
Continued monitoring and data analysis is being conducted
to develop indices to characterize ecosystem health. Such
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proposed indices should include quantitative measures
descriptive of diversity, stability, economic yields,
productivity, and resilience of the whole ecosystem. A single
index has been proposed for origin, organization, and
resilience to indicate ecosystem health.
System health indicators such as chronic disease, animal
deformities, bio-accumulation of toxicants, weakening of the
genetic pool, reduced adaptability, trophic web, carrying
capacity, and increased incidence of harmful algal blooms
degrade subsystems and lead to reduced abundance and
diversity of LARS.
Fish catch and effort is a valuable long term indicator
when described with detailed biological characteristics, such
as age, size, spawning potential, and the resultant expansions
into diversity, stability, productivity, and ecosystem resilience.
The trends and prognosis for many fisheries is bad.
There is a continual need to inform and educate the public
on the status and trends of LARS in this ecosystem. The
researcher and resource manager must convey and convince
user groups that conservation is the key to stewardship. All
groups utilizing and benefiting from a shared ecosystem are
its health provider.
The Gulf of Mexico Program permits the integration of
the concepts developed through State, Federal, and
international programs. Tying these to the increased level of
physical oceanographic studies will enhance monitoring
regimes in the Gulf of Mexico, which is critical to developing
ecosystem health indices, and an extensive program will enable
scientists to determine human impact on the environment and
build a data base. This will enable managers to develop the
appropriate strategies to adjust to environmental change,
control harvest to proper levels on an ecosystem basis, and
reduce the negative impact of human perturbation and
population.
Status Of Aquatic Resources In The Southwestern Gulf Of Mexico
A. Yanez-Arancibia, F. Arreguin-Sanchez, D. Flores-Hernandez,
J. Ramos-Miranda, J. A. Sanchez, and P. Sanchez-Gil
Progmma de Ecologia, Pesquerias y Oceanografia del Golfo de Mexico
Universidad de Campeche
Campeche, Mexico
The high fish production in the southern Gulf of Mexico
is supported mainly by multispecies fisheries shrimp
and other crustaceans, several fin fishes, and mollusks, such
as octopus and conch. The fisheries are typically demersal
and most are small scale near-shore operations. They are
characterized by a limited technology and infrastructure, and
since the fisheries are close to shore, they are more vulnerable
to the processes of industrial development and environmental
impact which frequently coexist in the coastal area.
Critical Fish Resources
The catch of demersal fish for the Gulf of Mexico is
approximately 240,000 tons per year, which is close to 40%
of the total national production for the period between 1984
to 1988, excluding the pelagic species. An important feature
of these fish resources is their intense use of the coastal area
for feeding, growing, reproduction, and refuge. More than
300 species are known in the southern Gulf, and more than
75% of them use the coastal lagoons or estuaries at least one
time in their life cycle.
Despite the high number of species, only a small group of
less than 20 constitute the total commercial catch. We have
called these Critical Fish Resources, and they contribute 80%
of the volume and almost 100% of the commercial value.
Variability of the Catch
The diversity of habitats and species and the complexity
of the biological and technological interdependencies
condition the characteristics of the fisheries and their variation.
Fishing is carried out on a multispecies resource, using a wide
variety of gear and equipment, causing variations of effort
and species composition of the catch. Natural changes in
abundance related to coastal and ecological processes must
also be considered, such as river drainage, rainy, and the north
wind season.
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Ecosystem Working Group Of Living Aquatic Resources (LARS)
Bernard Yokel
Florida Audubon Society
Casselberry, Florida
This Working Group developed interrelated strategies with
appropriate objectives and action elements to accomplish
its defined goal conserving and restoring species diversity
and the health of living aquatic resources.
Monitoring, TVends, and Assessment
To develop abaseline of Gulf resources, it will be necessary
to characterize the current status of living aquatic resources
in the Gulf of Mexico. This will be achieved by determining
the ecosystem boundaries and following a Nested Ecosystems
model. Acquisition and evaluation of existing and historic
LARS data sets and monitoring records will be required.
The assessment will be further enhanced by the
coordination or development of monitoring programs that
determine the diversity and relative abundance of selected
populations.
Research
Based on the criteria developed to assess health of the
ecosystem, research priorities will be established. Basic and
applied research could entail filling in data gaps in temporal
and spatial distribution, diversity, reproductive success,
survival, and associated parameters.
Planning Standards
Initially, efforts will be made to reach consensus on the
standards/elements to be used to define and measure
ecosystem health. LARS will coordinate the workshops in
which such determinations will be made. Standards must
also be established to evaluate "allowable" variations and
thresholds of biotic conditions as one measure of diversity.
Definition and quantification of standards will be critical to
establish ecosystem health baselines and measure the effects
of management practices.
Legislation and Enforcement
The Working Group recognized the importance of state
and federal legislative support to obtain regulatory assistance,
interagency compliance and cooperation, enforcement of
local, state and federal regulations, and funding needs to
accomplish the objectives. Legislative and enforcement
objectives will be made known and advanced through public
workshops involving political decision makers and
enforcement officials that demonstrate the needs of the Gulf
of Mexico Program.
Public Outreach and Education
To augment and support the overall program, the Work
Group recognized the need to develop an informed public
and business constituency which actively supports the
maintenance of a healthy Gulf ecosystem. The outreach
program would be directed at and involve students, citizen
activists, government representatives, and business interests.
The program will demonstrate the importance of a naturally
functioning ecosystem to public health, recreation, fish and
wildlife populations, employment, and the economy.
The objectives would be achieved through printed
materials, public meetings (workshops) and visual material,
such as films, video programs, and posters.
Mass Mortalities Of Aquatic Resources
William Fisher
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Research Laboratory
Gulf Breeze, Florida
Mortalities of Living Aquatic Resources (LARS) occur
continuously in the environment, but only occasionally
is physical evidence of these events found. Most often,
diseased or stressed animals are weakened and fall to
prcdation, and the dead animals are removed by scavengers.
Mortalities are most often noted when a large number of
deaths occurs in a short period of time (mass mortality), or
because the species is unique (organisms with a high public
profile, such as endangered or threatened species). These
unusual, or notable, mortality events reflect a loss of organisms
and signal public health dangers and/or a degrading
environment.
The primary purpose for addressing mortality events in
the Gulf of Mexico is to obtain and document evidence of
probable causes. It is critical that the cause of mortalities be
determined so that steps can be taken to reduce the risk of
reoccurrence, to reduce the impact on the population and
aquatic community, and/or to mobilize public health
precautions. Therefore, the means must be developed to
respond to selected mortality events with an appropriate
scientific inquiry.
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The Mortality Events Section of the LARS Subcommittee
is developing guidelines to help the Gulf of Mexico Program
proceed with these goals in the following areas:
Mortality Reporting Networks
support and expand reporting networks for marine
mammals and sea turtles,
initiate reporting for other species (fish,
crustaceans, bivalves, corals, sea urchins, shore
birds, water fowl, seagrass), and
encourage citizen participation through education
and broad distribution of reporting procedures.
Scientific Response Teams
establish and coordinate a network of federal, state,
and private scientists to respond to selected
mortality events and assign a probable cause,
establish minimum standards for field and
laboratory procedures and implement training for
scientific response personnel, and
streamline current authorization procedures for
obtaining, transporting and disposing of protected
species by qualified scientific personnel.
Research Support
initiate and support research to validate findings of
scientific responses to mortalities,
support development of new diagnostic methods,
especially in the area of forensic pathology, for
determining cause-effect relationships, and
support research that investigates the role of multiple
and cumulative stresses in mortality events.
Mortality Event Documentation and Archival
prepare and update a comprehensive historical
inventory of unusual mortality events in the Gulf of
Mexico,
incorporate known events into a geographical
information system, and
establish and maintain a specimen and tissue archive
that is supported by a centralized information storage
and retrieval system.
Mortality Prevention
estimate public costs associated with mortality events,
identify and enforce legislation that will reduce
mortality events, and
recommend and implement, based on the findings of
scientific response teams, legislative or regulatory
changes to prevent reoccurrence of mortalities.
Impacts Of Fishing On The Ecosystem
Douglas Fruge
Texas Parks & Wildlife Department
Austin, Texas
Impacts of fishing can be grouped in three major categories
- population effects, community effects, and habitat effects.
It is known that fishing can and does affect populations by
changing the abundance of and the size and age compositions
of target species and those incidentally captured.
While some changes may be acceptable, excessive
mortality may result in serious population declines. Also,
fishing activities may cause altered predator-prey relationships
or inter-species competition in a community or physically
affect certain habitats.
The Living Aquatic Resources Subcommittee (LARS)
recognizes that most of these concerns are not new, and
research and management activities to address them are
occurring. However, a lack of funding to address these
concerns has hampered adequate treatment. The LARS Action
Plan should provide leverage for additional funding to
adequately address these problems.
Strategies considered by LARS include:
assessing and monitoring the effects of fishing
mortality,
assessing the potential for aquaculture to reduce
demands on overfished species,
determining the relative impacts of fishing activities
and habitat degradation on Gulf of Mexico LARS,
determining the effects of fishing activities on habitat
availability, structure, and function,
developing alternative fishing gear, techniques, and
methodologies,
identifying gaps in data needed for population
assessment and monitoring,
determining the impact of fishing on community
relationships,
identifying appropriate uses of fishery dependent and
independent data for bycatch monitoring and stock
assessments,
incorporating fishing impact objectives into large
marine ecosystem research protocols,
developing interjurisdictional fishery management
plans for affected species,
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developing standardized data collection and
analysis protocols for living aquatic resources,
coordinating activities related to impacts of fishing,
encouraging compatibility of regulations governing
interjurisdictional resources Gulf-wide,
supporting a compatible Gulf-wide enforcement
program,
coordinating a Gulf-wide education/outreach
program regarding the impacts of fishing,
assuring timely transfer of new gear technology to
the fishing industry and public, and
developing public awareness of the need for
funding to deal with impacts of fishing.
It should be recognized that fishing is not the only factor
affecting the living aquatic resources of the Gulf of Mexico,
though it is often highlighted as a major problem. Other
factors are probably equally important, such as habitat
degradation, natural environmental changes, mass mortalities,
and contaminants. However, the LARS is trying to focus on
the problems of living aquatic resources as a whole and
intends to support existing organizations and infrastructure
established to deal with the problems associated with fishing.
H. Freshwater Inflow
Florida Issues And Opportunities In Management Of
Freshwater Inflows
Ernest D. Estevez
Mote Marine Laboratory
Sarasota, Florida
Flows of Florida's rivers range over six orders of magnitude.
Some in the Panhandle are Piedmont streams, but on the
Peninsula, most are short, coastal plain systems. Many receive
significant contributions from springs. The estuaries they
maintain are equally diverse and include the largest U.S.
mangrove-forested estuary, small to large enclosed bay
systems, and a sediment-starved, marsh-dominated, open
coastal system. The tidal freshwater environments between
rivers and estuaries typically are compressed and low in plant
and animal species richness in comparison with other regions.
Flows of many rivers have been altered by in-stream and
off-stream impoundments built for water supply, hydropower,
flood control, irrigation, and recreation. Inter-basin
connections and adverse discharge schedules cause too little
flow in some rivers or excessive flows into some estuaries.
Efforts to mitigate historic impacts on rivers and estuaries are
underway in several coastal areas, but these efforts are not
consistent or coordinated. At the same time, demand for
water continues to increase, and projects are being planned
that will further alter freshwater inflows to estuaries.
Inflow conditions along the Florida Gulf Coast vary by
geographic region. Panhandle rivers are Florida's largest.
The possibility exists of reduced flows to Apalachicola Bay
the state's leading producer of shrimp, crabs, and oysters
-- as municipal, agricultural, and recreational uses of the
Chattahoochee, Flint, and Apalachicola Rivers increase.
Although not presently a problem, the potential for ecological
changes caused by altered inflow has stimulated much new
and productive research.
Peninsular rivers emptying into the Gulf are much smaller
than Panhandle rivers. None of the small spring-fed rivers is
a significant source of water for consumptive use, but the
legal right to use at least one as a water supply does exist.
The largest departures from historic inflow occur in urban
rivers in and near Tampa Bay. The location, timing, quality,
and quantity of inflows into and from these rivers has been
affected by agriculture, phosphate mining and processing, and
impoundments for hydropower and municipal consumption.
The management emphasis for these rivers is restoration, but,
at the same time, plans are being made to divert even more
water from some streams.
The inflows of freshwater to Florida's southern-most
estuaries are products of management decisions concerning
Lake Okeechobee and surface waters of the general Everglades
area. One river, the Caloosahatchee, is unique along the
Florida Gulf Coast for having had too much discharge, the
result of lockage and Lake Okeechobee stage control. Another
"River of Grass" (the Everglades and its associated estuaries
of South Florida and Florida Bay) presently receives too little
water because of flood control projects, agricultural irrigation,
and water-supply for southeastern Florida.
Such alterations to freshwater inflow to Florida's Gulf
Coast estuaries have the potential to affect fisheries production.
Several recent and ongoing studies show the relationship of
freshwater inflow to shrimp, crab, oysters, and several fish
species. Despite these correlations, data is insufficient to
relate declining fishery landings specifically to altered
freshwater inflow. In this regard, Florida has much left to do
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in order to improve inflow, salinity, and fishery monitoring
programs.
The overriding issue in river management in Florida has
been the extent to which estuaries are recognized as "users"
of fresh water. Existing state policy is vague, and policies of
the state's five water management districts are uneven with
respect to this issue. Two principal variations of this issue
concern the amount to which a freely-flowing stream's flow
can be altered, usually for consumptive uses, without damaging
the estuary, and the amount of flow restoration (increase or
decrease) needed to mitigate impacts from existing structures
and operations. Quantity, timing, and location of inflow have
not received as much attention as water quality, but new
programs and projects are attempting to deal with these
parameters.
The greatest opportunities for inflow management in
Florida are adoption of uniform and statewide policies, transfer
of methodological improvements from other states and
countries, and new experiments in modeling. Florida's water
policy is presently being revised, and an opportunity now
exists to protect the freshwater inflow requirements of
estuaries. If such policies are adopted, Florida could take
advantage of recent advances in estuarine and fisheries science
from Texas, other Gulf areas, including Mexico, and other
countries to determine the technical details of policy
implementation.
Model ing offers an opportunity to determine pre-settlement
inflow patterns against which proposed changes or mitigative
actions can be measured. This technique involves the use of
a basin runoff model linked to historic conditions.
Presettlement river discharges can then be linked to estuarine
circulation and salinity models. The significance of
differences between presettlement and modern inflow and
salinity regimes can be calculated using predetermined criteria.
This method holds the most promise for Florida rivers that
are incompletely gaged and for estuaries with little data on
status or trends in living resources.
Comprehensive Study Of The Alabama-Coosa-Tallapoosa And
The Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint River Basins
Robert Allen
Planning Division, Mobile District
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Mobile, Alabama
The comprehensive study of the Alabama- Coosa-Tallapoosa
(ACT) and Apalachicola- Chattahoochee-Flint (ACF) river
basins is a study of the water resources of the two basins, the
present and projected demands on those resources, the various
alternatives that could serve to resolve conflicts over their use,
and the mechanism for resolving those conflicts. The study
resulted from recent conflicts among water users in the two
basins, the three states affected by the basins, and various
Federal agencies after reallocating water rights at the reservoirs
to provide water for municipal and industrial use to the City
of Atlanta, Georgia was considered. The study is being
conducted through a partnership of the states of Alabama,
Georgia, and Florida and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
to develop the information needed to resolve issues and
implement mutually agreed upon courses of action.
Chronological Events
In March 1989, the Corps prepared a Post Authorization
Change (PAC) report and Environmental Assessment to address
reallocating water stored in Carters Lake, Lake Allatoona, and
Lake Lanier.
In November 1989, the Corps conducted public meetings
on PAC reports for the three lakes. That same month, as a
result of the possible reallocations, Congressman Tom Bevill
of Alabama asked the Corps to develop a conceptual plan for
a comprehensive study of the two basins which would address
short- and long-term water resources in the ACF and ACT
basins.
In February 1990, the Corps presented the conceptual plan
to Congressman Bevill which outlined the short- and long-term
approaches to the basin's water needs, and in May 1990, the
Mobile District of the Corps submitted the final reallocation
report. The primary reallocations at Carters Lake was set at
2 million gallons per day (mgd) and 11.5 mgd at Lake
Allatoona.
As a result of the reallocation report, the State of Alabama
filed a lawsuit against the Corps challenging the proposed
reallocations. Negotiations were initiated between Alabama
and Georgia and the Corps, which Florida joined later in the
year.
In April 1991, Alabama, Georgia, and the Corps reached
an agreement under which Georgia would withdraw its permit
request to build the West Georgia Regional Reservoir. Georgia
also agreed to participate in a comprehensive study of the two
basins, and the Corps agreed to cease processing the
reallocation reports. All parties agreed to a comprehensive
study of the basins.
In July 1991, a draft Plan of Study was distributed for
public review. From the end of July through the end of August
1991, a series of eleven public meetings were held throughout
the basins. The purpose of the meetings was to inform the
public about the study and solicit comments about the contents
of the Plan of Study and region-specific water resource issues
the public wanted addressed.
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In January 1992, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida and the
Corps approved the final Plan of Study. The governors of
the three states and the Assistant Secretary of the Army signed
a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA), signaling the end of
18 months of negotiations on many complex issues and
providing a foundation for working as partners to address
water resource issues.
MOA
In the MOA, the parties agreed to the following: the Corps
would withdraw the Lake Lanier PAC report; current
withdrawals of water would continue and increase to meet
reasonable demands, however, written notice would be
provided if they would be increased by more than 10 MOD
or if new withdrawals greater than 1 MOD are initiated; during
the study, the Corps would operate the Federal reservoirs to
maximize water resource benefits; the parties would support
the comprehensive study and contribute monetary and
non-monetary support; a system to facilitate resolving future
disputes over the comprehensive study and the water resources
of the ACF and ACT basins would be established; and, last,
the lawsuit filed by the State of Alabama would be assigned
inactive status.
Study Management Organization
The study is being accomplished through a multi-level
management organization. The Executive Coordination
Committee (ECC) is composed of four members: the Mobile
District Engineer and one designee each of the governors of
Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. The purpose of the ECC is
to manage the overall study effort within the basins. The
Technical Coordination Group (TCG) is composed of four
members, one designated by each member of the TCG. The
purpose of the TCG is to provide interstate and intrastate
coordination for the study process, recommend the technical
content and direction of the study, and oversee the work that
is performed. The study also has various technical review
panels and support groups appointed by the TCG.
Study Accomplishments to Date
Scopes of work are developed or are being developed for
surface and groundwater supply and for water demand
elements, including agriculture, Apalachicola River and Bay,
environment, power resources, industrial and municipal use,
navigation, recreation, and waste assimilation. Scopes of
work are also being developed to analyze the existing
institutional frameworks and recommend a coordination
mechanism.
Freshwater Inflow Requirements For Nueces Estuary
Bruce Moulton
Water Policy Division
Texas Water Commission
Austin, Texas
Public policy of the State of Texas provides for conservation
and development of natural resources, including
maintaining a proper ecological environment in Texas' bays
and estuaries and the health of related living marine resources.
Events and a change in emphasis over the past 15 years
pushed environmental issues associated with water resources
into the forefront of public awareness. Concerns for
environmental protection of water are genuine, and, it goes
without saying that, as demands for dependable water supplies
increase, so to will the conflicts between balancing the needs
of the human environment and those of the natural system.
The importance of our estuarine systems can be measured
in both monetary and non-monetary terms. Industry,
transportation, agriculture, and recreation contribute to the
economic base of the coastal communities. While these
activities can be measured in dollars, the intrinsic value of
the aquatic community and its importance to the living
resources of the Gulf is not easily quantified. It is nearly
impossible to put a dollar value on the importance of providing
adequate freshwater inflow for species such as the piping
plover, Kemp's Ridley sea turtle, or whooping crane.
For the past 20 years, major research efforts in the State
of Texas focused on how freshwater inflow has been affected
spatially and temporally by human activities and intervention.
Partial results of these studies formed the nucleus of a
management plan for the Nueces River Basin and Choke
Canyon/Lake Corpus Christi reservoirs which included
freshwater inflow requirements to meet estuarine needs.
The Nueces Estuary has the sixth largest surface area of
Texas' ten inland, primary bays. This highly
compartmentalized, semi-arid system exhibits continual
environmental variation and stress. The Nueces River is the
only significant tributary and the main source of freshwater
inflow to the estuary.
In December 1989, following seven years of low-flows in
the Nueces River Basin, the Texas Water Commission (TWC)
was asked to enforce a condition in the Choke Canyon
Reservoir water use permit mandating freshwater inflows to
estuaries in the Coastal Bend area. Following a preliminary
review of the request, TWC created a Technical Advisory
Committee of officials from Federal and State agencies,
municipalities, special interest groups, and academic entities.
The Committee was charged with reviewing all information,
pertaining to the estuary and developing new data and a
management plan, including guidelines for operating Choke
Canyon and Lake Corpus Christi reservoirs.
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The Committee convened in June 1990 and completed its
work in August 1991. Its final report characterized and
identified issues involved with the estuary, including
descriptions and analysis of existing data and research;
characterizations of the riverine, estuarine, and reservoir
systems; modeling results conducted at the request of the
advisory committee; and recommendations for specific
freshwater inflow levels.
The Texas Water Development Board and the Texas Parks
and Wildlife Department are working on comprehensive
studies of freshwater inflow characterizations for the 7 major
estuaries on the Texas Coast. A portion of the study involves
a step-by-step procedure utilizing salinity, nutrient, and
sediment criteria in conjunction with a multi-objective
optimization model to determine a range of freshwater inflows
to meet predetermined constraints.
The process uses the Texas Estuarine Mathematical
Programming Model, anon-linear, stochastic, multi-objective,
mathematical programming, optimization model. This allows
the use of non-linear equations, incorporates chance
constraints, and analyzes the problem using a multi-objective
approach. Those objectives define the criteria for a
mathematical evaluation of the system's performance by
establishing minimum Q., minimum volume of water,
maximum Q., maximum volume of inflow, and maximum
harvest to determine how much production can be obtained
with the optimum salinity range for the estuarine systems.
The salinity limits were established by committee
consensus based on survivability, growth, and reproduction
of target species. Harvest targets were represented by the
historical mean harvest, 20%. Inflow bounds were set at
monthly mediums for the upper bound and in the tenth
percentile of monthly inflows on the lower bound.
Since the amount of freshwater inflow contained in the
special condition of the water use permit (151,000 acre feet)
fell within the range of acceptable answers, the committee
formulated its recommendations for monthly inflows using
that amount as the target for inflow to the Nueces Estuary.
Once the inflow numbers and the management guidelines
were identified, one final analysis was conducted -- conditional
probability modeling. The program was developed to
determine a safe yield for a reservoir system that is independent
of a long string historical hydraulic sequences by assessing
the probability of starting any given year at a particular
reservoir system level or capacity, placing the predesignated
demands on it, and identifying the number of failures for the
number of months in which the prescribed demand could not
be met.
The Management Plan, covering a 5 year period, establishes
specific minimum monthly inflow requirements which can
be met through natural spills, releases from storage, and return
flows. The plan also includes measures for spill banking,
drought, and low flow conditions and calls for a continuous
monitoring program to provide data for assessing the
management plan's effectiveness.
The TWC order which established the plan also created
an Estuarine Advisory Council to implement the plan and
recommend a permanent management plan. It has met three
times and will review and assess the impacts of the operating
plan over the next 3 to 3-1/2 years and recommend any
modifications to the interim plan.
The importance of freshwater inflow to marine ecosystems
cannot be overstated. Society must remember that human
activities occurring in watersheds draining into the Gulf can
and will have a profound effect on the condition of the receiving
system, creating an obligation to ensure that adverse effects
are minimized by maintaining natural resources.
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III. Educators'Forum
A. Educational Opportunities: Grants, Networking -
Who, How, Where & Why
Prospects For A Career In Science: The Myth Versus The Reality
James I. Jones
Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium
Ocean Springs, Mississippi
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Well-qualified and able teachers can provide the knowledge
and inspiration to develop and produce students who can
solve these problems and make these discoveries. There will
always be a place for the best and the brightest. There is also
room for the almost- best and brightest who work hard in
their chosen field.
There will be an increasing need for well trained science
teachers at all levels, particularly in K-12 and junior or
community colleges. The compelling requirement in K-12
is for teachers who understand the basics of science and can
impart the wonder and love of discovery to their students.
Syndicated columnist William Rasberry made an important
point in a recent speech. Most college students who do not
go to law or medical school will work in careers unrelated
to undergraduate majors. Their elementary, high-school, and
undergraduate college education was spent learning
generalized, liberal arts some math, general science, and
reading, writing, and arithmetic, providing a position of
reference to figure out where to go next.
Students shouldn't worry that they don't know precisely
where to go. Most don't really need to know what they'll be
doing in 10 or 20 years, and if they wanted to know, they
probably couldn't because things change so quickly.
Technology changes so rapidly that many future occupations
are unimaginable at this time.
The most important thing for a student to leam now is how
to learn and become a productive member of society. While
only relatively few students may chose to become scientists,
all will become citizens of an increasingly technological world.
It is the teacher's duty to prepare them for it to the best of
their ability. Indeed, teachers have the daunting responsibility
of guaranteeing the future of this nation and the world. To
fail is inconceivable, to succeed will require one's best
continuing efforts.
In Search Of Funding: Preparing A Winning Proposal
Heidi Smith
Sarasota Bay National Estuary Program
Sarasota, Florida
Rick Meyers
Manatee County Schools Environmental Education Program
Bradenton, Florida
Environmental education is gaining popularity among
educators as a way to teach students required skills by
using content that holds student interest, is conducive to
hands-on activities, and relates to daily living and current
events. School districts and, in the case of Florida, state
departments of education are beginning to require
environmental education content at all levels. But beyond
the institutional requirements of the school system, educators
are finding that teaching environmental issues is an exciting
way to help students develop required skills through content
that inspires, as well as educates. Through environmental
education, students can learn math, science, geography, and
language arts skills while developing life-long attitudes and
behavior which fosters environmental stewardship.
While environmental topics may be compulsory topics
now or in the future, depending on state education policies,
the quality of environmental education may rely on the
educator's ability to design and implement effective
instructional programs. In many cases, this type of effort
requires more than creativity and subject knowledge. Most
school districts are suffering from extensive budget cuts which
effect class sizes, field trips, and teacher training opportunities.
For those educators with vigor and persistence, tapping into
the right funding sources can be the difference between merely
meeting institutional requirements and providing students with
exciting, innovative projects that stimulate them to protect
their environment.
A funding strategy is integral to good project development,
whether the goal is to develop curriculum, provide teacher
training, or fund field trips. Likewise, a well-formulated
project is essential to gain financial backing, whether the
potential funding source is public or private. The following
are some practical tips for project development and successful
fundraising:
make sure the project is needed and desired, be
able to show proof of strong demand;
projects are more easily approved by school
administrators, more easily implemented, and more
easily funded if they are compatible with existing
curricula;
most grant sources for education are geared toward
"people" issues, not the environment; find ways to
tie the environment and people together (such as
environment and the economy);
many funding sources like to be involved in
action-oriented projects that have a tangible result
and benefit the community;
when proposing your project for funding, be sure to
understand the source's priorities a phone call or
proposal writing workshop can provide the detail
required to push the source's hot buttons in the
written proposal;
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be certain of the types of projects or products the
source would be willing to fund -- many funding
sources may discourage capital expenditures for
vehicles, computers, or other equipment;
examine all likely options for funding, such as
government agencies, private foundations, civic
organizations, businesses, and student fundraising
activities;
when developing the project budget, be sure to
account for over-time for the project manager,
travel, lodging, and, perhaps, most importantly,
administrative assistance many funding sources
arc willing to pay for administration during the
funding period, and project managers often find
that paperwork for maintaining the grant is quite
time-consuming be sure to account for benefits
and taxes when figuring personnel costs;
the successful fundraiser always keeps promises
made to funding sources, so be sure to follow
through. This will also enhance the potential of
securing funding for future requests; and
one of the best ways to gain a thorough
introduction to funding environmental education
projects is to talk with someone who has been
successful in similar efforts study any proposals
or prospectus packages that were part of a
successful project, or even join forces with a more
experienced project manager to get a headstart.
is a
Managing funding for an educational program
significant responsibility. But if the choice is fundraising vs.
little or no environmental education in schools, many educators
are opting for the challenge of developing and managing a
project from beginning to end.
Education Networking Through Environmental Experiences
John J. Dindo
Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium
Dauphin Island Sea Lab
Dauphin Island, Alabama
It is easy to visualize the networking of computers that link
office to office, where computers talk to each other. Webster
defines networks as a system of crossed roads, canals, or a
chain of transmitting stations. The author believes that the
education system must be revitalized by reestablishing the
excitement of teaching and utilizing teacher networking.
Carl Sagan wrote, 'We live in a society exquisitely
dependent on science and technology, in which hardly anyone
knows anything about science and technology." During
Congressional hearings in 1992, Sagan also stated, "Less than
half of all Americans know that die Earth moves around the
Sun and takes a year to do it." Currently, the United States
ranks 7th in the world in science and technology and is falling
behind fast.
A USA Today-Time magazine report in 1991 stated that,
by the year 2,000,14,000 jobs will be available for individuals
with PhD's in math, science and engineering. Students from
the United States will only fill half of these positions, the rest
will go to foreign students. Students do not find math and
science exciting and, tiierefore, tend to shy away from those
courses. High school students today believe that mastering
algebra can be accomplished by sitting in the classroom for
50 minutes, not by doing homework. Teachers know that to
truly understand the life sciences, mathematics, and the
technology of the world, we must invest in time ~ a commodity
that will continue to be the most limiting as the 21st century
approaches.
In the United States, teachers are prepared as well as any
in the world, but society tends not to consider teachers
professionals. Today, emphasis is placed on money, not
education, and, in general, parents are too caught up in their
own monetary acquisition to realize that, witiiout proper
education, the quality of life we enjoy today will not be
achieved by future generations.
Some of the newest methods of teaching, such as virtual
reality, create TV screen images of a trip through the frog, or
an excursion under the ocean, further removing real life
experiences from our learning process.
This author believes that the methodology of teaching must
change. Teachers must become excited about their subjects
themselves and reflect this to their students. It is axiomatic
that the teacher's enthusiasm is felt by the class.
The old proverb, "I HEAR AND I FORGET, I SEE AND
I REMEMBER, I DO AND I UNDERSTAND," (anonymous)
is the basis of hands on learning. Many teachers employ this
methodology in their classrooms, and many more should.
Teachers must move from the abstract to utilizing everyday
reality.
Personnel at the Dauphin Island Sea Lab in Alabama have
worked with the Alabama Department of Education to utilize
Title II monies on a project titled "World of Water for Teachers".
For four years, 238 science teachers a year from grades K-12
have travelled to the Lab during 7 one-week sessions in the
summer. Utilizing the lure and excitement of the oceans, the
teachers learn subject areas can be taught in a manner that
stimulates thinking and learning. Experiencing the
environment firsthand is one of the best learning tools one
can have.
In 1869, Major John Wesley Powell, a retired Union officer
who lost his arm in the Civil War, set out to traverse the
Colorado River through the Grand Canyon. Major Powell's
strong background in natural sciences allowed him to
document many wonders of Nature that continue to inspire
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scientific writing on the Earth's origins. Look around your
school and examine the possibilities of experiential learning.
Science classes may utilize a drainage ditch, math classes
may visit an engineering office or a new construction site.
The possibilities are unlimited.
In addition, teachers learn how they can infuse the marine
materials into their classrooms no matter how far they are
from the sea. They learn how to examine what excites the
students and utilize that excitement to teach a subject. Then,
the teachers are challenged to go back to their schools and
act as a resource satellite teacher for both the school and
region and establish a network with them.
The following quote from John Kennedy reflects the
author's philosophy of teaching about the world's oceans:
/ really don't know why it is that all of us are
so fascinated with the sea, except I think it is
because in addition to the fact that the sea
changes, and ships change, it is because we
all came from the sea. It is an interesting fact
that we all have in our veins the same percentage
of salt that exist in the sea, therefore we have
salt in our blood, sweat, and tears. We are tied
to the sea, and when we go back to the sea
whether it is to sail or to watch it, we are going
back from whence we came.
Rekindle the excitement of teaching within yourselves and
act as a beacon to lead your students into the 21st century.
B. Educational Programs: A Key To The Future
Shoreline Erosion Education: A Hands On Approach
Eddie Seidensticker
Soil Conservation Service
League City, Texas
Robert W. Nailon
ENSR Consulting and Engineering
Houston, Texas
Since the Gulf of Mexico Symposium in New Orleans in
1990, the authors have been concerned about involving
both the public and educators in conservation activities.
Recognizing that there is a lack of communication between
the scientific community and the general public, the authors
cooperated with the Galveston Bay Foundation to improve
the link between some of the scientific community, federal
and state agencies, industry, and private citizens.
The authors feel strongly that a "hands on" approach to
teaching salt marsh ecology and coastal erosion problems is
a high priority, and it has been an extremely successful
technique that is well received. The authors train volunteers
in wetland creation methods using smooth cordgrass, Spartina
alterniflora.
The Galveston Bay Studies Program is a compendium of
bay-related activities and courses offered by area groups and
institutions. The program offers educational experiences in
wetland creation as an environmentally sound method of
shoreline erosion protection. A combination of classroom
sessions and a field trip provide a valuable learning experience
for teachers. Six hours of Advanced Academic Training credit
is offered in the course. The authors have taught this course
for the past two years.
An educational video detailing the problems of shoreline
erosion and wetland loss was recently developed. The video,
entitled "Texas Shores, Saving What's Left" was produced
by Texas A&M Sea Grant, in cooperation with the Soil
Conservation Service, and the Texas State Soil and Water
Conservation Board. The purposes of the video are to create
an awareness of shoreline erosion problems in Texas and link
the importance of the presence and health of wetlands to our
local coastal economy. The authors coordinated the
production of the video, including filming site determinations,
interviews of erosion and wetlands experts and affected
property owners. The video was funded by the Moody
Foundation of Galveston, Texas. The video is made available
to secondary and high school age students and teachers and
is also utilized as a teaching resource in the Galveston Bay
Studies Program.
Before participating in wetland creation efforts, volunteers
are briefed on the planned activities and purposes of the
project. Safety concerns, care in obtaining wetland plants for
transplanting purposes, and site selection are discussed with
the participants. A major portion of the orientation includes
an overview of the concerns of wetland losses, the importance
of estuaries to water quality improvement, shoreline erosion
protection, and habitat for fish, shellfish, and coastal birds.
A comprehensive orientation is important to give participants
a thorough understanding of the purposes of the session.
A "hands on" approach to teaching marine ecology and
wetland creation techniques is a valuable tool. Volunteers are
encouraged to participate in transplant collection and care.
Volunteers frequently participate in seining to see marsh
productivity first-hand and learn to identify common estuarine
fish and shellfish. Finally, volunteers are taught transplanting
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techniques using hand implements.
Based on feedback from participants in wetland creation
efforts, there is apositive impact of teaching marine ecological
concepts combined with "hands on" approaches. Participants
have indicated to the authors that the project provides
self-satisfaction and the opportunity to contribute positive
action toward the improvement of Galveston Bay's habitat
loss and water quality problems. Many participating
corporations, groups and organizations have pledged their
labor and financial resources toward efforts promoting the
marsh creation concept.
Teacher Training/Student Enrichment: Project Sea Oats
David Lloyd Scott
Environmental Studies Center, Mobile County Public Schools
Mobile, Alabama
Located on the north-central Gulf Coast, Mobile County
is Alabama's second most populated area, with over
378,000 residents. The county's public school system is the
largest in the state, having an average enrollment exceeding
67,000 students.
During the past decade, curriculum planners have
recognized the vital importance of Alabama's coastal
environment and sought to place greater emphasis on
oceanography and marine biology as part of the system's
course of study in science.
Project Sea Oats (Special Enrichment Activities in
Oceanography for Area Teachers and Students) is an attempt
to strengthen this initiative through a multi-faceted approach
involving teacher inservice, field study, acquiring resource
materials, establishing an aquarium, and coordinating astudent
seminar in marine biology.
The project features a unique cooperative effort utilizing
the resources of the Mobile County Public School System's
Environmental Studies Center (ESC), Auburn University's
Sea Grant Extension Program, and the Marine Environmental
Sciences Consortium (Dauphin Island Sea Lab). Project
coordination and implementation is the responsibility of the
ESC. Both Sea Grant and the Dauphin Island Sea Lab provide
guidance in program development, instructional resources and
assistance, and a funding mechanism for the project.
Project Objectives
The project seeks to increase the effectiveness of classroom
teachers in thedelivcry of marine related concepts and content,
strengthen student awareness and knowledge of the
marine/estuarine environment and its link to the overall quality
of life, provide greater access to marine related teaching
materials, provide a saltwater teaching aquarium at the school
system's Environmental Studies Center, and focus attention
on marine and coastal issues through establishing an annual
"Marine Science Seminar".
Methodology
The project is coordinated by the Mobile County Public
School System's Environmental Studies Center, with
cooperation from Auburn University's Sea Grant Advisory
Service and the Dauphin Island Sea Lab. The focus is on
designing and implementing marine science workshops for
elementary and secondary teachers, planning and coordinating
field study for high school marine biology students, identifying
and acquiring marine-related educational materials,
establishing and maintaining a saltwater teaching aquarium,
and coordinating a seminar for high school marine biology
students.
Results
A series of workshops, for both elementary and secondary
school teachers, has been conducted at the Dauphin Island
Sea Lab each year. The workshops helped participants identify
key marine science concepts appropriate for their grade level,
expanded the teachers' content base, revealed innovative
teaching techniques, familiarized participants with the latest
marine education teaching materials, and allowed preparation
of representative specimens to include in a classroom teaching
collection. Pre/post tests results indicate a 56% average
increase in cognitive performance among randomly selected
participants.
Project Sea Oats has coordinated field excursions for over
850 students enrolled in the school system's high school
marine biology program. While at the Dauphin Island Sea
Lab, students collect and identify local marine organisms,
study the island's dune system and maritime forest, and
undertake an interpretive walk through the salt marsh. Results
from pre/post tests in this group indicate a 35% increase in
cognitive development.
Other accomplishments include adding 55 new marine
education titles to the ESC's resource materials collection,
installing and maintaining a saltwater aquarium in the ESC's
demonstration lab, and establishing an annual marine science
seminar attended by 450 students, on average.
Conclusions
Project Sea Oats has enhanced and expanded marine
education in Mobile County's public school system.
Participation by teachers and students has led to increased
awareness of the vital importance of marine/estuarine
resources to the environmental quality of coastal Alabama.
Moreover, the project has demonstrated that cooperation
between area agencies can maximize the use of fiscal, natural,
and human resources to provide meaningful experiences in
marine science and promote emphasis on marine education
as part of the curriculum.
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Wetlands Weekend: An Environmental Education Experience
For Middle School Students
Paul V. Hamilton
The University of West Florida
Pensacola, Florida
The burgeoning human population has steadily degraded
the environment by directly destroying habitat and
over-harvesting resources, and by indirect means, such as
discharging toxic pollutants. Few habitats have escaped these
impacts, but our tendency to colonize areas near rivers and
coastlines has resulted in the loss of as much as 46% of the
wetlands originally in the contiguous U.S. (Niering, 1985).
Increased awareness of the importance of wetlands has led
to greater involvement of regulatory agencies in their
management, yet much of the general public views wetlands
as mucky, insect-infested areas having little value. The
primary goal of the Wetlands Weekend Program is to provide
an experience for area middle school students and teachers
to heighten their awareness of the environment, in general,
and the importance of wetlands, in particular. Key issues
covered in the Program are the ecological values of wetlands,
causes of wetlands loss, pollution impacts on wetlands, and
using constructed wetlands to treat wastewater.
A broader problem concerns the public perception of
science and the declining scientific literacy of students. Many
people have the impression that science is a subject only a
few people can master and that the stereotypical scientist is
a dull person specializing in an obscure field. Only about
50% of students receive a science education beyond high
school biology (Voss, 1983).
The secondary goal of the Wetlands Weekend Program is
to demonstrate to middle school-aged students that science is
exciting and relevant to their lives. Florida's Comprehensive
Plan states, "The best way to interest students in mathematics
and science is to make these subjects concrete, real, and
exciting from the start" (Florida Chamber of Commerce and
Florida Department of Education, 1989). The ecosystem
concept is an important component in the core of essential
knowledge and skills which all Americans should have
(AAAS, 1989), and wetlands provide an ideal example.
Local natural resources and research at the University of
West Florida led to the development of two Wetlands' Weekend
experiences - River Swamp Day and Salt Marsh Day. The
sponsor of a group of up to 24 youngsters selects one of these
experiences, which are scheduled on alternating weekends.
In 1992, as part of the Year of the Gulf of Mexico, Wetlands
Weekend emphasized the connection between river swamp
and salt marsh wetlands to the Gulf of Mexico, and regional
issues involving human impacts on the Gulf.
River Swamp Day is staged at the UWF campus, which
is located near the junction of the Escambia River and
Escambia Bay. Many campus acres are categorized as swamp
forest, and Thompson's Bayou, a tributary of the lower
Escambia River, is surrounded by University land.
River Swamp Day participants are split into two sub-groups
The Swamp Stampers and The Eco-Engineers. The Swamp
Stompers spend part of the morning touring portions of the
18,000-acre Lower Escambia River Preserve on a 28-foot
pontoon boat learning about river swamp ecology and the
adaptations of the common plants and animals found there.
The remainder of the morning is spent learning about a
coal-burning power plant adjacent to the UWF campus and
about thermal pollution and its control. Swamp Stompers
make a modest set of water chemistry measurements, and
they collect and observe samples of plankton and benthic
decomposers from the Bayou.
Eco-Engineers spend the morning touring display tanks
containing river swamp plants and animals before focussing
on constructed wetlands. Participants learn about modern
sanitary landfills and the nature of landfill leachate before
touring a greenhouse operated by UWF's Wetlands Research
Laboratory. There, they observe experiments designed to
evaluate the abilities of different wetland plant species to
cleanse landfill leachate. Eco-Engineers also learn about
household wastes and visit UWF's state-of-the-art wastewater
treatment plant to see how constructed wetlands are used to
treat nutrient-rich wastewater. After lunch, the two groups
switch activities for the remainder of the day.
Salt Marsh Day is staged on the Big Lagoon side of Perdido
Key, a portion of the Gulf Islands National Seashore. This
area contains extensive salt marsh, and Big Lagoon is
designated a Florida Aquatic Preserve. Salt Marsh Day
participants are split into two sub-groups The Trawl Team
and The Marsh Marchers.
The Trawl Team spends the morning on a 28-foot pontoon
boat examining the contents of a series of tows taken in 6 to
20 feet of .water using a small otter trawl. They learn about
the adaptations of the common plants and animals collected
and note the sizes of the animals collected. Trawl Team
participants also observe dolphins and seabirds and learn
about issues associated with shrimp trawling, such as Turtle
Excluder Devices and bycatch.
Marsh Marchers begin their morning by visiting a raised
platform overlooking a large saltmarsh. They learn about the
production of detritus and its role in the food chain. Marsh
Marchers then use a seine net to make several collections in
shallow water over both sand and grass covered bottoms.
They learn about the adaptations of the common animals
collected on each type of bottom and note the sizes of the
animals collected. After lunch, the two groups switch
activities for the remainder of the day. Participants compare
the size of individuals collected within a single species in
both deep and shallow water, and, thus, they learn directly
the role of tidal channels and nearshore grassbeds as nursery
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areas for species whose adults inhabit deeper water.
The Wetlands Weekend Program completed its first year
in 1992, running from May I through November 13. The
Program took place on 29 dates, and the participants numbered
491 students and 130 teachers. Most of the adults were science
teachers. Post-participation comments have been quite
positive, and some presentation dates for 1993 have been
reserved.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: Wetlands Weekend Program
was supported by the Florida Dept. of Environmental
Regulation, National Park Service, Gulf of Mexico Program,
Monsanto Corporation, Gulf Power Corporation, and
University of West Florida.
References
American Association for the Advancement of Science,
"Biological and Health Sciences," AAAS, Washington, D.C.,
33pp. (1989).
Florida Chamber of Commerce and Florida Department of
Education, "A Comprehensive Plan to Improve Mathematics,
Science and Computer Education in Florida," Tallahassee, FL,
79pp. (1989).
W.A. Niering, Wetlands. Alfred A. Knopf Publ., N.Y., 638 pp.
(1985).
B.E. Voss, "Objectives for middle school science," Science and
the early adolescent. M.J. Padilla (ed.), pp. 6-9, National
Science Teachers Association, Washington, D.C. (1983).
Marine Education Field Experiences For Teachers And Students
Rick Tinnin
Marine Education Services
U.T. Marine Science Institute
Port Aransas, Texas
The thesis of this paper is that "Teachers and Students Are
the Key to the Future". Without competent classroom
teachers who can convey to their students the excitement and
wonder of science and the world around them, the future is
bleak, at best.
The University of Texas Marine Science Institute, through
the Marine Education Services (MES) program, provides
opportunities for over 800 teachers and 9,500 students to gain
first-hand experience with the marine world each school year.
The students participate in a research cruise aboard the R/V
KATY during which they collect water samples and determine
salinity, temperature, and oxygen levels at different depths,
collect plankton samples and view them through a video
microscope, wash and pick through samples of the benthos,
and sort through, identify, and compare trawl samples from
different depths and stations in the bays and channels adjacent
to the marine laboratory.
Another MES program, with the support of the Texas A&M
University Sea Grant program, provides opportunities for
teachers at all grade levels to come in contact with research
scientists, marine educators, exemplary classroom curricula,
field experiences,and teaching strategies. Workshop topics
offered include Basic Marine Science, Biological and Physical
Oceanography, Barrier Island Ecology and Geology, Seaweeds
and Sea Grasses, Plate Tectonics, Coastal Birds, and Global
Environmental Change. Exemplary curriculum projects
featured include the Marine Science Project FOR SEA, Hawaii
Marine Science Studies, and Foundational Approaches in
Science Teaching to name a few. Curriculum project
facilitators are brought into the workshops to train the teachers,
who then introduce their faculty and students to the programs.
