United States
Environmental Protection .
-Agency . '.
Office of Water
4601 '.
EPA 811-F-95-002a- T
October \995
National Primary
Water Regulations
Asbestos
CHEMICAL/ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CAS NUMBER: 1332-21-4 , .
COLOR/ FORM/ODOR: White, gray, green or brown crystalline
fibers; odorless
SOLUBILITIES: insoluble
SOIL SORPTION COEFFICIENT: N/A
BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR: N/A; not expected to bibconcentrate
COMMON ORES: Amosite, Chrysotile, Crocidiolite; Tremolite;
Ascarite , ' ,
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS ,
MCLG: 7 million fibers per liter (MFL)
^(fibers > 10 microns in length)
MCL: 7 million fibers per liter (MFL)
HAL(child): none
HEALTH EFFECTS .SUMMARY
Acute: No reliable data are available on the acute toxic
effects from short-term.exposures to asbestos. No Health
Advisories have been established for short-term expo-
sures. . .' . .': . ; i : _. - ';;"
Chronic: Asbestos has the potential to cause lung
disease from a lifetime exposure at levels above the
MCL ' '.,'';. : : -.; -;'. -;._. ".-'' /
Cancer: Asbestos has the potential to cause cancer
of the lung and other internal organs from a lifetime
exposure at levels above the MCL. , '.;
USAGE PATTERNS '
: Because asbestos fibers are resistant to heat and
most chemicals, they have been mined for use in a
variety of products (over 3,000 different products in the
United States). In 1988, asbestos was consumed in
roofing products, 28%; friction products, 26%; asbestos
cement pipe, 14%; packing and gaskets; 13%; paper,
6%; and other 13%. . : ; :
Pipe products find use in water supply, sewage dis-
posal, & irrigation systems. Asbestos cement sheets are
used in a wide variety of construction applications. Other
uses of asbestos include fire resistant textiles, friction
materials (ie, brake linings), underlayment & roofing
papers, & floor tiles. Crocidolite can be spun & woven
using modified cotton industry machinery; the asbestos
cloth is used for fireproof clothing & curtains.
Most uses of asbestos were banned in the United
States by the EPA on July 12,1989 because of potential
adverse health effects in exposed persons. The remain-
ing, currently allowed uses of asbestos Include battery
separators, sealant tape, asbestos thread, packing ma-
terials, and certain industrial Uses of both sheet gaskets
and beater-add gaskets.
' ' '- , L
. , . . - ' i
cLEASE PATTERNS
Asbestos fibers may^ehter the environment from natu-f
, Toxic RELEASE INVENTORY-
RELEASES TO WATER AND LAND: 1987 TO 1993
Water
TOTALS (in pounds). < 32,650
Top Five States
PA, 0
LA , 61
TX ; 0
AR 1,000
VA . 0
Top Industrial Sources
Asbestos products 3,005
Alkalis, chlorine . ,1,973
Industrial organic chems 0
Asphalt feltsi coatings , 5
Auto parts 0
Petroleum refining ; 0.
Plastic pipes 0
Shipbuilding, repairing 0
, Land
8,620,439
' 2,945,049
2,256,400
1,737,200
568,227
480,000
2,510,227
2,256,404
1,230;000
871,067
563,694
314,560
235.200
: 211,400
* State/Industry totals only include facilities with releases
greater than a certain amount - usually 1000 to 10,000 Ibs.
October 1995
Technical Version
Printed on Recycled Paper
-------
ral sources such as erosion of asbestos-containing ores,.
but the primary source of asbestos in the environment is
through the wear or breakdown of. asbestos-containing
materials. Asbestos fibers have been released into water
by the dumping of mining tailings into lakes, by the runoff
of process and air scrubber water into lakes and streams,
and by the use of asbestos cement pipes in water supply
systems.
Over one million tons of asbestos is contained in friable
materials in ships, buildings, power plants, chemical
plants, refineries, and other locations of high temperature
equipment. Other products may include insulation, auto-
mobile brakes, cement pipes, and roofing materials. The
maintenance, repair, and removal of this material will
account for the principal releases in the future. Asbestos
fibers also can be released to the environment from
asbestos processing, including milling, manufacturing,
and fabrication. .
From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release
Inventory, asbestos releases to land totalled nearly 9
million Ibs., and releases to water totalled nearly 33,000
Ibs, These releases were.primarily from asbestos prod-
ucts industries which use asbestos in roofing materials
friction materials, and cement. The largest releases oc-
curred in Pennsylvania and Louisiana.
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE
As a naturally occurring substance, asbestos can be
present in surface and ground water. Because asbestos
fibers in water do not evaporate into air or break down in
water, small fibers and fiber-containing particles may be
carried long distances by water currents before settling to
the bottom; larger fibers and particles tend to settle more
quickly. . .
Asbestos does not tend to adsorb to solids normally
found in natural watersystems, but some materials (trace
metals and organic Compounds) have an affinity for
asbestos minerals. The fibers are not able to move down
through soil to ground water.
Asbestos is not affected by photolytic processes and is
considered to be non-biodegradable by aquatic organ-
isms. Asbestos fibers are not broken down to other
compounds in the environment and, therefore, can re-
main in the; environment for decades or longer.
There are no data regarding the bioaccumulation of
asbestos in aquatic organisms.
OTHER REGULATORY INFORMATION
MONITORING:
FOR GROUND AND SURFACE WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample once every 9 years
REPEAT FREQUENCY- 1 sample once every 9 years
- TRIGGERS If detect at > 7 MFL, sample quarterly.
ANALYSIS:
REFERENCE SOURCE
EPA 800/4-83-043
METHOD NUMBERS
.Transmission Electron Microscopy
TREATMENT:
BESTAVAU/iBLETECHNOLOGIES
Coagulation/Filtration; Direct and Diatomite Filtration; Corrosion Control
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
* EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information:
EPA Safe. Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791
A Other sources of lexicological and environmental fate data include:
Toxic Substance Control Act Information .Line -202/554-1404 ,
Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000
October 1995
Technical Version
Page 2
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office bf Water
4601 -
EPA811-F-95-O02b-T
October 1995
National Primary Drinking
Water Regulations -
Barium
CHEMICAL/ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CAS NUMBER: 7440-39-3 (metal) .
COLOR/FORM/ODOR: Barium is a lustrous, machinable metal
which exists in nature only in combined form.
SOILSORPTION COEFFICIENT: KocN/A; high mobility ''._'-
BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR: BCFs of.7-100 for marine animals,
10,00 for marine, plants, 2-20 for some cropsr
COMMON ORES: sulfate-Barite; carbonate-Witherite
SOLUBILITIES (WATER):
carbonate- 22 mg/L at 18 deg C
chloride- . 310 g/L at 0 deg C'
chromate- 3.4 mg/L at 16 deg C
cyanide 800 g/L at 14 deg C
hydroxide- sol. in dil. acid
nitrate- 87 g/L at 20 deg C
permanganate- 625 g/L at 11 deg C
peroxide- sol. in dil. acid
sulfate- 2.2 mg/L at 18 deg C
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS . .
MCLG: 2mg/l >
MCL: 2mg/l
HAL(child): > none
HEALTH EFFECTS SUMMARY
Acute: EPA has found barium to potentially cause
gastrointestinal disturbances and muscular weakness
Barium nitrate is used in fireworks, ceramic.-glazes,
electronics, tracer bullets, detonators, and neon sign
lights. Barium cyanide is used in electroplating and
metallurgy. Barium chlorate is used in fireworks^ explo-
sives, matches, and as a mordant in dyeing.
.Barium carbonate is used as follows: 45 percent as
ingredient in glass, 25 percent in brick and clay products,
7 percent as a raw material for barium ferrites, 4 percent
in photographic paper coatings, 19 percent other.
No Health Advisories have been established for short-
term exposures.
Chronic: Barium has the potential to cause hyperten-
sion resulting from long-term-exposures at levels above
the MCL ';' '
Cancer: There is no evidence that barium has the
.potential to cause cancer from lifetime exposures in
drinking water.
- . ,.'.-" ' ' - i " - -
USAGE PATTERNS ,
The largest end use of barium metal is as a "getter" to
remove the last traces of gases from vacuum and
television picture tubes. It is also used to improve perfor-
mance of lead alloy grids of acid batteries; as a compo-
nent of grey and ductile irons; in the manufacture of
steel, copper and other metals; as a loader for paper,
soap, rubber and linoleum.
..-.. --..'. .-.'
Barium peroxide is .used as a bleach, in dyes, fire-
works and tracer-bullets, in igniter and welding materi-
als, and in manufacture of hydrogen peroxide and oxy-
gen. The permanganate is used as a dry cell depolarizer
and in disinfectants.
Toxic RELEASE INVENTORY - '
RELEASES TO WATER AND LAND: 'f 1'987
/
, TOTALS (in pounds)
Top Ten States *
AZ
UT '
VA
NM ,
IL :
TN-
AL , '
PA
TX" ' . . \
NJ
. - ' '. - '
Major Industries*
Copper smelting
Car parts, accessories
Industrial organics
. Inorganic pigments ' .-.
Gray, ductile iron .
Steelworks, furnaces
Electrometallurgy :
Paper mills
Water
928,448 ,
' ' " "V
0 .
1,500
,0
o
34,000
0
31,041
15,582
I ซ^)V%^^
167,864
20,905 .
1,500 .
1,743 , .
132,511
, 5,261
: o
256,582
1,599
64,770
TO 1993
Land
57,063,031
14,595,520
13,423,164
9,218,901
,5,233,790
3,977,817
2,586,906
1,638,988
1,216,362
599,565
705,666
31,958,310
9,456,667
4,106,827
3,672,451-
1,556,681
679,999
633,876 v
527,330
* Water/Land totals only include facilities with releases . ,
greater than a certain amount - usually 1000 to 10,000 Ibs.
October 1995
Technical Version
Printed on Recycled Paper
-------
Barium hydroxide te used fn lubricating ete an*fttMซe -banum in drinking water. Most supplies contain less than
and as a component of detergents in motor oils. It is also 200 ug/l of barium. The average concentration of barium
used in plastics stabilizers, papermaking additives, seal- in USA drinking water is 28.6 ug/l (1977 data). The
Ing compounds, vulcanization accelerators, pigment dis- drinking water of many communities in Illinois, Kentucky,
persants and self-extinguishing polyurethane foams and Pennsylvania, & New Mexico contains concentrations of
to protect limestone objects from deterioration. barium that may be 10 times higher than the drinking
facture and in water softening. Barium-based dyes are surface w*ter W* exceeds 1000 ug/l.
widely used in inks, paints, cosmetics and drugs :
Over 65% of barite produced was used as a weighting ENVIRONMENTAL FATE
agent in oil and gas well drilling fluids, with a 50 percent In water, the more toxic soluble barium salts are likely
decrease in demand for barite in 1986 due primarily to a to precipitate out as the less toxic insoluble sulfate or
severe downturn in oil and gas well drilling activity carbonate/Barium is not very mobile in most soil sys-
prompted by soft world oil prices. Barium sulfate is also terns. Adsorption of barium was measured in a sandy soil
used in photographic papers, pigments and as a filler for and a sandy loam soil at levels closely corresponding to
rubber & resins. those to be expected.for field conditions. In,general,
. , sludge solutions appeared to increase the mobility of
RELEASE PATTERNS elements in a soil. This is due to a combination of
_ . ... . . _-*_- Tho mnct complexation by dissolved organic compounds, high
Barium metal does no occur ปJ^J^gf background concentration and high ionic strengths of the
common ores are the sulfate, barite, found in AK,AR,CA, ., , ti
GA, KY, MO, NV, TN, and the carbonate, witherite, found so" solullcin-
in AR, CA, GA, KY, MO, NV. Barite was produced at 38 Marine animals concentrate the element 7-100 times,
mines in the seven states in 1973, with Nevada supplying and marine plants 1000 times from seawater. Soybeans
50% of the tonnage. Missouri ranked second. and tomatoes also accumulate soil barium 2-20 times.
Barium is released to water and soil in the discharge
and disposal of drilling wastes, from the smelting of
copper, and the manufacture of motor vehicle parts and
accessories.
Barium is emitted into the atmosphere mainly by the
Industrial processes involved in the mining, refining, and
production of barium and barium-based chemicals, and
as a result of combustion of coal and oil.
