United States
Environmental Protection Office of Water
Agency (WH-550)
EPA810-B-92-016
December 1992
DRINKING WATER HANDBOOK
FOR PUBLIC OFFICIALS
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Contents
Introduction - 1
Purpose Of This Handbook 1
Water Quality Concerns 1
Legal Responsibilities 2
Moral Obligations 2
Information Presented In This Handbook 2
Sources Of Additional Information 2
Suggested Reading 3
Chapter 1 — General Water Supply Considerations 4
Classification Of Systems 4
Federal Classification By Type Of Customer 4
Private Vs. Public Ownership 5
Water Sources 5
Water System Operating Considerations 6
Water Quantity 6
Water Quality 7
System Reliability 7
Public Water Supply Regulations 7
The Safe Drinking Water Act 7
Other Federal Regulations 8
State Drinking Water Programs 8
State Functions 9
Iron And Manganese Control 17
Air Stripping . 17
Carbon Adsorption 17
Chapter 3 —Surface Water Sources and Treatment 19
Water Sources 19
Rivers And Lakes 19
Source Considerations 19
Surface Water Intakes 20
Need For Treatment 21
Disease Contamination 21
Turbidity 21
Taste And Odor 21
Chemical Contaminants 22
Disinfection And Filtration 22
Surface Water Treatment Regulations 22
Disinfection Treatment 22
Disinfectant Application 23
Filtration Treatment 23
Avoiding Filtration 25
Other Treatment Of Surface Water 25
Carbon Treatment 25
Fluoridation 25
Corrosion Control 25
'Chapter 2 —Ground Water Sources And Treatment 10
.Sources Of Ground Water 10
Aquifers 10
Gravity And Artesian Wells 11
Ground Water Protection 11
Ground Water That May Be Directly Affected
By Surface Water 11
Well Drawdown 11
Well Construction And Operation 12
Siting Considerations 12
Well Construction 13
Casing And Screens 13
Well Pumps 13
Well System Operation" 14
Monitoring ' 14
Maintenance 15
Ground Water Treatment 15
Common Problems 15
Disinfection 16
Fluoridation 17
Softening 17
Chapter 4 —Water Plant Operation
26
Plant Operators 26
Plant Maintenance 26
Water Quality Monitoring And Reporting 26
Bacteriological Sampling 26
Organic, Inorganic, And Radiological Sampling 27
Reporting To State Agencies 27
Water Treatment Waste Disposal • 27
Chapter 5 —Water Distribution System Operation
And Maintenance 29
Distribution System Facilities 29
Water Mains 29
Valves And Hydrants 29
Water Services 3JQ
Water Storage Facilities 31
Water Metering 32
Types Of Meters 32
Water Production Metering 33,
Customer Metering 33
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Distribution System Operation And Maintenance 34
Distribution System Records 34
Maintenance Needs 35
Maintenance Of Equipment 35
Water Main Extensions 36
Appendix A —Sources Of Additional Information
And Assistance 49
Appendix B —Listing Of USEPA Regional Offices 50
Chapter 6—Water System Management
Organization
Types Of Water System Ownership
And Management
Water System Organization
Personnel
Personnel Requirements
Employee Training
Operator Certification
Public Relations
Financial Considerations
Accounting
Meter Reading And Billing
Water Rates
Funding Improvements
37
37
37
38
38
38
39
39
39
40
40
41
41
42
Appendix C —Listing Of State Drinking Water Agencies
And Rural Community Assistance
Program Agencies 51
Appendix D—Helping Small Systems With the
Safe Drinking Water Act—The Role of Restructuring
EPA/812-K-92-001 57
Chapter?—Water System Operation Programs 44
Planning 44
Maintenance Planning 44
Emergency Planning 44
Replacement And Expansion Planning 45
Programs For Proper System Operation 45
Water Accountability 45
Water Conservation 46
Fire Protection Requirements 46
Cross-Connection Control 47
Safety 47
Lead And Copper Contamination Control 48
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Acknowledgement
This handbook was prepared by the School of Public and
Environmental Affairs at Indiana University for the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency under Grant No.
T901853-01. TheProjjectDirector was Dr. DavidMcSwane.
The principal contributing author was Harry Von Huben.
Cynthia Mahigian Moorhead produced the handbook;
George Angrick contributed illustrations.
Appreciation is expressed to (he Office of Ground Water
and Drinking Water, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, most particularly Ms. Charlene Shaw, Project
Director, for her direction and guidance through all stages
of the writing.
The authors wish to thank the following individuals who
reviewed the handbook and provided technical assistance
and input: J. Maichle Bacon, Sam Cummins, Kenneth
Ficek, Elizabeth Kuhlman, Frank D. Lewis, Earl S.
Maldovan, Dr. William A. Oleckno, Melviri Pleines, Larry
TenPas, and Marilyn Thomas.
in
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Introduction
Water is one of our country's most vital resources. It
covers over two-thirds of our planet, makes up almost
two-thirds of our bodies, and is present in almost every
type of food and drink.
Americans rely on safe, dean water for many purposes
such as cooking, cleaning, bathing and, most importantly,
drinking. Adequate supplies of water are also necessary
for uses such as manufacturing, agriculture, fire fighting,
and sewage disposal.
Purpose Of This Handbook
About 15% of the population of the United States receives
their water from private wells and springs. The rest rely on
public water systems to gather, treat, and deliver safe,
palatable water to their homes every day. The drinking
water used by offices, businesses, schools, and recreational
facilities is also usually furnished by a public water system.
Many public water systems are owned and operated by
cities or other governmental bodies such as counties,
townships, and water districts. The responsibility to govern
and make decisions on the operation and management of
these systems therefore falls on board members and other
decisionmakers who generally have little training or
experience in water system operations. Public officials are
also often involved in providing oversight of small privately
owned water systems.
Acquaintingpublic officials withhow water systems should
be properly operated and managed is becoming
increasingly important. Federal and state regulation of
public water systems has become much more stringent
and complex in recent years. Further, the technology
being used for water processing and the demands of the
public for better-quality water at the lowest cost have
complicated water system operation and management.
This handbook has been created especially for public
officials to assist them in understanding water system
operations. Explanations are provided from the standpoint
of a decisionmaker, how public water systems work and
why they must be properly constructed, maintained, and
operated.
Water Quality Concerns
Many individuals are concerned about the safety of their
tap water. Media reports frequently tell of newly identified
drinking water contaminants and often dramatize a
particularly bad situation thathas been found. Customers
often want to know if these problems might threaten then-
water system and what system managers are doing to
ensure that their drinking water is safe.
Somecurrentissuesconcerningcontaminationof drinking
water are:
Lead Poisoning—Lead was widely used for water service
pipes and in solder used for joining pipes for many years.
New findings indicate that lead can dissolve into drinking
water and create a health danger.
Chemical Contamination—Well water can no longer be
assumed to be pure. New chemical tests show that many
public water system wells have been tainted by industrial
and agricultural chemicals. Recent toxicological
information indicates that exposure to these chemicals at
levels as low as a few parts-per-billion could have the
potential to cause cancer, illness, or damage to the human
body.
Ground Water Protection—Widespread contamination of
ground water has been caused by carelessness in the
handling and disposal of manmade chemicals. Among
the principal causes of ground water contamination are
leaking underground storage tanks, leachate from
landfills, agricultural chemicals, and improper disposal
of toxic wastes. To prevent further contamination of
ground water and protect the public, new regulations
have recently been established governing the handling
and disposal of chemicals. Regulations also govern well
sites and in some cases limit activities on the ground
surface over well recharge zones.
Radioactivity—Some public water system wells are
contaminated by naturally occurring radium and uranium,
at levels that are considered a danger to public health.
Radon gas has also been detected in a great number of
wells at levels considered unacceptable.
Disinfection By-products—It has recently been found that
hazardous by-products are formed when water treatment
disinfectants react with substances in the source water to
form chemicals that may be hazardous to health.
Tn7w/omef/w«es(THMs)arecancer-causingchemicalsthat
a re formed by chlorination in some water systems.
Biological Agents—There are a number of disease-causing
microbiological forms found in water sources that can
contaminate drinking water unless care is taken for proper
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treatmentandhandlingof the water. Of particularconcern
are Giardia cysts, viruses, Legionella, various bacteria, and
Cryptosporidum.
Public officials must keep abreast of the new drinking
water quality concerns and consider their effect on local
water systems. They should ensure that the system is in
compliance with state requirements, that water samples
are regularly analyzed and that plans are promptly made
to make system improvements when required.
Legal Responsibilities
Public officials should also be aware of legal
responsibilities which can apply to water system owners,
public officials, managers and operators. These may
occur from two different causes: failure to comply with
specific regulations, and general common law negligence. The
greatest potential for liability comes from the violation of
federal, state, and local laws and regulations.
Ensuring water safety is becoming increasingly complex.
The number of different types of disease organisms and
toxic chemicals that are identified as potential drinking
water contaminants continues to increase. This threat of
contamination places increased responsibility on system
operators and managers to monitor and test water quality,
maintain specific treatment methods and take prompt
and appropriate action whenever contamination is
identified.
Stale laws often place direct responsibility on the owners
and/or operators of a public water system to ensure that
all laws are adhered to and good operational practices are
followed. Enforcement action for failure to meet regulations
is usually directed against the responsible officials of a
water system, water district, municipality, or company.
These responsible officials must also answer to their
stockholders, employers, or constituents for the
embarrassment and financial cost of their neglect.
Managers, officials, and employees of a water system
may also be exposed to civil suit for damages if the
improper or negligent operation of the system results in
injury or property damage. Although municipalities
were once considered immune from suits, the courts are
increasingly sympathetic to claims where the cause can
be shown to be negligence or failure to employ generally
accepted operating practices.
Moral Obligations
The primary purpose of a public water system is to
provide adequate quantities of water that are palatable,
safe, and reliable. Providing this service places the owners.
managers, and operators of the system under a moral
obligation to meet the purposes to the best of their ability.
Customers dissatisfied with the service provided by a
private- or investor-owned system can usually obtain
improved serviceby appealing to the companyindivdually
or as a group. If the company does not correct the
problem, the public has the option to appeal to the State
Public Utility Commission for restrictive action against
the company.
Customers dissatisfied with the service of a water system
operated by a city or other governmental body may ask
that system employees be censured or replaced if the
problem is being caused by their inefficiencies. When the
problem is being caused by incompetence or lack of
leadership from the public officials responsible for the
water system, the public can act to replace them. In states
where the state Public Utility Commission has some
control over these systems, an appeal can be made to the
Commission to restrict the system's future requests for
rate increases, or take other action.
Information Presented In This Handbook
This handbook is intended to provide an overview of
water system operation and management. The principal
subjects covered are:
• General information about water systems.
• Regulations affecting water systems.
• Sources of water.
• Water treatment methods.
• Distribution of water to customers.
• Operation and management of water systems.
Sources Of Additional Information
There are many publications that detail public water
system design and operation. Specific references have
not been included in this handbook due to the large
number involved and the frequency of revision.
Regulation and technology are rapidly changing in the
water supply field. Readers should keep in mind that
publications that are more than a few years old may no
longer be accurate.
Appendix A of this manual lists organizations that have
additional information available on various aspects of
public water system operation and management. Public
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officials are urged to call or write these organizations to
obtain current publications lists and copies of publications
relating to their water system and current interests. Many
organizations have manuals on specific subjects available,
which are easy to read and understand and available at
nominal cost. There is also a growing number of video
tapes available that can be purchased or sometimes
obtained on loan through either the organization
headquarters or from the state section of the organization.
Appendix B lists the addresses of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency offices and the states within their
region.
Appendix C lists the addresses of agencies having
responsibility for public water supply overview in each
state. Public officials should contact their state agency for
a copy of all regulations, and other available information
on water system operations.
Information on water system operations and management
can also be obtained from officials and water supply
professionals in larger water systems, consulting
engineers, state public water supply program personnel,
and local water operator groups.
Suggested Reading
Public water system officials and decisionmakers are
urged to make use of all the information in this handbook
in order to obtain an overall understanding of the water
supply field.
For those who wish only to acquaint themselves with
specific subjects, the following guide lists appropriate
chapters by subject:
Local Water System Facilities
Chapters
Water is obtained from another supply, 1,5,6, and 7
and your system provides only distribu-
tion to customers.
Your water system obtains water from 1,2,4,5,6,
wells and provides distribution of and 7
the water to customers.
Your water system obtains water from 1,3,4,5,6,
a lake or river and provides distribution and 7
of the water to customers.
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Chapter 1
General Water Supply Considerations
Classification Of Systems
There are several ways to divide water supply systems
into groups with similar characteristics. It is helpful to
understand these groupings before discussing water
supply operations.
Type Of Customer
The Safe Drinking Water Act enacted by Congress in 1974
provides a definition of a "public water system" that must
be used throughout the United States. A public water
system is a system that supplies piped water for human
consumption and has at least 15 service connections or 25
or more persons who are served by the system, 60 or more
days each year.The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) is directed by Congress to implement the Act, and
they have further divided public water systems into three
categories based on the number and type of customers
served.
• Community public water system: a system where the
customers are full-time residents.
• NoMtra«s/e«f-«oncommunffypublicwatersystem: an
entity having its own water supply, serving an
average of at least 25 persons who do not live at the
location, but who use the water for over six months
per year.
• Transient-noncommunity public water system: an
establishment having its own water system, where
people visit and use the water occasionally or for
short periods of time.
Community and nontransient-noncommunity water
systems are required to meet certain operating
requirements and to do extensive monitoring to detect
possible contamination. This is because customers are
using the water over a long period of time and could have
adverse health effects from the continuous exposure to
relatively low levels of contamination. The requirements
for transient-noncommunity systems are not as stringent
because the water system customers use the water only
occasionally.
EPA has also divided public water systems into general
size classes as follows:
• Very small systems serving less than 500 persons.
• Small systems servingbetweenSOO and 3300 persons.
• Medium-size systems serving between 3300 and
50,000 persons.
• Large systems serving over 50,000 persons.
Classification of Public Water Systems With Examples of The Types of Customer Served
Community
Water System
• Municipal Systems
• Rural Water Districts
• Mobile Home Parks
Public
Water
System
Nontransient
Noncommunity
Water System
- Schools
- Factories
- Office Buildings
1
Transient
Noncommunity
Water System
- Parks
- Motels
- Restaurant
- Churches
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Some federal regulations differ slightly for systems in
each size class. In many cases, smaller systems are also
given a longer time to implement new requirements.
Individual homes and water systems having fewer than
25 customers that have their own well, spring, or surface
source of water are referred to as private or non-public
water systems. Non-public systems are not covered by
the requirements of the Safe Drinking Water Act. States
and/or counties usually have separate requirements that
apply to these water systems.
Private vs. Public Ownership
Some public water systems are owned by private interests
such as an individual, partnership, or investor group.
Others are owned by a unit of government such as a city,
water district, or association. From the standpoint of
federal and state drinking water regulations, no distinction
is made between private and publicly owned systems.
Both types of systems must meet the same requirements
for monitoring, operation, and water quality.
Water Sources
The hydrologic cycle continuously replenishes and
redistributes the water on earth through precipitation,
runoff, and percolation into the soil, evaporation,
condensation, and precipitation again. This continuing
cycle makes adequate amounts of fresh water available in
most parts of the world as either ground or surface water.
Public water systems are generally classified by their
water source since it has considerable bearing on quality
of the water, the amount of water available, arid the kind
of treatment needed before distribution to the public.
Ground-water sources fall into the general categories of
wells, springs, and infiltration galleries. Ground water is
not typically subject to contamination by disease-causing
microorganisms, but contamination by man-made
chemicals is often possible. The water from most ground
water sources is of acceptable quality with little or rio
treatment, but the quantity available for public water
system use is often limited.
The Hydrologic Cycle
(f£f^f^ff^ff£l^^SS^K^9».
•$&•/.?.-.; Infiltration^^to!^^-
v. W.«j-.'J'Jt'.j A: .-J:.:.:-.':.'. I;-. WTTST-*?
j 111 j i; i; i; i; i; i' i' i' i' i' i' i' i '.liix i; i; i; i; i; i •I'l' i * •; •; -; i; i; ryi'V i^-f--f'--i:i^<^&&ja&
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Fresh surface water is available in most of the world from
rivers and lakes. Large rivers are important sources of
water for public water systems, but smaller streams can
also be used as long as the flow is reliable. Although water
from some lakes and rivers is quite clean, surface water
mustfrequently be treated to removesedimentand disease
organisms before public use. When compared to ground
water, surface sources usually require a larger investment
in treatment facilities and have higher operating costs.
Many water systems are in a third class termed purchased
water systems. These systems purchase water, that is
usually already treated, from another water system or
water authority. Their only business is to distribute the
water. In some instances, the purchasing system can
distribute the water directly to its customers. More often
though, it must supply supplemental disinfection,
additional storage, and re-pumping.
Both EPA and the states have, in recent years, strongly
recommended "regionalization" of water systems. There
are many advantages in operating one large water system
over several small ones, such as lower operating costs and
improved reliability of service. The advantages are even
greater if there is a high cost in obtaining the water, or if
it requires expensive treatment. In some cases, regional
water systems take over the responsibility for both
furnishing water and operating the distribution system in
all of the member communities.
Water System Operating Considerations
Three aspects of public water supply operation that must
be considered when managing and operating a system
are quantity, quality, and system reliability.
Water Quantity
A public water system must be capable of meeting all
customer quantity demands under any conditions. Water
use by customers generally falls into several categories.
Domestic use is the consumption by private homes and
other living facilities and usually fluctuates by the time of
day, day of the week, and time of year. On a normal day,
there is a moderately high use in the early morning, much
higher use in the evening, and relatively low water use
through the night.
Commercial use is the water used by stores, offices, and
other businesses. A few businesses such as laundries and
greenhouses use larger quantities of water, but most
commercial customers use relatively little water.
Operating Considerations
QUALITY
RELIABILITY
PUBLIC
WATER SYSTEM
OPERATION
QUANTITY
Industrial use is the water used by factories and
industries. Many factories do not use water in
manufacturing, so only require water for drinking, sewage
disposal, and cleaning. A few industries use great
quantities of water for cooling, cleaning, or incorporation
into the product that is being manufactured. Industries
frequently have fire sprinkler systems, which require a
water service adequate for drawing large quantities of
water in the event of a fire.
Industrial use is usually predictable but varies with the
number of shifts worked and days of the week. In some
cases, industries have wells or surface water sources for
use in the plant processes, and only use water from the
public water system for drinking and sanitary purposes.
Irrigation use is the water used for lawn and garden care.
While the billing for irrigation water is usually a part of
the charge to domestic, commercial and industrial
customers, this use requires special considerations by
most water systems. Water systems in arid regions have
almost a continual demand for irrigation water. Even in
areas with normally plentiful rainfall, water demands on
some systems may be three or four times greater than
normal during dry months.
If source water is plentiful and the treatment facilities
adequate, water systems generally try to supply as much
water as customers want to use for irrigation. This
requires that the system make investments in facilities
that can meet the heaviest demands, but are then
underutilized for most of the year. Where the availability
of source water is limited, irrigation use is often
d iscou raged by high water rates or sprinkling restrictions.
If there is an extreme shortage of water, irrigation use
may be banned.
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Agricultural use of water from a public water system is
not usually practical except where small quantities are
required. In rural areas, where no other water source is
available, water from a public system may be used for
irrigating small areas of crops and fruit trees and watering
livestock.
Fire use capability is the ability to furnish adequate amounts
of water for fighting fires. Trie amount of water required
for fire protection must be in addition to the domestic,
commercial, and industrial use. A reserve ability to furnish
adequate amounts of water in the event of a fire is achieved
by maintaining additional pumps or wells or reserving
treated water in storage.
Water Use
Commercial
ij.iii.iiii.ii.
Irri9ation
Agriculture
Water Quality
The quality of water is considered in two ways: the
presence of contaminants that might cause adverse health
effects and the aesthetic properties of the water.
Adverse health effects from contaminants in drinking water
include many types of sickness, permanent body damage,
or death. This may be caused by the presence of disease
organisms or harmful chemicals in the water.
The aesthetic qualities of drinking water include
characteristics that make the water unpalatable or
bothersome to customers. Examples are hardness, taste,
odor, color, and the tendency to discolorplumbing fixtures.
Industrial users of water are often concerned with water
quality as well, particularly if the water is incorporated
into a product. The quality of water used for medical
purposes, such as for dialysis, must also be monitored
and closely controlled.
System Reliability
Water system reliability is absolutely essential. Losing
pressure in the water distribution system for even a short
time creates the possibility of the waterbeingcontaminated
by disease organisms. Following a loss of pressure, the
state will usually require the system manager to issue an
order to the public to boil their water as a precaution until
the distribution system can be flushed, sterilized, and
tested safe.
