United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
'Office of Water
Washington, DC 20460
EPA800-R-94-003
May 1994
&EPA
Clean Water: A Memorial Day
Perspective
Recycled/Recyclable
Printed
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Contents
Overview
Water-Based Recreational Activities
The Value of Clean Water: Profiles from Around
the Country 5
The Clean Water Act's Imprint: How Has It
Made a Difference? 15
Future Benefits from a New Clean Water Act
Conclusion
References by Section
17
22
23
Cover photo by Pat Cunningham
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Overview
The period between Memorial
Day and Labor Day marks prime
vacation time here in the United
States, and for millions of Americans
that means heading to the water.
Each year, our beaches, lakes, rivers,
and wetlands provide multiple recre-
ational opportunities, such as fishing,
swimming, and boating. There is
compelling evidence of the contribu-
tion these activities make to local and
regional economies. Consider the $4
billion lost by the states of New York
and New Jersey from beach closures
following the medical waste washups
during the summers of 1987 and 1988.
While the full extent of economic
benefits to the Nation has not been
assessed, data suggest a significant
contribution to the Gross National
Product: billions of dollars are spent
and millions of jobs are created
annually from recreational activity.
The Clean Water Act is the
national statute that protects our
waters, and Congress is currently
considering how this Act might be
improved. The Clinton Administration
has put forward a proposal to reautho-
rize the Clean Water Act to better
address those sources, such as
polluted runoff and toxic discharges,
that continue to pollute our waters,
and to provide states with more funds
to assist with cleanup and restoration
efforts. Those funds are expected to
create some 400,000 jobs over the next
decade, and they will help to ensure
that clean waters are available for a
wide variety of purposes, including
enhanced recreational opportunities
for all Americans.
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Water-Based Recreational Activities
Water-based recreational activities
require clean water. If the water is
contaminated with toxics or lacks suffi-
cient oxygen, fishing suffers. If bacteria
are found, swimming can become dan-
gerous and beaches are closed. And, if
aquatic habitat is destroyed, bird-
watchers and hunters may find their
opportunities for recreational enjoy-
ment greatly diminished. Even non-
contact recreational activities, such as
boating, rely on aesthetically pleasing
water, free of debris and noxious odors.
The examples below highlight the
value of water-based recreation and
provide further evidence of the need to
keep our waters clean.
Sport Fishing
Each year, 36 million people par-
ticipate in some form of sport fishing
on our Nation's fresh and salt waters,
spending approximately $24 billion in
the process. These expenditures ripple
Each year, 36 million
people participate in
some form of sport fishing
on our Nation's fresh
and salt waters.
through the economy, generating
$70 billion in economic output and
supporting around 1 million jobs,
while also generating substantial tax
revenues for local, state, and federal
governments. In 1991, $1.2 billion
were contributed in federal income
taxes and over $2 billion were gener-
ated in state income and sales taxes.
Fishing continues to grow in
popularity. The number of anglers
increased 11 percent between 1985
and 1990 alone, and expenditures on
angling jumped 27 percent in that
same period. Participation in cold-
water fishing is expected to increase
threefold between 1990 and 2040,
while warmwater fishing is expected
to nearly double. Freshwater anglers
now number more than 30 million and
spend more than $15 billion annually.
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Swimming and
Beach Use
In 1987, there were 460 million
trips to participate in outdoor swim-
ming (nonpool). Much of this swim-
ming occurred at the beach where
Americans often choose to vacation.
One study of the southeast coastal
region found that beach visitors had
an average stay of 2.5 days and spent
approximately $234 per person. In
Florida, where the State's economy is
closely tied to tourism, a study showed
that beachgoers generated $2.3 billion
in economic benefits annually.
Wildlife-Related
Activities
About 40 percent of all American
adults made 342 million visits to
outdoor sites in 1991 to enjoy
nonconsumptive wildlife activities,
such as bird-watching and camping.
Of those involved in such activities,
23 percent visited oceanside areas;
64 percent visited lake and streamside
areas; and 39 percent visited marshes,
wetlands, and swamps. These visits
generated over $18 billion in spend-
ing.
Birdwatching is a prime example
of a nonconsumptive means of enjoy-
ing wildlife, and it continues to grow
in popularity. More than 76 million
people in the United States consider
themselves birdwatchers, and total
annual expenditures by this group
exceed $20 billion a year. The number
one interest of people observing birds
is waterfowl and shoi-ebirds (64 per-
cent of total participants). Birders are
particularly interested in observing
unusual or rare bird species, and
60 percent of the bird species listed as
having unstable or declining popula-
tions are dependent on wetland or
coastal habitats.
Bird observation is dependent on
clean water, and many heavily used
birdwatching spots are located in
riparian, estuarine, and coastal areas.
For example, the 80,000 annual visi-
tors to Grand Island, Nebraska, to see
the Sandhill and Whooping Crane
migration account for $40 million of
economic activity in that area. And
coastal wildlife refuges routinely
experience larger numbers of visitors
than noncoastal refuges.
Companies catering to persons
interested in various types of nature
observation have enjoyed enormous
growth during the past 10 years.
Many shopping malls in the United
States now have some type of nature-
related store. The variety and total
number of field guide books sold to aid
in the identification and observation of
wildlife, fish, and plant life has grown
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considerably. Guided tours have
sprung up in all parts of the country.
In fact, ecotourism—long distance or
extended trips for the enjoyment of
nature—appears to be the tourist
industry's fastest growing sector.
Hunting of water-dependent spe-
cies is another important contributor
to economic activity in many parts of
the country, and much of this hunting
takes place in wetland areas. Approxi-
mately three million hunters spent
$686 million in 1991 hunting wetland-
dependent waterfowl.
A California rice grower earned
over $40,000 by managing and offer-
ing 4,500 acres of wetland habitat to
30 hunters for waterfowl and pheas-
ant hunting activities.