Once again, it is evident that the teacher is the key.
The objectives of the weekend workshops are to improve
the teachers' content and pedagogical knowledge of marine
science and the Gulf of Mexico, train them in field experiences
so they can lead their classes into the field, and provide an
appreciation of the interdisciplinary nature of the study of the
ocean, atheme which crosses all traditional subject boundaries.
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National Environmental Education Act
Brad Smith
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
In 1990, the National Environmental Education Act was
enacted, authorizing environmental education programs by
the EPA. Until that point in time, EPA's primary means of
motivation had been enforcement and regulation.
While regulation and enforcement remain foremost in
EPA's mission, education is becoming a strong supporting
role for the agency. Perhaps, if 10% of what was spent on
Superfund enforcement over the last decade had been spent
on education, the nation's understanding of environmental
issues would be greater and there would be less pollution.
Over the past 20 years, much has been done to increase
awareness of environmental issues that has been good and
useful. The next step, however, will be based on action, as
many of the problems that exist have been identified.
There are four points that must be remembered as the
agenda takes shape.
First, we must utilize our expertise to make the pursuit of
excellence the hallmark of environmental education. For
more than 20 years, there have been many good outlets for
environmental information - the National Audubon Society
and Mote Marine Lab to name two. Also, there are many
advisory boards involved, whether made up of citizens or
other governmental organizations. A network must be created
so that efforts are not wasted through duplication, and it will
become easier to obtain information.
As part of this effort, new partnerships must be explored
to provide formal and informal educational settings. The Boy
Scouts, 4-H Clubs and Future Farmers of America,
environmental groups, state and local government, academia,
industry, and health organizations all must work together. In
the 1960's and 70's, business was perceived as evil and
environmentalists as blissful idealists. More often than not,
the two sides would only interact in a courtroom. Industry
has learned that environmental protection initiatives can
enhance the bottom line, and new partnerships, once
unimaginable, are being formed.
For instance, Dow Chemical, the National Audubon
Society, and the EPA recently formalized a partnership to
benefit the Great Lakes. Also, utilities and big corporations,
like General Motors and IBM, are working with EPA to
develop new ways to save energy.
However, grass roots efforts will continue to be important
to environmental education initiatives. EPA encourages
partnerships with these groups; however, funds will continue
to constrain its participation. For instance, in 1992, the agency
received over $100 million in requests from grass roots
environmental groups for grant funds, but only had $2.5
million to distribute. Although some may view this as being
oversubscribed and think potential partnerships may feel
slighted, EPA views this as a good beginning by providing
seed money to these groups.
The second goal is to target youth for environmental
education initiatives and provide them with high-caliber
programs. There are many specific targets for this. The EPA
funded a very large, nationally-networked consortium for
teacher training based at the University of Michigan, and it
is working on a pollution prevention education project that
looks at pollution prevention as part of environmental
education.
EPA is working with the University of Michigan
Consortium and the National Environmental Education and
Training Foundation to develop an environmental resource
library and clearinghouse. An index will be published within
a year and available free of charge or at a limited cost that
will provide teachers, administrators, media, science centers,
and libraries with a wealth of information.
Goal three is to promote an interest in students to explore
environmental-related careers. A new, multi-discipline
curriculum will need to be developed that transcends all
subject areas. For instance, EPA is organizing environmental
training for business school curricula. Traditional career paths
must not be overlooked, and the EPA is developing fellowship
and internship programs to support these initiatives.
The fourth goal is not a mandate, but it is germane to the
Gulf of Mexico. Because environmental issues do not stop
at borders, programs must become international in nature. In
fact, more than 80 countries visited the EPA recently to seek
advice or plan for multi-lateral initiatives.
In November 1992, the environmental ministers of the
U.S., Canada, and Mexico signed a tri-lateral agreement on
environmental education, linking the three countries together
for future environmental education endeavors. This is a very
promising initiative, and a commission is already at work.
The Action Agendas being drafted through the Gulf of
Mexico Program strongly emphasize public education to
maintain and improve the viability of the Gulf ecosystem.
The Boaters' Pledge, for instance, provides tangible results
through educating boaters, anglers, and marine operators on
the impact of marine debris on fish and wildlife and beaches.
The Office of Environmental Education recognizes the
importance of public education to preventing environmental
degradation and will lend its support to achieving the goals
of the Gulf of Mexico Program.
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C. Science And Technology: Pathways For Learning
Gulf Literacy: Promoting Scientific Literacy Regarding Gulf Of
Mexico Environmental Issues
John Trowbridge
Louisiana State University Marine Consortium
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
The word literacy is linked to many different movements
such as cultural literacy, critical literacy, fundamental or
functional literacy, technological literacy, math literacy, and
scientific literacy. The new literacy described in this paper
will be named Gulf Literacy. The model used comes from
scientific literacy movements, especially those espoused by
sciencc-technology-society proponents.
Current notions of scientific literacy arose in response to
calls for reform in science education. Since the report A
NalLon_AtJRisk was released, over 200 reports have been
published identifying the need to improve science education.
Scientific literacy is the ultimate goal of the authors and is
the slogan for much of the improvement.
Motivations for increasing science literacy have changed.
The initial stimulus was a function of post-Sputnik defense
concerns; currently, it is survival in a global market economy.
It is interesting to note that in Third World countries, the call
for literacy is generated by agricultural needs. Farmers need
to be able to read and understand labeling and application
directions for fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides all of
which are, coincidentally, adversely affecting the Gulf of
Mexico.
What is scientific literacy? There are many definitions,
but all have the following factors in common: an awareness
that science and technology are independent human enterprises
with strengths and limitations, understanding key concepts
and principles of science, understanding newspaper articles
and graphics related to science issues, and using scientific
ways of thinking for individual and social purposes.
What should a person know to be considered Gulf-literate?
Such a list can be generated by brainstorming, surveys, or
other means. It might be interesting to generate such a list
among your peers and colleagues. The following are three
discussion topics and examples of literacy goals:
marine debris, especially plastics, is unsightly and a
hazard to marine life because animals, such as the
endangered Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle, ingest or
become entangled in it,
pouring used motor oil down storm drains can have
far reaching effects because they often empty into a
body of water connected to a larger body of water,
eventually connecting to the ocean, and
fishery management results in conflicts between
commercial and recreational fishing groups, as in
the case of red drum, which was harvested to the
point that the fish stocks could not replenish
themselves and a population crash occurred.
The idea is not to generate a quantum of knowledge or
catalog all environmental concerns along the Gulf of Mexico,
but to establish broad topics where each is useful for
understanding the Gulf of Mexico as a large ecosystem. Note
that the first topic allows for discussion of solid waste disposal,
maritime law, and endangered species. The second topic is
a stimulus for non-point source discharge, material disposal
issues, and the ability to clean an ecosystem and whether it
can recover. The last topic involves basic economics of supply
and demand, how technology has made fishing more efficient,
species management, and the concept of sustainability. The
issues combine complex interaction between science and
technology.
How is environmental literacy through science and
technology promoted? First, one should align oneself with
the subject matter. Befriend a scientist or a laboratory and
find some way to experience modern methods. Or, utilize
the resources of the many government agencies in the Gulf
coastal zone. If one is a scientist, conduct a workshop for
teachers, speak to the public or a citizens group. If one is
involved in a job with a public outreach program, conduct a
weekend program in which scientists talk about their work
and their latest developments.
Another important component that shouldn't be overlooked
is utilizing the media. Write a series of newspaper articles
or produce short, but meaningful videos. Increase daily
exposure to the Gulf of Mexico and how, as literate citizens,
everyone can participate in managing its resources to keep it
a "shining sea."
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The IBM Personal Science Laboratory System As A Tool
For Environmental Modeling In Middle School
John D. Davis
Tom Scott
St. Andrew's Episcopal School
Jackson, Mississippi
One very effective way to interest middle school students
in environmental science is through realistic simulations
of space-based environmental monitoring. Discussions of
forthcoming NASA "Missions to Earth" and the concept and
methods used by the space program to study earth itself always
elicit excitement. What is required to turn this interest into
a powerful learning experience is a simple, rugged system
for collecting and analyzing such simulated data.
The IBM Personal Science Laboratory System (IBM PSL)
is a powerful, simple, and rugged tool ideally suited to
modeling environmental monitoring as well as collecting,
analyzing, and storing data. The IBM PSL is a
microcomputer-based laboratory that attaches to any of IBM's
Personal Computer and Personal System/2 microcomputers.
It consists of a base unit which collects data from modules
and sends it to the supporting software. The base unit has
four module ports, plus an expansion bus. Two types of
modules are available a temperature, light and pH module
and a motion and mechanics module.
Temperature probes have a range of-55 degrees C to +105
degrees C, with a resolution of .05 degrees C. Light probes
are of two types: photometric, with a spectral range from 400
to 950 nm, and pH probes, which function in the range of 0
to 12 pH and have a resolution of 0.01 pH.
The motion and mechanics probe has a sampling rate of
418/second and may be used for distance, acceleration,
velocity, and movement. The system uses PSL EXPLORER
software, which is very user-friendly, with full-function,
pull-down menu structure. It permits the user to gather data
from any probe, scale and plot it in real-time, analyze it using
many types of calculations, and store and retrieve it. Results
may be displayed and stored in both tabular and graphical
formats. The whole system is extremely reliable, sturdy, and
problem free.
The PSL EXPLORER system permits experiments to be
designed, but it also includes a series of self-contained
experiments to which students can add their own data. For
temperature, self-contained experiments include cooling
curves and evaporation, heat gain, and specific heat in a
variety of substances, exothermic and endothermic chemical
reactions and temperature changes in water and soil. For
light, these include reflection from different surfaces, angle
of incidence, light intensity, polarization, scattering, and
absorption. Self-contained motion experiments include
studies in velocity, acceleration, harmonic motion, and force.
To adapt the system to simulate space-based environmental
monitoring, all that is needed is a little theater. The keyboard
and screen are placed inside a simple, cardboard control panel,
with appropriate space-like markings, and the probes extend
into an area concealed from the astronauts in which they are
applied to a variety of objects.
The first activities involved using the light probes to model
vegetation reflectance. In order to prepare the students, the
standard reflectance studies in the system were reviewed, and
the probes were used to discriminate actual leaves from a
variety of evergreen and broad-leaved plants. Then, an
explanation was given of how to use reflectance to map
vegetation over a wide area. In this simulation, the probes
are simply moved over colored vegetation maps. These maps
need not be realistic in their reflectance.
The point of the exercise is to challenge the students to
convert graphical representation of reflectance back into
vegetation types correlated with the scan of the probes across
the Earth. Once the basic idea is grasped, then special
problems can be developed, such as a rainforest mission in
which denuded areas are to be located and mapped by
reflectance.
The techniques used in vegetation mapping can easily be
modified to water studies. For example, the location and
spread of algal blooms, or eutrophic and polluted areas, can
be determined by simulated reflectance.
Temperatures at the sea and land surface can be simulated
easily by placing light bulbs at various distances from the
probes. In this way, weather, currents, and, even, the buildup
of cyclonic storms can be understood and modelled. The
motion detectors can be used to simulate the movements of
organisms such as whales or terrestrial mammal herds, merely
by moving small objects at an appropriate rate across a map!
The effects of volcanic eruptions on light scattering are easily
simulated.
Young students enjoy trying to challenge the astronauts
with original problems once the basic techniques have been
mastered. The astronauts have been given tasks such as
pinpointing a source of thermal pollution along a river and
pursuing illegal whalers. The adventure aspect of these
simulated "Missions to Earth" make them very popular. At
the same time, young students learn how to store and analyze
data in a realistic manner.
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Share The Thrill Of Discovery With The JASON Project
Andrea S. Davis
Education Coordinator, Mote Marine Laboratory
Sarasota, Florida
Wat is the JASON Project? The JASON Project is a
nique and innovative educational project conceived
by Dr. Robert Ballard (the oceanographer and explorer who
discovered the wrecks of the R.M.S. Titanic and the German
battleship Bismarck) to excite students about scientific
research and encourage them to pursue careers in science.
Each year the JASON Project takes a two-week voyage of
scientific exploration that is broadcast live to thousands of
students and the public atreceiving sites across North America
and beyond with new 1993 sites in Bermuda and England.
Who is the JASON Project?
The JASON Project, named for the Greek mythological
hero who sought the golden fleece, is a partnership of industry,
scientific research organizations, museums, and educational
organizations, including Mote Marine Laboratory. This
partnership makes up the JASON Foundation for Education,
which is committed to sharing with students the thrill of
scientific discovery and exploration.
How did it begin?
Dr. Ballard's idea for the JASON Project grew from his
discovery of the wreck of the R.M.S. Titanic in 1985. As
the Titanic loomed into view, he was struck by the thought
that only he and his two colleagues were able to experience
the absolute thrill of this discovery. Dr. Ballard knew then
that he wanted to find a way to share this pure adventure of
science and the tremendous rush of feeling that accompanies
discovery of the unknown. And, so, the project was born.
His dream intensified after the researchers returned with
images never before witnessed. At a time when students were
choosing not to go into science, Dr. B allard received thousands
of letters from children about their discoveries.
Given this overwhelming response, Dr. Ballard saw a way
to transform this youthful enthusiasm in the Titanic into a
broader interest in science and engineering. Through
telepresence, using satellites and two-way audio hookups to
enable students to see exploration and talk to scientists as
they work, large numbers of students could be involved in
the most exciting phase of science discovery.
What is the goal?
In the 1990-91 International Assessment of Educational
Progress (IAEP) study, U.S. 13-year olds scored 13th out of
15 countries in science achievement and had the least positive
attitudes toward science. Throughout the United States, there
is concern that our nation is slipping in science and technology
as talented students pursue other careers. The JASON
Project's goal is to inspire students about these subjects and
encourage them to pursue careers in these fields through
participation in live scientific expeditions via a proven
interactive learning technique.
Is there more?
The JASON Project is not just a better-than-usual field
trip. Students are active participants. Not only do they talk
with scientists at the expedition site, but select students can
use a joystick to operate and navigate by remote control the
submersible robot, Jason. Before they participate in the
JASON experience, most students will have studied a six-week
curriculum prepared by the National Science Teachers
Association, covering everything from the state of-the-art
technology used in the voyages to the geology, geography,
and biology of the expedition sites.
What is the past history of the JASON Project?
This is the fourth JASON Project, and each year's
expedition is more exciting and innovative than the previous
year's as new technology and real science are used. The first
JASON Project expedition explored the Mediterranean Sea,
discovering the first hydrothermal vents on its floor and
examining the deepest-known ancient shipwreck site. The
second explored battleships from the War of 1812, sunken,
but perfectly preserved, on the bottom of Lake Ontario. The
third JASON expedition took place in the Galapagos Islands
and, for the first time, explored land as well as underwater
sites, examining unique animal species.
What are the plans for JASON IV and beyond?
Plans are underway for the fourth JASON Project to take
place during the first two weeks of March 1993 on the Baja
Peninsula of Mexico. There will be broadcast sites in both
the Sea of Cortez and the Pacific Ocean. From the breathtaking
majesty of the Pacific gray whales to the exploration of
hydrothermal vent systems, JASON IV will bring students,
teachers and the public to the leading edge of scientific research
at sea.
Other projects being planned include expeditions to the
Amazon Basin, the Mayan areas of coastal Central America,
and the Arctic and Antarctic regions as more student voyagers
will be able to join these electronic expeditions of discovery.
What are the results?
The JASON Project is succeeding in its goal of changing
student attitudes about science. Studies by the Lehigh
University College of Education show that attitudes about
science dramatically improve once students have participated
in the JASON Project. Lehigh's evaluation also indicates
that this positive impact is true, regardless of race or gender.
Conclusion
There is a crisis in science education today. The JASON
Project marks a combined effort on the part of the business,
education, and scientific communities to counter this crisis.
This effort shows consistently positive results in exciting
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students about science and technology through the use of
innovative techniques and a strong, interdisciplinary
curriculum. Clearly, those who have shared the thrill of
discovery today will set the course for new discoveries in
science and technology tomorrow.
D. Alternative Teaching Tools: Puppets, Poets, And
Things That Go Splash In The Gulf
Using Natural Science Museums As Teaching Resources
Libby Hartfield
Martha Cooper
Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks
Mississippi Museum of Natural Science
Jackson, Mississippi
There are over 6,000 museums in the United States
accommodating millions of visitors each year who seek
knowledge, understanding, and enjoyment. Museums teach
visitors about their culture and the natural world through an
informal or voluntary approach. At their best, museums
empower these visitors to discover and search for the answers
to society's current questions. Museums also act as catalysts,
introducing people to new ideas and concepts. All this
educating is done with objects in a concrete, hands-on manner.
A museum is largely defined by its collections, but its place
in the community is determined by how the museum uses its
collections of objects.
The 1992 Official Museum Directory lists 416 natural
history or natural science museums in the United States,
including 23 officially-recognized state museums. The
educational benefits provided by museums will never be the
same in any two institutions, since it is how museums differ,
not how they are alike, that makes for exciting, innovative
programs and exhibits. But model programs used in one
museum can be adapted to take full advantage of the unique
opportunities found in others.
State and federal agencies developing educational materials
about the Gulf of Mexico should consider partnerships with
local museums. There are several important advantages to
forming cooperative projects with museums:
museums have a high visibility, name recognition,
and an accessible location,
museums have established integrity with a repeat
audience, and
museums possess objects that have a proven
capability to aid in teaching the principles that
environmental educators want conveyed to the
general public.
Museums provide the hands-on experiences needed to
involve visitors in active learning. By bringing people into
close contact with living things and supporting their
exploration, museum programming helps stimulate
environmental awareness, and it provides a basis for
understanding relationships. Because our modern living
patterns make nature study less accessible and nature more
abstract, the concrete experiences museums offer are more
important than ever.
The Mississippi Museum of Natural Science (MMNS)
located in Jackson, Mississippi is an example of a state
museum that utilizes environmental education in its
programming. The MMNS is making strides to educate its
audience about the flora and fauna of the State of Mississippi
through dioramas, educational exhibits, an interior garden,
and aquariums. Presentations for visitors, Project WILD
workshops for teachers, and classroom outreach programs,
such as INLAND WAVES and WET Mississippi, use objects
to teach adults and children about ecology.
Project WILD, available in all 50 states, is an environmental
education curriculum designed for teachers and youth leaders
working with grades K-12. The Mississippi Museum of
Natural Science sponsors Project WILD in Mississippi and
conducts WILD workshops throughout the state. During a
six hour workshop, teachers and youth leaders gain skills and
knowledge needed to implement Project WILD and coordinate
WILD activities with classroom curriculum. Aquatic WILD
workshops are conducted to place added emphasis on the
importance of freshwater and marine environments.
Over 5,000 teachers in Mississippi have been trained to
use Project WILD and Aquatic WILD. Project WILD helps
develop skills in creative problem-solving and critical thinking
in order to prepare children to make wise decisions about
natural resources. The Aquatic WILD activity manual
contains many activities that deal with topics vital to the Gulf
of Mexico.
WET Mississippi is a museum out-reach program
providing freshwater ecology instruction in classrooms
throughout the state. An aquatic ecologist brings live animals
into a classroom setting to interact with students as they learn
about freshwater ecology. Students begin to assess and
evaluate the positive and negative effects of human actions
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on freshwater environments.
INLAND WAVES is a marine ecology out-reach program
similar to WET Mississippi. Students observe marine
organisms up close as they study the importance of estuaries,
saltwater marshes, and open ocean habitats. The commercial,
aesthetic, ecological, and recreational value of marine
environments is emphasized.
Museums throughout the country are conducting similar
programs and should play an important role in the emerging
educational emphasis being placed on marine ecology.
Museums attract a diverse group of visitors who have the
express purpose of encountering new ideas and information.
Issues concerning the Gulf of Mexico need to be presented
to this audience through exhibits and educational
programming. Many museums and nature centers in the Gulf
States are already deeply involved in changing the public
perception of natural environments, including coastal
wetlands. Partnerships between museums, State and Federal
agencies, and non-profit organizations will strengthen these
efforts.
References
Bloom, Joel N., E. A. Powell III, E. C. Hicks, and M.E. Munley,
"Museums for a new century: a report of the Commission on
Museums for a New Century." Amer. Association of
Museums, Washington D.C., 144pp. (1984).
Deisler-Seno, Jane E., and Judith Reader, "Development of
curriculum-oriented programs for natural history museums: an
example in Corpus Christi," Cato, Paisley S. and Clyde Jones,
(eds.), Natural History Museums: Directions for Growth.
Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock, Texas pp. 137-259.
(1991).
Draper, Lee, Museum Audiences Today: Building Constituencies
for the Future. Museum Educators of Southern California,
Los Angeles, CA, 139 pp. (1987).
Pitman-Gelles, Bonnie, Museums. Magic and Children: Youth
Education in Museums. Association of Science Technology
Centers, Washington, D.C., 262 pp. (1981).
Roger Tory Peterson Institute, "Bridging Early Childhood and
Nature Education," Proceedings of the 1990 Forum sponsored
by the Roger Tory Peterson Institute of Natural History. 22pp.
(1990).
Screven, C. G., The measurement and facilitation of learning in
the museum environment: an experimental analysis.
Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, D.C., 91 pp. (1974).
Weil, Stephen E., Rethinking the Museum and Other
Meditations. Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, D.C.,
173pp. (1990).
Marine Gang: Theater Used As A Teaching Tool
Anne Hartmann
Florida Museum of Science & Industry
Tampa, Florida
Museums, particularly science centers, are known for
their nontraditional approach to education.
Demonstrations of scientific fact, enhanced with the
showman's fancy, have become a favorite attraction at science
museums across the world. Through exhibit hall and
auditorium demonstrations, puppetry, and formal theater,
science museums have attempted to impart knowledge of
contemporary science and technology principles and issues
to their valued audiences.
The Museum of Science & Industry (MOSI) in Tampa,
Florida uses many forms of entertainment to capture and hold
the attention of its quarter of a million visitors each year.
Theater programs to accompany temporary exhibits, table top
demonstrations, and large group demonstrations are but a few
of the ways in which the museum interests its audience in
science and technology.
Perhaps the most successful program thus far is a theater
piece entitled "Marine Gang." The "Marine Gang" began as
a volunteer education effort of the Marine Information
Network (MIN), which owns the characters. When the
demand for programs outgrew the ability of MIN to supply
the requested services, MIN approached the Tampa Bay
National Estuary Program (TBNEP) for help. The TBNEP,
in turn, approached MOSI with a request for contract services
to provide "Marine Gang" performances in elementary schools
in Hillsborough, Manatee, and Pinellas counties. The success
of the program is astounding; over 50,000 elementary age
children have seen the program in their schools in only 4
months.
The "Marine Gang" is an example of a thriving partnership
between three organizations that consider education part of
their missions. The "Marine Gang" is also an excellent
illustration of the success of nontraditional methods of
teaching.
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E. Youth At Risk: Everybody Belongs
From Trust Games To Environmental Action:
Coastal Environmental Programs For Youth-At-Risk
Sonya Wood
Marine Extension Agent
Florida Sea Grant Program
Pensacola, Florida
Today, an appropriate definition of youth-at-risk would be
every child between the ages of birth and 18 - every
child in our society. This is because in the 1990's there is a
high probability of a child being from a low income family,
coming from a single-parent home, being involved with drugs
or alcohol, being physically or sexually abused, having a
learning disability, having a conflict with teachers or other
authorities, or having trouble adjusting to the world.
The Florida Sea Grant program, 4-H Club, several State
of Florida agencies, and non-profit organizations worked
together to develop several coastal and marine education
programs for youth-at-risk. One of the programs is an annual
Marine Institute for young people 8 to 18 years old. The
Marine Institute is a week-long residential camp with 120
participants each year. It includes favorite Aquatic WILD
activities, seining and cast netting, working in a marine lab,
discussing the Marine Debris Timeline, moonlight bay walks,
tours of the Gulfarium, and a local fishermen's co-op. The
youths also visit with local shrimpers and try their hand at
the Japanese art of gyotaku, or fish printing, and at sand
sculpture.
There are two big group challenges during the week of
the Marine Institute. A canoe expedition into a back bayou
is the most physically challenging activity. It offers a chance
to become immersed in the world of an estuary. The beach
cleanup provides an opportunity to help wildlife and make
the Gulf a little cleaner and healthier.
By preceding traditional marine programs with some
initiatives and group-building activities, efforts to reach
youth-at-risk audiences are more effective. Instead of just
learning facts and concepts, the participants are involved in
something positive which offers them the opportunity to
express themselves and excel. At the beginning of each
program, the youth participate in trust games, initiatives, and,
if time permits, a low-ropes course and a high-ropes course.
Activities were adapted from New Games, Project Adventure,
and others. These activities help develop trust and make the
programs applicable to the youth's lives.
If the project is successful, youth feel good about
themselves, are willing to take risks, and work together. It
is easier to complete a task when the youth are excited or
challenged by it. They will talk about differences and begin
to realize that they are a lot more alike than they thought.
In addition to the week-long residential Marine Institute,
several other programs are offered for youth-at-risk. They
can go on Marsh Walks and Estuary Canoe Trips, giving them
a chance to develop an appreciation for local wetland areas.
Coastal Cleanups were extended and coordinated with
underwater cleanups. Other activities for the youth groups
include constructing wooden fishing line recycling boxes
which are located at marinas, boat ramps, and bait and tackle
stores throughout the area to encourage fishermen to deposit
used monofilament fishing line in the boxes. Young people
collect the line from the boxes as they fill, and the discarded
fishing line is shipped to Berkley Recycling to be recycled
into reels, toys, or for other uses.
On sailing trips, marine biology students have the
opportunity to see the marine environment up close. Water
and plankton samples are taken in the bays, bayous, and the
Gulf. During the day, a survey of marine mammals is
conducted, and youths learn navigation and sailing techniques.
At night, astronomy is studied. The boat sails to barrier
islands so that forts can be explored and ospreys, foxes, and
other wildlife can be observed. As always, there is a beach
cleanup on the islands.
On the Mermaids and Manatees dive trips, youth-at-risk
go skin diving and have the rare opportunity to see, swim
with, and photograph the endangered manatees. The young
people also have a chance to "adopt" a manatee. About 360
people have been involved in the Mermaids and Manatees
program.
Throughout all of these marine education programs, the
overall goal is to help the participants develop a greater sense
of self esteem, interact well with others, accept risks and
challenges, see a connection between their lives and the natural
world, and feel a sense of ownership and responsibility for
the environment. This is a tall order, but in the five years
that the program has worked with youths-at-risk, exciting
results have occurred.
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Youth At-Risk:
Teaching Kids To Survive In The Real World
Margo Lipka
At-Risk Programs Manager
Louisiana Department of Education
Region II Service Center
Hammond, Louisiana
A population that could be considered equally as
endangered or threatened as brown pelicans once were
and sea turtles are now is youth at-risk. This may seem
melodramatic, but the fact is that young people are killing
each other, or themselves, at an alarming rate, and substance
abuse threatens a generation of youth faced with many stresses
over which they may have no control.
The Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act of 1986
defines an at-risk youth as one under the age of 21 at risk of
becoming, or has been, an alcohol or drug abuser, a victim
of physical, sexual, or psychological abuse, committed a
violent or delinquent act, experienced mental health problems
or attempted suicide, or experienced long-term physical pain
due to injury. Also, youth at-risk are impoverished, members
of a minority group, malnourished, homeless, handicapped,
or have low self-esteem. If these special young people are
not identified and assisted, they may accelerate from dropping
out of school to dropping out of life.
It would be easy for educators to blame the dropout problem
on factors that have nothing to do with school. However, it
is almost impossible to ignore these students because the
effects of their problems spill over into every aspect of the
classroom. Although many find labeling potential dropouts
distasteful, the positive aspect is that identifying at-risk youths
provides special programs and assistance. Administrators and
educators face enormous challenges in reaching them and
preventing them from dropping out.
There has been a great deal of publicity about Louisiana's
at-risk youth the 40% drop out rate, child abuse in the home
and day care centers, and economics these are the poorest
children in the nation. All students, particularly those at-risk,
respond to their environment, and how they fit in depends on
how they perceive themselves. When one doesn't look good
to oneself, it is difficult to perceive one's surroundings
positively or feel acceptable to others. Try convincing these
youths they belong.
The Louisiana Department of Education and dedicated
administrators and teachers are doing that with programs that
increase self-esteem in the student and develop positive
attitudes and life-affirming skills to make it in the real world.
One such program is FOCUS. The FOCUS program is
replicated and recognized by the National Diffusion Network,
a delivery system of model educational programs administered
by the U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational
Research and Development. FOCUS targets academic and
social problems, and it is a school within a school, aimed at
disaffected youth in grades 9-11 who can learn but, for various
reasons, have been turned off.
Twenty-five at-risk students and two carefully selected
FOCUS teachers participate in this program. Teacher
selection is crucial. They must be student advocates and in
tune to the special needs of at-risk students. Students attend
their regular classes, two of which are taught by FOCUS
teachers who provide individual attention to each student by
using cooperative learning techniques and teaching study
skills. Though the students receive special attention, they are
not singled out as problem children.
In addition, students attend a class entitled "Peer
Facilitation" which functions as a support group and teaches
problem and conflict resolution skills in order to improve
attitudes toward scholastic achievement. It is through Peer
Facilitation that students learn how to survive in the world.
Each FOCUS teacher facilitates these classes, which students
refer to as "The Family" because they receive recognition and
a sense of belonging through this course. As the lead
facilitator, the teacher guides the students through confidential
sharing as they learn about self-awareness and acceptance,
personal relationships, family dynamics, communication,
suicide prevention, responsible decision-making, refusal
skills, substance abuse, and how to maintain a drug-free
environment. Students realize their value as individuals in
society through the dynamics of a support group.
The FOCUS program has produced positive results in
Louisiana for more than five years. Between 1988 and 1991,
the no-show and dropout rate in St. Tammany Parish, for
example, fell from 24% to 4%.
Louisiana also has a nationally recognized Drug Free
Schools and Communities Program to keep these areas drug
free. Students in grades K-12 receive 8 hours of mandated
substance abuse prevention education each year in different
subject areas. Information on prevention, intervention, and
postvention is provided. Drug-free zones are established
within 1,000 feet of the school to maintain a clean
environment, and penalties are harsh for possessing alcohol
or drugs in the area.
Three types of support groups dealing with substance abuse
are established in schools throughout Louisiana. Each has
Student Assistance Teams, comprised of key school personnel,
in full force to help students solve problems. Also, programs
for positive parenting and parental involvement engender a
positive response from the students to their parents' efforts
to create a positive environment at home. Additionally, many
community agencies create a powerful referral network for
these students.
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The Drug Free Schools and Communities Act of 1986
requires each state to provide education on substance abuse
prevention, but Louisiana had Substance Abuse Prevention
Education teams in schools throughout the state with teachers
extensively trained to carry out classroom instruction on
substance abuse prevention. They are adapt at making
interventions and referring the student for proper care.
Louisiana is the only state in the U.S. to give the Parents
Resource Institute on Drug Education survey, an anonymous
survey of alcohol and drug use, to every student in grades
7-12. The Louisiana Department of Education works hard
to educate its teachers and students to provide a healthy,
drug-free environment.
The State of Louisiana is committed to implementing
effective programs for all students. The programs that focus
on at-risk youth do so with a determination to guide them
through high school and increase their chance of surviving
in the real world.
F. Global Environmental Education:
What The World Needs Now
Developing A Global Perspective Of The Marine Environment
Through Educational Exchange Programs
William R. Younger
Matagorda County Extension Agent-Marine
Bay City, Texas
Over 70% of America's residents inhabit a narrow rim of
territory on, or near, the nation's coastal fringes. Yet,
few of this country's youth, who will be making tomorrow's
critical environmental, social, and economic decisions, have
been sufficiently challenged to gain a keener appreciation and
understanding of the earth's predominant features - it's oceans
shorelines. An additional pressing concern is that even fewer
have found the opportunity to immerse themselves in learning
experiences which generate a global perspective of the
co-dependency between man and the marine environment.
Therefore, the 4-H programs of four mid-coast Texas
counties carefully considered the need for an effective delivery
system which could provide marine-oriented discoveries of
the natural history, heritage, and culture of differing coastal
regions in a positively charged atmosphere of learning
adventure.
As a result of this assessment, an educational exchange
trip between four county 4-H programs from Washington's
Olympic Peninsula and these Texas coastal counties was
initiated and executed.
Thirty Northwesterners (25 youth, 5 adults) joined an equal
number of Texans on Matagorda Island, which is a remote
38-mile long barrier island and part of the National Wildlife
Refuge System, for a intensive wilderness and coastal ecology
camp in mid-June 1991. In August 1991, 42 Texas 4-H
members ventured to Port Townsend, Washington for a
week-long investigation of the environment, enterprise, and
culture of the Puget Sound area.
This focused learning program generated a greater
appreciation and understanding of the ecology, industry, and
people of two far-differing coastal regions while fulfilling the
goals of both groups. Thus, the principle objective of
developing a global perspective of the marine environment
was advanced by this multi-disciplinary approach. Likewise,
the groups from both states were enriched by this educational
travel experience, measured by the following factors:
Confidence -to venture out of the comforts of
home, to meet, with enthusiasm, new people in
unfamiliar surroundings; to take responsibility for
the future; to learn;
Ownership -derived from their work to design and
fund the trip's activities; in the future of both states
by sensing that, as the Indians taught, "all things
have a life spirit which is to be revered;"
Respect -for differing cultures and lifestyles of
others; for the influence man's actions have on the
environment and the fate of humanity; for the
future;
Tolerance -for the thoughts and actions of those
with contrasting backgrounds and experiences; for
nature's harsh realities and stringent demands
which hold the planet in balance; to allow man and
nature to exist in harmony;
Teamwork -refinement of the skills to work, play,
and learn together for the overall benefit of the
group, society, and humanity as a whole;
Leadership -the opportunity to guide the actions of
others through example; the establishment of a
knowledge-paved pathway for better social,
economic, and environmental stewardship for our
planet through mutual understanding; and
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Friendship -a bonding of souls transcending the
breadth of a continent, capturing the spirit of
kinship among the family of MAN, and the
creation of a common vision of environmental and
social balance between man and nature.
Just as this exchange adventure created an excitement to
learn and a renewed commitment to sharing, it is hoped this
presentation will generate enthusiasm in professional marine
educators across the country to embrace exchange programs
as an alluring means of equipping youth and youth educators
to meet the future.
This pilot effort proved so successful, it encouraged its
Sea Grant sponsors to consider developing a global marine
education exchange network to promote and foster national
and international travel opportunities (particularly with
Mexico and Canada).
A suggested approach includes:
Marketing this program through educational
associations and the Sea Grant Programs to solicit
the enrollment of prospective exchange partners,
Developing and distributing to NETWORK
members a directory of exchange opportunities
listing and describing travel options and an
exchange manual providing detailed guidance on
functions necessary for a successful event
(fundraising, risk and liability management, agenda
planning, budget development), and
Training select audiences on how to promote
exchanges as an effective educational vehicle and,
ultimately, to conduct successful exchange trips.
Until final plans are formulated, anyone desiring more
information on the GLOBAL MARINE EDUCATION
EXCHANGE NETWORK possibilities, or wishing to offer
suggestions on the design and development of this proposed
program, should contact: William R. Younger, Extension
Marine Agent, 2200 7th Street - 4th Floor, Bay City, TX 77414,
Phone (409) 245-4100, Fax (409) 245-5661.
Global Environmental Education:
A Summer Opportunity For Middle School Teachers
Sharon H. Walker
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory and Mississippi-Alabama
Sea Grant Consortium, Biloxi, Mississippi
Lyle Soniat
Louisiana State University and Louisiana Sea
Grant College Program, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
William Seaman
University of Florida and Florida Sea
Grant College Program, Gainesville, Florida
TheGlobal Environmental Education Program issponsored
by the National Science Foundation in cooperation with
the Gulf Coast Research Laboratory and the Sea Grant College
programs of Mississippi-Alabama, Louisiana, Florida,
Georgia, Maine-New Hampshire, and Oregon. Middle-school
teachers in Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, and Mississippi may
apply for full scholarships to a three-week, four semester-hour
course on global environmental issues. Scholarships include
full tuition, room and board, travel allotment, and a $300 per
week stipend. This course was offered twice during the
summer of 1992, and it will be offered twice during the
summer of 1993 and once in June 1994. During the
three-week, intensive course, participants acquire the
knowledge, teaching techniques, resource materials, activities,
and hands-on experiences needed to bridge the gap between
their students and the latest scientific research on
environmental questions of global magnitude. The course
also includes sessions with nationally recognized scientists
who are currently conducting global environmental research.
The four major topics covered include climatic change (ozone
depletion, acid rain, greenhouse gases,
desertification/deforestation, and sea level rise), marine and
estuarine pollution, overpopulation, and declines in
biodiversity.
Participant selection is based in part on the commitment of
the participating teachers to (with the school districts' support):
develop at least one program for teacher-training or
staff development in their school district,
use Global Environmental Education support
materials in the classroom and introduce the support
materials to other classrooms through staff
development efforts,
submit an article to a national teacher's journal or
present a paper or demonstration at a state, regional,
or national teachers' conference on specific teaching
techniques, concepts, or activities incorporated in
classroom instruction, laboratory experiments, or
field work that resulted from the workshop, and
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attending all three weeks of the Global
Environmental Education Course.
The Global Environmental Education course is conducted
at the Gulf Coast Research Laboratory's J. L. Scott Marine
Education Center and Aquarium in Biloxi, Mississippi. The
course is demanding, both intellectually and physically. Field
work, including a one-half mile hike across a barrier island,
occurs in the intense heat and humidity one finds in
Mississippi. Other outdoor activities are interspersed among
lectures. Participants also encounter homework, reading
assignments, group projects, a dynamic teaching staff,
motivational hands-on activities, and exciting interactive
sessions with scientists.
The 26 participants in June and 29 in July 1992 earned
the following grades: 47 A's, 6 B's, and 2 C's. The
pre-test/post-test analyses reflected statistically significant
increases in content knowledge for both workshops (T= 6.927,
df=25, P<.05; T=8.35, df=28, P<.05). Evaluation data
collected at the conclusion of each course concerning the
attitude of the participants toward the scientist-presenters
indicate that, for the first course, 95% of the teachers believed
the materials presented were valuable or very valuable. For
the second course, at least 90% of the teachers rated the
materials as either valuable or very valuable. These data may
be interpreted as indicating the timeliness and importance of
the selected global issues to these groups of teachers. A
post-course survey was conducted in late fall for the
participants to monitor their commitment to the criteria.
As of this symposium, 37 of the 55 1992 participants
conducted workshops. The workshops were attended by 685
teachers who indicated a willingness to infuse the global,
environmental materials in their respective classrooms.
Further, the teachers are collectively responsible for classroom
instruction of approximately 26,000 middle-school students.
The data reflects the significant appropriation of the multiplier
effect model of teacher inservice a small core of Gulf States
teachers reaches out to a larger group of teachers, impacting
thousands of students.
Additionally, the first year's courses resulted in the
development of 440 instructional activities on the eight topics.
These activities are presently being reviewed internally, with
the goal of publishing a collection of the best for broad
dissemination. Many of the first year participants continue
to contact the Principal Investigator with needs for additional
information, requests for networking assistance, and to relay
new ideas discovered and/or tried in their classrooms. Such
active participation following the period of formal project
involvement is viewed as significant and a potential area for
complementary course development and/or teaching the same
course to elementary teachers.
Middle school teachers are currently being recruited from
the four-state area to participate in the two 1993 summer
courses. The final three-week course will be taught in the
summer of 1994. Approximately 3,000 application packets
have been distributed during the last two months; the
completed applications are being processed for review by the
Selection Committee.
A Global Model For Environmental Education
Dietlind Smith Hernandez
Children's Alliance for Protection of the Environment (CAPE)
Austin, Texas
The Children's Alliance for Protection of the Environment
(CAPE) is an international, non-profit organization
initiated in 1988 to help children and youth see their place
in the global ecosystem, appreciate the interdependence of
the natural world and human societies, and realize their ability
to conserve resources. Working with individual children,
families, schools, public organizations, and governments in
49 states in the U.S. and 35 countries abroad, CAPE provides
resources and information to help children create their own
protected forests, animal habitats, recycling centers, and
conservation and clean-up projects.
CAPE is environmental action, but CAPE also facilitates
communication and cooperation, provides forums where
future leaders can learn vital diplomatic skills, and promotes
an ideal of global caring among children not just for the
environment, but for people and children with different
customs and concerns. -CAPE is a unique, children's
environmental organization. Its mission goes beyond
environmental action to foster and teach important community
values through local projects. Education, caring, and
communication are integral parts of every CAPE effort.
The philosophy behind CAPE's mission is the belief that
only when children and youth see themselves as members of
a global family and accept responsibility for one another's
welfare will the planet have hope for revival and survival.
CAPE is based on the premise that the ultimate success of
efforts to reverse the destruction of the environment and create
sustainable communities for the future will depend upon
society's ability to shape an environmentally conscious and
responsible population of young people. CAPE's belief is
that environmental education must be holistic, that is global
in perspective and interdisciplinary.
Children learn best by doing. They develop a sense of
what is possible by coming together, sharing their dreams and
visions, and engaging in creative problem-solving with their
peers. CAPE children and youths are encouraged to participate
in innovative projects that benefit their neighborhoods and
communities; around the world, they are cleaning coastlines,
preserving rainforests and animal habitats, composting,
recycling, and supporting their counterparts. Every quarter,
57
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thousands of children look forward to sharing their ideas,
dreams, and practical plans for improving our environment
through Many Hands, the newspaper published by CAPE and
sent free of charge to children in developing and industrialized
nations.
The international office of CAPE is located in Austin,
Texas, and it receives dozens of letters from children every
day asking what they can do for the environment in their state
or country. In response, CAPE publishes an action-packed
environmental curriculum, suitable for use in classrooms,
clubs, and youth organizations. The Program Guide was
developed with input from children, educators, scientists,
writers, volunteers, and environmental organizations. This
comprehensive guide for teachers and youth leaders stresses
hands-on experience and provides ideas and guidelines for
many age-appropriate environmental action and
communication projects. These action projects provide an
excellent supplement to science, social studies, or language
arts curricula already in place. Curricula and educational
material for in-class use are provided along with special
sections developed to familiarize students and teachers with
current environmental issues, such as tropical rainforest
destruction, ocean pollution, hazardous waste, endangered
species, and global warming. CAPE is developing
supplements on various environmental issues which will be
sent to its charter members.
The CAPE Program Guide has received endorsements and
commendations from the Gulf of Mexico Program, the United
Nations Environmental Programme, Tufts University
Environmental Programs, and the Office of Environmental
Awareness of the Smithsonian Institution.
G. Society, Economics, And Environmental Education:
People, Money And Power
Studing The Human Dimension Of Environmental Problems:
Critical Missing Component To Environmental Education And
Environmental Problem Solving
Shirley Laska
Professor of Sociology
Director, Environmental Social Science Research Institute
University of New Orleans
A recent article in Omni magazine posed the question,
"What would the world's environment be like if humans
wore to suddenly disappear?" The author described how he
had asked a variety of scientists and scholars to respond to
the question. He found some willing to speculate, especially
Geologists who specialize in ecological restoration. One
respondent provided a memorable image in which the person
envisioned the national interstate highway system becoming
"green highways" for species dispersal.
Rather than enthusiasm, however, the author of the article
mostly encountered reluctance to consider the question. One
scientist from Yale University responded, "It isn't interesting
to consider the question."
The consensus of respondents was that it is more interesting
to examine the human/environment (ecosystem) relationship.
Given this conclusion, it is interesting to note that specialists
who study the human/environment relationship with an
emphasis on the human are found in all of the social sciences
« anthropology, geography, history, political science,
psychology, and sociology. Biophysical scientists and others
concerned with the environment are, however, only becoming
aware of their existence. This lack of awareness is evidenced
by the number of conferences in which there is only one, or
very few, social scientists asked to participate. This was the
case at a recent international marine debris conference. As
far as the author knows, humans are the only species which
"litters".
The Environmental Social Science Research Institute at
the University of New Orleans, which the author directs, had
a booth at this conference. Most people who walked by the
exhibit paused as they read the title of the Institute and looked
puzzled. When the Institute's work was explained to them,
it was fun to observe their reaction as they considered the
idea. They were told, "Humans cause most environmental
problems, and humans are key to solving them. The Institute
studies the relationship between humans, their groups and
organizations, and the environment." Invariably, the visitors
would respond, "This is important. We should be doing this.
Good luck." Thus, social scientists are beginning to introduce
their work to the environmental community.
The following questions are being used to guide some of
the research being conducted at the Institute, and some of the
findings may be useful to many people's work to improve the
environment:
Why is marine "littering" such a difficult habit to
break?
58
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How do coastal residents and public officials
respond to coastal erosion?
Why did the TEDs (turtle excluder device) become
so controversial?
How do people respond to media reports of natural
hazards?
The social and economic impact of off-shore oil and gas
production is also being studied, and other projects include
studying the way in which communities respond to
technological and natural hazards.
As with other sciences, the various studies contribute to
the support or rejection of beliefs about some phenomenon,
in this case a component of human behavior. The
understanding is refined with more and more studies. While
social scientists do not discover rigid laws as do some other
scientists, they do find norms patterns expected under
similar conditions.
Some of the findings from this research which have
received considerable confirmation and are useful for
environmental education are as follows:
if a person believes something is real, it is "real"
because they act accordingly,
once a person establishes a firm opinion about an
issue, additional information is simply "processed"
to support this opinion, rarely to change their
opinion,
people process information either heuristically -
that is finding easy ways to make decisions or
systematically that is collecting a wide array of
information and thinking things through carefully,
different communication media facilitate one or the
other style,
for the public to become environmentally
sophisticated, they must learn how to learn in order
to process the needed information,
people respond to problems in an "holistic" fashion,
People come to one issue often with much
"baggage" from previous problems. They become
"captives" of these earlier conflicts and unresolved
issues,
"vested interests" shape people's interpretations,
and are based on group memberships such as social
class, occupation, race, gender, age,
different groups have differential power to push
their interests,
people interpret the environment, then they deal
with it,
interpretation comes from the "world view"
(paradigm) which the person holds,
a person can hold conflicting views about different
aspects of life, and
a paradigm shift is occurring vis a vis the
environment from a technological to an ecological
emphasis.