From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release
Inventory barium compound releases to land and water
totalled over 57 million Ibs., of which about 99 percent
was to land. These releases were primarily from copper
smelting industries which use barium as a deoxidizer.
The largest releases occurred in Arizona and Utah. The
largest direct releases to water occurred in Texas
Barium is found in waste streams from a large number
of manufacturing plants in quantities that seldom exceed
the normal levels found in soil. Background levels for soil
range from 100-3000 ppm barium. Occurs naturally in
almost all (99.4%) surface waters examined, in concen-
tration of 2 to 340 ug/l, with an average of 43 ug/l. The
drainage basins with low mean concentration of barium
(15 ug/l) occur in the western Great Lakes, & the highest
mean concentration of 90 ug/l is in the southwestern
drainage basins of the lower Mississippi Valley. In stream
water & most groundwater, only traces of the element are
present.
There are limited survey data on the occurrence of
OTHER REGULATORY INFORMATION
MONITORING:
- FOR GROUND WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample once every 3 years
REPEAT FREQUENCY- If no detections for-3 rounds, once every 9 years
- FOR SURFACE WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample annually
REPEATFFIEQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
- TRIGGERS - If detect at > 2 mg/L, sample quarterly.
ANALYSIS:
REFERENCE SOURCE
EPA 600/4-79-020
NTIS PB 91-231498
Standard Methods
METHOD NUMBERS
208.1;208.2
200.7
3111D;3113B
TREATMENT:
BESTAVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES '
Ion Exchange, Reverse Osmosis, Lime Softening, Electrodialysis
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
* EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information:
EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791
* Other sources of lexicological and environmental fate data include:
Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404
Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531
Agency for Toxic Substances 2nd Disease Registry - 404/639-6000
October 1995
Technical Version
Page 2
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agericy'
Office of Water
4601
EPA 811-F-95-002 c-1
October 1935
National Primary Drinking
Water Regulations
Cadmium
CHEMICAL/ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CAS NUMBER: 7440-43-9 (metal)
COLOR/ FORM/ODOR: Cadmium is a lustrous silvery metallic
element found only in combined forms in nature.
SOIL SORPTION COEFFICIENT: Koc = N/A; mobility higher than other
metals , .
BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR: Fish: 33 to 2213; Shell fish: 5 to 2500;
Other invertebrates: 164 to 4190; Plants: 603 to 960.
COMMON ORES: sulfide-greenockite; carbonate-octavite; others:
hawleyite. Also found in zinc, copper, lead ores.
SOLUBILITIES (WATER): ;
acetate- very soluble
bromide- 570 g/L at 10 deg C
.carbonate- insoluble
chloride- 1400 g/L at 20 deg C
fluoroborate- very soluble
mercury sulfide-N/A
nitrate- 1090 g/L at 0 deg C
oxide- insoluble .
sulfate- . 755 g/L at 0 deg C
sulfide- insoluble
stearate- N/A
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
MCLG: 0.005 mg/l .
MCL: 0.005 mg/l :
HALfchild):. 1- to. 10-day; 0.04 mg/L
Longer-term: 0.005 mg/L '
HEALTH EFFECTS SUMMARY ซ
Acute: EPA has found cadmium to potentially cause a
variety of effects from acute exposures, including: nau-
sea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle cramps, salivation, sen-
sory disturbances, liver injury, convulsions, shock and
renal failure.
Prinking water levels which are considered "safe" for
short-term exposures: Fora 10-kg (22 lb:) child consum-
ing 1 liter of water per day, a one- to ten-day exposure to
0.04 mg/L; a longer-term (up .to 7 years) exposure to
0.005 mg/L
Chronic: Cadmium has the potential to cause
kidney, liver, :bone and blood damage from long- term
exposure at levels above the MCL.
Cancer: There is inadequate evidence to state whether
or not cadmium has the potential to cause cancer from
lifetime exposures in drinking water.
USAGE PATTERNS / ,
2.9 million Ibs of cadmium were produced in the US in
1986, and nearly twice that amount was imported in the
sameyear.
According to 1986 estimates, cadmium is used prima-
rily for metal plating and coating operations (35%),
including transportation equipment, machinery and bak-
ing enamels, photography, television phosphors. It is
also used in nickel-cadmium and solar batteries (25%), in
pigments (20%), as a stabilizer in plastics and synthetic
products (15%), alloys and other uses (5%). Cadmium
salts have had a very limited use as fungicide for golf
courses and home lawns.
RELEASE PATTERNS ;
- -' " -!, . '. -
Cadmium occurs naturally in zinc, lead and copper
ores, in coal and other fossil fuels, shales and is released
Toxic RELEASE INVENTORY -
RELEASES. TO WATER AND LAND:
1987 TO 1993
Water
TOTALS (in pounds) 31,487
fop Seven .States *
;AZ 503
UT 1,750
MT '-', 0
TN 2,700
ID 250
MO 2,361
Wl ; '-.. 0
Major Industries*
Zinc, lead smelting 5,061
Copper smelting, refining 2,253
Indust. inorganic chems 250
Electroplating, anodizing 0
Steelworks, blast furnaces" 5
Inorganic pigments 5,140
2,059,574
433,035
372,010
315,965
288,781
225,761
189,914
106,000
831,948
805,045,
225,761
106,000
13,000
7,000
* State/Industry totals only include facilities With releases
greater than a certain amount- usually 1000 to 10,000 Ibs.
October 1995
Technical Version
Printed on Recycled Paper
-------
during volcanic action. These deposits ban serve as
sources to ground and surface waters, especially when
in contact With soft, acidic waters.
Major industrial releases of cadmium are due to wast-
estreams and leaching of landfills, and from a variety of
operations that involve cadmium or zinc. These may
include: during the smelting and refining of zinc, lead and
copper bearing ores; during recovery of metal by pro-
cessing scrap; during melting and pouring of cadmium
metal; during casting of various cadmium alloy products
used for coating telephone cables, trolley wires, welding,
electrodes, automatic sprinkling systems, steam boilers,
fire alarms, high pressure/temperature bearings, starting
switches, aircraft relays, light duty circuit breakers, low
temperature solder, and jewelry; during fabrication of
metal, alloys, or plated steel; during casting and use of
solders; during melting of cadmium ingots for paint and
pigment manufacture used for coloring of plastics and
ceramic glazes, electroplating, and in chemical synthe-
sis; during coating of metals by hot dipping or spraying;
during manufacture of nickel-cadmium batteries for use
in radio portable telephones, convenience appliances,
and vented cells used in airplanes, helicopters, and
stand-by power and lighting. The remaining cadmium
emissions are from fossil fuel combustion, fertilizer appli-
cation, and sewage sludge disposal. '
Cadmium also occurs as a by-product of corrosion of
some galvanized plumbing and distribution system ma-
terials.
From 1987 to 1993, according to EPA's Toxic Chemi-
cal Release Inventory, cadmium releases were primarily
from zinc, lead and copper smelting and refining indus-
tries, with the largest releases occurring in Arizona and
Utah.
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE I
The oxide and sulfide are relatively insoluble while the
chloride and sulfate salts are soluble. The adsorption of
cadmium onto soils and silicon or aluminum oxides is
strongly pH-dependent, increasing as conditions be-
come more alkaline. When the pH is below 6-7, cadmium
is desorbed from these materials. Cadmium has consid-
erably less affinity for the absorbents tested than do
copper, zinc, and lead and might be expected to be more
mobile in the environment than these materials.
Studies have indicated that cadmium concentrations
in bed sediments are generally at least an order of
magnitude higher than in overlying water. A study of
Ottawa River sediments found that sediment composed
mainly of well sorted sand may be an efficient sink .for
heavy metals if there is a significant amount of organic
material added to the sediments by the commercial
activities such as logging. Both sorption and desorption
were controlled by the nature of total heavy metal load-
ing, the sediment type, and the surface water character-
istics.
Addition of anions, such as humate, tartrate, to dis-
solved cadmium caused an increase in adsorption. The
mode by which cadmium is sorbed to the sediments is
important in determining its disposition toward remobili-
zation.
Cadmium found in association with carbonate miner-
als, precipitated as stable solid compounds, or co-pre-
cipitated with hydrous iron oxides would be less likely to
be mobilized by resuspension of sediments or biological
activity. Cadmium absorbed to mineral surfaces (eg clay)
or organic materials would be more easily bioaccumu-
lated or released in the dissolved state when sediments
are disturbed, such as during flooding.
Cadmium is not known to form volatile compounds in
the aquatic environment.
Bioconpentration of cadmium sulfate, nitrate and chlo-
ride has been studied in a wide variety of aquatic organ-
isms, and can be quite high in some species, low in
others. For .example, rainbow trout have a BCF of 33
while a BCF of 2213 was measured in the mosquito fish.
Similarly, different species of clams have BCFs ranging
from 160 to 3770.
OTHER REGULATORY INFORMATION
MONITORING: .
- FOR GROUND WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample once every 3 years
REPEAT FREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
- FOR SURFACE WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample annually
REPEATFREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
- TRIGGERS - If detect at > 0.005 rrig/L, sample quarterly.
ANALYSIS:
REFERENCE SOURCE
EPA 600/4-79-020
NTIS PB 91-231498
Standard Methods
METHOONUMBERS
213.2
200.7
3113B
TREATMENT .
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES
Coagulation/Filtration, Ion Exchange, Lime Softening, Reverse Osmosis
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
4 EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information:
EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791
* Other sources of toxicoiogical and environmental fate data include:
Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404
Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6006
October 1995
Technical Version
Page 2
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency i,
Office of Water
4601
EPA811-F-95-002d-T
October 1995
ฎEPA
National Primary Drinking
Water Regulations
Chromium
CHEMICAL/ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CAS NUMBER: 7440^47-3
COLOR/ FORM/ODOR: Chromium is metal .found in nature only in
the combined state,
SOIL SORPTION COEFFICIENT: N/A; Low mobility
BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR: BCF in plants, 1000; in snails,
, 1,000,000; expected to accumulate in aquatic organisms.
COMMON ORES: oxide- Iron chromite
SOLUBILITIES: ' . ' .
chloride- soluble in cold water
chromate- 0.2 mg/L (lead salt)
chromate- 873 g/L at 30 deg C (sodium salt)
chromate oxide-insoluble , -. .
dichromate- 2380 g/L at 0 deg C (sodium salt)
dioxide- insoluble
oxide- insoluble
sulfate- insoluble
trioxide- 617 g/L at 0 deg C
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS ' . '
MCLG: 0.1 mg/l
MCL: 0.1 mg/l
HAL(child): 1- to 10-day: 1 mg/L
Longer-term: 0.2 mg/L . .
Note: These standards are based on the total concen-
tration of the trivalent and hexayalent forms of dissolved
chromium (Cr3* and Cr **).
HEALTH EFFECTS SUMMARY
Acute: EPA has found chromium to potentially cause
the following health effects from acute exposures at
levels above the MCL: skin irritation or ulceration.
Drinking water levels which are considered "safe" for'
short-term exposures: Fpr a 10-kg (22 Ib.) child consum-
ing 1 liter of water per day, a one-to ten-day exposure to
1 mg/L; a longer-term (7 years) exposure to 0.2 mg/L..
Chronic: Chromium has the potential to cause the
following health effects from long-term exposures at
levels above the MCL: damage to liver, kidney circula-
tory and nerve tissues; dermatitis.
Cancer; There is no evidence that chromium in drink-
ing water has the potential to cause cancer from lifetime
exposures in drinking water. V .
USAGE PATTERNS .
Chromium and its compounds are used in metal alloys
such as stainless steel; protective coatings on metal;
magnetic tapes; and pigments for paints, cement, paper,
rubber, composition floor covering and other materials.
Other uses include: chemical, intermediate for wood
preservatives, organic chemical synthesis, photochemi-
cal processing and industrial water treatment. In medi-
cine, chromium compounds are used in astringents and
antiseptics. They also are used in cooling waters, and in
the leather, tanning industry, in catalytic manufacture,
and in fungicides; as an algaedde against slime forming
bacteria and yeasts in brewery processing water and
brewery warmer water, v
Chromic acid consumption ^atterns in 1988: wood
preserving, 63%; metal finishing, 22%; other, including
Toxrc RELEASE INVENTORY ^ ""
RELEASES TO WATER AND LAND:
1987 TO 1993
TOTALS (in pounds)
Top Ten States *
TX .-'.-
NC .