Boating
Americans took 220 million trips
in 1991 to participate in motor boat-
ing. Total expenditures on recreational
In 1990, the boating-related
recreational industry
provided jobs for about
600,000 people.
boating (motorized and nonmotorized)
quadrupled from 1970 to 1989. In
1993, some $11 billion was spent at
the retail level for new and used
boats, motors, accessories, fuel,
repairs, club memberships, and other
related items. In 1991, Americans
owned 16 million recreational boats,
half of which were motorized, with
the remainder being sailboats, canoes,
kayaks, and similar vessels. In 1990,
there were more than 6,200 manufac-
turers of boats and boating accessories
and 8,300 marinas, boat yards, and
yacht clubs. In that year, the boating-
related recreational industry provided
jobs for about 600,000 people.
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The Value of Clean Water:
Profiles from Around the Country
The previous section provides
an indication of how significant water-
based recreation is to the national
economy. What follows are profiles
from around the country depicting
how water quality conditions, some-
times improving and sometimes
degrading, can affect the economies
and quality of life in local communi-
ties. The effects are often far-reaching,
thus the profiles are not limited to
recreational impacts but include im-
pacts in other areas, such as real
estate values and commercial fishing,
as well.
Boise, Idaho
The Boise, Idaho, Chamber of
Commerce knows how to make an
impact. The first impression when
picking up a copy of the promotional
brochure for the state's capital city is
that of a beautiful river, bounded by
generous green space along both sides,
running through the middle of a thriv-
ing metropolitan environment. This
same picture would not have been
possible 30 years ago. For decades, the
river served as a dumping ground:
old cars were found scattered along
the banks and raw sewage from
homes and businesses was routinely
dumped untreated into the waterway.
Some said the wastes from slaughter-
houses literally caused the river to
"run red."
Beginning in the sixties, the
residents decided they had had
enough, and their outcry prompted
the beginning of a movement to clean
things up. A contiguous belt of
parkland, later to be called the
greenbelt, was established along a
corridor of riverfront property that
was owned primarily by the city.
Many in the community joined in to
restore the area for public use. Some
of the river's biggest polluters, such as
the slaughterhouses, determined they
could not continue to operate as they
had historically. They moved their
facilities away from the urban area,
and significantly upgraded their
operations and treatment capabilities
in the process. Approximately $30
million in federal funds were com-
bined with state and local resources to
build, upgrade, and expand the city's
wastewater infrastructure. The latest
water quality assessment from the
U.S. Geological Survey showed that
treated wastewater effluent from the
city's facilities was of sufficient quality
that it had no adverse impact on the
river. Further pollution control was
achieved through city and county
Management of the Boise
River has become a symbol
to the community of a
commitment to a lifestyle.
ordinances aimed at reducing polluted
runoff from development. Most
recently, multiple stakeholders from
within the watershed have banded
together to study and plan for the
river's long-term management.
What have these efforts
produced? Today, the citizens and
businesses of Boise enjoy a vastly
improved resource. David Eberle, a
visiting professor at Boise State
University, has studied the river and
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JEfofiejRicer
its impact on the residents there. He
has found that "Boise residents have
an especially personal connection with
the great outdoors, and management
of the Boise River has become a
symbol to the community of a commit-
ment to a lifestyle." As one resident
put it, "People come to Idaho for the
outdoors and move to Boise for the
jobs."
Of all their environmental
attributes, he has found residents are
most proud of the river.
Swimmers, tubers, and canoers
now enjoy use of the same river that
was once considered unsafe for human
contact As one frequent user
commented, "Ten years ago, Td float
the river and never see a soul. Last
Saturday, there were 300 people and
over 70 boats on the river."
Fish and wildlife are also
benefitting. The river now supports a
considerable waterfowl population,
including an endangered species—bald
eagles. While problems with habitat
and low flows in winter months
prevent a self-sustaining fishery, the
river's water quality is sufficient to
allow 55,000 trout released every
Spring by the Fish and Game Depart-
ment to thrive. This is especially sig-
nificant in a state where eight times
as many people fish as the national
average.
To celebrate the river's comeback,
the city now holds an annual River
Festival. In 1992, nearly 600,000
people traveled an average of 558
miles over a 3-day period to attend
the celebration, and, according to Mr.
Eberle, spending for items such as
lodging, food, and souvenirs generated
over $20 million for the local economy.
The return of the river is
stimulating the economy in other
ways. While the Chamber of Com-
merce does not have exact figures
relating the economy to improving
water quality conditions, they do
report that the river is a frequently
mentioned attribute by businesses
considering locating in Boise. Jay
Clemens, Chamber of Commerce
president, commented that "It's a
unique thing to be able to walk
behind your corporate workplace to
fish in a relatively natural setting."
Rather than avoiding the river, new
and existing businesses now consider
the waterfront a prime location. The
same is true for residents, and this
demand is reflected in average hous-
ing costs. On average, a waterfront
property sells for about $60,000 more
than those not on the waterfront.
Today, the river makes Boise a
special place to live. However, it is not
without its problems. In particular,
stormwater runoff can have signifi-
cant water quality impacts, and, like
many cities, Boise is struggling to
control this runoff more effectively.
As the population continues to grow,
more and more people will desire
access to the river, placing the river
and its improved quality at risk.
Boise's challenge is to maintain the
dramatic achievements that have been
made, while also looking ahead at
ways to solve those problems that
remain. This dilemma was articulated
by Boise State Biology professor Bob
Rychert. In an interview with a Boise
magazine he stated, "The Boise
River—as we study a limited stretch—
has pretty high water quality in my
view. The thing is, can you maintain
it?"
Connecticut River
and Long Island
Sound Watershed
Twenty years ago, the Connecti-
cut River was called "the prettiest
sewer in the Nation." Inadequate
levels of wastewater treatment,
discharges of toxic pollutants, and
polluted runoff were responsible for
fouling this once wonderful waterway,
as well as Long Island Sound, the
estuary into which it drains.