Environmental social sciencehas utility both for facilitating
environmental education and assisting other means of solving
problems such as learning more about how volunteer groups
and governmental and corporate bureaucracies can function
effectively to address environmental problems. It is important
to be a part of this challenge learning about the
human/environment relationship and how to improve the
human impact on the environment.
The Complementary Nature Of Environmental And
Economic Systems
Paul H. Templet
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Job creation and economic development are frequently
viewed as issues independent of, or contradictory to,
environmental and resource conservation. In reality,
economic systems function within a larger ecosystem context.
Economic development will be forced to be consistent with
the nature of a region's ecosystem over the long-term unless
ecosystem services can be imported.
The direction, speed, and scale of development will
ultimately be constrained by ecosystems. Rapid mining of
ores in rainy, mountainous regions creates immediate jobs,
but mine pollution will inhibit future replacement industries,
such as silvaculture, recreation, or fishing. Industrial
discharges in excess of the assimilative capacity of the
ecosystem only inhibit the economic potential of a region as
the ecosystem base is destroyed.
The traditional view is that enhancing environmental
conditions is costly to economic development. In other words,
environmental and economic risks are inversely related.
However, this perspective denies a more plausible relation
between ecosystems and economies. Rather, the loss of an
ecosystem base, or increased environmental risk and reduced
economic carrying capacity of the ecosystem, reduces the
long-term economic welfare secured from the ecosystem.
Hence, environmental and economic risks are complementary.
This study focuses on how environmental and economic
risks complement each other over the long-term. The study
uses one of many possible indicators of relative environmental
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and economic risks, the ratio of toxic chemical emissions and
jobs (E/J) to test whether relative risks are consistently related
to traditional welfare measures, such as income and
employment across the U.S.
Environmental risk is a vaguely measurable concept.
Unfortunately, we cannot determine easily the end effects of
environmental processes or exposures to risks. Without these
relevant measures, risks can be measured by potentially risky
activities, such as pollution discharge levels or destruction of
ecosystems. In this study, the risk measure is primarily
discharges of toxic chemicals. These are releases reported
by the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) data base, which
measures releases of major dischargers. Relative
environmental risk is measured as the ratio of these discharges
to jobs created in the discharging sectors.
The U.S. national average of TRI
cmissions-to-manufacturing jobs ratios for manufacturing
sectors (SIC 20-39) is shown in Figure 1. The nature of these
production processes define, to a large extent, their inherent
relative environmental risks. For example, the chemical
industry has considerably higher E/J ratios than the apparel
industry. The comparative economic advantages of different
stales results in different mixes of these industries thus,
different relative environmental risks in the various states.
This is clear from Figure 2, where emissions-to jobs ratios
for all manufacturing within the fifty states are much higher
for Louisiana, where high risk industries such as chemicals
and petroleum dominate, than Vermont.
The study demonstrates that environmental risk and
economic risk are complementary. Toxic discharge rates,
hazardous waste rates, and energy usage rates, all measured
on a per job basis, are significantly related to poor economic
conditions. The higher the rates, the poorer the economic
conditions. Broader indices of environmental quality also
show significant direct relations between environmental and
economic risks. Measures of the strength of state
environmental policies also show that weaker policies are
positively related to economic risks.
In general, as E/J is reduced, environmental and economic
indicators improve and energy use decreases. The connection
to sustainability appears evident but remains to be
demonstrated. The E/J ratio may be useful for local or national
short-term goals and incentives consistent with long-term
global sustainability.
A state, region, or society can improve its general welfare
by enacting policies which decreases E/J by recruiting an
appropriate mix of industries to achieve a certain E/J objective.
The focus is on improving energy and material efficiencies
as cost cutting measures rather than job reducing labor
productivity, organizing its environmental protection and
economic inducement functions through a common E/J goal,
and evaluating its progress in the development transition and,
if necessary, taking corrective action.
U.S. Average E.'J (Ibs/job)
Figure 1
Apparel(23)
Tobacco(21)
Machlnery(35)
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39
Prlnting(27)jK t
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ST Furnlture(2S)
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Laathar(31)
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U.S. Average
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Petroleum{29)
Primary Metals(33)
Chemicals(28)
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60
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Figure 2
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61
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Project Ceed: Coastal Education For Economic Development
Paulette J. Thomas
University of New Orleans,
New Orleans, Louisiana
Robert A. Thomas
Society for Environmental Education,
New Orleans, Louisiana
Mary M. Banbury
University of New Orleans,
New Orleans, Louisiana
Project CEED is a multidimensional educational effort
taking place in coastal Louisiana focused on
accomplishing its acronym, Coastal Education for Economic
ncvclopmcnt. Its concept is to motivate stewardship of the
environment in citizens who understand that their livelihood
is dependent on a healthy coastal ecosystem. In Louisiana,
as in all coastal states, children who drop out of school are
likely to seek employment in the coastal zone, usually in a
fisheries related field. As a consequence, Project CEED is
directed toward that group that is most likely to drop out of
school middle school at-risk students.
Project CEED is a collaborative effort of the Society for
Environmental Education (operator of the Louisiana Nature
& Science Center) the University of New Orleans Department
of Special Education and Habilitative Services. Project
CEED's educational approach combines the talents and
expertise of hands-on environmental educators (who know
what to teach) and special educators (who know how to teach
atypical learners).
A wide variety of materials has been developed to
accomplish the objectives of Project CEED. Many local
teachers participated as members of the writing team.
Business involvement guarantees that the economic
perspective is maintained (the first program in this area of
Project CEED is under development).
Project activities are teacher friendly; they don't require
massive preparation time for use, and the teacher does not
have to be science-oriented. The activities are designed for
use in several different disciplines, such as English, math, art,
and history. Teaching elements include concept mapping,
decision making, asking provocative questions, Bloom's
taxonomy, Taylor's Multiple Talent Model, poetry (syntu,
cinquains), scamper, synectics, and more. A video tape
(Wetlands Blues) with accompanying teacher's guide and a
Macintosh computer game that models a wetland are available.
Several independent teacher's guides have been developed,
each of which focuses on a wetlands related topic (beaches,
wetlands values, etc.) and a specific student-generated product
(designing a bumper sticker or t-shirts, etc.).
Project CEED is a continuing program, with many new
phases being considered. For information about acquiring
the program products, write: Society for Environmental
Education, P.O. Box 870610, New Orleans, LA 70187-0610.
Horror Stories Sell More Than Newspapers: Weaving Tales Of
Social And Economic Issues As A Teaching Method
Mary Thorpe
Del Mar College
Corpus Christi, TX
A calamity, or near calamity, holds appeal to the public.
Children at play, ministers in the pulpit, parents
instructing children all use horror stories to emphasize a
point. Weaving stories into presentations can increase
audience involvement. Building a repertoire of stories is not
simple unless one knows where and how to look for and when
to use them.
Know Your Audience
Some stories are appropriate for adults but not children,
and vice versa. Children have an affinity for "gross" topics
which adults may view as crude. But, both groups want to
know more about some topics, such as syringes and grass
cuttings washed from street drains onto bay beaches because
that indicates an environmental health risk around which they
can rally.
Use Humor Effectively
Humor should never be abusive, pointless, or offensive.
For instance, the punchJine of the following story, illustrating
the need for everyone in a city to understand shoreline
processes, is not appropriate for all groups.
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Sunfish Island, a migratory spoil island in the Corpus
Christi Yacht Basin, is frequently suggested as a site for a
statue of Christ, in honor of the City's name. However,
because the island erodes rapidly, within a short time, the
statue will be "walking on water."
Personalize Your Stories
When introducing your story, use phrases like, "When I
was doing research for EPA," "Recently, at the beach, I saw,"
"When I was a child," "My colleague said," "Last week, I
read."
Recent news stories have identified clusters of infants born
with neurological birth defects in three isolated regions of
Texas - the Rio Grande Delta, the Beaumont Coastal Prairie,
and the Lampasas Cut-Plain.
The problem is real. The author knows due to her own
niece giving birth to such a child last year. Does anyone have
an explanation or solution? It must be found.
Involve The Audience
When discussing the impact of herbicides and pesticides,
ask if anyone in the audience has a family member or close
friend who was affected by Agent Orange. Chances are
someone will. Let them describe the situation. Their personal
tragedy will engender sympathy. Then, explain the
implications of spraying an entire nation and its water supply.
Bring the problem home by addressing the impact of continued
use of similar chemicals on local water bodies and supplies.
They won't soon forget.
Investigate Leads
Don't take someone else's word for it check it out! Then
it becomes one's own story. Read; read; read! Write to
authors. Go to seminars. Keep a file. Take photographs.
Walk around, but never trespass. Sit and contemplate.
Talk to laborers who work daily with a problem, but, first,
identify oneself so they feel they can talk freely. Never
endanger a source's job by divulging names.
Keep A Journal
During spare time, make dated observational notes about
subjects, such as the presence of litter, quips, news bits, sky
color, beach width, or quotes, such as the following from
Raymond Carver, "I think a little menace is fine to have in a
story. For one thing, it's good for the circulation."
Know Local Regulations
Each locale has different land use regulations and methods
of enforcement. For instance, in Aransas County, Texas, few
regulations control sewage disposal on private property, unless
there is a demonstrable impact on public surface or ground
water. A case in point is a house on stilts with sewage lines
ending before they reach the ground. Fifty feet from the
house was recognizable commode waste, interlaced by tracks
made by a child's toy car. No regulations prohibited this
menace. If you know the regulations, you can affect change
through education.
Illustrate A Point
A few years ago, during a class discussion, one student
requested that the group investigate his uncle's problem. The
main sewage trunk line in his uncle's hilly neighborhood ran
up- and down-slope to the wastewater plant. The line often
clogged.
The city cut a manhole in the line to unclog it, but a geyser
erupted from the hole during heavy rains. The city was called
immediately, but nothing was done. A cone of human waste
built up, Uncle's horses and sheep contracted diseases, and
his wife was persistently ill. Antibiotics could not provide
relief. Then, the city dug a 200-foot long ditch from the
manhole to the river for the raw sewage overflow.
This continued for more than a year when the author's
class investigated and wrote a friend in the city government.
A four-foot high concrete chimney was built over the manhole
to absorb the water pressure. However, during heavy rains,
the geyser returns and the mound grows.
After six years of perpetual health problems, exacerbated
by bureaucratic stalemate and threats of losing his retirement
benefits if he files a lawsuit, Uncle is trying to sell his restful
retreat with the beautiful view, numerous songbirds, and
backyard fishing in the river.
Tell The Truth
Your audience will quote you, which is the ultimate
compliment.
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H. Curriculum Development: You Can Get There From Here
USS My School
Linda Maraniss
Gulf States Regional Director
Center for Marine Conservation
Austin, Texas
fTthc Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) has been
JL working on a special project funded by the United States
Navy to educate students about marine debris. Phase One
involved pairing Navy personnel with local school children
during annual beach cleanups held around the U.S. each
September. Phase Two involved creating a marine debris
curriculum to teach children about the way the Navy is working
to comply with legislation that bans dumping plastic and other
trash into the sea.
During the September 1991 International Beach Cleanups,
Navy personnel in Virginia and Texas worked with students
from local schools cleaning beaches and collecting data on
the trash found.
The Marine Debris Education and Outreach Program began
in the summer of 1991. The result was a 14 lesson, three
week curriculum known as USS MY SCHOOL, designed for
tipper level elementary school children. It was first tested in
October 1991 in Austin, Texas and taught in October 1992 in
Hampton, Virginia. It will be ready for national distribution
in January 1993, and in April 1993, CMC will teach it in
Florida. During the summer of 1992, teacher workshops to
explain the project were conducted in Corpus Christi and
South Padre Island, Texas.
The multi-disciplinary curriculum teaches students about
the marine debris problem, its impact on the health of the
oceans and marine wildlife, and about legislation making it
illegal to dump plastic trash at sea. During the three week
unit, students are involved with lessons in language arts, math,
marine science, geography, reading, and public speaking. A
letter from the Navy discussing the difficulties of holding
trash on a ship with thousands of crew members is included
in the curriculum. Maps showing the locations of Navy bases
and countries party to the MARPOL Treaty are also included.
Students learn about marine debris from a slide program
and video produced by CMC. A video produced by the Navy
gives the students a first hand look at how it complies with
no-dumping rules.
The USS MY SCHOOL curriculum has students working,
just as the Navy does, to educate the "crew" about new
shipboard waste handling procedures. Plastic trash from the
cafeteria is now kept in storage for three days. The students
learn about three different pieces of equipment being developed
by the Navy to compact, grind, and process trash. During
this unit, students become problem solvers, and they know
they are working to solve a real life environmental problem.
How will vessels handle trash at sea?
Students learn that the Navy is recycling. Plastic from
Navy ships has been made into plastic lumber for benches
and floating piers. During this project, the class also creates
a display of household items, substituting plastic with
non-plastic. The students learn that the Navy is reducing the
amount of plastic taken on board ships. No more plastic dry
cleaning bags, foam coffee cups, individual ketchup packets,
or plastic coffee stir sticks.
The students become experts on the marine debris topic.
After educating the "crew" about no dumping laws, they begin
to store cafeteria trash. Soon, they learn just how hard it is
to store trash for several days. These new procedures provide
students with real life situations and a chance to learn how
the Navy is solving its complex problems of managing
shipboard solid waste. In a very hands-on way, the students
learn that trash takes up space, starts to smell, and piles up
quickly.
Also, the students produce brochures, posters, plays, and
speeches to educate the crew about marine debris and ship
board waste management. Another follow up exercise requires
students to inventory the supplies used in their school's
cafeteria to see how much plastic is thrown away daily and
determine what changes they would make in purchasing
supplies.
Several newspaper stories have been written about the
project in Texas, and students in Virginia were treated to a
tour of a Navy ship as part of the project. Navy personnel in
both states have visited classrooms to teach students about
marine debris and the Navy's research and development plans.
Students participating in this project feel special because
they work together on teams, visit and interview the school
cafeteria staff, teach other classes about the project, and
complete a USS MY SCHOOL notebook, full of new
information, from graphs and vocabulary lists to MARPOL
stickers and maps. Lessons also include several enrichment
activities to help with vocabulary development.
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Environmental Curriculum: An Overview Of Classroom
Development And Evaluation Of Existing Materials
Bonnie Holub
Panacea, Florida
This paper explains how evaluation and curriculum
development go hand-in hand, or why evaluation is the
first step in the curriculum development process.
When thinking of curriculum development, ask four main
questions:
What does one want to teach?
Who will one teach?
How will one teach?
Did the students learn?
In education jargon, the answers to these questions translate
into:
educational objectives,
target audience,
methods, and
evaluation.
Evaluation is usually considered as the last of the four
steps. Evaluation has its place at the end of the process, but
it also has a very important place in the beginning of the
process.
In order to have a successful curriculum development
model, one must start and end with evaluation. Take, for
instance, the first question, "What does one want to teach?"
By asking this question, the evaluation process has already
begun, because what is really being asked is "What is it that
one wants students to learn."
Curriculum development begins by developing evaluation
questions first. Identify what students are expected to learn,
and build the curriculum around these objectives.
For instance, if students will be taught about wetlands,
one must identify what it is about wetlands the students should
know.
In this example, the students should learn the characteristics
of a wetland, the types of wetlands found in their state, why
over 50% of the country's original wetlands have been lost,
and most importantly, what actions students can take to prevent
the future destruction of wetlands.
These four educational objectives translate into the
following final evaluation items:
List the main characteristics of a wetland,
Name the types of wetlands found in Florida,
Discuss the two main reasons why we have lost
over 50% of our original wetlands in Florida, and
Discuss three actions one can take prevent the
destruction of wetlands.
Once the evaluation items have been defined, one should
be ready to develop creative and varied ways to teach these
things. Other background information can be taught along
the way, but the focus should be directed to ensuring that the
students know the main points when the lesson is over. Choose
materials that are appropriate for the students' age group, level
of previous knowledge, and consider the amount of time and
other resources available to devote to this unit or topic.
After the unit has been taught, test the students to see the
teaching success one has had using the evaluation questions
developed before the lessons.
Curriculum development starts with evaluation, is built
around evaluation, and ends with evaluation. That is how
evaluation and curriculum development go hand-in-hand.
References
Marine Ecology, a middle school text, developed for the Wakulla
County School Board
Project Estuary, a week long unit on estuarine ecology for
middle and high school students, developed for the Apalachicola
National Estuarine Research Reserve
Saving Wetlands: A Citizens' Guide for Action in Florida,
developed for the National Audubon SocietyA Citizens' Guide
for Saving Wetlands in Mississippi, developed for the
Mississippi Bureau of Marine Resources and the National
Audubon Society
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Developing Regionally-Based Environmental Science Activities
Lyle M. Soniat
Louisiana Sea Grant College Program
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
The rationale for using regionally-based examples in
science instruction to illustrate universal environmental
concepts can be attributed, in part, to the idea of meaningful
learning. Learning theorists generally concur that it is easier
for an individual to learn something new when it is linked to
something with which they are already familiar. Secondly,
they state that it is easier to capture one's attention in a new
topic of study \vhen that topic is personally meaningful to the
learner.
Some critics of how science is presently taught in America
feel that science instruction is not relevant to the majority of
students. They feel that teachers are merely preparing students
to take the next science course, not preparing the majority of
students to be scientifically literate. They state that few
graduates understand the interrelationships of science and
technology in a social context; fewer still have the scientific
knowledge or process skills to judge knowledge claims and
make responsible decisions about public issues. These critics
feel that the confluence of the science-technology-society
theme can be an effective organizer for science education.
They believe that the success of die individual, and, ultimately,
society, is tied to their decisions on issues related to the social
uses of science and technology.
Whichever rationale you prefer, it remains that students
are usually more interested when teachers present instruction
using familiar topics. Louisiana students may be more likely
to remember an earth science discussion of erosion if examples
deal with wetland loss rather than glaciers. They may be
more likely to recall discussions of endangered species if
examples of the brown pelican or the Louisiana black bear
are used, rather than jaguars or snail darters. This is not to
suggest that the usual textbook examples are not important
or that local phenomena should be studied in isolation from
worldwide issues. It does suggest, however, that a strong
rationale exists for using the local examples to illustrate
universal problems to students. In fact, educational
researchers have found that the use of real world examples
and situations can be more readily understood if the impact
of those examples and situations can be internalized through
regional, or personal, experience.
This is especially true for students in states bordering the
Gulf of Mexico. Many of those states' economies are strongly
tied to the environmental health and well being of the Gulf.
Effective management and conservation of coastal wildlife
and natural resources demands local emphasis in science
education. If the Gulf States are to manage, use, and conserve
our rich coastal resources wisely, our educational systems
must produce citizens who understand certain concepts that
coastal wetlands are fragile, that a healthy functioning whole
depends on complex relationships among many natural
processes and species and that careless exploitation and lack
of balanced management will lead to a severe reduction in
coastal resources, the finfish, shellfish, and wildlife on which
many livelihoods depend.
To address these issues and to provide teachers with
supplemental enrichment materials, several modules of
science activities and video programs were developed at the
LSU Sea Grant College Program. Exemplary science
teachers, together with university scientists, developed a series
of regionally-based environmental science materials that use
current research, local biological phenomena, and social
situations to teach environmental concepts. The program is
entitled Wild Louisiana and is presented in such a way as to
address the different learning styles of students. Hands-on
activities, games, simulations, and role playing are designed
to meet the needs of higher level students, while interactive
video lessons help other students. Also included is background
information that brings teachers up to date on current research
and other related information. The program is linked to the
learning objectives that are in the state-adopted curriculum,
as well as to exit exam requirements necessary for students
to graduate.
The program was evaluated in over 60 schools statewide
and was shown to be effective in comparison to a lecture
method of instruction. One other finding of interest in this
study was that the highest level of students performed poorest
in the lecture method of instruction compared to all other
groups. This suggests that the instructional method used by
the majority of teachers may be failing to meet the needs of
our best students.
Wild Louisiana has been adopted by the Louisiana
Department of Wildlife and Fisheries as part of its aquatic
education program and instruction in this course is presently
being given to Louisiana science teachers in a three hour
workshop. Three modules presently exist with the completion
of two more due this spring.
A second group of activities has also been developed for
middle school science students. These activities are based on
a wetlands poster published by the National Audubon Society
and features both a typical freshwater swamp and a salt marsh.
These activities provide teachers with background information
about general marsh ecology and discuss the important
functions that wetlands provide. The poster serves as a
backdrop to teach food chains, food webs, and energy flow.
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III. Citizens' Action And Community
Involvement Forum
A. Shore And Coastal Erosion: Proactive Measures To
Prevent Beach And Shoreline Erosion
Dunes Day In Brazoria County
Charles G. Moss
County Extension Agent - Marine
Brazoria County, Texas
The science involved in dune construction and stabilization
is basic. Whatever moves water moves sand. This could
be wind, current, or tide. On the beach, sand is moved by
wind, little people with spoons and pails, and big people with
shovels and heavy equipment.
In the midst of this obedience to the laws of physics, the
beach seems to breathe in and out like a living organism,
eroding and accreting with the season, severely accelerated
by storms. The trick is to make the sand stop in place, pile
up, and stay put.
Here, science is less functional than art and magic the
art of politics and the magic of salesmanship.
Philosophy precedes politics. Why have sand dunes?
Because, they are possible. Because, they exist in their own
right.
Aesthetically, they are beauty in the eye of the beholder
and relief from the monotony of flatness. Functionally, they
are life giving to a complex array of plants and animals. They
are the land's first line of defense in the eternal struggle
between sea and shore. They have a right to be here.
The citizens of Brazoria County have walked on flattened
beaches and looked landward for surviving vegetation
following destructive storms.
In 1978, the concept of rebuilding destroyed dunes was
demonstrated by the Texas Agricultural Extension Service
and the Soil Conservation Service, Waters Davis District. This
demonstration consisted of placing ten yards of discarded
Christmas trees in a row on the beach and tying them down
with stakes. It was a prophecy of possibility.
Additionally, the Corps of Engineers has ahistory of erosion
control projects, from stacking old car bodies on the beach
to building sand fences for beach grass propagation. These
projects are very interesting, and the Corps of Engineers is a
good resource for information.
Enter politics. In Texas, according to State law, beaches
belong to the citizens, up to the vegetation line, and access
to the beaches shall not be denied. This is known as the
"Open Beaches Act," which is administered by the Texas
General Land Office and enforced by the Texas Attorney
General.
The ten yard demonstration dune was easily forgiven, but
how to get permission to work on nineteen miles of beach
crossing several jurisdictions? For instance, the Texas Parks
and Wildlife Department administers a state recreation area
with frontage on the Gulf of Mexico.
The local county judge and commissioner's court are the
key to gaining permission in each jurisdiction. The local
County Commissioner and County Judge should be informed
and updated throughout the planning process. Because their
support will open agency doors, it is important to include
each official with jurisdiction in the decision making process.
Enter salesmanship. The Pearland Action 4-H Club's Sea
& Shore Project Group collected and installed the Christmas
trees in the first demonstration dune. The media was interested
in a story about boys and girls performing community service
projects. The recycling cause was not yet popular, but saving
landfill space appealed to city administrators. It was a winning
proposition.
Each year, the Dunes Day event grew under the leadership
of the Save Our Beach Association and volunteers like Dow
Chemical-Texas Operation's "Beach Buddies", scout
organizations, church groups, and people who just turned out.
Four major storms have taken away the dunes they built.
Each time the people built them back, but subsidence has cut
away sections that once supported dunes, exposing old trees
laid down in the early 80's. Those old trees are stark memorials
that the sand could be held in place for awhile, but all things
change.
In 1993, Dunes Day volunteers will begin construction a
little further back from the shore and in fewer areas. The
dunes of '79 and '80 are gone, but the sand is not. Neither
are people who love the beach and are willing to make the
most of it.
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Measures For Stabilizing Coastal Dunes In Alabama And Georgia
Donald Surrcncy
U.S. Soil Conservation Service
Athens, Georgia
I
ntroduction
Dunes are reservoirs of sand formed by waves and wind
that help keep a seashore intact. They provide a flexible barrier
to the movement of high tides and waves in low lying areas
behind a beach, reducing erosion.
Vegetation on the coastal dunes in Alabama and Georgia is
inadequate to prevent rapid erosion. Where this condition
occurs, the dunes are extremely vulnerable to the forces of wind
and water and are causing them to disappear. They can be
stabilized with vegetative and structural measures, including
grasses and woody plants adapted to a coastal environment.
Structures such as cross-walks and sand-fences also catch and
hold sand.
A project demonstrating that sand dunes can be protected
from erosion caused by both people and natural forces was
implemented by local, State, and Federal agencies and a private
developer in Gulf Shores, Alabama. The information obtained
from the evaluation of plant materials adapted for coastal dune
stabilization and the structural measures, such as cross walks
and sand fencing, helped to plan larger projects on Tybee and
St. Simons islands in Georgia.
Study Areas
Gulf Shores. Alabama
This project was undertaken with the cooperation of Gene
Brett, developer of the Phoenix Condominiums where this
project took place. In addition to participating in the project,
Mr. Brett agreed to share in its cost. Technical assistance was
provided by Soil Conservation Service plant materials
specialists and the district conservationist. Also, the Baldwin
County Soil and Water Conservation District cosponsored the
project with the Coastal Area Program Office and arranged for
Boy Scouts to do the planting.
The Soil Conservation Service Plant Materials Centers in
Georgia and Florida provided most of the plant materials for
the dune stabilization project. The SCS plant materials centers
were involved in active projects to collect, assemble, and test
plant materials for dune stabilization.
As a first step, SCS personnel prepared a dune stabilization
plan that included plant materials, cross walks, sand fences,
and an irrigation system for the 450 feet of beachfront.
TVhce Island. Georgia
The information obtained from the Gulf Shores, Alabama
project was used to establish a larger project at Tybee Island,
Georgia. In 1989, a beach renourishment project covering more
than two miles entailed the establishment of cross walks, sand
fencing, a temporary irrigation system, and adapted vegetation.
The plant materials selected were sea oats, bitter panicum, and
marshhay cordgrass. Cross walks were constructed at strategic
points to provide pedestrian access to the beach, thereby protecting
the dunes and vegetation.
SCS provided six kinds of plants from those developed in its
Plant Materials Program that underwent extensive testing at SCS
plant materials centers in Americus, Georgia and Brooksville,
Florida. This project provided the opportunity to evaluate the
plants under natural and, often, inhospitable field conditions.
Discussion And Results
Gulf Shore Alabama
On February 1987, Boy Scouts from Gulf Shores Troup 49
planted 9,000 plants. The plant materials consisted of 3,000
bitter panicum, 3,000 marshhay cordgrass plants provided by
SCS, and 3,000 sea oat plants bought by the developer of the
Phoenix Condominiums. They spaced the plants 18 inches apart
in 18 inch rows and placed one ounce of slow-release fertilizer
in each hole before planting. For the scouts, the project was an
educational exercise in conservation and a chance to learn about
the role that dunes play in coastal ecology.
The dunes are beginning to grow as the plants are established
and trap blowing sand. The sand fences also catch blowing sand
and allow the dunes to form. During the first year, the plants
were irrigated twice daily and fertilized three times a year with
100 pounds of 13-13-13. The water added by irrigation and the
new plant materials have encouraged the growth of native beach
plants.
Conclusion
The dune stabilization system used in the Phoenix
Condominiums project can be used to enhance dunes all along
the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. The plants and technology are
readily available, making it possible for individual homeowners
to undertake their own dune preservation efforts. Essential to
the success of any such effort is selecting the right location and
plants and, then, irrigating and protecting the plants until they
are established. An irrigation system is required on all dune
plantings to provide adequate moisture during the initial
establishment period. Well established dunes will not remain
that way without following a reasonable maintenance program.
Major considerations include maintaining the dune line and
vegetation and controlling pedestrian and vehicular traffic.
Note:
The Americus, Georgia and the Brooksville, Florida Plant
Materials Centers have released the following new plant materials
varieties for dune stabilization:
'Flageo' Marshhay cordgrass (Spartina patens) 'Northpa'
Bitter panicum (Panicum amarum) 'Southpa' Bitter panicum
(Panicum amarum) 'Atlantic' Coastal panicgrass (Panicum
amarum var. amarulum).
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B. Restoration And Construction Of Coastal Wetlands
The Christinas Tree Marsh Restoration Project
Jefferson Parish, Louisiana
Jean Westbrook
Coalition to Restore Coastal Louisiana
Metairie, Louisiana
The idea was born in Holland. The tiny Dutch nation, in
its constant battle with the sea, builds land by trapping
sediment in brush fences. During a visit to Holland, Dr. John
Day, of Louisiana State University's Center for Wetlands
Resources, wondered whether the Dutch technique would
work in Louisiana.
In 1987, using a native plant, roseau cane, and
approximately 2,000 Christmas trees, the Center demonstrated
this technique on a site in the LaBranche Wetlands, a badly
damaged area in St. Charles parish. Measurements showed
that some land accretion occurred due to this experiment.
In 1989, the citizens of Louisiana voted to create a Wetlands
Trust Fund to restore wetlands by approving an amendment
to the Louisiana State Constitution. Suddenly, money was
available for the long-overdue battle against the loss of
Louisiana's coastal wetlands. In 1990-91, grants of $10,000
were offered to coastal zone parishes wishing to conduct
sediment-trapping projects. The Coalition to Restore Coastal
Louisiana offered to help by providing training on all aspects
of the program. The Coalition further offered to recruit a
Volunteer Coordinator in each parish.
The project in Jefferson Parish was, by far, the most
ambitious. This is appropriate because Jefferson Parish is the
second most populous parish, and it is part of the Barataria
Basin, which is the fastest-eroding part of Louisiana's coast.
Site selection
Christmas tree projects are still experimental in a real
sense. It is believed that suitable areas are shallow and have
low-energy water movement. The site selected in this case
has four intersecting bayous and receives current from the
Mississippi River via the Intracoastal Canal. There is oil
production and commercial fishing in the area, and most
available sediment is resuspended sediment from boat wakes.
Project design
"Cribs" were built by driving 2"x 4"x 8' posts into the soft
mud. Cribs were modular nearly all were 72'x4' and used
29 posts. A gap was left in each fence to provide access for
fishing. It was discovered that posts could be emplaced simply
by leaning on them, and that they could not be removed, even
by a strong man.
The project was designed and sites selected by a parish
Wetland Specialist. Volunteers are involved in most other
aspects of the program, so it is a public-private partnership
in every sense.
Labor
Jefferson's project uses volunteer labor almost entirely.
Citizens are recruited by a Volunteer Coordinating Committee
(VCC) composed of members of five organizations, La.
Wildlife Federation, League of Women Voters, Sierra Club,
Women for a Better La., and Young Leadership Council.
Volunteers build the cribs, tie the Christmas trees into bundles,
provide many small boats to transport trees to the project site,
place the trees in the cribs, and tie them to the posts.
Publicity and public education
The VCC designs and prints a flyer and insert for the Parish
water bills. It creates and distributes a Public Service
Announcement, presents a slide show at various meetings,
has members who frequently appear on radio and television
talk shows, places exhibits at fairs, and distributes articles for
newsletters. In 1992, a donation made it possible to put
notices in the local newspapers.
Recruitment of volunteers
This is done by the VCC. Letters are sent to companies,
government agencies, and other groups likely to be interested
in participating. The VCC follows up the letters with
telephone calls. Volunteers must be at least twelve years old
to tie trees together and sixteen or older to work on the water.
Training, directing, and deploying volunteers
Planning is done by the VCC and Parish personnel.
Because of the large number of volunteers, actual workday
direction and deployment is largely a VCC activity. Radios
are used to direct work on the boats from shore.
Safety and comfort of volunteer workers
Providing portable toilets and cordoning off work stations
from areas where vehicles will be moving is largely done by
Parish personnel. The VCC plans for a place to wash hands
or get a drink of water and arranges to provide lunch each
day by soliciting donations of food or money to buy food.
Volunteer workers must wear long pants, long sleeves,
gloves, and leather shoes, and life jackets when on the water.
The VCC also provides a first aid station. It is important to
plan for volunteer safety and, to avoid potential liability, to
be seen doing so.
Appreciation of volunteers
The VCC recognizes that volunteers cannot be appreciated
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too much. Letters of thanks are sent to each individual
volunteer, and certificates are sent to each organization. Also,
the Parish president has a ceremony of appreciation for the
VCC members.
What the Jefferson Christmas Tree Project has
accomplished so far:
The first year (1991) of the project, 300 volunteers built
11,170 linear feet of cribs and tied and emplaced 24,000 trees,
working an estimated 3,800 hours. In 1992, 700 volunteers
tied and emplaced 60,000 trees. It is estimated that VCC
spent 219 hours on administration, training, and public relations
for the project, but that may be too low.
Using Christmas trees in these projects is perfect. People
who did not feel good about destroying a tree for holiday
decoration have a way to assure a continued beneficial use.
The public loves the connection with Christmas gift giving -
they can give their tree, making it is easy to get publicity tying
into this theme. Also, a large and highly suitable mass of
material becomes available at one time, and the trees do not
go into increasingly precious landfill space.
Evaluating The Created And Restored Intertidal Wetlands At The
Chevron Refinery, Pascagoula, Mississippi
J. Daniel Allen
Chevron, U.S.A.
Pascagoula, Mississippi
Coastal salt marshes are among the most productive natural
ecosystems known. Besides their ability to convert large
amounts of carbon dioxide into living tissue, they typically
perform a number of other ecological functions - - some of
which man values highly. Salt marshes along the northern
Gulf of Mexico, for example, buffer adjacent uplands from
storm damage, provide habitat for a variety of migratory water
birds, furbearcrs, and reptiles, and they serve as nurseries and
feeding grounds for finfish and shellfish harvested in nearshore
waters. In fact, the importance and abundance of the estuarine
wetlands which reach from Alabama to northern Texas, and
their associated fisheries, led one scientist to label that region
the Fertile Fisheries Crescent. Within that crescent, near
Pascagoula, Mississippi, Chevron operates a major oil refinery.
The availability of the world's known crude oil reserves
raised serious concerns about America's energy security
through the 1970's. In a move to help stabilize energy
production, Chevron began a project in 1980 to modify
Pascagoula Refinery to allow it to operate efficiently on
virtually any grade of crude oil which might become available
anywhere in the world. Project design constraints, however,
required thatsomenontidal and small, isolated wetlands within
the existing refinery be filled, which was done in compliance
with state and federal permit conditions. A number of
measures were taken to mitigate adverse effects on wetlands.
Project plans were changed to avoid some areas while impacts
to others were minimized by relocating and redesigning
equipment. Any remaining, unavoidable impacts would be
offset by the construction of replacement habitat.
Working with state and federal resource agencies, Chevron
devised a plan to construct a 25-acre intertidal marsh adjacent
to nearby Bang's Lake estuary. The new marsh was excavated
from a planted pine forest to a range of grades and elevations
comparable to those found on the natural marsh. A simulated
creek was constructed through the center of the site to ensure
that tidal circulation would be adequate to sustain the
vegetation and improve access to fish, invertebrates and plant
propagules. Smooth cordgrass and black rush, the dominant
species of the estuary, were then collected from wild stock in
the estuary and replanted at the new site on three-foot centers.
Survey data was collected from transects on the natural
marsh to determine the elevation zones preferred by each
species. Plantings were then made at three-foot intervals with
the cordgrass occupying lower elevations and the black rush
in the higher intertidal zone. To encourage colonization of
the site by species best adapted to site conditions, no effort
was made to remove incidental growth from transplant plugs.
A small amount of common 8-8-8 fertilizer, averaging one
teaspoon/set, was incorporated during planting to accelerate
establishment and coverage.
To further enhance the value of the site to wildlife, the
spoils excavated from the marsh site were stacked and graded
to form a dune. Dolomitic lime was added at four tons/acre
to counteract acids formed by oxidation of sulfides and other
materials and displace sodium from seawater which had
saturated the spoils during excavation. Grasses were then
planted to stabilize the soils against erosion. Native live oak
and slash pine from a local nursery were planted along the
seaward slope of the berm to provide a habitat type occurring
only at a scattering of other locations around the estuary.
When this site matures, the effect will mimic the maritime
forest or coastal hammock habitat which has long been under
development pressure along riiost of the coast.
Work at the site was completed in November, 1985; by
the following May, the planted grasses had begun to spread
and a number of volunteer species were observed, including
salt grass, three pickleweeds or salt worts, Spartina spartinae,
and additional smooth cordgrass. By the end of the first
growing season, the site was being used or inhabited by a
variety of vertebrates (fish, birds, mammals, reptiles) and
invertebrates (blue crabs, fiddler crabs, periwinkles, ribbed
mussels, etc.) despite the incomplete plant cover.
During the second growing season, the vegetation growth
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accelerated significantly; by the third year, the black rush
zone was completely covered by rush and salt grass. The
cordgrass zone was well-established, except in localized
patches where the plantings had failed. A salt panne, or upper-
high marsh, had also developed between the black rush/salt
grass and the upland hammock by the end of the third year,
colonized largely by the pickleweeds, Spartina spartinae,
algal mats, and interstitial diatoms. The hammock area
continued to mature with invasion of an increasing variety of
early-successional species, such as morning glory, groundsel
tree, pine seedlings, and Iva imbricata.
Further study of the site was initiated recently to compare
it quantitatively with the nearby natural marsh. The study,
which is being conducted by the Mississippi State University
Coastal Research & Extension Center, will evaluate
sedimentation, vegetation structure, macroin vertebrate
assemblages, and use of the site by birds, mammals, finfish,
and shellfish. This study will continue for three years under
funding from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
What once had been a few isolated pockets of mostly
inadvertently-created wetlands within a heavy-industrial
environment has successfully been replaced by a new
sanctuary for fish and wildlife. Common visitors and
inhabitants range from fish, shrimp, crabs, and mussels to a
variety of birds and reptiles to raccoons, deer, and other
mammals. As the project continues to mature especially
the oak/pine upland its utility and attractiveness to wildlife
will likely continue to grow as well.
Cooperative Habitat Creation Efforts In Galveston Bay, Texas
Linda R. Shead
Executive Director, Galveston Bay Foundation
Webster, Texas
The Galveston Bay system is not unlike .many of our
nation's .coastal bays and estuaries in that wetland habitat
has been declining over recent decades as human uses of the
Bay's resources have taken their toll. Over 25,000 acres of
wetlands were lost around Galveston Bay between 1956 and
1979 alone. Erosion, subsidence, coastal development, and
dredging are some of the physical forces that have played a
role in changing the face of the Bay system. Furthermore,
Galveston Bay is home to 4,000,000 people and the nation's
largest petrochemical complex, all contributing municipal
and industrial wastes and non-point source pollution.
Also, like much of the nation, the socioeconomic and
political history of Galveston Bay centered around use of the
region's natural resources timber, oyster shell, fisheries,
and oil and gas. Recently, however, there has been a growing
awareness of the need to restore balance. The Galveston Bay
Foundation (GBF) is a citizens' organization formed in 1987
to preserve and enhance Galveston Bay for multiple uses,
through education, conservation, research, and advocacy. Its
Board of Trustees is composed of individuals and groups
representing the diverse users of the Bay.
It is through the diversity represented in the Galveston
Bay Foundation that some of the solutions to the Bay's
problems are found. Three years ago, a cooperative effort
was begun to plant smooth cordgrass marsh for habitat creation
and shoreline erosion protection. Smooth cordgrass, Spartina
alterniflora, is the plant that grows without competition in
the intertidal zone. Its marshes provide the habitat so essential
for marine life, while at the same time absorbing wave energy
that would otherwise erode the shoreline.
The project has been guided from the beginning by two
GBF Advisory Trustees, Edward Seidensticker, of the Soil
Conservation Service (SCS), and Robert Nailon, formerly of
the Marine Advisory Service. From their early efforts,
procedures were established for transplanting the cordgrass
and providing suitable protection for the young transplants.
Each brought his particular expertise, the flora and the fauna,
in a combination of irrepressible energy and commitment to
the project.
In 1989, an agreement was signed between the Galveston
Bay Foundation and the Port of Houston Authority to plant
cordgrass on islands owned by the Port in the San lacinto
River. In 1990, planting began, with the Port providing
funding for equipment and supplies used for the project that
year. The joint effort of local, State, and Federal agencies
was supplemented by volunteer labor provided through the
Galveston Bay Foundation. Twenty volunteers from the
individual and organization members of the Foundation
participated, representing conservation (Houston Sierra Club),
recreation (Houston Canoe Club), and college service
organizations. The two plantings were also assisted by
volunteers from the Saltwater Anglers League of Texas
(SALT), who provided their boats for transportation to the
islands.
The second year of planting, 1991, brought an expanded
array of volunteer organizations, an expanded role for SCS,
and an additional site. In addition to the individual and
organization members of GBF, new participants were recruited
from agencies and local corporations, including the Texas
Water Commission, Exxon Chemical, Exxon Refinery, and
Tenneco. A cooperative agreement between GBF and SCS
provided insurance for the volunteers who became part of the
SCS Earth Team program. Anew cooperative agreement with
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service provided fencing materials
and supplies to support a planting project to protect the
shoreline of the Anahuac National Wildlife Refuge. With
coordination by GBF volunteers and staff, seven plantings
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were completed that year, five at the refuge (not requiring
boat transportation) and two on the San Jacinto River. A total
of 92 volunteers participated.
For 1992, the project received two additional boosts. The
Texas Waterway Operators Association the barge industry
funded the construction and operation of a boat for GBF.
The BayJlangsi. with capacity for 16 volunteer workers, was
christened in the fall of 1991. The availability of regular,
safe boat transportation enhanced the opportunities. In
addition, the Wray Trust, a local, charitablefoundation, funded
a part-time conservation intern for GBF to coordinate the
effort, build in an educational component, and develop
documentation on the progress of the project. Continued
funding from the Port allowed for the purchase of additional
scientific equipment, as well as materials and supplies. In
1992, approximately 200 volunteers participated in 16
plantings at 6 sites, with over 20,000 square feet of marsh
successfully planted.
Each site brings its own unique challenges, mostly in
methods to protect the new, young transplants, whether from
wave action or from a variety of non-native predators. In
each case, however, the end of the day brings an
overwhelmingly positive response from volunteers, with the
wealth of new knowledge they have gained from the
experience and the satisfaction from knowing that they have
contributed to an improved ecosystem for Galveston Bay.
C. Living Resources: Protecting Wildlife In The Water
And Along The Coast
Participation Of Recreational Anglers In Tag And Release Studies:
Cobia Study As An Example
Jim S. Franks
Fisheries Research and Development Section
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory
Ocean Springs, Mississippi
In ever growing numbers and for a variety of reasons,
recreational anglers are choosing to release the fish they
catch. Tag and release is becoming an important part of the
fishing experience for many Gulf Coast anglers. Not only is
tag and release tangible proof diat a particular fish was caught,
il also gives that fish an identity, providing useful information.
Data recorded on individual fish, such as how, when, and
where caught, length, etc., become part of that fish's recorded
history. When combined with other data, it can be used
extensively to delineate stocks, document seasonal patterns
of movement, estimate population size, understand growth
and survival, determine life span, and examine behavior
(Grimes ct al., 1983; Wydoski and Emery, 1985; Scott et al.,
1990).
In 1954, Frank Mather of the Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institute initiated "cooperative" tagging programs involving
public participation. Since then, numerous programs
sponsored by scientific groups, and programs of sport fishing
organizations which provide their data to fisheries agencies,
have been established throughout the U.S. and around the
world. More than 25 cooperative tag and release programs
exist along the Gulf Coast.
Recreational anglers are the largest direct-user group of
marine fisheries. They are concerned about fish resources
and recognize that more information is needed to reverse
declining trends. Understanding and incorporating the needs
of anglers into research and management decisions is essential.
Anglers are becoming increasingly involved in cooperative
tagging efforts.
The success of cooperative tag and release studies is
dependent, in great part, upon the accuracy of anglers in
reporting tagging activities and recaptures of tagged fish. If
tagging is to be used as a management tool, it is important
to have quality tagging and tag returns. Consequently,
biologists and program coordinators spend considerable time
promoting their programs and, importantly, explaining proper
tagging techniques and reporting procedures.
Tagging programs must expound upon the benefits of
program participation, the value of tagging data, and the use
of tag return data, as well as focus on expanded publicity on
program results. Long-term educational involvement and
information exchange should involve, not only anglers, but,
opinion-makers and writers as well. These are the people
who can help make tagging and reporting tag returns a routine
part of the angling world. Getting the right people involved
is a key ingredient to success; then, keep them involved,
informed, and motivated (Lucy et al., 1991).
In response to a growing need for life history information
on cobia, a prized sport fish, the Gulf Coast Research
Laboratory initiated the cooperative Cobia Tag and Release
Program in 1989. The study is a joint research effort by
biologists and volunteer anglers funded by the U.S. Fish &
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Wildlife Service Sport Fish Restoration Program
(Wallop-Breaux), through the Mississippi Department of
Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks Bureau of Marine Resources.
By November 1992, over 4,200 cobia had been tagged and
released by more than 800 anglers. A core group of
approximately 100 people tagged many of the fish. The
majority of cobia were tagged in the northern Gulf of Mexico;
however, cobia were tagged off all Gulf states. The recapture
rate approximates 5.0 %.
This study provided significant insight into the biology
and seasonal movement of cobia in the Gulf. The following
are examples of information developed by the study:
verification of seasonal movement from the
northern the southern Gulf during late fall, and a
reverse migration in the spring,
first documentation of long-distance movement
from northern Gulf waters into the Atlantic off the
U.S. East Coast (Georgia), as well as movement
from the East Coast of Florida to the northwestern
Gulf,
fish returning to exact tagging locations several
seasons following tag-release, and
recaptures, including some greater that 2.5 years
after tag-release, which are providing insight into
cobia growth (approximately 5.0 cm./month for
juveniles and young adults).
The results of the work are available to fisheries managers.