The failure of treatment equipment while a water system
is in operation also presents an opportunity for disease-
causing organisms to contaminate the system. Adequate
controls must be provided to make sure that water
furnished to the public is properly treated at all times.
Public Water Supply Regulations
Regulations for the operation and monitoring of water
systems serving the public were developed by states
during the early 1900s, with policies and the degree of
enf orcement varying among states. Monitoring of water
quality, technical assistance to water system operators,
and enforcement of regulations were generally performed
by the State Health Departments under individual state
regulations.
Prior to 1974, federal involvement in drinking water
consisted only of the development of drinking water
standards by the U.S. Public Health Service. These
standards suggested bacteria and chemical limits for
public water systems. Although the standards were not
federally enforceable, they were incorporated into the
regulations of most states.
The Safe Drinking Water Act
During the 1960s and early 1970s, scientists and public
health experts discovered previously unrecognized
potential for harmful disease organisms and chemicals in
drinking water. There was also increased pressure by the
public and legislators to create uniform nationalstandards
for drinking water to ensure that every public water
supply in the country would meet minimum health
standards.
Accordingly, Congress passed the original Safe Drinking
Water Act (SDWA) in 1974. The Act directs EPA to
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establish standards and requirements necessary to protect
the public from all known harmful contaminants in
drinking water, and asks the states to accept primary
enforcement responsibility for enforcing the federal
requirements.
Hie Act was re-authorized and amended in 1986. In doing
so, Congress emphasized that EPA must set standards to
keep abreast of the very latest knowledge of harmful
contaminants and direct more rigid enforcement against
water systems that violate the federal requirements.
A few of the more important federal requirements
established under the SDWA are:
• Primary drinking water standards are established by
EPA for microbiological and chemical contaminants
that may be found in drinking water and could have
adverse health effects on humans. The maximum
concentration that is allowable is called the Maximum
Contaminant Level (MCL). All states must make their
regulations at least as rigorous as those established
by EPA. The primary standards are mandatory and
must be complied with by all public water systems.
• SecondarydrinMngwaterstandardsestablishedbyEPA
set recommended, non-enforceable, maximum
contaminant levels for contaminants that affect
water's taste, color, odor, or appearance.
• Public notification (PN) is required by the Act as the
first step of enforcement against all public water
systems that fail to comply with federal requirements.
Systems that violate operating, monitoring, or
reporting requirements or exceed an MCL, must
inform the public of the problem, and explain the
public health significance of their violation.
• Formal enforcement with stiff monetary fines may be
leveled against systems that do not comply with the
federal requirements.
Other Federal Regulations
The Wellhead Protection Program is a federal requirement
thatisnotadirectpartofthepublicwatersupply program,
but will impact most water systems using ground water
sources. This program was established after it was realized
that many wells throughout the country have been
contaminated by chemicals and substances spread,
dumped, or leaked on the ground, or injected into the
ground near wells.
Under the requirements of the Wellhead Protection
Program, each state must develop a strategy for protecting
wells from future contamination by limiting surface
activity near vulnerable wells and selecting safe sites for
new wells. Some of the prime considerations are the
depth of the aquifer to be tapped, the area geology, and
the types of human activity in the well recharge zone.
The National Pollution Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES) is a program established under the Clean Water
Act requiring that all waste water discharging to
waterways meet federal effluent standards. Under the
NPDES requirements, water system treatment plant
wastes must meet effluent standards before discharge to
a waterway, or another method of disposing of the wastes
must be used.
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
regulates hazardous waste production, transportation,
storage, treatment, and disposal. Some chemicals used
by water treatment plants must be stored and handled in
accordance with RCRA requirements.
State Drinking Water Programs
The intent of the SDWA is for each state to accept primary
enforcement responsibility (primacy) for the operation of
the drinking water program within their state. To be
delegated primacy, astatemust establish all requirements,
standards, and programs required by EPA. In return, the
state receives a federal grant to supplement state funds to
operate the program.
In states that agree to accept primacy, EPA delegates
operation of the program to a state agency designated by
the governor. In many states it is the State Health
Department. In others it is delegated to a state
environmental department such as the Department of
Natural Resources, Pollution Control Agency, or state
Environmental Protection Agency. When a state does not
accept primacy, the EPA regional office ensures that
federal drinking water requirements are met by public
water systems in the state.
Under the provisions of the primacy delegation, each
state must establish requirements for public water systems
at least as stringent as those set by EPA. States occasionally
establish some requirements more stringent than the
federal regulation. As the federal requirements are
period ically changed or expanded, each state must, within
a prescribed period of time, make similar changes in their
regulations and begin implementation and enforcement.
In addition to the federal requirements, each state also
establishes requirements to ensure proper water system
operation and protection of public health. Principal
additional requirements by most states include mandatory
8
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certification of water plant operators, cross-connection
control programs, and monitoring for additional water
contaminants.
Requirements of other state agencies such as air and
water pollution prevention laws, standards for handling
of toxic chemicals, and labor practice laws also have an
effect on water system operations.
Note: Although state drinking water regulations must be
as stringent as federal regulations, they are often slightly
different and include additional requirements. Public
officials and water system operators should obtain a copy
of current regulations from the agency with primary
responsibility for the drinking water program for their
state. A roster of these state agencies is included in
Appendix C of this handbook.
State Functions
The major functions performed by state primacy agencies
can be divided into the following categories.
Monitoring And Tracking. All public water systems
must monitor water quality in several ways. On-site
testing of water quality for chlorine residual and other
indicators must be routinely performed by the water
system operator. Periodically, reports of these tests must
be furnished to the state agency.
Water samples must also be collected and analyzed for
the presence of disease-causing organisms and toxic
chemicals. The analyses of these samples must be
performed by a certified laboratory. Samples may be
collected by a state employee, or the state will instruct the
water system operator on how and when samples should
be collected and shipped to a laboratory for analysis.
States also require periodic reports on the operation of
many water systems. The system operator must furnish
information such as the amount of water furnished to the
public, details of treatment provided and types and
quantities of chemicals added to the water. The state staff
then reviews, records, and analyzes this information as
one means of ensuring proper operation.
Sanitary Surveys. A sanitary survey is an on-site
inspection of a water system's facilities and operation.
The survey is usually performed by a state employee, but
the state may also approve another person. Survey visits
range from yearly to once every several years, depend ing
on the water source, treatment process, and resources
available to the state.
A sanitary survey usually involves a review of operating
methods and records and a physical inspection of facilities
and equipment. The survey is designed to note problems
or deficiencies that could cause contamination of the
water supply or interrupt continuity of service. Surveys
also produce recommendations on needed programs and
changes to improve water quantity, quality, and reliability.
The observations and directives made during the survey
are usually furnished in writing to the water system
owner or operator.
Plan Review. The SDWA requires states to review plans
for water system construction and improvement. Plans
and specifications prepared by a professional engineer
must be submitted for approvalbefore work begins on the
installation or replacement of pumping, treatment, and
distribution system equipment.
Technical Assistance. One of the staff functions of the
state drinking water program is to provide system owners
and operators with technical assistance. Field staff with
training and experience in water system operations and
problem solving are usually available to provide advice
and assistance, or recommend other sources of assistance.
Laboratory Services. Chemical and microbiological testing
of water must be performed by a state- or EPA-certified
laboratory. Some laboratories are certified to perform a
wide variety of tests while others specialize only in certain
analyses.
Most states have state-operated laboratories available to
perform drinking water tests. Some states limit the number
of samples that will be processed for a water system in the
state laboratory, so additional required samples must be
analyzed at a commercial laboratory. Some states charge
for laboratory services by the sample, or as a yearly fee.
Enforcement. Because of the direct relationship between
drinking water and public health, public water system
operators generally do not willingly disregard state and
federal requirements. Most violations of federal
requirements are due to failure by the system operator to
properly monitor water quality. The SDWA requires
states to use enforcement actions when federal
requirements are violated. The Act further directs EPA to
take action against systems when a state does not properly
enforce the law. Enforcement may result in substantial
fines against a water system owner or operator where
violations are not promptly corrected.
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Chapter 2
Ground-Water Sources and Treatment
Sources Of Ground Water
In most of the United States, water can be obtained by
digging or drilling into the ground. Shallow holes will
produce water'in some places, while in others it may be
necessary to drill hundreds of feet through earth and rock
to reach water. However, the quality of water obtained
from a well may not be desirable or even usable for
drinldngwaterwithouttreatment. Itis technically possible
to treat just about any water to acceptable quality, but it
may not be affordable.
Although ground water can be found in most areas, the
quantity is not always enough to meet all water supply
needs. While the water available at some locations can
supply individual home wells, it may not be enough to
furnish the requirements of a public water system.
Aquifers
A portion of the water that falls on the earth as rain or
snow seeps into the soil and flows downward by gravity
until it contacts a layer of rock or other impenetrable
material. It then moves in a general downhill direction,
taking the path of least resistance. The layer of soil, sand,
gravel, or rock through which the water moves is called
the "aquifer," and the level of the water surface in the
aquifer is called the "water table." In general, the level of
the water table follows the surface of the ground above,
although some conditions cause exceptions.
The movement of water through an aquifer is generally
quite slow. Water may travel 20 feet or more a day in
coarse sand. In fine sandstone it may move only a few feet
in a year. In some areas only a single aquifer exists.
Ground Water Aquifers
Water Table Well
Piezometric Level
Artesian Well
Recharge Area For
Artesian Aquifer
Flowing Artesia
Well
Stream A-^ii
•*w«*V .*?•*• •V»^wwa._.*. «^ •«-•*• «A. **,.*. ^. 3w ^w ^X ^1 «w~. ^O^* ,, ^s. "
Consolidated .RocK-
' i' gll i i i i i i i' i' i' i' i \\
i • i r • i; i' i i i i i i i i i i i i i i •r^T'r^jj^T^^T^T^
10
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Where there are several aquifers, each separated by a
layer of material such as day, the quantity and /or quality
of water may vary greatly, so wells may be constructed to
select those most suitable for public water supply use.
Sand and gravel aquifers are usually the most suitable for
public water system use because of their relatively high
productivity. Often the aquifer is a buried river valley or
the bed of an ancient lake.
Sandstone is porous and often yields water of good
quality in sufficient quantity to supply public water
systems. Limestone is not very porous, but often has
cracks and cavities that can provide good quantities of
water. Sometimes ground water dissolves minerals in the
limestone to form underground rivers or caverns that can
be tapped as a public water supply source.
A spring forms when ground water flows naturally from
rock or soil onto the land surface. Water flowing from a
spring may travel hundreds of miles from where it seeped
into the ground, or could be from a source only a few
yards away. Springs should be assumed to be carrying
surface water contamination unless it is proven that the
water is consistently safe.
Gravity And Artesian Wells
A gravity well is a hole or shaft sunk from the ground
surface to an aquifer that is not under pressure. Water
must then be pumped from the aquifer level to the surface
for use.
Anartesian well has been constructed to tap an aquifer that
is located under a confining layer, and the water is under
some pressure. In some cases, the pressure is sufficient
for the water to flow to the ground surface without
pumping. Often, though, after an artesian well has been
used for a period of time, the pressure reduces until the
water no longer flows to the surface.
A well is still called artesian if the water level rises in the
column above the top of the aquifer. For instance, a well
1500 feet deep may tap an aquifer having sufficient artesian
pressure for the water to rise to within 500 feet of the
surface. In this case, the water would only be pumped 500
feet to the surface for use.
Ground Water Protection
Environmental protection has only recently been directed
to the problem of ground water contamination. New
chemical tests and more complete sampling of well water
has revealed a large number of public water supply wells
contaminated by careless use and disposal of man-made
chemicals.
Eachstateisnowimplementingstrict regulations to protect
underground sources of water. Some actions being taken
are:.
• New requirements for installation and testing of
underground storage tanks.
• Increased regulation for handling, use, and
transportation of toxic chemicals to reduce the
possibility of spills.
• Greatly increased regulation of landfills and other
waste disposal locations.
• Closer control of the use of pesticides and agricultural
chemicals.
• Sampling and monitoring of identified ground water
contamination locations, and in some cases, action to
remove the contamination.
Ground Water That May Be Directly Affected By
Surface Water
Under new federal requirements, each state must review
Ithe depth and type of construction of all ground water
systems and determine if they should be considered
"ground water under the direct influence of surf ace water."
If a state determines that a well is vulnerable to
contamination by surface water disease organisms, the
well water must be treated under the same requirements
as a surface water system. The requirements include
mandatory disinfection and filtration in some cases.
Well Drawdown
The operation of gravity wells tends to create a cone-
shaped depression in the ground -water table surrounding
Ithe well. This is called the "cone of depression," and the
distance that the water level is lowered in the well after a
period of operation is called the "drawdown."
The diameter of the cone of depression and the draw-
down varies with the size of the well and the water flow
irate through the aquifer. In porous sand and gravel the
depression may be small. In denser soils it will be very
significant. Wells are normally placed far enough apart so
that their zones of depression do not overlap. It is also
common practice to pump wells that have a significant
draw down for only a few hours each day to allow the
aquifer to recover.
11
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The long-term capacity of ah aquifer can be determined
by tests and study of the geology of the area. Water
systems managers who are unsure of the amount of water
available may consult state geological experts or
professional firms.
Well Construction And Operation
Siting Considerations
Wellhead Protection. In thepast, the prime considerations
in selecting sites for public water supply wells were the
availability of water and cost of the land. As a result, it is
not unusual to find old water system wells next to the
village hall or fire station.
New chemical tests have shown that many wells have
been contaminated by industrial and agricultural
chemicals. As a result, Congress has required states to
develop Wellhead Protection Programs. Wells must now be
located where they will not be contaminated by activities
in the well recharge area. The requirements vary with
statepolicies,buttheprimeconsiderationsarewelldepth,
geology of the area, and the types of chemicals that might
be applied, spilled, of dumped on the surface over the
well. State wellhead protection policies will have a very
significant bearing on the allowable locations for siting
new wells.
Widely Spaced Wells. If water of good quality is generally
available at any point under a community and special
treatment is not necessary, public water systems often
spread wells out around the distribution system. This
has the advantage of keeping the zone of influence of the
wells separated and reducing the need for large -diameter
transmission water mains. The disadvantage is that if it
is ever necessary to provide special treatment of the
water, a separate treatment system must be installed at
each well.
Well Fields. When an aquifer is very productive and
wells have a small zone of influence, wells may be located
close together in a well field. Having the wells in a group
has the advantage of simplified monitoring and
Water Well Terms
Motor
Pumping Level
12
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maintenance, and allows water from all of them to be
treated at a single plant before it is pumped to the
distribution system.
Flood Protection. The potential of flooding is a prime
consideration in selecting a welllocation. This is to prevent
possible contamination by surface water during a flood
and to guard against water damage to the mechanical and
electrical equipment. State laws generally prohibit
construction of wells in a flood zone.
Finding Productive Aquifers. The best way to determine
locations for establishing productive wells is from
knowledge of the geology of the region and the experience
of existing wells. Most states have an agency that keeps
geological records and can furnish information on likely
aquifers. Good information on the experience with wells
in an area is usually available from local well-drilling
firms.
Locating aquifers that will supply deep, high-capacity
wells can sometimes be assisted by geophysical prospecting.
Firms specializing in this type of work use scientific
instruments to determine potential water-bearing strata.
If the quality or quantity of water available in a deep
strata is not known, it is usually advisable not to drill a
full-size well until more information is obtained. Small-
diameter test holes may be drilled first and tested over a
period of time. Several test wells may be used to determine
the direction of ground water flow and extent of the field
of underground water.
Water Rights. Water rights laws vary from state to state
and may restrict the amount or locations where a public
water system can withdraw water. These policies may
have considerable bearing on the siting of new wells and
should be carefully reviewed before contracting for new
well construction.
Well Construction
Principal well construction methods include dug, jetted,
bored, driven, and drilled. Most wells serving community
public water supplies are either bored or drilled.
Dug wells are excavated by hand or machines, and the
walls lined with rocks, bricks, wood, or concrete to prevent
caving and entry of surface water. Dug wells are usually
shallow, and because of the type of construction, may be
subject to surface contamination.
Jetted wells are constructed using a drill bit and drill rod
that are hollow so that water can be forced down to wash
the cuttings to the surface as the drill progresses. This
method can only be used in soft, unconsolidated soil.
When soil conditions are suitable, it is the fastest method
of sinking a well and can be used for wells up to 400 to 500
feet deep.
Driven wells consist of a pipe fitted with a "well point"
having a screen-covered body for drawing in the water. In
porous soil with no rocks, a two- or three-inch diameter
pipe can be pounded into the aquifer as far as 50 or 60 feet.
Bored wells are constructed where the earth is soft and
theaquiferis not over about 40 feetdeep. Thehole is bored
by hand or with power-driven auger bits and then lined
with brick, concrete, metal, tile, plastic, or concrete pipe.
Drilled wells are used where a larger diameter pipe is
needed, where hard ground or rock may be encountered,
or where the well must be deep. Drilling requires the use
of a derrick or crane to hold the drilling tools. The drilling
bitis forced through the earth and rock by beingrepeatedly
lifted and dropped on the end of a cable or by being
rotated on the end of a shaft.
Drilled wells are most commonly installed for public
water systems because it is often necessary to tap deeper
aquifers to obtain adequate quantity or obtain the best
water quality. Drilled wells can also be constructed with
a large diameter for installation of large capacity pumps.
Casing And Screens
If a well is to withdraw water from sand or gravel aquifers,
it must be constructed with a casing down to the desired
area of withdrawal, and fitted with a screen at or near the
bottom. The openings in the well screen must be carefully
sized to allow water to enter freely, but prevent sand from
entering.
A well developed to use water from a sandstone or
limestone aquifer is usually cased down to the top of the
aquifer, and the intake portion of the well is an open hole
drilled into the rock.
When there are several waterbearing aquifers, some
usually have better water quality than others. In this case,
(he well casing is carried through the poor quality aquifers,
and open or screened only to those with the best quality.
In construction, it is important to seal around the casing
pipe to prevent contamination of the well by chemicals
«ind organisms near the well at the ground surface^jGrput
is usually forced into the earth around the casing to form
the seal.
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Well Pumps
Several different types of pumping equipment are
availableforliftingwateroutof wells. The selection of the
method and equipment is primarily dictated by the water
depth and the quantity of water to be pumped.
Piston pumps are used for hand-pumped wells. In general,
piston pumps do not have adequate capacity or efficiency
to meet the needs of public water systems.
Suction pumps workon the principle of creatinga vacuum
and allowing atmospheric pressure to push the water up
to the pump level. This type of pump can only be used
with relatively shallow wells.
Ejector pumps are operated by a centrifugal pump at the
ground surface that forces water at high pressure down a
drop pipe into the well. At a point below water level, the
water is directed through a venturi tube, and into a riser
pipe back to the surface. The jet action of the venturi
carries additional water with it to the surface. A portion
of the water is drawn off for use, and the remainder is
pumped back down the drop pipe. Although jet pumps
are widely used for private home wells, they do not have
sufficient capacity to meet the needs of most public water
systems.
Turbine well pumps have a vertical shaft motor located
at the ground surface, and use a long drive shaft extending
down the well to operate the pump suspended below the
water level. The pump unit must be relatively small in
diameter to fit down the well casing, and usually has
several pump "stages" in order to develop adequate
pressure to lift the water to the surface.
Turbine pumps are widely used by public water systems
because they are available in a wide variety of capacities
and can be designed to produce almost any desired
pressure. The motor is easily accessible at the surface for
maintenance and repair as well. Turbine pumps though,
are expensive to install and maintain at greater depths.
The deeper a pump must be placed, the larger it must be
to pump water to the surface, and the heavier the drop
pipe and drive shaft connection to it must be.
Submersible pumps combine a turbine pump with a
waterproof motor that can be dropped into a well as a
single unit. The unit only needs to be connected to the
surface by the discharge pipe, power wires, and a lifting
cable. Submersible pumps are made in sizes ranging from
small pumps used for private home wells to very large
units that pump hundreds of gallons per minute for
public water systems.
Well System Operation
Monitoring
Water Level And Pumping Rate. Good operating practice
requires that well water levels be measured periodically,
both while the pump is idle (static level), and while the
pump is operating (drawdown level). Changes in static
and drawdown levels should be periodically reviewed for
trends. If the capacity of the aquifer is exceeded with a
sand or gravel well, the water system will probably soon
be out of water. If the water table is dropping in a bedrock
well, the pump will eventually have to be lowered in the
well or may have to be replaced.
Monitoring of well levels and pump discharge can also
provide information about problems within the well.
Decreased productivity of a well may be due to a plugged
screen or aquifer, or worn pump parts. Repairs to correct
these problems should be scheduled before they become
serious.