IN ; .'''
OH
UT
AR . ,
KY
PA
GA
ID
Water
2,876,055
102,079
43,522
85,570
51,830
1,750;
2,300
255
110,149
679,721
91.750
Major Industries*
Indust. organics , 3,272
Steelworks, Blast furn. 609,174
Electrometallurgy . 33,269
Copper smelting, refining 1,750
Nonferrous smelting . 2,300
Inorganic pigments 88,721
Pulp mills 985,800
Land
,196,880,624
64,301,920
55,217,044
15,955,895
8,319,600
5.817,015
3,532,000
2,491,519
2,337,905
1,404.698
1,404,870
120,707,814
16,638,880
10,796,928
5.817,015
3,532.000
1,375,700
224,198
* State/Industry totals only include facilities with releases
greater than a certain amount-usually 1000 to 10,000 IDS.
October 1995
Technical Version -
Printed on Recycled Paper
-------
water treatment, magnetic particles and catalysts, 7%;
exports, 8%. Demand: 1987:57,500 tons; 1988:62,500
tons; 1992 (projected): 78,800 tons.
Sodium Bichromate consumption patterns in 1988:
chromic acid, 54%; leathertanning, 9%; chromium oxide,
9%; pigments, 8%; wood preservation, 5%; other, includ-
ing drilling muds, catalysts, watertreatment, metal finish-
ing, 5%; exports, 10%. Demand: 1987: 150,000 tons;
1988:164,000 tons; 1992 (projected): 180,000 tons
RELEASE PATTERNS .
Chromium occurs in nature mostly as chrome iron ore,
or chromite. Though widely distributed in soils and plants,
it is rare in natural waters. The two largest sources of
chromium emission in the atmosphere are from the
chemical manufacturing industry and combustion of natu-
ral gas, oil, and coal.
Other sources include wind transport from road dust,
cement producing plants because cement contains chro-
mium, the wearing down of asbestos brake linings from
automobiles or similar sources of wind carried asbestos
since asbestos contains chromium, incineration of.mu-
nicipal refuse and sewage sludge, exhaust emission
from automotive catalytic converters, emissions from
cooling towers that use chromium compounds as rust
inhibitors, waste waters from electroplating, leathertan-
ning, and textile industries when discharged into surface
waters, and solid wastes from chemical manufacture.
From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release
Inventory, chromium compound releases to land and
water totalled nearly 200 million pounds, of which about
99 percent was to land. These releases were primarily
from industrial organic chemical industries which use
chromium as an intermediate. The largest releases oc-
curred in Texas and North Carolina, The .largest direct
releases to water occurred in Georgia and Pennsylvania.
Background levels in water average 1 ug/L while
municipal drinking water contain 0.1 -35 ug/L. The higher
values of chromium .can be related to sources of anthro-
pogenic pollution. In ocean water, the mean chromium
concentration is lower than in river water, and its value is
0.3 ug/i, with a range of 0.2 to 50 ug/l.
A survey of 3834 tap waters reported the concentra-
tions of chromium to range from 0.4 to 8.0 ug/l. The
reported chromium concentrations in this study may be a
little higher than the actual values due to inadequate
flushing of tap water before collection of samples. This
indicates that the concentration of chromium in house-
hold tap water may increase due to plumbing materials.
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE
Chromium is not likely to migrate to ground water. A
field trial.on the application of wastewater treatment
sludge to soils found movement of heavy metals, includ-
ing chromium, from the soil surface to a depth of 10 cm,
but most of the metal (mean 87%) remained in the upper
5 cm of soil. Uptake by plants is generally low; it was
fqund to be greater from ultrabasic soils by a factor of 5-
40 than on calcareous or sHica-based soils.
Chromium compounds are very persistent in water.
Most of the chromium in surface waters may be present
in particulate form as sediment. Some of the particuiate
chromium would remain as suspended matter and ulti-
mately be deposited in sediments.
The exact chemical forms of chromium in surface
waters are not well defined. Although most of the soluble
chromium in surface waters may be present as Cr(VI), a
small amount may be present as Cr(lll) organic com-
plexes. Hexavalent chromium is the major stable form of
chromium in seawater; however, Cr(V() may be reduced
to Cr(ill) by organic matter present in water, and may
eventually deposit in sediments.
Though little data is available, there is a high potential
for bioconcentratibn of chromium in aquatic organisms.
Snails showed an accumulation factor of 1 x1 O*6.
OTHER REGULATORY INFORMATION
MONITORING:
- FOR GROUND WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample once every 3 years
REPEAT FREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, orice every 9 years
-FOR SURFACE WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample annually
REPEATFKEQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
- TRIGGERS ปif detect at > 0.1 mg/L, sample quarterly.
ANALYSIS:
REFERENCE SOURCE
,EPA 600/4-79-020
NTIS PB 91-231498
Standard Methods
NlETHODNUMBERS
218.2 ' ; .
3113B; 3120
200.7
TREATMENT
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES ,
Coagulation/Filtration; Ion Exchange, Reverse Osmosis, Lime Softening
(for Crlll only)
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
* EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information:
EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791
* Other sources of lexicological and environmental fate data .include:
Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404
Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000
October 1995
Technical Vere/on
Page 2
-------
United States ,
Environmental Protection
Agency .
Office of Water
4601
EPA811-F-95-002e-T
October 1995
wEPA
National
Water
Mercury
CHEMICAL/ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CAS NUMBER: 7439-97-6
COLOR/FORM/ODOR: Silver-white,
heavy, mobile, liquid metal. Solid mercury is tin-white.
Odorless .v . ';
M.P.: -38.87ฐ C B.P.: 356,7ฐ C
VAPOR PRESSURE: 2x10"3 mm Hg at 25ฐ C
DENSITY/SPEC. GRAV.: 13.5 at 25ฐ C > /
SOLUBILITY: 0.06 g/L of water at 25ฐ C; Slightly soluble in water
SOIL SORPTION COEFFICIENT: N/A . ...
ODOR/TASTE THRESHOLDS: N/A '.".
BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR: , Bioconcentration
factors of 63,000 for freshwater and 10,000 for salt water
fishes. BCFs of100,000 for invertebrates.
HENRY'S LAW COEFFICIENT:
is significant
N/A; volatilization from water and soil
SYNONYMS/ORES: . Liquid silver, Quicksilver, Hydragyrum, ,
Colloidial mercury. Important commercial ore is cinnabar, but
also found in limestone, calcareous shales, sandstone,
' serpentine, chert andesite and others.
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS .
MCLG: 0.002 mg/L
Met: 0.002 mg/L
HAL(child): none . j
HEALTH EFFECTS, SUMMARY ' .
Acute: EPA has found mercury to potentially cause
kidney damage from short-term exposures at levels
above the MCL.
No Health Advisories have been established for short-
term exposures. . ,
Chronic: Mercury has the potential to cause kidney
damage from long-term exposure at levels above the
MCLT .. ' '- /': ' : > '"' :.' '-.- '. ;".
Cancer: There is inadequate evidence to state
whether or not mercury has the potential to cause cancer
from lifetime exposures in drinking water,
USAGE PATTERNS ',,.' ';' "
Nearly 8 million Ibs. of mercury were produced in the
U.S. in 1986. .',", \ '
Electrical products such as dry-cell batteries, fluores-
cent light bulbs, switches, and other control equipment
account for 50% of mercury used. Mercury is also used
in substantial quantities in electrolytic preparation of
chlorine and caustic soda (chlor-alkali industry, mercury
cell process; 25%), paint manufacture (12%), and dental
preparations (3%). Lesser quantities are used in indus-
trial catalyst manufacture (2%), pesticides manufacture
(1%)t general laboratory use (1%), and Pharmaceuticals
(0-1%). '
RELEASE PATTERNS
A joint FAO/WHO expert committee on Food Additives
in 1972 quotes the major source of mercury as the natural
degassing of the earth's crust in the range of 25,000-
150,000 ton of Hg/yr. . ,
Twenty thousand tons of mercury are also released
into the environment each year by human activities such
as combustion of fossil fuels and other industrial release.
Anthropogenic sources of airborne mercury (Hg) may
arise from the operation of metal smelters or cement
Toxic RELEASE INVENTORY-
RELEASES TO WATER AND LAND: 1987 TO 1993
Water
TOTALS (in pounds) 6,971,
Top Six States
TN ;
LA .
DE
OH '
AL
VW
164
431
117
29
1,462
1,657
Major Industries .
Chemical, allied products 12,269
Electric lamps 0
Paper mills , 2,500
Land
60,877
29,161
21,829
3,860
2,760
1.001
454
74,720
2,750
6
October 1995
Technical Version
Printed on Recycled Paper
-------
manufacture. Water borne pollution may originate in rate and membrane permeability, accelerates the rates
sewage, metal refining operations, or most notably, from of methylation and uptake, affects partitioning between
chloralkali plants. In general, industrial and domestic sediment and water, or reduces growth or reproduction of
products, such as thermometers, batteries, and electrical fish.
switches which account for a significant loss of mercury ;ป .
to the environment, ultimately become solid waste in
major urban areas. ' ' - . -.
' From 1987 to 1993, according to EPA's Toxic Chemi-
cal Release Inventory, mercury releases to land and
watertotalled nearly 68,000 Ibs., of which 90 percent was |
to land. These releases were primarily from chemical and
allied industries. The largest releases occurred in Ten- ,
nessee and Louisiana. The largest direct releases to
water occurred'in West Virginia and Alabama.
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE . , r .
Two characteristics, volatility and biotransformation,
make mercury somewhat unique as an environmental
toxicant. Its volatility accounts for atmospheric concen-
trations up to 4 times the level of contaminated soils in an
area. Inorganic forms of mercury (Hg) can be converted
to organic forms by microbial action in the biosphere. ,
In aquatic systems, mercury appears to bind to dis-
solved matter or fine particulates, while the transport of
mercury bound to dust particles in the atmosphere or bed
sediment particles in rivers and lakes is generally less
substantial. The conversion, jn aquatic environments, of
inorganic mercury compounds to methyl mercury implies
that recycling of mercury from sediment to water to air
and back could be a rapid process. In a study of mercury
elimination from wastewater, 47% of added mercury was
removed in presence of a Pseudomonas strain. Uptake
of mercury was severely inhibited by sodium chloride,
sodium sulfate, and mono- and dibasic potassium phos-
phate.
In the atmosphere, 50% of the volatile form is mercury
(Hg) vaporwith sizeable portion of remainder being Hg(ll)
and methylmercury, 25 to 50% of Hg in water is organic.
Hg in the environment is deposited and revolatilized
many times, with a residence time in the atmosphere of
at least a few days. In the volatile phase it can be
transported hundreds of kilometers.
Bioconcentration factors of 63,000 for freshwater fish,
10,000 for salt water fish, 100,000 for marine inverte-
brates, and 1000 for freshwater arid marine plants have
been found. As the tissue concentration approaches
steady-state, net accumulation rate is slowed either by a
reduction in .uptake rate, possibly due to inhibition of
membrane transport, or by an increase in .depuration
rate, possibly because of a saturation of storage sites, or
both. Acidification of a body of water might also increase
mercury residues in fish even if no new input of mercury
occurs, possibly because lower pH increases ventilation
OTHER REGULATORY INFORMATION
MONITORING:
- FOR GROUND WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample once every 3 years
REPEAT FREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
-FOR SURFACE WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample annually
REPEATFKEQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
- TRIGGERS If detect at > 0.002 mg/L, sample quarterly.
ANALYSIS:
REFERENCE SOURCE
EPA 600/4-79-020
Standard Methods
METHODNUMBERS
245.1;245.2
303F
TREATMENT
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES >
Coagulation/Filtration*; Granular Activated Carbon; Lime softening*; Re-
verse osmosis*,
* These treatments are recommended only if influent Hg concentrations do
not exceed 10ug/L v .
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
4 EPA cam provide further regulatory and other general information:
EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791
4 Other sources of lexicological and environmental fate data include:
Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404.
