United States
Environmental Protection Office of Water EPA 811/R-92-007
Agency (WH-550) November 1992
&EPA ANALYSIS OF POTENTIAL
TRADE-OFFS IN REGULATION
OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS
EXHIBITS AND APPENDIX
MATERIAL
-------
-------
Analysis of Potential Trade-offs In
Regulation of Disinfection By-Products
John E. Cromwell, III & Xin Zhang
Wade Miller Associates, Inc.
Frank Letkiewicz
Abt Associates, Inc.
Stig Regli & Bruce Macler
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Exhibits & Appendix Material
-------
-------
Exhibit 1
Raw Water
Quality
Treatment Practices
Pre-Disinfection
Coagulation
Filtration —
Softening —
Disinfection
By-Product Removal/Control-
Corrosion Control
Post-Disinfection and Storage-
Process
Control
Strategies
Distribution System
Characteristics (Dwell Time)
1st Customer
i
Ava. Customer
Last Customer
i
I
microbial
risk
DBP
risk
I
microbial
risk
DBP
risk
I
microbial
risk
DBP
risk
-------
Exhibit 2
Influent Giardia vs. Total Log Reduction (Winter) From LeChevallier
10,000
1,000
o
o
/5
ca
1
ca
5
CD
Total Log Reduction
-------
Exhibit 3
CC
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Exhibit 4
Disinfection By-Products Regulatory Analysis
Baseline Cancer Incidence — Based on Occurrence
Draft'5-15-92
Data
(Surface Water Systems)
Annual Cases - Population Exposed (persons) x DBF Concentration fcg/l) x Annual Risk Factor (cases/persons/year/pg/0
1
Total Population (million persons) 3
Average Concentrations G/g/l)
Chloroform
Bromodichloromethane
< 10.000 people
17
"77 9
/ /.fc
24.8
Dibromochloromethane j lu-*
Bromoform 1 .
TTHMs \-B:£:<.. 11*
DichloroacelicAcid I 27-7
Tichloroacetic Acid I . , . 16-6
THAAs
\ MLE Annual DW Risk Factors r 3
Chloroform
Bromodichloromethane
Dibromochloromethane
Bromoform
Dlchloroacetic Acid
Tichloroacetic Acid
Cancer Incidence based on MLE (cases/yr.)
Chloroform
Bromodichloromethane
&'•': **
1.43E-10
3.33E-10
3.33E-10
1.79E-10
3.59E-08
8.68E-09
0.19
0.14
Dibromochloromethane f °-06
Bromoform 0-°°
TTHMs .. , o-*
Dlchloroacetic Acid
Tichloroacetic Acid
THAAs
Total
Upper 95% Cl Annual DW Risk Factors > a ;
Chloroform
Bromodichloromethane
Dibromochloromethane
Bromoform
Dichloroacetlc Acid
Tichloroacetic Acid
Cancer Incidence Based oh 95% Cf (cases/yr.)
Chloroform
Bromodichloromethane
Dibromochloromethane
Bromoform
TTHMs
Dlchloroacetic Acid
Tichloroacetic Acid
THAAs
Total
17.3
2.5
;$. . . '20
2.49E-09
1.02E-08
1.02E-08
3.22E-09
1.13E-07
2.57E-08
:'x:\ •
3.3
4.4
1.£
0.1
'.:•".- ' ' 1£
54.C
7.'
145
59 71
Low Case E
<1 0,000 people
) 17
•
1
17.4
6.3
n Q
U.o
.84
22.1
47 fU^
17.OO
*' 39
1.43E-10
3.33E-10
3.33E-10
1.79E-10
3.59E-08
8.68E-09
1.24
0.84
0.3Q
0.02
2.4
115.0
,
i
'
i
, %
'•
\
21 .4 1|
136 1
2.49E-09
1.02E-08
1.02E-08
3.22E-09
1.13E-07
2.57E-08
'•"•
21.6
25.7
9.5
0.'
53
i 361 .C
I 63.'