Water Quality. State regulations require periodic
monitoring of microbiological and chemical quality. If
laboratory analyses identify contamination in a well, the
water system operator will be notified to take additional
samples to confirm the initial results. If microbiologicc'
contamination is confirmed, state staff will advise on steps
that must be immediately taken to identify the source of
contamination, disinfect the well, and provide required
public notification.
If chemical contamination is found to be present, but it does
not exceed the maximum contaminant level (MCL), the
state will usually require increased monitoring to
determine whether the concentration is increasing. If
further testing confirms chemical contamination at levels
exceeding the MCL, use of the well must be discontinued
or treatment installed to reduce the level of contamination.
Owners and operators of wells which have been identified
as having increasing levels of contamination should
immediately begin assessing their alternatives for
correcting the problem. The major choices that may be
considered are to:
• Attempt to locate the source of contamination and
see if stopping it will allow the aquifer to return to
normal.
• Determine if the plume of contamination flowing
toward the well can be blocked or intercepted.
• Determine if it is economically feasible to treat the
water to remove the contamination.
14
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• Investigate whether altering the well to draw water
from a different aquifer is feasible.
• Investigate the feasibility of drilling a replacement
well at another location where there is no
contamination.
• Investigate whether water from the contaminated
well can be blended with water from an
uncontaminated source to maintain the finished water
level below the MCL.
• Investigate changing to a surface water source.
• Investigate purchasing water from another water
system.
Although ground water quality is normally constant, it is
possible for certain quality features to gradually change.
It is therefore advisable to periodically review all analysis
records for changes. Variations in parameters such as
hardness, pH, salinity and nitrate or other chemical
concentrations may indicate quality changes that will
eventually require treatment or abandonment of the well.
Maintenance
Most wells require periodic maintenance. One of the most
common well problems is incrustation of the well screen
or of the gravel pack around the screen. This may be due
to release of dissolved minerals from solution, chemical
reactions, or biological activity. The principal problem
material is calcium carbonate which forms a scale on the
screen and cements together particles of sand and gravel.
This can usually be removed by a chemical process. In
some cases, maintenance of a well must be done as often
as yearly.
Clogging of the screen may also result from sand lodging
in the openings. Cleaning must be done by a special
process, so as not to damage the screen.
Water samples from wells developed in sand aquifers
should also be periodically inspected for the presence of
sand. Sand is harmful in the distribution system and will
also quickly wear pump parts. The sand removed from
around the screen could also eventually cause collapse of
the well or surface structures. A broken well screen
usually causes the pumping of sand and may be repairable,
but more likely, the well will have to be replaced.
Ground Water Treatment
It is becoming increasingly common for public water
systems using ground water to perform one or more types
of treatment before the water is furnished to the public.
Often the treatment is required by federal or state
regulations for public health reasons, but many water
systems also install special treatment to meet public
demand for better water quality.
Common Problems
Hardness is the most common well-water problem. The
hardness of water is expressed in parts per million (ppm)
or grains per gallon (gr/gal). Hardness in the range of 75
to 150 ppm is considered moderately hard. It is not
unusual for the hardness of some well water to be 300 to
400 ppm, or even higher.
Hardness in ground water is caused by carbonates and
sulfates of calcium and magnesium which are dissolved
as the water flows through the ground. Very hard water
inhibits lathering by soap and causes a soap "curd" that
precipitates in clothes and on plumbing fixtures. Hard
water can also form a buildup of scale in hot water piping
and boilers, which must be removed to avoid plugging.
Where water is naturally very hard and softening is not
provided by the water system, customers often install
softening units on theirwater service. Some water systems
estimate that 75% or more of their customers have softeners
installed.
Iron and manganese in high concentrations are
objectionable in a public water supply because they cause
stains in plumbing fixtures and laundry. They may also
cause objectionable taste and odor and cause difficulties
in some manufacturing processes.
The presence of iron is common in ground water due to
the wide distribution of iron minerals in nature. The iron
is dissolved by slightly acidic ground water, and when
pumped from a well, is still in the dissolved state. When
exposed to oxygen, the iron is quickly converted to the
oxidized form, similar to iron rust. Oxidized iron in
water has a yellow-brown color. Manganese causes a
similarbrown color when oxidized unless sulfur ispresent,
in which case it will be black.
The presence of iron and manganese in water also makes
a water system vulnerable to growth of iron bacteria.
Various types of bacteria can infest a distribution system
and feed on the iron and manganese. Although these
bacteria are not a health danger, they can cause taste and
odor problems and result in red or black water. An
ilnfested system can be rid of iron bacteria, or the infestation
controlled, with relatively high doses of disinfectant and
a good flushing program.
Fluoride is present to some extent in most ground water.
15
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Although a low level of fluoride is considered beneficial
to pro tect teeth from cavities, levels in excess of two parts
per million (ppm) may cause discoloring or deformities
in teeth. Water systems with over two ppm in finished
water must periodically notify the public of the potential
problems.
Fluoride concentrations in excess of four ppm are
considered dangerous to public health. This limit must
not be exceeded. Public water systems having excessive
fluoride levels may reduce the concentration to an
acceptable level by blending water from high and low
fluoride sources, by removal treatment, or by changing to
another low-fluoride water source.
Radioactivity in the form of radium and uranium is
naturally occurring in ground water in some parts of the
United States. Federal MCLs have been established on
the allowable concentration in drinking water for
protection of public health.
A water system having wells with excessive levels of
radium or uranium should investigate changing water
sources or blending water with high and low radioactivity
to maintain the level in water served to the public below
the MCL. If no other source is available, radium and
uranium removal treatment methods are available.
The radioactive gas radon is present in water from many
wells. Ingestion of the gas at low concentrations is not
considered harmful to health. But the gas can be liberated
by the spray action of showers and other appliances. This
gascanbuildupindosedbuildingsandcreateapotentially
serious health danger if inhaled. Radon can be easily
removed by passing water through an air stripping tower
or through a bed of granular activated carbon.
Nitrates are occasionally present at excessive levels in
shallow wells. The prime adverse health effect of high
levels of nitrate is that it can cause methemoglobinemia,
or "blue baby" syndrome if fed to young babies. High
nitrate levels usually come from sewage or fertilizers that
have contaminated the ground water. If a well is found
to have a high level of nitrate, removal is possible, but it
is usually best to seek another water source.
Sulfur (as sulfides) is also present in ground water in
some areas. The sulfides give the water a "rotten egg"
odor that is distasteful to most people. If another water
source cannot be found, the sulfur can be removed by
aeration or treatment with an oxidizing agent.
Methane can occur in ground water and is dangerous
because an accumulation of the gas can, under some
conditions, cause an explosion. Water with methane in it
can be used by a public water system as long as the gas is
carefully vented and adequate precautions are taken to
prevent explosions.
Salinity (saltiness), of various degrees, is a common
ground water problem in some parts of the country. ^
over-pumped fresh water aquifer can gradually ti»||
saline due to intrusion of water from the ocean or Ha
adjacent saline aquifer. Saline or brackish water can be
converted to fresh water by using distillation or reverse
osmosis. Both systems are relatively expensive to install
and operate, but are commonly used where no source of
fresh water is available.
Trihalomethanes are a group of chemicals that are formed
in the water treatment process by the reaction of chlorine
with certain precursors in the water. Trihalomethanes
are considered cancer-causing chemicals, so the allowable
concentration in drinking water is limited. The formation
of trihalomethanes in ground water in excess of the limit
is relatively rare, but most systems are required to
periodically have samples analyzed for the total
trihaiomehthane concentration.
The health effects of other disinfected by-products (DBF)
are currently under investigation by EPA. If the limit of
a DBP is exceeded, the level can be reduced by special
treatment or by changing the disinfection process.
Corrosion control treatment must occasionally be
provided for ground water. Federal regulations enacted
in 1991 require special monitoring for lead and. copper in
customers' drinking water. Where excessive levels are
found, special corrosion control treatment must be
provided.
Disinfection
Although properly constructed wells are generally safe
from contamination by waterborne disease organisms, a
system may still become contaminated. Surface
contamination can get into a well through rock fissures,
unnoticed defects in the well seal or pump installation,
rusting out of the well casing, and from contamination
during well maintenance or repair. There are also ways
in which water may become contaminated while in the
distribution system.
There is growing support from FJ*A for all ground-water
systems to use disinfection. It has been found to be a
relatively inexpensive way of ensuring that a system
regularly meets the microbiological monitoring
requirements and of reducing the possibility of a
waterborne disease outbreak.
A number of disinfectants can be used by a public water
system. The advantages and disadvantages of each are
16
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discussed in Chapter 3! Of all the available disinfectants,
though, chlorine is the only one that provides a substantial
residual that continues to be active all the way to the
customer's tap. For this reason, chlorine is used as a
disinfectant by most ground water systems in the United
States.
Small systems sometimes feed chlorine as a solution
similar to household bleach. Larger systems obtain the
chlorine as a gas in cylinders and feed it into the water
through a special device known as a chlorinator.
Chlorination equipment can be automated to work
unattended with proper safeguards to prevent freezing
and vandalism.
Fluoridation
Studies over the years have shown that fluoride
strengthens children's teeth and reduces tooth decay.
Various methods of providing a continuing dose to
children have been tried, but the only generally successful
method found is to add fluoride to drinking water in the
range of 0.9 to 1.2 parts per million. For this reason, most
states now have requirements for public water systems to
maintain the optimum level of fluoride in water furnished
to the public. Many ground water sources contain some
naturally occurring fluoride, so these systems only need
to add the amount necessary to bring the fluoride
concentration up to the state mandated level.
Federal Law does not require fluoridation but regulates
naturally occrurring fluoride in source water.
Water systems may apply fluoride to the water by using
a concentrated acid or by dissolving one of several types
of fluoride chemicals that are available. The costs of
fluoridation feed equipment and chemicals are relatively
small compared to overall system operating costs.
State health department dental programs generally
promote fluoridation programs in each state, and have
information and technical assistance available upon
request.
Softening
Public water systems occasionally provide central
treatment to soften water furnished to the public. The
lime-soda ash process is very efficient but must usually be
operated as a single plant for the entire water system. This
process is generally not practical where wells are widely
spread. The process uses lime to remove the calcium and
magnesium that cause hardness. One of the problems
with the process that must be considered is how to dispose
of the lime sludge that is left after treatment.
The ion-exchange process is also used for softening. In this
process, water is passed through large tanks containing
ion exchange media, about the same as home water
softeners. The discharge from the softeners is blended
with a percentage of hard water to produce finished
water of medium hardness. Salt is used to regenerate the
exchangemediaduringabackwashcycle. One ad vantage
of ion exchange softeners is that they can be installed at
individual well locations.
Iron And Manganese Control
If iron and/or manganese levels in ground water are not
too high, it is often possible to control discoloration by
adding a sequestering chemical to the water before the
disinfectant is added or the water is exposed to air. The
chemical prevents the iron and manganese from oxidizing
and causes them to remain in solution for a period of time.
Water systems have varying degrees of success with
sequestering agents. If a product is found that works,
there is very little investment required for equipment,
and relatively low cost for chemicals.
When sequestering chemicals will not work properly, the
only other choice is to install equipment for iron and
manganese removal. In this process, the iron and
manganese are forced to oxidize by running the water
through an aeration process, or by adding an oxidizing
chemical such as chlorine or potassium permanganate to
the water. The iron and manganese precipitate that is
formed can then be removed by settling and passing the
water through a filter.
Air Stripping
Many of the industrial chemicals found as contaminants
in ground water are "volatile" chemicals. They readily
escape from the water if itis aerated. Some of the taste and
odor causing contaminants in water, as well as the
radioactive gas radon, can also be removed from water by
aeration.
The older methods of aeration included cascading the
water down trays of coke and spraying the water into the
air over large tanks. These methods do not generally
provide sufficient aeration to remove less-volatile
chemicals and do not work well in freezing weather.
More complete air stripping is now provided by aeration
towers. The towers are tall tanks with the water to be
treated flowing in at the top, and a large volume of air
blown in at the bottom. The tanks are filled with plastic
balls or other shapes which continually redirect the water
as it flows downward through the tank. By adjusting the
17
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air-to-water ratio, very high aeration efficiency can be
obtained.
An aeration tower does not take very much space, does
not need tobe enclosed, and has a relatively low operating
cost. The prime problem in locating a tower adjacent to
a well is that it may not be visually acceptable to nearby
residents.
Carbon Adsorption
It has been known since ancient times that passing water
through a bed of charcoal will remove tastes and odors.
Granular activated carbon (GAC) is similar to charcoal in
that it is a source of carbon that has been prepared to
make the surface of the particles very porous. The
extremely small pores have the ability to trap many
harmful industrial chemicals as well as pesticides and
herbicides as the water passes through a bed of GAC.
GAC treatmentof ground water has been used insituations
where a well has chemical contamination,and no alternate
source of water is available. Large tanks containing GAC
can be quickly brought in and connected to a well supply
to remove the contamination while further testing is done
and a permanent solution to the problem is developed.
In general, long-term use of GACforcontaminantremoval
is expensive. If a contaminant can be removed by aeration,
the operating cost is much lower. If a contaminant can
only be removed by GAC and there is no other source of
water available, the process may have to be used
continuously.
18
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Chapter 3
Surface Water Sources and Treatment
Water Sources
It is relatively rare to have sufficient ground water
available to serve a large community from wells. As a
result, most large cities have developed at locations where
fresh surface water is available from lakes or rivers. In the
instances where cities grow despite not having adequate
ground or surface water available, it usually becomes
necessary to pipe in water from a distant lake or river.
Rivers And Lakes
Rivers provide water of widely varying quality and
quantity. Some rivers are quite clean, but most that are
used as a public water supply source are relatively
polluted, y
As a rule, rivers used as a water source have passed
through forests, cultivated fields, animal grazing areas,
industrial sites, and cities. All of the exposures to water
runoff from the land and sewer discharges add
contaminants that can cause undesirable taste, odor, and
color to the water, as well as harmful contaminants.
River water quality and quantity usually varies from day
to day and with the season of the year. Water quality in
some rivers is much different in spring when snow melt
and rains carry silt and decaying vegetation off of forests,
fields, and urban areas. Some rivers may be in flood stage
in spring and flow at a very low rate in mid-summer.
The term lake is most often used to indicate a naturally
occurring body of water, whereas an impounding reservoir
is a facility, formed by constructing a dam across a
A Fresh Water Lake
stream, to collect and store water. The terms though, are
often used interchangeably. Reservoirs are usually
constructed ior a combination of flood control, electric
power generation, and to provide an adequate source of
water for public water supply and irrigation use during
periods of low stream flow.
The water from lakes and reservoirs is often of better
quality than water from rivers. A large amount of the
suspended silt usually settles out and many of the
contaminants are reduced by biological action, or their
concentration reduced by dilution before the water is
drawn off for public use.
Conversely, many lakes and reservoirs are subject to
plant and algae growth which may cause taste and odor
in the water. Lakes and reservoirs are usually popular for
recreational use, so care must be taken that pollution
from power boats and other human activities does not
reduce the water quality for drinking water purposes.
Source Considerations
Source Selection. As a rule, public water systems cannot
choose between several surface water sources. Usually
only one is available, and it must be used to the best
advantage. If there is a choice of sources, considerations
have to be made between the water quantity and quality
a vailable, and the cost of obtaining and treating the water
from each source.
Future uses that may degrade water quality or reduce the
quantity available must be considered when selecting a
water source. Examples would be future use by other
public water systems, use for agricultural irrigation,
reduced capacity of a reservoir due to silting, and use
changes in the watershed.
Almost any water can be treated to acceptable drinking
water quality with enough investment in treatment
facilities and operating costs. The cost of treatment must
be balanced against water availability. It may be more
cost effective to pipe water a considerable distance from
a high-quality source than toprovide treatment for apoor
local source.
Surface Water Contaminants. The suspended matter
that causes water to appear cloudy is called turbidity.
Almost all surface water has turbidity present to some
degree. It is usually a combination of sand, silt, small
19
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organisms, and plant matter ranging from minute to
fairly large particles. Some turbidity particles will settle
out quickly. Others are so close to the density of water
that they will stay in suspension almost indefinitely.
Disease-causing microorganisms can be deposited into
surface water by human waste and the wastes of farm and
wild animals. All surface water is therefore considered
potentially contaminated with microorganisms harmful
to human health.
Chemical contamination of surface water is less serious
than it was a few years ago. The requirements of the
federal Clean Water Act have forced industries and waste
treatment systems to eliminate or greatly reduce the
discharge of pollutants. The quality of most previously
polluted surface water sources is now gradually
improving.
Agriculturalactivitiesarestillsignificantsources of surface
water pollution. Runoff following rains often carries
large amounts of animal wastes, fertilizer, and pesticides
from fields to lakes and rivers. This "non-point source" of
pollution, as it is termed, often causes high levels of
nitrate in the water. In addition, the high levelsof nutrients
added to the water usually increase the growth of algae
and nuisance plants in lakes and reservoirs.
Water Rights. State water rights laws vary and may at
times restrict or limit the withdrawal of water by a water
system. These laws must be carefully reviewed as a first
step in selecting a surface water source.
Surface Water Intakes
The intake structure required to withdraw water from a
surface source must be located so that it will collect the
best possible water quality. At the same time it must be
protected from damage by vandalism, ice, boats, and
floods. In some instances, water of acceptable quality can
be drawn from the shore of a lake or river. In general
though, an intake at the surface will draw water of variable
temperature and quality, and may become clogged by
floating debris.
The best quality water can usually be obtained near the
bottom, or at a relatively deep point in a lake or river. The
pipe leading from the intake to the shore is usually trenched
into the bottom to protect it, and the intake structure is
raised to avoid drawing in silt from the bottom.
Intakes on lakes and rivers that fluctuate in depth often
have structures with several valved openings at different
elevations so that the depth at which water is drawn can
be changed.
Under certain conditions, it is possible to use; a buried
intake constructed with perforated pipe buried in the
bottom of the lake or stream. Where it is necessary to draw
water from a particular location or depth in a lake or river
to obtain optimum water quality, the intake may be up to
several miles long.
Ice blocking of intakes can be a problem in colder climates.
The possibility of icing must be considered in selecting the
location and design of an intake structure. Some water
systems have provisions for "pumping treated water or
steam back into an intake to blow off accumulated ice
from the intake.
The water drawn through an intake is usually deposited
by gravity into an intake well located on shore. This
structure helps equalize flow and provides a place for
stones and debris to settle out so they won't damage
pumps and treatment equipment.
Typical Surface Water Intake System
Treatment Plant
Structure
20
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In recent years, Zebra Mussels and other types of fresh
water mollusks have invaded the Great Lakes and other
surface water in the United States. The forecast is that
they could eventuaUybepresentinmost lakes andstreams.
These shellfish attach to underwater structures, including
water intakes and pipe lines, and when the animal dies,
the shell is left attached.
The potential problems to water systems include blocking
of the intake inlet, reduction of intake pipe flow and taste
and odor which accompany die-off of the mollusks. The
design of all new water intakes should include
consideration of methods of controlling the growth of
mollusks in the event that they should eventually invade
the water source.
Need for Treatment
It is necessary for public water systems using surface
water sources to provide treatment of the water for the
following reasons:
• To ensure that the water is safe from disease
contamination.
• To make the water aesthetically acceptable for use.
• To minimize danger to public health from harmful
chemicals.
adequately treated and the system has not become
contaminated.
Unfortunately, there are no simple, inexpensive tests to
detect the presence of specific microorganisms such as
viruses and Giardia cysts. Federal regulations require all
surface water systems to use a treatment technique that
will ensure adequate removal or inactivation of harmful
organisms, without the need for specific testing. Each
surface water system must employ treatment consisting
of disinfection or disinfection plus filtration in a manner
known to safely remove and/or inactivate the most
resistant disease organisms.
Turbidity
Most surface water sources have some turbidity, and
many have very high levels. Most customers would find
visible turbidity in their water unacceptable, even if they
are assured that it is safe to drink
The presence of turbidity in surface water also has public
health significance. Turbidity can interfere with the
disinfection process and canprotectsomemicroorganisms
from the effects of the disinfectant. For this reason, federal
and state regulations require surface water systems to
meet specific limits on effluent turbidity: The allowable
level is less than the amount visible to the naked eye.
Disease Contamination
All surface waters, as well as ground water that is under
the direct influence of surface water, are at risk of
contamination by bacteria and other microorganisms.
Pathogenic organisms is the term generally used to cover
all organisms that may cause human sickness or death.
Although most disease organisms die quickly after being
released to the environment in human or animal waste,
there are some that can remain viable for a considerable
period of time.
Disease agents of particular concern that may be
transmitted in drinking water are viruses, Legtonella,
heterotrophic plate count (HPC) bacteria, Cryptosporidium,
and Giardia lamblia cysts.
