United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
(WH-550)
EPA/810-F-93-001
June 1993
LEAD In Your
Drinking Water
Drinking Water Treatment
Actions You Can Take
To Reduce Lead In
Drinking Water
Health Threats From Lead
Too much lead in the human body can
cause serious damage to the brain,
kidneys, nervous system, and
red blood cells.
You have the greatest risk,
even with short-term expo-
sure, if:
4 you are a young child, or
4 you are pregnant.
Sources of Lead in Drinking Water
Lead levels in your drinking water are
likely to be highest if:
4 your home has faucets or fittings
made of brass which contains some
lead, or
4 your home or water system has lead
pipes, or
4 your home has copper pipes with
lead solder, and
- the home is less than five years
old, or
- you have natually soft water, or
- water often sits in the pipes for
several hours.
4 Flush Your Pipes Before Drinking
Anytime the water in a particular faucet has not been
used for six hours or longer, "flush" your cold-water
pipes by running the water until it becomes as cold
as it will get. (This could take as little as five to
thirty seconds if there has been recent heavy water
use such as showering or toilet flushing. Otherwise,
it could take two minutes or longer.) The more time
water has been sitting in your home's pipes, the
more lead it may contain.
4 Only Use Cold Water for Consumption
Use only water from the cold-water tap for drinking,
cooking, and especially for making baby formula.
Hot water is likely to contain higher levels of lead.
The two actions recommended above are very
important to the health of your family. They will
probably be effective in reducing lead levels because
most of the lead in household water usually comes
from the plumbing in your house, not from the local
water supply.
4 Have Your Water Tested
After you have taken the two precautions above for
reducing the lead in water used for drinking or
cooking, have your water tested. The only way to
be sure of the amount of lead in your household
water is to have it tested by a competent laboratory.
Your water supplier may be able to offer informa-
tion or assistance with testing. Testing is especially
important for apartment dwellers, because flushing
may not be effective in high-rise buildings with
lead-soldered central piping.
For more details on the problem of lead in drinking
water and what you can do about it, read the ques-
tions and answers in the remainder of this booklet.
Your local or state department of health or environ-
ment might be able to provide additional informa-
tion.
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Q Why is lead a problem?
A Although it has been used in numerous consumer
products, lead is a toxic metal now known to be harmful to
human health if inhaled or ingested. Important sources of
lead exposure include: ambient air, soil and dust (both inside
and outside the home), food (which can be contaminated by
lead in the air or in food containers), and water (from the
corrosion of plumbing). On average, it is estimated that lead
in drinking water contributes between 10 and 20 percent of
total lead exposure in young children. In the last few years,
federal controls on lead in gasoline have significantly reduced
people's exposure to lead.
The degree of harm depends upon the level of exposure
(from all sources). Known effects of exposure to lead range
from subtle biochemical changes at low levels of exposure, to
severe neurological and toxic effects or even death at ex-
tremely high levels.
Does lead affect everyone equaUy?
A Young children, infants and fetuses appear to be particu-
larly vulnerable to lead poisoning. A dose of lead that would
have little effect on an adult can have a big effect on a small
body. Also, growing children will more rapidly adsorb any
lead they consume. A child's mental and physical develop-
ment can be irreversibly stunted by over-exposure to lead. In
infants, whose diet consists of liquids made with water - such
as baby formula - lead in drinking water makes up an even
greater proportion of total lead exposure (40 to 60 percent).
Q How could lead get into my drinking water?
A Typically, lead gets into your water after the water
leaves your local treatment plant or your well. That is, the
source of lead in your home's water is most likely pipe or
solder in your home's own plumbing.
The most common cause is corrosion, a reaction between
the water and the lead pipes or solder. Dissolved oxygen, low
pH (acidity) and low mineral content in water are common
causes of corrosion. All kinds of water, however, may have
high levels of lead.
One factor that increases corrosion
is the practice of grounding electrical
equipment (such as telephones) to
water pipes. Any electric current
traveling through the ground wire will
accelerate the corrosion of lead in the
pipes. (Nevertheless, wires should
not be removed from pipes unless a
qualified electrician installs an
adequate alternative grounding
system.)
Q Does my home's age make a difference?
