United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water (4601)
Washington, DC 20460
EPA815-K-97-002
July 1997
»EPA Water on Tap:
A Consumer's Guide to the Nation's
Drinking Water
*
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Foreword 11
Dear Friends of Drinking Wate|r:
We are pleased that EPA has prepifej
report. This report provides. infoft|f|
quality of U.S. drinking water safety^!?
variety of concerns that apply to ri||J
situations. - : ' . :V';J.H
••'.-- - .'v'Sf
• " ~-\ "'^
The report stresses the need for all pfj|
individual and community-level |||]
drinking water quality. We urge yoti:la
utility officials with questions; read rej3|irj
about the local water supply; and JM
become a good water steward yours^E
Everyone needs to help prevent Cgft
entering source waters in the first pJajSjb
the watershed goes hand-in-hand 'jjjjn
appropriate treatment is provided by |p
wiin Trie iriiurrriaiiuii uiai nrM lias,jj[
report, but don't stop there. Continue;!^
as you do, you'll also care more ari^
drinking water that nourishes us all. '\*|
The National Drinking Water Advisoif 12
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Water on Tap: A
Consumer's Guide to the
Nation's Drinking Water
The United States enjoys one of the best supplies of
drinking water in the world. Nevertheless, many of •
us who once gave little or no thought to the water
that comes from our taps are increasingly asking the
question: "Is my water safe to drink?" While tap
water that meets federal and state standards gener-
ally is safe to drink, threats to drinking water quality
and quantity are increasing. From short-term
disease outbreaks linked to contaminated drinking
water to restrictions on water use during droughts,
we can no longer take our drinking water for
granted.
People are asking many questions. How safe is my,
drinking water? Where does my drinking water
come from, and how does it get to my home? My
water may be safe now, but what about in the
future? What can I do to help protect my drinking
water? ,
This booklet provides answers to these and other
frequently asked questions. It also describes
changes in the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) ,
that will make new information available to con-
sumers in the near future. The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) wants to help consumers
understand this new information and to encourage
these informed consumers to become engaged -
citizens. The SDWA offers opportunities for
citizens to participate in maintaining high quality
drinking water. It is our shared responsibility,
involving federal, state, and local government;
water suppliers; and the public to help maintain the
quality and quantity of our drinking water.
This booklet also directs you to more detailed
sources of information to help you become an active
participant in ensuring the quality of your drinking
water. You can check with the resources in the
Appendix, or call the EPA's Safe Drinking Water
Hotline at (800) 426-4791 for information on how
to get involved with drinking water protection.
The Bull Run
^^if^ys^-?,. 5
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How Safe Is My Drinking
Water?
Most community water suppliers deliver high
quality drinking water to millions of Americans
every day. Of the more than 55,000 Community
Water Systems in the United States, only 4,769 or
8.6 percent reported a violation of one or more
drinking water health standards in 1996. (See pages
3 and 4 for more information about what constitutes
a violation.)
Nationwide, drinking water systems have spent
hundreds of billions of dollars to build drinking
water treatment and distribution systems, and they
spend an additional $22 billion per year to operate
and maintain them. Additional monies became
available in 1997 to upgrade drinking water systems
and implement local source water protection
activities. (See page 12 for more details.)
In addition, there is a network of government
agencies whose job is to ensure that public water
supplies are safe. Nonetheless, problems with local
drinking water can, and do, occur.
Why Does EPA Allow Any
Contaminants in Drinking Water?
All sources of drinking water contain some natu-
rally occurring contaminants. Because water is the
universal solvent, many materials are easily dis-
solved upon contact. At low levels, these contami-
nants generally are not harmful in our drinking
water. Removing all contaminants would be ex-
tremely expensive and in nearly all cases would not
provide greater protection of health. A few of the
naturally occurring substances may actually im-
prove the taste of drinking water and may have
nutritional values at low levels.
What Problems Can Occur?
As development in our modern society increases,
there are growing numbers of threats that could
contaminate drinking water. Suburban sprawl has
Community Water Systems Violating
Maximum Contaminant Levels or
Treatment Standards in 1996
_jO% - 6% of Systems
• 6% - 11 % of Systems
B 11 + % of Systems
encroached upon once-pristine watersheds, bringing
with it all of the by-products of our modern life
style. Actual events of serious drinking water
contamination occur infrequently, and typically not
at levels posing near-term health concern. Nonethe-
less, with the threats of such events increasing, we
cannot take drinking water safety for granted.
Greater vigilance by you, your water supplier, and
your government is vital to ensure that such events
do not occur in your water supply.
Microbiological and chemical contaminants can
enter water supplies. These materials can be the
result of human activity or can be found in nature.
For instance, chemicals can migrate from disposal
sites and contaminate sources of drinking water.
Animal wastes and pesticides may be carried to
lakes and streams by rainfall runoff or snow melt.
Human wastes may be discharged to receiving
waters that ultimately flow to water bodies used for
drinking water. Coliform bacteria from human and
animal wastes may be found in drinking water if the
water is not properly treated or disinfected. These
bacteria are used as indicators that other harmful
organisms may be in the water.
The potential for health problems from drinking
water is illustrated by localized outbreaks of water-
borne disease. Many of these outbreaks have been
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linked to contamination by bacteria or viruses,
probably from human or animal waste. In 1993 and
1994, for example, there were 3,0 reported disease
outbreaks associated with drinking water, 23
associated with public drinking water supplies and 7 •
with private wells.
Certain pathpgens, such as Cryptosporidium, may
pass through water treatment filtration and disinfec-
tion processes in sufficient numbers to cause health
problems. Cryptosporidium is a protozoa that
causes the gastrointestinal disease cryptosporidiosis.
The most serious, and sometimes deadly, conse-
quences of cryptosporidiosis tend to be focused
among sensitive members of the population, such as
individuals with immune system deficiencies.
A 1993 outbreak.of cryptosporidiosis in Milwaukee,
Wisconsin, is the largest outbreak of waterborne
disease in the United States. Lake Michigan is the
source of Milwaukee's water, which is treated by
filtration and disinfection. Due to an unusual
combination of circumstances during a period of
heavy rainfall and runoff the treatment plant was
ineffective, resulting in an increase in the turbidity
of the treated water. Increased" turbidity can be, and
was in this case, an indicator of higher levels of
Cryptosporidium. Over 400,000 persons were
affected by the disease, more than 4,000 were
hospitalized, and over 50 deaths (some counts are as
high as 100) have been attributed to the disease. The
original source of contamination is uncertain.
Nitrate in drinking water at levels above the na-
tional standard poses an immediate threat to young
children. Excessive levels can result in a condition
known as "blue baby syndrome." If untreated, the
condition could be fatal. .
Boiling water contaminated with nitrate increases the
nitrate concentration and the potential risk. Persons
worried about nitrate should talk:wittvtheir doctor
about alternatives to using boiled water in baby
formula. _ _ \ -, -
Naturally occurring contaminants also are being
found hi drinking water. For example, the radioac-
tive gas radon-222 occurs in certain types of rock •
and can get into ground water. People can be
exposed to radon in water by drinking it, while
showering, or when washing dishes. The primary
source of exposure to radon in the home is radon
seeping out of the soil, and into the basement air.