Thanks to upgraded municipal
and industrial treatment systems and
federal and state programs under the
Clean Water Act to control polluted
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Connecticut) Jreftode
Island
Connecticut River-Long Island Sound
runoff, water quality in both the
Sound and the Connecticut River has
begun to improve, and this, in turn,
has generated economic benefits.
According to a recent assessment,
about $5 billion is generated annually
in the regional economy from boating,
commercial and sport fishing, swim-
ming, and beachgoing associated with
Long Island Sound. And very signifi-
cantly, Connecticut recently became
the country's leading producer of oys-
ters, surpassing both Louisiana and
the Chesapeake Bay in the amount of
revenue generated. In 1992, Connecti-
cut oyster farmers harvested a stag-
gering 894,000 bushels of oysters from
Long Island Sound—compared to
between 30,000 and 40,000 bushels in
the 1970s. The estimated worth of the
oyster industry is now $46 million.
John Volk, Connecticut's Aquaculture
Director, attributes the remarkable
growth both to the water quality im-
provements and to joint state/industry
efforts to aggressively cultivate oyster
beds off the coasts of Bridgeport and
Stratford.
The once degraded Connecticut
River is becoming a source of beauty,
recreation, and economic
revitalization. Particularly in the
lower river, canoeists, anglers, and
outdoor enthusiasts now populate its
riverbanks, and the river's natural
ecological balance is returning. Al-
though the returns of Atlantic salmon
have not yet met expectations due to
problems in the ocean, water quality
improvements have contributed to
annual returns numbering in the
hundreds. The population of Atlantic
salmon continues to increase in the
river and is now supporting successful
commercial and recreational
opportunities.
The river is now becoming a focal
point for much recreational activity.
During the past 2 years, the river has
been host to a major triathlon compe-
tition, and the Greater Hartford
Convention and Visitors Bureau
estimates that the event generates
approximately $4 million dollars
annually from the influx of visitors
to the state.
About $5 billion is gener-
ated annually in the
regional economy from
boating, commercial and
sport fishing, swimming,
and beachgoing associated
with Long Island Sound.
Bass fishing is becoming increas-
ingly popular along the river, and, for
an unprecedented 2 years in a row,
Connecticut Oyster Market Harvest
72 82
84 85 86 87
Year
88 89 90 91 92
Source: Connecticut Department of Agriculture, 1994.
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the river was selected as the host site
for an eastern regional bass fishing
tournament Anglers from 12 states
visited the Hartford area to partici-
pate. The tournaments lasted 6 days
and were estimated to have generated
about $1 million in revenue each year.
A professional "BassMaster* tourna-
ment is being planned for September
1994, which will be telecast on
national television. Competitors from
all over the United States are
expected to come and fish in the
Connecticut River.
Rowing has also experienced a
resurgence along the river, and Hart-
ford was recently selected over 14
other cities as the 1997 site for the
United States Rowing Association
Convention. Six hundred rowers from
across the country are expected to
attend, generating about half a million
dollars worth of business for down-
town hotels, restaurants, and shops.
"Hartford is an excellent choice
for our annual convention," said
Sandra Hughes, Executive Director
of U.S. Rowing, There is a strong
rowing community in the area and
Riverfront Recapture [a private non-
profit organization commited to im-
proving public access to the Connecti-
cut River] is doing excellent work-
developing an urban rowing program
and putting on an annual regatta, in
conjunction with renewal of the
Riverfr6nt."
While these successes are encour-
aging, many larger economic benefits
are still unrealized as the riverfront's
transformation has just gotten under
way. Planners are beginning to look at
land just outside the floodplain for
potential development. New condo-
miniums and other tourist-related
developments are envisioned. The
value of these properties is expected to
be significantly enhanced by current
efforts to revitalize the riverfront as
well as by efforts to improve public
access to the waterway.
For the first time in more than a
century, downtown Hartford will soon
be reunited with the waterfront. A
landscaped plaza is being constructed
to link the city to grassy terraces that
will provide amphitheater seating for
as many as 20,000 people. A new
Science Center is part of the riverfront
restoration plans and is expected to
draw a half a million visitors per year.
In East Hartford, construction will
soon begin on an expanded Great
River Park, which will include a new
amphitheater capable of seating about
300 people.
While the water quality in the
Connecticut River is considered good
and continues to improve, the river
remains threatened by discharges
from combined sewer overflows in
three major cities. Following rainfalls,
bacteria levels in the river exceed
acceptable limits. Through its com-
bined sewer overflow policy, however,
Connecticut plans to control or limit
the discharges, with the ultimate goal
of making the entire river safe again
for swimming. The community is
beginning to recognize the tremendous
value of the Connecticut River. A
recent referendum on an $80 million
combined sewer overflow project in
nine greater Hartford communities
was overwhelmingly approved by a
4-to-l margin, demonstrating the
residents' willingness to invest in
water quality improvements.
With regard to Long Island
Sound, excess nutrients have led to
low dissolved oxygen levels, which
continues to threaten this fertile estu-
ary. The low levels of oxygen routinely
observed during late summer months
reduce the abundance and diversity of
aquatic species. Efforts are now under-
way through the Long Island Sound
Management Conference to target and
reduce nitrogen loadings from both
wastewater dischargers and polluted
runoff throughout the Sound's drain-
age basin.
Cuyahoga River
For decades, industries along the
Cuyahoga River, a tributary of Lake
Erie that flows through the heart of
Cleveland, Ohio, dumped poorly
treated wastes, noxious chemicals,
used oil, and solid debris into its
waters. The effect of these unchecked
discharges was to create a highly
polluted river and shoreline for Lake
Erie.
In a 1968 report presented at
Kent State University, the authors
described a river whose "surface is
covered with brown oily film," where
"large quantities of black heavy oil
flowing in slicks, sometimes several
inches thick, are observed frequently.