Relatively simple, inexpensive tests are available to detect
the presence of coliform bacteria. These organisms
provide an indication of the presence of wastes from
humans and warm-blooded animals. All public water
systems are required to periodically perform coliform
tests to provide assurance that the water has been
Taste And Odor
Relatively common problems with surface water sources
are taste, odor, and occasionally, unacceptable color. These
are usually due to natural causes such as decaying
vegetation or plant and algae growth. The problems are
usually seasonal and short-term, and generally notharmful
to human health. They may be offensive enough to cause
customer complaints if the problem is not corrected.
Taste and odorcanalsobecausedbyindustrialchemicals.
Although industries arenowrequired to limit or eliminate
unwanted discharges to waterways, it is possible to have
contamination of a lake or river from a leak or spill, a
broken pipe line, overturned tank truck, or chemicals
dumped into a sewage system and not removed by
treatment. Some industrial chemicals, such as phenol, are
accentuated by chlorine and are offensive to consumers.
If surface water aesthetic problems occur regularly, it is
best to try and eliminate the problem at the source. For
instance, lakes can usually be treated with chemicals to
inhibit algae growth, and stratification in small reservoirs
can be reduced by mechanical mixing. Systems using
21
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river water often construct enough water storage so that
they can stop drawing raw water for the period when
poor quality water is passing the intake.
Taste, odor, and color can often be reduced by
conventional filtration treatment. If this fails, special
treatment using carbon or other chemicals can usually
make water quality acceptable.
Chemical Contaminants
Chemical contaminants considered harmful to human
health are occasionally present in surface water sources.
One of the most common is nitrate. Nitrate levels
occasionally exceed federal and state standards at times
of the year when there is heavy runoff from agricultural
lands. Chemical leaks and spills can occur in almost any
surface water source. Systems located on a river with a
largenumberof up-stream industries and waste treatment
plants are particularly vulnerable.
Specific tests to detect the presence of all chemicals that
could contaminate a surface water source are not readily
available. States generally direct vulnerable surface water
systems to routinely monitor for certain organic and
inorganic contaminants.
Some chemicals are fully or partially removed by
conventional filtration treatment,butmanyarenot. When
states determine that chemical contamination levels are
dangerous to public health and the water must be used,
they will require special water treatment for contaminant
reduction. Water systems that experience chronic
contaminationoftheirwatersourceby harmful chemicals
may have to install continuous carbon treatment to ensure
removal of contaminants.
Disinfection And Filtration
Surface Water Treatment Regulations
The Surface Water Treatment Rule enacted by EPA in 1989
applies to all public water systems using surface water. It
also applies to all well water supplies that are designated
as "ground water under the direct influence of surface
water."
The two basic requirements of the regulation are:
• All surface water systems must meet standards for
continuous disinfectant treatment.
• Systems that have clean water sources and meet
specific operating requirements may be allowed to
operate without nitration. All other systems must
use filtration treatment.
All systems must operate to meet designated CT values.
CT is the multiplication of the concentration (C) of
disinfectant added to the water and the time (T) that the
disinfectant is in the water before it reaches the first
customer. Asystemmaymeet the required CTby feeding
a low dose of disinfectant and providing a long contact
time, or by applying a heavy dose with a short contact
time. CT tables are available in state and federal reg-
ulations for each type of disinfectant under various
conditions.
The regulation also places maximum limits on the
allowable turbidity level that may be present in water
furnished to customers, specifies minimum levels of
chlorine residual in finished water, requires specific
monitoring and reporting, and places many other
operating requirements on surface water systems.
Disinfection Treatment
The disinfectants most commonly used for drinking water
(reatinentaiefreechlorine,chloramine,chlorinedioxide, ozone,
ultraviolet light, and potassium permanganate.
Each has advantages and disadvantages such as the cost
of feed equipment, operating costs, ease of use, disinfection
potency, effects on taste or odor in water, and tendency to
create disinfection by-product chemicals in the finished
water.
Free chlorine is the most widely used drinking water
disinfectantin the United States. Theprincipaladvantages
of chlorine are that it is a very strong disinfectant and a
persisting residual of chlorine continues disinfecting as
the water passes into the distribution system. Chlorine is
also moderately priced and relatively easy to use.
Chloramine is a somewhat different form of chlorine that
is formed when chlorine added to water reacts with
ammonia. In some cases ammonia is present in the raw
water, so some or all of the applied chlorine is converted
to chloramine. Some water systems purposely form
chloramine by adding ammonia to the water before or
after the chlorine feed.
Chloramine has a long-lasting residual like free chlorine
and is most often used where it has been found to work
better than free chlorine in controlling tastes and odors.
Care must be taken in using chloramine though, because
it is a much weaker disinfectant than chlorine and is
considered particularly weak in inactivating certain
viruses.
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Chlorine dioxide may'be manufactured as needed in the
treatment plant by reacting chlorine with other chemicals.
It is a strong disinfectant and is used by some water
systems because it is less likely to accentuate tastes and
odors than free chlorine and reduces the formation of
trihalomethanes.
Ozone is extremely reactive and can effectively eliminate
tastes and odors in water when used as an initial
disinfectant. It quickly dissipates though, so there is no
disinfectantresidual. Ozone must be generated as needed,
and the cost of equipment and operation is considerably
higher than for chlorine.
While widely used in some foreign countries for many
years, ozone has not been used by many water systems in
the United States. Use may increase in the future if it is
found to present advantages in meeting new water quality
standards.
Ultraviolet light (UV) is occasionally used for disinfecting
drinking water for very small applications. UV can be used
for inactivation of bacteria and viruses but is not considered
effective for inactivation of Giardia cysts.
Potassium permanganate is used as an oxidant by many
surface water systems. It has the advantages of being easy
to feed and handle, reducing the formation of
trihalomethanes, and acting to oxidize tastes and odors in
the source water. It does not form usable residual, so
systems using permanganate must also feed chlorine to
provide the required disinfectant residual in the
distribution system.
Disinfectant Application
Initial application of a disinfectant to surface water is
usually made at or near the intake well in order to give the
disinfectant as much contact time with the water as possible.
The initial dose must be quite large if there is high turbidity
because the suspended matter creates a disinfectant
"demand." The initial application of chlorine is usually
called pre-chlorine.
Some water systems also feed disinfectants at other points
in the treatment process. A final dose of chlorine (post-
chlorine) is then usually applied at the end of treatment to
provide the desired chlorine residual in the distribution
system.
Filtration Treatment
Slow sand filters were the first type of filter used by public
water systems for treating water. The raw water is directed
to large beds of sand where most of the suspended matter
is removed as the water seeps through to perforated
piping below. When the bed becomes dogged, the top
inch ortwoof sand is removed by hand or with mechanical
equipment and disposed of. Afteraportion of the original
bed has been removed, the sand is replaced.
Slow sand niters are still used by many water systems.
Two of the prime restrictions on their use are that the raw
water quality must be relatively good, and a large amount
ofspacemustbeavailableforthetreatmentsystembecause
of the large size of the filters.
Rapid sand filters are constructed using sand of special
grading and grain size so that the water will pass through
rapidly. The sand is supported on layers of stone or
porous plates in a steel tank or concrete box, and the
filtered wateriscollectedbyapipingsystemat the bottom.
When a rapid sand filter becomes plugged, the sand is
cleaned by backwashing. In this process, dean water is
passed up from the bottom of the filter to wash the
sediment to collection troughs at the top.
Some newer designs of rapid sand filters use two or more
layers of sand and other media of varying specific gravity
to form filters that can be operated at higher flow rates,
and have increased capadty to hold dirt before plugging.
Treatment plants are usually furnished with two or more
filters so that water continues to be processed through the
plant while a filter is backwashed.
The quantity of silt and turbidity in most surface water
sources is so great that it would plug a rapid sand filter in
a very short time. A sedimentation process is therefore
usually used to settle out as much of the suspended
matter as possible before the water is filtered.
Typical Open Box
Rapid Sand Filter
WASH TROUGHS
FILTER SAND
GRADED GRAVEL
UNDER DRAIN
PIPING
23
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Conventional treatment is the term generally used for
the combination of chemical addition, flocculation,
sedimentation, and rapid sand filtration used by the vast
majority of surface water treatment plants in the United
States. In this process, a "coagulant chemical" is mixed
with the water using mechanical mixers to bring the
suspended particles into contact with each other. This
has the effect of forming larger particles of "floe" made up
of fine particles that have adhered to each other. The
water is then directed to large sedimentation basins where
the water is held for a period of time, allowing most of the
suspended matter to fall to the bottom. Water from near
the top of the basin is then directed to the rapid sand
filters. The sludge that has accumulated at the bottom of
the basin must be periodically removed and disposed of.
Direct filtration in its simplest form, consists only of
addition of a coagulant chemical, mixing and passing the
water through rapid sand niters, with no sedimentation
step. In other versions, a flocculation step is used. This
process can only be used where there is relatively little
suspended matter in the source water because all of the
turbidity is trapped by the filters and requires frequent
backw ashing.
Diatomaceous earth (DE) filtration is a technology that
uses a relatively small filter container having a porous
membrane or "septum" through which the water must
pass. Diatomaceous earth, a mined product consisting of
the crushed shells of microscopic sea animals, is first
deposited on the septum and acts as the filter media. It is
Flow Diagram of a Typical "Conventional" Treatment Plant
Sedimentation Basin
Sedimentation
Mum
Lira
SUM*
Pi
•e-Ctllor
v v
Sludge to Sewer or
Dewatered /Disposal
PosI-Cnionne Fluonoe
Posi-Cwonne
r«x
L3
Pump to Distribution
System
VV
Finished Water
to
Distribution System
Holding Tank
(QurWM)
24
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usually necessary to also add a continuous body feed of
diatomite during filtration in order to maintain porosity
of the filter cake and extend the filter run. DE filters are
widely used for swimming pool filtration. For drinking
water treatment, DE filters are considered appropriate
only for direct filtrationofsurface water withlow turbidity
and low bacterial levels.
Other technologies for removing suspended matter from
water are occasionally used under certain circumstances,
and new methods are under development that may find
wide use in the future. States may approve the use of
other methods as long as the water system demonstrates
that the method, combined with disinfection, provides
adequate inactivation, and removal of disease organisms.
Avoiding Filtration
Federal regulations allow some public water systems that
use surface water sources to avoid using filtration
treatment if they have source water that is consistently
very clean. The principal requirements for avoiding
filtration are that:
• The watershed for the watersource must be protected
from contamination caused by human activities.
• The turbidity and bacterial level of the raw water
must be consistently low.
• Disinfection treatment of the water must be
continuously carried out to meet exacting
requirements.
• The water system must meet detailed monitoring
and reporting requirements.
A water system that has been granted permission to
operate without filtration, but later fails any of the
mandatory requirements, may be directed by the state to
install filtration within 18 months. Some states have a
general requirement that all public water systems using
surface water must use filtration.
Other Treatment Of Surface Water
Carbon Treatment
When taste, odor, or color in surface water cannot be
adequately controlled by conventional treatment or by
properselection of disinfectants, waterquality can usually
be improved by using carbon. Harmful industrial and
agricultural chemicals as well as trihalomethanes that can
not be reduced to acceptable levels by other treatment
methods can also usually be removed using carbon
treatment.
Powdered activated carbon (PAC) is available as a very
finepowderthatwiUadsorbmosttaste-and odor-forming
substances in raw water. The carbon is usually fed near
the beginning of the treatment process, and most of it
settles out with the floe in the sedimentation basin.
Surface water systems with continuing taste and odor or
chemical contamination sometimes find it more
advantageous to use granular activated carbon (GAC).
Some systems use it as a coarse media in the filters where
itservesadualfunctionof both filtration and contaminant
removal. Other systems pass the water through complete
conventional treatment, and then direct it through tanks
filled with GAC before the water enters the distribution
system. When GAC has become so plugged that it no
longer functions, it must either be reactivated by a special
heating process, or disposed of and replaced with new
material.
Fluoridation
Most states have requirements that water systems provide
an optimum level of fluoride in water delivered to the
public to reduce tooth decay. Most surface water sources
have little or no naturally occurring fluoride, so it is
necessary to add the desired amount during the treatment
process.
Fluoride may be fed to the water as a concentrated acid, or
by dissolving one of several types of fluoride chemicals.
The cost of chemicals and chemical feed equipment is
relatively small compared to overall system operating
costs and the public health benefits.
Corrosion Control
Another type of treatment that often has to be made when
using a surface water source is reduction of the corrosivity
of the water. Some surface water is relatively acidic and
may cause iron and steel pipe and tanks to disintegrate,and
lead in old plumbing and water service pipes to dissolve.
In most cases, the tendency of the water to cause corrosion
can be corrected by the addition of chemicals to adjust the
p H and alkalinity of the water. Chemicals are also available
that reduce corrosion by forming a protective coating on
distribution system piping.
25
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Chapter 4
Water Plant Operation
Plant Operators
The responsibilities of a water treatment plant operator
can be grouped into the following general categories:
• Check, adjust, and operate equipment such as pumps,
meters, analyzers, and electrical systems.
• Determine chemical dosages and keep chemical feed
equipment charged with chemicals, adjusted, and
operating properly.
• Perform routine maintenance and condition checks
of equipment, and make minor repairs.
• Order and maintain a stock of parts, chemicals, and
supplies.
• Maintain operating records and submit operating
reports to the system owner or responsible person,
and to the state.
• Perform tests and special analyses required for proper
operational control.
• Collect and submit samples required by the state at
the proper time.
• Keep informed of federal and state regulations
affecting the water system.
• Recommend to superiors any major repairs,
replacements or improvements to the plant that
should be made.
The plant operator of a small water system does not
usually spend full time operating the water production
equipment. In addition to performing or directing water
production, operation, and maintenance, the operator
may also direct operation of the water distribution system,
operate the sewage treatment plant and sanitary sewer
system, or work at other municipal functions.
In larger and more complex treatment systems, it is
necessary for the operator to spend more time performing
the duties of operating and maintaining the production
facilities. Surface water treatment plants usually require
closer monitoring and have more operations that must be
performed manually. States generally require that an
operator be on duty while a surface water plant is in
operation unless special monitoring and alarm equipment
is installed.
Plant Maintenance
It is particularly important that water treatment equipment
be properly maintained to minimize failure. A well,
pump, or piece of treatment equipment that fails because
of improper maintenance can be very costly and disruptive
to customers. For this reason, maintenance of important
pieces of equipment should be regularly performed as
recommended by the manufacturer. This should be
accompanied by frequent inspection and testing to
anticipate failure or degenerating performance. As an
example, periodic review of well records can help to
anticipate repairs and schedule maintenance work.
Major maintenance on equipment, whether done by the
water system or by contract, is best done at a time of year
when water use is low. This enables the system to meet
normal operating demands while the equipment under
repair is out of service.
Water Quality Monitoring And Reporting
Bacteriological Sampling
Federal and state regulations require all public water
systems to periodically collect water samples for analysis
for the presence of coliform bacteria. The number of
samples that must be collected varies with the
population served and individual state policies. Most
states require that samples be submitted regularly on
specific days of the week or month.
Bacteriological samples must be collected at locations
selected by the water system operator with the concurrence
of state field staff. Samples must be collected carefully to
avoid contamination and promptly transported orshipped
to the laboratory for analysis. The laboratory used may be
state-operated, a commercial laboratory, or a water system
laboratory that has been certified by the state to perform
the analyses.
The report returned by the laboratory will report the
analysis of each sample as "negative" or "absence" if
coliform bacteria were not found. A report of "positive"
or "presence" indicates that there was some sign of
26
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contamination in the sample. If contamination is indicated
in any of the samples, the operator must collect repeat
samples according to state requirements. State staff may
also require that other steps be taken to determine if
contamination is actually present, or what may have
caused the positive sample.
Organic, Inorganic, And Radiological Sampling
Water samples from community and nontransient-
noncommunity water systems must be periodically col-
lected and analyzed to detect the presence of various
organic and inorganic chemicals, and radionuclides. The
required frequency of sampling may be as often as
monthly, or quarterly if low levels of a chemical have
been detected. If the history of past sampling indicates no
harmful contaminants, the repeat sampling frequency
required may be up to several years apart.
For surface water systems, samples may be required of
both the raw water before treatment and samples typical
of water furnished to customers. Ground-water systems
must periodically furnish water samples from each
individual well, in addition to samples from typical sites
on the distribution system.
Some states may have state field staff collect chemical
samples in conjunction with a sanitary survey or a special
visit to the system. Other states furnish the operator with
sample containers and instructions indicating where and
when samples must be collected and shipped. Still other
states furnish the operator with only instructions on the
samples that must be collected, and a list of certified
laboratories where samples can be sent for analysis.
Instructions must be carefully followed to ensure that
samples are collected at the proper location and time, and
that containers are properly filled and shipped. In cold
weather, precautions must be taken to prevent samples
from freezing.
For most analyses, the laboratory must analyze a sample
within a set number of hours or days following collection.
If a sample arrives at the laboratory past the required
holding time, new samples must be collected. In some
areas of the country, it may be necessary to hand deliver
or ship samples by special parcel service, to ensure that
they arrive safely and on time.
When the laboratory has completed the analyses, they
will send a report to the operator. If the laboratory has not
furnished a copy directly to the state, the operator must
send a copy to the state within a required number of days.
The report will usually provide a comparison between
the analysis results and established MCLs for each
parameter. The system's consultant or state staff can
provide further explanation of laboratory results.
Under state and federal requirements, failure to perform
required monitoring is usually cause for the system to be
directed to perform public notification. This is usually both
costly and embarrassing to the operator and public
officials. To avoid having to perform public notification,
care should be taken to strictly follow state-directed
requirements.
Water systems that provide treatment must also provide
on-site analyses for various parameters, both to satisfy
state requirements, and to provide proper operation and
control of the process. Surface water systems must make
periodic analyses for turbidity level, and all systems that
add disinfectant must analyze disinfectant residual
concentrations as required by the state. Systems that
provide fluoridation must also periodically analyze for
the fluoride level in water supplied to customers.
Many larger water systems operate their own laboratory
to provide some or all of the required analyses. The
system's laboratory must be operated by a qualified
technician and certified by the state for performing each
of the types of analyses.
Reporting To State Agencies
Each state has special report forms to be used by
community public water systems to record operating and
monitoring information. Different forms are available for
various types of systems or treatment. The system operator
is usually required to report operating data on every day
that the system is in operation and submit reports to the
state monthly. A copy of all reports should be kept for the
water system files.
Water Treatment Waste Disposal
Until the 1960s, it was common practice for water systems
to discharge their treatment wastes back into the lake or
river being used as a water source, or any other available
watercourse. Plants employing conventional treatment
almost always discharged their filter backwash water
•and sedimentation basin sludge without treatment.
Although water treatment wastes are generally not toxic,
they cause discoloration of the water, may be detrimental
to wildlife, and might have an effect on biological life in
a lake or river. Under requirements of the Clean Water
Act, water treatment plants and industries are required to
27
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meet effluentstandardsforwaste discharges. It is usually
expensive to treat water plant waste to acceptable effluent
standards for discharge directly into a waterway.
Most filtering systems now direct backwash water from
the rapid sand filters back to the intake and blend it with
incoming water. It has been found that this has little effect
on the treatment process and the suspended matter in the
backwash water is eventually removed by the
sedimentation process.
Sedimentation basin sludge is relatively difficult to de-
water and dry due to the presence of alum. Land
application or burial of the sludge is sometimes used for
disposal where there is no other practical alternative
available. The most practical method of disposal is to
discharge the sludge to the local sanitary sewer system.
When the alum sludge mixes with the other sludge at the
waste treatment plant, it is usually easily handled and
disposed of. Most waste treatment authorities agree to
accept the sludge but may charge a fee to cover their
handling costs. The authorities may also place limitations
on the amount and times of sludge discharged.
Lime sludge created by a softening plant cannot usually
be discharged to a sanitary sewer system. The lime could
be disruptive to the waste treatment process, and there is
concern that the lime will build up and block the sewers.
Lime sludge is usually dried and buried, or spread on
farm land where farmers accept it as an alternative to
agricultural lime to condition their soil.
Ion-exchange softening backwash water is generally
clear, but objectionable because it is salty. Under some
circumstances, states may allow softener backwash to be
discharged to a lake or stream if there is enough dilution.
Backwash water may also be discharged to a sanitary
sewer system if approved by the proper wastewater
disposal authority. It may not be allowable to discharge
the backwash water to a land surface because me salt will
eventually build up to make the soil unusable. Discharge
to a buried seepage bed may also be prohibited because of
the potential contamination of ground water.
The disposal of water treatment plant wastes by almost
any means other than discharge to the saniiary sewer
system will usually require a permit under environmental
protection laws. State authorities should be consulted on
allowable methods of disposal, permits required, and
monitoring requirements before a new disposal method
is used. Environmental laws are strict, and violators may
be subject to heavy fines and possible liability for an
environmental problem that they have created.