A Lead-contaminated drinking water is most often a
problem in houses that are either very old or very new.
Up through the early 1900's, it was common practice, hi
some areas of the country, to use lead pipes for interior
plumbing. Also, lead piping was often used for the service
connections that join residences to public water supplies.
(This practice ended only recently in some localities.)
Plumbing installed before 1930 is most likely to contain lead.
Copper pipes have replaced lead pipes in most residential
plumbing. However, the use of lead solder with copper pipes
is widespread. Experts regard this lead solder as the major
cause of lead contamination of household water in U.S. homes
today. New brass faucets and fittings can also leach lead, even
though they are "lead-free."
Scientific data indicate that the newer the home, the greater
the risk of lead contamination. Lead levels decrease as a
building ages. This is because, as time passes, mineral
deposits form a coating on the inside of the pipes (if the water
is not corrosive). This coating insulates the water from the
solder. But, during the first five years (before the coating
forms) water is in direct contact with the lead. More likely
than not, water in buildings less than five years old has high
levels of lead contamination.
Q How can I tell if my water contains too much
lead?
A You should have your water tested for lead. Testing
costs between $20 and $100. Since you cannot see, taste, or
smell lead dissolved in water, testing is the only sure way of
telling whether or not there are harmful quantities of lead in
your drinking water.
You should be particularly suspicious if your home has lead
pipes (lead is a dull gray metal that is soft enough to be easily
scratched with a house key), if you see signs of corrosion
(frequent leaks, rust-colored water, stained dishes or laundry,
or if your non-plastic plumbing is less than five years old.
Your water supplier may have useful information, including
whether or not the service connector used in your home or
area is made of lead.
Testing is especially important in high-rise buildings where
flushing might not work.
Q How do I have my water tested?
A Water samples from the tap will have to be collected and
sent to a qualified laboratory for analysis. Contact your local
water utility or your local health department for information
and assistance. In some instances, these authorities will test
your tap water for you, or they can refer you to a qualified
laboratory. You may find a qualified testing company under
'Laboratories" in the yellow pages of your telephone direc-
tory.
You should be sure that the lab you use has been approved
by your state or by EPA as being able to analyze drinking
water samples for lead contamination. To find out which labs
are qualified, contact your state or local department of the
environment or health.
Q What are the testing procedures?
A Arrangements for sample collection will vary. A few
laboratories will send a trained technician to take the samples;
but in most cases, the lab will provide sample containers
along with instructions as to how you should draw your own
tap-water samples. If you collect the samples yourself, make
sure you follow the lab's instructions exactly. Otherwise, the
results might not be reliable.
Make sure that the laboratory is following EPA's water
sampling and analysis procedures. Be certain to take a "first
draw" and a "fully flushed" sample. (The first-draw sample -
taken after at least six hours of no water use from the tap
tested - will have the highest level of lead, while the fully
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flushed sample will indicate the effectiveness of flushing the
tap before using the water.)
Q How much lead is too much?
A Federal standards initially limited the amount of lead in
water to 50 parts per billion (ppb). In light of new health and
exposure data, EPA has set an action level of 15 ppb. If tests
show that the level of lead in your
household water is in the area of 15
ppb or higher, it is advisable -
especially if there are young children
in the home - to reduce the lead level
in your tap water as much as possible.
(EPA estimates that more than 40
million U.S. residents use water that
can contain lead in excess of 15 ppb.)
Note: One ppb is equal to 1.0
microgram per liter (fig/1) or 0.001
milligram per liter (mg/1).
Q How can I reduce my
exposure?
A If your drinking water is
contaminated with lead-or until you
find out for sure-there are several
things you can do to minimize your
exposure. Two of these actions should
be taken right away by everyone who
has, or suspects, a problem. The
advisability of other actions listed
here will depend upon your particular
circumstances.
Immediate Steps
A The first step is to refrain from
consuming water that has been in
contact with your home's plumbing
for more than six hours, such as
overnight or during your work day.