Debris and trash are commonly
caught up in these slicks forming an
unsightly floating mess." The authors
also noted starkly that "animal life (on
the river) does not exist."
On June 22 of the following year1,
the Cuyahoga River caught on fire.
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A stray spark ignited oil and debris
that had accumulated on its surface.
It was an event that embarrassed the
people of northeast Ohio and became
a symbol of the degradation that has
resulted from a century of industrial-
ization that took place without regard
to environmental consequences. It also
was one of the seminal events that led
to the rise of the environmental move-
ment, the establishment of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), and the passage, 3 years later,
of the Clean Water Act.
In the 25 years since the
Cuyahoga River blaze, industries,
local governments in northeast Ohio,
and the federal government have
banded together in an effort to im-
prove the quality of the river's water.
Millions of dollars, much of it autho-
rized under the Clean Water Act, have
been spent to upgrade and expand
wastewater treatment facilities.
Hundreds of permits limiting pollution
to the river have been written and
enforced by the Ohio and U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agencies. These
efforts have paid off. Levels of
dissolved oxygen have increased,
improving the conditions for aquatic
life, while levels of bacteria, ammonia,
and other contaminants have dropped
dramatically. Along with these
welcome changes in the biological and
chemical attributes of the river have
come marked improvements in its
aesthetic values.
In the early 1970s, downtown
Cleveland was a virtual ghost town
after the normal working day ended.
The area adjacent to the riverfront at
Lake Erie, known as "the Flats," was
a dilapidated warehouse district. The
success Cleveland has had in recent
years drawing crowds again to its
downtown area is due, in no small
part, to the revitalization of the Flats
and the improvement in the water
quality in the Cuyahoga River and
Lake Erie. Today, the harbor area
where the Cuyahoga River and Lake
Erie meet is no longer choked with
debris and reeking wastes. Instead, it
is bustling with pleasure boats, which
dock alongside fashionable restau-
rants and shops. The newly clean
river has generated 3,500 tourist-
related jobs in this 820-acre lakefront
area, without sacrificing the 1,500
industrial jobs that already existed
there. The Flats is one of the top tour-
ist draws in Ohio, attracting seven
million visitors each year. It also
boasts a restaurant that is
Cuyahoga River
consistently at or near the top in gross
revenues for restaurants nationwide.
The restoration of the quality of
the Cuyahoga River and Lake Erie
waters is one remarkable measure of
the Clean Water Act's success, but the
data reveal areas where progress has
been slow. For example, increases in
the species offish in a water body
typically lag behind other water qual-
ity improvements, and this has been
the case in the Cuyahoga River, where
fish populations are just now recover-
ing. Industry and local government
officials recognize that this recovery
must continue. As fish populations
increase, it signals more improve-
ments in water quality and the prom-
ise of increased commercial and recre-
ational fishing activities, and the jobs
these activities generate. For north-
east Ohio and other industrial areas
like it, it is a promise that can be
fulfilled by a continuing commitment
to the Clean Water Act.
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The Chesapeake
Bay
The Chesapeake Bay Water-
shed—the area that drains into
Chesapeake Bay—stretches over
64,000 square miles into six states
(New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware,
Maryland, West Virginia, and Vir-
ginia) as well as the District of Colum-
bia. Home to some 13.6 million people,
the watershed extends as far north as
Cooperstown, New York, the origin of
the mighty Susquehanna River, and
as far south as Norfolk, Virginia,
where its mouth opens up to the
Atlantic ocean. This wonderfully
diverse and complex coastal estuary is
surprisingly shallow—its waters aver-
age little more than 20 feet in depth.
Famous for its crabs and rockfish, the
Chesapeake is truly one of our
national treasures.
While it is difficult to quantify the
economic benefits of a resource as vast
and productive as the Chesapeake
Bay, a 1987 study done by Maryland's
Department of Economic Employment
and Development estimated the value
A 1987 study estimated
the value of the Bay from
commercial fishing, port
and ship building activities,
and Bay-related tourism
to be a staggering
$31.6 billion.
of the Bay from commercial fishing,
port and ship building activities, and
Bay-related tourism to be a staggering
$31.6 billion. Recreational activities
such as boating, fishing, hunting,
sightseeing, and dining on regional
cuisine accounted for $8.4 billion per
year.
aware
Chesapeake
Bay
The Chesapeake Bay
From the 1960s to the late 1970s,
it became clear that the Bay was in
trouble. System-wide declines were
recorded in the bay's fisheries, its
underwater grass beds, and its oxygen
levels. Commercial harvests of shad
declined 35 percent in the Virginia
portion of the Bay and 95 percent in
Maryland, eventually causing a fish-
ing ban to be put in place. Similar
declines in striped bass resulted in a
ban for that fishery as well. Previ-
ously, the striped bass population had
sustained a sport and commercial
industry valued in the millions of
dollars annually.
The Bay's once prosperous oyster
industry—decimated by overharvest-
ing, disease and loss of habitat
began producing record low harvests.
Major losses of underwater vegetation,
critical habitat for dozens of species of
fish and waterfowl, has also led to
declines in numerous waterfowl
species, including black ducks,
redheads, wigeons, and canvasbacks.
The loss of wetlands also contrib-
uted to the downturn in the quality of
the Bay. One study of a riparian
forest in a predominantly agricultural
watershed showed that 80 percent of
the phosphorus and 89 percent of the
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nitrogen were removed from the water
by the forested wetland before enter-
ing a tributary of the Chesapeake
Bay. When wetlands are lost, so is the
ecosystem's natural buffering capacity.
In 1975, Congress directed the
EPA to investigate the causes of envi-
ronmental decline in the Chesapeake.
"The Chesapeake Bay is a
vast natural resource with
significant economic, recre-
ational and social value to
our state and our citizenry.