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Chapter 5
Water Distribution System Operation And Maintenance
Distribution System Facilities
The water distribution system is the collection of pipes,
valves, fire hydrants, storage tanks, and reservoirs that
carry water from the water source(s) or treatment plant,
and deliver it to customers.
Water Mains
The piping in the distribution system should be large
enough to meet maximum domestic and industrial use by
customers, provide ample flow for fire protection, and
allow for expansion.
Since fire flow is almost always the largest demand, it
usually determines the pipe sizes required in the system.
Occasionally, fire flow capacity cannot be provided for
economic reasons. This exists in some rural areas where
homes are far apart and can only be practically served by
small-diameter pipes that furnish only domestic needs.
The water mains are the large-diameter pipes that are
normally buried in the public street right-of-way. Six-
inch diameter mains installed in most residential areas are
generally considered the minimum size that will provide
adequate fire flow.
The term transmission main usually designates a larger
size pipe line installed to move large quantities of water
from one point to another. For instance, a water system
with a central treatment plant usually requires several
transmission mains to supply principal use areas.
Transmission mains for a small system may be only eight
or ten inches in diameter, while large system pipes can be
two or three feet in diameter. Most water main pipe is
made of cast iron, asbestos-cement, or plastic.
Cast iron (CI) pipe has been used for water mains for
many years. Many systems have cast iron mains that are
over 100 years old and still functioning. Older cast iron
pipe had no lining and under some water conditions,
moderate to severe tuberculation occurs in the pipe. This
is an action where rust builds up in mounds on the pipe
interior.
Tuberculation reduces the capacity of the pipe both because
of constriction of the opening and the added roughness of
the walls. When tuberculation gets to the point of seriously
restricting flow, the main must be mechanically cleaned
or replaced. The interior of most cast iron pipe produced
in recent years has been coated with a thin layer of cement
to protect the pipe interior.
Ductile iron (DE) is the newer version of cast iron that is
now in general use. The material appears about the same
as cast iron, but it has been treated so that the metal is
somewhatflexibleandless subject to breaking orcracking.
Asbestos-cement (A-C) pipe is made of cement mixed
with asbestos fibers for reinforcement. It has been widely
used in many water systems because of its light weight,
ease of handling, competitive price, and relative resistance
to corrosion.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) water main pipe is a relatively
new plastic material that is produced in the same general
sizes as cast iron pipe. PVC pipe is lightweight, easy to
cut , competitively priced, resistant to corrosion, and
somewhat flexible. On the negative side, PVC is more
easDy crushed than metal pipe and is difficult to find if
location records are not kept.
Larger size water mains are also constructed of reinforced
concrete, steel, or fiberglass depending on their intended
use, type of installation, and soil conditions.
The depth at which water mains are buried varies greatly
throughout the United States. Mains can be buried quite
shallow in southern states because the only concern is
physical damage. Mains are buried deeper where there
is moderate ground frost and may be buried up to eight
feet deep in northern states.
Valves and Hydrants
Valves are installed at intervals in water main piping so
that segments of the distribution system can be shut off
for maintenance or repair. Valves should be located close
enough so that only a few homes or businesses will be
without water while a main is being repaired. When
mains are installed in normal grid systems with mains in
all streets in both directions, it is recommended that three
valves be installed at each intersection.
Each valve is installed with a valve box that extends to the
ground surface and has a cap that can be removed so that
a valve key can be used to operate the valve. Valves
should, if possible, be located where the box is easily
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Water Mains and Valves
Installed in a Grid Pattern
located and where damage by snow plows and other
equipment is least likely.
Fire hydrants are of two general types. A wet barrel
hydrant is full of water at all times and can only be used
in parts of the country where there is no danger of freezing.
Dry barrel hydrants have the valve located at the bottom
of the barrel and are operated by a long shaft extending
down from the operating nut on the cap. Dry barrel
hydrants also have a small valve connected to a weep hole
at the bottom that allows water to drain from the barrel
when the hydrant valve is shut off.
Hydrant locations should be selected carefully. They
should be readily visible and located near a paved surface
where they will be accessible to fire-fighting equipment.
They should also be placed where they are protected from
damage by vehicles and are least liable to be covered by
plowed snow.
Public officials should always insist that police enforce
parking restrictions adjacent to fire hydrants so they
won'tbeblocked if needed. Policeshould also be reminded
to watch for vandalism and unauthorized use of hydrants,
and report incidents to the water system manager.
Bright paint protects hydrants from rusting and makes
them easy for the fire department to find. Well-maintained
hydrants also project a positive public image of the water
system.
Water Services
The small-diameter pipe used to carry water from the
water main connection to an individual building is referred
to as a water service. A water service pipe may range from
three-quarters-inch in diameter for a small home to two-
inch for an apartment building. Large buildings and
industries often have services that are even larger.
Each water service usually has a buried valve called a curb
stop inserted in the line at a point in the public street or
alley right-of-way: Water system policies generally
standardize the curb stop locationataset distance between
the curb and sidewalk, or on the lot line. The buried valve
is fitted with an adjustable service box (curb box) that
extends to the surface and has a removable cap so a valve
key may be inserted to operate the valve. The curb stop
is primarily used to shut off the service if the building
being served is vacant or repairs are needed. It is also a
way of discontinuing service for non-payment of the
water bill.
Water system policy varies on responsibility for
maintenance and replacement of water services. Some
systems require that all of the service, beginning at the
main, be maintained by the property owner. Other
systems require property owners to maintain only the
portion beyond the curb stop, lot line, or meter pit.
Waterservice pipes are generallymadeof lead, galvanized
iron, copper, or plastic. Lead was the best material
available for small pipes when the first water systems
were developed, and lead water services are still in use in
many older systems. Lead is relatively flexible and resists
corrosion, but gradually becomes more likely to leak or
break as it gets older.
New federal regulations designed to protect the public
from the danger of lead in drinking water, require systems
Typical Fire Hydrant Installation
30
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Typcial Water Service Installation
Customer's
Basement Water
Meter
4/
Water Main
Curb Stop
to ensure that leaching of lead from water services is
minimized. Systems with "aggressive" water that tends
to dissolve lead may have to install additional chemical
treatment to meet the requirements. Systems that cannot
adequately control the leaching of lead, may be required
to remove existing lead service pipes and replace them
with other material.
Galvanized iron pipe was used for water services for
many years, but corrodes very quickly in some types of
soil.
Copper pipe came into use in the early 1900s and gradually
became the preferred material in many areas of the country.
Copper is flexible, fairly easy to install, resistant to
corrosion, and projected to last almost indefinitely under
most water and soil conditions.
Plastic pipe has been used for water services since shortly
after World War n. It is lightweight and easy to install,
flexible, moderately priced, and resistant to corrosion. In
some areas, plastic pipe has been used almost exclusively
for years. There are many types of plastic, but only certain
types and grades are approved for potable water use.
Plastic pipe must be tested for durability and freedom
from constituents that may cause taste, odor, or release
toxic chemicals. Only pipe that has the seal of an accredited
testing agency printed on the exterior should be used for
water services or other potable water purposes.
Water Storage Facilities
The primary reason for providing storage of treated water
is to have a reserve supply readily available during an
emergency or periods of heavy water use. For instance,
(he stored water can be used to maintain pressure for a
period of time if a well or pressure pump should fail or
lose power. It will also provide added capacity during a
fire and help to temporarily maintain pressure in the
distribution system during a water main break.
Another function of storage is to allow a treatment plant
to operate at a relatively constant rate. When customers
are using water at a low rate, excess water can be stored.
When use is high, stored water is used to meet the demand
without having to alter the operation of the treatment
plant.
The quantity of water storage that should be provided on
a system is usually based on the amount of water required
to meet domestic and fire flow needs. Many systems find
it advisable to furnish more than the minimum storage
capacity. For instance, storage of enough water to last one
or two days may be provided by systems that depend on
a single long transmission main for source water. Systems
that have periodic episodes of temporary poor quality in
their source water also frequently provide enough storage
to allow them to avoid taking water until water quality
improves.
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Water storage facilities fall into the categories of elevated
tanks, standpipes, hydropneumatic systems, and ground
reservoirs. Elevated tanks are the most familiar because
they are visible in prominent locations in most
communities. Elevated tanks are generally constructed of
steel, with the tankportion supported on legsorapedestal.
Tanks are generally located on the highest ground that is
available and acceptable to the residents. The public is not
generally bothered by an existing tank located in a
residential neighborhood, but usually will not want a
new tank erected near their homes.
An elevated tank normally "rides" on the water system,
and the elevation of the water in the tank determines the
water pressure on the system. A signal indicating the
water level in the elevated tank is commonly used to vary
the operation of the pressure pumps supplying the system.
When the water level is near the top of the tank, the supply
of water is reduced or stopped before the tank overflows.
When the water level falls to a predetermined point in the
tank, flow to the system is increased.
Occasionally, a water system must operate at a pressure
that would overflow the elevated tank. In this case, water
is admitted to the tank by an automatic valve that shuts off
flow before the tank overflows.
In water systems, a standpipe generally refers to an above-
ground tank that is the same size from the ground to the
top. Standpipes are primarily used where they can be
located on a high point of land so that all or most of the
stored water will furnish usable pressure to the water
system.
Hydropneumatic systems have been developed primarily
to serve small systems where an elevated tank is not
practical. A large pressure tank is buried or located above
ground and kept partially filled with water and partly
Typical Filling and Emptying Cycles
of a Tank and Reservoir
Tank
Emptying
Tank Filling
MWnIgm
32
6AM
-I—
Noon
6PM
Midnight
with compressed air. The balance of compressed air
against the water maintains the desired pressure in the
system and forces water out of the tank when needed. An
air compressor is required to maintain the proper air-to-
water ratio.
A water reservoir is generally a large tank in which treated
water is stored under no pressure. The water must be
pumped out of the reservoir and into the system when
needed. Reservoirs are constructed of concrete or steel
and may be above ground, partially underground, or
completelyburied. Water is usually admitted toareservoir
by a remotely operated valve during times when excess
water is available, such as in the middle of the night.
Pumps are then operated to add water from the reservoir
to thesystem as needed duringthe day or in an emergency.
Occasionally, a water system has a high point of ground
available where a reservoir can be constructed so that it
will supply adequate pressure to the system without re-
pumping.
The prime advantages of a reservoir are that it can be
constructed to store relatively large quantities of water
and can be completely buried where an above ground
structure would be objectionable to residents. When a
reservoir is completely buried, the land above it is
sometimes used for a park or recreational area. The prime
disadvantage is the cost of power to operate the pumping
equipment.
Water Metering
Types Of Meters
The principal uses of water meters on a water system are
to record the amount of water treated and delivered to the
water system, and to measure water used by customers.
The two general types of meters used are velocity and
displacement meters.
Velocity meters are used where large quantities of water
must be measured. They work on the principle of
converting a measurementof the velocity of waterpassing
the measuring point into quantity of flow. These meters
are commonly used at each well or water intake, at
intermediate points in the treatment system, and at the
points where waterenters the distributionsystem. Velocity
meters are also used to measure the amount of water
admitted to and/or pumped from reservoirs smd may
also be used for customers that use large quantities of
water.
Velocity meters commonly measure water flow by means
of propellers, turbines, pressure measurement, and
electronic sensing. The flow rate is then automatically
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translated into gallons or cubic feet registration by the
meter register.
Displacement type meters measure the number of times a
container of known volume is filled and emptied. This
method is more accurate than a velocity meter, but is only
practical for measuring relatively low flow rates.
The nutating disk meter is a type of displacement meter
commonly used for water services because it is durable,
relatively trouble-free, moderately priced, and quite
accurate over the normal flow range of most water
customers.
Water Production Metering
The rate of water flow from pumps, wells, and treatment
facilities in the U.S. is usually expressed in gallons per
minute (gpm). A well pump, for instance, may be rated to
produce 500 gallons per minute. The total output of a.
water plant or system is usually expressed as million
gallons per day (mgd).
The total quantity of water pumped to the distribution
system should be accurately measured and recorded.
One of the important uses of pumpage records is for
comparison with the amount of water metered to
customers. The long-term difference between the two
A Propeller Meter Mounted Directly
In A Pipeline
Cut-Away of a Nutating Disk Meter
Register
Gear Train
Nutating Disk
records is generally the amount of water not paid for, or
"lost" from the distribution system. Analysis of production
meter records should also be made to check such things as
well productivity, trends in customer use, and the need
for system expansion.
Customer Metering
Some water systems do not install water meters on part or
all of their customer's water services. They instead charge
the customers at a flat rate based on the water service size
or number of plumbing fixtures. Systems that charge on
a flat rate save on the cost of meter installation and
maintenance, meter reading, and simplified billing. It has
been demonstrated, though, that customers generally use
and waste much more water if the water is not metered.
Un-metered customers commonly leave water running,
do not promptly repair leaks, and do excessive watering
of lawns and gardens. There are many water systems that
have avoided having to expand their water production
facilities by instead installing meters on customer services.
Customers with larger-than-normal water bills often
complain that their meter must be running fast.
Investigation often finds that they actually have an un-
noticed water leak. On the other hand, as a meter wears,
it usually begins to under-recoid use, which, of course,
means that revenue is being lost.
AH water systems should have some type of water meter
repair or replacement program. Meters should be
periodically removed for testing and repair in a meter
shop maintained by the water system, or sent to the
factory or an outside firm to be reconditioned. The
economics of disposing of worn meters and replacing
them with new meters should also be considered.
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In warm climates, domestic water meters may be located
in a garage, buried in a shallow pit, or exposed near a
building. In areas where there is danger of freezing, the
meter is most commonly placed in customer basements.
Where there is no basement, some systems will allow the
meter to be installed in a ground floor utility room or
closet. Meters are also frequently installed in pits in the
parkway where there is not a suitable location in the
building. Some municipal systems and most rural water
systems install meters in pits as a means of avoiding
havingtoenter customer buildings,andfadlitatingmeter
reading and repair.
Several different schemes and types of remote meter
reading devices have been developed to speed meter
reading and reduce customer inconvenience by allowing
an inside meter to be read from outside the building.
Some systems mount basement meters next to a glass
block set in the basement wall. Various types of remote
reading devices that are now available have a special
transmitter mounted in the meter that sends a signal
through a wire to a register mounted on the exterior of the
building. Some units have a reproduction of the meter
register on the exterior. Others are designed to allow the
meter reader to plug in a portable unit that electronically
records the meter reading for later interpretation by a
computer.
Meters used for measuring water use by residential,
business, and industrial customers in the U.S. are usually
made to register in either gallons or cubic feet. Whichever
type of registration a water system used when their first
meters were purchased is usually the way it must continue.
Water rates for the system are then expressed in the same
units using either dollars per 1000 gallons or dollars per
100 cubic feet. For conversion, 1 cubic foot equals 7.48
gallons.
Distribution System Operation And Maintenance
Distribution System Records
In smaller water systems, the operator who has been in
his position for a long time often keeps a mental map of
the system and few written records. Public officials
should recognize this problem and arrange for another
employee or a consultant to record the system information
on to permanent maps and records.
Every water system must maintain an up-to-date water
distribution system map. It should include information
such as measurements from each valve to above ground
features such as trees, curbs, and extended lot lines. Fire
hydrants should also be shown on the map with
measurements for both the hydrant and the hydrant
control valve. Water main information should be as
detailed as possible with indications of size, type of
material, depth, periodic location measurements, and
date of installation.
Many water systems maintain the official distribution
system map in a single plat book kept in the water system
or village office. A better way is to have the information
drawn on a tracing so that blueprint copies can be made
for field work, and for use by fire and building departments.
The newest method of system record-keeping is to put
plans and other records on a computer. This method will
be used by increasing numbers of systems as computers
become lessexpensiveand more employees are acquainted
with computer operation. Some water systems have
changed tocomputerrecord-keepingbyhavingall existing
records transferred by a professional firm. The system
staff is then trained to operate and maintain the records in
the future.
Records should also be maintained of distribution system
repairs and the condition of both the interior and exterior
of water mains and valves. Whenever a piece of pipe is
removed, a small piece should be kept and tagged with
the date and location. Also, if a water main pressure tap
is made, the piece of pipe wall that is removed, should be
identified and retained. These samples can be important
in assessing any corrosion or tuberculation taking place
on the system.
Water service information must also be recorded as
installations or repairs are made. A metallic waiter service
pipe with an inadequate location record can usually be
located using an electronic pipe locator, but the process
takes longer than using good record information. A pipe
locator will not generally work on plastic pipe, so finding
a pipe with no record can be difficult and expansive.
Water service information is often maintained on file
cards indexed by street address. Important information
that should be obtained and recorded before the pipe is
covered in the trench are measurements locating the
water main tap, the type and size of pipe, burial depth,
measurements to the curb stop or meter pit, location of the
pipe at various points, and the location where the pipe
enters the building. In some cases this information is
obtained by the building inspectors if it is their duty to
approve the installation of the water service.
When a water service is repaired or replaced, the file
should be updated with details of new material and any
changes in size or location. One of the prime reasons for
maintaining good records of water service locations is to
be able to quickly and accurately locate them so that they
may be avoided during adjacent construction. Excavation
34
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for sewer installation or repair, installation of utility
poles, burial of cables, and gas main work are all likely to
strike a water service if the location is not identified.
Fire hydrants should each be assigned an identifying
number and have an individual record sheet or card.
Basic information that should be obtained at the time of
installation includes the make and model, installation
date, depth and location measurements, as well as the
initial capacity determined by flow tests. Continuing
records should then be kept of all maintenance and repair
performed and the results of subsequent flow tests.
Maintenance Needs
Water distribution system equipment is often neglected,
since most of the valves and other equipment are buried
and seldom used. Some of the problems that are caused
by poor system maintenance include customer complaints
of poor water quality or lack of pressure, difficulties in
repairing water main leaks, and inadequate or unreliable
water availability for fighting fires.
Broken water mains and water services must usually be
shut off and repaired as soon as possible after they are
identified. A serious leak from a broken main can drop
pressure in the whole system, creating a potential for
system contamination.
Although leaks cannot be anticipated, there are steps that
can be taken to make sure the repair is accomplished as
quickly and smoothly as possible. The first task in repairing
a leak is to shut down the smallest possible section of main
so as to inconvenience the least number of customers. In
some circumstances, there may be six or more valves that
must be operated to isolate one section of main. If valves
cannot be located, or are found to be inoperable, the repair
crew must continue searching until an appropriate
combination of valves is found. During this delay, time
and water are being wasted, plus a larger-than-necessary
number of customers may have to be without water while
the repair is made. Conversely, the water system with
good records and a valve check and operation program
should be able to quickly locate and operate the correct
valves to shut down the minimum section of main and
progress with the repair.
Similarly, many small systems can go for years without
having to use a fire hydrant for fighting a fire. The
importance of the hydrants is therefore sometimes
overlooked. Three of the more common reasons for a
hydrant not functioning properly are: (1) unnoticed
damage, (2) improperly drained and frozen barrel, and
(3) closed valves in the distribution system. All of these
problems can be readily identified and corrected by a
IP
water system that has a regular program of hydrant
inspection and testing. Failure of hydrants to operate
properly during a fire could leave water system personnel
and managers liable to a suit for damages, in addition to
causing needless risk to life and property.
Maintenance Of Equipment
Water mains that are properly installed perform well over
a long period of time in most water systems. The most
frequent problems are breaks and leaks. Most breaks are
simple cracks at right angles to the length of pipe and can
be repaired by exposing the pipe and slipping a repair
sleeve over the break.
Another common problem in water distribution is the
buildup of rusty sediment in the bottom of mains. The
sediment is generally not harmful to health and usually
causes few customer complaints as long as it is not
disturbed. But if water flow is suddenly increased, such
as from use of afire hydrant, the sediment will be disturbed
and can turn customer's water anywhere from slightly
rust-colored to dark brown. Not only are customers
reluctant to drink and use the water, but it may badly stain
laundry items.
Sediment in water mains can be caused by iron or
manganese that was in the source water and has
precipitated out, or from the presence of iron bacteria in
(the system. It can also be from rusting of old cast iron pipe.
If the problem is not too severe, some systems have found
that a thorough flushing of the system once or twice a year
is sufficient. Other systems have found that certain mains,
such as dead-end sections, must be flushed as often as
weekly to maintain acceptable water quality. If the problem
is severe, professional advice should be obtained on the
best method of correcting it.
Old water mains that become encrusted to the point of
seriously restricting flow can be cleaned using a power
rodding machine or by pushing a flexible "pig" through
the line using water pressure. In most cases, the
incrustation will quickly re-form on the interior of a
cleaned pipe, so consideration should be given to applying
a cement lining on the pipe interior. Although this process
is expensive, it is usually less expensive than replacing the
pipe.