Updates are routinely provided to the media, and a newsletter
keeps interested parties briefed on study activities. Angler
participation and cooperation are key to the program's success,
and public recognition provides an incentive for future
cooperation.
Some people have questioned the value of angler tagging
programs. In some circumstances, it is the only way fish can
be tagged cost-effectively, but, most importantly, when
well-planned and executed, a cooperative study can provide
valuable information that is difficult to obtain by other
methods. As anglers, biologists, and fisheries managers
realize the significant information that can be acquired through
tagging, the value of these programs will grow. In an era of
ever-tightening budgets, efficiently-run volunteer tagging
efforts can pay important dividends to marine fisheries
research and management.
Fishery resources have suffered from a lack of the public's
knowledge about resource issues, and a misinformed public
will result in losing the battle for a high-quality aquatic
environment. The long-term well-being of these resources
depends upon public support for scientific research and direct
participation where possible. Due to the intense public interest
in fisheries status, the scientific community will continue to
benefit from interaction with the public through tag and
release. Cooperative tag and release programs expand the
knowledge of the species involved and provide something to
concerned recreational anglers few other options hold...they
have impact. The bottom line is that cooperative tag and
release programs work!
Bibliography
C. Grimes, S. Turner, and K. Able, "A Technique for Tagging
Deepwater Fish," Fishery Bulletin, Vol. 81, No. 3, pp. 663-666.
(1983).
J. Lucy, J. Tiedemann, M. Donnelly, M. Voiland, M. Malchoff,
B. Doyle, and J. Vaske, "Increasing Angler Participation in
Marine Catch/Tag-and-Release Fishing Programs: Workshop
Summary, Program Outlines, and Angler Survey Results,"
Virginia Sea Grant Program, V.I.M.S., Gloucester Point,
Virginia, 82 pp. (1991).
E. Scott, E. Prince, and C. Goodyear, "History of the Cooperative
Game Fish Tagging Program in the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of
Mexico, and Caribbean Sea, 1954-1987," American Fisheries
Society Symposium, 7:841-853. (1990).
R. Wydoski and L. Emery, "Tagging and Marking," In: L.
Nielsen and D. Johnson (eds.), Fisheries Techniques. American
Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD. (1985).
Protecting Nesting Habitat For Coastal Birds
Richard T. Paul
Manager, National Audubon Society Tampa Bay Sanctuaries
Tampa Bay, Florida
The barrier islands, coastal bays, and wetlands bordering
the Gulf of Mexico provide habitat for a dazzling array
of North American birds. Each year, millions of migrant
songbirds cross the Gulf. In autumn, they stop over to build
fat reserves before heading south, and they rest and renew
themselves after the northward flight in the spring.
Hawk and shorebird migrations occur along the barrier
islands and coastal lowlands, while Louisiana and East Texas
provide important winter habitat to waterfowl. A few rare
species also make their winter home on the Gulf, including
the world's only wild flock of whooping cranes which inhabit
parts of the Central Texas Coast.
Equally important, the Gulf Coast provides nesting habitat
for over 30 species of pelicans, cormorants, herons, egrets,
ibises, spoonbills, gulls, terns, skimmers, and related species
totalling one million birds. These birds are also known as
colonial waterbirds since most of them nest in large
aggregations and feed in wetlands or open coastal waters.
Most breed on islands, in mixed-species colonies, with up to
60,000 birds, in the largest colonies. Most are smaller, with
100-1,000 birds.
The birds require habitat providing food, cover and isolated
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nesting and roosting sites protected from predators. During the
1900's, important habitats have been lost and colony sites
destroyed due to human population growth and development.
Even recreational activities have caused population losses through
disturbances of breeding birds. Some species have such narrow
habitat requirements and are so vulnerable that their numbers
have declined to critically low levels. At current rates of
population loss, only active policies will ensure their survival
into the next century.
Fortunately, where large groups of birds gather to breed in
dense formations, a specific set of needs can be met readily. The
opportunity is illustrated through the program at the National
Audubon Society's Tampa Bay Sanctuaries. Our primary mission
is "the protection of the large breeding bird colonies of the Tampa
Bay region, and the natural systems that support them." To
accomplish this task, the Society must:
lease or acquire, post, patrol, and monitor the major
sites,
work cooperatively with state and federal agencies to
ensure that important colonies are identified and
protected,
design specific habitat creation/restoration projects,
create local media events featuring citizens or
businesses involved in colony protection and habitat
creation,
serve on local committees working to protect and
restore natural systems which support bird colonies,
talk to local groups, explain the significance of the
colonies, the problems they face, and what can be
done, and
prepare summaries of annual nesting populations,
breeding success, and environmental problems that
affect nesting.
With a small staff, the Society cannot undertake all activities
by ilself. Therefore, volunteers are an essential part of this
program. For instance, volunteers help post, patrol, monitor and
improve sites through activities such as planting cordgrass and
raking tcm nesting sites. They also provide publicity through
speeches, committee service, and interviews.
Approximately 50,000 breeding pairs of 25 species are
protected by Audubon efforts in the Tampa Bay area. However,
only 20% of these birds inhabit Audubon Sanctuary islands. The
Others are protected by outreach to other agencies, and through
the efforts of local volunteers.
Two good examples are found at Shell Key, located at
Pass-a-Grillc (St. Petersburg), and Three Rooker Bar, near
Clcarwater. Both are small sand bars, prized destinations for
bcachgocrs. They are also sites used by nesting birds, including
some listed by the State of Florida as Threatened or Species of
Special Concern. During 1991 and 1992, observations confirmed
that the colonies were disturbed often, resulting in poor nesting
success. A long list of impacts was compiled, such as chasing
chicks, camping in colony areas, and dogs catching young birds.
At privately-owned Shell Key, volunteers obtained permission
to post warning signs in the colony area, obtained donated signs
from the State of Florida and private parties, and publicized their
work. They maintained the signs and monitored the colony
throughout the nesting season. At Three Rooker Bay, a boating
club initially opposed the planned closure of the island by the
state park staff, but, later, joined and spearheaded efforts protect
nesting sites.
Some highly specialized species, like snowy plovers and
american oystercatchers, nest outside protected areas and are
difficult to protect. People and pets continue to violate posted
areas. However, these efforts represent a promising start due to
local volunteers who perceived a problem and resolved to correct
it.
Citizen action is the touchstone of the National Audubon
Society's approach to solving environmental problems. A small
staff can make a dent, but thousands of informed, committed
citizen volunteers can make a huge difference. These efforts will
be more important in the years to come as, perhaps, the world
stands on the brink of the largest "extinction event" of its history.
The collective response to problems and challenges along the
Gulf of Mexico will determine the future of this system and its
wildlife.
References
American Ornithologists' Union, "Check-list of North American
Birds," 6th edition, American Ornithologists' Union:
Washington, D.C., 877 pp. (1983).
Gaston, G. R., and P. G. Johnson, "Nesting Success and
Mortality of Nestlings in a Coastal Alabama Heron-Egret
Colony, 1976," Northeast Gulf Science 1: 14-22(1977).
He-well, A. H, "Florida Bird Life," Coward-McCann, Inc.:
New York, 579 pp. (1932).
Imhof, T. A., "Alabama Birds," Univ. of Alabama Press:
Birmingham, 591 pp. (1962).
Lowery, G. H., Jr, "Louisiana Birds," Louisiana State University
Press: Baton Rouge, 651 pp. (1974).
Martin, R. P., and G. D. Lester, "Atlas and Census of Wading
Bird and Seabird Nesting Colonies in Louisiana: 1990,"
Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries and Louisiana
Natural Heritage Program Special Publication No. 3, 182 pp. (1991).
Meyers, J. M., "Colonial Shorebird and Seabird Nesting on
Gaillard Island, Mobile Bay, Alabama, 1988," Alabama Game
and Fish Division unpubl. report, 14 pp. (1988).
Oberholser, H. C., and E. B. Kincaid, Jr., "The Bird Life of
Texas," University of Texas Press: Austin, 1070 pp. (1974).
Paul, R. T., and T. H. Below, "Populations, Distribution, Habitats,
and Migration of Gulls, Terns and Shorebirds in Coastal Florida:
An Overview," in D. P. Jennings Compiler pp. 66-78, Proceedings
of the Coastal Nongame Workshop, U. S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Region 4, and Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish
Commission (1991).
Spendelow, J. A., and S. R. Patton, "National Atlas of Coastal
Waterbird Colonies in the Contiguous United States: 1976-82,"
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Report 88(5).
x +326 pp. (1988).
Texas Colonial Waterbird Society, "An Atlas and Census of Texas
Waterbird Colonies, 1973-1980," Caesar Kleberg Wldl. Res.
Inst., Kingsville, TX., 357 pp. (1982).
Toups, J. A., and J. A. Jackson, "Birds and Birding on .the
Mississippi Coast," University Press of Mississippi:
Jackson, MI, 303 pp. (1987).
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Table 1. Colonial Waterbirds Nesting along the Gulf of Mexico, and their Status as Endangered or Threatened.
Species
Federal and State Listings
USFVVS TX LA
_MS_
AL
JEL
American White Pelican
Brown Pelican*
Double-crested Cormorant*
Olivaceous Cormorant
Anhinga*
E (TX-LA) E
SSC
Magnificent Frigatebird**
Least Bittern
Great Blue Heron*
Great Egret*
Snowy Egret*
SSC
ssc
ssc
ssc
Little Blue Heron*
Tricolored Heron*
Reddish Egret*
Cattle Egret*
Green-backed Heron*
C2
Black-crowned Night Heron*
Yellow-crowned Night Heron*
White Ibis*
Glossy Ibis*
White faced Ibis
Roseate Spoonbill*
Laughing Gull*
Gull-billed Tern*
Caspian Tern*
Royal Tern*
SSC
Sandwich Tern*
Roseate Tern
Common Tern
Forster's Tern
Least Tem
Sooty Tern
Brown Noddy
Black Skimmer*
/ = Confirmed nesting
E = Nesting, and classified as Endangered
T = Nesting, and classified as Threatened
SSC = Nesting, and classified as Species of Special Concern
C2 = Candidate for listing, with some evidence of vulnerability, but for which not enough data exist to support listing
* Nesting species protected at Tampa Bay Sanctuaries
** Roosting population protected at Tampa Bay Sanctuaries
Ecotourism And Human Effects On Marine Species: Dolphin
Feeding Cruises In The Gulf And Other Marine Mammal Issues
Jeffrey Brown
Protected Species Management Branch
National Marine Fisheries Service
St. Petersburg, Florida
Ecotourism is tourism resulting from, and focused on, a
particular ecologically-sensitive or interesting portion of
the natural environment. In the Gulf of Mexico, marine
mammals are considered a particularly interesting portion of
the environment.
The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (MMPA)
recognizes that marine mammals are a source of international
significance, aesthetic and recreational, as well as economic.
Congress imposed a moratorium on "taking" marine
mammals, which is defined as harassing, hunting, capturing,
or killing any marine mammal. While the meanings of the
words hunt, capture, and kill are seldom disputed, the term
harass is subject to interpretation.
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) regulations
limit the approach distance to humpback whales in Hawaii
to reduce behavioral changes caused by closely approaching
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vessels. Unfortunately, some ecotourist activities, such as
dolphin watching and feeding, may be less benign than they
appear, and in certain cases, may constitute harassment.
In the Southeast, the aesthetic significance of marine
mammals in the wild, especially bottlenose dolphins, has
developed into an economic enterprise. There are
approximately 10 large commercial cruise operations and a
number of smaller ones featuring dolphin watching or feeding.
If properly conducted, dolphin watching trips may help the
public to better appreciate these animals and the delicacy of
their environment.
However, NMFS and numerous marine mammal scientists
believe that feeding wild dolphins may have a serious,
detrimental impact on the populations affected by this practice.
In 1989, partially in response to recommendations from a
whale watching workshop, NMFS prepared a briefing paper
which detailed dolphin feeding practices in the Gulf of Mexico
and along the Southeast Coast. The report contained scientific
opinions from noted marine mammal biologists, both federal
and non-federal.
In these experts' opinions, the practice of feeding dolphins
in the wild was detrimental for a number of reasons. There
were concerns that dolphins could be fed inappropriate or
harmful food items, or they could be lured to boats where
they could be harmed. The overwhelming concern expressed
by all the marine mammal experts was that feeding dolphins
in the wild could habituate these animals to humans and
vessels, altering their natural behavior, particularly their
feeding behavior.
There have been no scientific studies that have examined
a population of human-fed dolphins versus a population
feeding in the wild. However, there are a number of anecdotal
accounts that demonstrate some of die possible results of
habitual dolphin feeding.
In 1990, NMFS drafted regulations to prohibit feeding all
marine mammals in the wild. In the Southeast U.S., there
was considerable opposition, especially in Panama City,
Florida where 4 commercial feeding tour boats operate, and
in Corpus Christ!, Texas where a feeding operation operated
for several years. Although there were negative comments
on the proposed regulations, there was, in general, strong
support, especially from conservation organizations.
The final regulations were published in 1991, but the
Corpus Christ! operators obtained a temporary injunction
prohibiting the enforcement of the feeding ban. In October
1992, the U.S. District Court for die Southern District of
Texas ruled in favor of the dolphin feeding cruise operators.
The judge's decision disagreed with expert opinion and
partially based his opinion on the fact that there were no
scientific studies to support the government's actions. The
ruling enjoins the Secretary of Commerce from enforcing the
regulation as they relate to dolphins.
The Department of Justice is appealing the ruling, and a
decision should be made by late 1993. At the present time,
dolphin feeding remains legal.
Another tourist oriented activity dealing with marine
mammals is dolphin and whale watching cruises. There are
a number of dolphin watching vessels in the Gulf and the
Florida Keys that have never featured dolphin feeding, but
bring people out to observe closely these animals in their
natural environment. There are also thousands of people with
private boats out on the Gulf all the time.
Unfortunately, when it comes to viewing dolphins, some
people cannot get too close. Extremely close encounters with
dolphins, or most wild animals for that matter, may alter the
animal's behavior. This may be especially serious during
feeding or mating, or when a mother and calf are approached.
Again, relying on the recommendations of the whale watching
workshop, NMFS proposed regulations in the fall of 1992,
establishing approach limits on cetaceans.
Activities such as dolphin watching can be educational as
well as enjoyable. However, anyone who participates in this
activity should keep in mind the possible harm they may do
by getting just a little closer.
The last ecotourist activity regarding marine mammals is
swimming with dolphins in the wild. There are several places
in Gulf coastal waters where this occurs. It normally occurs
where dolphins have become habituated to vessels and
humans. While the first two tourist activities have real
possibilities for harming animals but present little danger to
humans, this activity poses dangers to both animal and humans.
Most dolphins act in a benign manner towards humans, but
any threat perceived by the dolphin, whether real or imagined,
could elicit a flight response or an aggressive response.
Dolphins are an integral part of the marine environment.
They are fascinating to watch and beautiful to behold.
However, like the rest of what makes up the Gulf of Mexico,
they must be treated with care and understanding. NMFS
promotes the conservation and wise management of living
marine resources so that future generations may also enjoy a
healthy, productive, and diverse environment.
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D. Development And Land Use Planning: Uniting Citizens,
Communities, And Industry For Protecting The
Environment While Planning For The Future
How Farmers Manage Wetlands For Wildlife Habitat
Laurance W. Carter
Rolling Fork, Mississippi
The Mississippi Delta is an alluvial plane comprising
approximately four million acres in northwest Mississippi.
Three million of those acres are productive farm land.
The Delta was once one of North America's best wildlife
areas, and, now, farmers and private land owners are restoring
some of the habitat in that area that was lost or degraded.
Farmers use filter strips, grass waterways, overfall pipes,
no-till or reduced tillage farming, and other soil conservation
practices. Also, farmers improved their pesticide handling
techniques to improve water quality. The "New Chemistry"
now available to farmers means using smaller quantities of
more specific pesticides which degrade into harmless
substances.
The result has been an 4 to 6-fold increase in fish
populations in lakes and streams.
The Delta Wildlife Foundation, a grassroots organization
of farmers, sportsmen, and agri-business, is obtaining solid
support for its program to improve and expand wildlife habitat
in the Mississippi Delta.
Delta Wildlife has a broad range of activities, including
providing nesting structures for wood ducks and improving
habitat for deer and small game. Delta Wildlife has an active
education and promotion program, and its winter waterfowl
habitat program has been very successful.
A public education program has been undertaken to make
Delta farmers aware of the many Federal and State agencies
and other organizations which offer technical and, sometimes,
financial assistance for conservation and habitat programs.
Farmers throughout the Delta are providing new leadership
for practicing conservation measures and accepting
responsibility to be good stewards of the land.
E. Citizen Monitoring: Citizen And Community Efforts
To Monitor The Environment Around The Gulf
Citizen Efforts To Reduce Marine Debris
Heidi B. Lovett
Center for Marine Conservation
St. Petersburg, Florida
The Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) is a private,
non-profit organization dedicated to the health of coastal
and marine environments and their living resources. For the
past seven years, CMC has led the fight to stem the tide of
unsightly and harmful marine debris. Much of CMC's efforts
focused on educating marine user groups and the general
public about this global problem and making them aware of
the international agreements and U.S. laws restricting
overboard garbage disposal. Additionally, CMC has enlisted
volunteers to monitor marine debris in each part of the world
and identify violations of the laws.
Since 1988, CMC coordinated the International Coastal
Cleanup each fall, attracting over 160,000 volunteers
worldwide in 1992. The volunteers record the number and
types of debris collected on standardized data cards and list
items traceable to passenger cruise ships, the military, offshore
oil and gas operations, fishermen, and shipping.
To increase and improve data collection during the cleanup,
CMC's Florida Regional Office holds regional meetings for
the Zone Captains and lead volunteers who organize local
beach cleanups. While sharing suggestions on how to improve
data collection and increase participation, CMC also
emphasizes how the data is used.
This unique data base provides information on the trends
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of the amount and type of debris found and its sources, and it
led to Special Area designation for the Gulf of Mexico and
Wider Caribbean Region under the MARPOL Agreement,
Annex V. Once ports in the region have facilities for handling
waste, overboard disposal of all debris other than ground food
waste will be prohibited. Currently, this ban only applies to
plastic trash.
States and cities use the data to support new laws related to
marine debris. The data was also used in CMC testimony,
along with that from government agencies and the cruise
industry, during recent congressional hearings evaluating the
effectiveness of the Marine Plastic Pollution and Research and
Control Act (MPPRCA) of 1987, which ratified the MARPOL
Treaty by the U.S.
With the increased need for statistical data regarding marine
debris, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
provided CMC with a contract to conduct a marine debris
Statistical sampling study determining the effectiveness of
MARPOL Annex V. The survey seeks to answer two questions
-- is there a decreasing trend in the amount of marine debris
accumulating on beaches and is the debris coming directly from
the ocean or other areas of the beach? To answer these questions,
volunteers must collect and categorize debris in a 500 meter
section of beach and mark it in the two sections on either side
of it. The surveys are done every 28 days and must be conducted
for 5 years for statistical analysis.
Pilot studies were conducted at Island Beach State Park in
New Jersey and Assateague Island National Seashore in
Maryland. Both were successful, and studies continue in both
states. A new group of volunteers has been selected to survey
Sea Rim State Park in Texas, and CMC will soon expand the
project in each Gulf State.
In order to educate citizens that the storm drain on their
Street often leads directly to a body of water, CMC recently
began a campaign entitled "Million Points of Blight."
Communities and volunteers are enlisted nationwide to stencil
one million storm drains with a message not to dump waste
into the drain. The program serves as a national network for
existing stenciling programs and guide for individuals and
groups who want to stencil in their communities. CMC supplies
an initial information packet to interested groups, outlining the
non-point source pollution problems of storm drains and how
to initiate the project. The stencils can be borrowed, if necessary.
Often, municipal public works or parks departments are the
organizing entity. Volunteers also collect data on the type of
pollutants found in the vicinity of the drain being stenciled,
like motor oil or street litter, and provide the information to
CMC's data base.
A major goal of CMC's efforts is to educate the public and
marine user groups of the specific points in MARPOL Annex
V and MPPRCA so they know how to behave correctly and
what constitutes a violation. Once armed with this knowledge,
individuals witnessing vessels dumping trash will know whether
it is legal or a violation. Unfortunately, once 25 miles from
shore, it is legal to dump all materials from a vessel except
plastic trash.
Placards to display on vessels were designed and distributed
by CMC that outline the restrictions for within 3 miles, 3 to
12, 12 to 25, and outside 25 miles from shore, as well as an
easy to follow Citizen's Report Form outlining the information
needed to file a report with the Coast Guard.
To educate boaters and individuals likely to see a violation,
CMC developed a Citizen Pollution Patrol program sponsored
by EPA. It was initiated in Maryland and New Jersey and is
now the model for an expanded boater education program in
Santa Barbara, California. Once educated and armed with the
information, boaters are more encouraged to report violations
they witness.
Cruise ship passengers are another group upon which CMC
has focused education initiatives. A media campaign which
exposed the chronic problem of illegal dumping by the cruise
industry was based on reports from passengers and crew
members and Coast Guard cases brought against cruise ships.
CMC developed a fact sheet on the cruise industry and what
individuals can look for if they are planning to take cruises.
Due in part to the citizen interest in the issue of illegal
dumping, the Coast Guard has taken a stronger enforcement
posture. For instance, they will now act upon violations within
200 miles of the U.S. coast (previously it was 12 miles), and
fines have increased to $500,000 for a criminal violation.
In closing, these combined efforts, in particular the
involvement of hundreds of thousands of citizens in the cleanup,
data collection and monitoring, are demonstrating the concern
there is for the global problem of marine debris in the ocean.
Coordinating Volunteer Marine Mammal Stranding Networks
Gina Barren
Texas Marine Mammal Stranding Nehvork
Galvcston, Texas
The Texas Marine Mammal Stranding Network is a
non-profit volunteer organization dedicated to the
conservation and preservation of marine mammals that become
Stranded along the Texas coast. Since stranding phenomenon
provides one of the few sources of information about marine
mammals, it is essential that the events be dealt with quickly
and efficiently. To acquire the greatest amount of useful data
and tissue samples, volunteers are involved in all aspects of
the Network. They are responsible for many aspects of the
stranding network, including reporting and recovering
individual strandings as well as data and tissue collection and
dissemination. Properly coordinating the activity of the many
volunteers is vital to the success of the Texas Marine Mammal
Stranding Network.
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Monitoring Of Hutton Branch, Carrollton, Texas
Carl V. Anderson
Carrollton, Texas
The stream known as Hutton Branch in the Dallas suburb
of Carrollton is a tributary of the Elm Fork of the Trinity
River. From the 1920's until 1970, a part of this stream
meandered through property of the summer ranch of former
Dallas Park Board Chairman Ray Hubbard. This rolling
blackland prairie area included stock tanks built by Hubbard
along the creek banks of land he called his Country Place.
Like much of the area, development of the Hutton Branch
watershed occurred rapidly, resulting in occasional fish-kills
and frequent flooding and sedimentation.
With the "recession" of the mid-80's, the watershed became
fallow and more stable, but urbanization had continuing effects
on flooding. Questions regarding water quality arose
frequently, but, generally, they were unanswered. In 1988,
the citizens of Carrollton passed a bond issue to address some
of the major flood and sedimentation issues, particularly on
Hutton Branch.
After noting that the Texas Water Commission (TWC)
received funds under the U.S. EPA. Clean Lakes program to
utilize volunteers to monitor the water quality of Texas streams
and lakes, the author proposed a volunteer citizens monitoring
program on Hutton Branch as part of the TEXAS WATCH
program.
TEXAS WATCH was formed to protect the surface and
ground-water quality of the state and monitor other
environmental information on air, soil, biological, and human
resources data through citizen activities. The program offers
training and equipment so that citizens can identify objectives
and locate sampling sites, and it provides a repository for the
gathered data. Citizens groups must meet certain criteria,
including identifying volunteer coordinators, having clear,
unbiased environmental information objectives, completing
training sessions on monitoring procedures, taking
responsibility for equipment, and submitting monthly sample
data and other documentation.
Citizen monitoring of streams for water pollution has taken
place since 1927, and the information collected augments that
of Federal, State, and local agencies. There are now over
5,000 stream monitoring organizations in 34 states. This
information is used to determine the stream's well-being,
assess management practices, or see changes signalling
problems.
Hutton Branch Citizen Monitoring Program,
Carrollton, Texas
The segment of Hutton Branch sampled includes two
locations on the stream and two in ponds within the 2.6 square
mile watershed study area. The objectives include establishing
abase-line of the stream's water quality, evaluating the impacts
of urbanization and industrialization, and comparing the
region's water quality to Wilson Creek, the TWC's minimum
impact eco-region.
The study area watershed is approximately 60% developed
with all of the land zoned for either single or multi-family
residential, light industrial, small commercial, or airport uses.
In the mid-1980's, many roadways and utilities were installed
in anticipation of rapid growth. With the recession and
slow-down in building in the late 1980's and early 1990's,
the majority of the land disturbed for development has become
grass covered. Thus, it is presently in a stable condition, and
base-line monitoring should provide meaningful data to assess
changing conditions.
There are several ponds in the study area, one of which is
stocked with large-mouth bass and inhabited by additional
wildlife, including a resident heron and egret population. The
pools along the stream segment are active with ducks and
migratory geese.
Measuring and sampling is done at small weirs along the
stream to estimate discharge and clarity. Testing equipment
provided by the TWC includes pH and TDS meters with
calibration solutions, a secchi disk, thermometer, dissolved
oxygen sampling kit, and some personnel protective
equipment (goggles and rubber gloves). Training sessions
were held on-site. Samples are taken monthly at mid-month,
and the results mailed to the TWC.
Sampling Results Summary 1991-92
Some of the fluctuations seem to follow predictable
patterns; when it rains the pH and TDS drop, or as temperature
rises the dissolved oxygen follows a standard saturation curve.
At other times, they are confusing; for example, the Lob Lake
sample pH has been rising, while the incoming waters have
had a relatively constant pH. Dave Buzan, of the TWC,
indicated that a plankton bloom was the culprit due to a
probable increase in nutrients from recent construction activity
and rising seasonal temperatures.
Overall, it appears the Hutton Branch is relatively healthy,
although in the short period of sampling, signs of spills have
been observed and reported to both the TWC and the City of
Carrollton. A fish kill was observed during the May sample
event.
Construction activities quickly show up with sediment and
wash-down of workers' equipment. The lakes seem to react
more slowly to changes. Plots of temperature, flow, TDS,
pH, and dissolved oxygen have been made in an attempt to
look for patterns and correlations. As data accumulates, these
may be more useful in identifying trouble as well as trends.
Why Citizen Monitoring Of Small Lakes And Streams?
The rewarding part of citizen sampling and monitoring is
the fascinating diversity one sees in a stream during repeated
observation. The smallest fluctuations that once went
unnoticed by the participants become wondrous.
Additionally, there are insufficient resources to obtain the
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data needed to assess water quality throughout the nation.
Carefully controlled citizens monitoring programs will
continue to provide this information to government so that it
can utilize its limited resources on other important endeavors.
Oscar Bray, former president of the American Society of
Civil Engineers, stated "The engineer's responsibility to the
public may be expressed succinctly in two words from the
French, noblesse oblige. Roughly translated, it describes the
moral obligation of those who understand, or have abilities,
to contribute their knowledge and abilities for the general
good of all."
E Water Quality I: Preventing Nutrients From Reaching
Surface Waters
Using A Constructed Wetland To Improve Catfish Production
TVuman Roberts
Hatliesburg, Mississippi
The overall objective of the proposed work is a continuing
evaluation of an intensive culture system involving the
utilization of circulating surface water through a constructed
wetlands for reuse. The benefits are an increase in catfish
production and the creation of wildlife habitat.
NASA Space Research, which produced velcro and the
microwave oven, is now improving water quality and catfish
production in Mississippi. Research on waste water treatment
for long-term space travel is determining the feasibility of
using plant roots to filter water. Now, several towns in
Mississippi and catfish farmer Truman Roberts have adapted
this research to their needs.
This presentation deals with, and discusses, the details of
using various plants and constructed wetlands to filter Mr.
Roberts' catfish ponds and improve water quality. It also
discusses the cost of this type of operation compared to the
conventional method of raising catfish in the Mississippi
Delta.
The location of these experiments is southeastern
Mississippi, in the lower coastal plains. The local water
supply is very limited and the cost of drilling a deep well is
cost prohibitive. Therefore, constructed wetlands are being
used to filter various nutrients, and the same water is recycled
through catfish ponds to improve water quality.
Mr. Roberts is almost doubling the pounds of fish raised,
compared to the conventional systems in the Mississippi Delta.
The cost of raising the fish is also less expensive.
The artificial wetlands not only improves water quality,
but increases certain wildlife species drastically, such as wood
duck, blue and green wing teal, and many types of non-game
birds. Also, many species of fur bearing animals use these
constructed wetlands for habitat.
Florida Neighborhoods: Neighborhood Involvement In Local
Environmental Protection
Tracy Floyd
Florida Neighborhoods Project Coordinator
Pinellas County Cooperative Extension Service
Largo, Florida
Florida Neighborhoods is a program that pairs residents
committed to improving the environmental quality of
their homes and yards with experts trained to advise and
assist. It's a hands-on course in environmental stewardship
that brings the classroom to the backyard; residents receive
instruction in ways to reduce pollution from stormwater
runoff, conserve water, and restore native habitats.
The program was developed to empower citizens by
providing tools to improve the quality of the environment in
their community. Special emphasis is placed on landscape
design and maintenance. Most residents overdose their yards
with fertilizers and pesticides, which are a key source of
pollution from stormwater runoff. By reducing fertilizers and
pesticides used in yards and by encouraging native and other
water-conserving plants, residents can help protect area bays
and rivers and improve the quality of their local environment.
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The program begins with a two part environmental checkup
a survey of residents to determine landscaping and homecare
practices and an on-site inspection by a team of experts to
identify environmental opportunities and problems. After
completing the assessment, the Florida Neighborhoods team
prepares a 12 month action plan for participating
neighborhoods with recommendations for improving
landscape care, conserving water and energy, and recycling
waste. Workshops and information provided by the Florida
Neighborhoods team assist residents in completing their plan.
Residents meeting goals established in the neighborhood
plan help their neighborhood win official designation as a
Florida Neighborhood, an award of distinction granted to
residential communities in which a majority of homes practice
recommended conservation techniques.
Florida Neighborhoods is administered by the Bay Area
County Cooperative Extension Services, with funding from
the Tampa Bay National Estuary Program. Partners in the
program include the cities of Tampa, St. Petersburg, and
Clearwater, Pinellas, Hillsborough, and Manatee counties, the
Florida Native Plant Society, the Southwest Florida Water
Management District, Florida Department of Natural
Resources, Florida Power Corporation, and Tampa Electric
Company.
Consumer Awareness of Phosphorus And
Phosphate/Non-Phosphate Detergents
Evva L. C. Wilson
Assistant Specialist, Apparel/Textiles Management
Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
The two most common forms of nutrient contamination in
surface waters are nitrogen and phosphorus. Phosphorus
is usually the limiting nutrient in fresh water systems. Too
much phosphorous can cause excessive algal growth and
result in oxygen deprivation and the death of animals living
in the system. Phosphorus can enter a water body by soil
erosion, fertilizer runoff, animal wastes, and detergents
containing phosphorus.
The Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service has
developed a program with the purpose of empowering
consumers with knowledge and skills in decision-making to
select detergents that are safe for the environment and
effectively clean the family laundry.
Phosphates enhance the performance of the cleaning agents
in detergents by softening water, dispersing dirt, emulsifying
grease and oil, and cleaning in water with a high iron content.
Two recent research studies compared the performance of
detergent types. Under similar situations in home laundry,
the phosphate detergent of the same brand matched or
outperformed the non-phosphate detergent in overall
laundering. Yet the non-phosphate detergent worked equally
well when combined with recommended stain removal
procedures.
The Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service has
developed teaching plans, visual aids, and support material,
undertaken a consumer survey of local markets for phosphorus
content of detergents, surveyed consumer knowledge of
laundry detergents, and conducted two lessons at 4-H Clothing
Camp.
The pilot parish surveys questionnaire results are as
follows:
Table 1. What Do You Know About Detergents?
Detergent Statements
1. There is not much difference between soaps and detergents.
2. All detergents work equally well in all types of washers.
3. Phosphates added to the water stream assist in algae growth.
4. Most detergents clean better than soap in hard water.
5. Clothes can become dingy if too little detergent is used.
6. You need to use more detergent in soft water than in hard water.
7. High phosphate detergents do not harm the environment.
8. Most detergents work well in cool, warm or hot water.
9. Liquid and granular laundering detergents both work well.
10. Liquid detergents are all the same.
s?
Answer
False
False
True
True
True
False
False
True
True
False
Percent
57
100
71
71
86
100
100
100
71
86
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When asked which factors influenced the homemaker most when buying detergents, the following were ranked as follows
(the ranking is from 1 -most important to 14-least important):
1 price
2. discount or special coupon
3_ my own experience with it
4. faith in the brand name
5. manufacturer's reputation
Table 2. Factors That Influence Me To Buy....
<2 its environmental safety
2 aroma or smell
8 convenience of use
9_ a free sample was provided
10 size of container
II a friend or relative's advice
12_advertising
13 safety of product
14 appearance
The consumer felt she was informed about detergent ingredients as indicated in Table 3.
/ : '
Table 3. Consumer Evaluation Of Self
How would you describe yourself as a buyer of laundry products'?
14% well informed
57% as informed as others
29% not well informed
43% very interested
43% as interested as others
14% not interested at all
Two educational videos are being developed for LA. CES
Agent and Leader training and for Leaders to use with
consumer lessons.
Homemaker club meetings will be conducted on
consequences of phosphorus in the environment, how to read
labels for phosphate content in laundry detergents, the purpose
of phosphates and other components in the laundry, and wise
decision-making.
Media information and publication(s) with phosphorus and
laundry facts are being developed. Information will be
available following the evaluation of the three parish pilot
project.
G. Water Quality II: Industry And Community Involvement
For Reducing Or Eliminating Toxics And Pesticides From
Ground Or Surface Waters
Dow Chemical's Waste Reduction Programs And
Community Advisory Panel
Christine E. Baldridge
Dow U.S.A., Louisiana Division
Plaquemine, Louisiana
Waste reduction is the cornerstone of the Dow Chemical
Company's waste management policy. It is an old
concept revisited for Dow because waste reduction efforts
began in the 1960's. The Waste Reduction Always Pays, or
WRAP program, which began in 1986, reemphasized and
formalized the company's environmental priority for waste
reduction. This program places the responsibility of waste
reduction on our experts, the generating facilities.
Waste minimization is defined as any practice or process
which minimizes or eliminates wastes before they are
generated; the treatment, reuse, or recycle of any material
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which minimizes the volume and or toxicity of a waste prior
to its final disposition.
When establishing a program, it is important to set goals.
A key goal of the WRAP program at Dow is to reduce waste
to all media, namely air, water, and land. A multi-media
approach ensures that solving a problem in one area does not
create a new problem in another area.
The program must provide incentives and recognition to
encourage the development of ideas and projects to reduce
waste. Dow wants to create a "waste reduction mentality" in
its employees. This means that environmental awareness is
a part of every job.
A good waste reduction program will also lessen future
liability because the use of treatment and disposal facilities
will be reduced. This type of program will gain the confidence
of the public because the efforts of companies which reduce
waste will be noted.
The practices used to minimize or reduce waste are those
that permit efficient operation of the company's plants.
Improved raw material purity provides for less by-products,
reducing the amount of waste which must be destroyed.
Improved computer control and instrumentation also ensures
that less off-specification material having to be re-worked or
disposed of is produced. On-stream analysis allows
manufacturing plants to maintain control over processes and
minimize product variation. Improved sampling techniques
reduce the amount of material collected for sampling and
allows it to be returned to the process, eliminating workplace
and environmental exposure. Preventive maintenance
programs provide for efficient operating equipment and fewer
leaks.
At the Louisiana Division, one of the ways projects are
identified is through a contest. During the early eighties, an
Energy projects contest was started to encourage the
development of methods to reduce energy which would, in
turn, lower production costs. The contest was successful in
identifying energy cost savings at a time when energy prices
were very high. The winners were recognized, and the projects
were funded.
A few years later, yield savings projects were included in
the contest. In 1988, WRAP projects were added to the
contest. Over 200 waste reduction projects have been
identified through the contest.
Once projects are defined, they must be implemented based
on priorities in order to work on the right projects. Both the
quantity and impact of the reduction are evaluated to prioritize
funding.
One project implemented at the Louisiana Division was
designed to recover hydrocarbon vapors released into the
atmosphere when products are loaded in low pressure barges.
When a barge is loaded, the vapor space is displaced by
incoming liquid products, and the displaced nitrogen and
hydrocarbon vapors escape to the atmosphere through vents
to prevent the barge from being over-pressured.
The barge vent recovery system consists of a new vapor
collection system and recovery unit. The collection system
gathers the vapors and discharges them into the vapor recovery
unit, absorbing the hydrocarbon vapors and returning them
back to the original production process for reuse. The vapor
recovery unit operates at a recovery rate greater than 98
percent, eliminating the discharge of more than 100,000
pounds of hydrocarbons per year into the atmosphere.
Waste reduction is part of an integrated waste management
philosophy at Dow. This means that methods to eliminate
generating wastes must be developed. Approaches must be
developed that recycle or reuse wastes that are created, turning
them into raw materials that can be used in manufacturing
processes. Then, remaining wastes must be treated or
destroyed to reduce their volume and toxicity. At Dow,
remaining wastes are destroyed through high temperature
incineration and the ash is deposited in a secure landfill. Dow
has a goal of internal disposal, and at the Louisiana Division,
over 99% of the waste generated is treated or destroyed.
Managing Pesticides For Crop Production And Water Quality
Protection
Arthur G. Hornsby
Professor and Extension Water Quality Specialist
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida
Pesticides should be used with an understanding of their
environmental consequences. However, until recently,
such data was not available to pesticide users from either the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency or the manufacturer,
despite the requirement of such data in registering them with
the EPA. The data is useful in reducing potential impacts on
humans, aquatic life, or other concerns.
Typically, farmers choose pesticides on the perceived
effectiveness and cost of a product, and they are unlikely to
experiment with different products once a favorite is chosen.
Selection criteria for effective, cost-efficient,
environmentally-benign products are emerging (Hoag &
Hornsby, 1992). This will help agricultural and urban
pesticide users and aid regulatory agencies in understanding
the more subtle issues of pesticide use, resulting, hopefully,
in better public policy.
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Practical Grower Guides For Pesticide Selection
Both the USDA Soil Conservation Service (USDA/SCS)
(Goss and Wauchope, 1990) and the Florida Cooperative
Extension Service (CES) (Hornsby, et al., 1991, Hornsby,
1992) developed decision aids to help their clients select
pesticides that avoid or reduce adverse impacts on water
quality. The aids vary slightly in their approach but provide
a much-needed methodology that includes environmental
concerns in determining the appropriate pesticide. Both
consider the environmental fate of pesticides and soil
properties of the application site.
The CES methodology uses a two-tier approach that
considers the potential for leaching and/or runoff and
lexicological impacts. The criteria match soil properties to
the environmental fate and toxicological parameters of the
pesticides which include two derived indices (for leaching
and runoff) and two toxicological parameters (U.S. EPA
lifetime health advisory levels and aquatic toxicology).
A "Pesticide Selection Worksheet" (Figure 1) is used to
organize the information necessary to consider the alternatives
and make an informed decision. While this approach does
not explicitly mention efficacy or differences in application
amounts and costs of alternative products, the user is reminded
of these aspects in the Extension Circular (Hornsby, et al.,
1991) containing the procedure, which has been developed
for 55 different crops.
Pesticide parameters. The Relative Leaching Potential
Index, RLPI, defines the relative attenuation (reduction in
mass as it moves through the soil) of each pesticide in soil,
and its potential to leach to groundwater. The index is
calculated by multiplying the ratio of the organic carbon
sorption coefficient and the degradation half-life by 10. The
index is integer. Values greater than 2,000 are assigned a
value "2,000". Values between 1,000 and 2,000 are rounded
to three significant digits. This ratio defines the relative
attenuation of pesticides over a wide range of soils. Pesticides
that are very mobile, for example, Koc values less than 100
in sandy soils, or 50 or less in fine-textured soils, should be
used with caution. There is some uncertainty in the data used
to calculate this index. However, since the values are relative,
they can still be used. The smaller the RLPI value of a
pesticide, the greater is its potential to leach.
The Relative Runoff Potential Index, RRPI, defines the
relative immobility of each pesticide in soil, and, therefore,
its potential to remain near the soil surface and be subject to
loss in runoff cither sorbed to eroded sediment or in the
aqueous phase. This index represents die combined sediment
and aqueous phase runoff potential and is calculated as
follows:
A. If Koc is 1,000 or greater, then the RRPI is the
ratio of 1,000,000 and the product of the
sorption coefficient times the degradation half-life.
B. If the Koc is less than 1,000, then the RRPI is the
smaller of the values calculated in A or the RLPI.
This index is integer and values greater than 1,000 are
assigned the value "1,000". There is some uncertainty in the
data used to calculate this index. However, since the values
are relative, they can still be used. The smaller the RRPI
value of a pesticide, the greater is its potential to be lost in
runoff.
Both the leaching and runoff indices were developed by
evaluating the results of long-term (30-50 years) simulations
using validated pesticide fate models to predict the probability
of leaching or runoff of pesticides for a range of soil and
pesticide properties (Leonard and Knisel, 1988). In order to
reduce confusion on the part of the user of the pesticide
selection procedure, the leaching and runoff indices were
constructed such that a smaller value represents a greater
hazard in the same sense as the health advisory level and the
aquatic toxicity.
The Lifetime Health Advisory Level or Equivalent,
HALEQ, provides a measure of pesticide toxicity to humans.
The lifetime health advisory level as defined by U.S. EPA is
the concentration of a chemical in drinking water that is not
expected to cause any adverse health effects over a lifetime
of exposure (70 years), with a margin of safety. The values
used are the USEPA lifetime health advisory level, HAL, or
an equivalent value, HALEQ (denoted by a superscripted
asterisk), calculated using the same formula used by the USEPA
(HALEQ = RfD x 7,000), where RfD is the reference dose
determined by the USEPA. For non-carcinogenic pesticides,
the calculated HALEQ should not differ by more than a factor
of 10 from the values forthcoming from the USEPA. HAL
and HALEQ have units of micrograms per liter (g/1, or ppb).
The smaller the value, the greater is the toxicity to humans.
The Aquatic Toxicity provides a measure of pesticide
toxicity to aquatic species. The values used are the lethal
concentration at which 50% of the test species die (LCso).
Unless otherwise noted by a lower case letter following the
value, the test species was rainbow trout. The smaller the
value, the greater is the toxicity to aquatic species.
Data for Koc, RLPI, RRPI, HALEQ, and aquatic toxicity
are given for the active ingredient of a product as shown in
an abbreviated form in Table 1. Data corresponding to the
pesticides identified to control a pest is transferred to the
"Pesticide Selection Worksheet". When using a product that
is a mixture of two or more active ingredients, use the RLPI,
RRPI, HALEQ, and Aquatic Toxicity value for the most
restrictive active ingredient in the mixture.
Soil parameters. The following criteria were developed
by the Florida USDA/SCS in collaboration with the Florida
CES to rate soils for leaching and runoff:
Leaching. Factors that determine the soil leaching rating
are the soil permeability and the occurrence of mucky layers
in the upper 2m of the soil, as follows:
84
-------
RATING CRITERIA
HIGHS lowest permeability is 15.2 cm/hr or more.
MEDIUMS lowest permeability is between 1.5 and 15.2 cm/hr.
LOWS lowest permeability is 1.5 cm/hr or less.
Exceptions:
Soils with a muck or peat layer are, rated LOW.
Soils with a mucky layer are rated MEDIUM unless the soil has a slowest permeability of less than 1.6 cm/hr;
then the soil is rated LOW.
Runoff. The factors that determine the soil runoff rating are hydrologic group, permeability, and slope, as follows:
RATING
HIGH
MEDIUM
LOW
Exceptions:
CRITERIA
Soils in hydrologic group D in their natural, undrained state.
Soils in hydrologic group C; and any soils in hydrologic group B (in their natural undrained state)
that have a permeability of less than 15.2 cm/hr within 51cm of the soil surface.
Soils in hydrologic class A; and any soils in hydrologic group B (in their natural, undrained state)
that have a permeability of 15.20 cm/hr or greater in all of the upper 51 cm of the soil profile.
Soils that are frequently flooded during the growing season are rated HIGH.
Soils rated LOW are changed to a rating of MEDIUM where the slope is greaterthan 12 percent.
Soils rated MEDIUM are changed to a rating of HIGH where the slope is more than 8 percent.
These criteria were used by the Florida SCS and CES to
rate soils in each county that has a published or interim soil
survey (Brown, et al., 1991). Table 2 is an abbreviated example
of soil ratings for Manatee County, Florida (Hurt, et al., 1991).
The pesticide user need only locate the pesticide application
site on the county soil survey map to identify the soil map
unit(s) (MUS YM) that constitute the field or area being treated
then find corresponding MUSYM(s) in Table 2 to obtain the
soil ratings for pesticide leaching and runoff for the application
site. These ratings are then transferred to the "Pesticide
Selection Worksheet" (Figure 1). These criteria for rating
soils for leaching and runoff of pesticides may need to be
modified for use in other states where soil characterization
data does not extend to 2-m depth. The USDA/SCS National
Water Quality Staff has developed ratings for all states with
slightly different criteria.
Pesticide selection criteria. After the chemical data and
soil ratings have been transferred to the "Pesticide Selection
Worksheet", criteria presented in Table 3 can then be used to
select pesticides that are relevant to the water quality
considerations needed at the application site. By first looking
at the soil ratings, selection is made by matching the
appropriate criteria in Table 3.