Toxics Rialease Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639^6000
National Pesticide Hotline - 800/858-7378
October 1995
Technical Version
Page 2
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
4601
EPA8T1-F-95-002f- T
October 1995
National Primary Drinking
Water Regulations
Nitrates and Nitrites
CHEMICAL/ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CAS Number: Nitrate ion: 14797-55-8; Nitrite ion:. 14797-65-0
COLOR/ FORM/ODOR: Domestic fertilizer grade ammonium or
potassium nitrates are in prilled (beaded) or crystalline
forms, usually coated with an anti-caking agent and ad-
sorbed fuel oil. ; . j,
SOLUBILITIES: Nitrates and nitrites are highly soluble in water
SOIL SORPTION COEFFICIENT: N/A ' ' >
BlOCONCENTRATION FACTOR: N/A .
TRADE NAMES/SYNONYMS: . .
Potassium salt: Potnit, Hitec, Niter, Nitrate of potash, Saltpeter.
Ammonium salt: German or Norway saltpeter, Varioform I,
Merco or Herco prills, Nitram.
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS (IN MG/L.)
MCLG MCL HAL(IOday)
Nitrate: - 10.- 10 10 ;
Nitrite: 1 1 1 ' -,'
Total (Nitrate+Nitrite) 10 10 10 .
'. ' , . " ' "" '" ' . - '
HEALTH EFFECTS SUMMARY
. Acute: Excessive levels of nitrate in drinking water
have caused serious illness and sometimes death. The
serious illness in infants is due to the conversion of
nitrate to nitrite by the body, which can interfere with the
oxygen-carrying capacity of the child's blood. This can
be an acute condition in which health deteriorates rap- .
idly over a period of days. Symptoms include shortness
of breath and blueness of the skin, ;
Drinking water levels which are considered "safe" for
short-term exposures: For a 1 0-kg (22 Ib.) child consum-
ing 1 liter of water per day, a ten-day exposure to 1 0 mg/
L total nitrate/nitrite. ^ ; ;
Chronic: Effects of chronic exposure to high levels of
nitrate/nitrite include diuresis, increased starchy depos-
its and hemorrhaging of the spleen.
CancefyThere is inadequate evidence to state whether
or not nitrates or nitrites have the potential^ cause
cancer from lifetime exposures in drinking water.
'.'". ' " \ ' ' '> ,''",..- .-' .' '
USAGE PATTERNS '.'..""
Most nitrogenous materials in natural waters tend to
be converted td nitrate; so all sources of combined
nitrogen, particularly organic nitrogen and ammonia,
Toxic RELEASE INVENTORY
RELEASES TO WATER AND LAND:
Water
TOTALS (in pounds) . 59,014,378
Top Fifteen States*
GA ' 12.114.253
CA .0
AL --'' 3,463,097
LA 8,7T8,237
MO ' 6,985,890
MS 6,952,387
KS 5,140,000
VA 5,091,764
NV 0
FL 1,056,560
AR ,1,206,610
MD , 1,802,219
1 JA 1 500 340
- tr\ . 1 ,vปUW,v*TV/
OK 1,436,348
UT , '' ' ,0
Major Industries*
Nitrogenous fertilizer 41,584,611
Misc. Ind. inorganics 4,113,312
. Misc. Metal ores .0
Misc. Ind. organics 5,091,764
Fertilizer mixing 480,000
-.Explosives 850,921
Paper mills 1,727,061
. Pulp mills 1,321,500
Canned foods , . 0
Phosphate fertilizers 1,000,000
1987 TO 1993
Land
53,134,805
. . '.-.' ... ,'
12,028,585 '
21,840,999 .
'6,014,674'
2,250
. 206,181 , ,
0
877,095
0
A O77 AR")
t, a / / ,^Oฃ>
. 1,835,736
1,058,294 .
138,819
132 042
1 Wb|U*fb
14,199 ,
1.045J400 i
8,607,376
29.676,919
5,764,976
0
4,554,916
1,297,590
. '; . ."- 0
-3,350 .
1,056,794
0
* State/Industry totals only include facilities with releases
greater than 1 0,000 Ibs.
, October 1995
Technical Version
Printed on Recycled Paper
-------
should be considered as potential nitrate sources. Pri-
mary sources of organic nitrates include human sewage
and livestock manure, especially from feediots.
The primary inorganic nitrates which may contaminate
drinking water are potassium nitrate and ammonium
nitrate. Potassium nitrates are used mainly as fertilizers
(85%), with the remainder in heattransfer salts, glass and
ceramics, and in'matches and fireworks. Ammonium
nitrates are used as fertilizers (84%) and in explosives
and blasting agents (16%). ,
RELEASE PATTERNS
The majorenvironmental releases of inorganic sources
of nitrates are due to the use of fertilizers.
According to the Toxics Release Inventory, releases to
water and land totalled over 112 million pounds from
1991 through 1993. The largest releases of inorganic
nitrates occurred in Georgia and California.
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE
Due to its high solubility and weak retention by soil,
nitrates are very mobile in soil, moving at approximately
the same rate as water, and has a high potential to
migrate to ground water. Because it does not volatilize,
nitrate/nitrite is likelyto remain in water until consumed by
plants or other organisms. Ammonium nitrate will be
taken up by bacteria, Nitrate is more persistent in water
than the ammonium ion. Nitrate degradation is fastest in
anaerobic conditions.
OTHER REGULATORY INFORMATION
MONITORING:
FOR GROUND WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- Nitrate: 1.sample annually
Nitrite: 1 sample during first 3-year compliance
,, - period
REPEAT FREQUENCY- Nitrate: 1 sample annually
!" Nitrite: determined by State
FOR SURFACE WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- Nitrate: 1 sample each quarter
! . Nitrite: 1 sample during first 3-year compliance
'..'' period
REPEAT FREQUENCY- Nitrate: 1 sample annually
Nitrite: determined by State
TRIGGERS - If detect at > 5 mg/L nitrate, sample quarterly.
If detect at > 0.5 mg/L nitrite, sample quarterly.
If detect total nitrate + nitrite > 5 mg/L, sample quarterly
ANALYSIS:
REFERENCE SOURCE
EPA600/4-79-020
Standard Methods
ASTM
METHODNUMBERS
353.1; 353.2; 353.3; 300.0; 354.1
418C;418F
D3867-85A; D3867-85B
TREATMENT
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES
Ion exchange; Reverse osmosis; Electrodialysis (nitrate only)
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
* EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information:
EPA Safe Drinking Water.Hotliner 800/426-4791
* Other sources of lexicological and environmental fate data include:
Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554r1404
Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000
October 1995
Technical Version
Page 2
-------
.United States .
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
4601
EPA 811-F-95-002g- T
October 1335
National Primary Drinking
Water Regulations
Selenium
CHEMICAL/ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
GAS NUMBER: 7782-49-2
COLOR/ FORM/ODOR: Selenium is a metal which exists in nature
only in the combined form."
SOIL SORPTION COEFFICIENT: N/A
BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR: BCFof 1000 in humans; 50,000 in
marine fish .
.. ; ' . ~u - .. :-
SOLUBILITIES:
dioxide-
hydrogen-
sodium-
sulfide-
384g/Lat14degC
3.8 L/L at 4 deg C (hydrogen selenide)
850g/Lat20degC
insoluble
COMMON ORES: Usually found in the sulfide ores of the heavy':
metals, such as pyrite, clausthalite, naumannite, tiemannite.
Also found in coal. .
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
MCLG: 0.05 mg/l V ,
MCL: 0:05mg/l . -
HAL(child):-none
HEALTH EFFECTS SUMMARY
Acute Selenium is an essential nutrient at low levels.
However, EPA has found it to potentially cause the
following health effects from acute exposures at levels
above the MCL: hair and fingernail changes; damage to
the peripheral nervous system; fatigue and irritability.
. No Health Advisories have been established for short-
term exposures. :
Chronic: Selenium has the potential to cause the
following health effects from long-term exposures at
levels above the MCL: hair and fingernail loss; damage
to kidney and liver tissue, and the nervous and circula-'
tory systems. , ' '.;_
Cancer: There is no evidence that selenium has the
potential to cause cancer from lifetime exposures in
drinking water. ; : '-..' '.
USAGE PATTERNS ;'' ,
Selejiium is used extensively in the manufacture and
production of glass, pigments, rubber, metal alloys,
textiles, petroleum, medical therapeutic agents, and
.photographic emulsions. Selenium dioxide is the most
widely used selenium compound in industry. It is used as
an oxidizing agent in drug and other-chemical manufac-
ture; a catalyst in organic syntheses; an antioxidaht in
lubricating oils.
Pfoductionin 1985wasreportedtobe429,515pounds,
with demand for its various uses as follows: electronic
and photocopier components, 35%; Glass manufactur-
ing, 30%; Chemical and pigments, 25%; and Other, 10%.
RELEASE PATTERNS
There are no true deposits of selenium anywhere and
it cannot economically be recovered from the earth
directly. It usually occurs in the sulfide ores of the heavy
metals; thjs includes pyrite, clausthalite, .naumannite,
tienammite and in selenosulfur. Soils in the neighbor-
hood of volcanoes tend to have enriched amounts of
Toxic RELEASE INVENTORY-
RELEASES TO WATER AND LAND: 1987 TO 1993
TOTALS (in pounds)
Top Five States *.
UT ,
AZ -..
Wl
IN '
TX
Water
13,55.6
1,578
0
0
5(300
359
Major Industries*
Copper smelting, refining 1,500
Metal coatings 0
Petroleum refining 8,949
' Land
,1,010i686
696,515
260,632
45,000-
0
4,920
962,067
45,000
977
* Land totals only include facilities with releases greater than
lOOOIbs.
October 1995
Technical Version
Printed on Recycled Paper
-------
selenium. Selenium is the most strongly enriched ele-
ment in coal, being present as an organoselenium com-
pound, a chelated species, or as an adsorbed element.
Seleniu'm compounds are released to the air during the
combustion of coal and petroleum fuels, and during the
smelting and refining of other metals.
From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release
Inventory selenium releases to land and water totalled
over 1 million Ibs., of which about 99 percent was to land.
These releases were primarily from copper smelting
industries! The largest releases occurred in Utah. The
largest direct releases to water occurred in Indiana.
Selenium concentration in fresh water is usually around
0.02 ppm. The selenium content of surface water is
greatly influenced by pH, being high in acidic (pH < 3.0)
and in alkaline waters (pH > 7.5). Traces of selenium
ranging from 0.0000-0.0,1 :ppm are commonly found in
community drinking water.
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE .
The toxicity of selenium depends on whether it is in the
biologically active oxidized form. In alkaline soils and
oxidizing conditions, selenium may be oxidized suffi-
ciently to maintain the availability of its biologically active
form, and cause plant uptake of the metal to be in-
creased. . .
In acidic or neutral soils, it tends to remain relatively
insoluble and the amount of biologically available sele-
nium should steadily decrease. Selenium volatilizes from
soils when converted to volatile selenium compounds
(such as dimethyl selenide, dimethyl diselenide, and
others) by microorganisms.
It is known that selenium accumulates in living tissues.
For example, the selenium scontent of human blood is
about 0.2 ppm. This value is about 1000 times greater
than the selenium found in surface waters. It is clear.that
the human body does accumulate or concentrate sele-
nium with respect to the environmental levels of sele-
nium. Selenium has been found in marine fish meal at
levels of about 2 ppm. This amount is around 50,000
times greater than the selenium found in seawater.
Selenium dioxide is the primary source of problems
from industrial exposures since the dioxide forms sele-
nious acid with water or sweat, and the acid is an irritant.
Selenium compounds released during coal or petroleum
combustion may be a significant source of exposure.
OTHER REGULATORY INFORMATION
MONITORING:
- FOR GROUND WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample once every 3 years ;
REPEAT FREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
-FOR SURFACE WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample annually .
REPEATFREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds; once every 9 years
- TRIGGERS - If detect at > 0.05 mg/L, sample quarterly.
ANALYSIS:
REFERENCE SOURCE
EPA 600/4-79-020 ,
ASTM Standards 1991
Standard Methods (17th ed.)
METHODNUMBERS
270.2
D3859-84A; D3859-88
3113B;3114B
TREATMENT
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES
Activated AJumina, Coagulation/Filtration (SeVI only), Lime Softening, Re-
verse Osmosis, Electrodialysis .