Before using water for drinking or
cooking, "flush" the cold water faucet
by allowing the water to run until you
can feel that the water has become as
cold as it will get. You must do this
for each drinking water faucet-taking
a shower will not flush your kitchen
tap. Buildings built prior to about
1930 may have service connectors
made of lead. Letting the water run
for an extra 15 seconds after it cools
should also flush this service connec-
tor. Flushing is important because the
longer water is exposed to lead pipes
or lead solder, the greater the possible
lead contamination. (The water that
comes out after flushing will not have been in extended
contact with lead pipes or solder.)
Once you have flushed a tap, you might fill one or more
bottles with water and put them in the refrigerator for later use
that day. (The water that was flushed - usually one to two
gallons-can be used for non-consumption purposes such as
washing dishes or clothes; it needn't be wasted.)
Note: Flushing may prove ineffective in high-rise buildings
that have large-diameter supply pipes joined with lead solder.
4 The second step is to never cook with or consume water
from the hot-water tap. Hot water dissolves more lead more
quickly than cold water. So, do not use water taken from the
hot tap for cooking or drinking, and especially not for
making baby formula. (If you need hot water, draw water
from the cold tap and heat it on the stove.) Use only thor-
oughly flushed water from the cold
tap for any consumption.
Definitions
Corrosion: A dissolving and wearing away
of metal caused by a chemical reaction (in
this case, between water and metal pipes, or
between two different metals).
First Draw: The water that immediately
comes out when a tap is first opened.
Flush: To open a cold-water tap to clear out
all the water which may have been sitting for
a long time in the pipes. In new homes, to
flush a system means to send large volumes
of water gushing through the unused pipes to
remove loose particles of solder and flux.
(Sometimes this is not done correctly or at
all.)
Flux: A substance applied during soldering
to facilitate the flow of solder. Flux often
contains lead and can, itself, be a source of
contamination.
Naturally soft water: Any water with low
mineral content, lacking the hardness
minerals calcium and magnesium.
Public Water System: Any system that
supplies water to 25 or more people or has
15 or more service connections (buildings or
customers).
Service Connector: The pipe that carries tap
water from the public water main to a
building. In the past these were often made
of lead.
Soft water: Any water that is not "hard."
Water is considered to be hard when it
contains a large amount of dissolved miner-
als, such as salts containing calcium or
magnesium. You may be familiar with hard
water that interferes with the lathering action
of soap.
Solder: A metallic compound used to seal
joints in plumbing. Until recently, most
solder contained about 50 percent lead.
Other Actions
4 If you are served by a public
water system (more than 219
million people are) contact your
supplier and ask whether or not the
supply system contains lead piping,
and whether your water is corrosive.
If either answer is yes, ask what
steps the supplier is taking to deal
with the problem of lead contami-
nation.
Drinking water can be treated at the
plant to make it less corrosive.
Cities such as Boston and Seattle
have successfully done this for an
annual cost of less than one dollar
per person. (Treatment to reduce
corrosion will also save you and the
water supplier money by reducing
damage to plumbing.)
Water mains containing lead pipes
can be replaced, as well as those
portions of lead service connections
that are under the jurisdiction of the
supplier.
A If you own a well or another
water source, you can treat the
water to make it less corrosive.
Corrosion control devices for
individual households include
calcite filters and other devices.
Calcite filters should be installed in
the line between the water source
and any lead service connections or
lead-soldered pipe. You might ask
your health or water department for
assistance in finding these commer-
cially, available products.
4 Recently a number of cartridge
type filtering devices became
available on the market. These
devices use various types of
filtering media, including carbon,
ion exchange resins, activated
alumina and other privately mar-
keted products. Unless they have been certified as described
below, the effectiveness of these devices to reduce lead
exposure at the tap can vary greatly.
It is highly recommended that before purchasing a filter,
you verify the claims made by the vendor. If you have bought
a filter, you should replace the filter periodically as specified
by the manufacturer. Failure to do so may result in exposure
to high lead levels.
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Two organizations can help you decide which type of filter
is best for you. The National Sanitation Foundation, Interna-
tional (NSF), and independent testing agency, evaluates and
certifies the performance of filtering devices to remove lead
from drinking water. Generally, their seal of approval appears
on the device and product packaging. The Water Quality
Association (WQA) is an independent, not-for-profit organiza-
tion that represents firms and individuals who produce and
sell equipment and services which improves the quality of
drinking water. WQA's water quality specialists can provide
advice on treatment units for specific uses at home or busi-
ness.