The "Selection Criteria" encourages the user to "move
away" from the "worst case", as defined by the smallest
RLPI/RRPI and HAL/Aquatic Toxicity values, rather than
defining the "best choice". The philosophy of the CES is to
provide information for the user to make an informed decision,
but not to make the decision for the user. For some
combinations of crops and pests there are few alternative
selections. In this case, the user may not be able to select a
product using these criteria. Nevertheless, the user is apprised
of the likely consequences of their use and can proceed with
cautious use of these products. One should note that use of
this procedure in no way preempts requirements set forth on
the product label.
The methodology set forth in this section has been
published in a series of Extension Fact Sheets and Circulars
by the Florida CES for joint use by the SCS in conservation
plans and by the CES with agricultural and urban pesticide
users.
References
Brown, R.B., A.G. Hornsby, and G.W. Hurt. 1991. Soil ratings
for selecting pesticides for water quality goals. Circular 959.
Florida Cooperative Extension Service. Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.
4 pages.
Goss, D.W. and R.D. Wauchope. 1990. The SCS/ARS/CES
pesticide properties database: Combining it with soils property
data for first-tier comparative water pollution risk analysis, pp
471-493. In Weigman, D.L. (Ed) Pesticides in the Next
Decade: The Challenges Ahead. Proc. Third National Research
Conference on Pesticides. Richmond Va. November 8-9.
Virginia Water Resources Research Center, 617 N. Main St.
Blacksburg, VA. 881 pages.
85
-------
I long, D. L. and A.G. Hornsby. 1991. Linking Economics to
Groundwater Contamination from Farm Pesticide
Applications. J.Environ. Qual. 21: 579-586.
Hornsby, A.G. 1992. Site-Specific Pesticide Recommendations:
The final step in environmental impact prevention. Weed
Tcchnol. 6:736-742.
Hornsby, A.G., T.M. Buttler, D.L. Colvin, F.A. Johnson, R.A.
Dunn, and T.A. Kucharek. 1991. Soybeans: Managing
pesticides for crop production and water quality production.
Circular 1003. Florida Cooperative Extension Service.
Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of
Florida, Gainesville, FL. 12 pages.
Hun, G.W., A.G. Hornsby, and R.B. Brown. 1991. Manatee
County: Soil ratings for selecting pesticides. Soil Science
Fact Sheet, SL-86. Florida Cooperative Extension Service.
Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of
Florida, Gainesville, FL. 4 pages
Leonard, R.A. and W.G. Knisel. 1988. Evaluating groundwater
contamination potential from herbicide use. Weed Technology
2:207-216.
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Abbreviated soybean pesticide parameter matrix for
selecting pesticides to minimize water quality problems.
Table 2. Abbreviated Example of Soil Ratings for Manatee
County (see footnotes for explanations of column
headings). Abridged from Hurt si M-, 1991.
Table 3. Pesticide Selection Criteria.
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Pesticide selection worksheet for organizing information
needed for selection process.
86
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Table 2. Abbreviated Example of Soil Ratings for Manatee County, (see footnotes) Abridged from Hurt el al., 1991.
MUIDa
81001
81002
81003
81004
81005
81006
81007
81007
81007
81008
81009
81010
81011
81012
81013
81014
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81017
81017
V
Footnotes:
aMUID
bSEQ NUM
CMUSYM
NUMb MUSYMC
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
= Soil
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
7
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
17
SOIL NAMEd
ADAMSVILLE VARIANT
BEACHES
BRADEN
BRADENTON
BRADENTON
BROWARD VARIANT
CANOVA
ANCLOTE
OKEELANTA
CANAVERAL
CANAVERAL
CANAVERAL
CASSIA
CASSIA
CHOBEE
CHOBEE VARIANT
DELRAY
DELRAY
DELRAY
EAUGALLIE
LEACH6
High
High
Medium
Low
Low
High
Low
Medium
Low
High
High
High
High
High
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
RUNOFFf
Medium
High
Medium
High
High
High
High
High
High
Medium
Medium
Medium
Low
Low
High
High
High
High
High
High
J
Conservation Service's map unit identifier.
= Sequence Number, indicating a particular soil name among one or more names
= Map
Unit Symbol from the soil map and legend in the Soil Survey of Manatee
a MUSYM appears more
"SOIL NAME
eSOIL LEACH
fSOIL RUNOFF
unit,
than once m this list it signifies that
constituting a map unit name.
County, Florida. Note that if
two or more soils are co-dominant in that map
and each such soil is rated separately here.
= Name of soil or other landscape component (urban land, pits,
= The
= The
rating of the soil for
rating of the soil for
dumps, water, etc
).
leaching of pesticides through the soil profile.
runoff of pesticides from the soil surface.
Table 3. Pesticide Selection Criteria.
If Soil Ratings Are: Select Pesticide With:
Leach Runofs
Larger RLPI value, AND Larger
Larger RLPI value, AND Larger
Larger RLPI and RRPI values, AND Larger
Larger RLPI and RRPI values, AND Larger
Larger RLPI and RRPI values, AND Larger
Larger RRPI value, AND Larger
Larger RLPI and RRPI values, AND Larger
Larger RRPI and RLPI values, AND Larger
Larger RRPI value, AND Larger
High
Medium
Low
High
Medium
Low
High
Medium
Low
Low
Low
Low
Medium
Medium
Medium
High
High
High
HALEQ value.
HALEQ value.
HALEQ and Aquatic Toxicity values.
HALEQ and Aquatic Toxicity values.
HALEQ and Aquatic Toxicity values.
Aquatic Toxicity value.
HALEQ and Aquatic Toxicity values.
Aquatic Toxicity and HALEQ values.
Aquatic Toxicity value.
89
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90
-------
H. Building A Gulf Constituency: Encouraging Individuals
And Organizations To Make A Difference For The
Gulf Of Mexico
Grassroots Organizing:
Reaching Out To Minorities And People Of Color
Scott Douglas
Sierra Club
Birmingham, Alabama
\\ That constitutes the Gulf Coast constituency? With the
W Mississippi River draining more than 40% of the 48
contiguous states into the Gulf of Mexico and '/2 of U.S.
export/import tonnage passing through Gulf waters, most of
the U.S. population has a vested interest in the Gulf. The
viability of hundreds of species, the heritage of unique
ecosystems, and the quality of life of millions of people
depend upon the mobilization of an expanded, inclusive Gulf
constituency. Therefore, it is necessary to make the public
more aware of these issues and enlist it to act on behalf of a
sustainable economic, social, and political relationship with
the Gulf, its wetlands, and its watershed.
The ecological problems of the Gulf Coast can no longer
be considered apart from the economic and social problems
which characterize the region. After all, there is the historical
pattern of disempowered peoples, ecological abuse, and
grossly unsustainable development in the states bordering the
Gulf. Of those states, only Texas finds itself above the fourth
(lowest) quartile in factors affecting the quality of children's
lives (KIDS Count Data Book, Center for the Study of Social
Policy). If the children are indeed the future, one must seek
to build a Gulf constituency among the least healthy and
educated populations of the country.
It is important to remember that voiceless communities of
the past have achieved numerous gains in Congress and the
state legislatures through increased representation due to
redistricting and reapportionment. For instance,
approximately one-half of the Congressional Black Caucus
is from the South. In fact, 13 of its 16 new members are
from the South.
The newly elected U.S. Senator from Colorado, Mr. Ben
Nighthorse Campbell, joins Sen. Daniel Inouye of Hawaii as
the only Native Americans in the U.S. Senate. The addition
of Mr. Nighthorse Campbell is expected to amplify the
concerns of Native Americans fighting environmental
problems across the country and focus new light on indigenous
peoples in the Americas.
Without increased citizen empowerment, the goal of an
expanded Gulf Coast constituency will remain elusive.
Obviously, the basic elements of a broad outreach are not in
place. Those seriously interested in casting a wider net for
a new coastal constituency will apply investments of
resources, reasoning powers, and attention to detail to
comprehensive outreach across barriers of race and economic
status similar to those applied to other worthy research and
development projects.
What are the elements of minority outreach for an inclusive
coastal constituency? First, one must be mindful that the
coastal constituency cannot be built successfully only from
residents of coastal communities. Industry, when building its
constituencies, understands this well. Second, one must assess
all the resources of communities of color that have any tie,
whether actual or potential, to sustainable Gulf policies. Third,
one must design, through truly collaborative processes,
mechanisms of inclusion that translate effective dialogue into
effective policies.
Extending minority outreach on and beyond the Gulf Coast
could be initiated by establishing a coastal education,
preservation, and restoration network utilizing the
contributions of existing voluntary associations and non-profit
organizations. The point of communicating to these groups,
however, is not to have them sign on to some 21st Century
blueprint for the Gulf, but for them to participate in its
development.
Primary participants include the relevant issues committees
from hierarchical churches/associations of independent
churches, people of color in the non-profit sector, and
Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU). To
accomplish this, a multicultural entity with state affiliates could
be built and empowered to initiate, facilitate, and channel the
comprehensive issues bound to emerge from the expansive
dialogue. Such a multi-state, multicultural entity could
disseminate information, investigate alternative models of
economic development, incorporate the rich historical legacy
of the Gulf, and provide Gulf consciousness far upstream.
Building such an entity requires taking bold steps. One
must be prepared to expect perceptions of what is realistic to
vary by class, race, and location. This is only an affirmation
that experience affects perception. One should also be prepared
to address substantive issues of great consequence, such as a
superfund for displaced workers and/or communities, tightened
and enforced waste measures, and various moratoria on coastal
and near coastal development. But, if one is not willing to
consider these steps, building broader constituencies may be
useless.
91
-------
Building A Gulf Constituency:
Creating Environmental Projects With Punch
Heidi Smith
Sarasota Bay National Estuary Program
Anita Hocker
Sarasota County Schools
Ingrid McClellan
Honey Rand
Mote Marine Laboratory
Sarasota, Florida
It's one thing to have a great idea for educating and involving
the public in protecting bays and the Gulf of Mexico. It's
quite another to put all the pieces together to create a project
with punch, one that really makes a difference in changing
the way people interact with coastal resources.
A successful education and action project basically requires
four elements: Management, Money, Manpower, and Media.
Management denotes the leadership, money management,
buck-stops-herc role that must be effectively filled, regardless
of how many helpers are involved. Money is, well, money.
Most projects require it or donations of time, equipment, or
supplies. Manpower takes two forms the helpers who put
the project together, and the citizens who take part in the
event or program. Finally, media means promotion. Getting
the word out helps support the money and manpower elements
of the project and, ultimately, makes or breaks the project's
effectiveness as a vehicle for change in the community.
Management
The person who takes responsibility for an environmental
project can expect to invest time and energy in proportion to
the scale of the project. The larger or more comprehensive
the project, the more money, manpower, and media the
manager will require. A close-knit, coordinated team of
leaders can be a real asset.
The manager is the end of the line for all problems and
disputes, so a clearly defined objective and project strategy
arc essential to maximize positive results and minimize
difficulties. The project strategy should start with clearly
stated objectives keeping with the natural resource's needs
but also meeting the community's priorities. For example, a
project related to preventing stormwater pollution would help
a bay or the Gulf and could also incorporate a local
government's needs to respond to Federal mandates. Thus,
the assistance of the local government could be assured,
enhancing opportunities for generating funding and
community involvement.
Be certain of not only what is to be accomplished by the
project but also which audience(s) will be targeted. This will
be essential in the other aspects of the project, and focusing
efforts on achieving specific results will make the project
team's efforts pay off as true environmental benefits result.
Money
Cash is only one method of funding a project. Donations
of food, supplies, products, equipment, or time may be just
as valuable, depending on the project. Because cash is
generally more difficult to come by, strategies for securing it
are the focus here.
Consider all likely sources of money, including both public
and private organizations. Some examples are government
agencies, private foundations, businesses, civic organizations,
or fundraising projects by volunteers.
Regardless of the funding source, a good prospectus or
proposal is a necessary promotional tool. An effective
proposal includes clearly defined objectives targeted to the
funding source, a method of evaluating the project's
effectiveness, a plan of action including a reasonable time
frame, and a budget with as much detail as possible. Funding
sources expect that promises will be kept, so follow-through
is essential. Also, funding sources expect positive exposure
from their involvement. Generating positive media coverage
will "thank the bank" and help ensure an open door for the
next funding request.
Media
The news media, including newspapers, radio, and
television, are excellent partners for projects that benefit the
community. They can help generate volunteers, attendance,
and funding, while carrying the project's environmental
education message throughout the community.
Develop a constructive working relationship with local
reporters by providing crisp, well-written news releases and
being willing to work with their schedules. Pitch the story
of the project using an angle that will appeal to a newsperson,
i.e. show the reporter or editor how the project relates to a
hot topic in the community or benefits local residents. The
ability to supply information tying the project to a state or
national effort also can be effective.
Don'tforget about newsletters of civic groups, conservation
organizations, colleges, and universities. These are excellent
vehicles for reaching grassroots constituents for volunteers
or participants.
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Manpower
The project manager who has no help also has no project.
Recruiting volunteers involves many of the same sales skills
as fundraising and media relations. Volunteers need to
understand why their efforts are essential to the project, and
they must be rewarded or recognized when they come through.
Volunteers can be found through the media, from civic groups
seeking a community service project, from schools, local
governments, or by word-of-mouth.
When recruiting participants in a hands-on project, decide
which audiences would be most appropriate and develop a
letter and/or phone conversation for each audience. The sales
pitch should explain how the project will benefit both the
participant and the community.
Organizing For Community Involvement In Difficult Situations
Joy Towles Cummings
Salem, Florida
The purpose of this paper is to explain how to organize a
community with an environmental crisis which is largely.
unknown and difficult to get residents to do something about!
Taylor County, Florida is home to a paper pulp plant that
is currently owned by Proctor & Gamble on the Fenholloway
River, which was made a Class 5 industrial river in 1947. An
industrial river is one with very few, if any, restrictions placed
on industry so that it can dump its toxic effluent into the river.
Many consumer products, paper products, and bleached white
cellulose products that society used to live happily without
are produced at this chlorine-using cellulose pulp mill.
The plant is responsible for a great deal of environmental
degradation. For 38 years, the plant contaminated the water
and the environment. Also, a huge inland bay and a wetlands
area was drained to plant pine trees for pulpwood in the
headwaters for the Fenholloway and other rivers and creeks
in the county. Now, the river is nearly all pulp mill effluent,
50,000,000 gallons a day, except for a few springs. Also,
twenty-five square miles of sea grass is dead where the
Fenholloway flows into the Gulf of Mexico.
There is, however, an important political problem. P&G
is the largest employer in this rural county of 17,000 people,
dominating the county's economy. The company owns 85
percent of the land in the county, pays half the taxes, and
employs about a thousand hard-working people. P&G has
sold all of its pulp mills around the U.S. except this one, but
what company is going to buy itself that headache? Threats
of closing the mill have fueled job blackmail, and that fear
grips the community. However, how will this mess get cleaned
up if the company leaves? Will it become a Superfund site?
A change in consumer attitudes needs to occur. Will it
make any difference if disposable diapers are a light tan color
rather than white, knowing how they are used?
In order to convince the local citizens that their help was
needed, the problem was related to them through everyday
events. Hunters and anglers knew that the local deer
population was producing smaller horns and that female fish
were producing male sex characteristics.
Rather than merely contacting EPA and local politicians
and attending hearings as one normally does, local residents
provided dramatic demonstrations of the problems in Taylor
County. Baby formula was made with local water and
dioxin-contaminated mullet dinners and noxious well water
were served to regulators after they'd said nothing was wrong
with the water. Signs were placed on the river with all of the
information about it; people spoke at the company's annual
meeting; chlorine shipments were prevented from arriving,
and lawsuits were filed in federal court.
In renewing P&G's 1984 NPDES permit that expired in
1989, EPA should impose some meaningful restrictions.
Without them, the permitting process is just that - the process
which permits industries to pollute.
There are many things that one can do to get the community
involved in, be aware of, and educated about local
environmental problems. First, however, one must understand
the problem completely. Research must be done constantly.
Helpful persons must be identified, and a group must be
formed and meetings held. Work should be delegated among
the members, and media attention should be obtained
whenever possible.
At this point, give up all other activities, one won't have
time for anything else. Make the hard work fun, and socialize
with new friends made through environmental activism. They
may take the place of one's family members, because by this
time, the environmental problem will have totally taken over
one's life. Therefore, it is important to show the members
that they are appreciated.
Snoop on the environmental problem-causer. Find out
what they're doing, and remember the cockroach theory -
when a light is shined on them, they scurry away from the
light. Always tell the truth; it is not necessary to lie about
polluters, they tell enough lies for everyone.
Keep track of accomplishments and failures, and
congratulate oneself occasionally. Move forward constantly,
and don't ever look back. Expect the unexpected, but never
do what the polluter expects. Be prepared for the worst. Be
brave. Be vigilant.
Write, call, write, call, write, call, and get media attention.
Protest, raise Cain, make demands. Be willing to negotiate,
but don't give an inch. Take a stand and don't ever back
down. Write more letters.
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Identify those people in the federal and state agencies who
arc helpful. There are lots of good folks who want to help.
The two main things that work are lawsuits against the
polluters and exposing the polluters in the media. So file a
lawsuit and develop an effective public relations campaign.
The author's wish list includes: passing fishermen's
right-to-know laws in every state, signs should be placed where
people shouldn't eat the fish and shellfish, and real action
should be taken so the signs can be taken down. Instead of
just closing off fishing areas and restricting the number of
fish a person can legally catch, the cause of the problem
should be solved so that pollution does not continue.
Perhaps these words from Margaret Mead best encapsulate
what is necessary, "Never doubt that a small group of
thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world. Indeed
it's the only thing that ever has."
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V. Students' Forum
A. Sea Grant Science Project Winners - The Best
Carbon Concentration By Emiliania huxleyi
Hadley Sikes
Murphy High School
Mobile, Alabama
Debate continues to grow over the role of carbon fixation
in the sea acting to remove CO2 from the atmosphere.
The influence of the marine unicellular alga, Emiliania
huxleyi, one of the principal photosynthetic organisms
globally, has figured prominently in major studies. However,
it is debatable whether the net effect of E. huxleyi is removal
of CO2 by photosynthesis or creation of CO2 by calcium
carbonate deposition, summarized by the equation:
Ca2+ + 2HCO3 CaCOs + CO2 + H2O.
Thus, for each carbon in carbonate deposits, a COi
molecule could be generated. In this study, a way to test
directly whether E. huxleyi removes or adds to atmospheric
COa was devised. In addition, experimentation on the
properties of carbon fixation by this organism was conducted.
Procedures
Cell cultures were grown in synthetic f/2 media, and
transfers were done weekly in sterile conditions. Two methods
were used to test whether E. huxleyi removes or adds to
atmospheric COi- In the first approach, the amount of COi
that moved from the atmosphere to the media, in both the
presence and the absence of cells, was measured.
Experimental setup consisted of two glass vials with gas tight
silicon tops through which samples could be taken with a
syringe. Small Eppendorf tubes were suspended in the top
of each vial with monofilament. Cells in media were pipetted
into one of the gas tight vials. Media containing no cells was
pipetted into the other. To begin measurement of the flux of
CO2 from the atmosphere to the media, H CO.v was pipetted
into the Eppendorf vial, along with HC1 to convert the
bicarbonate to CO2. Triplicate samples of the medium were
taken at half hour intervals. Each 0.1 ml sample was injected
into a vial containing 10 ml of scintillation fluid, then
radioactivity (carbon uptake) was measured with a liquid
scintillation counter.
In the second approach, the amount of carbon released
from the medium to the atmosphere was measured, again in
both the presence and the absence of cells. The same type
of gas tight vial was used, except there was no Eppendorf
vial as ' C was added directly to the media rather than to the
air. The first vial contained media with cells; the second
contained only media. To begin the experiment, 14C was
injected into the media of each vial. The amount of COi that
was released was measured by sampling the air with a gas
tight syringe. The air samples were injected into a gas tight
vial containing scintillation fluid. NaOH was added to raise
the pH of the scintillation fluid, convert the ' 4CO2 to H' 4CC-3-,
and, therefore, trap the labeled carbon in the fluid so it could
be counted in the liquid scintillation counter.
The ability of E. huxleyi to accumulate inorganic carbon
inside the cells was evaluated by a series of carbon
concentration experiments. The technique is called the Silicon
Oil Assay, and it is based on the fact that liquids with different
densities can be layered and do not mix. The cells were
separated into two groups, one at twenty degrees Celsius, and,
the other, at two degrees Celsius. In plastic centrifuge tubes,
200 1 of 10% NaOH (1.11 g/ml) was pipetted, followed by
200 1 of less dense silicon oil (1.05 g/ml). To measure the
amount of inorganic carbon inside the cell, a 200 1 sample of
the E. huxleyi culture (1.02 g/ml) at 20 degrees was layered
on top of the silicon oil, and 2 Ci of H CO3- was added.
The cells were exposed to light for one minute and allowed
to perform photosynthesis, then centrifuged at 14,000 rpm.
The cells were spun through the silicon oil into the NaOH
layer. The centrifuge tube was then placed into a bath of
methanol and dry ice and frozen. The NaOH layer of the
cells was cut off using a small, handheld rotating saw and
placed in a test tube containing scintillation fluid and counted.
The resulting radioactivity represented total carbon
associated with the cells, organic and inorganic. Since only
the amount of inorganic carbon was being sought, the amount
of organic carbon was found so that it could be subtracted
from the total carbon measurement. This was done by adding
100 1 of 5 M HC1 to the remaining sample in the test tube
and leaving it overnight. The next day, a half milliliter of the
sample was put in scintillation fluid and counted. The
remaining counts represented acid stable carbon, or organic
carbon. Except for the acid treatment, the same sampling
procedure was used for the E. huxleyi cultures at two degrees
Celsius. The resulting number after the samples had been
counted represented any C that was not inside the cells, but
had been carried with the cells through the oil. This is because,
at two degrees, all processes of E. huxleyi are thought,
essentially, to shut down. To find internal inorganic carbon
in the cell, the number of acid stable counts at twenty degrees
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and the number of counts at two degrees were subtracted
from the total counts per minute at twenty degrees Celsius.
Results and Discussion
The studies reported herein all showed that the effect of
carbon fixation by E. huxleyi is to remove inorganic carbon
from the medium which sets up an influx of CO2 from the
atmosphere. This is supported by direct measurement of
CO2 influx from the air and CO2 outflux from the medium.
In the presence of cells, more CC-2 was taken in from the
atmosphere than in the absence of cells. In the presence of
cells, less CO2 was released from the media than in the absence
of cells.
While it is true that calcification may generate CO2 within
the cells, this extra CO2, evidently, is immediately converted
by photosynthesis to organic carbon and not released to the
sea as free CO2. The simple inorganic equation shown above
is not really applicable to biological calcification.
The experiments on carbon concentration by E. huxleyi
showed that the cell does not concentrate inorganic carbon
relative to what is available from the medium. Many modern
algae can do this to an extent of 100 fold, or more. This fits
with the assumption that coccolithophorids (a group of which
E. huxleyi is a member) may be an old group of algae that
lacks the mechanism.
The paradox is, that although E. huxleyi seems to lack an
important carbon concentration mechanism, it is, nevertheless,
among the most abundant and widely distributed of all
photosynthetic organisms. It may be that E. huxleyi is good
at concentrating some other nutrient that limits the growth of
modern algae. This puzzle is currently under further study.
Tiny Toxic Tyrants Cleanup Man-Made Mishaps:
A Study Of Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Robyn Hasselle
West Lauderdale High School
Collinsville, Mississippi
There is an increasing problem in, not only the Gulf of
Mexico, but every other ocean, sea, lake, and river in the
United States and countries across the globe. The problem
is oil pollution of waterbodies.
Every year, more than 400 billion gallons of oil are
transported around the world, of which over 100 million
gallons are spilled into the Earth's waters. Recently, in 1990,
the Gulf of Mexico suffered a dramatic oil spill off the Texas
coast when 4.5 million gallons of light Angola Crude were
lost from the Mega Borg supertanker. Newsweek magazine
called this "one of the largest tanker spills in American coastal
waters." The Mega Borg was ignited during the routine, but
dangerous process of lightering, or transferring part of a
heavily laden ship's cargo of oil to smaller ships so that it
can navigate in a shallow ship channel. "But, as the oil hit
the sea, it turned into a floating inferno, sending thick black
plumes twisting into the skies and crackling with a sound like
rain on a thousand barbecue grills," also according to
Newsweek. Time magazine stated that "The 30 mile long
slick seemed likely to inflict some but not major damage
ashore. It had been a close call."
How many close calls will we have to endure before some
drastic action is taken? The Mega Borg incident is just one
of several recent oil spills. One can't forget the Exxon Valdez
oil spill in 1989, which was die largest in U.S. history covering
over 3,000 square miles of water and 1,100 miles of beaches
and shorelines. The last count of wildlife which died due to
the oil spill identified 580,000 birds, 5,500 sea otters, and 22
whales.
Thus, the author decided to investigate and conduct
experiments using an inexpensive, natural, and effective means
to clean up oil spills, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a bacteria
that secretes a soap-like material which enhances the removal
of oil from gravel and other surfaces. In the Exxon Valdez
oil spill, according to Science News, Pseudomonas aeruginosa
"removed three times the amount of oil washed away by plain
warm water, commonly used by cleanup crews." The cleanup
effort did more harm than good, considering that the principal
method used to clean the beaches was to shoot water, at
temperatures of 100 degrees Fahrenheit or hotter, out of high
pressure hoses, essentially boiling the organisms in the lower
food chain.
Bioremediation is defined as elimination by bacteria.
Bioremediation costs between $50-100 to eliminate a ton of
oil, which is cheap compared to the $1,000 cost of incinerating
the same amount of oil.
Hence, using all of the collected data, the author
hypothesized the effects of Pseudomonas aeruginosa on
Castrol GTX motor oil. To begin, it was believed
Pseudomonas aeruginosa would effectively deteriorate crude
oil. Second, the ratio of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to oil
concentrations ranging from 1 x 10 to 1 x 10 would determine
the amount of oil broken down and the time it takes to dissolve.
Third, the lysis of oil would prove the effectiveness of
Pseudomonas aeruginosa in oil slicks.
Soon after reaching the hypotheses, the author wondered
what was the purpose for the investigation. Determining if
Pseudomonas aeruginosa would be an effective method of
bacterial cleanup if the oil would actually be dissolved,
how much time would be required to dissolve it, and exactly
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what ratio would work best was the purpose. Then,
procedures were developed for three experiments.
In Experiment #1, a serial dilution of Pseudomonas
aeruginosa was prepared by inoculating the bacteria into
separate test tubes filled with distilled water. The bacteria
were then transferred to nutrient agar plates and allowed to
incubate at 37 degrees Celsius for 24 hours. After the 24-hour
period, each plate was covered with 1.5 ml. of Castrol GTX
motor oil. The results were monitored daily for lysis of the
oil.
In Experiment #2, a turbidity box was made to observe
the turbidity of the test tubes. The interior was painted black,
and a light was placed at one end. Holes were drilled- in the
blocks to hold the test tubes while they were analyzed. As
the light passed through the test tube, it fell upon a photoelectric
cell. A galvanometer, which measures current, was attached
to the cell, and readings were taken according to the amount
of light passing through the test tubes.
In Experiment #3, a 35% solution of salt water was
prepared to simulate the sea. Twenty ml. of water was placed
in test tubes. Bacteria from each of the dilutions was
inoculated into the water. The tubes were covered in oil
ranging from increments of 1 -9 ml., and they were monitored
daily by measuring the number of millimeters the bacteria
had broken apart.
In conclusion, Pseudomonas aeruginosa proved to be a
very effective, inexpensive, and natural way to clean up
man-made disasters. Therefore, for the most part,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa proved worthy as a clean up method
for oil spills. It tightened the bond and shortened the gap
between technology and the simpler world around us.
However, it also proved that no matter how highly-advanced
the technology, nature may be the best remedy. And a better
remedy is what is truly needed to prevent oil spills in the Gulf
of Mexico and around the world.
Nutrients Effect On Codium Algae
Paul Constant
Atlantic High School
Delray Beach, Florida
Algae, which are classified according to their color, belong
to the kingdom Protista and are very important because
they are the start of a food chain. Fish depend on algae for
their food, and people eat the fish. In addition, many foods,
such as gelatin, ice cream, chocolate milk, and beer, use
ingredients derived from algae.
Codium isthmocladum blooms have been reported in all
parts of the Caribbean and South Florida for the past five
years, but the reason for their appearance is unknown. The
blooms appear in early summer and start to die off in late
October. The algae smother reefs and kill sponges, coral, sea
fans, and other sea life. It appears that algae are fed by
polluted water from storm runoff or sewage outfall pipes
pumping nutrient-rich water into the ocean.
Some scientists believe that anthropogenic nutrient inputs
have enhanced coastal reef productivity with subsequent
impacts on reef habitat quality and resource yields.
The SEFLOE II study is being done in Southeast Florida
to determine the destination and impacts of the existing outfall
discharges. Some other causes or contributing factors may
be upwellings from offshore or discharge from large canals
draining agricultural areas.
About 350-400,000 gallons of sewage are discharged daily
into the coastal waters offshore in Southeast Florida. During
the height of the Codium algae bloom, approximately 80%
of reefs are covered. During the past five years, there have
been reports of Codium isthmocladum smothering the reefs
from Key Biscayne to the Lake Worth inlet. The depth at
which the algae is found ranges from showing up on the
beaches to 600 feet. In the summer time, when the bloom is
at the height of its cycle, approximately 85 million pounds
of Codium algae can be found on the reefs of South Florida.
Commercial net fishermen have a difficult time with the algae
because it gets caught up in their nets.
Algae is the fastest growing plant life on earth and Codium
is capable of very rapid growth. It reproduces by breaking
apart and releasing spores. Codium isthmocladum has a
certain type of pigment which allows it to live in deep water
and thrive in limited light. Algae blooms are controlled by
nutrients, pH, and temperature.
Research Paper
Recently, the water temperatures have been warmer than
usual and may be linked to the bloom. When the corals are
covered with Codium, they don't receive the proper amount
of sunlight and cannot exchange gases with the water.
Therefore, they die. The fish and crustaceans become
displaced due to algae settling in cracks and holes which
drives them out of their habitat.
When Codium algae drifts with the current, it seems to
snag easily on soft corals and sponges, usually resulting in
death. When the algae begins to disappear in the winter
months, all that is left is the skeletal remains. These sections
are usually overcome by something else which leaves no
opportunity for it to regenerate. Masses of Codium
isthmocladum have been known to accumulate in excess of
four feet.
The fish population, appears to be affected by the Codium
algae also. A large percentage of the casual fish population
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has decreased since the blooms appeared on reefs. Some of
the fish affected were angelfish, parrotfish, and surgeonfish.
Codiutn could be thecause of the reduction in reef productivity.
Tropical fish collectors believe that the loss of food source
and environmental degradation are the major factors. These
algae blooms could be the beginning of a serious problem
from which it could take decades to recover.
Predicting Seasonal Hurricanes In The North Atlantic
Katherine L. Schaudt
James Taylor High School
Katy, Texas
Since reading an article quoting Emmanuel and Schneider
in which they claim the intensity of Hurricane Hugo would
have increased greatly if the water temperature had been
several degrees warmer, the author sought to predict the effects
of climate upon the intensity and number of hurricanes. This
paper presents a model predicting the number of hurricanes
in the North Atlantic Ocean by using the Southern Oscillation
Index, Caribbean sea temperatures, North Pacific sea
temperatures, West African rainfall, and Quasi-biennial
oscillations or 30-mb winds.
Factors Affecting Weather and Hurricane Formation
According to Golub and Brus, at irregular intervals about
every 3 to 4 years, the normal pattern of the tropical Pacific
Ocean area becomes disrupted because of a phenomenon
known as El Nino. During El Nino years, the surface waters
of the tropical Pacific become unusually warm in a region
extending from the South American coast to the west,
extending as far as the International Date Line. El Nino is
not an isolated occurrence, but it is, instead, part of a pattern
of changes in the global circulation of the oceans and
atmospheres. Southern Oscillation causes the atmospheric
pressure to rise in the normally low-pressure areas over
Indonesia, while the pressure falls in normally high-pressure
areas in the southeastern Pacific. When the warming ends,
the reverse occurs, allowing the pressures to return to normal.
According to Gray, the tropical eastern and central Pacific
sea-surface temperature warming events associated with El
Nino reduce hurricane activity in the western Atlantic during
the season following the onset of an El Nino event. The
occurrence of such an El Nino-Atlantic hurricane activity
relationship is associated with extra deep cumulus convection
found in the Pacific during such warm water episodes. This
enhanced convection is associated with strong westerly
troposphcric wind patterns over the Caribbean and equatorial
Atlantic. These enhanced westerly wind patterns are believed
to reduce the number of hurricanes.
El Nino causes an enhancement of the westerly winds, or
weaker easterly winds, over the Caribbean and western
equatorial Atlantic regions and, dius, creates conditions
different from non-El Nino years. These upper tropospheric '
westerly winds that occur during El Nino years lead to a
situation in which the seasonal 200 mb wind flow is greatly
reduced over the Caribbean basin, and in the western Atlantic,
it is significantly reduced from conditions normally occurring
in non-El Nino years.
The upper tropospheric westerly winds that occur during
El Nino years lead to a situation in which the seasonal 200
mb wind flow is greatly reduced over the Caribbean basin
and the western Atlantic. These westerly winds are
significantly reduced in speed from normal conditions
occurring in non-El Nino years. Hurricane activity is lessened
by any process that suppresses seasonally averaged upper
tropospheric wind patterns.
El Nino events are usually associated with low surface
pressure values in the southeastern Pacific. When this occurs,
it is expected that West Atlantic hurricane activity will also
be below normal in years with a low Southern Oscillation
Index.
The Quasi-biennial oscillation is a shift in the 50 mb winds,
from East to West, occurring every 26 months. Seasonal
hurricane activity occurring in non-El Nino years with easterly
equatorial 30 mb winds has been studied and compared with
seasonal hurricane activity in non-El Nino years when 30 mb
winds were westerly. Gray found that when the westerly 30
mb winds are accompanied with increasing westerly wind
speeds, hurricane activity is typically higher than during
easterly 30 mb winds. Easterly winds and El Nino seems to
have the same suppressing effect on hurricane activity. Other
factors that share a part in the formation of hurricanes,
according to Atkinson, are sufficiently large ocean areas with
warm surface temperatures and weak vertical wind shear in
the basic current.
It is the author's hypothesis that the seasonal number of
hurricanes can be predicted with a statistical model based on
regional climatic factors. If true, then this will lead to possible
applications in forecasting seasonal hurricanes and changes
in tropical storms due to global warming.
Using the regional climatic data and similar data from
global warming model predictions, a statistical model was
developed and tested. Regression and correlation analysis
showed that the Southern Oscillation, sea surface temperatures,
North Pacific temperatures, 30 mb winds, and West African
temperatures for January and February were highly correlated.
Physically, this model also had parameters that seemed likely
to predict the number of tropical storms.
Although this experiment had good results, February
precipitation was chosen, along with May sea surface
temperature anomaly, June North Pacific temperatures, July
Southern Oscillation, and March 30 mb winds for the forecast
model. This model had parameters available for use in a
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predictive model. The skill score was 19% with a root mean
square of 1 and the prediction varied by one storm to the
actual. According to this model, the forecast number of
hurricanes for the 1992 hurricane season will be 2 to 3 events.
The Effects Of Cobalt-60 On The Germination Of Spartina
altemiflora
Ryan Matherne
Hahnville Middle School,
Desallemands, Louisiana
The purpose of this report was to determine the effects of
Cobalt 60 on Spartina altemiflora. Spartina has a normal
germination rate of 30% in the environment. In the control
of the author's experiment, a 39% germination was achieved.
The author began with the null hypothesis that germination
of Spartina altemiflora would not be effected by gamma
irradiation. To prove this, seeds were obtained from Louisiana
State University and radiated in the University's Nuclear
Science Department. They were exposed to rads in multiples
of five to determine the effects on germination. The largest
positive effect was observed at the 20 rad dosage level. The
germination for the control was 39%, while the germination
rate for the irradiated seeds totaled 62%. There was a marked
decrease in germination beginning at 50 rads. The seeds were
also discolored as the doses increased.
Currently, Spartina, quart-sized plants are purchased at a
cost of $2.85 per plant to restore the marsh area in the LaBranch
Wetlands. At that rate of germination, the cost of plants
should greatly decrease because of the supply produced.
The technique is not as complex as one might imagine. It
is based on the fact that if, under safeguarded conditions, the
gamma rays emitted from a radiation source are allowed to
pass through seeds, the rays kill or reduce the number of
bacteria and fungi reducing germination (the radioisotope
most often used is Cobalt 60). In a previous experiment, the
author discovered that radishes exposed to radiation produced
larger leaves and fleshier roots. Therefore, this technique
could be very beneficial for farmers.
The effects of germination were significant. Generally,
Spartina is located in an area with brackish water (0.5 - 2.0%
salt). Spartina is very important to the future of Louisiana
for two reasons. First, Spartina has large binding roots which
hold soil together and prevent erosion. Second, it has a high
tolerance to salt dissolved in water.
Over the years, thousands of new channels and canals have
been dug in the Louisiana marsh. Many of the channels
provide ingress to saltwater from the Gulf of Mexico to fresh
water areas where plants cannot live with increased salinity.
The plants and grass die, exposing the fragile, rich soil to
tidal action. Without the massive plant root system for
protection, the marsh soil is carried away, creating new areas
of open water. Every year, Louisiana loses about 50 square
miles of marshland, or about 4 acres per hour.
The South Louisiana marshes containing Spartina provide
hundreds of estuarine nutrients upon which many species
depend during their life cycle. Many of these species are
vital to Louisiana's economy. Each year, Louisiana produces
about 90% of the nations alligators, 50% of the national crab
harvest, 40% of the national oyster harvest, $90,000,000 of
shrimp, $45,000,000 of menhaden (a bait fish), and
$ 16,000,000 of fur. The marsh also provides habitat for about
3-5 million waterfowl each year, primarily ducks. Therefore,
Louisiana faces severe economic consequences from
increased saltwater intrusion, and measures must be taken to
protect Spartina altemiflora, not only for the State's economy,
but for the continued existence of the plant.
On Earth Day 1991, Mr. Milton Cambre planted the
author's Spartina in the LaBranch Wetlands Project. A total
of 29 plants were embedded in the sediment in a semi-circle
as part of an attempt to build up the land. Also, 24 containers
of grass were planted along the sandy areas.
On January 2, 1991, the number of plants remaining was
recorded, and 1'8 Spartina and 11 individual grass plantings
survived. Sediments were being trapped by the plants to build
up the land, while the massive roots were binding soil to
prevent erosion. One month later, 14 plants remained, and
new roots had developed. The grasses were planted close
together and formed ground cover on the sandy beach area.
Bibliography
Palmisano, Angelo Williams, "Plant Community-Soil
Relationship in Louisiana Coastal Marshes," University
Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Michigan. (1981).
McDaniel, Donald, "Soil Survey of St. Charles Parish,
Louisiana," United States Department of Agriculture. (1987).
Louisiana Association of Conservation Districts, "Coastal
Erosion ... Everyone's Problem," New Orleans, Louisiana.
(1987).
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B. The Environment As An Outdoor Classroom
Wesson Elementary School PARKnership Program
Georgia Harris
Wesson Elementary School
Tallahassee, Florida
In 1989, educators at Leonard Wesson Elementary School
embarked upon a quest to change the world, child by child.
At Wesson, the mythological dragons about females and
minorities versus science are being slain. This is being done,
in part, through an environmental education program that
encompasses summer programs using a specific ecosystem
as the theme for teaching all academic subjects. This approach
helped Wesson to be the only elementary school in Florida
to be included in the PARKnership pilot program for
1992-1993, which is a joint effort of DOE and Florida DNR
to provide environmental services for state parks and schools.
In the PARKnership program, a state park provides an' 'outdoor
classroom" and technical assistance, while the school provides
a service for the park that would otherwise not be done.
Wesson has completed one project for Wakulla Springs, and
the students are excited about continuing this unique
PARKnership with seven more projects this year.
A Constructed Wetland Model In A Recreational Park
Jcannic Pham
Bonnabel High School
Metairic, Louisiana
""""'our Bonnabel High School sophomores organized an
JT intense effort to construct a model wetland area in a
recreational park in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana. The Seiko
Youth Challenge Team members, Aaron Jabes, JeanniePham,
Miranda Shcrbs and Long Pham, exhibited great interest and
concern for the disappearing wetlands. The students
conducted extensive research on the coastal wetlands,
investigated attempts by agencies to reduce coastal erosion
and wetland loss, examined some of Lake Pontchartrain's
problems, and concluded that constructing a model wetland
area could be a beneficial contribution to the research
community.
After the lagoon area in Lafreniere Park was selected as
the site, preparations were made for the project. Detailed
measurements were made of the area, a plot plan was
developed, plants were researched to develop a database of
potential plants, the number and type of plants to be used was
decided and calculated, and a trial run was conducted.
Volunteers constructed over 1,200 nutria excluder devices
(NED's) which were needed to protect newly planted
vegetation from nutria and ducks. The NED's were
constructed from chicken wire rolled into a cylindrical cage
which was placed around the newly planted vegetation.
In early April, the Seiko Team organized over 100 students
and faculty volunteers in Operation Marsh. One group went
to Lake Catouatche to gather plants, while another group
stayed at Lafreniere Park to organize the NED's. When the
plant gatherers returned from the marsh, the plants were
transplanted into their new home and protected with the
NED's. The project was quite successful and provided a
stable wetland area for research purposes, as well as visual
and educational benefits to the lagoon area of Lafreniere Park.
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The Natural Environmental Lab
Theresa Taylor
Trey Sutton
Bayou View Junior High School
Gulfport, Mississippi
The Natural Environmental Lab is a restoration project to
return an unused area of a school campus to its native
wetland habitat. Students, which are the core of this project,
have contributed countless hours of planning and manpower
to develop it. In this hands-on learning experience, students
planted native flora, introduced ground cover, mounted bird
nouses, and helped in a controlled burn. Fifteen to twenty
acres of unused school property were an overgrown, swampy
eyesore, but hard work ,by enthusiastic students and their
dedicated teacher made this land the perfect natural laboratory.
It offers a variety of habitats to study, from a natural bog to
a bayou and a meadow. Numerous species of the animal
kingdom, from invertebrates to vertebrates, are represented.
Similarly, a wide variety of plant life, from simple algae to
towering pines and deciduous trees, are present.
The initial plan was met with great enthusiasm; however,
before the project could become reality, two years were spent
in extensive planning and research. It was necessary to obtain
permission from numerous sources, including neighboring
homeowners and the school board. Funding was obtained
from corporate sponsors and individual donations through a
series of multiple presentations to a wide variety of community
groups and civic organizations. Help was sought on several
levels, ranging from the P.T.A.-sponsored sale of individual
boards in the viewing boardwalk to large scale land shaping
by members of the nearby naval construction battalion. It
was a slow process since all labor was provided purely on a
voluntary basis. The project became reality and the initial
phase was accomplished over a four year period.
Currently, the lab is available to all school classes, as well
as individuals in the community. The lab is used for a wide
variety of purposes, from detailed study of plant and animal
life to an alternative location for leisure activities, such as
walking, jogging, and bird watching. Future plans include
restoring the natural habitat by reintroducing native plants
and providing food sources and shelter for wildlife. This will
enable interaction between students and the environment for
years to come. The long term goals is to create a self-sustaining
ecosystem for future generations.
Take A Class Outdoors (TACO)
Leigh Greenhaw
Booneville High School
Booneville, Mississippi
Many years ago in ancient sailing times, sailors mistakenly
thought manatees were mythical mermaids, or women
who lived under water. Eighteen young women from
Booneville High School traveled to Crystal River, Florida,
last December to swim with those mermaids and study the
environment in which they live.
The students participated in the school's
Take-A-Class-Outdoors (TACO) program. The program,
designed to interest females in careers in science and
mathematics, stimulates thinking about scientific and
engineering careers, develops logical reasoning and problem
solving skills, promotes positive attitudes toward science, and
increases the student's interest and knowledge about scientific
work. The program provides hands-on experiences in
geology, astronomy, botany, entomology, ecology,
meteorology, and marine science.
The first TACO program was implemented during the
1988-89 school year with Exemplary Programs in
Mathematics, Science, Computer Learning, and Foreign
Languages funding. The project served 50 young women
each semester in the first year. Students in Biology I and
Advanced Biology classes applied to participate in the
program by writing essays on why they would like to
participate in the outdoor classroom project.
Although funding for exemplary projects was not available
during the 1989-90 school year, teachers and administrators
saw the tremendous impact the program made on the students
in past years and sought funding from the
Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium to provide the
opportunity to study marine science on the Mississippi Gulf
Coast. Students learned field techniques and studied salt
marsh and barrier island plants, animals, and processes.
During the spring of 1991, 32 young ladies attended an
advanced session mini-camp in marine science. The girls
enjoyed dissecting sharks, studying the sea turtle,
beachcombing, and fish printing. The mini-camp emphasized
the importance of protecting the natural resources and
preventing the extinction of animals and plants.
In February 1992, the students traveled to Crystal River,
Florida to swim with the manatees. They received instruction
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in snorkeling prior to the trip. During the six day excursion,
Students trawled in Mobile Bay, Alabama. Over 25 specimens
were collected and identified for further use in the classroom.
Students were introduced to estuarine habitats and the
importance of preserving them as nursery grounds. The young
women were ferried to a dredge spoil site where they were
introduced to the plants and animals of this unique flood plain
habitat, how the natural system works, and the basic ecology
of the Apalachicola National Estuarine Research Reserve.
The highlight of the Crystal River trip was a two mile
float-dive which allowed girls to view a variety offish species,
turtles, plant life, natural springs, caves, caverns, and rock
formations to depths of up to 35 feet. The significance of
this portion of the trip for the students was to experience this
type of environment which does not exist near their school
in Northeast Mississippi. Despite the chill of the 70 degree
water, no one seemed anxious for the trip to end, and many
young ladies left knowing they wanted to pursue a marine
science-related career.
The benefits of Project TACO are far reaching and
numerous. Students have shown increased interest in science
courses enrollment is steadily increasing, graduates are
choosing majors in a greater variety of science fields - many
of whom attribute their choice to past TACO experiences.