Water distribution system valves should be periodically
operated for several reasons: this provides an opportunity
to ensure that valve boxes are exposed and have not been
filled or damaged, it assures that the valves are open and
work properly, and it loosens up the valves so that they
will operate more easily. Systems with a large number of
valves often purchase power valve-turning equipment to
35
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Speed the job of "exercising" their valves. When valves
are operated, the number of turns should be counted to
make sure they are fully operated in both directions.
Valves that do not operate properly should be dugup and
repaired as soon as possible.
Fire hydrants should be operated and tested at regular
intervals. Many systems have a yearly program that is a
combinationofflushingwatermainsandtestinghydrants.
Records should be kept of the static pressure, flow test
results, and any repair work performed on each hydrant.
In freezing climates, whenever a hydrant is used, an
inspection should be made to make sure that the barrel
has fully drained.
Water Main Extensions
Water mains must be periodically extended to
accommodate new customers. If the extension is relatively
short, the work can often be done by water system
employees. For larger extensions, a contractor is usually
employed. Land development firms usually pay for
preparing plans and installation of the water mains and
hydrants to serve the new properties.
It is important that the manufacturer's recommendations
be followed for proper bedding, blocking and installation
of the pipe, valves, and hydrants. A poor installation job
can create extra work for years, repairing re-occurring
leaks and broken mains.
Most states require submission of the plans and
specifications for water main extensions for approval
before the work is begun.
36
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Chapter 6
Water System Management
Organization
Types Of Water System Ownership
And Management
Privately owned water systems may be operated as an
individual enterprise, a partnership, or a corporation. In
order to survive under the review and control of the state
Public Service Commission, systems must be properly
organized and managed to operate efficiently. Ownership
of large systems is usually vested in a relatively large
group of stockholders whose control over operations is
exercised through an elected board of directors. The
directors, in turn, place direct control of operations in the
hands of an executive, normally titled president.
Under public ownership, the property owners, voters, or
customers are actually the "owners" of the system. Elected
or appointed officials are ultimately responsible for
employing staff to direct and operate the water system.
The organization of publicly owned water systems
generally follows one of the following patterns.
In a mayor-council type of government, where the
water system is incorporated with other municipal
departments, the mayor is ultimately the system's
chief executive. The mayor normally participates in
making policy and oversees the implementation of
the policy. He is usually assisted in this management
function by a water or public works committee of
thecountilthatmonitors the watersystem operation.
In some instances, the water system operator reports
directly to the mayor and council. Under other
organization plans, the operator reports to a director
of public works who has other management duties,
including the street and sewer departments.
Under the council-manager plan, the city or village
manager is usually considered the executive in
charge of the water system. But the manager is
employed and retains his position at the pleasure of
the town council. The manager is usually a
professional administrator who makes day-to-day
management decisions. The council is usually called
on only to approve or decide on major expenditures
and policy. In this type of organization, the water
General Types of Management Organization of a Publicly Owned Water System
Mayor
Council
Public Works
Committee
Water
Superintendent
Mayor &
Council
City
Manager
Public Works
Director
Water
Superintendent
Mayor &
Council
Appointed,
(or Elected)
Water Board
Water
Superintendent
Mayor-Council City Manager
Water Board
Appointed,
(or Elected)
Water Board
Water
Superintendent
Water District
37
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system operator usually reports either directly to
the city manager, or through a director of public
works.
• In some instances, the operation of the water system
is separated from other municipal departments.
Control is placed under a separate trusteeship-level
committee called the Water Board or Water
Commission. This elected or appointed body acts
and operates somewhat independently of the town
mayor and council. This often has the advantage of
allowing the water system to be insulated from
political pressures.
• Some water systems are organized as separate water
districts or associations. In the case of some rural
water districts, they exist where there are no
municipal governments. The top management of
these systems rests with an elected or appointed
water system board of directors.
• Public water systems are often also operated by a
township, county, or other unit of government. In
these cases, the elected board members are usually
the officials responsible for the water system.
There are many variations and mixtures of these systems,
depending on the size of the water system, how the
system originated, and local politics.
In most municipalities, water production, distribution,
and meter reading are under the direction of a water
superintendent. The superintendent, in rum, directs
foremen, operators, and maintenance workers. In some
cases, water billing is done as a separate water system
function, but in most cases this is incorporated with other
municipal accounting and billing.
In larger systems, the management duties are often
separated, with aplant manager-having responsibilities for
operating the production facilities, and a separate
distribution manager. In other instances, the distribution
system is operated and maintained as a part of the streets
and sanitation department.
New small water systems are often created by land
development firms. A water system is installed by the
developer to serve the new properties, but after all lots
have been sold, the developer usually wants to be relieved
of the responsibility. In some cases, the small system will
not be accepted for incorporation with an adjoining system
because the facilities do not meet the construction
standards of the larger system. Some of these systems are
taken over and operated by a homeowners association.
Others are operated by firms that specialize in operating
small systems.
Public officials should be aware that water systems created
in this way can result in substandard service to customers
unless they are properly planned, constructed, and
supervised.
Water System Organization
The organization of small public water systems often
becomes obscure because there are relatively few
employees with multiple responsibilities. But, it should
be kept in mind that the same organizational principals
should apply as in any other business. There are many
texts devoted to proper business organization principles,
but a few of the prime points that should particularly be
observed by public water systems are:
• Each individual should have only one "boss," and
all direction and guidance should normally be
through that person. The formal chain of command
should be clearly designated by the organization
chart.
• Specific delegation of authority should 'be made to
employees at each level.
« The tasks, duties, and responsibilities of each person
should be defined as precisely as possible.
The result of poor organization is indecision by employees
in performing their work, lack of coordination between
employees, and poor relations between employees and
their superiors. This will usually cause water quality
and/or customer service to suffer.
Personnel
Personnel Requirements
Technological changes are rapidly making the operation
of public water systems more complicated. Operators
and workers must have the knowledge and abilities to
deal with complicated electronics, more powerful
machinery, new treatment methods, and compliance with
regulations. Increased ability requirements also extend to
office work where the operation of computers is becoming
essential even in relatively small systems.
Public officials should bear in mind that the safest, most
efficient operation of the water system will be achieved
by following the principles of employment management.
• Salaries and fringe benefits should be adequate to
attract competent persons.
38
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• Selection of new employees should be based on
experience, aptitude, and character.
• There should be a viable promotion and
compensation policy to keep employees interested
in their work.
Employee Training
Both the employees and managers of public water systems
should realize the need for proper employee training.
Most water system employees are trained by their
supervisor and/or co-workers. A new worker is often
assigned to work with an experienced worker to leam the
duties he is to perform. Unfortunately, many people are
not good teachers, and many workers resist sharing their
knowledge for fear it will jeopardize their position. This
type of training may perpetuate errors and misinformation
if the trainer is not himself performing the tasks properly.
The principal benefits of good employee training are:
• Improved morale and interest of employees in their
work.
• Increased employee productivity, loyalty, and
dedication.
• Decreased chance of employee errors that cause
problems such as damage to equipment or
contamination of the water supply.
• Improved opportunity for employees to develop into
future supervisors.
On-the-job training of employees should be a deliberate,
conscious effort. Supervisors or experienced employees
who are willing to share their knowledge should be
designated as trainers and allowed the time necessary to
do this work. The following sources of outside training
opportunities are also available to water system employees:
• Trainingseminarsconductedbythestatepublicwater
supply agency, the state Rural Water Association, the
AWWA Section, and other waterworks organizations.
• Correspondence courses.
a Meetings of local water operator groups.
• Water works courses provided by colleges.
Operator Certification
Most states now require that community public water
systems must be under the direction of a certified operator.
Increasingemphasis is expected to beplaced on mandatory
certification as a means of ensuring that the complex
responsibilities of water system operation are under the
direction of competent persons.
Certification programs vary from state to state, but in
general, water system operations are divided into
several degrees of complexity, ranging from a simple well
supply to a full surface water treatment system. The
operation of a distribution system is also usually assigned
a separate class. An operator must usually achieve
certification for each lower class before proceeding to the
next class.
Award of certification in each clasp is usually based on
passing a state-administered examination, in addition to
having required education credits, and meeting an
experience requirement of months of service actively
working in a water system organization. Most states
allow reciprocity with other states that they consider to
have an equally stringent certification program.
A person can prepare for a certification examination by
self-study or using a correspondence course. State
examinations generally emphasize specific points and
processes. The best way to prepare for these exams is
through a certification preparation course. These courses
are held periodically around the state, and may be
sponsored by the state, a water works organization, or a
local college.
Water operators usually must renew their certification
every few years. A growing number of states are requiring
operators to have a specified number of continuing education
units (CEUs) in order to renew certification. The CEUs are
awarded for attending seminars and training courses.
The continuing education requirement helps ensure that
certified operators are keeping abreast of changing rules
and technology.
Public Relations
Managers of municipal and other publicly owned water
systems generally devote little time and effort to public
relations (PR). There are always so many other things to
do that this is usually at the bottom of the priority list.
Besides, the public has no choice other than to use water
from the system, so why waste time on public relations?
39
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When a water system keeps a low profile, the public
rarely realizes the complexity of the operation, the
problems that must be coped with, and the product and
service the system is providing. Many customers do not
even know where the water comes from. As long as
service is reliable, water quality is acceptable, and there
are no drastic changes in rates or policy, the public
generally has little interest in the operation of the water
system.
Maintaining good public relations does not have to be a
big effort. Many things can be done to inform the public
and maintain a good image, that do not require a lot of
work or cost:
• Public relations should start at the top, with managers
maintaining an open and tolerant attitude toward
customers and promotingthatattitudewithsubordinates.
• Meter readers and billing office personnel have by far the
greatest exposure to the public of all water system
employees. These employees must maintain a good
appearance, positive attitude, cheerfulness, and tact in
dealing with the public.
• Keeping the public informed of water system work takes
extra effort but is appreciated by customers. The person
who has the water unexpectedly turned off in the middle
of a shower or the housewife who has clothes in the
washer when the water turns brown due to main flushing
has good reason to be irate. Personal visits to customers
are best if work that will disrupt service or property must
be done immediately. Doorknob cards or post cards work
well if the work is scheduled for a day or so in the future.
• The use olpostcard billinghas rather reduced the ability
of water systems to add information notes to customers
along with water bills. Some systems have been able to
design their postcard with enough room to add a short
public information message. Others send the postcard
bill in an envelope once a year so that public information
material can be enclosed.
• Pamphlets on water are available from federal and state
agencies and various associations. These can be purchased
in quantity or copied for distribution to customers.
• Another opportunity to inform the public that is often
available to a municipally operated water systems is to
include articles in the town newsletter used by many
communities to inform the public on local matters.
Information that can be provided include details of
upcoming worktobe done on the water system, advanced
warning and details of rate increases, and homeowner
suggestions, such as how to look for plumbing leaks.
• Informing children about the local water system can be
both gratifying and pay good dividends. This includes
providing information and literature for teachers to use in
their classes, arranging for a water system employee to
speak before classes, or taking classes on a tour of the
waterplant. Not only will the children be better-informed,
but they will take the information presented to them
home and project a positive image of the water system to
their parents.
• Trucks, tractors, fire hydrants, elevated tanks, and
other water system equipment that is seen by the public
should be kept clean, well-painted, and in good repair.
Besides projecting a good image, there is usually a side
benefit that employees take better care of equipment that
is well-maintained.
• Attention should be given to the appearance of employees
as well. Many systems now provide uniforms for
employees. This is a relatively inexpensive fringe benefit
that encourages workers to maintain aneat appearance in
spite of having to perform relatively dirty work.
When major work or policy changes will affect customers,
a special public information effort is usually advisable.
Examples are major construction projects that will cause
inconvenience to the public, a change in water quality, or
a significant rate increase. It is often best to inform all
affected customers with a letter that fully explains what is
to be done and why.
New state and federal requirements for water quality and
system operation often require systems to make expensive
improvements. It is important that these systems begin to
get public support for funding as soon as it is known that
they are affected by the requirements. It should be
emphasized that the requirements are considered
necessary to protect the public from dangerous diseases
or chemical contamination.
Financial Considerations
Accounting
All public water systems should be operated as a business
with careful accounting of expenditures, revenues and
property. Proper accounting maintains records of the
assets of the operation, the outstanding financial
obligations, revenues, and the costs of operation. An
interpretation of the accounting records and data is
normally presented in periodic reports. These reports
may be monthly or quarterly, but the most important one
is the year-end report that shows financial standing at the
end of the calendar year or fiscal year.
40
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Private and investor-owned water systems must follow good
accounting practices in order to determine taxes to be paid
and account to the controlling board and stockholders on
dividends to be paid. They must also show that the
business is being efficiently operated in order to justify the
need for adjustment of water rates to the state Public
Service Commission.
The need for publicly owned water systems to follow good
accounting practices is less obvious. There is often the
tendency in small municipalities to group water revenues
and expenditures with all other municipal operations.
One important reason for maintaining special, separate
accounting for the water system is that most systems have
one or more outstanding loans or bond issues. These
obligations are usually based on water revenue and must
be paid off over a specific period of time. Careful control
of finances must therefore be maintained to ensure that
adequate funds are available to meet obligations in addition
to operating expenses.
There is also a chance that a water system will want to
borrow funds again in the future. The system that can
show good accounting practices and a good record of
meeting past obligations will usually be able to obtain
future funding at more favorable interest rates.
Some states require that publicly owned water systems
receive state Public Service Commission approval for rate
increases. In this case, good accounting practices are
essential to justifying the request for Commission approval.
Meter Reading And Billing
With few exceptions, it is standard practice for public
water systems to install meters on all water services,
including those serving municipal and charitable
organizations.
Customer meters are read at regular intervals by a meter
reader who travels from house to house. Readings are
entered on a meter card or in a meter book for each address.
Readings are then submitted to the billing office to begin
the billing process. Some systems place multiple meter
readers in the field at the same time to get all meters read
within a few days, which allows for all billing on a set date.
In larger systems, meter reading is usually on a continual
basis.
Many systems have the meter reader leave a doorknob
card ifnobodyisathome. The card requests the occupant
to read their own meter and return the attached postcard
by a specified date. Not all occupants, though will take
the time to do this.
Where a meter reading cannot be obtained, the bill is
estimated, based on use in preceding periods, and given
the time of year. It is generally not good policy to estimate
a bill more than two or three times in succession in order
to prevent the difference between estimated and actual
use from becoming too large.
Meter readers will usually receive a better reception for
entering residences if they are provided with neat
distinctive uniforms and proper identification. It also
helps if readers always work the same area so that
customers recognize them.
One of the newer meter reading improvements requires
the installation of a connection from an inside meter to an
outside terminal. The meter reader can then obtain
water-use information from the terminal without entering
the building. As a matter of practice, though, the meter
reader should enter the building and inspect the meter
installation every year or two.
It is relatively common for municipally owned water
systems to include sewage, garbage collection, or other
charges along with the water bill. Sewage charges are
structured in various ways but are often proportional to
water use. It is not good practice to have hidden costs
included in water bills. If a municipality uses the water
bill to collect for other services, they should be positively
identified as separate items on the bill.
Most watersystemshave gradually changed fromsending
bills in an envelope to use of a postcard bill. This saves the
cost of an envelope, the labor of stuffing envelopes, and
requires less postage. Most municipalities and water
systems prefer to do their own billing, but commercial
firms are available to provide billing in an efficientmanner.
Water Rates
In the United States, water rates are usually either
expressed in dollars per 1000 gallons or dollars per 100
cubic feet, depending on which type of meter registration
is used.
Where all or most meters are located inside buildings, A minimum charge for each billing period is usually set
there is usually a problem of eettine the meter reading nn ha«.H r>n c^,-,,;™, «, ~^~ „:„ -ru:_ :_ * ' ,
there is usually a problem of getting the meter reading
from homes where the residents are not home on weekdays.
up based on service or meter size. This is the water
system cost for maintaining staff and equipment, meter
"~ ——•"•»••"-«"-»«"«»«»«"=*tuniui«cuiiweenudy5. system cost tor maintaining staff and equipment meter
SomesystemspartiaUysolvethisproblembyhavingmeter reading and billing and other fixed costs, even if no water
readers work on Saturdays. isusedhvHioriicfnmor Tk««.i«,e^K^..i«..^ju ,.—
e customer. The rate schedule used by water
41
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systems generally falls into one of the following methods
of bill computation.
• Flat rate: all customers pay the same rate per unit of
water used, regardless of the amount of water use.
• Two-tiered, flat rate: customers are charged a
minimum, plus a flat rate for water used.
• Pure declining block the charge per unit of water
declines in steps or "blocks" with increased water
use.
• Two-tieredfdecliningblock: aninitialminimumcharge
covers a specified amount of water, and all use in
excess is charged at progressively lower rates.
• Pure increasing block: the charge per unit of water
increases with increasing use.
covers a specified quantity, and use in excess of this
amount is charged at increasing rates.
Generally, if an adequate supply of water is available and
water system facilities are adequate, a declining rate
structure is used. If there is a limited amount of water
available or system facilities are limited, no incentive for
increased use may be offered. In some areas with severe
shortages, a disincentive is actually created by increasing
the rates for increased use.
Customers with similar water use patterns are often
grouped into rate classes such as residential, commercial,
and industrial. There may be a different rate structure for
each class based on when and how water is taken from the
system. For instance, industrial customers who use the
same amount of water year-round present some advantage
in water system operation in comparison with residential
customers who have wide swings in use at certain times
of the year. Industries may at times also be given a
preferential water rate to encourage them to settle or stay
in a community.
A rale analysis is a study that considers all factors to
establish water rates as equitably as possible for all
customers. One of the prime factors considered in the
analysis is the value of aU of the property and equipment
owned by the water system. Records of expenditures and
income, and a bill analysis of water used by various
classes of customers are also required. Much of the
information required for a study can be gathered by water
system staff, but the actual analysis of the information is
usually best done by a professional firm.
Publicly owned water systems frequently do not maintain
good property and operating expense records. When
42
such a system wishes to perform a rate study, it is usually
necessary to employ a professional firm to make property
appraisals and the expense estimates necessary to
complete the rate analysis calculations.
Funding Improvements
A water system owned by a municipality or incorporated
community has three basic sources of financing: taxes,
revenue from water sales, and other charges and
contributions. The existence of these revenue sources
allows a system to establish credit so it can borrow money
by issuing bonds or notes. The borrowed funds must
then be repaid over a period of time, using money from
one or more of the sources.
Taxes may be used as a source of funding for a new water
system where it is necessary to borrow against the credit
of the community and subsidize the operation until it can
become self-sustaining. Once the water system has
sufficient revenue, the tax funds are no longer needed.
Revenue from water sales and other charges should, at a
minimum, pay for operation and maintenance of the
system, as well as interest on, and redemption of borrowed
funds. A portion of the cost of system replacement and
additions is also paid for from revenue. However, when
improvements are made from current revenue, the current
customers are paying for facilities that will primarily
benefit future customers. Thisiswhymajorimprovements
are usually funded by bonds, so that the costs will be paid
for by the customers who enjoy the benefits.
Contributions to the water system are commonly required
from new customers to assist in financing the cost of
establishing their new service. Included is usually the
cost of water main extensions, valves and hydrants,
service connection, and meter installation.
Grants or other awards of funds that do not have to be
repaid are sometimes made to water systems by various
government agencies. The availability of these funds for
water system use varies, depending on the economy, the
interests of legislators, and other factors.
Bonds are frequently issued by water systems to acquire
land, replace outdated or failing equipment and facilities,
and expand the system. The bonds provide large sums of
money when needed and permit repayment at a relatively
uniform level over a period of years. There are many
types of bonds which may be issued, but the two that are
most common are general obligation and revenue bonds.
General obligation (GO) bonds pledge the taxing power of
the municipality against the bonds, but are paid off
mostly or entirely from water revenue. The advantage of
-------
a GO bond issue is that the added security of having both
revenue and potential tax income to meet the obligation
may secure a more favorable interest rate.
The disadvantage of GO bonds is that the bond issue
becomes part of the municipal debt, and will be included
in determining the remaining bonding capacity of the
municipality. This obligation can seriously restrict the
ability of a small municipality to issue GO bonds for other
community improvements such as sewers, road
construction, or buildings. A GO bond issue is usually
approved by residents of the municipality in a referendum
vote.
Revenue bond issues pledge the revenues of the water
system to pay the interest and redeem the bonds when
due. Some municipalities have the authority to issue
bonds without a referendum vote. Revenue bonds can
usually be issued much more quickly than GO bonds, but
must be set up under good legal guidance. Among the
requirements for good acceptance of the bonds is that the
water system set up reserve funds to ensure that adequate
funding is available to retire the bonds on schedule even if
revenue should drop or unexpected operating expenses
occur.