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
* EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information:
EPA SatFe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791
* Other sources of lexicological and environmental fate data include;
Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404
Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531
' Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000
October 1995
Technical Version
Page 2
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency ' :
Office of Water
4601
EPA811-F-95-0021- T
October 1995
National
Water
Lead
CHEMICAL/ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES SOLUBILITIES: >
CAS NUMBER: 7439-92-1
COLOR/ FORM/ODOR: Bluish-white, silvery,
gray metal, lustrous when freshly cut.
SOIL SORPTION COEFFICIENT: N/A; Low
mobility in most soils, lowest at neutral
pH and high organic matter.
COMMON ORES: ,
sulfjde-Galena; oxide-Lanarkite;
carbonate-Cerrusite; sulfate-Anglesite
BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR: Log BCFs for
'fish, 1.65; shellfish, 3.4
acetate-
arsenate-
carbonate-
chloride- .
chromate-
nitrate:
oxide-
dioxide-'
phosphate-
su|fate-
sulfide-
tetraethyl-
thiocyanate-
thiosulfate-
.443 g/L at 20 deg ;C
insoluble in cold water ,
0.0011 g/L at 20 deg C
10g/L cold water
0.2 mg/L
376.5 g/L at 0 deg C
o;b5g/Lat20degC
insoluble <
insoluble
0.4g/L
insoluble
0.29mg/Lat25degC '
0.5 g/L at 20 deg C
6.3 g/L cold water ;
zero
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
MCLG:
Action Level:
HAL(child):
> 0.015 mg/L in more-
than 10 percent of tap
water samples
none
HEALTH EFFECTS SUMMARY
Acute: Lead can cause a variety of
adverse health effects in humans. At rela-
tively low levels of exposure, these ef-
fects may include Interference with red
blood cell chemistry, delays in normal
physical and mental development in ba-
bies and young children; slight'deficits in
the attention span, hearing, and learning
abilities of children, and slight increases
in the blood pressure of some .adults. It
- appears that some of these effects, par-
ticularly changes in the levels of certain
blood enzymes and in aspects of children's.
neurobehavioral development, may oc-
cur at blood lead levels so low as to be
essentially without a threshold.
Chronic: Chronic exposure to lead
has been linked to cerebrovascular and
kidney disease in humans.
Cancer: Lead has the potential to cause
cancer from a lifetime exposure at levels
above the action level.
USAGE PATTERNS
Lead is the fifth most importantmetal in
the USA economy in terms of consump-
tion. Of this approximately 85% of the
primary lead is produced domestically.
and 40-50% is recovered and recycled.
Eighty eight percent of the lead mined in
the US comes from seven mines in the
New Lead Belt in southeastern Missouri;
the rest coming from eight mines in Colo-
rado, Idaho, and Utah. Three of the six
USA lead smelters are from this region,
the others are located in Idaho, Montana,
and Texas! ... ."' ,
RELEASE PATTERNS
Lead occurs in drinking water from two
sources: (1) Lead in raw water supplies,
i.e., source water or distributed water,
and (2) corrosion of plumbing materials in
the water distribution system (corrosion
by-products). Most lead contamination is
from corrosion by-products.
Occurrence in Source Water and
Distributed Water. Based on a variety of
water quality surveys, EPA now estimates
that approximately 600 groundwater sys-
tems and about 215 surface suppliers
may have water leaving -the treatment
.plant with lead levels greater than 0.005
mg/L These two sources together indicate
thatlessthan 1 percent of the publicwater
systems in the United States have water
entering the distribution system with lead
levels greater than 0.005 mg/L. These
systems serve less than 3 percentof people
that receive their dririking water from pub-
lic water systems. '
From 1987 to 1993, according to the
Toxics Release Inventory lead compound
releases to land and water totalled nearly
144 million IDS., almost all of which was to
land. These releases were primarily from
lead and copper smelting industries. The
largest releases occurred in Missouri, Ari-
zona and Montana. The largest direct
releases to water occurred in Ohio.
Occurrence as a Corrosion By Prod-
uct. Lead jn drinking Water results prima-
rily from corrosion of materials located
Toxics Release Inventory-
Water and Land Releases, 1987-93
Water Land
TOTALS (in pounds) 970,827 143,058,771
Top Twelve States *
MO , 4,408 40,656,278
AZ -771 23,240,625
MT 0 20,822,517
UT 4,600. 11,881,000
TX 1,988 11,515,211
OH 127,990 5,196,522
IN 62,894 4,851,940
TN 7,140 2,095,489
IL 26,601 1,930,000
Wl , 1,310 :1,350,960
MM , , 0 - 1,313,895
NM , . , 0 i,'060,880
Major Industries*
Lead smelting/refining ,31,423 68,996,819
Copper smelting 5,371 34,942,505
Steelworks/blast furn. 379,849 18,149,696
Storage batteries .0 . 1,867,292
China plumbing fixtures 1,310- 1,350,960
Iron foundries 10,021 1,274,777
Copper mining 0 1,240,000
* State/Industry totals only include facilities with
releases greater than 100,000 Ibs.
uctooer 1995
Technical Version
Printed on Recycled Paper
-------
throughout the distribution system con-
taining lead and copper and from lead
and copper plumbing materials used to
plumb public-and privately-owned struc-
tures connected to the distribution sys-
tem. The amount of lead In drinking water
attributable to corrosion by-products de-
pends on a number of factors, including
the amount and age of lead and copper
bearing materials susceptible to corro-
sion, how long the water is in contact with
the lead containing surfaces, and how
corrosive the water in the system is to-
ward these materials. ' ... . - '
The potential sources of lead corrosion
by-products found1 in drinking water can
Include: Waterservice mains (rarely), lead
goosenecks or pigtails, lead service lines
and interior household pipes, lead sol-.
ders and fluxes used to connect copper
pipes, alloys containing lead, including
some faucets made of brass or bronze.
Most public water systems serve at
leastsome buildings with lead solderand/
or lead service lines. EPA estimates that
there are about 10 million lead service
lines/connections. About20 percent of all
public water systems have some lead
service lines/connections within their dis-
tribution system.
The amount of lead in drinking vater
depends heavily on the corrosivity of the
water. AH water Is corrosive to metal
plumbing materials to some degree, even
water termed noncorrosive or water
treated to make it less corrosive. The '
corrosivity of water to lead is influenced
by water quality parameters such as pH,
total alkalinity, dissolved inorganic car-
bonate, calcium, and hardness. Galvanic.
corrosion of lead into water also occurs.
with lead-soldered copper pipes, due to
differences in the electrochemical poten-
tialofthetworhetals. Grounding ofhouse-
hold electrical systems to plumbing may
also exacerbate galvanic corrosion.
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE
Lead may enter the environment dur-
ing its mining, ore processing, smelting,
refining use, recycling or disposal. The
initial means of entry is via the atmo-
sphere. Lead may also enter the atmo-
sphere from the weathering of soil and
volcanos, but these sources are minor
compared with anthropogenic ones.
Lead will be retained in the upper 2-5,
cm of soil, especially soils with at least 5%
organic matter ora pH 5 or above. Leach-
October1995
ing is not important under normal condi-
tions. It is expected to slowly undergo
speciation to the more insoluble sulfate,
sulfide, oxide, and phosphate salts.
.Lead enters water from atmospheric
fallout, runoff orwastewater; little is; trans-
ferred from natural ores. Metallic lead is
attacked by pure water in the presence of
oxygen, but if the water contains carbon-
ates and silicates, protective films are
formed preventing further attack. That
which dissolves tends to form ligands.
Lead is effectively removed from the wa-
ter column to trie sediment by adsorption
to organic matter and clay minerals, pre-
cipitation as insoluble salt, and reaction
with hydrous Iron and manganese oxide.
Under most circumstances, adsorption
predominates.
Lake sediment microorganisms are
able to directly methylate certain inor-
ganic lead compounds. Under appropri-
ate conditions, dissolution due to smaerb-.
bic microbial action may be significant in
subsurface environments. The mean per-
centage removal of lead during the acti-
vated sludge process was 82% and was
almost entirely due to the removal of the
insoluble fraction by adsorption onto the
sludge floe and to a much lesser extent,
precipitation.
The most stable form of lead in natural
water is a function of the ions present, the
pH, and the redox potential. In oxidizing .
systems, the least soluble common forms
are probably the carbonate, hydroxide,
and hydroxycarbonate. In reduced sys-
tems where sulfur is present, PbS is the
stable solid. The solubility of Pb is 10 ppb
above pH 8, while near pH 6.5 the solubil-
ity can approach or exceed 100 ppb. Pb(0)
and Pb(+2) can be oxidatively methylated
by naturally occurring compounds such as
methyl iodide and glycine betaine. This
can result in the dissolution of lead already
bound to sediment or paniculate matter.
Lead does not appear to bioconcen-
trate significantly in fish but does in some
shellfish such as mussels. Evidence sug-
gests that lead uptake in fish is localized in
the mucous on the epidermis, the dermis,
and scales so that the availability in edible
portions do not pose a human health dan-
ger. ...'
OTHER REGULATORY INFORMATION:
MONITORING:
MONITORING PERIOD
Initial .
After corrosion
control installation
Reduced monitoring
-Conditional
-Final
ANALYSIS ,
REFERENCE SOURCE .
EPA 800/4-83-043
FOR LEAD
AT HOME TAI>S
Every 6.months
Every 6 months
Once a year
Every 3 years
FOR WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
WITHIN THE AT ENTRY TO THE
DISTRIBUTION . DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM SYSTEM
Every 6 months Every 6 months
Every 6 months Every 2 weeks
Every 6 months
Every 3 years
Every 2 weeks
Every 2 weeks
METHOD NUMBER
239.2; 200.8; 200.9
TREATMENT: BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES
Source water: Ion exchange; lime softening; reverse osmosis; coagulation/filtration
Corrosion Control: pH and alkalinity adjustment; calcium adjustment; silica- or phosphaterbased
corrosion inhibition i' .
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: t
* EPA can provide further regulatory and other generallnformation:
EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 .
4 Other sources of lexicological and environmental fate data include: .
Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404 .
Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-3531
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000
Technical Version
Page 2
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency ' ,
Office of Water1
4601 , .
EPA811-F-95-002i- T
October 1995
National Primary Drinking
Water Regulations
"-. - * ', ' ' \ , . * - ' ."'",' " ' ' '
Copper
CHEMICAL/PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CAS NUMBER: 7440-50-8 (metal)
SOLUBILITIES (G/L WATER AT 20 DEC C): Chloride, 770; Nitrate,1250;
Sulfate,207. . .
BiocoNCENtRATioN FACTOR: N/A
V COLOR/ FORM/ODOR: Reddish metal which may occur in water as COMMON ORES: Found as sulfides, arsenites, chlorides and
copper salts, the most common of which are the chloride, carbonates iri.the following ores: Chalcopyrite, Chalcocite,
nitrate and sulfate salts. . , Bomite, Tetrahedrite, Enargite, Antlerite
SOILSORPTION COEFFICIENT: N/A , -'-:.
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
RELEASE PATTERNS
MCLG:
ACTION LEVEL:
HAL(child):
1.3mg/L ; Although copper rarely occurs in source water, the
> 1.3 mg/L in 10 percent or more following natural and artificial sources have been identi-
of tap water samples fied. Copper is widely distributed in nature in the elemen-
tal state, in sulfides, arsenites, chlorides, and carbon-
none ates. The element is only superficially oxidized in air,
HEALTH EFFECTS SUMMARY
Acute and Chronic: Copper is an essential nutrient,
but at high doses it has been shown to cause stomach
and intestinal.distress, liver and kidney damage, and
anemia. Persons with Wilson's disease may be at a
higher risk of health effects due to copper than the
general public. ;
Ca/?cer:There is inadequate evidence to state whether
or not copper has the potential to cause cancer from a
lifetime exposure in drinking water.
USAGE PATTERNS . .
Copper occurs in drinking water primarily due to its:
use in plumbing materials. .
Occurrence in Source Water and Distributed Wa-
ter, Copper levels above the MCLG are rarely found in
raw drinking water supplies or in distributed water. EPA
estimates that only 66 water systems have copper levels
in source water greater than the MCLG. /
Occurrence as a Corrosion By- Product. The pri-
mary source of copper in drinking water is corrosion of
copper pipes, which are widely used throughout the
United States for interior plumbing of residences and
other buildings. In some cases, copper is a component
of additives to drinking water used by systems to control
the growth of algae.. .