Where Can I Get More Information
About My Water?
Information on water quality in your area is avail-
able from several sources, including your local
public health department and your water supplier.
You can determine whom to contact by checking
your water bill or by calling your local town hall.
State agencies also can provide extensive informa-
tion on your water supply and its quality. Each state
has a department responsible for drinking water
quality.
EPA maintains general water resources information
at its headquarters and in its 10 regional offices:
Other groups, such as environmental organizations,
also may be able to provide information. Appen-
dix C lists organizations that can answer your
questions and provide additional information.
How Does EPA Set Drinking Water
Standards? !
EPA has issued drinking water standards, or Maxi-
mum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) for more than 80
contaminants. (See Appendix A.) The standards
limit the amount of each substance allowed to be
present in drinking water.
A process called risk assessment is used to set
drinking water quality standards. When assessing
the cancer and non-cancer risks from exposure to a
chemical in drinking water, the first step is to
. me'asure how much of the chemical could be in the
water. Next, scientists estimate how much of the
chemical the average person is likely to drink. This
amount is called the exposure. In developing
drinking water standards, EPA assumes that the
average adult drinks 2 liters of water each day
throughout a 70-year life span.
Risks are estimated separately for cancer and non-
cancer effects. For cancer effects, a risk assessment
estimates a measure of the chances that someone
may get cancer because they have been exposed to a
drinking water contaminant. EPA generally sets
MCLs at levels that will limit an individual's risk of
.cancer from that contaminant to between 1 in
10,000 and 1 in 1,000,000 over a lifetime. For non-
cancer effects, the risk assessment estimates an
exposure level below which no adverse effects are
expected to occur.
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MCLs are set based on known or anticipated
adverse human health effects, the ability of various
technologies to remove the contaminant, their
effectiveness, and cost of treatment. All MCLs are
set at levels that protect public health. The limit for
many substances is based on lifetime exposure so,
for most potential contaminants, short-term exceed-
ances pose a limited health risk. The exceptions are
the standards for coliform bacteria and nitrate, for
which exceedances can pose an immediate threat to
health.
To comply with MCLs, public water systems may
use any state-approved treatment. When it is not
economically or technologically feasible to set an
MCL for a contaminant—for example, when the
contaminant cannot be easily measured—EPA may
require use of a particular treatment technique
instead. The technique specifies the design for part .
of the drinking water treatment process.
How Many Public Water Systems
Have Exceeded The MCLs And
Treatment Requirements? ,
Currently, the nation's approximately 55,000
Community Water Systems (CWSs) must test for
more than 80 contaminants. In 1996,4,151 systems,
or 7 percent, reported one or more MCL violations,
and 681 systems (less than 2 percent) reported
violations of treatment technique standards.
Who Makes Sure That My Drinking
Water Supply Is Safe? •
Percentage of CWSs Violating
MCLs or Treatment Techniques,
by System Size in 1996
10
10.1
Large & Very Large ,
10,000+Customers
Small & Very Small
25-3,300 Customers
Source: Safe Drinking Water Information System
they supply does not contain contaminants at levels
higher than the law allows.
Prior to 1974 each state ran its own drinking water
program and set the standards that had to be met at
the local level. As a result, drinking water protec-
tion standards differed from state to state. Since
1974, when Congress passed the original Safe
Drinking Water Act, EPA has set uniform nation- ,
wide minimum standards for drinking water. State
public health and environmental agencies have the
primary responsibility for ensuring that these
federal drinking water quality standards, or more
stringent ones required by the state, are met by each
public water supplier.
When a state water agency or water supplier
announces that the standard for a particular con-
taminant has been exceeded, that may or may not by
itself be a cause for alarm, but it can be a cause for
action. It is a safety precaution required by the law
to alert .the public to deficiencies in drinking water
quality.
Local governments, public water systems, the
states, and EPA work together towards the goal of
ensuring that all public water supplies are safe. For
households on private wells, state and local health
departments usually have some standards for the
drinking water, but it is generally up to the home-
owner to maintain the quality of the drinking water.
Local governments have a direct interest in protect-
ing the quality of their drinking water source, be it
ground water or surface water. They may be respon-
sible for overseeing land uses that can affect the
quality of untreated source water. Public water
systems have a responsibility to maintain sound
treatment works and water distribution networks.
They are responsible for ensuring that the water
Boil Water Notices
When microorganisms, such as those that indicate
fecal contamination are found in drinking water,
water suppliers may b© required to issue "boil water
notices." Boiling water kills'the organisms that can,
cause disease. Therefore, the notices serve as a
precaution for the publjti
Boil water notices are being issued more frequently in
recent years. In fact, in :ip93 notices were issued by
water suppliers in New: York City and the District of
Columbia, which together serve more than 7.1 miHion
people. At least 725 otrjer communities have also
issued notices affecting ajmost 3 million people in the
past few years. j ".''..
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Where Does My Drinking
Water Come From?
Drinking water comes from surface water and
ground water. Large-scale water supply systems
tend to rely on surface water resources, and smaller
water systems tend to use ground water. Including
the approximately 23 million Americans who use
ground water as a private drinking-water source,
slightly more than half of the population receives its
drinking water from ground water sources.
Surface water includes rivers, lakes, and reservoirs.
Ground water is pumped from wells that are drilled
into aquifers. Aquifers are geologic formations that
contain water. The quantity of water in an aquifer
and the water produced by a well depend on the
nature of the rock, sand, or soil in the aquifer where
the well withdraws water. Drinking water wells may
be shallow (50 feet or less) or deep (more than
1,000 feet). Your water utility or your public works
department can tell you the source of your public
drinking water supply.
Percentage of Population Using
Ground Water and Surface Water
Ground Water
53%
Surface Water
47%
Source: USGS1986 National Water Summary
What is a Public Water System?
The SDWA defines a public water system as one
that serves piped water to at least 25 persons or 15
service connections for at least 60 days per year:
Such systems may be owned by homeowner asso-
ciations, investor-owned water companies, local
governments, and others. Water that does not come
from a public water supply, and which serves one of
only a few homes, is called a private supply.
Community water systems are public systems that
serve people year-round in their homes. EPA also
regulates other kinds of public water systems—such
as those at schools, factories, campgrounds, or
restaurants—that have their own water supply. The
data shown in this report cover only community
water systems because they are the source of most
drinking water.
How Does Water Get To My Faucet?
In a typical community water supply system, water
is transported under pressure through a distribution
network of buried pipes. Smaller pipes, called house
service lines, are attached to .the main water lines to
bring water from the distribution network to your
house. In many community water supply systems,
water pressure is provided by pumping water up
into storage tanks that store water at higher eleva-
tions than the houses they serve. The force of
gravity then "pushes" the water into your home
when you open your tap. Houses on a private supply
usually get their water from a private well. A pump
brings the water out of the ground and into a small
tank within the home, where the water is stored
underpressure. ]
How Do Public Water Suppliers
Treat My Water To Make It Safe?