For additional information regarding the certification
program, contact NSF at (313) 769-8010, or WQA at (708)
505-0161, ext. 270.
4 You can purchase bottled water for home and office
consumption. (Bottled water sold in interstate commerce is
regulated by the Food and Drug Administration. Water that is
bottled and sold within a state is under state regulation. EPA
does not regulate bottled water.)
4 When repairing or installing new plumbing in old homes,
instruct, in writing, any plumber you hire to use only lead-free
materials.
4 When building a new home, be sure lead-free materials
are used. Before you move into a newly built home, remove
all strainers from faucets and flush the water for at least 15
minutes to remove loose solder or flux debris from the
plumbing. Occasionally, check the strainers and remove any
later accumulation of loose material.
Q What about lead in sources other that drinking
water?
A As mentioned above, drinking water is estimated to
contribute only 10 to 20 percent of the total lead exposure in
young children. Ask your local health department or call EPA
for more information on other sources of exposure to lead. A
few general precautions can help prevent contact with lead in
and around your home:
*»* Avoid removing paint in the home unless you are sure it
contains no lead. Lead paint should only be removed by
someone who knows how to protect you from lead paint dust.
However, by washing floors, window sills, carpets, upholstery
and any objects children put in their mouths, you can get rid
of this source of lead.
*** Make sure children wash their hands after playing
outside in the dirt or snow.
*** Never store food in open cans. Keep it in glass plastic or
stainless steel containers. Use glazed pottery only for display
if you don't know whether it contains lead.
*** If you work around lead, don't bring it home. Shower
and change clothes at work and wash your work clothes
separately.
\£ Aren't there a lot of types of treatment devices
that would work?
A There are many devices which are certified for effective
lead reduction, but devices that are not designed to remove
lead will not work.
It is suggested that you follow the recommendations below
before purchasing any device:
4 Avoid being misled by false claims and scare tactics. Be
wary of "free" water testing that is provided by the salesper-
son to determine your water quality; many tests are inaccurate
or misleading. Research the reputation and legitimacy of the
company or sales representative.
4 Avoid signing contracts or binding agreements for "one-
time offers or for those that place a lien on your home. Be
very careful about giving credit card information over the
phone. Check into any offers that involve prizes or sweep-
stakes winnings.
4 As suggested above, verify the claims of manufacturers
by contacting the National Sanitation Foundation International
or the Water Quality Association.
Q What is the government doing about the problem
of lead in household water?
A There are two major governmental actions to reduce
your exposure to lead:
4 Under the authority of the Safe Drinking Water Act, EPA
set the action level for lead in drinking water at 15 ppb. This
means utilities must ensure that water from the customer's tap
does not exceed this level in at least 90 percent of the homes
sampled. If water from the tap does exceed this limit, then the
utility must take certain steps to correct the problem. Utilities
must also notify citizens of all violations of the standard.
4 In June 1986, President Reagan signed amendments to the
Safe Drinking Water Act. These amendments require the use
of "lead-free" pipe, solder, and flux in the installation or
repair of any public water system, or any plumbing in a
residential or non-residential facility connected to a public
water system.
Under the provisions of these amendments, solders and flux
will be considered "lead-free" when they contain not more
than 0.2 percent lead. (In the past, solder normally contained
about 50 percent lead.) Pipes and fittings will be considered
"lead-free" when they contain not more than 8.0 percent lead.
These requirements went into effect in June 1986. The law
gave state governments until June 1988 to implement and
enforce these new limitations. Although the states have
banned all use of lead materials in drinking water systems,
such bans do not eliminate lead contamination within existing
plumbing. Also, in enforcing the ban, some states have
continued to find illegally used lead solder in new plumbing
installations. While responsible plumbers always observe the
ban, this suggests that some plumbing installations or repairs
using lead solder may be escaping detection by the limited
number of enforcement personnel.
Where can I get more information?
First contact your county or state
department of health or environment for
information on local water quality.
For more general information on lead,
there are now two toll-free telephone
services:
EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline
1-800-426-4791
National Lead Information Center
1-800-LEAD-FYI
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