We are beginning to see a
recovery of the Chesapeake
Bay as a result of a decade
of hard work, determina-
tion, and commitment,
spearheaded by the Chesa-
peake Bay Program ...."
Maryland Governor
William Donald Schaefer
To achieve this goal, EPA established
a Chesapeake Bay Program Office
that has successfully formed partner-
ships with key Chesapeake Bay
states, federal agencies, and other
interested parties such as citizen
groups to take action where needed.
Initial efforts have focused on the
Bay's most significant ecological prob-
lems: nutrient overenrichment, toxics,
and loss of aquatic habitat.
An historical Chesapeake Bay
agreement signed in 1983 formed a -S
binding partnership among EPA and
the governments of Virginia, Pennsyl-
vania, Maryland, and the District of
Columbia and moved the program
from a research to an action phase.
A second agreement, signed in 1987
expanded the scope of the original
agreement with 29 commitments for
action in priority areas, such as living
resources, water quality, and popula-
tion growth and development.
A centerpiece of the Bay agree-
ment was the establishment of a goal
to reduce nutrients by 40 percent by
the year 2000 and to maintain that
level or better thereafter. Nutrient
reduction is essential to restoring Bay
water quality. Excess phosphorus and
nitrogen literally choke the Bay by
contributing to abundant algae
growth, which then clouds the water
and blocks the sunlight needed by Bay
grasses. Without sunlight, these
grasses die and the essential habitat
and food supply they provide
vanishes. Also, as the algae decom-
poses, dissolved oxygen is used up,
forcing oxygen-dependent species to
either leave or die.
Today, efforts to reduce nutrient
loadings and restore water quality are
beginning to have an effect. The Bay
is beginning to see encouraging signs
of improvement. Phosphorus levels in
the main stem of the Bay have been
reduced by 16 percent and nitrogen
levels have been stabilized, despite
significant population growth in the
Bay watershed. Baywide, approxi-
mately 70,000 acres of underwater
grasses are now growing. This repre-
sents an 86 percent increase in acre-
age since 1984, significantly reversing
the declining trends of the 1970s.
Artificial oyster reefs are being cre-
ated in areas where oyster diseases
have less impact and oyster survival
is more likely. Watermen are being
employed in the off-season to
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construct these beds and reseed exist-
ing oyster beds. Finally, the latest
study on toxic releases showed a 52
percent reduction in reported toxic
emissions in the Bay watershed from
1987 to 1991, compared to a national
decrease of 22 percent from 1988 to
1991.
Future improvements in Bay
water quality will depend, to a large
extent, upon how well polluted runoff
is controlled. Sewage treatment plants
and air deposition are major nutrient
sources for the watershed; however, as
in so many parts of the country,
runoff from agricultural and suburban
lands continues to be the most signifi-
cant obstacle to further water quality
improvement.
The Great Lakes
The Great Lakes, collectively, are
one of the world's outstanding natural
resources, containing 20 percent of the
The Great Lakes
world's and 95 percent of the United
States' fresh surface water. The Great
Lakes Basin receives drainage from
eight States—Minnesota, Wisconsin,
Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and New York—and
the Canadian Province of Ontario.
More than 40 million people live in
the Basin, including nearly 20 percent
of the U.S. population and 50 percent
of the Canadian population.
The Great Lakes provide
tremendous economic and ecological
benefits to the area. One quarter of all
U.S. industry and more than 70 per-
cent of U.S. and 60 percent of Cana-
dian steel mills are in the Great
Lakes Basin. Over 23 million people
depend on the Great Lakes for drink-
ing water. The area affords habitat for
a vast array of plant and animal
species, many of which are native to
the Great Lakes Basin.
Recreational benefits are also
significant. Data from the mid-1980s
indicate that recreational boating
marinas employed almost 20,000
people. Boat sales and other boater
spending (marina fees, licenses,
repairs, etc.) amounted to almost $4
billion per year. Fishing in connection
with recreational boating and other
recreational fishing expenditures add
another $3 billion to $7 billion per
year.
Water quality in the Great Lakes
has improved significantly since the
passage of the Clean Water Act in
1972. Although discharge loadings
12
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from wastewater treatment plants
have increased due to population
growth and development pressures,
levels of dissolved oxygen have
steadily improved. Reductions in
organic material, solids, and phospho-
rus are noteworthy as well. For
example, phosphorus loadings to
Green Bay from the Fox River in 1971
were 4.8 million pounds. By 1982, this
level had been reduced to 1.2 million
pounds.
Chemical concentrations in
humans and the aquatic environment
have dropped sharply. Fish have
returned to some harbors from which
they had disappeared. The number of
double-crested cormorants, a water"
bird that all but vanished in the Great
Lakes in the 1970s, has climbed to
12,000 nesting pairs, and the number
of bald eagles is nearing the highest
level ever measured in Michigan.
Improvements in Great Lakes
water quality have had a positive
economic impact on the recreational
fishing industry. Fishing licenses
purchased in just one county of Green
Ohio's Lake Erie tourism
industry is now an $8.5
billion per year business.
Bay, Wisconsin, increased from 19,000
in 1970 to 51,000 in 1989. Boat regis-
trations more than doubled during the
same period, leading to an increase in
demand for launch ramps and other
boating facilities in the Green Bay
area. The revitalization of fishery
resources in Lake Ontario has spurred
the development of the charter boat
fishing industry, boater and angler
access sites, fishing derbies, and addi-
tional employment opportunities.
Water quality improvements and
increased lakeside development have "
caused people to return to the shore of
Lake Erie to enjoy boating, fishing,
swimming, and other activities. Today
it is rare to see algal blooms, and
bacterial counts in Ohio beach areas
along Lake Erie have dropped over
90 percent from 1968 to 1991. As a
result, the comeback of Ohio's water-
front has also seen an increased num-
ber of boating, camping, and vacation
resort facilities. From 1986 to 1993
there was a 30 percent increase in the
number of marinas in the Lake Erie
Basin. Ohio's Lake Erie tourism
industry is now an $8.5 billion per
year business.