Water suppliers use a-variety of treatment processes
to remove contaminants from drinking water. These
individual processes may be arranged in a "treat-
ment train" to remove undesirable contaminants
from the water. The most commonly used processes
include filtration, flocculation and sedimentation,
and disinfection. Some treatment trains'also include
ion exchange and adsorption. A typical water
treatment plant would have only the combination of
processes needed to treat the contaminants in the
source water used by the facility. If you want to
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F~
know what types of treatment are used for your
water supply, contact your local water supplier
or public works department.
adequately by filtration or sedimentation. Ion
exchange can be used to treat hard water. It can also
be used to remove arsenic, chromium, excess
fluoride, nitrates, radium, and uranium.
Flocculation/Sedimentation
Flocculation refers to water treatment processes that
combine small particles into larger particles, which
settle out of the water as sediment. Alum and iron
salts or synthetic organic polymers (alone, or in
combination with metal salts) are generally used to
promote coagulation. Settling or sedimentation is
simply a gravity process that removes flocculated
particles from the water.
Filtration
Many water treatment facilities use filtration to
remove remaining particles from the water supply.
Those particles include clays and silts, natural
organic matter, precipitants from other treatment
processes in the facility, iron and manganese, and
microorganisms. Filtration clarifies water and
enhances the effectiveness of disinfection.
Ion Exchange
Ion exchange processes are used to remove inor-
ganic constituents if they cannot be removed
Adsorption
Organic contaminants, color, and taste- and odor-
causing compounds can stick to the surface of
granular or powdered activated carbon (GAC or
PAC). GAC is generally more effective than PAC
in removing these contaminants. Adsorption is not
commonly used in public water supplies.
Disinfection (chlorination, ozonation)
Water is often disinfected before it enters the
distribution system to ensure that dangerous mi-
crobes are killed. Chlorine, chloramines, or chlorine
dioxide most often are used because they are very
effective disinfectants, and residual concentrations
can be maintained to guard against biological
contamination in the water distribution system.
Ozone is a powerful disinfectant, but it is not
effective in controlling biological contaminants in
the distribution pipes.
EPA is in the process of developing regulation's
limiting the amount of disinfection by-products
(DBFs). DBFs are contaminants that form when
disinfectants react with organic matter that is in
treated drinking water. Long-term exposure to some
DBFs may increase the risk of cancer or other
adverse health effects.
How Much Does It Cost
To Treat And Deliver
My Drinking Water?
On a per gallon basis, water is
cheap. On average, water costs
are slightly more than $2 per
1,000 gallons, although the costs
tend to be lower for large water
systems. Treatment accounts for
about 15 percent of that cost.
Other costs are for equipment
(such as the treatment plant and
distribution system) and labor
for operation and maintenance
of the system.
Mudraiion adapted with permission from a publication of the East Bay Municipal Utility District, Oakland, California
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How Much Drinking
Water Do We Use In Our
Homes?
On average, our society uses almost 100 gallons of
drinking water per person per day. Traditionally,
water use rates are described in units of gallons per
capita per day (gpcd), gallons used by one person in
one day. Of the "drinking .water" supplied by public
water systems, only a small portion is actually used
for drinking. As residential water consumers, we
use most water for other purposes, such as toilet
flushing, bathing, cooking, cleaning, and lawri
watering.
The amount of water we use in our homes varies
during the day:
• Lowest rate of use - 11:30 p.m. to 5:00 a.m.
• Sharp rise/high use - 5:00 a.m. to noon. (Peak
hourly use from 7:00 a.m. to 8:00 a.m.)
• Moderate use - noon to 5:00 p.m. (Lull around
3:00 p.m.)
• Increasing evening use - 5:00 to 11:00 p.m.
. (Second minor peak, 6:00 to 8:00 p.m.)
I've Heard That
Households In
The U.S. Use A
Lot Of Water
Compared To
Other
Countries. Is
That True?
Yes. The United
States uses more
water than other
countries, even those
that are equally well
developed. In the
United States, signifi-
cant amounts of water
are used for lawn and
garden sprinkling,
automobile washing, and kitchen .and laundry
appliances, such as garbage disposals, clothes
washers, and automatic dish washers.
^M***;!1'"" f llll:
Country
United
States
Canada
Belgium
India
China
Poland
Nicaragua
Malta
Annual
Water Use
per Capita
(Gallons)
525,000
310,000
221,000
132,000
,122,000
.112,000
72,000 '
16,000
Percentage of Total Water
Use by Category
Residential
.10
13'
6
3, ... '
6
14
18
100
Industry/
Agriculture*
90
87
94.
97 •
94
86
82
0. .
•includes water used for electrical powerand for cooling.
Source: Van Der Leeden, F., F.L. Troise, and O.K. Todd. The Water
Encyclopedia. Lewis Publishers, nc. Second Edition, 1990.
Common Household Uses of Drinking Water*
(Gallons per Capita per Day)
Bathing, 20 gpcd
Toilet Flushing, 24 gpcd
Drinking and Cooking, 2 gpcd
Garbage Disposal, 1 gpcd
Dishwasher, 4 gpcd
laundry
S>.5 gpcd
Car
Washing
2.5 gpcd
Lawn Watering
and Pools, 25 gpcd
Source; Van Per Leedfln, F,, F.L. Troise, and
D.K. Todd. The Water Encyclopedia. Lewis
Publishers, Inc. Second Edition, \99O. -
We use tap water for various purposes.
A typical family of four on a public
water supply uses about 350 gallons per
day at home. In contrast, a typical
household that gets its water from a
private well or cistern uses about 200
gallons for a family of four. In our
communities an additional 35 gallons of
water per person are used for public
activities such as fire fighting, street
washing, and park maintenance.
Commercial and industrial businesses
may also place heavy demands on public
water supplies in developed countries. In
most water supply systems, the predomi-
nant number of user connections are
residences, but the few connections to
nonresidential customers may account
for a significant portion of the system-
wide water use.
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How Do Water Utilities Ensure
Adequate Drinking Water Supplies?
Water utilities forecast water source availability,
growth in population, and water demand to ensure
adequate future water supplies during normal
conditions and periods of drought. When water
shortages are predicted or experienced, water
utilities have many options for conserving water.
Temporary cutbacks or permanent operating
adjustments can help conserve water. Permanent
conservation measures may include:
• Subsidizing use of water-efficient faucets, toilets,
and showerheads
• Public education and voluntary use reduction
• Billing practices that impose higher rates for
higher amounts of water use
• Building codes that require water-efficient
fixtures or appliances
• Leak detection surveys and meter testing, repair,
and replacement
• Reduction in use and increase in recycling of
industrial water
Temporary cutbacks may include:
• Reduction of system-wide operating pressure
• Water use bans, restrictions, and rationing
How Can I Reduce The Amount Of
Drinking Water I Use?