The most positive feature of the program has been the
enhancement of classroom learning, not only for the two
hundred-plus students who have participated, but also for
those with whom they share their experiences-and increased
knowledge.
C. Water Quality Activities And School
Bonita Imperial River Project (BIRP)
McKenzie Hansen
Bonita Springs Middle School
Ft. Myers, Florida
In this time when new environmental threats are created
every day yet are unnoticed, teachers at Bonita Springs
Middle School decided they had to develop a plan of action
10 improve student awareness of these issues.
The concerned teachers took action in the 1991-92 school
year by adopting the Imperial River as a water system to
study. The project became known as the Bonita Imperial
River Project, or B.I.R.P. The teachers designed a hands-on,
interdisciplinary program to determine the Imperial River's
health and its role in the community. The objective was to
instill knowledge through cooperative participation.
Leading this proposal, Mr. Al Hegner and a team of fellow
teachers formulated the B.I.R.P. plan. It was atime consuming
process involving a multitude of red tape, and the teachers
devoted a significant amount of time and effort to succeed in
getting the project started. They decided to use a combined
learn of 40 sixth grade "At Risk" students, and 150 eighth
grade students served as mentors for their younger peers. The
students were grouped into eight learning teams, and each
group was divided into five mini-cooperative teams.
The project was conducted for a full day, once a week, for
four months. All activities were held outside, and each
integrated fine arts, mathematics, natural and physical
sciences, social issues, environmental awareness, and physical
education. Teams rotated among activities for periods of 3
l£ hours. Every session opened with time to share feelings
through creative journal writing and closed with around-circle,
student-teacher discussion of failures and successes.
Because of shipping problems, inadequate funding, and
lack of time, sufficient scientific data to fulfill the objectives
could not be gathered. The teachers formed a plan to complete
the project the next school year. However, environmental
awareness was heightened in participating students, who truly
enjoyed the project.
As a participating eighth grader, the author felt this was a
good opportunity for students to become
environmentally-aware within a relaxed learning atmosphere.
The teachers were very supportive, respectful of student ideas,
and encouraged the students to get involved. The students
felt secure about being honest with the teachers and developed
a one-on-one relationship with group mentors and educators.
To be given a voice in the round circle discussions of the
negative and positive aspects of the day was something the
students had not experienced before, and the author felt good
expressing her views and being heard. The river project was
fun for everyone involved, and the students looked forward
to them. There was no better way to spend a Monday.
The Bonita Imperial River Project was a great activity to
incorporate into the curriculum of Bonita Springs Middle
School. It accomplished an often sought, but rarely achieved
combination of sincere learning for all involved. It is the
author's sincere belief that projects of this nature are necessary
if the current generation of children is called upon to solve
the ecological problems that besiege the environment.
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Project F.U.R. (Fight Urban Runoff)
Sue Ellen Lyons
Eric Zimmermann
Holy Cross High School
New Orleans, Louisiana
Project F.U.R. (Fight Urban Runoff) is based on the belief
that individuals are the basis of all environmental action.
Lake Pontchartrain, once a recreational haven for New
Orleans area residents, has become increasingly polluted over
the past three decades. Urban stormwater runoff has been
identified as the most serious threat to the lake's ecosystem,
but it is also the factor most responsive to individual action.
Since many individuals see no connection between their daily
activities and environmental degradation, PROJECT F.U.R.
was organized to address that issue. Through a plan of
environmental awareness and civic action, PROJECT F.U.R.
interacts with the public and encourages local residents to do
their part to clean up the Lake Pontchartrain Basin Ecosystem
by -reducing stormwater runoff pollutants.
The awareness phase was planned to educate the public
regarding problems associated with improperly-disposed-of
motor oil and its effects on the Lake Pontchartrain ecosystem,
as well as the benefits of recycling used motor oil. Reduction
of stormwater runoff was the major goal, with energy
conservation a close second. Used oil is a neglected, but
valuable resource that can be recycled and reused as a lubricant
or fuel. Because New Orleans is "a city in a saucer," if used
oil is not recycled and improperly disposed of, as is often the
case, it enters the extensive system of drainage canals and
pumping stations that empty into the Lake Pontchartrain Basin
ecosystem.
EPA studies show that "do-it-yourself" mechanics
mismanage at least 61 % of the oil they handle, and publicity
about recycling used oil is believed to triple do-it-yourselfer
participation in recycling programs. Most citizens were not
aware that collection sites were available in their
neighborhoods at local quick-change oil service
establishments, parish recycling centers, and other sites.
PROJECT F.U.R. decided to publicize that fact!
Through a community outreach program, the members of
PROJECT F.U.R. brought that message to as many people as
possible. After educating the students of Holy Cross High
School, arrangements were made to speak at other schools,
civic meetings, and environmental fairs. Copies of EPA
pamphlets on recycling used oil were obtained and distributed.
Bumper stickers provided by the Lake Pontchartrain Basin
Foundation and posters from the Louisiana Department of
Environmental Quality were also given to the public. The
team designed and distributed a flyer and information sheet
on urban runoff and its effects on Lake Pontchartrain.
The vision of a volunteer "army" was realized in May
1991 with Phase I of the Stencil-A-Drain project. Organized
in Jefferson Parish, the project involved a cooperative effort
of the Louisiana DEQ, the Delta Chapter of the Sierra Club,
local businesses, and civic organizations. PROJECT F.U.R.
also played a significant role in the development and
implementation of the Stencil-A-Drain project. Storm drain
covers in the Bissonet area of Jefferson Parish were stenciled
with the logo "Dump No WasteDrains to Lake" to remind
residents that carelessly disposed hazardous materials have a
negative impact on the Lake Pontchartrain ecosystem.
One of the current goals is to have the project authorized
in Orleans and St. Bernard parishes to increase public
knowledge about stormwater runoff.
Another part of our civic action campaign involves an
exciting example of recently developed technology the used
oil filter "crusher!" Recycling used oil is important, but the
used oil filters present another problem. Containing as much
as a quart of oil, used filters are often left to drain into the
ground or end up in landfills. Through the generosity of
Custom Compactors, Inc. of Tampa, Florida and with the help
of W.A. Offshore Co. of Kenner, Louisiana, PROJECT F.U.R.
was provided with a "Crusher 1" used oil filter compactor.
In less than ten seconds, the oil is drained from the filter as
it is reduced to the size of a hockey puck. The recovered oil
and the compacted filter can then be recycled. PROJECT
F.U.R. is currently planning to collect used oil filters from
Holy Cross High School students and from local mechanics.
In order to understand more fully the effects of pollutants
in the Lake Pontchartrain Basin ecosystem, PROJECT F.U.R.
conducts monthly water quality studies at several sites along
the south shore of the Lake. Students collect plankton, record
observations of other biota, and monitor water turbidity,
temperature, dissolved oxygen, salinity, pH, nutrients, metals,
and fecal coliform bacteria. Data is collected, evaluated, and
kept for future study.
Begun in 1990, PROJECT F.U.R. has been highly
successful. It has been recognized at the local, state, and
national levels. The group was a regional winner of the
prestigious President's Environmental Youth Award. More
importantly, as students, members of PROJECT F.U.R.
experienced the scientific, social, and political components
of an environmental issue and had the opportunity to apply
knowledge to a real-world situation.
A healthy Lake Pontchartrain will be a major recreational
and economic asset to metropolitan New Orleans. Achieving
that goal through public education and civic action is the
objective of PROJECT F.U.R.
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The Water Quality Event At The Science Olympiad
Jaime Lakin
Auburn Junior High School
Auburn, Alabama
Science Olympiad is a competition for junior high and high
school students with 28 different events. Each event is
scored separately, with the total of each team's event scores
determining the overall team standing. There are three levels
of competition regional, state, and national.
One event was Water Quality, which required testing water
samples provided by the event judges for total hardness,
salinity, and acidity. To accomplish this, each team was
supplied a kit with the necessary equipment and chemicals.
A written test with questions about the oceans, the water
cycle, and how humans pollute water and the steps that have
and will be taken to test and clean-up the earth's water was
given. Some questions were about the salinity of the oceans,
or the amount of dissolved salts in the water, including what
are the appropriate methods for measuring salinity (measuring
Ihe water's conductivity, evaporating off the water and
weighing the remaining solids, etc.) and the preferred unit of
measure (usually, grams per kilogram).
The exam also covered the equipment to test and clean
bodies of water. Some equipment used by water quality
specialists are bottom dredges (or an Eckman dredge), secchi
disks, and a cylinder-shaped device called a Kemmerer water
sampler. The bottom dredge scoops up sediment from the
bottom of a lake, or other body of water. The scoop is attached
to a pole with a button on the top. After the dredge-scoop
has been forcefully dropped into the sediment, the button is
pushed, releasing the spring-loaded jaws that close around
the trapped sediment. This allows the dredge-scoop to be
lifted from the water with the sediment sample in place, and
it is dumped into a bucket and examined. Water quality is
measured indirectly by determining the diversity and number
of living organisms in the sediment sample. Both numbers
and diversity of organisms should be high if water quality is
good; fewer organisms are present when water quality is poor
or pollution is increased. Insects obtained can be checked in
the laboratory for signs of pollution, such as for DDT, PCBs,
or heavy metals.
To find the clarity of the water sample, a secchi disk is
used. A secchi disk is a round, flat object with alternating
sections of black and white on its surface. The disk is attached
to a rope marked to indicate the length, and it is lowered into
the water until the lines can no longer seen. The depth to
which the disk has been lowered is then recorded. The further
down the disk can be lowered before the lines disappear, the
higher the clarity of the water.
The Kemmerer water sampler is a tube on a shaft with
Stoppers on each end that is attached to a rope and has a brass
weight. At first, the ends of the tube are both open, so the
tube can slide through the water as it is lowered without
disturbing the water. When the sample depth has been reached,
the weight is dropped, pulling the stoppers over the ends of
the tube and trapping the water from the desired sample level.
Then, the tube is raised to the surface, and the water sample
is emptied to another container for testing later. This
equipment enables scientists to sample water at a specific
depth or location which can be tested for parameters such as
specific pollutants, oxygen content, alkalinity, or hardness.
In the lab part of the Water Quality Event, the teams were
given water samples to test. One test was the oxygen, or
BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand), determination. Some
of the sample is transferred to a test container, which must
be done slowly to prevent more air from being added to or
lost from the sample. The contents of a "powder pillow",
which is a capsule containing pre-measured quantities pf
chemical reagents that change the form of oxygen, is added
to the water sample. The new oxygen form is more stable,
and it is ready for the addition of a chemical indicator. The
indicator is added to the sample, drop by drop, and mixed
into the sample. Each drop added to the sample until it turns
completely pink is counted, and the number of drops is used
to calculate the amount of oxygen present in the sample.
Another test was for pH, which determines the acidity of
the water sample. This was tested in two ways. A piece of
pH paper is dipped in the water sample, and the color to which
it changes is compared to a chart corresponding to the pH of
the water.
The other method uses a device to measure the pH. Some
sample water is poured into two identical test tubes, and six
drops of pH indicator is added to one of the test tubes, changing
the color of that water sample. Nothing is added to the water
in the other test tube. The test tubes are then placed in a
rectangular box with two holes in the top for the test tubes.
The test tube with the indicator added goes into the center
hole. The untouched sample is placed in the outer hole, which
has a color wheel on the inside, with each color representing
an acidity level. The disk is turned until the color of both
tubes is the same, and the pH is indicated by the color on the
portion of the disk in front of clear sample when the tubes
match. A dark green match might mean a pH of 7.5 (on the
alkaline side of the pH scale), while a lighter green might
mean an acidity 'of 7.0 (neutral). The device is called a
colorimeter which measures pH colorimetrically.
In the Science Olympiad competition, the lab results were
weighted as 50% of the grade (the results were matched to
the known values for the samples), and the written test as the
other 50%, with each question being of equal value. In case
of a tie, the lab score was used as the tie-breaker.
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The Weeks Bay Estuary Project
Sydney Vest
Gulf Shores School
Gulf Shores, Alabama
The Weeks Bay Estuary Project was formed to give seventh
and eighth grade students enrolled in Gulf Shore Middle
School in Foley, Alabama the chance to learn in a different
environment. The project provides seventh and eighth grade
students with real-life situations, helps students with their
math, science, and english skills, and teaches students with
different learning styles.
The program has received numerous awards and
recognition. For instance, it was awarded an $11,000
AmSouth Educational Grant in 1992. For the past two years,
1991 and 1992, the program has received the Alabama's Best
Environmental Education Program Award sponsored by the
Center for Environmental Research and Service. Alabama
Governor Hunt issued a proclamation honoring the Gulf
Shores School and the Weeks Bay Project, and the City of
Gulf Shores and Orange Beach declared it an Outstanding
Learning Project.
The activities of the Weeks Bay Estuary Project were
coordinated with Baywatch, Weeks Bay Estuary Reserve, and
the Baldwin County School System. In 1992, the project
focused on water quality. Monitoring the quality of the Weeks
Bay-Fish River water system is the principle focus. Students
were taught how to sample, conduct water tests, and operate
a calorimeter.
A typical day at the Weeks Bay Reserve is as follows. A
group loads up on a bus at school, with either Mr. Valine, the
science teacher, of Mr. Vest, the math teacher. Whichever
teacher doesn't get on the bus will take Mr. Valine's jeep,
with all the proper equipment, to the 150 year-old oak tree.
The bus arrives with the students later at the reserve. The
students, Mr. Valine, and Mr. Vest take the equipment out of
the jeep and place it by the oak tree. Mr. Vest reads off the
names of students in each group and in which research zone
they will participate. There are six different research zones.
One group will go to the still photography research zone,
at which one person is given a camera. Pictures are taken of
animals, nests, bogs, plants, streams, etc. Another group
learns how to forecast the weather. Humidity, temperature,
the direction and speed of the wind, the type of clouds, the
percent of cloud cover, the altitude of the clouds, and the time
of day are recorded.
The next group gathers mollusks and analyzes parasites.
At this research zone a group of students digs on the shore
of Weeks Bay to collect clams, oysters, and snails. Then,
using a microscope, they analyze the parasites on, and in, the
mollusk.
The fourth research zone is estuary analysis. The student
group in this zone maps the entire estuary. The map includes
the deck, marsh, pier, and other discoveries made that day.
Water quality is the fifth, and most important, research
zone. In that research zone, a group of students collect two
water samples at three sites in Weeks Bay. The samples are
tested for dissolved oxygen, Ph, dissolved carbon dioxide,
total dissolved solids, turbidity, mercury, and temperature.
Students are taught how to sample, conduct water tests, and
operate a calorimeter.
Students in the final research zone are responsible for
collecting raw data. They collect all the information gathered
that day and enter it on a computer.
After each group works at their particular research zone
for three hours, they have a 30-minute lunch break, although
it is often cut short. At 2 o'clock, all of the equipment is
packed up, and the students go back to school. The students
must then write a 300 word essay on what they did that day.
With this information gathered, the teachers use things that
happened at Weeks Bay as examples in their lessons on
Thursdays and Fridays.
It is much easier to remember ideas learned from
experiences at the Weeks Bay Reserve than from reading a
book.
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D. Addressing Broader Issues
Student Involvement In Local Environmental Politics
Jeremy Conner
LBJ High School
Austin, Texas
Students are the driving force of change in politics today
and the educated voting force of the future. Although
most students are too young to vote, they achieve political
change through many means, such as testifying at local
government meetings, picketing, organizing letter writing
campaigns and boycotts, and educating other citizens. Since
the youth of today will inherit the earth, it is our responsibility
to make it worth inheriting.
The Austin City Council has been one area where students
have been able to influence local politics. Students at LBJ
High School influenced the Austin City Council's decision
to ban detergents containing phosphates. To accomplish this,
LBJ students collected water quality data and used the results
in testimony presented to the Austin City Council.
The students' presentation was influential, and it was
enhanced through the use of many visual aids. For example,
the students used many charts for their data and demonstrated
how they obtained their results. Since the City Council tries
to televise its hearings, the testimony given by LBJ students
was well publicized. Their presentation was still being shown
on television several months after it occurred. City Council
meetings are an excellent place to influence voters by showing
them that students are serious about, and involved in, issues
relevant to their communities.
Recently, the Austin City Council has been the battle ground
over the Barton Creek Watershed. A new subdivision was
being built in the area, but many critics were concerned over
the level of environmental safeguards. Many feared that
construction would damage the Barton Creek Watershed and
Barton Springs, a very popular, spring-fed pool. Students
from LBJ testified at and picketed City Council hearings on
the issue. Four LBJ students testified, giving reasons why
there should be stricter regulation of the subdivision. One
Student's testimony was so moving that the entire audience
at the hearing gave a standing ovation. The speech was
included on the evening news. Other students picketed outside
City Hall. Some signs said "Honk if you support Barton
Springs". This was effective because the noise from the cars
could be heard inside the hearing room, demonstrating to the
City Council Members that the community strongly supported
protecting Barton Creek.
Several students from LBJ spent their summer in the Austin
Youth RiverWatch Program. The Austin RiverWatch Program
is a year long program in which students monitor local creeks
and serve as peer tutors for At-Risk students. The program
has a two fold purpose. One is to spread environmental
knowledge to other high school students, the other is to keep
At-Risk students in school. Students from LBJ have taken
their proteges to environmental concerts, recreational events,
and taught them to do water quality testing.
Student teams test various creeks once a week for nitrates,
phosphates, dissolved oxygen, fecal matter, temperature, and
pH levels. They also look for stream flow rates and record
the many kinds of life present in and around the creeks. Then,
the information is sent to the Lower Colorado River
Association, enabling it to provide ample, valid data to other
government agencies.
Schools play an important role in the education and
organization of the student body so that students may influence
local politics more effectively. As mentioned earlier, there is
an Environmental Science class at LBJ High School that
monitors local creeks. This class also spreads information
throughout the community by making environmental comic
books that appeal to other students. Also, students in a marine
science class sent letters to their local Congressman to
encourage stricter laws to eliminate the use of purse-seine
nets that can hurt dolphins. The Environmental Protection
Organization is a student club that has held training sessions
in water quality testing. Other clubs, such as the Marine
Science Club and the Science Club, are dedicated to helping
students experience nature.
Students from many schools participate in the Gulf Coast
Clean-up, which can target certain industries that are not
environmentally responsible. Also, there have been many
lake and stream clean-ups in Austin, some of which students
helped organize. Many other activities like these often occur
locally, and their perpetuation must be encouraged by a strong,
well-organized student turnout.
Students can play an important role in environmental issues.
However, they must work hard to demonstrate that they are
an informed, organized, and dedicated group with legitimate
concerns. Student activities in environmental projects are
enhanced by their ability to collect and analyze data. By
speaking directly to lawmakers and voters, students can
positively direct government to take responsibility for the
environment.
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Project Hermit Crab:
Helping Environmental Research Monitoring In The
Coastal Regions And Beyond
Jennifer Franke
Kim Kennedy
LBJ High School
Austin, Texas
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, or Clean
Water Act, mandated that the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency establish standards for clean water, monitor
the nation's water supply for contaminants, and prosecute
polluters. However, EPA lacks the manpower to fully monitor
the nation's rivers and estuaries, and, so, it relies on
self-reporting by government and business on the amount of
pollutants released into waterways.
In response to this need for personnel, citizen's groups
have established water quality monitoring programs. In Texas,
Clear, Clean Colorado initiated a student-citizen monitoring
program on the Colorado River named RiverWatch.
The RiverWatch program was so successful that it was
adopted by both the Lower Colorado River Authority and the
Texas General Land Office. Additionally, the Texas Water
Commission adopted the RiverWatch model for its Project
2000 program, which covers all Texas watersheds. Coastal
citizen groups have established monitoring networks for
estuaries following the RiverWatch model.
While the upsurge in citizen involvement in water quality
monitoring is welcomed by the EPA, the impact of citizen
action is limited for three reasons. First, there are no
established standards for water quality monitoring common
to both fresh and saltwater studies. Also, no one has correlated
the data from citizen's groups with that of government
agencies, such as EPA. Lastly, there is no central repository
for data from these networks. Consequently, interested
citizens and environmental groups have limited access to the
data generated, which is of limited value to relate the health
of freshwater bodies to estuaries. Thus, Project HERMIT
CRAB was conceived by the board of the National Consortium
of Specialized Secondary Schools in Math, Science, and
Technology to work with government and citizens groups to
establish water quality monitoring standards consistent for
fresh and saltwater and develop a monitoring network with
the Consortium schools in the states bordering the Gulf.
In the first phase, a core group of ten students will be
selected to work with teachers, government officials, and
citizen group representatives. They will collect information
about water quality monitoring techniques from government
and citizen groups already monitoring fresh and saltwater in
the Gulf states. They will also obtain two data bases from
the EPA the point emission data base for riversheds
terminating in the Gulf and the corresponding database with
marine pollution levels in the estuaries affected by these
riversheds. Then, the students will analyze the EPA data sets
for fields that can be readily correlated and for deficiencies
that can be filled by simple monitoring methods.
After conducting a literature review, core students will
recruit other students in consortium member schools in coastal
states. These students will research citizen and government
water quality efforts in their respective states and write
preliminary reports of their findings. The information from
the data bases and the preliminary reports will be combined
into the final report that students and teachers will present to
a committee of government agency and citizen group
representatives. This committee will work with teachers and
students to determine which techniques not used by all groups
should be included and establish the standard tests for the
monitoring network. The students will compile the standard
water quality tests and associated protocols into a handbook.
In the second phase, EPA trainers will teach core students
and teachers how to conduct the standard water quality tests,
initially at the annual N.C.S.S.S.M.S.T. student conference,
and, then, to students, teachers, and citizen volunteers along
the Gulf.
In the third phase, EPA trainers will teach core students
and teachers how to use the Geographic Information System
database. The students in the consortium will receive basic
instruction in research and statistical methods relevant to the
data. They will then teach this to other students, teachers,
and citizens. Data collected by the voluntary networks, from
the tip of Texas to Miami Beach, will be entered in the GIS,
to which they will have access.
The project goals are to:
Tier One
Standardize the type of water quality tests used by
citizen groups and government agencies,
Teach students, teachers, and citizens how to
conduct the water quality monitoring tests,
Teach GIS to students, teachers, and citizens, and
Teach students how to analyze water quality data
with appropriate statistics.
Tier Two
Increase student's feelings of personal responsibility,
Make science more relevant to students, and
Encourage student scientific research projects using
the data.
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Tier Three
Create a student-run citizen monitoring network
that provides accurate, reliable water quality data,
Make water quality data available to government,
educational, and citizen groups through computer
networks, and
Encourage presentation of student research at
national conferences.
The first tier goals will be evaluated primarily from a
decision orientation. The second tier goals will be evaluated
from a research-orientation, and the third tier goals will be
evaluated from a systems-orientation (does it work for
governmental agencies and citizen's groups already involved
in water quality monitoring?).
The Earth - Everyone's Responsibility (TEER)
Jessica Burton
Carrie Mewha
Bay Point Middle School
St. Petersburg, Florida
Two years ago, eight students got together at Bay Point
Middle School in St. Petersburg, Florida and pondered
what they could do to help the environment. The students
formed the TEER Club, which stands for The Earth -
Everyone's Responsibility. The first year of the club, which
now has over 75 members, was a pioneering effort by the
few charter members. They established Green Week to
promote Earth Day throughout the school.
Green Week activities included distributing green ribbons
to the entire student body to symbolize a pledge to improve
the environment. TEER members were magically
transformed into SCUM BUSTERS and SCUM FAIRIES,
distributing candy to those students displaying their green
ribbons. Door decorating and other contests were also held
during the first annual Green Week celebration.
By the beginning of its second year, the TEER club had
more than tripled in size. Because of the strong support Bay
Point and TEER showed for the environment, the school was
chosen to be the pilot program for NEED, the National Energy
Education Development program. Additionally, TEER
received much needed financial and moral support from
Florida Power.
To teach the students about energy resources and issues,
a pair of TEER members went to each homeroom class for
three days. The first day was spent introducing the five
renewable and five non-renewable energy resources and
rccnforcing that knowledge with chants. On the second day,
the students played a unique game using their chants and fact
sheets while forming into separate groups. A Pictionary-type
game with energy related topics was played on the third day.
Keeping these sessions short, only twenty minutes each day,
held the students attention and kept them interested. Later,
TEER members and members of other student groups were
trained to run the games provided by NEED and introduce
speakers. TEER sponsors contacted environmental agencies
to line up the speakers, which culminated in one spectacular
day when students attended no classes, but instead, learned
about energy, environmental, and Gulf of Mexico issues.
During the second year, the second annual Green Week
was organized. Green ribbons were again distributed, but
instead of giving out candy, students were given TEER bucks
that could be traded for prizes. During the week, food was
collected for various animal shelters, and a sculpture contest
was held. In the sculpture contest, the homeroom classes
created new forms of art by using biodegradable, organic, and
recyclable materials. In addition, Rascal, a ferret from the
local science center was adopted by the students, as were
Olympia the whale, and a section of Brazilian rainforest.
TEER members participate in several community events.
One of their favorite was last year's beach clean-up at Weedon
Island. They collected over 25 pounds of trash, excluding a
set of tires.
In the past year, TEER has received several awards for its
achievements, including The Green Thumb Award for
environmental excellence. Also, the club was recognized by
the national NEED office for its efforts. Members were sent
to Washington D.C. to attend the annual NEED conference
and receive awards. TEER's accomplishments also earned
Bay Point Middle School the Florida School of the Year award.
This year, TEER has three main goals. One goal is to
create a natural habitat on campus because it is important for
students to learn about Florida's ecosystems, not just through
text-books, but through hands-on experience as well. The
habitat will serve as an outdoor classroom large enough to
allow many species of plants and animals to survive.
Another goal is to establish recycling programs at Bay
Point and in the community. The first step taken was
encouraging paper recycling by placing boxes in each teacher's
room. The paper placed in these boxes was collected monthly
for recycling. The second step will be to place canisters
around the school for encouraging aluminum can recycling.
The third goal is to continue with efforts in the NEED
program. TEER currently conducts workshops in four
counties to help establish NEED programs in other schools.
This year's plans include bringing the NEED program to Bay
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Point Elementary School and conducting another annual fair
and TEER Day.
TEER's efforts cover many environmental issues
recycling, energy and water conservation, and wildlife and
wetland preservation. With the help of students, teachers,
and community leaders, the club plans to continue the tradition
of environmental awareness and education for many years to
come.
E. Make It Happen In The Field
Bird Island Habitat Restoration Project
Paige Provenzano
Chamberlain High School
Tampa, Florida
Bird Island is a national marine bird sanctuary located in
Tampa Bay at the mouth of the Alafia River. In the past,
a hard freeze caused significant damage to mangroves and
other shore line vegetation, resulting in the loss of nesting
habitat for the numerous species which live there and erosion
of the shore line.
Marine biology classes from Chamberlain High School
began a restoration project in September of 1988 which has
become an on-going project. Red, white, and black mangrove
seeds are collected by the students after school and on
weekends. They are potted in class, placed in the school's
greenhouse, and fertilized and watered until May. The plants
are then sent by school bus, along with students, to Gardinier
Park on the Alafia River.
Several state and county agencies provide boats and
representatives to supervise the planting of mangroves and
marsh grass on the shore line. The Florida Audubon Society
is joined by members of the Department of Natural Resources,
Tampa Bay Regional Planning Council Agency on Bay
Management, Southwest Florida Water Management District
Surface Water Improvement and Management Program,
Mangrove Systems, Inc., Hillsborough County Schools
Environmental Science Supervisor, and employees of
Gardinier Chemical Company. The students are ferried to the
island and spend the entire day restoring vegetation and
watching birds.
Bird Island, or Alafia Bank, is the largest of the Tampa
Bay Sanctuaries. Depending on the year and the condition
of the fresh water wetlands, 8,000-15,000 breeding pairs of
some 16 species of birds nest at the Alafia. They include
brown pelicans, double crested cormorants, anhinga, nine
species of herons and egrets, white ibis, glossy ibis, and roseate
spoonbills.
In 1974 and 1975, reddish egrets nested at Alafia Banks;
in 1975, fifteen pairs of roseate spoonbills were observed
nesting. These were the first such records since the turn of
the century. Species diversity here is greater than any other
colony in Florida and may exceed that of all other wading
bird colonies in the U.S.
Chamberlain students want to protect the significant
breeding bird colonies of Tampa Bay by restoring the natural
systems that support them. In addition to Bird Island
restoration, Chamberlain students started a Mangrove
Adoption Program.
Booths are set up at beach clean-ups and other
environmental activities to allow people to gain an
appreciation for the value of mangroves. Students help the
prospective "parent" select a seed, plant and water it, and
name it. Then, they are given official adoption certificates,
a brochure on mangroves, and a list of rules for raising the
mangrove properly. The adoptive parents raise the it for a
year and return it on Earth Day the following year to plant it
on Bird Island as part of the restoration project.
Chamberlain students have also distributed mangroves to
elementary schools as part of an educational program to help
children gain environmental awareness. By educating others
and working to improve Bird Island, the students hope to
make a favorable impact on the environment;
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Save Our Swamps (SOS)
Eric Costing
Randolph TWly
Environmental Education
Lee County School District
Fort Myers, Florida
The students of Lee County School District's Monday
Group, the Action Environmental Education Seminar
Class, have served the community and the environment for
more than two decades. The group, which got its name from
meeting every other Monday, is composed of junior and senior
high school students who are interested in the environment
from schools throughout the county. Every year, the class
chooses a project which it feels will improve the world in
which the students live.
In 1974, the students became concerned about Six Mile
Cypress, a 2,500 acre cypress strand that flows across the
eastern boundary of the City of Fort Myers. The swamp was
proposed for public acquisition, and if it were not purchased
by the public, it would probably have become short term farm
fields, another large-scale real estate development, and the
source of poles for fencing, destroying the delicate ecosystem
through changes to the system's drainage and general
degradation. The impact of the change in discharge from the
watershed would have been felt throughout Estero Bay, the
estuary into which Six Mile Cypress empties.
The first year project involved compiling an extended
knowledge base about Six Mile Cypress Swamp. Students
conducted a biological survey, an ownership survey, a
geological survey, a hydrological survey, and a land use
survey. All of their information was compiled into a booklet
on Six Mile Cypress.
Because many juniors from that first class chose to
participate again during their senior year, the Class of 1975
had a running start on its project. It decided to try to get a
public referendum allowing citizens to acquire Six Mile
Cypress by raising local taxes. The students did their
homework, and, after two attempts, they succeeded in gaining
the support of all five county commissioners. The students
were able to influence the wording of the ballot and determine
the timing of the election.
The following year, the class chose to continue the project.
They were left with the problem of convincing the public
that the cypress swamp was worth a $500,000 tax increase.
From September to November, when the vote on the
referendum took place, the students campaigned with no
budget. However, on election day, the voters overwhelmingly
approved the referendum with the highest plurality ever given
to a tax issue in Lee County.
The next year's class took a look at the work of its two
predecessors and decided that all work was not done. They
found that no one in Lee County's Park and Recreation
Department was trained in park planning. So, in the fourth
year of the Six Mile Cypress Swamp project, the students
made it their goal to create a Park Master Plan, which included
a regional bike path system.
These early efforts are continued today by a group
organized by students named Save Our Swamps (SOS). SOS
is designed to be a public voice to encourage the preservation
and appropriate management of wetlands in Lee County.
The class has lobbied for a mangrove protection ordinance
in Lee County, for manatee awareness and protection locally
and state-wide, and for the Southern Bald Eagle Habitat
Protection Ordinance. Students were the first to conceptualize
Manatee Park and were central to the negotiations between
the land owner, Florida Power and Light, and the County.
Monday Group students also served as consultants to
engineers for the environmental planning of Fort Myers
Centennial Park, a river front park on the Caloosahatchee
River.
The Monday Group regularly conducts field study trips to
local beaches, bays, mangrove swamps, salt marshes, and
fresh water streams, ponds, and swamps. Many Monday
Group students are active in water quality monitoring projects
in their home schools, particularly the Estero River Project
and the Manuel's Branch project.
One of the most recent Monday Group initiatives was an
attempt to get an environmental Management Plan, or GREEN
Plan, established in Lee County schools. The School Board
adopted the overall concept of the plan, and students are
working to implement it. To accomplish this, the students
are interviewing school district staff regarding current
environmental efforts and the needs of each district
department. These interviews will help establish a baseline
of current environmentally-conscious practices and highlight
the areas in which extra efforts need to be expended. The
GREEN Plan will provide the blueprint to guide the district
to environmental responsibility.
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Chief Reef:
Creating A Winning Video On the Constructive
Use Of Plastics To Build An Artificial Oyster Reef
Phil Snow
Chamberlain High School
Tampa, Florida
Making an environmental video takes many more steps
than most people think. Even before turning on the
camera, there has to be an initial idea behind the video.
Fortunately, the Chief Reef program provided a good idea for
a video.
Once a concept is chosen, a script must be formulated.
There are many stages to go through to put together any script
-- researching the topic, organizing data, writing the rough
draft, and finalizing the script. Once the script is completed,
taping can begin.
Taping consists of putting together a production crew,
finding a location, and shooting the footage. After taping
comes editing, a slow process compared with taping. When
editing, all footage must first be reviewed and cuts selected
for final inclusion in the video. All cuts, or segments, must
then be put back together on a master tape. The last stage of
editing consists of touch-ups and addition of any music. After
the video tape is finished, the final stage consists of two D's
Duplication and Distribution.
In the end, all the labor is worthwhile because one is able
to raise environmental awareness through today's most
effective communication tool - video.
Starting A Recycling Program
Aimee Sandifer
Port Neches-Groves High School
Port Neches, Texas
As a fifteen year old freshman student at Port
Neches-Groves High School, the author initiated and
coordinated a pilot recycling project in the Southeast Texas
communities of Nederland, Port Neches, and Groves, also
known as Mid-County. The author's interest in recycling
began during my spring break in May 1990 after attending
the School of Environmental Education. The experiences
there convinced the author of the need for nationwide recycling
programs, and she felt that the best place to start would be
her hometown.
The EPA issued a mandate to decrease the volume of waste
going into existing landfills by 25% by the end of 1993, and
the Mid-County landfill closed ten months earlier due to its
location in a wetland area. This forced the use of a landfill
in the City of Beaumont, some 15 miles away. These two
conditions combined made the need for recycling even more
urgent. Because so many materials and a great deal of space
could be saved in landfills if materials are recycled, the author
felt this should be done in her community.
The project goals were to heighten awareness of the need
for recycling, convince the administration of the three cities
that their residents were willing to recycle voluntarily, provide
measurable quantitative results from a recycling project, and
establish a permanent curbside recycling program.
After determining that these goals could best be attained
by establishing a one week pilot project, the author contacted
Browning-Ferris Industries and asked them to supply recycling
containers to use in the collection efforts. After placing several
telephone calls, the author attended a meeting of the
Mid-County Municipal League, which represents the 50,000
residents of the three cities. The Municipal League, upon
hearing this idea, quickly decided that the author could be
part of the solution to the cities' waste problems.
The members of the Nederland High School Key Club and
the Port Neches-Groves High School Student Council & Honor
Society were enlisted to provide the manpower needed to
collect the recycled items. These two high schools are bitter
football rivals, and the author was extremely nervous when
speaking on their campuses. But their assistance was crucial
to making this idea work. Many new friendships were made,
and the students were able to work closely as a team in this
joint endeavor.
The author personally contacted and spoke with a variety
of groups and individuals, including school administrators,
Groves and Port Neches city councils, Nederland City
Manager, Port Neches Elementary School, Port Neches Rotary
and Lions Club, and the Mid-County Municipal League. The
author was not accompanied by any faculty members of Port
Neches High School at these speaking engagements, and she
was the sole instigator of the project.
After receiving and invitation from the Southeast Texas
Planning Commission to speak on Earth Day in Port Arthur,
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a neighboring city, the author used this opportunity to stress
the need to recycle and promote the upcoming recycling drive.
It was proposed to the mayors and city councils of Port Neches,
Ncderland, and Groves that, when the drive ended, the income
from the project would be donated to create a permanent
recycling program.
To help publicize the eight-day recycling project, a poster
contest was sponsored at both high schools, with a cash prize
awarded to the winning entrant. The prize money was donated
by area businesses and other organizations. A 30-second
television commercial to promote the project was conceived,
underwritten by Browning-Ferris Industries, and it was
produced by the local television station, KJAC. Six
representatives from each high school wrote the commercial,
which included the spirited addition of the schools' mascots.
The commercial aired for four days during the recycling drive.
The pilot recycling project reached across all segments of
the communities in Ncderland, Port Neches, and Groves. As
previously mentioned, it included students at Nederland and
Port Nechcs-Grovcs high schools, elementary school students,
the local Rotary Club and Lions club, administrators of each
city, and the Municipal League. It also received widespread
media attention from local newspapers and attracted the
attention of the editors of the Port Arthur News and the
Beaumont Enterprise newspapers. There were 28 articles &
four editorials written on the Mid-County Recycling Project.
The local television stations also provided coverage numerous
times as the project progressed.
Over seven tons of newspaper and 300 pounds of aluminum
cans were collected, and when the proceed checks from the
sale of the recycled items to the mayors of each of the three
cities, they were reminded of their prior promise to use the
money to establish a permanent recycling program in their
communities. Ten months later, Browning-Ferris Industries
signed a five year contract with the three cities. At the time
it was initiated, the Mid-County Project was the largest
curbside recycling contract in the State of Texas, involving
over 50,000 residents.
Following the recycling drive, I learned of the President's
Environmental Youth Award. The Mid-County Project was
selected as a finalist from EPA Region VI, which covers Texas,
Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. The
project won the first place award over 23 applicants, and the
author was one of 10 students nationwide to receive this
award. Sister Thomas Ann LaCour, Principal of the School
of Environmental Education, sponsored the project, and she
flew to Washington, D.C. with the author to receive the award
from President George Bush and EPA Administrator William
Reilly.
My initial interest in recycling began as a fascination in
what we could save from going into our landfills. In the first
year of the Mid-County Program, almost 2 million pounds of
recyclable items were collected, saving 9,408 loose yards of
landfill space and 9,073 trees.
Future generations of children should be able to enjoy
beautiful forests and rolling hills, not mountains of trash.
What better place to begin than with the youth of today.
Recycling is the way for a better tomorrow.
Mid-County Recycling Project Additional Facts
March 1991 -February 1992
Nedcrland. Texas
By Trips To Recyclery
221 Trips X 29 Yds. =
Bv Commoditv Weight
Commodity
Aluminum
News
Glass
Hdpe
Pet
lin
Total
6,409 Yds. X 85%
(full) - 5,448 Yds.
To Volume Conversion Factors For Recvclables
Lbs. Collected
21,811
342,940
187,475
16,119
15,433
44.789
628,567 Ibs.
Lbs. per Cubic
62
500
800
24
35
62
Yard
= Landfill Yards Saved
352
686
234
672
441
722
3,107 Yds.
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Groves. Texas
By Trips To Recyclery
209 Trips X 29 Yards = 6,061 Yds. X 85% (full) = 5,152 Yds.
Bv Commodity Weiaht To Volume Conversion Factors For Recvclables
Commodity
Aluminum
News
Glass
Hdpe
Pet
Tin
Total
V
Lbs. Collected
21,811
342,940
187,475
16,119
15,443
41.404
628,567
/"
Port Neches. TEXAS
By Trips To Recyclery
21 1 Trips X 29 Yards = 6,1 19 Yds. X 85%
Commodity
Aluminum
News
Glass
Hdpe
Pet
Tin
Total
V
By Commodity Weight
Lbs. Collected
18,841
352,880
173,256
14,755
14,705
41.404
615,841 Lbs.
Lbs. per Cubic Yard
62
500
800
24
35
62
(full) = 5,201 Yds.
Landfill Yards Saved
352
686
234
672
441
722
3,107 Yds.
J
\
To Volume Conversion Factors For Recyclables
Lbs. per Cubic Yard
62
500
800
24
35
62
= Landfill Yards Saved
304
706
217
615
420
668
2,930 Yds.
J
f
City
Pt. Neches
Groves
Nederland
TOTALS
News
Tons
176.44
171.47
185.81
533.72
Environmental Savings
Trees
2,999
2,915
3.159
9,073
Electricity or Gas
KWH Gallons
1,835,152 17,644
1,783,459 17,147
1.932.610 18.581
5,551,221 53,372
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Saving In Manufacturing By Using Secondary Materials - % Reduction
Energy
Air Pollution
Water Pollution
Mining Waste
Water Use
Aluminum
95%
95
97
Steel
55%
86
76
97
40
Glass
15%
20
80
50
Paper
55%
74
35
58
Figures supplies by: Browing-Ferris Industries, Inc. Beaumont District
E Hands-On-Training
SAML-NSF Minority Work-Related Experience Aboard National
Marine Fisheries Service Research Vessels
Alonzo Hamilton
National Marine Fisheries Service
Pascagoula, Mississippi
The Southern Association of Marine Laboratories (SAML)
Minority Participation Project is the product of 9 of its
31 member institutions. The project was developed by
Doctors Dirk Frankenberg and Harold Howse to increase the
participation of Historically Minority Colleges and
Universities (HMCU) in marine and natural sciences. These
institutions lag in these subject areas, and this project
represents the foresight and initiative of the projects authors,
directors, and participants.
SAML used its comparative advantage as a regional
organization, with close ties between its members and
HMCU's, to seek funding from the National Science
Foundation (NSF). A grant from the NSF was used to sponsor
four workshops to lay the groundwork for a minority
participation project. The Minority Institutions Marine
Science Association (MIMSA), the official outreach
organization for SAML minority projects, was established as
a result of the third workshop. MIMSA is operated from the
School of Science and Technology at Jackson State University,
Jackson, Mississippi, under direction of Dr. Jonathan Wilson,
Professor of Marine Science studies at the University.
The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Southeast
Fisheries Science Center is an active sponsor of the minority
participation project. NMFS received NSF/SAML funding
to place minority faculty and students aboard NOAA vessels,
and the NSF/SAML/NMFS Project provides students with
at-sea experiences in marine science disciplines. The project
is conducted from NMFS/Mississippi Laboratories in
Pascagoula under the direction of Ms. Gladys B. Reese. The
project began in 1991 and will run through 1993. The grant
provides funds for participant travel to and from NOAA vessels
and student stipends when students must miss work to
participate' on cruises.
Approximately twenty minority students have participated
aboard NOAA vessels operating from Pascagoula, Mississippi
and Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Vessels participating in the
project include the NOAA ships OREGON II, CHAPMAN,
ALBATROSS IV, and DELAWARE II. Participation in this
type of effort demonstrates the Federal government's resolve
to enhance its commitment to provide technological and
academic expertise to minority institutions. Providing such
opportunities for scientific experience, hopefully, inspires
students to pursue scientific careers and increases the applicant
pool of eligible minority professionals in the fields of science
and technology. Participating institutions benefit further
through expanded academic research opportunities.
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Raceland Jr. High Conservation Club And FFA
Kory St. Pe
Slade Basson
Raceland Jr. High School
Raceland, Louisiana
Located 40 miles west of the city of New Orleans and the
Mississippi River, 40 miles east of the Atchafalaya Basin,
and 40 miles north of the Gulf of Mexico in one of the largest
and most productive estuaries in North America, Raceland
Junior High School students are offered a variety of
opportunities for outdoor educational activities. To channel
student activities in a positive direction, the Raceland Junior
High School Conservation Club was formed in 1975. The
club has a long history of working on projects beneficial to
the community and the environment.
One of the most popular programs the club carries out is
the Wood Duck Nesting Box Project. Over the years, more
than 300 wood duck nesting boxes have been built and placed
throughout Lafourche and Terrebonne parishes to provide
valuable habitat for wood ducks. This program was expanded
to include squirrel den boxes.
The club sponsors annually a Hunter Education and Safety
Program. This program teaches wildlife management and
hunter safety, ethics, and responsibility. Students receive
state-required certification after successfully completing the
course. This program has been expanded to include a Young
Sportsman Education Day. The subjects of lectures and
demonstrations include survival skills, game laws, and current
environmental issues.
Club members have conducted field water quality studies
of area lakes under the supervision of Louisiana Department
of Environmental Quality personnel. Students measured
dissolved oxygen concentrations, pH, salinity, and light
penetration using various instruments and test kits. These
outings gave students hands-on experience working with a
biologist in the field and an understanding of water quality
principals.
Working with local land companies, the club planted 3,000
oak and cypress seedlings. The trees were planted to provide
cover and food for wildlife in areas cleared for agriculture.
Since 1982, club members have taken part in an exchange
program with students at the Model Laboratory School at East
Kentucky University in Richmond, Kentucky. This provides
students with the chance to see a very different geographic
area.
The Raceland Jr. High Conservation Club has been
recognized seven times as the outstanding youth organization
in Louisiana by the Louisiana Wildlife Federation. The club
was recently featured in an international broadcast on
worldwide environmental issues.
Club members take part in community cleanup and
beautification activities. Interest in conservation and the
environment is not limited to the Conservation Club. For
instance, all Raceland Jr. High Clubs compete for the title of
"Trashiest Organization on Campus" by collecting the most
litter in one day. Also, the Raceland Jr. High Future Farmers
of America actively supports environmental programs. As
part of the Bettering Our American Community program, the
FFA has become involved with a major marsh restoration
project. Club members have transported and placed 4,000
discarded Christmas trees in cribbing to restore and protect
eroding marshland. This program was carried out under the
supervision and direction of the Lafourche Parish Coastal
Zone Management Commission and Louisiana State
University.
The FFA is currently establishing a fish hatchery at
Raceland Jr. High with the help of the LSU School of
Environmental Engineering and state and federal wildlife
agencies. Upon completion, it is hoped that the project will
produce 17,000 largemouth bass fingerlings to release into
area lakes and bayous.
The activities of the Raceland Jr. High Conservation Club
and FFA have raised the environmental awareness of the entire
school community.
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G. Environmental Programs To Enhance The
Learning Experience
Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium-
Discovery Hall Program
Margaret Gordon
Mobile, AL
nphc Discovery Hall Program, located at the Dauphin Island
JL Sea Lab, explores ideas of education that will have the
greatest impact on students. Not only are there classroom
lectures, but also a variety of hands-on teaching techniques that
arc often necessary to fulfill a complete understanding of the
material presented. Through these techniques, students benefit
from the experience they receive by working in the field rather
than exclusively in the classroom. Because of the informal
atmosphere created while studying in the field, a bond develops
between the student and the teacher that allows for a more
relaxed and comfortable learning environment.