Toxic RELEASE INVENTORY -
RELEASES TO WATER AND LAND:
1987 TO 1993
Water ' Land'
TOTALS (in pounds) t.538,148 442,082,245
Top Ten States * .
UT 55,350 - ' 153,501,500'
NM 0 130,682,387
AZ-. ' 2,636 1.04,619,532
Ml ; '-.. ,19,763 11,172,897
NY . 66,057 , .10,017,766.
-MT - 0 8,696,153
TN 301,417 1,208,804
.MO 250 1,486,000
AL ,41,213 513,536
MD. 78,601 270,945
Major Industries*
Primary copper smelting 7,591 201,214,264
Other nohferrous smelt. 4,414 '. ' 11,317,048
Plastic materials -. < 44,422 9,637.850
Blastfurnaces, steel 156,982 ,.3.229,752
Poultry slaughtering ' 0 1,249,750
Copper rolling, drawing 17,253 9|41,075
Ind. organic chems 28,936 827,356
Prepared feeds, misc. 1,038 760,094
Ind. inorganic chems 220,503 527,458
.. - ' ' . . -i' '"....". - ".
* State/Industry totals only include facilities with releases
greater than a certain amount - usually 1000 to 10,000 Ibs.
.October 1995
Technical Version
Printed on Recycled P^tper
-------
sometimes giving a green coating of hydroxy carbonate
and hydroxy sulfate. The concentration of copper in the
continental crust, generally estimated at 50 ppm, tends to
be highest in the ferromagnesium minerals, such as the
basalts pyropene and biotite, where it averages 140 ppm.
Sandstones contain 10-40 ppm, shales 30-150 ppm, and
marine black shales 20-300 ppm. Coal is relatively low in
'copper.
In the sedimentary cycle copper is concentrated in the
clay mineral fractions with a slight enrichment in those
clays rich in organic carbon.
Smelting operations and municipal incineration may
also produce copper. Water and pasture have been
found to be contaminated with copper in the vicinity of
copper mines or smelting works. The principal source of
elevated copper levels in air is copper dust generated by
copper processing operations..
From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release
Inventory copper compound releases to land and water
totalled nearly 450 million Ibs., of which nearly all was to
land. These releases were primarily from copper smelt-
ing industries. The largest releases occurred in Utah. The
largest direct releases to water occurred in Tennessee.
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE . ,
As with lead, all water is corrosive toward copper to
some degree, even water termed noncorrosive or water
treated to make it less corrosive. Corrosivity toward
copper depends primarily on the pH of the water, with
very low pHs associated with the highest levels of copper
corrosion by-products. Many of the other factors that
affect the corrosivity of water toward lead can also be
expected to affect the corrosion of copper.
OTHER REGULATORY INFORMATION
MONITORING:
SAMPLING SITE:
MONITORING PERIOD:
Initial
After corrosion
control installation
Reduced monitoring
- Conditional
-Final . '
'ANALYSIS FOR COPPER
REFERENCE SOURCE
EPA 800/4-83-043
Standard Methods
FOR COWER
AT HOME TAPS
Every 6 months
Every 6 months
Once a year
Every 3 years
METHOD NUMBER
220.2-220.1 .
3111-B;312Q
FOR V&TER QUALITY PARAMETERS
WITHIN THE .. AT ENTRY TO THE
. DISTRIBUTION ' i DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM SYSTEM
Every 6 months
Every 6 months
Every 6 months
Every 3 years
Every 6 months
Every 2 weeks
Every 2 weeks
Every 2 weeks
TREATMENT: BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES
Source water: ion exchange; lime softening; reverse osmosis; coagulation/filtration I
Corrosion Control: pH and alkalinity adjustment; calcium adjustment; silica- or phosphate-based corrosion inhibition I
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: . .
4 EPA can provide further regulatory and other-general information: '-''..'',
EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 ..
* Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include: . ,
Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line-202/554-1404 ,, . .
Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000
October 1995
Technical version
rags
-------
United States
Environmental protection
Agency
Office of Water
4601
EPA811-F-95-002J- T
October 1395
National
Water
-. - X .
Antimony
CHEMICAL/PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CAS NUMBER: 1440-36-0 (metal) : :.
COLOR/ FORM/ODOR: Antimony is a metal which occurs in nature
only in the combined state
SOIL SORPTION COEFFICIENT: N/A
BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR: BCF up to 300; may accumulate in
some aquatic organisms
SOLUBILITIES:
stibine-
trifluoride-
trioxide-
trisulfide- ,
slightly soluble
4.4kg/Lat20degC
slightly soluble
. 1,8 rrig/L at 18 deg C
COMMON ORES: , trioxide- Valentinite; sulfide- Stibnite;
Other ores/natural sources: cervantite, livingstonite,
jamisonite, kermesite, petroleum
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
MCLG: 0.006 mg/l
Met: . 0.006 mg/l
lyst, 6%; pigments, 5%; glass, 8%; miscellaneous, 5%.
Primary antimony was used as follows: Flame retardant,
60%; transportation (including batteries), 10%; ceram-
ics/glass, 10%; other uses, 10%.
Longer-term: 0.01 rrig/L
HEALTH EFFECTS SUMMARY .
Acute: EPA has found antimony to potentially cause
the following health effects from acute exposures at
levels above the MCL: nausea, vomiting and diarrhea.
Short-term exposures in drinking water considered
"safe" for a 10-kg (22 Ib.) child consuming one liter of
water per day: a long-term (upto 7 years) exposure to
0.01 mg/L , - .
Chronic: Antimony has the potential to cause the
following health effects from long-term exposures at
levels above the MCL: decreased longevity, altered
blood levels of glucose and cholesterol.
Cancer: There is inadequate evidence to state whether
or not antimony has the potential to cause cancer from
lifetime exposures in drinking water >
- . *' ''.."- ','; ,.'' '' '. ..-'''
USAGE PATTERNS
In 1984, 64.5 million Ibs. antimony ore was mined and
refined. Production of the most commonly used antimony
compound, the trioxide, increased during the 1980s to
about 31 million Ibs, reported in 1985.
,. i ' . '
In 1985, it was estimated that industries consumed
antimony trioxide as follows: Flame retardant, 76%; cata-
Toxic RELEASE INVENTORY - .
RELEASES TO WATER AND LAND:
Water
TOTALS (in pounds) 330^064 ,
Top Teh States *
AZ > 505
MT . 0
TX 24,817
LA . 55,414
Wl -1,445v
MO 784
-WA , 63,220
ID . 2,600
TN /. . ^ 687
AL 27,536
Major Industries* :
Copper smelting, refining 505
Other nonferrous smelt. 17,015
Sec. nonferrous smelt. 1 ,459
Misc Indust. Organics 18,424
Porcelain plumb, fixtures 1,445
Petroleum refining 111,527
.Misc Inorganic chems. 4,962
Plastics, resins 20 .
. Storage batteries 0
Synthetic fibers ,26,803
' ' " i' .. ' ' . "
1987 TO 1993
Land
12,003.373
7,074,128
846!392
344,762 .
392,000
188,266
99,915
140,250
108,325
. - - 69,503
7,074,128
2,383,947
803,398 .
581,465
392,000
' 202,251
140,250
60,372
45,952
12,535
* Water/Land totals only include facilities with releases
greater than a certain amount - .usually 1 000 to 1 0,000 Ibs.
October 1995
Technical Version
Printed on Recycled Paper
-------
RELEASE PATTERNS
The most common antimony ores are the sulfide,
stibnite, and the trioxide, valentinite. Other ores include
cervantite, livingstonite, jamisonite, and kermesite. Anti-
mony is also a common component of coal arid petro-
leum. .
Industrial dust and exhaust gases .of cars and oil fuels
are the main sources of antimony in urban air. Substantial
amounts of antimony trioxide are released to the atmo-
sphere during processing of antimony materials includ-
ing smelting of ores, molding and incineration of prod-
ucts, as well as the combustion of fossil fuels which are
utilize the high temperatures needed.to volatilize anti-
mony trioxide. '
From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release
Inventory antimony and antimony compound releases to
land and water totalled over 12 million IDS., of which
nearly all was to land. These releases were primarily from
copper and other nonferrous smelting and refining indus-
tries. The largest releases occurred in Arizona and Mon-
tana. The greatest releases to water occurred in Wash-
ington and Louisiana. ' .
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE
Little1 information is available on the transformations
and transport of antimony in various media. The mobility
of antimony in soils is not clearly understood. The strength
of its adsorption to soil and sediments depends upon a
variety of factors such as pH, organic matter content, as
well as the oxidation state of the particular salt. Some
studies indicate that antirnony is highly mobile, while
others conclude that it strongly adsorbs to soil. In water,
it usually adheres to sediments. .
There is no evidence .of biocpncentration of most
antimony compounds, though one report states that the
tribromide can be concentrated by certain forms of ma-
rine life to over 300 times its concentration in water.
OTHER REGULATORY INFORMATION
MONITORING:
-FOR GROUND WATHR SOURCES:
INITIAL FIIEOUENCY- 1 sample once every 3 years . .
REPEAT FREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
-> FOR SURFACE WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FUEQUENCY- 1 sample annually ,
REPEATFREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
- TRIGGERS If detect at > 0.006 mg/L, sample quarterly.
ANALYSIS
REFERENCE SOURCE
EPA600M-79-020
NTIS PB 81-231498
Standard Methods
ASTM !
METHOD NUMBER
204.2
200.9; 200.8
3113
D3697-87
TREATMENT . ,
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES
Ion Exchange, Lime Softening, Reverse Osmosis, Electrodialysis
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
* EPA am provide further regulatory and other general information:
EPA Sale Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791
* Other stources of lexicological and environmental fate data include: ,
Toxic Substance Control Act'information Line - 202/554-1404
Toxics Flelease .Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531
; Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000
October 1995
Technical Version
Page.2
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
4601
EPA811-F-95-002k-T
1 , October 1995
-* ' .
National Primary Drinking
Water Regulations
Beryllium
CHEMICAL/ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CAS NUMBER: 7440-41-7
COLOR/ FORM/ODOR: Beryllium is a grayish metal which exists in
nature only in combined forms, and in some precious stones
such as emeralds, aquamarine.
SOIL SORPTION COEFFICIENT: N/A ,
BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR: Nitrate BGF,= 100 under constant
exposure; not expected to bioaccumulate.
SOLUBIUTIES:
chloride
fluoride
hydroxide
oxide
phosphate
sulfate-
very soluble .,
very soluble
slightly sol. in dil. alkali
insoluble .
poorly soluble
insol. in cold water
COMMON ORES: . Major commercial ore is bertrandite; oxide-
bromellite; others: phenacite, pegmatite bodies.
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
MCLG: 0.004 mg/l
MCL: 0.004 mg/l . .
HAL(child): 1-to 10-day; 30 mg/L
Longer-term: 4 mg/L
HEALTH EFFECTS SUMMARY
- ' '.-.-' \ ' .. , '
Acute: EPA has found beryllium to potentially cause
the following health effects from acute exposures at
levels above the MCL: inhalation may cause acute chemi-
cal pneumqnitis; less toxic via oral exposure.
Short-term exposures in drinking water considered
"safe" for a 10-kg (22 Ib.) child consuming one liter of
water per day: up to a ten-day exposure to 30 mg/L; a
longer-term exposure (upto 7 years) to 4 mg/L.
Chronic: Beryllium has the potential to cause the
following health effects from long-term exposures at
levels above the MCL: damage to bones and lungs.
Cancer: There is limited evidence that beryllium may
cause cancer from lifetime exposures at levels above
the MCL. ;', ; :
USAGE PATTERNS ~
Production qf beryllium metal increased during the
1980s: from almost 300,000 Ibs. in 1982 to 490,000 Ibs
in 1986. In 1986, it was estimated that the greatest use
of beryllium is as an alloy and metal in nuclear reactors
and aerospace applications, which consumed 40% of all
production in 1986. Consumption for other uses: as an
alloy and oxide in electrical equipment, 35%; as an alloy
and oxide in electronic components, 17%; and as com-:
pounds and metal in other applications, 8%.