> 'V42'
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. f '
r
=
.stimate *
145
14
6.6
3.6
0.57
25
'
6.4
5.5
12
1.43E-10
3.33E-10
3.33E-10
1.79E-10
3.59E-08
8.68E-09
'
0.29
0.32
0.17
0.01
0.8
33.3
6.9
40
2.49E-09
1.02E-08
1.02E-08
3.22E-09
1.13E-07
2.57E-08
5.1 1
9.8
' 5.3
0.3
20
104.5
20.5
125
1 Based on occurrence data from: disinfection by-products field studies data (EPA.OGWDW.TSD)
- Based on occurrence data from Krasnere etal.. 1989
1 Source: Federal Reporting Data System (FRDS)
* maximum likelhood estimate (MLE)
5 upper 05% confidence interval
-------
Exhibit 5
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Exhibit 6
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Exhibit 7
Draft: 5/13/92
100% i
90%-
2- 80% •
.Q 70%
J 60%
S 50%-
°- 40% •
E 30%-
O 20% •
10%-
0%-!
C
SURFACE WATER WITHOUT FILTRATION/SOFTENING
CUMULATIVE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
Actual and Model-predicted Influent TOC Concentration
FITTED LCX3NORMAL CURVE
y
gf
/f
/•
/ ;
/ • •
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)
..--•--
-- • '* ^*^~~~ "
L-*_^x-^
f
5 10 15 20 25
Influent TOC Concentration (mg/l)
30
100% i
2- 90% •
m
Actual and Model-predicted Bromide Concentration
JMM DAT
A
h I I hU LI
X3NORMAL CURVE
//' 1
1 \
1 1
/ i
/
3 30% 4
0.0
i
!
!
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Bromide Concentration (mg/l)
3.5
100%
2- 90% -
J3 OU%
m
Actual and Model-predicted Influent Giardia
LeC
hevallier 46 cities
Currently Filled Lo
gnormal Curve
^
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^:'
rrf~^i^~
^z**""**^
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.jL^-T
• •^^
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{••
10 100 1,000 10,000
Influent Giardia Concentration in Logarithmic Scale (cysts/100 L)
100,000
Page
-------
Exhibit 8
Simulated Influent TOO vs. Influent Giardia
10 100 1-000
Influent Giardia Concentration (cysts/100 L)
Simulated Influent TOG vs. Influent Bromide
0.0001
0.001
0.01 0.1
Influent Bromide Concentration (mg/l)
10,000
10
-------
Exhibit 9
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Exhibit 10
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Exhibit 11
Overview ofGiardia Modelling
Hibler Data
73 plants
variation between
plants: lognormal
LeChevalier Data
46 plants
variation between
plants: lognormal
t
temporal variation
within plants:
delta negative binomial
I
distribution used
for influent simulation
I
Assuming:
• 48% recovery
• 13% viability
• deletion of
values estimated at
limit of detection
100
simulated influents
Treatment Model
100
plant effluents (1st customer)
summary statistics
mean
90th%
distribution used
for simulation
of within plant
temporal variation
compute expected
value of Rose dose
response function
estimate
of endemic
incidence
rate
i
compute expected value
and variance of Rose
dose response function
estimate
of outbreak
risk
Assuming:
• 5% failure rate
(loss of 1 log)
• 25% secondary
infection rate
• 1% per 30 days
outbreak threshold
• viable cyst=
infective in humans
• infection=illness
-------
Exhibit 12
Overview of National-Level Model
Process Characteristics
• SW
• Filtration
• w/out softening
Simulated Raw Water
Quality and Chemical
Dosages for 100
Plants
TOC/UV 254
Removal Model
Alkalinity/pH
Model
Chlorine/Chloramine
Decay Model
Treatment &
Distribution
Assumptions
• SWTR/ESWTR
• Lead
• Taste
Batch Mode
Treatment
Model
THM Formation
Model
HAA Formation
Model
Inactivation
Model
Predicted Plant Effluent
and Distributed
Water Quality
for 100 plants
I
Compliance Sorting
Routine
(least cost algorithm)
f
Average Customer
By-Product
Concentrations
Treatment Vectors
of Compliance Percentages
for Alternative MCLs
Effluent (1st customer)
Giardia concentrations
for alternative MCLs
I
1
Cancer
Risk
Model
National
Cost
Models
Giardia
Risk
Model
-------
Exhibit 13
Compliance Sorting Routine
MCL Option #1
I
PLANT #1
Read Predicted By-Product Concentrations
For Status Quo Treatment Configuration
Read Predicted By-Product Concentrations
For Next Least Cost Treatment Configuration
s This
Last Treatment?
vailabl
Save Record of Effluent Data to Output File
Compliance Percentages
SWTR Scenario
W/AIt.Disinf.