There are many ways to conserve water that result
in significant reductions. For example, residential
water consumption can be reduced by using water-
efficient fixtures (faucets, toilets, and showerheads)
and appliances, and through better managed lawn
watering. The graphic at the lower left shows the
relative effectiveness of residential techniques used
to reduce water use. Possible water savings are
indicated as a percentage of total interior water use
for conservation methods such as low-water use
toilets, water-efficient faucets, and low-water use
appliances.
Can Business Also Reduce Water
Use?
Water can be conserved in
Ways To Save Water At Home*
("Water Savings as Percent of Total Interior Water Use)
Low-Flow Showerbeads
(or Flow Restrfctors), 12%
low-Water Use
Clothes Washers. 5%
McOnwtfll.liK.t9e9.
Low-Water Use Toilets (or
Plastic Bottles or Water
Dams in Toilet Reservoir),
18%
Low-Flow Aerators on
Faucets (or Replace-
ment Faucets), 2%
Low-Water Use
Dishwasher, 4%
Insulation on
Hot Water Lines, .4%
the industrial and
commercial sectors
through recycling and
waste reduction.
Industry has imple-
mented conservation
measures to comply
with state and federal
water pollution con-
trols. Evaluation of
industrial plant data
may show that a
particular process or
manufacturing step
uses the most water or
causes the greatest
contamination. Such
areas can be targeted
for water conservation,
thus saving on plant-
wide water use. Also,
water that is contami-
nated by one process
may be usable in other
plant processes that dp
not require high-quality
water.
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How Will I Know If My
Drinking Water Remains
Safe In The Future?
I've Heard That A New Law Was
Passed By Congress. What Will That
Do For My Drinking Water?
President Clinton signed the Safe Drinking Water
Act (SDWA) Amendments of 1996 on August 6,
1996. The 1996 SDWA amendments require that
consumers receive more information about the
quality of their drinking water supplies and what is
being done to protect them. The amendments also
provide new opportunities for public involvement
and provide an increased emphasis on protecting the
sources of local drinking water.
What Information Can I Expect To
Receive?
Water suppliers must promptly tell you if your
water has become contaminated by something that
can cause immediate illness. The 1996 SDWA
Amendments specified
new time frames for
notification of violations.
Water systems now have
24 hours to inform their
customers of violations
of EPA standards "that
have the potential to have
serious adverse effects on
human .health as a result
of short-term exposure."
If such a violation
occurs, the system will
announce it through the
media and provide
information about:
• The potential adverse
effects on human
health,
• The steps that the system is taking to correct the
violation, and
• The need to use alternative water supplies (such
as boiled water or bottled water) until the prob- ,
lem is corrected.
Systems will inform customers about violations of
less immediate concern in the first water bill sent
out after the violation, in an annual report, or by
mail within a year.
Beginning in 1998, your state will compile informa-
tion from individual systems so that you can
evaluate the overall quality of drinking water in
your state. EPA must compile and summarize the
state reports into an annual report on the condition
of the nation's drinking water.
The SDWA amendments also require EPA to
publish regulations that will require systems to
prepare consumer confidence reports. These con-
TheSDWA
Amendments
stress efforts to-
protect source
water.
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p-
Federal
drinking
water
standards
protect
the public.
sumer confidence reports at a minimum will pro-
vide:
• Information about where your drinking water
comes from,
• Results of monitoring that the system performed
during the year, and
• Information on health concerns associated with
violations that occurred during the year.
Beginning in 1999, systems will have to prepare
and distribute the reports annually. Systems serving
fewer than 10,000 persons will, at the Governor's
option, be able to make the reports available to the
public in ways other than mailing them.
How Often Is My Water Supply
Tested?
EPA has established pollutant-specific minimum
testing schedules for public water systems. To find
out how frequently your drinking water is tested,
contact your water system or state agency in charge
of drinking water.
The table on this page shows the major groups of
contaminants and the minimum frequency that
public water systems must test for them. If a
problem is detected, there are immediate retesting
requirements that go into effect and strictinstruc-
Sample Monitoring Schedule
Contaminant
Minimum Monitoring
Frequency
Acute Contaminants
Bacteria
Protozoa and
Viruses
Nitrate
Monthly or quarterly,
depending on system size
and type
Continuous monitoring for
turbidity, monthly for total
conforms, as indicators
Annually
Chronic Contaminants
Volatile Organics
(e.g., benzene)
Synthetic Organics
(e.g., pesticides)
Inorganics/Metals
Lead and Copper
Radionuclides
Ground water systems,
annually for 2 consecutive
years; surface water
systems, annually
Larger systems, twice in 3
years; smaller systems,
once in 3 years
Ground water systems, '
once every 3 years; surface
water systems, annually
Annually
Once every 4 years
General requirements may differ slightly based on the size or
type of drinking water system.
tions for how the system informs the public about
the problem. Until
the system can
reliably demonstrate
that it is free of
problems, the
retesting is contin-
ued.
In 1996, one out of
five CWSs did not
conduct testing or
report the results for
all of the monitoring
required to verify
drinking water
safety. Although
failure to monitor
does not necessarily
suggest safety
problems, conduct-
ing the required
monitoring and
-------
reporting is critical to ensure that problems will be
detected. Consumers can help make certain moni-
toring and reporting requirements are met by first
contacting their state drinking water agency to
determine if their water supplier is meeting all
requirements. If the water supplier is not meeting
the requirements, consumers can work with local
and state officials and their water supplier to ensure
that the required monitoring gets done,
Can Water Systems Be Excused
From Monitoring For Some
Contaminants?
In some cases, yes. Over time, public water systems
should better understand the likely threats to their
water supplies by reviewing test results and keeping
a watchful eye on threats to' their drinking water
sources. If a system does not have water quality
problems, it can apply to the state for permission to
test less frequently for certain contaminants. If, after
scientific analysis, state regulators believe it is
unlikely that human or natural activities will affect
the system's water quality in the future, they may
grant the request to avoid unnecessary testing.
A waiver from the monitoring requirements in no
way reduces the water supplier's responsibility to
provide high-quality water; on the contrary, it is a
privilege awarded only to the suppliers who can
ensure the reliable delivery of safe water to their
. customers. Testing continues, but at a reduced
frequency. At the first indication of any problem —
or likelihood of a problem '^- the system must
notify the state and the state may instruct the system
to return to a more rigorous monitoring schedule.
Does This New Safe Drinking Water
Act Do Anything Else To Keep My
Drinking Water Safe In The Future?
The'1996 SDWA includes many new provisions
that will help states and water systems improve the
quality of drinking water by preventing problems
before they occur. Under the new source water
protection provisions, for example, each state must
develop a program to identify potential contamina-
tion threats and determine the susceptibility of
drinking water sources such as wells or reservoirs to
activities that may harm the source water. The
source water assessments will provide the informa-
tion necessary for states and localities to protect
source water from contamination. Substantial
federal funding is provided to states for assessments
and for source water protection programs if states
choo'se to operate such a program.