Beryllium metal is used as a hardener in alloys; in
space vehicles, navigation and optical equipment, and
missile fuel. The chloride is used as a catalyst and
intermediate in chemical manufacture. The oxide is used
in glass/ceramics; as a component of nuclear fuels and
moderators, electric heat sinks; electrical insulators; mi-
crowave oven components; gyroscopes; military vehicle
armor; rocket nozzles; crucibles; thermocouple tubing;
laser structural components. ,
Toxic RELEASE INVENTORY -
RELEASES TO WATER AND LAND:
1987 TO 1993
Water
TOTALS (in pounds) .1.314
Top Five States *
PA 653
OH 490
Ml 5
TX ,0
MN -l-.--.-. . 142
'Major Industries*
Copper rolling, drawing 405
Nonferrous metal smelting 481
Nonferfous rolling, drawing 4
.Aluminum foundries 5
Blast furnaces, steelworks 250
Petroleum refining 142
Land
341,721
,174,250
166,292
1,000
174
0
180,502
151,790
8,000
1,000
. 250
174
October 1995
Technical Version
Printed on Recycled Paper
-------
RELEASE PATTERNS ' .
Beryllium is concentrated in silicate minerals relative to
sulfides and in feldspar minerals relative to
ferromagnesium minerals. The greatest known naturally
occurring concentrations of beryllium are found in certain
pegmatite bodies. Certain fossil fuels contain beryllium
compounds, perhaps accounting for its presence in some
community air samples. Beryllium is not likely to be found
in natural water above trace levels due to the insolubility
of oxides and hydroxides at the normal pH range. It has
been reported to occur in US drinking water at 0.01 to 0.7
ug/L. - '
Beryllium enters the environment principally from coal
combustion. Beryllium content of the ashes and waste-
water from a power plant suggest that secondary long
term beryllium pollution emerges from the slag and ash
dumps. It is also found in discharges from other industrial
and municipal operations. Rocket exhaust products also
consist of its compounds, principally the oxide, fluoride
and chloride. .
From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release
Inventory beryllium releases to land and water totalled
over 340,000 Ibs., of which most was to land. These
releases were primarily from copper rolling and drawing
industries which use it as a hardener in alloys. The largest
releases occurred in Pennsylvania and Ohio.
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE , -
There is little information available oh the environmen-
tal fate of beryllium and its compounds: Beryllium com-
pounds of very low water Solubility appear to predomi-
nate in soils. Leaching and transport through.soils to
ground water appears unlikely to be of concern. Erosion
and bulk transport of soil may bring beryllium to surface
waters, but most likely in particulate ratherthan dissolved
form. . .
OTHER REGULATORY INFORMATION
MONITORING: .
- FOR GROUND WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample once every 3 years
REPEAT FREQUENCY- If no Detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
- FOR SURFACE WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample annually
REPEATFIREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
- TRIGGERS - If detect at > 0.004 mg/L, sample quarterly.
ANALYSIS:
REFERENCE SOURCE
EPA 600/4-79-020
NTISPB 91-231498
ASTM
Standard Methods
METHOD NUMBERS
210.2
200.7; 200.8; 200.9
D3645-84B
3113:3120
TREATMENT
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES -
Activated Alumina; Coagulation/filtration; Ion Exchange, Lime Softening
Reverse Osmosis .
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
4 EPA can provide further regulatory, and other general information:
EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791
4 Other sources of lexicological and environmental fate data include:
Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404
Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000
October 1995
Technical Version
Page 2
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
4601
EPA811-F-95-002I- T
October 1995
&EPA
National Primary Drinking
Water Regulations
Cyanide
CHEMICAL/PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CAS NUMBER: Hydrogen cyanide- 74-90-8
COLOR/ FORM/ODOR: Cyanide is a carbon-nitrogen chemical unit
which may be combined with a variety of organic and.
inorganic components. The most common is hydrogen
cyanide, a colorless, flammable liquid or gas.
SOIL SORPTION COEFFICIENT: Kbcs of 1 to 70 for most soluble forms,
with the nitrites having highest mobility in soils. Insoluble
forms are expected to adsorb to sediments.
CYANIDE-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS: '
Organics: Nitrites like Acetonitrile, butanenitrile, etc; .bromoxynil,
cyanocobalamin, cyanogens, cyanohydrins, tabun
Inorganics: combined with hydrogen, calcium, barium, sodium,
zinc, nickel, mercury, potassium, copper, silver
BiocoNCENTRATioN FACTOR: BCFs of <1 to 50 for most soluble
forms, which are not expected to bioconcentrate in aquatic
organisms. Insoluble forms may bioconcentrate.
SOLUBILITIES:
.nitrites low to moderate
cyanohydrin highly soluble ',.
cyanogens moderate to high
tabun soluble
other organics slightly soluble . .
Hydrogen soluble
sodium'' -48% at 10 deg C '
potassium . 50% in cold water
mercuric 10% at 14 deg C
barium 80% at 14 deg C
calcium soluble , .
:copper insoluble :.
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
MCLG:
MCL:
HAL(child)-:
0.2 mg/l. .
0.2mg/l ".
1- to 10-day: 0.2 mg/L
Longer-term: 0.2 mg/L
HEALTH EFFECTS SUMMARY '
Acute: EPA has found cyanide compounds to poten-
tially cause the following health effects from acute expo-
sures at levels above the MCL: rapid breathing, tremors
and other neurological effects. ,
- used in acrylic/mddacrylic fibers and resins. Other
cyanides such as dichlobenil, bromoxynil and bantrol,
are used as herbicides. Tabun is used as a chemical
warfare agent. Potassium cyanide is used for silver
plating and for dyes and specialty products.
Available production data on cyanides: hydrogen cya-
nide,, 1 billion Ibs. in 1987; acrylonitrile-2.5 billion Ibs.
1993; adiponitrile-1,4 billion Ibs. in 1991; bromoxynil-2.6
million Ibs in 1990; acetonitrile-35 million Ib. in 1989.
Short-term exposures in drinking water considered
"safe" for a 10-kg (22 Ib.) child consuming one liter of
\A/ฃttoi* r"\OI* /*!Q\/* I ir^^rt 4 7 \/A4i* A\/n/^^i **** tf\ f\ O- mf*/\
water per aay. upio a /-year exposure to u.z mg/L. ,
, Chronic: Cyanide compounds have the potential to
cause the following chronic health effects from long-
term exposures, at levels above the MCL: weight loss,
thyroid effects, nerve damage. ".
Cancer: There is inadequate evidence to state whether
or not cyanide compounds have the potential to cause
cancer from lifetime exposures in .drinking water.
' : -. .' - . ' ' ' ', i''1
USAGE PATTERNS
The most commonly used form, hydrogen cyanide, is
mainly used in manufacturing other cyanides, particu-
larly adiponitrile which is used in nylon; and acrylonitrile
Toxic RELEASE INVENTORY -
RELEASES TO WATER AND LAND:
Water
TOTALS (in pounds) 939,611
Top -Ten States *
CA ... . 0
PA 208,239
IK! . " ' iQ7-*a"7'7
IIN lO/,Ot./
OH - .>'-- 160,203
TX . . 54,379.
MD '/ 89,438
Major Industries*
Blast furnaces + steel .747,970
Metal heat treating , : 0
.. Ind organic chems 49,098
Plating + polishing 29,486
1987 TO 1993
Land
641,082
430,886
4,909 '
nr\ r%Jir\
20,242-
850
V 83,394 .
23,503
53,404 ,
430,886
82,912 -.
29,636 .
October 1995
Technical Version
. Printed on Recycled Paper
-------
RELEASE PATTERNS
The major sources of cyanide releases to water are
reported to be discharges from metal finishing industries,
iron and steel mills, and organic chemical industries.
Releases to soil appear to be primarily from disposal of
cyanide wastes in landfills and the use of cyanide-
containing road salts. Cyanide released to air from car
exhaust is expected to exist almost entirely as hydrogen
cyanide gas. '
Some foods may also naturally contain cyanides,
including Hma beans and almonds. Chlorination treat-
ment of some wastewaters can produce
chloroaceton'rtriles as a by-product.
Cyanide has been found in drinking water at levels on
the order of a few parts per billion.
From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release
Inventory cyanide compound releases to land and water
totalled about 1.5 million Ibs., of which about 65 percent
was to water. These releases were primarily from .steel
mills and metal heat treating industries. The largest
releases occurred in California and Pennsylvania.,
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE
Nitriles are generally highly volatile and biodegradable i
when released to water, and are not expected to biocon-
centrate in aquatic organisms. Nitriles have the potential
to leach to ground water as they do not adsorb to soil.
They tend to be resistant to hydrolysis in soil or water.
Cyanide-containing herbicides have more moderate
potential for leaching, but again are readily biodegraded
so they are not expected to bioconcentrate.
Soluble cyanide compounds such as hydrogen and
potassium cyanide have low adsorption to sbi|s with high
pH, high carbonate and low clay content. However, at pH
less than 9.2, most free cyanide is expected to convert to
hydrogen cyanide which is highly volatile. Soluble cya-
nides are not expected to bioconcentrate.
Insoluble cyanide compounds such as the copper and
silver salts may adsorb to soils and sediments, and
, generally have the potential to bioconcentrate. Insoluble
forms do not biodegrade to hydrogen cyanide.
Tabun is rapidly hydrolyzed in soil and water, and so is
not expected to leach or bioconcentrate.
OTHER REGULATORY INFORMATION
MONITORING:
- FOR GROUND WATER SOURCES:
- INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample once every 3 years
REPEAT FREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
-FOR SURFACE WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FIIEQUENCV- 1 sample annually
REPEATFREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
- TRIGGERS - If detect at > 0.2 mg/L, sample quarterly.
ANALYSIS:
REFERENCE SOURCE
EPA 600/4-79-020
NTIS PB 91-231498
Standard Methods
METHODNUMBERS
335.1*; 335.2; 335.3
D2036-89A; D2036-89B*
4500-CN-D,E&,F; 4500-CN-G*
.*- measure "free",or amenable cyanide; other methods screen for "total"
cyanide.
TREATMENT
BEST AVAII.ABLE TECHNOLOGIES
"Ion Exchange, Reverse Osmosis, Chlorine
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
ซ EPA &m provide further regulatory and other general information: .
EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791
A Other sources of lexicological and environmental fate data include:
Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404
Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000
October 1995
Technical Version
Page 2
-------
, United States
Environmental Protection
.Agency
Office of Water
4601
EPA 811-F-95-002m-T
Octobef 1995
*
National Primary Drinking
Water Regulations
Nickel
CHEMICAL/ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CAS NUMBER: 7440-02-0 J
COLOR/ FORM/ODOR: Nickel is a silvery metal found only in
combined form in nature.
SOIL SORPTION COEFFICIENT: N/A; sorption related to that of iron/
manganese oxides, organic matter.
BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR: N/A; not expected to bioconcentrate
COMMON ORES: sulfide- chalcopyrite, heazlewoodite (disulfide); .
sulfate- morenosite; carbonate- zaratite; oxide- bunsenite;
others- pyrrhotite, pentlandite, gamierite, niccolite, millerite
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS .'-..,- ,
MCLG: . 0.1 mg/l ' .
MCL: 0.1 mg/l .
SOLUBILITIES: .
acetate- 17% at 65 deg C
carbonate- . 93 mg/L at 25 deg C ':."
carbonyl- insoluble ,. ..
chloride- 642 g/L at 20 deg C
cyanide- 'insoluble
disulfide- . insoluble ;
fluoride- 40 g/L at 25 deg C
hydroxide- 0.1 3 g/L cold water '.'
iodide- 1242 g/L at 0 deg C .
nitrate- ' 48.5 Wt% at 20 deg C
oxide- 0.11 mg/L at 20 deg C
sulfate- 293 g/L at 0 deg C
;... -' .-- ' . . .
as follows: transportation, 25%, chemical industry, 15%;
electrical, equipment, -9%; construction, 9%; fabricatec
metal products, 9%; petroleum, 8%; household appli-
ances, 7%; machinery, 7%; and other, 1 1%.
HAL(child): 1- to 10-day: 1 mg/L
NOTE: The MCLG and MCL for nickel are being re-
manded; ' :
HEALTH EFFECTS SUMMARY
AcjifsiEPA has not found nickel to potentially cause
health effects from acute exposures at levels above the
MCL :'..' . -.,''
" . . ; . , '.ป., . - '
Short-term exposures in drinking water considered
"safe" for a 10-kg (22 Ib.) child consuming one liter of
waterperday: a one- to ten-day exposure to 1 mg/L; upto
a 7 year exposure to 0.5 mg/L.