Lakeshore cities have begun to
restore their shorelines. Cleveland,
Ohio, is now transforming its
lakefront into a popular area for
families and cultural activities. A new
harbor and festival park have already
been completed. Several museums are
completed or under construction and
an aquarium is planned. All this on
the shores of a waterbody pronounced
"dead" just 25 years ago.
The New York and
New Jersey Shore
Every summer, millions of people
flock to the New Jersey and New York
shores to vacation and enjoy the beach
environment. Unfortunately, during
1987 and 1988, garbage and medical
Long Island
Jersey
New York and New Jersey Shores
wastes washing to shore and high
bacterial counts led to the closure of
beaches. Although the washups
occurred for only short periods of time,
approximately 70 miles of beaches
were closed each year. Beach atten-
dance at Long Island dropped 50 per-
cent after the first washups, and a
New Jersey community reported that
the number of beachgoers dropped
from 1,200 per day to about 120 per
day. The economic impact from these
closures was significant: New York
and New Jersey tourism industries
lost more than $4 billion.
A 1991 report published by the
Natural Resources Defense Council
(NRDC), Testing the Waters ILL,
Closings, Costs, and Cleanup at U.S.
Beaches, provides data on beach
closures and advisories due to high
counts of bacteria and other health
threats. The report documents over
7,000 beach closures or advisories in
22 coastal states between 1988 and
1992. In 1989, there were over 1,000
closures or advisories and 70 percent
occurred in New York and New
Jersey; five New York beaches were
under advisories for the entire sum-
mer. In 1990, the same was true for
three beaches in New York. Urban
13
-------
runoff and combined sewer overflows
were identified as the primary pollut-
ant sources responsible for the
closures or advisories.
While the impacts to tourism are
significant, other benefits are dimin-
ished by the same pollution that leads
to beach closures. Commercial fishing
is often affected as fish kills from
polluted water reduce both the abun-
dance and distribution offish and
shellfish stocks. For example, a mas-
sive fish kill that occurred off the New
Jersey coast in 1976 resulted in a loss
valued at $11.6 million to the state's
commercial and recreational fishery.
Future losses due to the resulting
reduced fish population from the kill
were estimated at $498 million.
Ecological quality also suffers.
Extremely high levels of water
pollution along New York and New
Jerseys coasts have resulted in poor
and unproductive aquatic and terres-
trial habitats, which in turn results in
the loss of the necessary organisms
and aquatic vegetation that serve as
food and habitat for fish and other
aquatic animals, as well as terrestrial
animals, such as birds.
Today, problems due to washups
of floating garbage and medical
wastes have been largely controlled
along New York/New Jersy shores. An
interagency action plan to clean up
these wastes before they reach the
beaches is now in effect and includes
actions such as aerial surveillance to
identify floating slicks that could
potentially affect the shores and
scheduled cleanups of floating debris
around high moon tides and storms.
Nevertheless, the beaches still face
&
threats from other pollution sources,
such as stormwater runoff and com-
bined sewer overflows. Whenever it
rains, these sources can lead to
serious water quality impacts. The
extent to which they are controlled
will be a key factor for future water
quality and recreational opportunity.
14
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The Clean Water Act's Imprint:
How Has It Made a Difference?
In 1972, Congress passed the
Clean Water Act to address the exten-
sive pollution that was degrading the
Nation's waters. The original Act,
along with amendments added over
the years, has dramatically improved
the condition of waterhodies in most
parts of the country. As a result,
America's water-based recreational
opportunities, as well as other water
quality benefits, are far greater than
those available 20 years ago. More
waters are now fishable and more
waters are now swimmable.
Today, there are approximately
15,500 publicly owned wastewater
treatment plants in operation, 94
percent of which provide upgraded
levels of treatment. The improvements
in wastewater treatment capabilities
have been possible, in large part,
because of federal resources. Approxi-
mately $60 billion in federal funds
have been made available since the
Act's passage, and these resources,
coupled with state and local resources,
have resulted in dramatic wastewater
treatment improvements. As a result
of this investment, biological oxygen
demanding substances from waste-
water plants were reduced nationally
by 37 percent between 1968 and 1988.
This progress is even more remark-
able given the 22 percent increase in
waste loadings to sewers from a popu-
lation increase of 27 million people
and a two-thirds increase in economic
and industrial activity.
Clean Water Act controls on toxic
discharges from industry have had a
similarly beneficial impact on water
quality. The states and EPA have
issued permits limiting pollutant
discharges from approximately 63,000
industrial and municipal facilities.
National effluent guideline standards,
which are used to set pollutant dis-
charge limits for specific industries,
have been established for over 50
industrial categories, such as steel
manufacturers and the oil and gas
industry, typically reducing toxic pol-
lutant loadings to waterbodies by
15
-------
90 percent. These guidelines set toxic
pollutant limits based on use of the
best available technology that is
economically achievable, and a 1989
EPA study showed substantial water
quality improvements when these
limits were met
Pretreatment, or reducing the
amount of toxic pollutants that indus-
tries discharge to wastewater facilities
for treatment, has also made a big
difference in water quality. From 1975
to 1990, pretreatment has resulted in
95 percent reductions in metals load-
ings and 40 to 75 percent reductions
in toxic organic loadings from regu-
lated industries.
Reducing losses of critical aquatic
habitat is another area where
progress has been made. From the
mid-1950s to the mid-1970s,
approximately 450,000 acres of wet-
lands were lost in the United States
every year. From the mid-1970s to the
mid-1980s, that figure dropped to
approximately 290,000 per year. This
change resulted primarily from the
Clean Water Act wetlands program,
combined with new state wetland
protection programs. Although data
are not available, it is generally
accepted that implementation of the
Clean Water Act and some provisions
of the 1990 Food Security Act, other-
wise known as the Farm Bill, have
reduced losses even further.