The new lay/ also will help prevent problems by
ensuring that water systems are operated by quali-
fied professionals. Each state must carry out an
"operator certification program," including training
and certification for individuals responsible for
operating the drinking water plant. Most states
required operator certification before it was man-
dated by federal law. Many very small water
systems that cannot afford a full-time operator use
"circuit riders" who travel from system to system
providing technical assistance and making sure that
the plant is operating correctly. States must estab-
lish programs to ensure that the water systems have
sufficient technical, managerial, and financial
capacity to reliably deliver safe drinking water.
iMsH
-------
pi-
Can I Help To Protect
My Drinking Water
Supply?
Drinking water protection is a shared responsibility,
involving water suppliers, local and state govern-
ments, business, and individuals. We all have an
important role to play, and as private citizens we
have many opportunities. Environmental protection
activities such as watershed protection projects are
taking place across the United States. Clean and
healthy watersheds are vital to safe drinking water.
Other opportunities to be involved in drinking water
protection are discussed in the rest of this section.
What Programs Are Underway To
Protect Water Supplies?
Wellhead protection is a process for protecting
individual communities' underground sources of
drinking water. These programs focus on areas
thousands of square feet to a few square miles
immediately surrounding a community water supply
well. State and local governments began developing
wellhead protection programs in the late 1980s, and
more than 10,000 programs have been started
throughout the United States.
Sole source aquifer protection programs also protect
ground water supplies, but usually over a much .
larger area than that covered by wellhead protection
programs. They focus on government-funded
projects that may affect the aquifer.
EPA is encouraging states and communities to
undertake source water protection programs, which
apply the principles of wellhead protection to
surface water as well as ground water supplies of
drinking water.
Source water protection should be a critical part of
all community water programs. In the past, water
suppliers used most of their resources to treat water
from rivers, lakes, and underground sources of
drinking water before supplying it to our homes as
drinking water. Now, we understand that if we place
greater emphasis on protecting our sources of
drinking water, the need for treatment can be
reduced.
The general components of a source water protec-
tion program include:
• Delineation: Identifying the area of land that
water passes through to reach the drinking water
intake.
• Contaminant source inventory: Mapping the
locations of potential sources of drinking water
contamination.
• Source water protection area management:
Using regulatory controls, such as zoning or
health ordinances, or nonregulatory controls,
such as technical assistance to businesses and
public education, to keep contaminants out of
drinking water supplies.
• Contingency planning: Plan special actions in
case a sudden event (for instance, a flood or spill)
occurs that threatens the drinking water supply.
The Partnership for Safe Water is a voluntary self-
assessment and peer-review process to help water
utilities ensure high drinking water quality. Public
water supply systems that use surface water and that
have filtration treatment are eligible to participate.
Contact the American Water Works Association
(see Appendix C) or your water supplier to find out
if they are part of the Partnership.
How Can I Get Involved To Protect
Water Supplies?
Many communities are in the process of implement;
ing source water protection programs. Your local
water supplier can tell you whether your community
has a source water protection program.
-------
Source water protection works by involving all '
members of the community. Citizens can voice their
support for controlling how land is used near
drinking water intakes. s
Citizens can also educate their neighbors about the
danger that household chemicals pose to drinking
water supplies. Many communities sponsor house-
hold hazardous waste disposal days to promote ,
proper handling of waste paints and thinners,.
pesticides, used oil, and other hazardous materials.
Your state or local environmental agency should
have information about such programs in your .
community.
What Legal Options Do I Have To
Improve My Drinking Water
Quality?
The 1996 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water
Act provide many opportunities for public involve-
ment. The new law gives states flexibility and
funding to tailor'the new program efforts to improve
source water protection and water system capacity
Successful Source Water
Protection
Elkhart, Indiana began developing a source water
protection program in the late 1980s, after being
.forced to close one of its drinking water wellfields.
when dangerous chemical solvents were found in
the drinking water supply. ', ;
Officials jn Elkhart realized that they needed ah.'.
efficient way to inventory and map all of the potential
sources of contamination that could reach their new
'drinking water supply. They discovered that retired
senior volunteers are an excellent resource for
conducting the inventories.' .-"-,- .
By working with the Service Corps of Retired
' Executives and the American Association of Retired
. Persons,". Elkhart recruited 20 senior volunteers,
from a list 'of. over. 400 potential volunteers, to,
conduct the inventories. Working with city staff, the
senior volunteers visited homes and businesses
throughout Elkhart and mapped 280 potential
contaminant sources; for management. Manage-,
ment controls include zoning/land use control and :
technical assistance.. So far, Elkhart has been
successful in keeping its drinking water sources
clean. : .-.''_ / : : v -. .-
to meet each state's unique needs and conditions.
The amendments emphasize public participation
and consumer right-to-know to ensure that states'
choices respond to their constituents' needs and
conditions. States must involve or consult with the
public about key decisions on their source water
assessment programs, on how states will work with
water systems to improve their operations, on which
specific drinking water improvement projects they
will fund, and on how much money they plan to use
for their source water protection and capacity
programs. Contact your state drinking water pro-
gram for further information on specific opportuni-
ties to participate.
In addition to commenting on proposed drinking
water regulations, citizens may file lawsuits in
federal court under the federal Safe Drinking Water
Act and many state drinking water laws in response
to violations of drinking water standards by water
suppliers. At least 60 days before filing such a suit,
the citizen must provide notice to EPA, the state in
which the violation allegedly occurred, and the
alleged violator. The purpose of the notice is to
encourage the violator to take voluntary action to
fix the violation before the courts get involved. An
individual believed to have been harmed by a
contaminated drinking water supply may also have
rights and remedies under state law.
Federal and state agencies also may take legal
action to enforce drinking water laws. These legal
actions typically involve public hearings or other
opportunities for citizen comment. The actions can
result in fines or penalties, or in the rare case of
criminal violations, jail time for a water supplier, or
injunctions to prevent further harmful actions by a
water supplier. Citizens can assist with government
enforcement by providing information to states and
the federal government on potential violations of
drinking water laws, or by participating in enforce-
ment proceedings.
-------
What Can I Do If There Is
A Problem With My
Drinking Water?
Local incidents, such as spills and treatment prob-
lems, can lead to short-term needs for alternative
water supplies or in-home water treatment. In
isolated cases, individuals have needed to rely on
alternative supplies for the long term because of
their individual health needs or problems with
obtaining new drinking water supplies.
Local water suppliers are required to notify you if
there is a problem with your drinking water. In
addition, if you suspect a problem, you can hire a
laboratory to analyze your drinking water.
Are Alternative Water Supplies
Available? What About Bottled
Water?
Yes, alternative sources of water are available.