Chronic: Nickel has the potential to cause the follow-
ing health effects from long-term exposures at levels
above the MCL: decreased body weight; heart and liver
damage; dermatitis. .
Cancer: There is no evidence that nickel has the
potential to cause cancer from lifetime exposures.- in
drinking water.
USAGE PATTERNS
production of nickel was 84.6 million Ibs. in 1986,
down slightly from 1982 report of almost 90 million Ibs.
In 1 986 it was estimated that industries consumed nickel
Foxrc RELEASE INVENTORY -
RELEASES TO WATER AND LAND:
Water
TptALS (in pounds) 709,236
Top Ten States *
OR 459
AR ' o 4,250
ID 1,000
IN 28,050
PA 19,680, .
AZ 767
l-V/1 '' ' A
TX 0
MD ' ./ 77,200
dA ' 6,687
GA ' ; . 61,100
Major Industries*
Primary nonferrous meta 16,874 .
Blast furnaces + steel 304,891
Ind inorganic chems 22,689
Ind organic chems 109,141
Petroleum refining 186,499
... Primary copper 1,272
Iron+steel foundries , 500
Gray iron foundries 3,326
Inorganic pigments ; 62,394
1987 TO 1993
Land
26,079,419
1 6,256i532 .
5,622,900
2,200,250
2,098,196 ;
.2,052,736
984,817 '
; 777,400
.666,637
285,731
193,111 /
12,053,688
6,784,227
2,519,468
,1,105,934
949,411
996,817
409,000
334,524
193,111
* Water/Land totals only include facilities with, releases
greater than a certain amount - usually 1000 to 10,000 Ibs.
October 1995
Technical Version
Printed on Recycled Paper
-------
Nickel carbonate is used in nickel catalyst production
for organic chemical manufacture, petroleum refining
and edible oil hardening. Nickel oxide consumption in
1972 (representing over 30 million Ibs. contained nickel)
is estimated to have been as follows: 60% for stainless
arid heat resisting steels, 27% for other steel alloys, 8%
for other nickel alloys, 2% for cast irons, and 3% for other
uses. .
RELEASE PATTERNS
Nickel is found in many ores as sulfides, arsenides,
antimonides & oxides or silicates; chief sources include
chalcopyrite; others are pyrrhotite, pentlandite, garni-
erite, niccolite, millerite. The principal natural form of
nickel oxide occurs in admixture with nickel sulfides in
varying proportions in weathered ore. Nickel carbonate,
found as the mineral zaratite, is a potential atmospheric
and surface water pollutant.
Inadvertent formation of nickel carbonyl can occur in
various industrial processes that use nickel catalysts,
such as coal gasification, petroleum refining, and hydro-
genation of fats and oils. Nickel oxide has been identified
In residual fuel oil and in atmospheric emissions from
nickel refineries, f rinickel disulfide is a major component
in nickel refinery flue dust.
From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release
Inventory nickel releases to land and water totalled nearly
27 million Ibs., of which most was to land. These releases
were'primarily from nickel smelting/refining and steel-
works industries. The largest releases occurred in Or-
egon and Arkansas. The largest direct releases to water
occurred in Maryland and Georgia.
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE , .
Nickel is one of the most mobile of the heavy metals in
the aquatic environment. The mobility of nickel in the
aquatic environment is controlled largely by the capability
of various sorbents to scavenge itfrom solution. Although
data are limited, it appears that in pristine environments,
hydrous oxides of iron and manganese control nickel's
mobility via co-precipitation and sprption. In .polluted
environments, the more prevalent organic material will
keep nickel soluble. Jn reducing environments, insoluble
nickel sulfide may be formed. Nickel chloride is water-
soluble and would be expected to release divalent nickel
into the water.
The atmosphere is a major conduit for nickel as par-
ticulate matter. Contributions to atmospheric loading
come from both natural sources and anthropogenic activ-
ity, with input from both stationary and.mobile sources.
Various dry and wet precipitation processes remove
particulate matter as wash out or fallout from the atmo-
sphere with transferto soils and waters. Soil borne nicke
may enter waters by surface runoff or by percolation into
ground water. .
Once nickel is in surface and.ground water systems,
physical and chemical interactions (complexatibn, pre-
cipitation/dissolution, adsorption/desorption, arid oxida-
tion/reduction) occur that will determine its fate and that
of. its constituents. .
The only gaseous nickel compound of environmental
importance is nickel carbonyl. Under ambient conditions
in moist air, it decomposes to form nickel carbonate.
Thus, in the atmosphere at concentrations hear the ppb
level, it has; a half-life of about 30 minutes. The removal
of nickel carbonyl by precipitation or by adsorption on
surfaces has not been documented. Since this com-
pound is soluble in water, precipitation scavenging is
possible. Nothing is known about its reaction with natural
surfaces orits uptake by vegetation. Thus, dry deposition
rates cannot be predicted until some experimental inves-
tigations have been conducted.
Although nickel is bioaccumulated, the concentration
factors are such as to suggest that partitioning into the
biota is not a dominant fate process.
OTHER REGULATORY INFORMATION
MONITORING: .->-..-
- FOR GROUND WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample once every 3 years
REPEAT FREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
-FOR SURFACE WATER SOURCES: ,
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample annually '
REPEATFREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
- TRIGGERS If detect at > 0.1 mg/L, sample quarterly.
ANALYSIS:
REFERENCE SOURCE
EPA 600/4-79-020
.NTIS PB 91-231498
Standard Methods
METHODNUMBERS
249.1; 249.1
200/7; 200.8; 200.9
3111B; 3113; 3120
TREATMENT
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES
Ion Exchange, Lime Softening, Reverse Osmosis
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
* EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information:
EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791
* Other sources of lexicological and environmental fate data include:
Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404
Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/49645531
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000
October 7995
Technical Version
Page 2
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency -
Office of Water
4601 ,
EPA 8T1-F-95-002n-T
October 1995
SEPA
National
Water
Thallium
CHEMICAL/ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CAS .NUMBER: 7440-28-0 (metal) .
COLOR/ FORM/ODOR: Thallium is a metallic element that exists in
nature only in as salts and other combined forms. "
SOIL SORPTION COEFFICIENT: N/A; strongly adsorbed to some clays
at alkaline pH. "
BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR: Log BCFs =. 5 to 5.2 in fish, inverte-
brates; expected to bioconcentrate . . :
SOLUBILITIES:
acetate
carbonate-
.chloride-
nitrate-
oxide-
sulfate-
very soluble ,:s
4% (w/w) cold water .
2^9 g/L at 15.5 deg C
39.1 g/L to 95.5 g/L at 20 deg C
insoluble ,
48.7 g/L at 20 deg C
COMMON ORES: Thallium is a trace metal associated with potas-
sium in copper, gold, zinc, and cadmium ores.
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
MCLG: O.OQ05 mg/l
MCL: 0.002 mg/l
HAL(chiId): 1-to 10-day: 0.007 mg/L
Longer-term: 0.007 mg/L
HEALTH EFFECTS SUMMARY
: EPA has found thallium to potentially cause the
following health effects from acute exposures at levels
above the MCL: gastrointestinal; irritation; peripheral RELEASE PATTERNS
neuropathy.
thallium compounds are used in infrared spectrom-
eters, in crystals, in other optical systems, and for color-
ing glass; in semiconductor research; with mercury for.
switches and closures which operate at subzero tem-
peratures; in photoelectric cells, lamps, arid, in electron-
ics, in scintillation counters; as catalyst in organic synthe-
sis; as a rat poison, as an ant bait, and as a reagent in
analytical chemistry. It was also formerly used as a
depilating agent by dermatologists and as a cosmetic
depilatory cream.
Short-term exposures considered "safe" for a iO-kg
(22 Ib.) child consuming one liter of water per day: upto a
7-year exposure to 0.007 mg/L
Chronic: Thallium has the potential to cause the
following health effects from long-term exposures at
In nature, thallium is present as a trace compound in
many minerals, mainly associated with potassjum and
rubidium.
Man-made sources of thallium pollution are gaseous
emission of cement factories,.coal burning power plants,
levels above the MCL: changes in blood chemistry;
damage to liver, kidney, intestinal and testicular tissues;
hairless.
Cancer: There is rip evidence that thallium has the
potential to cause cancer from lifetime exposures in
drinking water. . .
'''. - ' . .' \ '.
' . ', ^ *
USAGE PATTERNS
There is no domestic production of thallium. Approxi-
mately 4,500 IDS. of thallium and its compounds were
imported in 1987. |n 1984, US industry .consumed thal-
lium compounds as follows: electronics industry, 60-
70%; the remainder was used in Pharmaceuticals, alloys
and glass manufacture.
' - . . . -.-,' ..',..-.
Toxrc RELEASE INVENTORY -.
RELEASES TO WATER AND LAND:
Water
TOTALS (in pounds) 2,606
'.-'"-'
Top Five States
. TX' 6
OH 1,500
MN , " -1,100
CO 0
IN -... . ; ...;- 0
' . ซ !
Major Industries*
Primary copper smelting 1 ,856
Petroleum refining 750
Primary nonferrous metals 0
Blast furnaces, steelworks 0
1987 TO 1993
Land
2,770
- - ป -'
. 2.020
' 0
0
500
. , ' 250
, . 765
1,255
500
250 -
October 1995
Technical Version
Printed on Recycled Paper
-------
and metal sewers. The leaching of thallium from ore
processing-operations is the major source of elevated
thallium concentrations in water. Thallium is a trace metal
associated with copper, gold, zinc, and cadmium.
.Water concentrations of 1 to 88 parts per billion have
been reported in rivers draining metal mining areas.
From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release
Inventory thallium releases to land and water totalled
over 5,000 Ibs., of which about half was to water.-These
releases were primarily from copper smelting and petro-
leum refining industries. The largest releases occurred in
Texas and Ohio.
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE ,
In a study of thallium movement in a simple aquatic
ecosystem, concentrations of thallium decrease slowly in
the Water and increase tenfold in the vegetation and fish.
Definite transport of thallium occurred among water, fish,
and vegetation, but no .transport was seen between the
sand other ecosystem components.
It was found that increasing pH decreased thalljum-
inorganic interactions. Increases in pH, however, pro-
duced extensive thallium-humic acid interaction. It ap-
pears that thallium-organic interactions may be important
in most natural water systems.
In reducing environments, thallous species may pre-
cipitate as a sulfide; otherwise, it will remain in solution.
Thallium sulfate has been used as a rodenticide in
Japan, where it was sprayed over forest areas, but was
notfoundto persist in water for more than a month. Sfnce
thallium is soluble in most aquatic systems, it is readily
available to aquatic organisms and is quickly bioaccumu-
lated. Goldfish have a higher rate of uptake for thallium
than for the five most common alkali metals. Some algae
are able to concentrate thallium by a factor of 127 to 220
within one hour; in comparison, the concentration factors
of2.7hours exposure were 114for lead, 30 for cadmium,
80 for zinc, and 313 for copper. ' :
Bioconcentration factors: in freshwater fish,'factor of
100,000; in marine invertebrates, factor of 150,000; in
marine fish, factor of 100,000; in freshwater and marine
plants, factor of 100,000; in clams (Ivtya arenia), factor of
17.6-18.6; in mussel (Mytilus edulis), factor of 10.9-12:4;
and in Atlantic salmon, factor of 27-1430.
OTHER REGULATORY INFORMATION
MONITORING:
- FOR GROUND WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample once every 3 years
REPEAT FREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
-FOR SURFACE WATCR SOURCES:
iNrriAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample annually
REPEATF:REOUENC:YT lf.no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
- TRIGGERS-If detect at > 0.002 mg/L, sample quarterly.
ANALYSIS:
REFERENCE SOURCE METHODNUMBERS
EPA 600/4-79-020 279.2
NTIS PB 81-231498 , 20Q.8; 200^9
Standard Methods' 3113;3113B
TREATMENT
BEST AVAII.ABLE TECHNOLOGIES . '
Activated alumina; Ion Exchange
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
A EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information:
EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791
* Other sources of lexicological and environmental fate data include:
Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404
Toxics Ftelease Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000
October 1995
Technical. Version
Page 2
------- |