$»
No further treatment
Eliminate per-chlorination
Eliminate per-chlor & add ammonia
pre-chlor + ammonia + alum dose
pre-chlor + ammonia + alum + ozone
pre-chlor + ammonia + alum + ozone + GAC
100
61
21
18
0
0
0
TTHM
75
49
25
23
3
0
0
MCLs (ug/1)
50
33
23
34
9
1
0
25
17
10
30
27
13
3
-------
Exhibit 14
The Core Problem
Influent
Bromide
Influent
TOG
Influent
Giardia
Coagulation
&
Filtration
Giardia
removal
Reduced
TOG
Log
Reduction
at the 1st
customer
f Reduced ^
V. C^ Demand )
Shift to
Brominated
Species
Reduced
Precursors
Giardia
inactivation
By-product
formation
CI2
Residual at
the last
customer
-------
Exhibit 15
SWTR Scenario: With Alternate Disinfectants
TTHM MCL= 100 (ug/l) #. of Plants = 39
10,000
1,000
a
o
7/5
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o,
CO
1
1
10
Total Log Reduction Achieved
-------
Exhibit 16
10,000
1,000
o
o
R>
1
«S
O
*•*
I
"c
SWTR Scenario: With Alternate Disinfectants
TTHM MCL = 25 (ug/l) #. of Plants Treating = 83
Total Log Reduction Achieved
-------
Exhibit 17
SWTR Scenario: With Alternate Disinfectants
TTHM MCL = 100 ug/I to 75 ug/l
in
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
CO
O R
S? 50%
3 40%
O
30%
20%
10%
* 1
0%
10 100 1,000 10,000
Increase in Annual Giardia Infections Per 1 Million People
100,000
-------
1
Exhibit 18
SWTR Scenario: With Alternate Disinfectants
TTHM MCL = 100 ug/l to 25 ug/l
100% -
90% -
80% -
70% -
en
E
o
w, 60% -
W
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1
ra
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30% -
20% -
10% -I
__f "1
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^
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f
I
1 — i i 1 1 1 n
—
-------
Exhibit 19
100% T—
90% -—
80% —
70%
(A
§ 60% -j-
Tn
« 50%
CJ
2
o
" 40%
£
30%
20% —
10% —
0%
85%
SWTR Scenarios: With Alternate Disinfectants
TTHM MCL = 100 ug/l to 75 ug/l
5%
7%
2%
1%
1-10 10-100 100-1,000 1,000-10,000 10,000-100,000
Increase in Annual Giardia infections Per 1 Million People
-------
Exhibit 20
100% —
90% -r-
80% --
70% --
SWTR Scenarios: With Alternate Disinfectants
TTHM MCL = 100 ug/l to 25 ug/l
w
1 60% -
w"
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H 40% -
£
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/vas _
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::iji|JHHH!iliiji:i°x:
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10-100 100-1,000 1,000-10,000 10,000-100,000
Increase in Annual Giardia Infections Per 1 Million People
-------
Exhibit 21
SWTR Scenario: With Alternate Disinfectants
From TTHM MCL = 100 ug/l to 75 ug/l
Change in Risks Per 1 Million People
10
a
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100 1,000 10,000 100,
Increase in Annual Giardia Infections
-------
Exhibit 22
SWTR Scenario: With Alternate Disinfectants
From TTHM MCL = 100 ug/l to 25 ug/l
Change in Risks Per 1 Million People
E
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10 100 1,000
Increase in Annual Giardia Infections
10,000
100,000
-------
Exhibit 23
SWTR Scenario: With Alternate Disinfectants
THAA MCL = 60 (ug/l) #. of Plants = 29
1U.UUU -
1,000 -
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Total Log Reduction Achieved
-------
Exhibit 24
10,000
1,000
o
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JO
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1
SWTR Scenario: With Alternate Disinfectants
THAA MCL = 10 (ug/l) #. of Plants Treating =
Total Log Reduction Achieved
-------
Exhibit 25
SWTR Scenario: With Alternate Disinfectants
THAA MCL = 60 ug/l to 50 ug/l
100% -
90%
0%
10 100 1,000 10,000
Increase in Annual Giardia Infections Per 1 Million People
100,000
-------
Exhibit 26
SWTR Scenario: With Alternate Disinfectants
THAA MCL = 60 ug/1 to 10 ug/l
10 100 1,000 10,000
Increase in Annual Giardia Infections Per 1 Million People
100,000
-------
Exhibit 27
100% -r
90% —
80% —
70% —
95%
-------
Exhibit 28
100% —
90% —
80% -r
70% —
g 60% —•
- I
° 50% -|-
S '
o>
H 40% —
Q.