Bottled water is sold in supermarkets and conve-
nience stores. Some companies lease or sell water
dispensers or
bubblers and
regularly deliver
large bottles of
water to homes and
businesses. Bottled
water is very
expensive com-
pared to water from
a public water
system. Bottled
water quality varies
among brands,
because of varia-
tions in the source
water used, costs,
and company
practices.
The U.S. Food and
Drug Administra-
tion (FDA) regu-
lates bottled water
used for drinking. FDA imposes quality standards
that are equivalent to EPA's drinking water stan-
dards. Source water and product water must be
periodically sampled and analyzed for compliance
with quality standards for microbiological contami-
nants, radionuclides, organics and inorganics. FDA
has adopted regulations to ensure fair labeling
practices. These include standard definitions for
sources such as mineral water, artesian water,
ground water, and distilled water. Requirements are
also established for the nutritional content of bottled
water, as part of normal food labeling regulations.
As an additional safeguard, FDA recommends that
bottled water be handled like other food products
and refrigerated after opening.
A shopper purchases bottled water during
Milwaukee, Wisconsin's 1993 Cryptosporidiosis outbreak.
-------
Can I Do Anything In My House To
Improve The Safety Of My Drinking
Water?
You can choose to install a home water treatment
device to add a factor of safety, or to address
concerns about the taste of your water. Point-of-use
(POU) systems treat water at a single tap. Point-of-
entry (POE) systems treat water used throughout a
house. POU systems can be installed in various
places in the home, including on the counter top, at
the faucet itself, or under the sink. POE systems are
installed where the water line enters the house.
POU and POE devices are based on various con-
taminant removal technologies. Filtration, ion
exchange, reverse osmosis, and distillation are some
of the treatment methods used. All types of units are
generally available from retailers, or by mail order.
Prices can range well into the hundreds of dollars.
Depending on the method and location of installa-
tion, plumbing changes can also add to costs.
Home filtration units use activated carbon filters,
which adsorb organic contaminants and constituents
that cause taste and odor problems. Depending on
their design, some units can remove chlorination
by-products, some cleaning solvents, and pesticides.
To maintain the effectiveness of these units, the
carbon canisters must be replaced periodically.
Activated carbon filters are not efficient in remov-
ing metals such as lead and copper.
Because ion exchange units can be used to remove
minerals from your water, particularly calcium and
magnesium, they are sold for water softening. Some
ion exchange softening units remove radium and
barium from water. Ion exchange systems that
employ activated alumina are used to remove
fluoride and arsenate from water. These units .must
be regenerated periodically with salt.
Reverse osmosis treatment units generally remove a
more diverse list of contaminants than other sys-
tems. They can remove nitrates, sodium, other
dissolved inorganics, and organic compounds.
Distillation units boil water and condense the
resulting steam to create distilled water. Depending
on their design, some of these units may allow
vaporized organic contaminants to condense back
into the product water, thus minimizing the removal
of organics.
You may choose to boil your water to remove
microbial contaminants. Keep in mind that boiling
reduces the volume of water by about 20 percent,
thus concentrating other contaminants not affected
by the temperature of boiling water, such as nitrates
and pesticides.
. All POU and PQ
to operate §jfi|
properly, contllf
and actually.^
some vendor^
effectiveness^'^
tested for confdlms
•' ^w'sjiS
Sanitation Foy{iq|
Association. l.EjES
treatment unit^H
Where Can I Learn About the
Effectiveness Of These Devices?
Your local library has articles,' such as those found
in consumer magazines, on the effectiveness and
cost of these devices.
Copies of a booklet Drinking Water: Inadequate
Regulation of Home Treatment Units Leaves
Consumers at Risk (December 1991) are available
from the U.S. General Accounting Office, P.O. Box
6015, Gaithersburg, MD 20884-6015 (phone: (202)
512-6000).
Organizations you can contact for more information
on home treatment units are::
The National Sanitation Foundation
3475 Plymouth Road
P.O. Box 1468
Ann Arbor, MI 48106
(800)673-8010
web: http://www.nsf.org
The Water Quality Association
Consumer Affairs Department
P.O. Box. 606
Lisle, IL 60532
(800)749-0234
web: http://www.wqa.org
-------
What Do I Need to Know
to Protect My Private
Drinking Water Supply?
Approximately 23 million U.S.
citizens rely on their own private
drinking water supplies. Most of
these supplies are drawn from
ground water through wells, but
some households also use water
from streams or cisterns. These
households must take special
precautions to ensure the protec-
tion and maintenance of thek
drinking water supplies.
How Can I Test The
Quality Of My Private
Drinking Water Supply?
Private water supplies should be
tested annually for nitrate and
coliform bacteria to detect con-
tamination problems early. They
should be tested more frequently
and for more potential contaminants, such as radon
or pesticides, if a problem is suspected.
Many laboratories are available to test water
quality. Lists of laboratories certified by your state
or the U.S. EPA may be available from your local
or state public health department Some local health
departments also test private water for free. Phone
numbers for your local, county, or state health
department are available under the government
listings in your phone book.
If you use a private laboratory to conduct the
testing, nitrate and bacteria samples will typically
cost between $10 and $20 to complete. Testing for
other contaminants will be more expensive. For
example, testing for pesticides or organic chemicals
may cost from several hundred to several thousand
dollars.
The laboratory usually supplies sample bottles.
Depending on the type of test to be completed, the
A laboratory technician prepares
a drinking water sample for analysis
bottles may contain preservatives or include special
instructions for handling the samples. Private water
can most easily be sampled at the drinking water tap
by carefully filling the bottles to avoid spilling or
getting other contaminants into the bottle. For
nitrates and other basic water tests, the bottles can
usually be mailed to the laboratory. Some tests,
such as those for coliform bacteria, may require that
the sample bottles be kept cool until they are
delivered to the laboratory for analysis.
Most laboratories mail back the sample results
within days or several weeks. The results typically
indicate whether a particular contaminant was
detected in the sample. If a contaminant is detected,
the results will include the concentration of the
contaminant and an indication of whether this
concentration exceeds a drinking water quality
standard. If a standard is exceeded in your sample,
you should retest the water supply immediately and
contact your public health department for assis-
-------
17
tance. Some problems can be handled quickly. For
example, high bacteria concentrations can some-
times be controlled by disinfecting a well. Filters or
other on-site treatment processes may also remove
some contaminants. Other problems may require a
new sourde of water, such as a new, deeper well. If
serious problems persist, you may need,to rely on
bottled water until a new water source can be
obtained.
How Can I Protect My Private Water
Supply?
You can protect your water supply by carefully
managing activities near the water source. For
households using a domestic well, this includes '
keeping contaminants away from sinkholes and the
well itself. Hazardous chemicals also should be kept
out of septic systems.
Several sources of technical assistance are available
to help you protect your water supply. The organi-
zation Farm*A*Syst/Home*A*Syst provides fact
sheets and worksheets to help farmers and rural
residents assess pollution risks and develop man-
agement plans geared toward their circumstances.