These estimates stand as testa-
ment to the success of the Clean
Water Act and its vision; however, the
job is not yet complete. In too many
places around the country, water
bodies are still not as clean as they
could be and aquatic habitats continue
to be degraded. Although many
improvements can be cited, previously
undetected problems are becoming
evident, and some problems continue
to persist. Polluted runoff from our
yards, streets, and farms is now the
leading source of water quality im- ^
pairment. And toxic chemicals con-
tinue to pose a risk to public health
and our environment.
These problems pose difficult
challenges, but, like the problems that
came before, they can be solved. The
pending Clean Water Act reauthoriza-
tion presents the Nation with an
opportunity to refine those portions of
the Act that need improving so that
an even-more effective national frame-
work is in place to guide future
actions.
States with More Than 50% Wetlands Loss
50% to 80% Loss
>80%Loss
Twenty-two States have lost at least 50% of their original wetlands. Seven of
these 22 (California, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Kentucky, and Ohio) have
lost more than 80% of their orginal wetlands.
Source: Dahl, T.E. 1990. Wetlands Losses in the United States 1780's to 1980's.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service.
16
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Future Benefits from a New Clean
Water A
-------
Reducing Toxic
Discharges
While the number of waterbodies
being impacted by toxic pollutants are
fewer than those being impacted by
polluted runoff, where toxics occur,
the impacts to public health and
aquatic ecosystems can be severe.
Toxics have been linked not only to
cancer, but also to adverse neurologi-
cal, reproductive, developmental, and
immunological effects. Some sensitive
species may die from exposure to
these substances. These problems
become even more acute when one
considers that many toxics do not
degrade easily and may be around for
very long periods of time.
The Administration recommends
greater authority for EPA to restrict
or prohibit the discharge of toxic
pollutants. Establishing limits on
industry and setting numeric criteria
for water quality are the two mecha-
nisms by which toxics are now con-
trolled; however, both can be costly
and time-consuming. When scientific
evidence demonstrates that a serious
threat exists, the Administration
would provide EPA with greater
authority to take more immediate
action so that public health and the
environment are adequately protected.
Decreasing toxics would have the
effect of better protecting the environ-
ment and public health. For example,
the number offish consumption advi-
sories and bans that are now in effect
around the country would be reduced.
This is especially important for people
who depend on fishing for their liveli-
hood, such as Native Americans and
and those working in commercial or
charter boat fishing industries. In one
report, charter fishermen in the Great
Lakes reported routine declines in
business of up to 40 percent immedi-
ately following a fish consumption
warning.
Controlling Urban
Runoff
Whenever it rains, runoff in
urban areas, carrying a multitude of
pollutants, such as oil, grease, patho-
gens, sediments, and herbicides is
washed into local waterbodies. In
many cases, this runoff can seriously
affect water quality. For example:
Fish Consumption Advisories
in the United States
o
'Si American Samoa
Number of Advisories
in Effect (1993)
0
1-10
11-25,
26-50
51-100
>100
Note:
States that perform routine fish tissue analysis (such as the Great Lakes States)
will detect more cases offish contamination and issue more advisories than
States with less rigorous fish sampling programs.
Based on data contained in the EPA Fish Consumption Advisory Database as of
September 1993 .
18
-------
• According to the Natural
Resources Defense Council,
there were 1,592 days of beach
closures or advisories issued in
1990,2,008 days in 1991, and
2,619 in 1992. Combined sewer
overflows (CSOs) and storm
water were implicated as an
important contributor.
• In 1990, pollutants from
CSOs contributed to bans or
restrictions on 597,000 acres
of shellfish harvesting areas.
The current programs for reduc-
ing pollution from urban runoff are
considered too complex and too expen-
sive by many state and local govern-
ments. In the case of CSOs, the prob-
lem has been seen as so unmanage-
able that some cities have done little
or nothing at all. The Administration's
recommendations for controlling both
CSO and stormwater management
would improve the existing regulatory
framework by providing communities
with greater flexibility to target and
adapt their efforts to better suit their
particular situation. This approach
would potentially save communities
almost $27 billion per year when
compared to implementation under a
strict interpretation of the existing
Clean Water Act—without compro-
mising water quality.
The Administration's proposal
would reduce the number of overflows
at CSO points from 50 to 80 events
per year to 3 to 4. In so doing:
• Violations of water quality
standards for these waterbodies
would be reduced from 100 to
200 days per year to no more
than 10 to 20.
• Nationally, over 1 billion
gallons of raw waste that are
now being discharged untreated
would receive treatment.
These improvements, along with
a more targeted program for control-
ling stormwater, would reduce
shellfishing restrictions, fish kills, and
beach closures and greatly improve
the aesthetics of our Nation's waters.
Strengthening
State Revolving
Loan Funds
Much of the progress that has
been achieved under the Clean Water
Act can be linked to the federal
investment in wastewater infrastruc-
ture. Private citizens, industry, and
all levels of government have recog-
nized that money spent on clean
water improves not only public health,
but the health of the Nation's
economy as well.
Between 1972 and 1987, the
Clean Water Act authorized more
than $50 billion in grants to assist
19
-------
•communities with their wastewater
infrastructure needs. In recent years,
the grants program was replaced with
a State Revolving Loan Fund (SRF).
Rather than awarding grants to mu-
nicipalities, the Act now authorizes
EPA to award grants to the states to
capitalize SRF loans. State agencies in
turn award low interest loans and
other forms of assistance to local gov-
ernments and individuals to finance
wastewater treatment needs. SRF
loans can be used to build treatment
works and sewer systems to serve
homes and industries or to install
measures to control polluted runoff
from city streets, farms, and
construction sites. These loans are
repaid so that the fund is not depleted
and remains available to other com-
munities needing assistance.