30% —
20% —
10%
30%
0% —
SWTR Scenario: With Alternate Disinfectants
THAA MCL = 60 ug/l to 10 ug/l
1-10
12%
29%
24%
4%
10-100 100-1,000 1,000-10,000 10,000-100,000
Increase in Annual Giardia Infections Per 1 Million People
-------
Exhibit 29
SWTR Scenario: With Alternate Disinfectants
From THAA MCL = 60 ug/l to 50 ug/l
Change in Risks Per 1 Million People
10
a>
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10 100 1,000
Increase in Annual Giardia Infections
10,000
! I I
100,000
-------
Exhibit 30
SWTR Scenario: With Alternate Disinfectants
THAA MCL = 60 ug/l to 10 ug/l
Change in Risks Per 1 Million People
10
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Increase in Annual Giardia Infections
-------
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e § >«
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-------
Exhibit 33
Compliance Percentages
SWTR Scenario
W/ Alt. Disin.
5
No further treatment
Eliminate pre-chlor
Eliminate pre-chlor & add NH3
pre-chlor + NH3 + alum dose
pre-chlor + NH3 + alum + Oz
pre-chlor + NH3 + alum + Oz + GAG
60
70
12
18
0
0
0
THAA MCLs
50 40 30
64
15
17
4
0
0
56
16
22
5
1
0
48
12
22
14
3
1
(ug/D
20
37
8
8
23
7
17
10
19
3
1
22
5
50
Compliance Percentages
Enhanced SWTR Scenario
W/ Alt. Disin.
THAA MCLs (ug/1)
60 50 40 30 20 10
No further treatment
Eliminate pre-chlor
Eliminate pre-chlor & add NH3
pre-chlor + NH3 + alum dose
pre-chlor + NH3 + alum + Oz
pre-chlor + NH3 + alum + Oz + GAG
'70 62 56 47 35 17
11 16 16 12 10
17 18 16 12
0 1
0 0
0
0
10 18 18 15
10 16 15
1 17 50
-------
Exhibit 34
Compliance Percentages
SWTR Scenario
W/out Alt. Disin.
THAA MCLs (ug/1)
60 50 40 30 20 10
No further treatment
Eliminate pre-chlor
Eliminate pre-chlor & modify alum
Eliminate pre-chlor + alum + GAG
70 64 56 48 37 19
12 15 16 12 8
11 14 16 19 20 21
12 21 35 57
Compliance Percentages
Enhanced SWTR Scenario
W/out Alt. Disin.
No further treatment
Eliminate pre-chlor
Eliminate pre-chlor & modify alum
Eliminate pre-chlor + alum + GAG
60
70
11
12
7
THAA MCLs
50 40 30
62
16
15
7
56
16
15
13
47
12
21
20
(ug/1)
20
35
10
20
35
10
17
3
22
58
-------
Exhibit 35
Equivalence of "Maximum Net Benefit" and
"Minimum Total Social Cost" Objectives
$'s
Benefit: value of health
damages avoided
maximum net
benefits
cost of treatment & monitoring
Degree of
Treatment
$'s
total social cost
minimum total
social cost
cost of
treatment &
monitoring
cost of health
damages
incurred
Degree of
Treatment
Maximizing Health Damages Avoided
Per Dollar of Treatment Expenditure
Minimizing Health Damages Incurred
Per Dollar of Treatment Expenditure
-------
Draft: 13-May~92
Exhibit 36
MODEL OUTPUT (surface w/o softening): SWTR W/ ALTERNATIVE DISINFECTION
Treatment Code:
1 - not requiring further treatment modification
2 - eliminate pre-chlorination
3 - eliminate pre-chlor + add ammonia
4 _ pre—chlor + ammonia + alum dose
5 - pre-chlor + ammonia + alum + ozone
6 - pre-chlor + ammonia + alum + ozone + GAG
Population =
THAA
MCL
fl/l
..mi--' '
60
50
40
30
20
10
Annual
Treatment Cost *
($M)
2
12
21
71
383
922
103.000,000
•"
Cost of Cancer**
@ $8m/case
($M)
•=
358
338
304
259
177
91
(persons)
Cost of Giardia
@ $3,000/case
($M)
639
714
849
974
1,239
1,729
1,000
1,064
1,174
1,304
1,798
2,742
Capital costs are annualized at 10% interest rate over 20 years.