For example, Farm*A*Syst helps farmers and
ranchers identify pollution risks from nitrates,
microbes, and toxic chemicals. Home*A*Syst
reaches homeowners who face pollution risks from
faulty septic systems, pesticide use, petroleum
leaks, and hazardous waste disposal. More informa-
tion about the programs is available from:
Farm*A*Syst/Home*A*Syst Program
B142 Steenbock Library
University of Wisconsin
Madison, WI 53706 "
608262-0024
e-mail: farmasyst@macc.wisc.edu
web site: http://www.wisc.edu/farmasyst
Local health departments and agricultural extension
agents can also provide general technical assistance.
They can be found under the government listing in
your phone book. The U.S. EPA Safe Drinking
Water Hotline also provides access to publications
and technical assistance over the phone at (800)
426-4791. The Hotline may also be able to direct
you to other sources of state and local assistance.
A main potential source of contamination c private
water supplies is septic systems or other on-site
wastewater disposal systems. If these systems are
not properly sited, designed, and maintained, they
can leak contaminants into drinking water supplies.
Information on septic system design and mainte-
nance is available from local health departments,
state agencies, and the National Small Hows ,
Clearinghouse at (800) 624-8301. A septic system
design manual and guidance on system maintenance
are available from EPA.
, Period|c,a
probleimlfi
Slope t|f
runoff .'.fij/i
. bacteria^
Hire.a,S|p
constructigj!*
closuraf'i
M
s»'
-------
pr-
Appendix A:
Contaminants
Fluoride
VoWII* Organic*
Bsnitne
CaibonTatracWofide
p-DtcWorobwizene
1,1-DtcWoroothyiene
TncWoroethylana
l,l.l-Tfk»oroelhane
Vtnyl Chlorrfa
Conform and Surface Water Tre
QianM* LamUs
Ltgtooetlti
Standard Plate Count
Tool CoBorm •
Tufbtdify '
Viruses
Inorganics
Antknony
Asbottos (>10um)
Button'
BwyHum
Cadmkm'
Chtomtan * (total)
Cysnldo
Marcory " (inorganic)
Nitrate •
KiWto
Sttonlum •
ThuSom
Organic:
Aoyfamlds
Adtpale, (d» (2-etrtyihexyl))
Atich)or
Atrazlne
Carbofuran
CMordane*
CMorobaraona
Datipon
Dtbcomochloropropane
o-Otehkxobsraons
MCLG
(mg/L)
4.0
zero
zero
0.075
zero
0.007
zero
0.2
zero
atment
zero
N/A
N/A
zero
N/A
zero
zero
7MFL
2
0.004
0.005
0.1
0.2
0.002
10
1
0,05
0.0005
zero
0.4 .
zero
0.003
0.04
zero
0.1
0.2
zero
0.6
0.07
National Primary Drinking Water Standards
MCL
(mg/L)
4.0
0.005
0.005
0.075
0,005
0.007
0.005
0.2
0.002
TT
TT
TT
TT
TT
0.006
7MFL
2
0.004
0.005
0.1
0.2
0.002
10
1
0.05
0.002
TT
0.4
0.002
0.003
0.04
0.002
0.1
0.2
0.0002
0.6
0.07
Potential Health Effects from
Ingestion of Water
Skeletal and dental lluorosis
Cancer
Cancer
Cancer
Cancer
Cancer
Cancer
Liver, Nervous system effects
Cancer
Gastroenteric disease
Legionnaire's disease
Indicates water quality, effectiveness of
treatment
Indicates gastroenteric pathogens
interferes with disinfection, filtration
Gastroenteric disease
Cancer
Cancer
Circulatory system effects
Bone, lung damage
Kidney effects
Liver, Wdney, circulatory disorders
' Thyroid, nervous system damage
Kidney, nervous system disorders
Methemogiobulinemia
Methemoglobulinemia
Liver damage
Kidney, liver, brain, intestinal
Cancer, nervous system effects
Decreased body weight
Cancer ,
Mammary gland tumors
Nervous, reproductive system effects
Cancer
Nervous system and liver effects
Liver and kidney effects
Cancer
Liver, kidney, blood cell damage
Liver, kidney, nervous, circulatory
Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water
Natural deposits; fertilizer, aluminum industries; water additive
Some foods; gas, drugs, pesticide, paint, plastic industries
Solvents and their degradation products
Room and water deodorants, and "mothballs"
Leaded gasoline, fumlgants, paints
Plastics, dyes, perfumes, paints
Textiles, adheslves and metal degreasers
Adheslves, aerosols, textiles, paints, inks, metal degreasers
May leach from PVC pipe; formed by solvent break down
Human and animal fecal waste
Indigenous to natural waters; can grow in water heating systems.
Human and animal fecal waste,
Soil runoff
Human and animal fecal waste -'•
Fire retardants, ceramics, electronics, fireworks, solder
Natural deposits; asbestos cement in water systems
Natural deposits; pigments, epoxy sealants, spent coal.
Electrical, aerospace, defense industries
Galvanized pipe corrosion; natural deposits; batteries, paints
Natural deposits; mining, electroplating, pigments.
Electroplating, steel, plastics, mining, fertilizer
Crop runoff; natural deposits; batteries, electrical switches
Animal waste, fertilizer, natural deposits, septic tanks, sewage
Same as nitrate; rapidly converted to nitrate
Natural deposits; mining, smelting, coal/oil combustion
Electronics, drugs, alloys, glass
Polymers used in sewage/wastewater treatment
Synthetic rubber, food packaging, cosmetics
Runoff from herbicide on corn, soybeans, other crops
Runoff from use as herbicide on corn and non-cropland
Soil fumigant on corn and cotton; restricted in some areas
Leaching from soil treatment for termites
Waste solvent from metal degreasing processes
Herbicide on orchards, beans, coffee, lawns, road/railways
Soil fumigant on soybeans, cotton, pineapple, orchards
Paints, engine cleaning compounds, dyes, chemical wastes
Waste industrial extraction solvents
Not**; •Contaminants with Interim standards which have been revised. TT=Special treatment techniques required
MFLomMon libers per liter. +=less than 5% positive samples
-------
Contaminants
Organics (continued)
trans-1 ,2-Dichloroethylene
Dichloromethane
1,2-Dichloropropane
Dinoseb
Dioxin
Diquat
2,4-D ",
Endothall
Endrin
Epichlorohydrin
Ethylbenzene
Ethylene dibromide
Glyphosate
Heptachlor
Heptachlor epoxide
Hexachlorobenzene
. Hexachlorocyclopentadiehe
Lindane
Methoxychlor
Oxamyl (Vydate)
PAHs (benzo(a)pyrene)
PCBs
Pentachiorophenol
Phthalate, (di (2-ethylhexyl))
Picloram
Simazine-
Styrene
Tetrachloroethylene
Toluene
Toxaphene
2,4,5-TP
1 ,2,4-Trichlorabenz'ene
1,1,2-Trichloroethane
Xylenes (total)
Lead and Copper
Lead'
Copper
Other Interim Standards
Beta/ photon emitters
Alpha emitters
Combined Radium 226 /228
Arsenic*
Total Trihalomethanes
MCLG
. (mg/L)
.0.1
zero
zero
0.007
zero
. 0.02
0.07
0.1
0.002
zero
0.7
zero
0.7
zero
zero
zero
0.05 .