Til is atmosphere creates, within each student, a greater desire
to learn and complete the program with the highest possible
honors. The living quarters allow students to share their ideas
with others, form valuable relationships with their peers, and
discover aspects of their own personalities they may have
overlooked in the past. From this, the experience and
knowledge gained at the Discovery Hall Program helps these
students to return home with the desire to excel in school and
stand out among others in their community.
Attending the program gives students hands-on experience
with numerous types of marine life. Each student is required
lo set up and monitor a salt water aquarium by taking samples
of marine life and observing their habits. One way of obtaining
Samples is through weekly excursions in the Gulf of Mexico
or Mobile Bay. During the boat trip, a shrimp net containing
a turtle excluder device allows students to gather and sort
through marine life while obtaining samples beneficial to their
aquariums. Not only do students take part in boat trips, but
they also participate in seining excursions, marsh walks, and
the popular adventure through the waters of Port St. Joe and
St. Andrews Bay.
Along with these adventures, students complete a study of
the geographical formations of the earth, identify the major
species of plant life on the Island, perform challenging lab
experiments, and present a final research paper. Students must
also gain complete understanding of the material presented in
order to be able to perform well on periodic exams. Through
each of these events, students are exposed to numerous branches
of science while obtaining learning skills that most young people
do not acquire until their college education begins.
As a result of the learning techniques and the inspiration
received from the educators in the Discovery Hall Program, the
author discovered a love for science and the environment. Since
completing the Program, the author won numerous science
awards, established an environmental club at her high school
and became heavily involved in the Mobile Bay Audubon
Society.
The Discovery Hall Program is highly recommended for
those who would like to discover the excitement of learning.
Project Marine Discovery: Sea Camp
Walter A.-Skupien III
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory & Mississippi-Alabama
Sea Grant Consortium
Ocean Springs, Mississippi
Project Marine Discovery Seacamp was initiated in 1988 to
foster a better understanding and awareness of the fragility
of the marine environment, primarily among students 6 to 14
years old. Seacamp has grown from 421 students in 1988 to
over 1,300 students in 1992. Campers are mainly from the
Mississippi Gulf Coast, but the children who have attended
Seacamp represent approximately 30 states and several foreign
countries.
Seacamp is co-sponsored by the Gulf Coast Research
Laboratory and the Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium.
Seacamp consists of six to eight one-week sessions during the
summer months, and it is conducted at the J.L. Scott Marine
Education Center and Aquarium (MEC&A) in Biloxi,
Mississippi. The MEC&A contains two classrooms and five
laboratories designated for use by Seacamp.
Each weekly session of Seacamp covers at least four main
topics concerning the marine and coastal environments --
endangered sea turtles, the salt marsh, fish biology, and creature
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features (animal adaptations). Each topic has several associated
activities which emphasize its importance. The majority of
these activities are either educational games or hands-on
endeavors. These major topics are covered in three days.
On Tuesdays and Thursdays, the Gulf Islands National
Seashore (in Ocean Springs, MS) and Ship Island are the
specified field trip destinations, respectively. In the field, the
students test water parameters, study marsh animals, and
discover marine creatures via seining and sieving. Other field
trips include a short walk to the Seafood Industry Museum and
an hour-long tour of the Glen L. Swetman (a Biloxi Schooner
replica).
On Friday afternoons, Seacamp students leave with a better
perception of the inter-relationships between themselves and
the environment, and many leave with the desire to make a
positive difference.
Youth Outreach Programs Outside The School
Jason Baca
Bay City High School
Bay City, Texas
Students spend most of their time in school learning because
they have to, but when receiving education outside of school,
the student must take the initiative due to a true interest in the
subject. Marine projects give students that opportunity by
experiencing the marine environment and learning more about
coastal habitats.
Matagorda County, Texas has a unique program that caters
to the. marine interests of its young adults. The program, for
children between the ages of 9 and 18, is sponsored by the 4-H
Club. This group is directed by the County Extension Marine
Agent, Willie Younger, and several other community leaders.
The group has many local sponsors, including the Texas A&M
Sea Grant Program.
The primary objectives of the marine group are to increase
understanding and appreciation of marine and coastal
environments, develop an excitement for learning through
hands-on experience, generate a sense of responsibility for the
future, and develop leadership skills. These objectives are
established through four different levels of projects.
The first programs take place through the 4-H Marine
Education Camp. In Matagorda County, there are two camp
programs. One is the Summer Ocean Awareness Retreat
(SOAR), through which students spend a week at Matagorda
Island.. The second is the Winter Ocean Awareness Retreat
(WOAR), which has students go to either Matagorda Beach or
Sargent Beach. The programs are specifically planned to educate
the children on the local environment and seasonal differences
in biology, geology, and water chemistry. The camps are fun
and give the students the opportunity to learn little things that
one might have taken for granted. These camps also help
establish leadership skills that are carried over into other school,
4-H, and community endeavors. The camps are very primitive;
participants sleep in tents in remotely-located camps in order
to obtain a better appreciation for the forces of nature.
The second level of programming is the 4-H Discovery
Expeditions. This is a new level, and only two trips have been
made. One was a Washington Exchange Trip in which youth
from Washington State came to Texas for the summer SOAR
trip, and later that summer, youth from Matagorda County area
traveled to Washington for a week. The second trip was a
week-long trip to the Crystal River in Florida. On these trips,
the participating youth experience something they may never
experience again. The facilities are well-furnished, and the
group is able to see what the communities are like. These trips
give the ch ildren the opportunity to compare other coastal regions
with their own and demonstrate how coastal and marine areas
differ from region to region, but face similar environmental,
social, and economic challenges. This proved especially true
in the areas of water quality, habitat destruction, fisheries
management, and coastal development.
The third classification of educational programming is
investigative field trips, of which many have occurred. Trips
have been taken to the turtle hatchery in Galveston, the Texas
State Aquarium in Corpus Christi, the state-run red drum
hatchery in Corpus Christi, the Marine Education Center and a
seafood processing plant in Palacios, and the Nautical
Archaeology Laboratories in College Station. The trips are
planned so the youth can get a bird's-eye view of marine-oriented
activities. The students discovered the maritime past, learned
about the efforts to save the endangered Kemp's Ridley sea
turtles from extinction, saw fish and other marine organisms of
the Texas Gulf Coast, and learned about the marine industry in
our county and about our bays and beaches. The trips enable
the students to understand environmental functions and problems
in the Gulf.
The final level is the Environmental Enhancement Projects.
Several projects in which the students participate are Beach
Clean-ups, Mad Island Marsh Reestablishment, and water
quality monitoring. The Beach Clean-Ups are anational activity,
pioneered in Texas, that provide students with the feeling that
they can make a difference by picking up trash on beaches.
When the group works at Mad Island, it rebuilds wetland areas
for wildlife, particularly declining populations of waterfowl.
By monitoring water quality, it sees how the water quality
compares to that in other areas, and, also, that information can
be used to improve the environment and develop a greater
understanding of scientific procedure.
These projects are truly what the group is looking for because
they give young people the unique chance to work with their
environment. They also enhance the self-esteem of the students
and engender a greater respect for the environment.
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Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College/Gulf Coast Research
Laboratory Intern Program
Robyn May, Melissa McCraney,
L. Hollis Melton, Charles P. Egerton
Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College
Gander, Mississippi
The Cooperative Intern Program of Mississippi Gulf Coast
Community College, Gulf Coast Research Laboratory,
and J. L. Scott Marine Education Center and Aquarium, which
is now in its fifth year, has enjoyed great success in providing
a demanding program requiring dedication and a high ethical
Standard. Honors Biology students participating in the
internship are responsible for attending General Biology I
and II lectures and labs, which are completed at an accelerated
pace by the end of the second semester.
Each year before the internship actually begins, Dr. Sharon
Walker, Administrator of the J. L. Scott Marine Education
Center and Aquarium, explains the various research projects
available to interns. After students decide which project they
wish to research, they are assigned to a mentor specializing
in that specific area. Rather than spending lab time at the
college like most students, they spend their lab time at the
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, or at the J. L. Scott Marine
Education Center, working with dieir mentor. Trips to the
laboratory become either a Tuesday or Thursday afternoon
ritual.
The Gulf Coast Research Laboratory is located in Ocean
Springs, Mississippi, approximately 10-12 minutes from the
college. The Laboratory was established to conduct research
experiments which contribute to a better understanding of the
environment. Research ranges from chemistry to the study
of tributyl-tin, a carcinogen found in paints used on ships, to
marine biology projects, such as larval migrations, habitats,
feeding studies, or reproductive cycles of various fish.
One of the authors had an internship at the Laboratory
under Mr. Larry Nicholson, head of the Anadromous
Department. The research conducted during the internship
attempted to determine if striped bass were reproducing in
the Pearl River. This was achieved examining water samples
taken from the Pearl River on a bi-weekly basis during a two
month period in late spring. Water samples were studied
under a dissecting microscope; fish eggs and larvae were
extracted for classification from debris in die samples. The
eggs and larvae were then studied to determine if any striped
bass were present. Results indicated that striped bass were
not reproducing in the Pearl River at that time.
The J. L. Scott Marine Education Center and Aquarium is
located in Biloxi, Mississippi, approximately 20 minutes from
the College. The original purpose of the Center was to display
the results of research conducted at the Gulf Coast Research
Lab. The Center contains 11 aquariums which provide habitat
to fish, snakes, turtles, and alligators, just to name a few.
Another author participated in an internship there and
displayed research conducted at the Laboratory on the cobia
fish (Rachycentron canadum). Mrs. Margaret Howell of the
Center served as project mentor, and Mr. Jim Franks of the
Laboratory's main campus conducted the research. The
exhibit "bridged the gap" between Mr. Franks laboratory and
the general public by using color photographs, an artificial
cobia, a tagging kit, and various maps that demonstrated
catch/release of cobia and their migratory patterns. The
exhibit is still located at the Marine Education Center and is
seen annually by approximately 64,000 visitors,
demonstrating the success of internship projects.
While the internship is a enjoyable, it also involves many
hours of hard work. Interns are required to devote a minimum
of three hours a week at the laboratory. Some interns' research
involved hours well beyond the minimum requirements,
including holidays (when working with living organisms,
there are no such things as holidays).
One of the best characteristics of the internship is that
there are several projects from which students can choose so
they can select the projects in which they are most interested.
Such projects include creating interactive educational
programs, observing organisms under a microscope, working
in the library, developing exhibits, studying crab behavior,
chemistry experiments, and drawing various animals. By
allowing students to choose a project in which they are
interested, they are more likely to be more involved and,
therefore, increase their knowledge as a result of the additional
effort.
The final stage of an internship is presenting research
results at the Mississippi Academy of Sciences, Before the
actual presentation, many hours are spent practicing,
critiquing, and improving speeches, constructing posters,
and/or developing other types of visual aids. By making
presentations at regular intervals throughout the program,
students gain valuable speaking experience and are given
constructive criticism by Drs. Melton and Walker, mentors,
and fellow students.
The Mississippi Academy of Sciences is divided into two
different presentation styles poster sessions and platform
sessions. During poster sessions, interns stand by their posters
and explain their project to interested individuals. These
presentations are similar in design to science fair projects.
During die platform sessions, interns are given fifteen minutes
to discuss their project. Many students' presentations include
video or slide presentations. This cooperative program
provides increased content knowledge and presentation
experience to each student participant.
The internship has become a valuable part of the time a
student spends at Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College.
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Students learn the importance of responsibility by regularly
attending laboratory sessions and meeting deadlines,
increasing their sense of responsibility and accomplishment.
Because of the internship, the authors now have a published
abstract in a scientific journal, as well as a better understanding
and knowledge of the environment.
H. Widening The Environmental Horizon
Kids For Saving Earth:
Case History Of What A Kid Can Do
Susan L, Korody
Scott Russell
Liza Hamilton
Kids For Saving Earth Club #12,337
Seffner, Florida
Kids For Saving the Earth was started by Clinton Hill.
Clinton was not a politician, nor a scientist. He had no
titles or degrees. He was an 11 year old boy who displayed
a courage, purpose, and sensitivity toward the world around
him that belied his years.
Many people wonder about the future of the world around
us, about how poisons can continue to be released into the
sky and water while species of animals disappear. Clinton
didn't just wonder, he acted. He wrote companies, drew
posters, and inspired friends and classmates to become
involved in saving the environment.
Shortly before cancer tragically took his life, Clinton
organized the first Kids For Saving Earth Club with his 6th
grade class. They were committed to the environment, and
it soon became a school project.
When Target Department Stores heard the story of Clinton
and Kids For Saving Earth, it became a program sponsor.
KSE now has 645,149 members in 22,3.23 clubs world wide.
What can one person do? In the spirit of Clinton Hill, the
members actively learn about environmental issues, plant
trees, begin recycling and composting programs, clean parks
and neighborhoods, and write national leaders concerning
issues. The opportunities are endless. Each club, along with
the club advisor, decides upon which environmental issues
the club will become involved and the most effective plan of
action. This provides an opportunity to make a difference in
their communities.
Membership is free, and all receive a full-color certificate.
Adult club advisors are supplied a wide variety of information
to assist the group.
Perhaps the Spirit of Kids For Saving Earth can be best
described in the KSE Promise:
The earth is my home;
I promise to keep it healthy and beautiful;
I will love the land, the air, the water, and all
living creatures;
I will be a defender of my planet;
United with friends, I will save the earth.
Inquiries can be directed to:
Kids For Saving Earth
P.O. Box 47247
Plymouth, MN 55447-0247
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Linking Children To Environmental Action Projects
David Smith Hernandez
Austin, Texas
CAPE, the Children's Alliance for Protection of the
Environment, is an international organization that
promotes children's environmental programs around the
world. It helps children understand how the world's people
and their local ecologies depend on one another and provides
hope for a healthy habitat in the future. CAPE has been
recognized by the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), and CAPE was added to UNEP's Global 500 Roll
of Honor on World Environment Day, June 5,1990. The past
three years, CAPE members spoke at the International Youth
Forum on the Environment sponsored by UNEP at the United
Nations General Assembly Hall in New York City.
CAPE began when its founder Ingrid Kavanagh, then
Honorary Consul to Costa Rica, organized a cooperative beach
elean-up between children in Costa Rica and Texas. This
initial effort has grown and is repeated several times during
the year with a major event, known as the International Beach
Appreciation Day, held annually in September, coinciding
with the Gulf-wide beach cleanup. A second large effort, the
conception and dedication of CAPE's Children's Rainforest
On the Osa Peninsula in Costa Rica, also became a primary
focus of activity in the development of Children's Forests in
Oregon and Texas.
One of CAPE's goals is to have Children's Forests
designated in existing community parks as well as in the
larger state and national forests. This would allow youths to
have a vested interest in reforestation projects in their
communities. Another goal is to reach children through
existing scholastic programs where the structure exists but
(here is no focus or direction on how to get environmental
projects and discussions included with the regular studies. In
response to this need, CAPE developed a Program Guide for
teachers and students to use in adapting their science, health,
social studies, or language arts course work.
One tiling that makes CAPE unique is its international
connection. Many CAPE members have become pen-pals
with their international peers, sharing project ideas, concerns,
and information about the unique nature of their own
communities. The idea of "thinking globally, acting locally"
has been well served by CAPE's newspaper, Many Hands,
which is written by and for children and youth members.
Contributions to the newspaper are also made by members
of the international network. The newspaper provides updates
on activities and educational articles on subjects such as acid
rain, pollution, and wildlife habitat preservation, and it is
distributed to the far flung chapters. The idea that a young
person's individual effort on a local level can become part of
a worldwide movement is not just a dream when children see
CAPE's ideas accepted by children in 49 states and 35 countries
around the world.
CAPE has proven effective in sparking the imagination
and promoting activity among children of all ages. The
environmental conservation efforts of families whose children
are members of CAPE allow the youngest to accept and learn
their family's activities such as recycling, composting, litter
clean-up, and selecting environmentally safe products for the
home. Older school children can become active in the types
of projects promoted in the Program Guide, and teenagers
can begin asking harder questions, making greater
contributions in assuming leadership roles, and getting
environmental issues addressed in their schools,
neighborhoods, and communities.
CAPE sponsors an Ambassador's Club for children and
young people who have the personal motivation and energy
to actively lead their peers in starting and promoting new
projects. CAPE Ambassadors participate in international
conferences and workshops, representing active youth
involvement in global environmental concerns.
CAPE represents an idea that cannot fail! Not only is the
environmental message that it brings essential, but the
messengers who carry it represent the perfect means to
overcoming cultural differences separating the peoples of the
world. Children are the hope, the energy, the intellect, and
the future of their individual countries and the world at large.
What government can deny the basic good of children
seeking to clean up their cities and parks and beaches? What
culture can deny their children the hope for a healthy
environment? What political or cultural group can question
the motives of children who simply want a clean place to play
and grow?
This may be the case where children lead and adults, indeed
the world, should follow. The messengers are the children,
and the message is "we want to protect and restore the Earth
so that it will provide a healthy place for the children of today
and tomorrow to live and grow."
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A Project For Future Problem Solvers To Tackle Tough Issues
Daniel Cohan
Dallas, Texas
The problems of the Gulf of Mexico environment may
seem very different from the problems of drugs or nuclear
waste. But each can be addressed using a simple, five-step
problem solving process brainstorming problems, defining
an underlying problem, brainstorming solutions to that
problem, evaluating those solutions with criteria, and
implementing the solution. As a member of the international
champion Future Problem Solving team, the author used this
method, which can tackle a variety of problems facing the
country and the world.
The first step to solving a problem is to decide what problem
needs to be solved. In FPS competition, this means examining
a futuristic situation and generating a list of problems that
could occur because of that situation. In real world problem
solving, it means researching a situation and deciding what
the problems really are. Trying to find solutions is useless if
you don't know what you're trying to solve.
In the problem-finding phase, it is necessary to be
broad-minded and look at an issue from all angles. One way
to accomplish this is to look for problems from a multitude
of categories, such as economic, environmental, or legal.
When looking for problems, consider all the groups and people
who are affected by a situation. In the case of the Gulf of
Mexico, that might include viewing the situation from the
perspectives of fishermen, environmentalists, government
agencies, and others.
Now that a list of problems has been developed, an
underlying problem should be chosen, one that is significant
and solvable. Since no group is capable of solving all of the
problems of the Gulf of Mexico, a narrow problem should be
chosen. Even though the problem should be narrow, it must
be significant enough that, if solved, the overall situation will
improve. Therefore, choosing a well-focused underlying
problem is critical because all the solutions will be geared
toward solving it.
By now, the problem has been determined, and it's time
for the fun part brainstorming solutions. The goal is to
create a list representing a broad range of possible solutions
to the underlying problem. One of the best ways to generate
solutions is to research what other groups have done in similar
situations and adapt their solutions to the underlying problem.
Look for solutions that tackle the factors perpetuating the
problem.
At this point, simply write down every solution that comes
to mind without worrying about details or practicality. As is
always the case with brainstorming, off-the-wall solutions
will be named during this process, but, often, they can be
altered or combined into a legitimate solution with other ideas.
Rather than criticizing off-the-wall or impractical solutions,
think of a way to alter or combine them with other solutions
to make them feasible. Many of the best ideas have come
when one person blurted out a crazy idea and another person
was able to turn that idea into a creative and effective solution.
Criticism should be avoided at this stage because it can
make the participants less comfortable in sharing ideas. The
working environment must be conducive to all participants
sharing their ideas, especially during the brainstorming phase.
The list of solutions is evaluated to determine which should
be undertaken. A set of criteria is developed to include
whichever solution would be most effective. Examples of
criteria include how long it would take to implement a solution,
how much it would cost, and how much resistance would be
given by opposing interests. Criteria that specifically relate
to. the problem being addressed should be used, and each
solution should be evaluated on how well it fulfills the criteria.
The best solution will be the one that best meets the criteria
while solving the underlying problem.
When the best solution has been determined, it should be
implemented by the group.
The Next Generation In The Environmental Movement
Robert A. Thomas
Society for Environmental Education
New Orleans, Louisiana
The tumultuous 1960's gave rise to a sense of urgency for
environmental reform that culminated in the birth of the
Environmental Movement. This monumental action officially
began on April 22, 1970, the first Earth Day. Though many
adults were involved, it was a phenomenon fueled by youth,
especially at the college level. During the past two decades,
this environmental generation has called the American way
of life to task and sensitized the world about environmental
concerns.
The present generation of youthful, environmentally-aware
citizens will have many opportunities, most of which were
not options for their parents and older relatives. As examples,
consider the following career tracks. Nature centers and
environmental education centers were few and far between
before 1970. Most were founded in response to the first Earth
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Day; today there areoverSOO such centers, as well as thousands
of environmental activist groups, zoo and aquarium education
departments, environmental science curricula in various levels
of education, and so forth.
During the 1970's and 1980's, most contributions to the
environmental movement resulted from activism and
education. Though both will remain critically important,
possibly the most important future contributions will come
from within industry. Now is the time for
environmentally-oriented chemical engineers, petroleum
engineers, CPA's, lawyers, managers, and other professionals.
Why is this the time to work more easily from within?
The answer lies with all the environmental reform that is
taking place today within business. The college-aged kids
from the 1960's are now in their 40's. They are now managers,
owners, CEO's, and sit on executive boards. Even though
these folks followed a business track when they left school,
they took the environmental attitude with them. Twenty years
later, they have educated their children, experienced the impact
of poor environmental controls, had many frustrations with
the "we can out-engineer this environmental problem"
approach, and are ready for reform. How interesting that
they will now manage their children's generation that has
been environmentally sensitized by them!
The environmental movement may be divided into five
themes, each coinciding with a decade:
Awakening - 1960's - the period during which
society was awakened to a potential environmental
crisis,
Call to Order - 1970's - the period during which
attitudes and approaches were formulated (this was
the most active period of the development of new
nature centers),
Greenwashing - 1980's - the period during which
many (not all) businesses attempted to "cash in" on
the environmental movement by making false
claims about their products,
New Awakening - 1990's - the period during which
everyone finally agrees that a clean environment is
good for everyone (including the economy), and
We've Always Done It That Way - 2000+ - the
final period, during which today's youth will argue
that a clean environment is the way society should
live and in which today's environmental novelties
will be commonplace. It was shared by one
gentleman that the Native American attitude of
stewardship toward the earth will be incorporated
into each citizen's ethical attitudes.
The bottom line is that the generation of the 1960's is ready
for the next to take the movement to the next level and is
willing to help.
One must bear in mind that the most pressing dilemma is
designing a workable solution to uncontrolled human
population growth. If that growth continues, and there is no
indication that it will not, without more resources and/or better
methods for distributing what we have, there will always be
another crisis like those in Somalia, Ethiopia, Bosnia, and
America's inner cities.
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VI. Cooperative Programs
A. Galveston Bay National Estuary Program
Managing Galveston Bay: New Solutions For A Gulf Estuary
Frank Shipley
Samra Jones-Bufkins
Herbert Hudson
Galveston Bay National Estuary Program
Webster, Texas
Americans increasingly express their expectations for a clean
environment in terms of entire ecosystems. Until recently,
the tendency was to view environmental problems in isolated
pieces easily understood. This view was institutionalized in
an elaborate mosaic of fragmented jurisdictions, usually based
on political, rather than natural boundaries. The National
Estuary Program is a forerunner in elevating management of
coastal environments to the ecosystem level. This innovative
approach is encouraging a new cooperative spirit among
traditionally disparate institutions.
Current management of Galveston Bay involves at least 15
agencies and authorities, is issue-oriented, and driven by diverse
mandates. Working independently, these entities have
traditionally been unable to address completely the
wide-ranging impacts to water quality and living resources in
the Bay. Development and implementation of a comprehensive
plan that coordinates the efforts of these entities, eliminating
the potential for omissions and duplication of effort, will
streamline management of the Bay's resources.
Galveston Bay consists of 600 square miles of shallow,
brackish water surrounded by 203 square miles of estuarine
marsh, 14 square miles of forested wetlands, 61 square miles
of fresh water ponds, and one of the largest urban areas in the
United States. The Houston metropolitan area is home to more
than 3.5 million people, as well as the third largest port in the
U.S. and one of the largest petrochemical complexes in the
world. Over 500 chemicals are manufactured in the numerous
petrochemical plants that line the shore and tributaries of
Galveston Bay, and nearly one-third of the nation's oil refining
capacity is here as well. Sixty percent of the permitted
wastewater in Texas including that from Dallas and Fort Worth
-- flows into the Galveston Bay System. Recreational and
commercial fishing industries contribute hundreds of millions
of dollars to the area economy each year.
Managing the resources of Galveston Bay is a complex
effort to balance use versus conservation of resources in the
public's interest. Deciding how to use those resources is
difficult, because the alteration of one part of the system will
ultimately cause changes throughout that system. Recognizing
this, in 1988, with the help of the non-profit Galveston Bay
Foundation and the Texas Water Commission, Texas Governor
Bill Clements nominated Galveston Bay as an "Estuary of
National Significance," creating the Galveston Bay National
Estuary Program (GBNEP) in 1989.
In the first year the Management Conference was convened,
discussions by resource managers, scientists, and the Bay-user
community resulted in a consensus agreement on the
Galveston Bay Priority Problems List. This list (see table) is
the basis for characterization studies and management
planning efforts for Galveston Bay.
GBNEP has attacked scientific issues head-on in a
three-year program aimed at characterizing estuarine
problems. Now, as knowledge of the "State of the Bay" is
at an all-time high, 16 task forces are drafting more than 100
initiatives for the Gal veston Bay Comprehensive Conservation
and Management Plan, scheduled for completion in fall 1994.
Initial public review is underway, and some key Action Plans
are already being implemented.
Among the Action Plans being implemented are the creation
of two new Texas Coastal Preserves for Christmas Bay and
Armand Bayou, which are among the last nearly-pristine
areas in the Galveston Bay System. Another project was
implemented to restore fringing salt marsh habitat for living
resource benefits and erosion protection. That project relies
heavily on volunteer labor from community groups and
industry to transplant smooth cordgrass in areas of need. A
third project seeks to reduce toxicity in the Houston Ship
Channel by working cooperatively with industries having the
greatest potential contributions to this problem. Finally, a
pollution reporting and response system was successfully
initiated to enable one-call reporting by citizens. This
innovative approach to pollution response provides a single,
toll-free number for citizens to call. Staff members track the
complaint through the proper agencies and notify the caller
of the resolution of their complaint. In 1993, GBNEP will
implement a project ,to create oyster reefs from coal
combustion by-products.
The lessons learned from these early implementation
projects can be applied to management throughout Galveston
Bay and the other significant estuaries in the Gulf of Mexico.
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The Galveston Bay Priority Problems List
A.Rcduction/Alteration of Living Resources
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Loss of Physical Habit
wetlands and sea grasses
oyster reefs
shallow bay bottom (unvegetated)
Alteration of Salinity Gradients
impoundment, diversion, and inter-basin transfer
of fresh water inflow
bathymetric and circulatory changes (salinity intrusion)
ungaged inflows from rainfall in coastal watersheds
Alteration of Nutrient and Organic Loading
cutrophication and hypoxia
point and nonpoint sources
Bathymetric and Circulatory Changes
Land Subsidence and Sea Level Rise
Chemical and Pathogenic Contamination
(biotic impairment)
point and nonpoint sources
7. Increased Turbidity and Sedimentation
B. Public Health Issues
1. Discharge of Pathogens to Bay Waters
point and non-point sources
2. Chemical Contamination of Water,
Sediments, and Living Organisms
point and nonpoint sources
3. Restriction of Contact Recreation
chemical and pathogenic contamination
C. Resource Management Issues
1. Regulatory Problems
2. Fish and Wildlife Resource Depletion
3. Marine Debris
4. Public Access to Resources
D. Shoreline Erosion
1. Land Subsidence and Sea Level Rise
2. Bathymetric and Circulatory Change
3. Loss of Buffer Vegetation (Wetlands)
4. Use of Littoral Property
B. Sarasota Bay National Estuary Program
The State Of Sarasota Bay:
Implications For Managing Coastal Waters
Mark Alderson
David Tomasko
Heidi Smith
Sarasota Bay National Estuary Program
Sarasota, Florida
Sarasota Bay, an estuary located on Florida's fast-growing
southwest coast, is the hub of a community of more than
500,000 people. The region depends on the B ay for recreation,
commerce, and aesthetics. During the past 50 years, the Bay
has been damaged by dredge-and-fill activities, stormwater
and wastewater pollution, and the loss of natural habitats,
particularly wetlands.
Since 1989, the Sarasota Bay National Estuary Program
(SBNEP) has worked to develop a Comprehensive
Management Plan for the Bay. Successful management
requires three elements technical work to define problems,
early action to demonstrate potential solutions, and public
outreach to educate and involve citizens in restoration.
In 1992, the SBNEP completed the majority of a
comprehensive characterization, including wetland
assessments, estuarine bottom habitats, fishery resources,
pollutant loadings, circulation, water and sediment quality,
shellfish contamination, sea level rise, and recreational use.
The Program's findings were nationally peer-reviewed and
published in Sarasota Bay: 1992 Framework for Action.
Generally, the findings revealed a resource in jeopardy,
although some improvements were noted after wastewater
treatment was improved in the upper and central portions of
the Bay. Other results include:
a decline in fisheries sea trout landings are down
50% since 1950, recreational anglers average only
one keeper fish every three to four hours, and
shellfishing is banned in many areas due to
contamination,
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vital habitats were lost or damaged -- 39 percent of
intertidal habitat, 16 percent of freshwater
wetlands, 30 percent of seagrass habitats were
destroyed. 5,000 acres (15%) of Bay bottom
acreage was disturbed by dredging, significantly
reducing productivity in some areas,
water quality has declined since the area was
developed land-based nitrogen loadings
increased 300 percent wastewater and
stormwater are the major sources, and
sediments in particular tributaries show high levels
of lead and other metals, residues of pesticides and
traces of PCBs. Concentrations of heavy metals in
some sediments were found to be at levels of
ecological risk, but posed no health risk to humans.
The SBNEP's technical work particularly on water
quality monitoring and pollutant loading revealed
management issues deserving special attention by
environmental managers throughout Florida and the Gulf of
Mexico.
Water quality monitoring by the SBNEP reveals that the
extent of eutrophic conditions was under-estimated due to
inadequate data collection for dissolved oxygen. Extreme
diurnal fluctuations of dissolved oxygen, detrimental to marine
life, can be characterized using newer continuous-recording
instruments.
The Program's monitoring efforts evolved into a useful
water quality index describing relative differences in water
clarity and quality in various portions of the bay. This relative
index allowed the SBNEP to assist local governments in
understanding the complex relationships between land use,
pollutants, water quality, circulation, habitat, and resource
productivity. The index also helped highlight areas deserving
special attention in data collection and management strategies.
A Pollutant Loading Assessment revealed that septic
systems and small package treatment plants load more nitrogen
to the Bay than closely-monitored, carefully-regulated point
sources. For example, in Lower Sarasota Bay, inadequate
wastewater treatment contributes approximately 30% of
nitrogen loadings. In that area, wastewater treatment is
provided by 45,000 septic systems and 71 small package
treatment plants. Septic systems at homes and businesses, as
well as percolation ponds and drain fields at package plants,
load nitrogen to the bay through groundwater transport. These
non-point sources of nitrogen are not regulated by federal,
state, or local agencies.
To develop and test creative solutions, the SBNEP
implemented a variety of Early Action Demonstration Projects
in cooperation with local, regional, and state government, as
well as citizens. Eleven habitat-related projects and two
stormwater management projects were completed or are
ongoing. Intertidal habitat restoration projects will restore 80
acres, or 4.5% of habitat lost since 1950.
Public outreach activities, to educate citizens and generate
support for the program, included workshops, publications
and videos, classroom instruction, speeches to community
groups and elected officials, news media coverage, volunteer
activities, and a community grants program.
Solutions are currently under discussion by scientists,
managers, and members of the SBNEP's Citizen and Technical
Advisory Committees. Options are included in the
Framework for Action and will be refined into
recommendations for the final Comprehensive Conservation
and Management Plan, due in Summer 1994.
Some options describe strategies for:
reducing stormwater pollution by 30% baywide
with financial support from local stormwater
utilities,
improving wastewater treatment in the Lower Bay
to reduce nitrogen loadings in that area by about
25%, .
implementing an innovative, comprehensive
approach to wetlands protection and management,
and
involving citizens in restoration strategies,
particularly for stormwater pollution prevention
through participation in the Florida Yard Program,
which will be marketed to the public beginning in
1993.
In summary, the Sarasota Bay NEP's analysis indicates
that unique opportunities exist for improving Sarasota Bay'
through the concerted efforts of scientists, governments and
citizens.
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C. Tampa Bay National Estuary Program
Watershed Management Initiatives Of The Tampa Bay
National Estuary Program
Dick Eckenrod
Holly Greening
Mary Kelley Hoppe
Tampa Bay National Estuary Program
St. Petersburg, Florida
The future of Tampa Bay depends upon the ability of local
residents to prudently manage the region surrounding it.
While the Bay itself covers 398 square miles, land draining
into the Bay spans a five-county area almost six times its
size.
It is here, within Tampa Bay's 2,300-square-mile
watershed, that bay management and restoration ultimately
begins. While some damage to the bay occurs as a result of
activities on the water, most of the pollution and practices
that adversely affect the health of the bay originate on land.
Improvements in overseeing land-based activities that
may damage the bay or cause pollution is the foundation of
a master plan for watershed management now being
developed by the Tampa Bay National Estuary Program, a
partnership of local, State, and Federal agencies.
While water quality traditionally has served as the
barometer for the success of protection efforts, the Tampa
Bay NEP's strategy emphasizes a critical next step by linking
water quality standards to the environmental requirements
of the bay's most important habitats and the aquatic
communities they support.
The Tampa Bay NEP has targeted the bay's five most
essential habitats for restoration and enhancement, including
tidal marshes, mangroves, seagrass and other submerged
aquatic vegetation, nonvegetated bay bottom, and open water
or pelagic communities.
Recognizing the diverse environments within the bay and
its rivers, the Tampa Bay NEP will select aquatic plants and
animals vital to each segment as indicator species.
Monitoring the health of these plants and animals will be
critical in determining the overall health of their portion of
the bay.
Seagrass, which provide food and shelter to many
important species of fish and shellfish, offer an excellent
cxamplcof the procedure tobe followed for almost all targeted
habitats. Specific goals for seagrass recovery, documented
in terms of acreage, will be set by recording historic levels
and identifying permanently altered areas that would prevent
or limit gro%vth. Maps of current seagrass meadows represent
protection targets, where healthy grass beds are now growing
and must be maintained. Longterm goals for restoration will
be set for areas that once supported seagrass and could be
enhanced by reducing pollution or other physical impacts,
such as boating and dredging.
While enhancing structural habitat is important, the
ultimate measure of success is whether these habitats are
functional, supporting healthy aquatic communities. New
monitoring standards, that look for indicators of the health
of the Bay's living resources, are now being developed by
the Tampa Bay NEP.
The Tampa Bay NEP is completing a comprehensive
review of conditions in the Bay, as well as scientific studies
which will define the environmental requirements of essential
bay habitats and animals. Concurrently, we are conducting
in-depth research to quantify the level and concentrations of
pollutants now being discharged into Tampa Bay.
The Tampa Bay NEP and other agencies are creating
mathematical models which will predict improvements in
water quality as pollutant levels are lowered. Although
numeric goals for water quality are not the final objective of
the Bay restoration plan, they will be used as interim criteria.
Numeric objectives for reducing pollution will be set for each
major section of the Bay based on the long-term goals for
enhancement and restoration of habitats and animals.
Finally, a watershed action plan outlining specific
commitments, timelines, and funding sources from
government agencies participating in the Tampa Bay Program
will be developed and included in the overall plan for bay
management.
Florida Neighborhoods
Watershed protection ultimately depends on all citizens of
the region. Florida Neighborhoods, a program developed by
the Tampa Bay National Estuary Program and administered
through the county cooperative extension offices in the Bay
Area, brings concepts of environmental stewardship to the
home and yard.
The Program, which now is in its pilot phase, pairs
neighborhoods with team of experts trained to assist residents
in preventing pollution from stormwater, conserving water,
and restoring native habitat. Florida Neighborhoods begins
with a two-part environmental checkup a survey of
homeowners to determine landscaping and homecare
practices and an on-site neighborhood assessment by a team
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of experts. Following the checkup, the team develops a
12-month action list identifying ways that residents can
improve the local environment. Hands-on assistance is
provided through a series of workshops that teach conservation
and environmental landscaping techniques.
Efforts such as these, that make watershed protection a
part of our daily lives, are crucial to the long-term protection
of the Bay.
D. Barataria-Terrebonne National Estuary Program
An Ecological Exploration Of Coastal Louisiana's
Barataria-Terrebonne Estuarine System:
Its Uniqueness And Importance
Steve Mathies
BTNEP Program Director
Thibodaux, Louisiana
Coastal Louisiana is a mix of truth and fiction, fact and
fascination, past and present, and a sincere desire to
brighten her own future. Before one can begin to discuss the
merits of Louisiana's ecological present, one must revisit her
long and colorful past.
Recognition of Louisiana's vast coastal resources began
when the French settled the region in the early 1700's. In
documents related to early exploration expeditions, enormous
numbers of duck, geese, snipe, teal, and other birds are
recorded, as well as a great variety of animals, such as stags,
deer, and buffalo. Later explorers describe the Barataria Bay
region as having the finest oaks in the world, which covered
the whole coast. Striking in these early descriptions is the
understanding of the French that the annual overflow of the
Mississippi River was necessary to maintain the fertility of
the area's soil.
Also associated with the great variety of wildlife, fertile
soils and lush vegetation was the ample fishery resources.
As testament to the productivity of this enormous resource,
over 500 prehistoric Indian settlements have been discovered
on the dry land adjacent to the region's waterbodies. These
relic settlements are distinguished by the presence of mounds
of oyster and clam shells indicating their utilization as a
primary food source. Since their prehistoric use by native
Indians, these highly productive estuaries have been utilized
by many ethnic groups for a variety of purposes. Each group
was forced to reach its own balance with the forces of nature
present in the region, constantly struggling with one another
to dictate the physical shape and texture of coastal Louisiana.
Because this part of Louisiana was settled over the past
200 years by groups as diverse as pirates, smugglers, and
bootleggers and farmers, fishermen, and recreationalists, the
pressures upon various ecological resources have varied over
time. Today, it is estimated that almost 20% of the commercial
marine fish caught nationwide spend at least some part of
their life cycles in the B arataria-Terrebonne estuarine complex.
Although the largest and oldest ethnic group to inhabit coastal
Louisiana is of French descent, at one time, the largest foreign
fishing population in the Gulf States was located in these
coastal wetlands. Those foreign populations included
Spanish, Irish, German, Cuban, Greek, Italian, Yugoslavian,
Latin American, and Chinese. All were drawn by the
extremely productive fishery resources, but each utilized and
interacted with the environment differently.
All who ventured to exploit Louisiana's coastal resources
were forced to deal in some manner with seasonal floods, the
threat of hurricanes and associated storm surges, and the
effects of apparent subsidence (the combination of sea level
rise and true subsidence). Chronicles describing past
hurricanes are littered with stories of storms that struck during
the night and destroyed entire communities. By the turn of
the century, about 3,000 people affiliated with trapping,
shrimping, oystering, truck farming, commercial raising of
terrapin turtles, and fishing lived in the Barataria Basin.
Toward the end of the 1800's, individual hunters are said to
have marketed 1,000 alligator hides each. Abundance of
alligator, otter, raccoon, muskrat, and mink have long made
Louisiana one of North America's largest fur producers.
In addition to fish and wildlife, the harvest of resources,
namely oil and gas, and to a lesser extent sulphur, has led to
the development and alteration of the coastal Louisiana
landscape. Drilling for oil in wetlands began in the 1920's
and became common in the 1930's. In the late 1940's, oil
exploration began in offshore areas beyond the sight of land,
making Louisiana the third-largest oil and gas producing state
in the country. Between the years 1954 and 1983, about 94
percent of the nation's oil and 91 percent of the natural gas
produced in the Outer Continental Shelf was extracted off
the coast of Louisiana. This intensive petroleum and gas
development in Louisiana's coastal and offshore areas
impacted the natural environment, primarily via the
infrastructure, access, and transport necessary to accomplish
extraction and collection oil and gas resources.
Sulphur extraction, although not widespread, had a
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significant influence upon the Barataria estuary. In the early
1930's, Freeport Sulphur began constructing what would
become the oldest producing and the second largest sulphur
mine in the world at Grand Escaille on the eastern shore of
Barataria Bay. By the time the mine closed in 1978, it had
produced the equivalent of a block of almost pure sulphur
one mile square and about 30 feet high. The infrastructure
required for the sulphur industry (exploration, as well as
refining and transport) also contributed to the alteration of
the state's coastal landscape and, thus, its dependent fish and
wildlife species.
Over time, the interaction of coastal residents with the
coastal environment has changed, due primarily to how
residents derived their income. Prior to the settlement, the
Mississippi River was free to meander in response to seasonal
flooding regimes. To protect settlers from these annual events,
levees were built along the river, and sediment flow to adjacent
wetlands was interrupted. Although many continued to
harvest fish and wildlife resources after the 1940's, many
were employed in oil, gas, or sulphur related activities.
Unfortunately, the uncontrollable effects of long-term
subsidence, coupled with activities necessary to facilitate
newly introduced mineral extraction industries after the
1940's, created the current environmental crisis in coastal
Louisiana.
The Barataria-Terrebonne Estuarine Complex:
Priority Problems And Possible Solutions
Richard A. DeMay
Barataria-Terrebonne National Estuary Program
Thibodaitx, Louisiana
The Barataria-Terrebonne Estuarine Complex, the vast
coastal region between the Mississippi River and the
Atehafalaya East Guide Protection Levee, encompasses some
3,600 square miles (9,324 sq. km.) of shallow bays and salt,
brackish, intermediate, and fresh water marsh, as well as
forested wetlands within the Mississippi Deltaic Plain.
Nominated by Governor Buddy Roemer in October 1989, it
was approved by Environmental Protection Agency
Administrator William Reilly on April 20,1992. It is one of
17 National Estuary Programs across the country, and one of
five within the Gulf of Mexico. The system has a wealth of
natural resources, including fish, shellfish, waterfowl, and
many other species of wildlife, as well as minerals.
The system consists of two reasonably discrete basins, the
Barataria and Tcrrebonne. The natural levees along Bayou
Lnfourchc serve as a barrier preventing interchange between
the two basins, however, a series of man-made canals,
including the Gulf Coast Intracoastal Waterway, provides
some exchange. After accounting for all differences between
the two basins, both are very similar. Geologically, they both
owe their existence to holocene sediments transported via the
Mississippi River. The environmental problems experienced
in one basin are experienced in the other.
The Management Conference Agreement Between the
State of Louisiana and the EPA identified seven priority issues,
including hydrological modification, reduced sediment flows,
habitat degradation, changes in living resources,
cutrophication, pathogen contamination, and toxic substances.
Because these priority problems are interrelated, actions
pursued to address one problem may affect another.
Priority Problems
Hydrological modification has resulted from the
interruption of fresh water inputs from the Mississippi and
Atehafalaya Rivers, from the construction of linear canals,
many of which are deeper than surrounding waterbodies, and
the diking of wetlands. These activities have affected the
estuarine basins in several ways - first, by reducing freshwater
input, second, by reducing the retention of freshwater, and
last, by increasing tidal influence. Hydrologic modification
has been regarded as the key problem because of its influence
on each of the other priority problems.
Consequences of hydrologic modification include salt
water intrusion, resulting in wetland loss, especially fresh
water types, further increasing the rate of loss.
Reduction in sediment flows is a direct effect of hydrologic
modification. Levee systems have effectively walled in the
Mississippi and Atehafalaya Rivers. Much of the sediments
carried by the Mississippi are dumped off the Continental
Shelf into hundreds of feet of water. As a result, no delta is
created. However, sediments traveling the Atehafalaya
eventually are deposited within the basin or the active delta
of the Atehafalaya. The Atehafalaya delta is the only
prograding, or building, delta at this time.
Habitat loss and modification is due to wetland loss and
salt water intrusion resulting from the cumulative effects of
natural and artificial influences. Natural influences include
subsidence, abandonment of river deltas, storms, and sea level
rise. Artificial losses include flood control practices,
impoundments, dredge and fill activities, and erosion of
artificial channels.
Changes in living resources result from habitat loss and
modification, as well as overharvesting. However,
eutrophication and salt water intrusion are also to blame.
Production of estuarine dependent species can be correlated
to the amount of vegetated wetlands and the extent of interface
between shallow water and vegetated wetlands.
Eutrophication is a natural process resulting from artificial
and natural additions of nutrients to waterbodies. As a result
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of several human practices, the process of eutrophication has
been hastened. Most waters of the upper and middle Barataria
and Terrebonne basins are eutrophic and characterized by
frequent algal blooms that cause fish kills by reducing the
amount of available oxygen. Nutrients sources include runoff
from domestic waste, unsewered communities, and urban and
agricultural runoff.
Pathogen contamination results from septic tanks, urban
runoff, agricultural runoff, wildlife, etc. The potential
contamination of oyster growing areas by fecal coliform
bacteria poses a significant health threat to the public, and it
seriously affects the oyster industry in Louisiana, which is
losing growing areas at an alarming rate. Salt water intrusion
from the Gulf of Mexico allows predators and parasites to
move inland, thereby forcing the productive areas inland, and
pathogen contamination from coastal runoff pushes the
approved areas seaward.
Introduction of toxic substances into estuarine
environments has become a serious problem nationwide.
Sources of toxics include pesticides, including herbicides and
insecticides, heavy metals, and PCB's. The role that toxic
substances play in this system is inhibited by the fact that very
little effort has been expended on the distribution of toxics
within this system. The State of Louisiana has had no
consistent program to gather water, sediment, or tissue data
regarding this area, however some studies have indicated toxic
contamination from pesticides in the two basins.