** MLE of cancer incidence from HAAs.
to
O
m
CO
O
O
1
0.0
60
50 40 30 20
ALTERNATE THAA MCLs (/ug/l)
-------
Exhibit 37
Draft: 13-May-92
MODEL OUTPUT (surface w/o softening): ENHANCED SWTR W/ ALTERNATIVE DISINFECTION
Treatment Code:
1 — not requiring further treatment modification
2 — eliminate pre—chlorination
3 — eliminate pre—chlor + add ammonia
4 - pre—chlor + ammonia + alum dose
5 — pre—chlor + ammonia + alum 4- ozone
6 — pre—chlor + ammonia + alum + ozone + GAC
Population =
103,000.000
(persons)
THAA Annual
MCL Treatment Cost *
fr/g/i) ($M)
60 7
50 16
40 38
30 120
20 422
10 963
Cost of Cancer**
@ $8m/case
($M)
369
348
313
258
178
91
Cost of Giardia Total
@ $3,000/case Costs
($M) ($M)
0.8 377
0.8 364
0.9 351
1 .0 379
1 .0 601
1 .0 1 ,055
* Capital costs are annualized at 1 0% interest rate over 20 years.
** MLE of cancer incidence from HAAs.
.O
1.4
— 1-3
Z 1.2
° 1.1
g 1-0
^ 0.9
P 0.8
w
0 0.7
% 0.6
3 0.5
2
2 0.4
**: 0.3
0.2
0.1
Total Cost
A
-
-
-
-
.x-
^~~ ~~~~~~-^
Cost of Giardia Cases ^^/
\^___
| o.O : ' ' —
60 50 40 30
ALTERNATE THAA MCLs flug/L)
X/^
/ /
/ /
/ /
S /-L.
•^"^ / ^\
/
^X Treatment Cost
/
Cost of Cancer Cases
' — — -^k
^-:a-~- •
20 10
-------
Exhibit 38
Draft: 13-May-92'
MODEL OUTPUT (surface w/o softening): SWTR W/O ALTERNATIVE DISINFECTION
Treatment Code:
1 — not requiring further treatment modification
2 — eliminate pre—chlorination
3 - eliminate pre-chlor + modify alum dose
4 __ pre-chlor + alum dose + GAG
Population =
103.000,000
(persons)
THAA
MCL
fog/0
60
50
40
30
20
10
Annual Treatment
Cost*
($M)
104
118
202
353
588
957
Cost of Cancer**
@ $8m/case
($M)
334
320
270
206
140
79
Cost of Giardia
@ $3,000/case
($M)
740
772
831
972
1,212
1,519
Total
Costs
($M)
1,177
• 1,210
1,303
1,531
1,940 1
2,555
* Capital costs are annualized at 10% interest rate over 20 years.
** MLE of cancer incidence from HAAs.
I
CD
<
z
3.5 —
3.0 r
2.5 r
2.0 r
I
1.5 r
1.0 r
0.5 r
0.0'
Total Cost
Cost of Giardia Cases
Cost of Cancer Cases
60
50 40 30
ALTERNATE THAA MCL (/ug/L)
20
10
-------
Draft: 13-May-92
Exhibit 39
MODEL OUTPUT (surface w/o softening): ENHANCED SWTR W/O ALTERNATIVE DISINFECTION
Treatment Code:
1.- not requiring further treatment modification
2 - eliminate pre—chlorination
3 — eliminate pre—chlor + modify alum dose
4 - pre-chlor + alum dose + GAG
Population —
103,000,000
(persons)
THAA
MCL
0/g/i)
60
50
40
30
20
10
Ann.Trt.*
Cost
($M)
118
118
218
336
588
974
Cost of Cancer**
@ $8m/case
($M)
337
320
271
211
142
77
Cost of Giardia
@ $3,000/case
($M)
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.0
1.0
1.0
Total
Costs
($M)
455
438
490)
548
731
1,052
* Capital costs are annualized at 10% interest rate over 20 years.