Low-interest loans are sometimes available to a publicly
owned water system from state or federal agencies, under
varying circumstances. This special funding is often
available for construction of a new water system or specific
improvements to an existing system.
The principal federal fundingsources thatmaybe available
to public water systems are the Rural Development
Administration (RDA) and the Department of Housing
and Urban Development (HUD). Many states also have
special funds that on occasion may be available for water
system use. The availability of these funds is usually tied
to special conditions regarding where they may be applied,
such as community size, economic conditions, or actual
need.
Private- or investor-owned water systems, unlike publicly
owned systems, cannot be financed entirely by bonds or
securities. As in any other form of private business, the
owners must provide a substantial part of the equity. The
larger systems are organized much the same as an electric
or gas utility, with a relatively large number of stock-
holders. These systems are generally operated efficiently
and have very good stock ratings.
Smaller investor-owned systems must be operated
efficiently and continuously show a good rate of return on
investment in order to sustain operation. Private- and
investor-owned systems are not generally eligible to
receive the grants or low-interestloans available to publicly
owned systems.
Adapting to Change
Restructuring
Some small water systems may have difficulty complying
withchangingstateandfederaldrinkingwater regulations
without causingtheir customers'water bills to beexcessive.
For these systems, the solution may be restructuring.
Restructuring means changing a water system's
management, operation, or type of ownership in order to
be more efficient or to take advantage of new sources of
funding. Some examples of restructuring are:
• Public officials responsible for very smallmunicipal
systems should consider the alternative of
contracting with a private firm to provide operation
services. A firm specializing in this type of work
often has the knowledge and equipment to operate
the system more efficiently as well as provide more
reliable water service to customers.
• Small, privately owned systems are not generally
eligible for state or federal grants or low-interest
loans. Consideration should be given to becoming
part of an area water service district so that new
sources of funds for operation and improvements
will be available.
« A number of small systems may join together in an
association to takeadvantageofquantitypurchasing,
use of a shared certified operator, joint use of
specialized eqiupment and other cost-saving
procedures.
Additional details on restructuring are provided in the
reprinted EPA pamphlet that appears in Appendix D of
this handbook. Additional information is available in the
EPA publication Restructuring Manual (EPA 570/9-91-
0350). A copy of this guidebook may be obtained by
callingthe Safe Drinking Water Hotline at 1-800-426-4791,
or by writing the Office of Ground Water and Drinking
Water Resource Center, USEPA, 401 M Street, SW,
Washington, DC 20460.
43
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Chapter 7
Water System Operation Programs
Planning
Maintenance Planning
Proper maintenance of both production and distribution
equipment is essential to the efficient operation of a water
system. The sudden breakdown of equipment can cause
serious problems, such as loss of system pressure or
inadequate treatment
Management attitude toward maintenance is important.
There should be a clear policy directing a maintenance
program, including specifying work to be done, when it
is to be done, and who is to do it. Maintenance is often a
rather thankless job, so managers should make extra
efforttoreaffirm theneedand commend employee efforts.
Personnel performing maintenance work should be
specifically designatedby supervisors. Problems develop
when a directive is left open for "somebody" to do the
work at an unspecified time. Not everyone is qualified,
experienced, or likes to do maintenance work To assign
responsibility to someone who does not like the work or
does not have the aptitude may mean that it will not be
done properly.
Instructions on each piece of equipment should be
maintained in a file, and workers should be allowed time
to study the information in the file before beginning a
maintenance job. If the manuals are not clear or sufficient,
many manufacturers are willing to have a representative
visit the water system and provide further instruction.
Where this is not possible, manufacturers will usually
provide consultation by phone.
Tools, spare parts, test instruments, and shop facilities must
be made available for workers to properly perform
maintenance work. Required parts and materials should
be anticipated to the extent possiblebefore workis started.
The materials and tools should be available so that, once
work has started, it can continuously progress. Having a
proper place to do maintenance work, such as a clean,
heated workshop can also speed the job and insure that it
is performed properly.
Maintenance work should be planned and scheduled in
advance. Thefrequency should generallybe in accordance
with the manufacturer's recommendation, in addition to
local experience. Somemaintenancejobs may be required
weekly to ensureproperequipmentoperation and prolong
its life. Other frequencies commonly used are monthly,
quarterly, and yearly. Frequencies of longer than a year
are difficult to remember, so special effort must be made
to keep records and reminders of when the work should
be done.
It is often desirable to schedule maintenance jobs by
season of the year. Well maintenance is usually scheduled
for spring and fall, and treatment plant maintenance is
often done when the weather is not suitable for outside
work
Records and reports of repair and maintenance work must
be kept to achieve an effective program. It is common
practice to keep a record card or notebook sheet for each
piece of equipment. The record should include
information such as the make, model, serial number,
installation date, manufacturer's representative address,
and recommended maintenance schedule. Space should
also be provided on the sheet for recording the date and
details of work performed.
Emergency Planning
All public water systems can be the victim of various
kinds of disasters. In general, the problems that can
disrupt a water system operation fall into two categories.
• Natural disasters, such as earthquakes, floods,
hurricanes, tornados, forest fires, landslides, snow
and ice storms, and failure of the water source.
• Manmade disasters, such as vandalism, explosions,
strikes, riots, terrorism, and warfare.
Some potential emergencies can be averted or minimized
by advance preparations. For instance, good security at
water facilities can help reduce vandalism. Beyond the
problems that can be prevented, water system managers
must be prepared to act swiftly and efficiently in the event
of an emergency.
The first step in developing an emergency plan is to
analyze which types of emergencies the water system is
most likely to experience, and the effect of each. An
emergency response plan is then developed to include a
list of preparations that can be made in advance, and
projections of the steps that would be taken in the event
of each emergency. Some of the primary steps suggested
44
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for a water system to prepare for major emergencies are:
• Maintaining water system records in good order
and readily available for use.
• Maintaining a contact list of state and local water
supply and disaster agencies, equipment suppliers,
contractors, key personnel in nearby water systems,
and any other person or organization that might be
able to provide assistance during an emergency.
• Maintaining a good stock of repair parts that might
be required in an emergency and a list of where
additional parts may be obtained quickly.
• Considering the need for standby generators or
auxiliary power drives for equipment for use during
failure of commercial electric power.
• Obtaining tools and equipment that will facilitate
emergency repairs, and maintain them in a state of
readiness for quick response during an emergency.
Replacement And Expansion Planning
Water system equipment is usually replaced for one of the
following reasons: it has failed or is failing; it has become
obsolete and should be replaced with a newer model; or it
must be replaced with a unit that is larger or has more
capacity.
Planning for the replacement of equipment should be a
continuous process. An indication that equipment should
be replaced will often come from the observations of plant
operators, maintenance workers, supervisors, equipment
company representatives, or from the state drinking water
program staff. These people all have a genuine interest in
seeing that the water system has proper and reliable
equipment, so their suggestions should be honestly
considered and evaluated.
When a piece of equipment needs to be replaced,
investigation should be made of improved models that
might be more reliable or efficient, or have other
advantages. Consideration should also be given to up-
sizing equipment when it is replaced, to allow for future
needs. One of the primary advantages of replacing
equipment before it completely breaks down is that more
time can be taken to evaluate the alternatives before
making a selection.
If there is a question of how or whether a piece of equipment
should be replaced, it is usually best to get the opinion of
a professional engrneer who is experienced in water system
design. The engineer will analyze the overall effects of
equipment replacement, consider alternatives available,
and suggest the best approach.
The steps required in preparing and executing a major
project for water system expansion and improvements are
usually as follows.
• Preparation of a study and cost estimate to suggest
what should be done.
• Specific decisions by management on work to be
done, and method of funding.
• Preparation of plans and specifications, and
arrangements' made for funding.
• Approval of plans and specifications by the state.
• Acceptance of bids and letting contracts.
6 Overview of construction to ensure conformity with
plans.
« Equipment start-up, and training of employees.
Each of these steps may take up to several months, so it is
not unusual for the time between inception and
completion of a major project to take several years.
Planning, therefore, must be extended as far into the
future as possible.
Expansion of the water source, increased storage capacity,
treatment improvements, and water distribution
improvements are some of the needs that must be
considered to stay abreast of customer demands.
In addition, due to new federal and state requirements,
planning must also consider changes in operation or
treatment that may be mandated by new regulations.
Water system managers should try to maintain five- and
ten-year projections of improvements and changes that
should be made in the system. Long-range plans must be
continually reevaluated and updated to keep abreast of
changing demands, requirements, and technology.
Programs For Proper Water System Operation
Water Accountability
The un-metered water that is used or wasted on the
system generally produces no revenue. Water system
managers should therefore strive to account for as much
of the water produced as possible.
45
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The principal requirements for accountability are to have
accurate metering of all water being pumped to the
distribution system and to have 100% metering of all
water services.
The differencebetweenthe water pumped and the total of
water metered to customers is then either used for an un-
metered purpose, or wasted. The principal un-metered
uses that are normally necessary, at least to some extent,
and authorized are:
• Fire fighting.
• Water main flushing.
• Fire hydrant testing.
• Sewer flushing.
• Street cleaning.
• Filling tank trucks.
• Construction use.
Some water systems obtain revenue from some of these
uses by making charges, such as tank truck filling fees, or
installation of temporary meters for construction use. It is
also possible to estimate these uses in order to maintain
better water accountability.
The unmetered water that cannot be accounted for as
authorized, is wasted due to broken mains, water leaks,
and unauthorized use. Unauthorized uses can usually be
controlled by public education and alerting system
employees, police, and public works employees to report
any use that they suspect is not authorized.
Except in areas of very porous soil, water leaks tend to
either come to the surface or find their way into a crack in
a sewer. The public, police, and other public workers
should be encouraged to report leaks so that prompt
repairs can be made. Hidden leaks can often be detected
by sewer maintenance crews when they notice excessive
flow in a sewer line. Suspected leaks can often be located
by using a listening device that amplifies the noise made
by escaping water.
Water systems having source water with a high value, or
where there is a shortage of water, must make a special
effort at water accountability. Unmetered use must be
held to a minimum and the search for hidden leaks
intensified. Many water systems have found that
employing the services of a professional leak-survey firm
will identify leaks that have a lost-water value over a
period of time in excess of the cost of having the survey
performed.
46
Water Conservation
On the whole, the United States has plenty of fresh water,
but it is not always distributed so that we have the desired
amount at all locations. In areas with plentiful water there
is generally little interest in conservation. Where short-
term shortages exist, the conservation measures usually
consist of restrictions on lawn sprinkling. Otherwise, it is
general practice to attempt to supply the public with as
much water as they wish to use.
In situations where water rates will be greatly increased
as a result of water system improvements, some systems
recommend water conservation measures to customers
as a means of minimising their bill increases.
There are some areas of the country, though, where the
amount of water readily available is much less than
required for unrestricted use. When expansion of water
sources cannot keep up with the demand, water
conservation measures become essential.
Substantially raising the cost of water usually serves to
make most customers more aware of the need to conserve
water, but there are usually some who are not concerned
by the cost. Systems with long-term water shortage
problems usually start with customer conservation
education programs. The program tries to instill a
customer awareness on reducing use and waste.
Recommendations are also made on changes in plumbing
fixtures or methods of water use to conserve water.
Examples are installing flow restrictors on shower heads,
taking showers instead of baths, and providinginstruction
on landscaping methods that do not require watering.
When voluntary conservation is not sufficient to meet the
water use reduction needs, it becomes necessary to exert
additional control with local laws. Requirements usually
include mandatory installation of low-water-useplumbing
fixtures in all new construction and fines for not adhering
to sprinkling restrictions.
Fire Protection Requirements
The variation in property fire insurance rates between
different communities is due primarily to the rating that
has been assigned to the community. The ratings are
provided in most states by ISO Commercial Risk Services,
Inc., which is a nonprofit corporation serving the insurance
industry.
Most communities in the United States havebeen classified
by the grading schedule on a scale of 1 through 10. Class
1 is a system with a highly rated fire department and
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water supply facilities and procedures. Class 10
communities have no fire protection within five miles.
In the grading process, a 40% weight is placed on the water
system. As a result, a community with a good fire
department, but an inadequate water system, will probably
be assigned a poor rating. Water system rating
considerations include ability of the supply works to meet
maximum demands, capacity of mains to deliver fire flow,
and details of hydrant distribution, size and maintenance.
Details of the water system ratingprocedures are provided
in American Water Works Association Manual M-31.
Cross-Connection Control
A cross-connection is a piping connection or condition
which will allow a foreign substance to flow into a water
system. Over the years, thousands of cases have been
recorded of contamination of a public water system as a
result of back-flow of contamination through a cross-
connection. The conditions under which contamination
occurs from a cross-connection are often unusual.
Nevertheless, the recorded cases of waterbome disease
serve as proof that these violations do occur.
Back-pressure is the situation where contamination is
forced into a potable water system through a connection
that has a higher pressure man the water system. An
example is a heating boiler. Normally, water is
automatically filled into a boiler, but if the boiler gets too
hot and the excessive pressure is not otherwise released,
the pressure may force boiler water back into the water
system.
Back-siphonage can occur when there is reduced pressure
or a vacuum formed in the water system. This might be
caused by a water main break, the shut-down of a portion
of the system for repairs or heavy water use during a fire.
If a vacuum is formed in the system for even a short time,
any directly connected container of liquid might be
siphoned back into the piping system.
There are many places inhornes,businesses, and industries
where cross-connections can unknowingly be present.
Early plumbing fixtures possessed a number of potential
cross-connections thatarenowavoidedbynewer designs.
For example, early bath tubs had the fill spout located
inside the tub. It is now required that the spout be located
above the tub rim to eliminate any possibility of back-
siphonage of tub water into the plumbing system.
State public water supply agencies generally require or
urge all public water systems to have an active cross-
connection control program. Model plans are available to
assist water system managers in enacting appropriate
control ordinances, making inspections, and educating
customers on cross-connection prevention.
Safety
All public water systems should have a safety program to
minimize the pain, costs, and disruption of the
organization that can occur when someone is injured in
an accident. In the water works industry, three general
areas of safety are of concern:
• Prevention of work-related injury to employees.
Illustration of the Potential of Back-siphonage from a Submerged Bathtub Inlet
47
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• Prevention of automobile and other vehicle
accidents.
• Prevention of injury to the general public.
To minimize job-related injuries, supervisors should be
knowledgeable about recommended safety practices and
make a practice of regularly reviewing them with
employees. Employees who are constantly reminded of
safety and safe practices, eventually get into the habit of
"thinking safe." Safety should especially be emphasized
during emergencies when workers are tempted to take
short-cuts or work under dangerous conditions to hurry
the job.
Safe conditions and practices that management should
insist on are:
• Good housekeeping.
• Use of personal protective equipment whenever
required.
• Prompt attention to even slight injuries.
• Proper operation of tools and equipment.
Management has an obligation to furnish employees with
proper protective gear. Safety glasses, hardhats, and dust
masks are usually provided for employees who are
exposed to dangerous conditions. It is the duty of the
supervisor to set an example by wearing his protective
equipment, and insisting that workers make use of and
take care of the equipment that is issued to them.
The watersystem should also furnish workers with proper
tools to do their work in a safe manner. Many accidents
are caused from trying to do a job with the wrong tool. It
is again the duty of the supervisor to see that proper tools
are available and taken care of, and that the workers use
them correctly.
Although the operation of vehicles seems somewhat
incidental to the operation of a water system, it often
accounts for the largest number of water system accidents.
Supervisors must remember to stress safe vehicle operation
as a safety item.
The safety of the public must also be constantly
considered when performing water system work. For
instance, if a person is injured falling into an improperly
guarded excavation, it not only causes ill will, but also
places system management and individual employees at
risk to a suit for damages.
Protecting the public includes providing traffic control
when working in streets, protecting excavations, and
48
providing security at buildings, storage areas, and water
towers.
There are a number of federal and state agencies involved
in ensuring safe working conditions. The Occupational
Safety and Health Act (OSHA) regulations intend to create
work places free from hazards that could cause physical
harm or death. The Act also allows for civil and criminal
penalties for violations of the requirements.
Lead And Copper Contamination Control
A regulation enacted by USEPA in June 1991 requires all
community water systems, as well as nontransient-
noncommunity systems to set up special programs to
monitor for lead and copper in drinking water.
The ingestion of excessive amounts of lead and copper is
associated with a number of adverse health effects. In
particular, children who have had excessive exposure to
lead are likely to experience a delay in mental and physical
development, impaired mental abilities, and behavioral
problems.
Major sources of human exposure to lead include lead-
based paint, lead-contaminated soil and dust, some food
and utensils, and as a contaminant in drinking water.
Lead contamination of soil and dust is caused primarily
from past use of leaded gasoline.
It is rare for there to be an appreciable amount of lead or
copper in either ground or surface water. The principal
causeof lead and copper in drinking water is from corrosion
of materials in the distribution system and building
plumbing. When water is in contact with lead or copper
for a period of time, some of the metal is dissolved. The
principal sources of lead contamination are from lead
pipe, lead-tin solder used for joining copper pipe, and
brass plumbing fixtures. Copper contamination can be
cause by corrosion of copper pipe. The concentration of
lead or copper that may be present in drinking water is
affected by a number of factors, such as the contact time,
the corrosiveness of the water, and the age of the piping.
Monitoring required for each system includes selection of
customers who have plumbing systems vulnerable to
lead and copper contamination, and collecting samples of
water that has set in the piping for at least six hours.
If lead or copper levels are found to be excessive, the
system may have to begin special treatment of the water
to reduce its corrosivity and a public education program
to warn customers of the health dangers. If lead
contamination cannot be adequately controlled by
reducing water corrosivity, the system may be required to
begin a program of replacing old lead water service lines
with new material.
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Appendix A
Sources of Additional Information
and Assistance
• The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is
responsible for protection of drinking water supplies
undertheSafeDrinkingWater Act. The agency establishes
national drinking water standards and monitors state
enforcement of drinking water standards, system
management, and operations. The EPA's principal office
is located in Washington, DC. The agency maintains a
Safe Drinking Water Hotline to provide information on
drinking water regulations, policies, and documents. The
Hotline hours are 8:30 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. Eastern Standard
Time, Monday through Friday excluding holidays. The
Hotline number is: .-.-..
1-800-426-4791
There are also ten regional offices of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency in the United States.
These offices may be contacted for information on drinking
water regulations and policies regarding water systems
located within their region. The address and phone
numbers of the regional offices are listed in Appendix B.
• State drinking water agencies have been designated by
the governor of each state to accept primary enforcement
responsibility for the operation of the program within
their state. Each agency also has several field offices that
can be contacted for specific information on state
requirements for the operation of public water systems.
The principal offices of each state agency is listed in
Appendix C.
• The American Water Works Association (AWWA) is a
scientific and educational association that conducts
research and provides technical publications, information,
training, and technical assistance to the public water
supply industry. The central office is in Denver, Colorado.
Each state is also represented by an AWWA Section that
is generally quite active in holding meetings and
presenting training classes. For further information
contact:
American Water Works Association
6666 W. Quincy Avenue
Denver, CO 80235
1-303-794-7711
• The National Rural Water Association (NRWA) provides
technical publications, training, arid technical assistance
to small water systems and rural water districts. Many
states also have a state organization and staff who provide
technical assistance and training. For further information
contact:
National Rural Water Association
P.O. Box 1428
Duncan, OK 73534
1-405-252-0629
• TheRuralCommunityAssistanceProgram (RCAP) consists
of six regional agencies formed to develop the capacity of
rural community officials to solve local water problems.
The program provides on-site technical assistance,
training, and publications to rural communities. The
addresses of RCAP agency offices are listed in Appendix C.
• The National Ground Water Association is a not-for-profit
professional society and trade association representing
the groundwater industry. The Association provides
expositions, education, and research on wells and ground
water, and has many publications available on ground
water subjects. For information contact:
National Ground Water Association
6375 Riverside Drive
Dublin, OH 43017
1-614-761-1711
• The New England Water Works Association (NEWWA) is
a membership organization representing consultants,
water supply operations and management professionals,
and technical experts. NEWWA sponsors workshops,
offers publications, and provides its members with an
opportunity to exchange ideas and information on water
works operations and management.
New England Water Works Association
42A Dilla Street
Medford, MA 01757
1-508-478-6996
• The Rural Development Administration (RDA) provides
grants and loans for rural watersystems and communities
with populations less than 25,000. For additional
information contact:
Rural Development Administration
14th and Independence Ave., SW
Washington, DC 20250
1-202-720-9619
49
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• The National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC)
was established in 1991 at West Virginia University to
develop and maintain services and information related to
small community drinking water systems. Intended for
communities of less than 10,000 people and those who
work with them, the NDWC provides publications,
databases, referrals, and educational products.