Since the inception of the pro-
gram, the Agency has awarded more
than $8.5 billion in capitalization
grants to the states and Puerto Rico.
These states have also contributed
$1.7 billion in required matching
funds. Several states have also lever-
aged SRF assets to generate more
than $4.5 billion in bond proceeds.
The success of the SRF program
lies in the flexibility it has afforded
states to fund a variety of projects.
States have made loans to big cities to
build traditional wastewater treat-
ment projects, to local sewer districts
to build retention basins for nonpoint
stormwater runoff, and to rural towns,
which in turn make loans to home-
owners to replace failing septic
systems.
The Administration's recommen-
dations would provide states with
even greater flexibility, allowing such
items as pollution prevention and
water conservation to be funded.
The success of the program also
lies in the nature of loan funding,
inducing recipients to seek out the
most cost-effective ways to solve their
wastewater treatment problems. State
officials report that SRF-funded
projects proceed more quickly and at a
lower cost than projects funded with
direct grants.
The current authorization for
funding the SRF expires in 1994;
however, the Administration proposes
to extend funding through 1998, at
$2 billion a year with declining
amounts through 2004. This invest-
ment, coupled with state contribu-
tions, will generate $2 billion in SRF
loans each year for clean water infra-
structure and the jobs that investment
brings. By the Agency's estimates,
22,400 jobs in wastewater equipment
manufacturing and construction are
generated for every billion dollars
spent on clean water infrastructure.
Thus, the additional $13 billion that
would be provide under the Adminis-
tration's proposal would generate over
290,000 jobs for the country during
the next decade.
20
-------
:••'•• « «; \ ,,,.. ' ',,'•• - ,.. •.v.-.v.' „,,., ^ «•• , ' < ,-. ,,,,..,
When the figure for the SRF
These job estimates are impor-
program is combined with other Continued funding of the tant to note when considering the
Administration funding initiatives, State Revolving Loan Fund economic benefits of the Clean Water
including $4.6 billion for a drinking -, •. generate o er Act- However, they are conservative
water SRF, $480 million for nonpoint • u j • u figures. They do not take into account
source controls, and $400 million in 290,000 JODS during the the many jobs that would be created
grants for communities facing extraor- next decade; total funding or sustained as a result of improving
dinary treatment needs, the total for all clean water Spend- water 1uality conditions. Industries
federal investment proposed by the jng CQl!fl£ generate Over SU°h 8S lodging> charter boat nshin&
Administration for clean water infra- °^ . and recreational equipment manufac-
structure exceeds $18 billion, with a 400,000 JODS. turers all depend on the availability of
potential for creating over 400,000
clean water resources to attract their
jobs. customers.
1..- - - - - "•'''---•"• : •::-:-•"••• " -"--•-"-- "" -' -•-••• : -":..~- "^:f :- : -' "--?•--••
PotentialJob Creation Resulting fipom ; i •
Continued Funding of the State Reyplving Fund : 1 •
.-.---."- . - =->'-*•=-.. -..--, ------- " -.-.---• - - -.1 :-. - .=--:- VT» -";--"-' ' ". ."/: -^-^: :--^-,i-.""V - :'-.-. •*.;'«,-' , _C --- - -"--"". -«vi..s-~-'-*~- ":/-•"•" r:/-" - '.-.:= •'- ,^-\y-,/. :. ' ^ : ^->:"-:^H
State Jobs
Alabama 3,296
Alaska 1,764
Arizona 1,991
Arkansas 1,928
California 21,083
Colorado 2,358
Connecticut 3,611
Delaware 1,447
District of Columbia 1,447
Florida 9,951
Georgia 4,984
Hawaii 2,283
Idaho 1,447
Illinois 13,332
Indiana 7,104
Iowa 3,990
Kansas 2,661
Kentucky 3,752
T mil oi fin a ^l 9A1
AjUUlolcuid O,Aftl
Maine 2,282
State Jobs
Maryland 7,130
Massachusetts 10,009
Michigan 12,675
Minnesota 5,418
Mississippi 2,656
Missouri 8,172
Montana 1,447
Nebraska 1,508
Nevada 1,447
New Hampshire 2,946
New Jersey 12,046
New Mexico 1,447
New York 32,537
North Carolina 5,320
North Dakota 1,447
Ohio 16,595
Oklahoma 2,382
Oregon 3,330
•n -I • .. - /*rjn
State Jobs
South Carolina 3,020
South Dakota 1,447
Tennessee 4,282
Texas 13,474
Utah 1,553
Vermont 1,447
Virginia 6,033
Washington 5,126
West Virginia 4,595
Wisconsin 7,969
Wyoming 1,447
American Samoa 265
Guam 191
N. Marianas 123
Puerto Rico 3,845
TTofPalau 107
Virgin Islands 154
.Pennsylvania 11,0 / / ^^^^H^^^^^^^E^^HB^H^^^^^^^^H
^^ggggg^^^^mg:^^ TOTAL 2!>l,lf)8 •
21
-------
Conclusion
Clean water is an absolute essen-
tial for our economy and quality of
life. However, the job of protecting
this vital resource remains as
challenging as ever. The population
continues to grow, placing our waters
at increasingly greater risk. At the
same time, Americans maintain high
expectations about water quality
whenever they turn on their tap or
venture out to enjoy recreational
benefits at a lake, river, or beach. If
our high expectations are to be met,
we must sustain existing achieve-
ments and proceed aggressively to
control those pollutants that still
degrade our waters and prevent us
from fully enjoying their use.
More effective ways for controlling
polluted runoff, further reducing toxic
discharges, and providing financial
resources to support clean water
efforts are the keys to ensuring clean
water for ourselves and for future
generations. The Clean Water Act
reauthorization is the appropriate
forum for getting these improvements
in place. It is a critical opportunity,
and one the country cannot afford to
let pass.
22
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Water-Based
Recreation
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23
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