** MLE of cancer incidence from HAAs.
1.5
w
Q
CD
CO
O
O
Treatment Cost
Cost of Cancer Cases
40 30
ALTERNATE THAA MCLs (f/g/L)
-------
Exhibit 40
Draft: 10/12/92
Model Output (surface water systems w/o softening): SWTR w/ MODIFYING ALUM DOSE
Treatment Tier Code:
1 - not requiring further treatment modification
2 - eliminating prechlorination + modifying alum dose
Population •
703.000.000 (persons)
Number of Systems =
22Z
THAA
MCL
(uq/D
f,n
«;n
An
"\n
on
10
^««w^— =
S3=S3=S=
Treatment
Code
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
=£=^====S^
%o( Systems
Modifying
Alum Dose*
30
36
44
52
63
81
Cumulative
% of Systems
<- MCL*
93
93
88
79
65
43
=====
Annual
Treatment
Cost ($M) **
(1)
45
54
66
78
95
122
Cost ($M) of
Cancer***
@$8M/Case
(2)
326
303
275
254
234
215
Cost <$M> of
Giardiasis
@$3K/Case
(3)
796
853
917
1,086
1,237
1,261
Total
Social
Cost($M)
(l)+(2)+(3)
1,167
1,210
1,258
1,418
1,565
1,597
•Includes 20% over-design factor. .«,UAA
" Maximum Likelihood Estimates (MLE) of cancer incidence associated with HAAs.
•" Capital costs are annualized at 10% interest rate over 20 years.
Total Social Cost at Alternate THAA MCLs
2,000 -I
•5? 1'800'
§ 1.600-
1 1XJOO-
H 1200^
£ 1.000-
6 800
§ 600-
1 4°°f
< 200
0
i
Jotal Social Cost '• ^
^£_ ^
-^—^—~~ — " — " *
I • v ^_____ •
•* " •^»-~rto<* of Giardiasis
^ Cost of Cancer Cases
j- Treatment Cost-^ _ -• — •
,0 50 40 30 20 10
Alternate THAA MCL (ug/D
c:\017\dbp\iotus\sensitiv\old\ALMHAA.XLS
-------
Exhibit 41
Draft: 10/12/92
Model Output (surface water systems w/o softening): Enhanced SWTR w/ MODIFYING ALUM DOSE
Treatment Tier Code:
1 - not requiring further treatment modification
2 - eliminating prechlorination + modifying alum dose
Population =
103.000.000 (persons)
Number of Systems =
222
THAA
MCL
(ug/l)
60
50
40
30
20
10
Treatment
Code
2
2
2
2
2
2
% of Systems
Modifying
Alum Dose*
30
38
44
53
65
83
Cumulative
% of Systems
<= MCL*
93
93
87
80
65
42
Annual
Treatment
Cost ($M) "
(1)
45
57
66
80
98
125
Cost <$M) of
Cancer ***
@$8M/Case
(2)
332
300
280
258
235
216
Cost ($M) of
Giardiasis
@$3K/Case
(3)
0.8
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.0
Total
Social
Cost ($M)
(l)-K2)+(3)
378
358
348
339
333
342
* includes 20% over-design factor.
" Maximum Likelihood Estimates (MLE) of cancer incidence associated with HAAs.
**" Capital costs are annualized at 10% interest rate over 20 years.
Total Social Cost at Alternate THAA MCLs
Total Social Cost
Cost of Cancer Cases
Treatment Cost
40 30
Alternate THAA MCL (ug/l)
c:\017\dbp\lotus\sensitiv\old\EALMHAA.XLS
-------
-------
Appendix A
-------
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Appendix B
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1 Can car 1
MCL MCL Incidence
fTHAA.l ITTHU.l THAA.
Cancer Incidence (Maximum Likelihood Estimate)
TTHMs CF C2B B2C BF THAA. DCAA TRAA
Mean Concentrations of By-Products (Average Customer)2
TTHMs CF C2B B2C BF THAA. DHAA TO A A
1 Cumulative
MCL % of Sys.
[TTHMs) < MCL1
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Cancer Incidence (Maximum Likelihood Estimate)
TTHMs CF C2B B2C BF THAA. DCAA TCAA
Mean Concentrations of By-Products (Average Customer)2
TTHMs CF C2B B2C BF THAAs DCAA TCAA
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Appendix C
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