References
Governor's Nomination and Request (1989) for a Management
Conference under the National Estuary Program: Barataria -
Terrebonne Estuarine Complex (Governor's Nomination), 109 pp.
The Impact Of Hurricane Andrew's Force On The Barataria And
Terrebonne Estuary: Lessons Learned
Kerry St. Pe
Chairman, BTNEP Scientific/Technical Committee
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
On August 25, 1992, after causing millions of dollars of
damage in southern Florida, Hurricane Andrew zeroed
in on the coast of South Louisiana. Hurricane force winds,
extending approximately 50 miles on either side of the storm's
eye, and the accompanying storm surge caused extensive
damage to the sensitive Barataria-Terrebonne estuarine
ecosystem.
High-water marks measured by the U.S. Geological Survey
after the storm along north to south transects in flooded
structures indicated a surge of flood waters from the Gulf of
Mexico reaching up to 12 feet.
Surge waters over-washed the fragile chain of islands along
the southern boundary of the Barataria-Terrebonne Estuary,
causing the most extensive erosion in recent years. These
barrier islands are critical to maintaining the delicate mixture
of salt and fresh water in inner estuaries. Additionally, they
protect the drinking water supplies of hundreds of coastal
communities to the north and disperse the destructive energies
of hurricanes before they enter the more vulnerable organic
soils of the inner wetlands.
Due to the angle at which the eye of Andrew passed over
the islands, severe erosion occurred on both the front and
back sides. On Trinity Island, 128 feet of beach was lost,
which is roughly equivalent to about 4 years of normal erosion.
Most of the islands were destroyed completely. The combined
effect of Hurricane Andrew on Louisiana's barrier islands has
shortened previous life expectancy estimates. The Terrebonne
chain is now expected to disappear by the year 2000.
By some estimates, 200,000 acres of marsh was severely
damaged by Hurricane Andrew. The damage was most
evident in floating marshes, where entire sections were
translocated and compressed, giving them the appearance of
a windrow or accordion.
In some cases, marsh substrates were reworked as a slurry
of mud or mud balls, varying in size from fist-sized clumps
to desk-sized clods. The mud slurries also buried about 70%
of the state's oyster beds.
Storm-related damage to the Louisiana offshore and
inshore oil industry was extensive. The U.S. Minerals
Management Service estimated approximately $200 million
in losses from offshore production. Several large oil spills
caused by physical damage to oil production facilities resulted
in additional monetary and environmental costs.
One spill resulting from hurricane-related damage to an
offshore oil pipeline impacted Trinity Island and the internal
wetlands shoreward. Another major spill occurred near Grand
Isle, Louisiana's only populated barrier island, when the
contents of a large oil pit were washed into adjacent vegetated
wetlands by the storm surge.
Within two days following the passage of Hurricane
Andrew, over 30 individual fish kills were reported in the
estuary. All of these mortalities were the result of oxygen
depletions. In most of these incidents, dissolved oxygen
concentrations in the water column were severely reduced or
totally depleted by the resuspension of the richly organic
sediments found in Louisiana's marsh systems.
In some areas, it is estimated that nearly 50% of the
standing crop of fish was lost. In Bayou Lafourche, an old
distributary of the Mississippi River, dead fish extended for
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40 miles, In the Atchafalaya River Basin, which borders the
western side of the Barataria-Terrebonne Basin, the total value
of freshwater fish lost due to Hurricane Andrew has been
assessed at $160 million.
The incredible impact of Hurricane Andrew on the
Barataria-Terrebonne estuary was a convincing demonstration
of the awesome forces of nature on one hand and its extreme
sensitivity on the other. It is man's nature to search for some
shred of meaning in the face of disaster. Perhaps, Hurricane
Andrew is a reminder that estuaries are not infallible and can
not be taken for granted, but that they should be respected
and receive stewardship.
E Florida Coastal Management
Development Of A Management Plan For The Florida Keys
National Marine Sanctuary
Billy D. Causey
Sanctuary Manager
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Marathon, Florida
Mounting threats to the ecological health and future of
the coral reefs in the Florida Keys prompted Congress
to protect this fragile resource. The continued possibility of
oil drilling and reports of deteriorating water quality occurred
when scientists were assessing the adverse affects of several
environmental perturbations on Florida's coral reefs. Then,
within a 21 day period, three ship groundings occurred. It
was this final threat to the reef that resulted in the enactment
of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and Protection
Act signed into law by President Bush on November 16,1990.
The Act designated 2,800 square nautical miles of coastal
waters off the Florida Keys as the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). The FKNMS boundary extends
southward along the Atlantic Ocean from the
northeastern-most point of the Biscayne National Park to the
Dry Tortugas, where it turns northeast, encompassing a portion
of Florida Bay on the Gulf of Mexico side of the Keys. It
incorporates the Key Largo and Looe Key National Marine
Sanctuaries, but not Everglades, Biscayne, nor Dry Tortugas
national parks.
The Act prohibited leasing, exploring, developing, or
producing minerals or hydrocarbons within the Sanctuary.
The legislation also prohibited the operation of tank vessels
greater than 50 meters in length in the Area to Be Avoided,
except for the necessary operations of public vessels. The
Act required the Environmental Protection Agency and the
State of Florida to develop a Water Quality Protection Program
for the Sanctuary, while implementation was left to the
discretion of the Secretary of Commerce. Lastly, NOAA was
given 30 months to develop a comprehensive management
plan.
Although the Sanctuary was established by an Act of
Congress rather than through the normal designation process
of Title III of the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries
Act of 1972 (MPRSA), the legislation proscribed that the
FKNMS be managed and regulated as if it had been designated
through the normal process outlined in Section 304 of the
MPRSA.
Since approximately 65% of the FKNMS encompasses
State waters and numerous State and Federal areas of
jurisdiction overlap or lie adjacent to the FKNMS boundary,
it was imperative that the planning process for the Sanctuary
be an inter/intra-agency effort. Also, due to the high level
and diversity of public utilization of the Florida Keys and the
importance of tourism to the economy, it was equally important
that the public have a strong role in developing the
Comprehensive Management Plan.
The planning process was initiated with six public meetings
in April and May of 1991 to get comments on the scope of
issues affecting the area. Proponents and opponents of the
Sanctuary agreed that deteriorating water quality was the
major issue affecting the ecosystem. Other issues included
depletion of resources, physical impacts to the benthic
communities, and problems associated with
over-development.
In the summer of 1991, an Inter/intra-agency Core Group
was established to assess the issues identified by the public
at the scoping meetings, from written comments, and from
surveys. The Core Group consists of representatives from
NOAA, National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
EPA, Florida Governor's Office, Department of Natural
Resources, Department of Environmental Regulation,
Department of Community Affairs, South Florida Water
Management District, and Monroe County.
The Act called for the public to be a part of the planning
process, and for a Sanctuary Advisory Council (SAC) to aid
in developing a Comprehensive Management Plan. A 22
member SAC was appointed in January 1992 by the Secretary
of Commerce and the Governor consisting of members of
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various user groups, including local, State, and Federal
agencies, scientists, educators, environmental groups, and
private citizens.
Numerous public workshops were held to get input on a
wide range of topics that could be implemented in managing
the Sanctuary, including education, mooring buoys, benthic
mapping, research, cultural and historical resources, water
quality, and zoning. Each was extremely productive and
resulted in the development of strategies that could be
implemented in the Sanctuary. However, it was important to
tie the workshop results to specific management actions
addressing the issues identified during the planning process.
In February 1992, NOAA and its planning partners
organized a four-day work session in Marathon, Florida and
invited 49 Federal, State, and local managers and scientists
familiar with the Keys to participate in a strategy assessment
workshop to identify and describe tools that could be used
to address the various issues. The SAC participated in a
similar, two day workshop session to develop strategies.
The Agency Core Group took the more-than 350 proposals
and bundled them into more general groups that could be
categorized from the most-protective to the least-protective
alternatives. Each step required an enormous amount of
inter/intra-agency cooperation. In October 1992, the same
agency managers and scientists invited to the February
Strategy Assessment workshop were invited to return and
review the management alternatives assembled by the Core
Group from the results of the workshop. At this second
workshop, they were also asked to help identify institutional
arrangements, requirements for implementation, and
approximate costs to implement various strategies.
The Act called for Sanctuary Managers to consider the use
of zoning to manage the Sanctuary. Realizing the public's
sensitivity to being told where it can undertake activities,
management staff decided to involve the public in developing
a zoning plan. The process began with agency managers
identifying the various types of zones useful in managing
particular areas of jurisdiction. Then, environmental groups,
commercial fishermen, recreational fishermen, divers, and
scientists attended a week-long workshop, the results of which
were used by the strategy assessment work group in February
to aid in its identification of zones useful for managing the
Sanctuary. The members of the Sanctuary Advisory Council
helped develop the zoning concept by identifying types of
zones and marking on maps where activities would be
conducted. The members were also asked to identify areas
where their uses conflict with other groups, where access is
need to conduct activities, and ecologically important areas.
Three zoning alternatives have been developed, and the SAC
is making recommendations on the size and number of various
zones.
ADraft Environmental Impact Statement and Management
Plan are due out in mid-summer 1993. EPA and DER, which
are working on the Water Quality Protection Program, have
been working to develop the Sanctuary plan, and their plans
are being merged by the Agency Core Group.
The management planning process for the FKNMS had
an unprecedented level of inter/intra-agency and private sector
involvement. Sanctuary staff feel the time invested in working
with the various groups has been well spent. There has been
a continuous effort to focus on the management needs of the
ecosystem, not on jurisdictional rivalries. All of the
individuals and agencies involved in developing the
management plan for the Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary deserve tremendous thanks for their willingness to
cooperate in this process.
State/Federal Partnership Issues
Paul Johnson
Office of Florida Governor Lawton Chiles
Tallahassee, Florida
The development of the management plan for the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary is a prime example of
how intergovernmental relationships should develop to protect
a pristine, prime resource, such as the Florida Keys.
Before the sanctuary was established, the State became
very involved in management of the Keys after three major
vessel groundings occurred within 21 days and the threat of
future oil drilling in the Florida Keys. Citizens groups,
governmental entities, and, particularly, Congressional
Representatives recognized that the Florida Keys needed
protection.
Development of the sanctuary was unique and
unprecedented. Rather than going through a long planning
process, proposing a sanctuary, and other bureaucratic
obstacles to establishing it that take two years or more to
complete, Congress passed a law designating the Florida Keys
National Marine Sanctuary. The greatest challenge was in
developing water quality and management plans acceptable
to the diverse interests of Florida and the nation.
President George Bush signed the Act into law on
November 16, 1990, giving the State 30 days to determine
what waters would be included in the management plan. The
area covers nearly 3,000 square miles, which is larger than
the coastal zone of some Gulf States. Over 60% of the water
surrounding and included in the Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary boundary are State waters, making the State a major
player in developing a workable management plan. These
waters surround a 100 mile chain of small islands on which
are thriving communities.
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On December 18, then - Governor Martinez responded to
the Secretary of Commerce, enclosing a resolution from the
Florida Cabinet to improve state waters with certain
conditions. The primary condition was that there would be
no transfer of title or authority to the State's sovereign
submerged lands, and it also designated key agencies to work
with NOAA as the management plan was developed.
The Act requires the input of local, State, and Federal
government. Monroe County has been very involved in
developing the plan. The citizens and government of Monroe
County have been integrated in the planning process. The
Interagency Management Committee of the Coastal
Management Program is the mechanism used to interact with
NOAA, and many agencies are members of the Management
Committee.
Another major aspect of this is the Citizens Advisory
Committee. It has 22 members representing different user
groups in the Florida Keys. They meet once a month and
work among themselves to develop the management plan.
Some of the groups most affected by the sanctuary
management plan include commercial fishing interests, dive
boat operators, and treasure salvagers.
The program being developed for the Florida Keys has
many different actors, and it is nearly a mini-Gulf of Mexico
Program. Every group necessary must be involved in the
process at the outset, because if they become involved later,
it will make obtaining their consensus more difficult.
The Signing Ceremony for the Gulf partnership was a good
example of the array of agencies involved in the program.
The structure is necessary to address all of the issues in an
ecosystem as complex as the Florida Keys, requiring a
committed plan of action by all of the agencies.
NOAA has done a wonderful job in putting together the
core strategy group in which over 30 Federal, State, and local
agencies are represented. As in the Gulf of Mexico Program,
all these agencies have an interest and were represented early
in the process. They included citizens, citizens groups,
scientists, politicians, businesses, and economic interests.
Management Issues Of The Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary
Dennis M. Riley
Florida Department of Natural Resources
Tallahassee, Florida
The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS)
is the largest National Marine Sanctuary in the United
States and the third largest protected barrier reef in the world.
Coral reefs within the 2,600 square nautical mile area attract
more than 1.5 million divers per year due to their natural
beauty and biological diversity. More than a hundred species
of coral and five hundred species of tropical fishes, including
moray eels and endangered sea turtles can be found in the
Keys.
President Bush's enactment of the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary and Protection Act (Act), on November 16,
1990, was a milestone in marine resource protection. It
compares to the first major effort to protect upland resources,
when President Grant established Yellowstone National Park
in 1872.
This was the first time a marine sanctuary was designated
by legislation. Prior designations had been accomplished
through the process provided in the Marine Protection,
Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972, which created the
National Marine Sanctuary Program.
However, in the fall of 1989, three major ship groundings
occurred, precipitating drafting the Act to provide accelerated
protection for the Florida Keys and precluding a lengthy
designation process. The groundings emphasized the need
to address catastrophic threats to the reefs. However, the Act
also provided the authority and opportunity to address the
management issues that collectively contribute to the decline
of the natural resources in the Florida Keys by using holistic
marine ecosystem management.
A number of factors threaten the Florida Keys, including
natural and anthropogenic factors. The coral reefs, especially
in the northern areas, are near the northernmost areas of reef
development. They are more vulnerable to natural and
anthropogenic disturbances than reefs of the southern
Caribbean due to the increased environmental stresses
resulting from their location.
Coral reefs may benefit from tropical storms, hurricanes,
and other naturally occurring phenomena by flushing confined
bays accumulating excess nutrients or becoming hypersaline.
However, catastrophic physical damage may result from the
tremendous force of wave action created by these storms.
Gradual climate changes will also inevitably affect the
fragile coral reef ecosystem of the Florida Keys. In fact,
some scientists believe that recent coral bleaching events
resulted from elevated water temperatures due to global
warming. For instance, the "Black Band" coral disease that
recently occurred in the Keys is a natural phenomenon whose
effects may have increased due to climate changes and man's
impact on the environment. The recent die-off of the sea
urchin Diadema sp. throughout the Caribbean is another
naturally occurring phenomena not thoroughly understood,
but it could result from the same causes.
Naturally-occurring phenomena seriously concern the
managers of protected marine areas, but little can be
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accomplished to curtail them through on-site management
practices. Therefore, the FKNMS management plan will focus
on anthropogenic impacts.
Catastrophic physical damage to the coral reefs of the
Florida Keys has resulted from the grounding of large
freighters, such as the 400 foot "Wellwood" that ran aground
on Molasses Reef in Key Largo NMS in 1984 and destroyed
more than 640 square meters of reef. Ship groundings destroy
decades, even centuries, of coral growth. Even though the
sanctuary program recovered $6.6 million from the litigation
related to the incident, this type of resource cannot be restored.
The Act addresses the problem by establishing an "Area to
be Avoided" by large freighters, restricting their travel to areas
beyond the FKNMS boundary.
Large vessels are not alone in damaging reefs. Groundings
and anchorings by small vessels cause significant damage
throughout the Keys, especially to seagrass habitats and coral
reefs. Also, the impact of divers repeatedly touching and
standing on sensitive coral formations destroys major areas
of reefs by removing the protective mucous coating on coral
polyps, damaging their delicate tissue. The use of
environmentally destructive techniques to recover historical
resources, including sunken treasures, also causes severe
habitat damage.
There are many consumer activities affecting the ecosystem
of the Florida Keys, including the dramatic depletion of fish
populations from spearfishing, wire trap fishing, and collecting
tropical fish and invertebrates for sale. Littering and other
pollution also causes destruction in the marine environment.
The importance of water quality issues to protecting the
Florida Keys is recognized and emphasized by the Act. A
Water Quality Plan must be included in the FKNMS
Comprehensive Management Plan. Public awareness of water
quality issues is growing, as demonstrated by the testimony
at Public Scoping Meetings. Many issues related to
development of upland areas, such as stormwater runoff,
mangrove pruning, land based pollution, nutrient
over-enrichment, and organic, chemical, and heavy metal
contamination were mentioned by citizens attending those
meetings.
The management issues have been placed in five categories
to develop strategies in the comprehensive management plan:
(1) boating (direct and indirect impacts),
(2) fishing (commercial and recreational),
(3) land use/land based pollution,
(4) recreation and cultural/historical resources, and
(5) water quality.
The management plan development process is a
cooperative effort of local, State, and Federal agencies with
considerable public input. It is hoped that the strategies
established will minimize or eliminate human impacts on the
Keys through scientific research, user awareness,
environmental education, and enforcement.
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary - Water Quality Issues
Peggy H. Mathews
Florida Department of Environmental Regulation
Tallahassee, Florida
The FloridaKeys National Marine Sanctuary, an area almost
10,000 kilometers square, extends from just southeast of
Miami in a southwesterly arc through the Florida Keys and,
then, 350 kilometers to the Tortugas. The Sanctuary includes
portions of Florida Bay and, essentially, all of the Keys' coral
reef. The reef is the only such ecosystem in North America,
one that is viewed as the marine equivalent of a tropical
rainforest.
The Florida Keys gained marine sanctuary designation in
1990 when Congress enacted legislation in response to a series
of damaging ship groundings in the area. While such
groundings are a threat to the Sanctuary, it is now believed
that water quality is the most important immediate threat to
the ecosystem. Two major threats to the Sanctuary
ecosystem's water quality have been identified. These are
reduction of freshwater inflow to Florida Bay and domestic
wastewater discharges from the Florida Keys.
Regarding the first of these threats, Florida Bay, which
extends from the southern coast of mainland Florida down to
the Florida Keys, historically received massive freshwater
inflow from the Everglades. However, beginning in 1910,
freshwater was diverted from the Everglades, and it continued
to the point where, presently, about 60% of the freshwater
that flowed into Florida Bay is diverted for agricultural,
municipal, and industrial use.
The effect on the chemistry and hydrodynamics of the bay
is dramatic. Florida Bay was once an estuary, a basin where
freshwater mixed with oceanic water, and salinity ranged
seasonally from zero (freshwater) to about 35 ppt (ocean
water). Today, Florida Bay is a hypersaline lagoon, a negative
estuary where evaporative loss of water exceeds freshwater
inflow. Peak salinity in the central basin range from about
45 to 70 ppt (Michael Robblee, James Fbrqurean, Ronald
Jones, pers. comms.).
There have been important biological consequences of the
alteration in chemistry of the bay. Mangroves in Florida Bay
are stressed and dying, and excessively high salinity has been
implicated. In the mid 1980's, seagrass, mainly Thalassia
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tcsiudinum, covered 80% of the bay bottom. However, since
1987, almost 30,000 hectares of seagrass have been lost or
affected by what researchers believe to be salinity stress,
exacerbated by the elevated water temperatures evident from
1987-90 (Mark Butler, Michael Robblee, Michael Durako,
Joseph Zieman, pers. comms.).
The loss of seagrass has direct ecological and economic
impacts. For example, grouper, snapper, tarpon, bonefish,
stone crabs, pink shrimp, and spiny lobster all depend on
seagrass meadows as nursery or foraging grounds. Already,
it has been noted that, corresponding with seagrass decline,
pink shrimp catch has declined 60% since the late 1980's
(John Hunt, pers. comm.).
There are cascading disturbances from the loss of seagrass
as well. Phytoplankton blooms of up to several hundred
square kilometers in extent (Patricia Donovan-Potts, Karl
Lessard, pers. comms.), fueled by nutrients released from
suspended sediments no longer held in place by seagrass
rhizomes, resulted in mass mortality of Florida Bay sponges
(Mark Butler, Thomas Mathews, Ken Haddad, pers. comms.).
Sponges arc a critical habitat for juvenile spiny lobster, and
the impact on lobster catches, as well as the effects on other
components of the ecosystem, remain to be seen.
The coral reef itself may be threatened by Florida Bay's
hypersalinity. Monitoring by the Florida Institute of
Oceanography, supported by The Nature Conservancy,
demonstrated that on occasion, hot, salty water from Florida
Bay extends across Hawk Channel, encroaching the reef (John
Ogden, pers. comm.). This degraded water may be responsible
for stressing corals, which most scientists believe to be in
decline (James Porter, Kathleen Sullivan, Mark Chiappone,
pers. comms.).
The second important water quality threat to the marine
sanctuary is the domestic waste generated by the 78,000
residents of Monroe County, essentially the population of the
Florida Keys.
Of the 67 counties in Florida, Monroe County is rated 66th
in soil suitability for septic tank treatment of domestic waste
(George Garrett, pers. comm.). Yet, Monroe County has the
state's highest proportion of septic tank usage. An estimated
24,000 on-site disposal systems and 5,000 cesspits, often
located close to the sea, discharge into the porous limestone
"soil" of me Florida Keys. The result is that, relative to all
other domestic waste sources, these on-site systems contribute
about 66% of the nitrogen and 75% of the phosphorus load
to the ultra nutrient-poor waters surrounding the Keys (David
Gettleson, pers. comm.).
The biological consequences of this nutrient discharge to
nearshore Keys' waters are elevated nutrient concentrations,
elevated phytoplankton biomass, increased epiphyte growth
on seagrass, increased seaweed abundance, and reduced
dissolved oxygen concentration (Brian Lapointe, pers.
comm.).
There is, to date, no evidence that the degraded seawater
adjacent to densely developed portions of the Keys has
impacted the coral reef. Yet, marine fauna are, generally,
reliant on a matrix of habitat types, and degradation of inshore
seagrass meadows and hardbottom areas may affect coral reef
animals.
These two water quality issues, hypersalinity of Florida
Bay and domestic waste treatment in the Keys, will take
intensive efforts to resolve. Restoring freshwater flow to
Florida Bay and developing and implementing effective
domestic waste treatment methods for the Keys are high cost,
politically- and scientifically-complex, long-term endeavors.
Cooperation and coordination are essential if these goals are
to be accomplished. With regard to the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary, Federal, State, and local governments,
environmental and user groups, researchers and the public
have all been involved in issue identification and problem
resolution. It is hoped that this will result in broadly supported
solutions that will preserve the nation's only coral reef
ecosystem for the use and appreciation of this and successive
generations.
Development Of The Water Quality Protection Program For The
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
Fred McManus
V.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 4
Atlanta, Georgia
On November 16, 1990, President George Bush signed
into law H.R. 5909, designating over 2,800 square
nautical miles of coastal waters as the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). This was the first marine
sanctuary required to have a Water Quality Program as well
as a Management Plan. The Comprehensive Management
Plan is being developed by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, the Water Quality Protection
Program (WQPP) by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency with the State of Florida. The purpose of the WQPP
is to recommend priority corrective actions and compliance
schedules addressing point and nonpoint source pollution to
restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological
integrity of the FKNMS.
The development of the WQPP is occurring in two phases.
In Phase I, an inventory of data describing the status of the
Florida Keys environment was- produced. A set of priority
problems was developed from this data by a consensus of
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experts attending technical workshops. The Phase I report
was delivered to EPA in July 1992 and distributed to the
public.
During Phase II, the problems identified in Phase I will
be evaluated to recommend priority corrective actions and
schedules for implementation to include in the WQPP
document. EPA and the Florida Department of Environmental
Regulation (FDER) organized the activities into the following
tasks:
develop the Work/Quality Assurance Project Plan,
identify institutions and agencies with jurisdiction
affecting water quality in the FKNMS,
develop a range of management strategies and
systems for each problem statement developed in
Phase I,
develop and evaluate engineering options to
address significant pollution sources in need of
attention,
identify and evaluate funding sources for
implementation,
develop a Water Quality Monitoring Program to
determine the effectiveness of controls, monitor
water quality and biotic resources, and redirect the
Program as needed,
develop a research program to identify the
cause/effect relationships between pollutants,
transport pathways, and biotic communities,
promote public awareness by developing a public
education and outreach program,
produce a preliminary draft Phase II report,
present the results of Phase II to experts, public,
NOAA Advisory Council, and FKNMS Steering
Committee,
draft FKNMS Water Quality Protection Program
document and submit it to EPA, the State of
Florida, and NOAA,
solicit public comments on the draft document, and
publish the final document.
The Water Quality Monitoring Program will provide
information on the status and trends of water quality and
biotic community resources within the FKNMS. The Program
will be used to redirect and refocus the WQPP and determine
the effectiveness of institutional and structural controls. The
research plan will identify the pollutants, transport pathways,
and cause/effect relationships.
EPA and FDER conducted a workshop to present the draft
monitoring program and research plan, receive detailed and
specific guidance and advice from researchers and resource
managers, build consensus on priorities, sampling designs,
and methodologies, and receive public comments.
Subsequently, the Tasks 6 and 7 reports were revised.
A second workshop was held to discuss potential
institutional, management, and engineering options addressing
pollution sources impacting the FKNMS. Potential funding
mechanisms were also reviewed. The discussions focused on
two major areas. The first concerned pollution sources directly
related to the Florida Keys, including wastewater, stormwater,
hazardous materials, landfills, spills, and pesticides. The
second concerned the impact of water from the Everglades,
Florida Bay, and Biscayne Bay on the FKNMS.
During the workshop, each of the issues and problems was
reviewed and discussed. Also, a preliminary draft set of
institutional, management, and engineering options was
presented to the workshop participants, which included
representatives from federal, state, regional, county and local
government agencies, academia, environmental groups, and
the public. One must remember that the options were intended
to include all corrective actions.
The institutional and management options ranged from no
change in existing structure to over-regulation by various
levels of government. The engineering options ranged from
no action to the construction of 3 tertiary level (nutrient
removal) regional wastewater treatment plants in the Keys.
To the extent possible, the characteristics (administrative
requirements, funding requirements, public acceptance,
environmental effect, and pollution reduction) of the various
options were reviewed and discussed. After the workshop,
the Tasks 3 and 4 report were revised.
Next, the options for Tasks 3 and 4 were prioritized by
NOAA's Core Work Group, which includes representatives
from federal, state and local government agencies and has
primary responsibility for developing the Comprehensive
Management Plan for the FKNMS. The list of priority options
will be included in the final Phase II report, which EPA and
FDER received on November 2, 1992 and included reports
on Tasks 2-8.
The draft Phase II report was copied and distributed to the
public for a two week review prior to a scheduled workshop.
Copies were mailed directly to past workshop participants,
academic institutions, environmental groups, and libraries.
Each task was reviewed and discussed, and all comments were
considered during the revision. The final revised Phase II
report will be delivered to EPA and FDER by February 28,
1993.
Next, the draft WQPP document was developed. It
consisted of the Phase I and II reports and a recommended
action plan listing priority corrective actions and compliance
schedules addressing point and nonpoint sources of pollution.
EPA and FDER will deliver the draft WQPP document to
NOAA by May 7, 1993. It will undergo additional review in
conjunction with NOAA's Comprehensive Management Plan
through the National Environmental Policy
Act/Environmental Impact Statement process, which permits
public participation. Once final, it will be distributed to the
public.
Any questions concerning the development of the WQPP
document for the Sanctuary should be directed to:
Mr. Fred McManus
Florida Keys Coordinator
EPA Region IV
404-347-1740
Ms. Peggy Mathews
Florida Keys Coordinator
Florida Dept. Env. Regulation
904-488-0784
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G. Offshore Operators And Coastal Vessel Traffic Systems
The Offshore Oil And Gas Producing Industry Environmental
Stewardship Operations In The Gulf Of Mexico
Bernie Herbert
Amoco Production Company
New Orleans, Louisiana
Oil and gas producers operating in the Gulf of Mexico are
constantly improving and increasing the environmental
safeguards in their operations, both to remedy past problems
and be good corporate citizens. Over the last 10 years, the
industry has taken many steps to make these improvements,
and there has been no slacking in its commitment to make
itself a good citizen, good business partners, and a partner in
the environmental movement.
The Offshore Operators Committee (OOC) is a 40 year
old organization with 70 member companies operating oil
and gas production facilities in the Gulf of Mexico. Its purpose
is the pursuit of industry advancement and excellence,
interacting with various government agencies, primarily the
Minerals Management Service (MMS). It is a partner in the
Gulf of Mexico Program.
Ninety percent of all U.S. offshore oil and gas production
comes from the Gulf of Mexico almost entirely off the
Louisiana and Texas coasts, although tiiere has been some
recent production off Mobile, Alabama. The first well was
drilled in the Gulf in 1947,12 miles from Louisiana. In 1992,
there were 30,000 wells and 4,500 platforms, accounting for
25% of the nation's natural gas and 12% of its oil. It is
estimated that 1/2 of the nation's undiscovered oil and 1/4 of
the gas reserves are in the Gulf.
The industry employs 470,000 people in the U.S., of which
80,000 live on the Gulf Coast. Many common, every day
products in use, whether deodorant, bubble gum, or gasoline,
are derived from hydrocarbons that were likely produced in
the Gulf.
Proceeds from offshore oil and gas production provides
the second largest amount of revenue for the U.S. Government.
Over SI00 billion has been collected and spent on many
programs. For instance, $82 billion was spent on health care,
education, and housing, $ 13 billion on public parks, $2 billion
on historic preservation, and, since 1986, the states of
Louisiana and Texas received about $2 billion.
The offshore industry has some unpredicted benefits.
Because rigs act as reefs, the 4,500 oil and gas platforms
comprise 1/3 of the artificial reefs, providing fish habitat.
Recreational fishing in Louisiana is approximately a $190
million-a-ycar business, and 70% of me anglers fish along
these platforms. This is quite a statement about the
environmental quality maintained around these structures.
Artificial reefs have a life span of 3 to 30 years. When
production is complete, the locations are stripped entirely,
and those jackets sometimes become artificial reefs.
The MMS has produced extensive, thorough regulations
for offshore operations, but as they evolve, industry's own
safety systems and environmental policies become more
effective. A great deal of credit belongs to the MMS, which
has proposed a new Safety Environmental Management Plan
requiring operators to integrate their plans ~ safety,
environment, risk assessment, and evacuation and
management to assume responsibility for these activities.
There are many waste products from oil and gas production
that must be disposed. Produced water, which comes out of
a well with oil and gas, is the principal waste, and it is treated
to reduce its toxic effects on the environment. Amoco's rigs
are not allowed to have a sheen of any type on the water
during these discharges.
Like a home, most waste produced is domestic. Cardboard,
paper, and other non-hazardous and hazardous wastes must
be brought to shore and disposed. Amoco has a committee
to approve its waste management processes, which it is
continually trying to improve.
No equipment can be left on the Outer Continental Shelf,
and there must be safety systems in place during production.
If something goes overboard, it must be retrieved. When a
site is abandoned, it must be dragged and all equipment must
be removed.
Most emissions from offshore platforms are no different
than what comes from one's car. However, the OOC and
MMS are conducting a 3 year study to evaluate the combined
emissions from the 4,500 offshore rigs and onshore sites, such
as Baton Rouge and Houston.
The OOC established a committee similar to the Gulf of
Mexico Program with participants from government, special
interests, and industry. Waste reduction goals and a marine
debris baseline were established to monitor what industry
waste is washing ashore so that it can be eliminated. For
example, styrofoam is banned on many rigs, and recycling
programs are being established.
Each year, the oil and gas industry provides 5,000 people
for the national Coastal Cleanup. The industry is a major
supporter of this activity, and in some cases, the predominant
participant.
Environmental protection occurs in all phases of
hydrocarbon exploration. The chance of finding hydrocarbons
in commercial quantities is about 20%, so for every ten wells
drilled, two may be viable. This is a very risky business when
one considers that it costs $5-10 million to drill a well.
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Therefore, much exploration activity is seismographic work
where boats pass over an area and beam sound waves to
determine what's present, so there is not a lot of pollution
involved. Before drilling occurs, a comprehensive
environmental studies must be conducted.
The primary goal in drilling is to control the well, and the
industry seeks to have zero spills. If a spill occurs, the
operation is considered a failure. A lot of time, money, and
technology is involved in controlling the process, such as
safety systems to shut down a well if there is a large variation
in pressure. Also, the industry has many emergency
contingency plans.
Pipeline technology has improved dramatically so that they
can be installed with minimal environmental damage. This
is important in areas with extensive oyster beds, such as
Mobile Bay. Safety systems monitor pressure so that there
are no surprise leaks. However, this is an area for continued
improvements.
In addition to the Gulf of Mexico Program, the OOC is
involved in many activities, such as the Clean Gulf
Association, which is a cooperative of companies to ensures
a ready supply of spill cleanup equipment. The OOC also
supports university research and reclamation projects,
especially in coastal marshes and wetlands, and it is a major
donor to the Nature Conservancy and the Aquarium of the
Americas in New Orleans.
In addition, the OOC has devised numerous projects in
support of the Year of the Gulf of Mexico. It sponsored an
essay contest, published 10,000 book covers that were handed
out across the Gulf at the national Coastal Cleanup, and
published a booklet explaining industry initiatives in more
detail. The OOC supports many arts organizations and
charities, as well as educational partnerships.
VIPS (Vessel Information And Positioning System): A Private
Initiative Vessel Traffic System
John C. Timmel
Tampa Bay Harbor Pilots Association/Tampa Bay VIPS, Inc.
Tampa, Florida
A Vessel Traffic System (VTS) is an integrated assortment
of personnel, procedures, equipment, and regulations to
manage marine traffic in a particular body of water. An
effective VTS will increase navigational safety and traffic
efficiency and better protect the marine environment. Systems
range in complexity from vessels reporting their position by
radio to up-to-date radar, Radio Direction Finding (RDF),
and Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS)
technologies.
Although widely used on European and Asian waterways
for many years, few U.S. ports are equipped with VTS. The
first VTS began operating in Liverpool, England in 1948;
however, it was not until the Ports and Waterways Safety Act
of 1972 was passed did the Coast Guard upgrade its harbor
advisory concept to a VTS program. Still, there were fewer
than a six systems when the Exxon Valdez spill occurred in
1989. The most common VTS are shore-side radar based
systems funded and operated by the U.S. Coast Guard.
Under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, a VTS Port Needs
Study was conducted at 23 ports to determine their
navigational, commercial, and environmental risk and
prioritize them for future projects. It recommended that
systems be upgraded and new ones installed as federal money
became available and appropriated. However, many ports
are unlikely to receive federal moneys for a VTS until another
catastrophe like the Exxon Valdez occurs.
Another result of the OPA was an enormous increase in
the liability of petroleum shippers due to public uproar over
the damage caused by the Valdez. Without the rapid
deployment of VTS and other safety-related technologies, oil
shipping companies have an impossible task prevent oil
spills with no tools, causing shippers to evaluate their practices
to reduce exposure and, possibly, whether to cease shipping
oil. If companies leave the oil transportation business, more
oil will be carried by foreign flag vessels or smaller, less
capitalized companies.
Aware of increasing liability and seeking ways to reduce
the risk of marine pollution, officials of Mobil Shipping
Corporation and a traffic system technology company met to
discuss the feasibility of industry-sponsored VTS's in
high-risk ports. They presented the notion to officials in
Tampa Bay because it is a difficult port in which to maneuver
and had no VTS system. The idea was presented to the
Greater Tampa Bay Marine Advisory Council, composed of
maritime interests which make recommendation on various
marine safety issues, for review. The Council was intrigued
and formed a task force to consider the matter further.
The task force quickly determined that a VTS is desirable
due to the many course changes and junctions in narrow
channels, strong currents, and the loss of visual and radar
cues during intense thunderstorms and squalls. These,
combined with the lack of anchorages once inside the main
channel, creates a very dangerous situation. Once a
deep-loaded vessel begins transit, it has two options continue
on regardless of conditions or ground itself in part of the
channel where damage is less likely to occur.
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The task force also determined that a hybrid system
combining shoreside radar with DGPS would work best in
Tampa Bay by providing navigational precision for vessels
participating in the system and radar detection for those that
do not. The DGPS system permits tracking during intense
rainstorms that block out radar. Anew, unique, self-contained,
carry-on pilot system displays the position of the vessel and
others in close proximity, as well as collision avoidance data.
The information is provided in an Electronic Chart Display
and Information System format. Other pertinent navigational
data that is provided include: real-time tide and tidal current
information; real-time weather radar information tracking
storm cell and squall positions, intensities, and movement;
traffic lists; Aids-To-Navigation discrepancy information; and
safety broadcast information. The VIPS design provides the
information in a visual form directly to the vessel pilot,
allowing the pilot to use that data with the vessel's handling
characteristics and the influence of the wind and current upon
them.
Tampa Bay VIPS will be a non-profit corporation. Because
the system is user-operated, the need for personnel is minimal.
There will be only three paid employees a manager, a
technician, and a bookkeeper. There will be an Advisory
Board made up of maritime and environmental community
members which will be responsible for appointing a Board
of Directors to establish administrative policy. If the market
for receive-only units for non-commercial vessels develops,
additional marketing personnel, or licensing of a distributor
outside of the organization, may be required.
The system will cost $1.2 million for hardware and software
development, installation, licensing, siting, permitting and
other related start-up costs. This is '/4 the cost of the federal
system for Tampa Bay identified in the Ports Needs Study.
and it includes many features which that system does not.
The total operational costs are projected at $160,000 the first
year, rising incrementally to $425,000 by the end of the fourth.
The candidate system proposed by the federal study projects
labor costs alone at $489,000 per fiscal year.
The Tampa Bay VIPS will be funded from four sources
start-up contributions from industry and environmental
concerns, user fees, governmental users, and non-commercial,
pleasure craft operators. As revenues from these sources
increase, the fees on commercial vessels could be lowered.
The Tampa Bay VIPS effort is worthwhile, desirable, and
feasible, and there is no reason to wait 6 to 8 years, or until
the environment is damaged, to obtain it. It makes more
economic sense to spend one local dollar than it does to spend
four federal dollars to achieve the same goal. The cost
effectiveness of the Tampa Bay VIPS makes it affordable and
obtainable now, and this project can serve as a model for other
communities seeking to protect fragile ecosystems while
making its port safer and more efficient.
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VII. Exhibitors At The Technical Poster Session
A. Vegetated Habitats
Monitoring Wetland Habitat Changes in Coastal Texas by Satellite Mapping
Warren Pulich, Jr. and James Hinson
Texas Parks and Wildlife Department
Austin, Texas
Factors Affecting the Distribution of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation in Lake Ponchartrain, Louisiana
K.P. Preston, M.A. Poirrier, andJ.W. Burns
University of New Orleans
New Orleans, Louisiana
Alternative Access Technologies for Exploration and Production Drill Sites in Coastal Marsh Areas
J.M. Bruney and J.C. Taylor
Exxon Production Research Company
Houston, Texas
Clean Water Demonstration
Mike Calinski
Marine Habitat Foundation, Inc.
Captiva, Florida
B. Water Quality
Irrigations Water Management
Danny M. Lamberth
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service
Haskell, Texas
The Seco Creek Water Quality Demonstration Project
Phillip Wright, Wesley Newman, Melony Sikes, and Tom Fillinger
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service
Hondo, Texas
Dynamics of the Soil, Water, and Vegetative Regimes of the Coastal Marshes of Louisiana
Horace J. Austin
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service
Alexandria, Louisiana
C. Nutrient Enrichment
Environmental Control of Primary Production and Fate of Organic Matter in the Outflow Areas
of the Mississippi River and Northern Gulf of Mexico
Gary L. Fahnenstiel and Gregory A. Lang
Great lakes Environmental Research Laboratory
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Donald G. Redalju and Steven E. Lohrenz
University of Southern Mississippi
Stennis Space Center, Mississippi
The Role of the Mississippi River Discharge Plume in Recruitment Processes of Northern Gulf of Mexico Fishes
C.B. Grimes, DA. DeVries, J.J. Govoni, K.L. Land, and RJ. Allman
National Marine Fisheries Service
Panama City, Florida
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Effects of Nutrient Enrichment and Overfishing on Seagrass Beds in the Gulf of Mexico
K.L. Heck, Jr., L.D. Coen, J.R. Pennock, and J.F. Valentine
Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium
Dauphin Island Sea Lab
Dauphin Island, Alabama
D. Monitoring And Assessment
Fifteen Years in the Life of a Gulf Barrier Island Beach
Anthony F. Amos
University of Texas at Austin
Marine Science Institute
Port Aransas, Texas
Flower Gardens Marine Sanctuary, Research and Monitoring Efforts
Steve Cittings
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary
Bryan, Texas
E. Living Aquatic Resources
Marine Mammal Surveys in the Gulf of Mexico
Carol L. Roden and Carolyn Rodgers
National Marine Fisheries Service
Pascagoula, Mississippi
Seaweed Cleanup on a Sea Turtle Nesting Beach
Kennard Watson
Si. Andrew Bay Resource Management Association
Panama City, Florida
Lorna Patrick
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Panama City, Florida
Monitoring the Behavior and Movements of Sea Turtles Through the Use of Ratio Tags in the
North-Central Gulf of Mexico
Karen Mitchell and Warren E. Stuntz
National Marine Fisheries Service
Pascagoula, Mississippi
Larry Bryant
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service
La Grande, Oregon
Bioacoustic Assessment of Plankton Stocks in the Northwest Gulf of Mexico
R.A. Zimmerman, D.C. Biggs, and A.L. Anderson
Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
Population Genetics of the Blue Crab, Callinectes sapidus, From the Northern Gulf of Mexico
Dr. Robert k. Okazaki and Nicole J. Berthelemy-Okazaki
Southeastern Louisiana University
Hammond, Louisiana
Benthic Ecology Data Base for the Gulf Coast
William T. Mason, Jr.
National Fisheries Research Center
U.5. Fish and Wildlife Service
Gainesville, Florida
Summary of Research Activities by the Benthic Ecology Program of Mote Marine Laboratory
in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico
James K. Cutler and Jay R. Leverone
Mote Marine Laboratory
Sarasota, Florida
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Macrobenthic Trophic Structure in Fine-Sediment Habitats of Gulf of Mexico Estuaries
Steven S. Brown and Gary R. Gaston
University of Mississippi
Oxford, Mississippi
Richard W. Heard
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory
Ocean Springs, Mississippi
Kevin Summers
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . .
Gulf Breeze, Florida
Use of Benthos and Sediment Analysis to Describe Impact of Dredge Material
Barry A. Vitor
Barry A. Vitor & Assoc.
Mobile, Alabama
Gulf Sturgeon
Frank Parauka
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Panama City, Florida
Fecundity of Gag (Pisces: Sierranidae: Mycteroperca microlepis) from the Northeastern Gulf of Mexico
L.A. Collins, A.G. Johnson, H.E. Kumpf, and C.P. Keim
National Marine Fisheries Service
Panama City, Florida
F. Coastal And Shoreline Erosion
Responses to Erosion on Gulf of Mexico Beaches
Scott L. Douglass
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama
Shoreline Changes and Human Impacts, Ocean Springs, Mississippi, 1850-1992
Klaus J. Meyer-Arendt, Pete A. Kohn and Walter E. Kelley
Department of Geology and Geography
Mississippi State University
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Coast of Florida Erosion and Storm Effects Study
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Jacksonville District
Jacksonville, Florida
Gulf Coastal Programs at the Florida Geological Survey
Ronald W. Hoenstine, Ed Lane, Frank Rupert, Steven M. Spencer,
Connie Garrett, and Jacqueline M. Lloyd
Florida Geological Survey
Tallahassee, Florida
Coastal Erosion: Point Aux Chenes, Mississippi
Charles K. Eleuterius and G. Alan Criss
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory
Ocean Springs, Mississippi
Manmade and Natural Changes on the Mississippi Gulf Coast
Steven Oivanki, Jack S. Moody, and Barbara Yassin
Mississippi Office of Geology
Jackson, Mississippi
G. Environmental Policy
Applying a Policy Subsystem Framework to the Gulf of Mexico Program
Richard Larkin
University of Southern Mississippi
Hattiesburg, Mississippi
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H. Environmental Education
Alabama Sea Grant Extension Educational Efforts
William Hashing
Alabama Cooperative Extension Service
Mobile, Alabama
Environmental Education Initiative
Charles Horn
Alabama Department of Environmental Management
Montgomery, Alabama
Wayne J. Aronson
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Atlanta, Georgia
Protecting the Environment and Promoting Conservation
Robert P. Jones
Southeastern Fisheries Association and Friends of the Environment
Tallahassee, Florida
Communicating Pollution Prevention Technologies
Catherine L. Mills
Science Applications International Corporation
Falls Church, Virginia
Studies in Florida Wetlands: Summer Marine Science Institute
Lawrence Olson
Tallahassee Community College
Tallahassee, Florida
William Halpern, Sneed Collard, and Susan Collard
University of West Florida
Pensacola, Florida
Awareness of Coastal Habitat
Catherine Porter
Palactos Marine Education Center
Palacios, Texas
Girl Scout Patch " The Gulf of Mexico"
Laura G. Jenkins
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Panama City, Florida
I. Data Information And Technology Transfer
A Knowledge-Based Decision Support Geographic Information Service for Coastal Wetlands Management
Wei Ji, James B. Johnston, Marcia E. McNiff, and Lloyd Mitchell
National Wetlands Research Center
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Lafayette, Louisiana
Louisiana Coastal Geographic Information Service Network
Randolph A. McBride, Matteson W. Hiland, and Lynda Wayne
Louisiana Geological Survey
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Henry R. Strieffer
Decision Associates, Inc.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Farrell W. Jones, Dewitt Brand, Jr., and Anthony J. Lewis
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
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The Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program: Information Management
System and Data Accessibility for the Gulf of Mexico Monitoring Data
Man Evans and Renee Conner
Computer Sciences Corporation
Gulf Breeze, Florida
Kevin Summers
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Gulf Breeze, Florida
The Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program: Estuaries of the Louisianian Province, 1991-1992
John M. Macauley and J. Kevin Summers
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Gulf Breeze, Florida
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