National DrinkingWater Clearinghouse
West Virginia University
P.O. Box 6064 '
Morgantown, WV 26506-6064
1-800-624-8301
50
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Appendix B
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Drinking Water Programs
EPA Headquarters
401 M. Street, S.W.
Washington, DC 20460
800-426-4791
EPA Region 1
JFK Federal Building
Boston, MA 02203
617-565-3610
Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire,
Rhode Island, Vermont
EPA Region 2
26 Federal Plaza
New York, NY 10278
212-264-1800
New Jersey, New York, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands
EPA Region 3
841 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19107
215-597-8227
Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia,
District of Columbia
EPA Region 4
345 Courtland Street, NE
Atlanta, GA 30365
404-347-2913
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi,
North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee
EPA Region 5
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, IL 60604
312-886-6197
Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin
EPA Region 6
1445 Ross Avenue
Dallas, TX 75202
214-655-7155
Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas
EPA Region 7
726 Minnesota Avenue
Kansas City, KS 66101
913-551-7032
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska
EPA Region 8
One Denver Place
999 18th Street, Suite 1300
Denver, CO 80202
303-293-1413
Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah,
Wyoming
EPA Region 9
75 Hawthorne Street
San Francisco, CA 94105
415-744-2250
Arizona, California,Hawaii,Nevada, American Samoa, Guam,
Trust Territories of the Pacific
EPA Region 10
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle, WA 98101
206-553-6648
Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, Washington
51
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Appendix C
State Drinking Water Agencies
Region 1
Connecticut Department of Health Services
Water Supplies Section
150 Washington Street
Hartford, CT 06106
203-566-1251
Division of Water Supply
Department of Environmental Protection
One Winter Street, 9th Floor
Boston, MA 02108
617-292-5529
Drinking Water Program
Division of Health Engineering
Maine Department of Human Services
State House (STA 10)
Augusta, ME 04333-0010
207-289-2070
State of New Hampshire
Water Supply and Pollution Control Div.
6 Hazen Drive
' O. Box 95
Concord, NH 03302-0095
603-271-3139
Division of Drinking Water Quality
Rhode Island Department of Health
75 Davis Street, Cannon Building
Providence, RI 02908
401-277-6867
Water Supply Program
Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation
103 S. Main Street
Waterbury, VT 05671-0403
802-863-7220
Region II
Bureau of Safe Drinking Water
Division of Water Resources
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection
P.O. Box CN-029
Trenton, NJ 08625
609-292-5550
Bureau of Public Water Supply Protection
New York State Department of Health
Room 406, University Place
Albany, NY 12203-3399
518-458-6731
Water Supply Supervision Program
Puerto Rico Department of Health
P.O. Box 70184
San Juan, PR 00936
809-7634307
Planning and Natural Resources
Government of Virgin Islands
Nifky Center, Suite 231
St. Thomas, Virgin Islands 00802
809-774-3320
Region HI
Office of Sanitary Engineering
Delaware Division of Public Health
Cooper Building
P.O. Box 637
Dover, DE 19903
302-739-5410
Water Supply Program
Maryland Department of the Environment
Point Breeze Building 40, Room 8L
2500 Broening Highway
Dundalk, MD 21224
301-631-3702
Water Hygiene Branch
Department of Consumer and Regulatory Affairs
Environmental Control Division
Suite 203, 2100 Martin Luther Kine Ave.
Washington, DC 20020
202-404-1120
Division of Water Supplies
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources
P.O. Box 2357
Harrisburg, PA 17105-2357
717-787-9037
52
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Environmental Engineering Division
Office of Environmental Health Services
State Department of Health
Room 554
East 1900 Kanawha Blvd., East
Charleston, WV 25305
304-348-2981
Division of Water Supply Engineering
Virginia Department of Health
Room 109-31
1500 East Main Street
Richmond, VA 23219
804-786-1766
Region IV
Water Supply Branch
Department of Environment Management
1751 Congressional W.L. Dickinson Drive
Montgomery, AL 36130
205-271-7773
Drinking Water Section
Department of Environmental Regulation
Twin Towers Office Building
2600 Blair Stone Road
Tallahassee, FL 32399-2400
904-487-1762
Drinking Water Program
Georgia Environmental Protection Division
Floyd Towers East, Room 1066
205 Butler Street, S.E.
Atlanta, GA 30334
404-656-5660
Drinking Water Branch
Division of Water
Department of Environmental Protection
18 Reilly Road, Frankfort Office Park
Frankfort, KY 40601
502-564-3410 Ext. 543
Division of Water Supply
State Board of Health
P.O. Box 1700
Jackson, MS 39215-1700
601-960-7518
Public Water Supply Section
Division of Environmental Health
Department of Environment, Health and
Natural Resources
P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611-7687
919-733-2321
Bureau of Drinking Water Protect
Department of Health and
Environmental Control
2600 Bull Street
Columbia, SC 29201
803-734-5310
Division of Water Supply
Tennessee Department of Health
and Environment
150 Ninth Avenue, North
Terra Building, 2nd Floor
Nashville, TN 37247-3411
615-741-6636
Region V
Division of Public Water Supplies
Illinois Environmental Protection Agency
2200 Churchill Road
P.O. Box 19276
Springfield, IL 62794-9276
217-785-8653
Public Water Supply Section
Office of Water Management
Indiana Department of Environmental Management
'105 South Meridian
P.O. Box 6015
Indianapolis, IN 46206
317-233-4222
Division of Water Supply
Michigan Department of Public Health
P.O. Box 30195
Lansing, MI 48909
517-335-8326
Minnesota Department of Health
Section of Water Supply and Well Management
Division of Environmental Health
925 S.E. Delaware Street
P.O. Box 59040
Minneapolis, MN 55459-0040
612-627-5133
53
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Division of Drinking and Ground Waters
Ohio Environmental Protection Agency
1800 WaterMark Drive
P.O. Box 1049
Columbus, OH 43266-0149
614-644-2752
Bureau of Water Supply
Department of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 7921
Madison, WI 53707
608-267-7651
Region VI
Division of Engineering
Arkansas Department of Health
4815 West Markham Street - Mail Slot 37
Little Rock, AR 72205-3867
501-661-2623
Office of Public Health
Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals
P.O. Box 60630
New Orleans, LA 70160
504-568-5105
Drinking Water Section
New Mexico Health and Environment Department
1190 St. Francis Drive
Room South 2058
Santa Fe,NM 87503
505-827-2778
Water Quality Service
Oklahoma State Department of Health
P.O. Box 53551
Oklahoma City, OK 73152
405-271-7370
Texas Water Commission
Water Utilities Division
8900 Shoal Creek
Building 300, Suite 309
Austin, TX 78756
512-458-7542
Region VII
Surface and Groundwater Protection Bureau
Environmental Protection Division
Iowa Department of Natural Resources
Wallace State Office Building
900 East Grand Street
Des Moines, IA 50319
515-281-8869
Public Water Supply Section
Bureau of Water
Kansas Department of Health and Environment
Forbes Field, Building 740
Topeka, KS 66620
913-296-5503
Public Drinking Water Program
Division of Environmental Quality
Missouri Department of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 176
Jefferson City, MO 65102
314-751-0535
Division of Drinking Water and Environmental
Sanitation
Nebraska Department of Health
301 Sentenial Mall South
P.O. Box 95007, 3rd Floor
Lincoln, ME 68509
402-471-2541
Region VIII
Drinking Water Program
Colorado Department of Health
4300 Cherry Creek Drive South
Denver, CO 80220-1530
303-331-4546
Water Quality Bureau
Department of Health and Environmental Sciences
Cogswell Building, Room A206
Helena, MT 59620
406-444-2406
Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control
ND State Department of Health and Consolidated
Laboratories
1200 Missouri Avenue
P.O. Box 5520
Bismark, N.D. 58502-5520
702-224-2354
54
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Office of Drinking Wafer
Department of Water and Natural Resources
Joe Foss Building
523 East Capital Avenue
Pierre, SD 57501
605-773-3754
Utah Department of Environmental Quality
Division of Drinking Water
288 North 1460 West
Salt Lake City, UT 84114-4830
801-538-6159
DEQ - Water Quality
Herschler Building, 4 West
122 West 25th Street
Cheyenne, WY 82002
307-777-7781
Region IX
Compliance Section
Office of Water Quality
3033 N. Central, Room 200
Phoenix, AR 85001-600
602-392-4002
Office of Drinking Water
California Department of Health Services
714 P Street, Room 692
Sacramento, CA 95814
916-323-1382
Safe Drinking Water Branch
Environmental Management Division
P.O. Box 3378
Honolulu, HI 96801-9984
808-543-8304
Public Health Engineering
Nevada Department of Human Resources
Consumer Health Protection Services
505 East King Street, Room 103
Carson City, NV 89710
702-687-4750
Guam Environmental Protection Agency
Government of Guam
Harmon Plaza Complex Unit D-107
130 Rojas Street
Harmon, Guam 96911
671-646-8863
Division of Environmental Quality
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
Torres Hospital
P.O. .Box 1304
Saipan,CM 96950
670-322-9355
Marshall Islands Environmental Protection
Authority
P.O. Box 1322
Majuro, Marshall Islands 96960
Via Honolulu
Government of the Federated States of Micronesia
Department of Human Resources
Kolonia, Pohnpei 96941
Palau Environmental Quality Protection Board
Hospital
Koror, Palau 96940
Region X
Alaska Drinking Water Program
Wastewater and Water Treatment Section
Department of Environmental Conservation
410 Willoughby
Juneau,AK 99801
907-465-2653
Drinking Water Program
Division of Environmental Quality
Idaho Department of Health
and Welfare
1410 North Hilton
Boise, ID 83706
208-334-5860
Drinking Water Program
Department of Human Resources
Health Division
P.O. Box 14450
Portland, OR 97201
503-229-6302
Drinking Water Section
Department of Health
Airdustrial Park
P. O. Box 47822
Olympia,WA 98504
206-753-1280
55
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fiural Community Assistan'ce Program Agencies
Community Resources Group Inc.
2705 Chapman
Springdale, AR 72764
501-756-2900
Great Lakes Rural Network
109 South Front Street
Freemont, OH 43420
419-334-8911
Midwest Assistance Program, Inc.
P.O. Box 81
New Prague, MN 56071
612-758-4334
Rural Community Assistance Corporation
212519th Street, Suite 203
Sacramento, CA 95818
916-447-2854
Rural Housing Improvement, Inc.
218 Central Street, Box 429
Winchendon, MA 01475-0429
617-297-1376
Virginia Water Project, Inc.
Southeastern Rural Community
Assistance Program
702 Shenandoah Avenue, NW
P.O. Box 2868
Roanoke,VA 24001
703-345-6781
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Appendix D
Helping Small Systems Comply With The Safe Drinking Water Aet-
The Role of Restructuring EPA/812-K-92-001
United Stales
Environmental Protection
AQ»ncy
OJtee of Water
EPA/812-K-92-001
September 1992
Helping Small Systems Comply
With the Safe Drinking Water Act
The Role of Restructuring
Providing Safe, Affordable Drinking
Water...
If you are reading this, chances are you
know of small drinking water systems that
are between a rock and a hard place. They
are trying to figure out how to stay in com-
pliance with increasingly complex Safe
Drinking Water Act (SDWA) requirements
without charging more than their customers
can afford.
Requires Doing Business Differently...
Many small systems are able to provide ex-
cellent service at a reasonable cost. How-
ever, small systems facing compliance and
financial difficulties over the long term may
want to restructure their ownership or op-
erations. Restructuring solutions can be as
simple as several systems sharing a certified
operator or as ambitious as the creation of a
regional water authority.
And Making a Team Effort.
Successful restructuring takes team work.
Careful planning is required to bring water
systems, technical assistance providers, regu-
lators, and consumers together in a coalition
that can address everyone's needs.
This brochure answers some of the most
commonly asked questions about restruc-
turing and provides sources of additional
information.
Printed on Recycled Paper
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Q: WHAT is RESTRUCTURING?
A: Restructuring is the adoption of management and/or ownership
changes that help a drinking water system address new responsibili-
ties and increased costs.
Systems can restructure in a variety of ways. For example:
• Groups of small systems can buy and share services together.
• Systems can contract with a private company or larger water system to
receive services such as operation and maintenance, meter reading and
billing, and sample collection and analysis.
• A small system can merge with or be bought out by a larger one.
Systems may be physically connected following this kind of restructur-
ing, but they don't have to be.
• Small privately owned systems can restructure into a non-profit coop-
erative or public service district and become eligible for federal and
state grants and loans.
Q:_ WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF RESTRUCTURING?
A: The primary benefit is economic. Restructuring can give small
system operators access to technical, managerial and financial re-
sources they could not afford on their own.
Systems who make management changes through restructuring may
also benefit from:
« ability to make necessary investments in facilities and personnel
• more reliable and better quality service
• larger rate base ' " '
• access to grant and loan programs ''
• improved ability to stay in compliance
• long-term savings on increasing monitoring, treatment and operation
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Q: WON'T WATER RATES INCREASE DUE TO RESTRUCTURING?
A: Water rates are increasing for everyone—small systems may be able
to minimize big increases by restructuring.
Changes made to the Safe Drinking Water Act in 1986 are improving health
protection. In 1986, liPA required water systems to meet standards for only
22 contaminants. Today, systems must comply with standards for more
than 80 different substances including micro-organisms and chemical by-
products of various industrial and agricultural practices.
These new requirements mean new testing and analysis expenses for all
systems and increased water treatment costs for many. Small systems will
be hardest hit because they have fewer customers to share the costs. For
example, additional water testing costs of $5,000 per year would mean $200
per family served by a system with only 25 connections. However, for a
larger system of 2,000 connections the same $5,000 expense would amount
to only $2.50 per family.
Q: DOES RESTRUCTURING MEAN LOSS OF LOCAL CONTROL?
A: No, not necessarily. Some restructuring options enable systems to
remain independently owned and operated.
Local control is a very important issue to consider in choosing whether or
not to restructure. Some restructuring options, such as contracting for
operationand ma intimanceservices or cooperative buying,allow fora great
deal of local control. These options are also useful to consider when it is not
possible or not desirable to physically interconnect separate systems. Other
types of restructuring, such as formation of a public service district, allow
for less local control but may gi ve a system access to grants and low interest
loans. The State drinking water program, technical assistance providers
and others can help an individual system decide on the best option.
Satellite Management Success Story
Shortly afterCongress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendmentsof 1986, the mayor and city councilor Rolesville,
North Carolina knew the cost of providing water to the town's 714 residents was on its way up.'
The town would need a trained operator who could devote more time to running the 256 connection system than did
the current operator, who had many other d u ties as wel I. Bu t. town officials knew, the cost of training, wages, and fringe
benefits was unaffordable.
Contract operations and maintenance (Ojc M) was the only opt ion the town had, felt the mayor. He presented the town
council witha proposal to hire Crosby Waterand Sewer inc. in nearby Wake Forest to run the system. The council agreed
in late 1987.
Crosby Water and Sewer maintains Roles villc s wells, tests wa ter quality, installs and reads meters. The company also
advises town off icialson water system improvementsand other water related issues.all for$8,500 to59,500a year. That's
less than even a part-time trained operator would cost, according to the mayor.
The benefits of contract O&M were not long in coming to Rolesville. officials note. During the first year that Crosby
operated the system, the company's operanonal expertise helped reduce by 75 percent town's use of chemicals to treat
water.
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Q: Is RESTRUCTURING THE ANSWER FOR SMALL SYSTEMS?
A: No. Small systems facing compliance problems over the long term
will need a mixture of solutions.
Every small system's situation is different. Its needs and the practicality
of meeting those needs through restructuring will vary depending on:
• Local water quality
• Nature and cost of required improvements
• Current user costs and customer ability to pay
• Geography and distance between systems
• Availability of grants and loans
• Availability of technical assistance
• Local political considerations.
In many cases, restructuring won't solve all the problems. In addition to
restructuring systems should also consider
• Improving their mangement and operations through training and
technical assistance;
• Finding out what flexibility the state drinking water program can
off er...for example, some states may be willing to require less frequent
monitoring in certain circumstances;
• Utilizing appropriate low-cost technology if increased treatment is
necessary;
• Educatingcustomersabout new requirements, increased health protec-
tion and rising costs.
Consolidation Creates a Regional System ,
Consolidating numerous non-viable drinking water systems into a single, viable one can make system improvements
affordable and ensure the provision of sale drinking water. That's what happened north of Lakeport, California/where
51 small water systems and 500 individual connections were formed into a single water system in December 1990.
Pnortoconsolidadon,80percent of the area's small systems were ha vmg trouble meeting water quality standards. Both
the ground water and Clear Lake were poor sources of supply
Residents complained about the water, and a luvcnile hall in the area was having severe water quality problems.
Development of a 100-umt subdivision was threatened when the developer's well went dry after only 8 houses were
completed. The county wanted to build a |ail in the area, but couldn't without adequate water.
A county-sponsored feasibility study considered eight options, including creation of a regional watersystem. Although
some residents faced water bill increases of SI 2 a month, voters approved the formation of a County Service Area and
decided to build a new modern treatment facility
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Q: WHO is ABLE TO KELT SYSTEMS WITH RESTRUCTURING?
A: Small systems; have limited resources — time, manpower, equip-
ment, parts, inventory, and knowledge. Restructuring can sometimes
help to compensate for these limitations but it does require careful
upfront planning. The following organizations are interested and
knowledgeable about drinking water systems restructuring and can
help a system find a local source of assistance.
American Water Works Association (AWWA), Small System Department,
6666 West Quincy Avenue, Denver, CO 80235. (303) 794-7711.
National Rural Water Association (NRWA), 2915 South Thirteenth Street,
P.O. Box 1428, Duncan, OK 73534. (405) 252-0629.
Rural Community Assistance Program (RCAP), 602 S. King Street Suite 402,
Leesburg, VA 22075. (703) 771-8636.
State drinking waiter program staff and EPA Drinking Water Mobilization
Coordinators can also facilitate restructuring efforts. The SDWA Hotline
(800-426-4791) can identify the appropriate contact in your area.
Q: WHERE CAN I GET MOKE INFORMATION?
A: The EPA Office of Water recently published a restructuring manual
The Restructuring Manual (EPA570/9-91-035) covers different types of restruc-
turing opbons and discusses some of the most commonly encountered problems
that can slow or stop a restructuring effort. It is available from the EPA Safe
Drinking Water Hotline (1-800426-4791) or the Office of Ground Water and
Drinking Water Resource Center, USEPA, 401 M St. SW, Washington, DC 20460.
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Safe Drinking Water
Hotline
(800) 426-4791
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Drinking Water Programs
For More Information, contact the office that represents your state
EPA Region 1
GW Mngt./Water Supply Branch
John F. Kennedy Federal Building
Boston. MA 02203
(617) 565-3610
Connecticut. Maine,
Massachusetts. Rhode Island.
Naw Hampshire. Vermont
EPA Region 2
D/G Water Protection Branch
26 Federal Plaza
New York. NY 10278
(212) 264-1800
New York. New Jersey.
Puerto Rico. Virgin Islands
EPA Region 3
D/G Water Protection Branch
841 Chestnut Building
Philadelptva. PA 19107
(215) 597-8227
District of Columbia. Maryland
Pennsylvania. Virginia.
West Virginia
EPA Region 4
Municipal Facilities Branch
345 Courtland Street. N.E
Atlanta. GA 30365
(404) 347-2913
Alabama. Florida. Georgia.
Kentucky. Mississippi.
North Carolina. South Carolina.
Tennessee
EPA Region 5
Sate Drinking Water Branch
77 West Jackson Blvd
Chicago. IL 60604
(312)886-6197
Illinois Indiana Minnesota
Michigan. Ortio Wisconsin
EPA Region 6
Water Supply Branch
1445 Ross Avenue
12th Floor, Suite 1200
Dallas. TX 75270
(214) 655-7155
Arkansas. Louisiana. New Mexico.
Oklahoma. Texas
EPA Region 7
Drinking Water Branch
726 Minnesota Avenue
Kansas City. KS 66101
(913)551-7032
Iowa. Kansas.
Missouri, Nebraska
EPA Region 8
Drinking Water Branch
999 18th Street. Suite 500
Denver, CO 80202
(303) 293-1413
Colorado. Montana,
North Dakota. South Dakota.
Utah. Wyoming
EPA Region 9
D/G Water Protection Branch
75 Hawthorne Street
San Francisco. CA 94105
(415) 744-2250
Arizona. California, Hawaii,
Nevada. American Samoa,
Guam
EPA Region 10
Dnnking Water Branch
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle. WA 98101
(206) 553-6648
Alaska. Idaho.
Oregon. Washington
• U.S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1993 -715 -003/ 87029
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