0.0002
0.04
0.2
-•zero
zero
zero
' * zero
0.5
0.004
0.1
. zero
1
zero
0.05 '
0.07
0.003
10
zero
1.3
zero
zero
zero
0.05
zero
MCL
(mg/L)
0.1
0.005
'' 0.005
0.007 '
. 0.00000003
0.02
0.07
0.1 '
.0.002
TT
0.7 .
0.00005
0.7
0.0004
0.0002
0.001
0.05
0.0002
' 0.04
0.2
• 0.0002
0.0005 .
0.001
0.006
0.5
0.004
0.1
0.005
. 1 '
0.003
0.05
0.07
0.005.
10
TT+
TT#
4 mrem/yr
15pCa
5pCi/L
0.05
0.10
Potential Health Effects
from Ingestion of Water
Liver, kidney, nervous, circulatory
Cancer
Liver, kidney effects; Cancer •
Thyroid, reproductive organ damage
Cancer
Liver, kidney, eye effects J
• Liver and kidney damage
• Liver, kidney, gastrointestinal
> Liver, kidney, heart damage
Cancer
Liver, kidney, nervous system
Cancer
Liver, kidney damage
Cancer
Cancer
Cancer
Kidney, stomach damage
Liver, kidney, nerve, immune, circul.
Growth, liver, kidney, nerve effects
1 Kidney damage
Cancer
Cancer
Liver and kidney effects, and cancer
Cancer ,
Kklney, liver damage
Cancer
Liver, nervous system damage
Cancer
Liver, kidney, nervous, circulatory
Cancer '
Liver and kidney damage'
Liver, kidney damage
Kidney, liver, nervou's system
Liver, kidney, nervous system
Kidneys, nervous system damage
Gastrointestinal irritation
Cancer .
- Cancer
Bone cancer
Skin, nervous system toxicity
Cancer
Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water
Waste industrial extraction solvents
Paint stripper, metal degreaser, propellant, extraction
, Soil fumigant; waste industrial solvents
Runoff of herbicide from crop and non-crop applications
Chemical production by-product; impurity in herbicides
Runoff of herbicide on land & aquatic weeds
Runoff from herbicide on wheat, corn, rangelands, lawns
Herbicide on crops, land/aquatic weeds; rapidly degraded
Pesticide on insects, rodents, birds; restricted since 1980
Water treatment chemicals; waste epoxy resins, coatings
Gasoline; insecticides; chemical manufacturing wastes
Leaded gasoline additives; leaching of soil fumigant
Herbicide on grasses, weeds, brush
Leaching of insecticide for termites, very few crops
Biodegradation of heptachlor •
Pesticide production waste by-product
' Pesticide prpduction'intermediate
Insecticide on cattle, lumber, gardens;, restricted 1983
Insecticide for fruits, vegetables, alfalfa, livestock, pets
Insecticide on apples, potatoes, tomatoes
Coal tar. coatings; burning organic matter: volcanoes, fossil fuels
Coolant oils .from electrical transformers; plasticizers
Wood preservatives, herbicide, cooling tower wastes
PVC and other plastics
Herbicide on broadleaf and woody plants
Herbicide on grass sod, some crops, aquatic algae
Plastics, rubber, resin, drug industries; leachate. from city landfills
Improper disposal of dry cleaning and other solvents
Gasoline additive; manufacturing and solvent operations
Insecticide on cattle, cotton, soybeans; cancelled 1982
Herbicide on crops, right-of-way, golf courses; cancelled 1983
Herbicide production;. dye carrier '..
Solvent in rubber other organic products; chemical production wastes
By-product of gasoline refining; paints, inks, detergents
Natural/industrial deposits; plumbing, solder, brass alloy faucets
Natural/industrial deposits; wood preservatives, plumbing
Decay of radionuclides in natural and man-made deposits
Decay of radionuclides In natural deposits
Natural deposits
Natural-deposits; Smelters, glass, electronics wastes; Orchards
Drinking water chlorination by-products
Notes: "Contaminants with interim standards which have been revised. TT=Special treatment techniques required
+=Action Level 0.01 5mg/L #=Action. Level 1.3mg/L pCi=picocuries
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p-
Appendix B
American Water Works Association.
Water Quality and Treatment. Fourth
Edition. 1990.
Bowen, Paul T., Jimmy F. Harp, John
W. Baxter, and Robert D. Shull.
Residential Water Use Patterns.
American Waterworks Research
Foundation. 1993.
Chanlett, Emil T. Environmental
Protection. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1973. ,
Clark, John W., Warren Veissman Jr.,
and Mark J. Hammer. Water Supply
and Pollution Control. Second
Edition. International Textbook
Company, 1971.
Corbitt, Robert A. Standard Hand-
book of Environmental Engineering.
Chapter 5, Water Supply. McGraw-
Hill, Inc., 1989.
Goodman, Alvin S. Principles of
Water Resources Planning. Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1984.
Kramer, M.H., et al. Waterborne
Disease: 1993 and 1994. Journal of
the American Water Works Associa-
tion, March 1996.
Metcalf& Eddy, Inc. Wastewater
Engineering: Collection, Treatment,
Disposal. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1972.
Nalco Chemical Company. The Nalco
Water Handbook. Second Edition
edited by Frank N. Kemmer. Chapters
35 and 40. McGraw-Hill Book
Company,1988.
Pontius, F.W. SDWA: A Look Back.
Journal of American Water Works
Association. February 1993.
Pontius, F.W. Federal Drinking
Water Regulation Update. Journal of
American Water Works Association.
February 1993.
Solo-Gabriele, H. and S. Neumeister.
£7.5. Outbreaks ofCryptosporidiosis.
Journal of the American Water Works
Association, September 1996.
Symons, James M. Plain Talk About
Drinking Water—Questions and
Answers About the Water You Drink.
Second Edition, The American Water
Works Association. 1994.
Van der Leeden, Frits, Fred L. Troise,
and David K. Todd. The Water
Encyclopedia. Second Edition. Lewis
Publishers, Inc., 1990.
Veissman Jr., Warren, and Claire
Welty. Water Management: Technol-
ogy and Institutions. Harper & Row,
Publishers, 1985.
U.S. Congress, Office of Technology
Assessment. Are We Cleaning Up? 10
Superfund Case Studies—Special
Report. OTA-ITE-362, June 1988.
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency Publications
Manual of Individual Water Supply
Systems. EPA-570/9-82-0'04, October
1982.
Home Water Treatment Units—
Filtering Fact from Fiction. EPA 5707
9-90-HHH. September 1990.
Guidance in Developing Health
Criteria for Determining Unreason-
able Risks to Health. Draft. October
1990.
Is Your Drinking Water Safe? EPA
. 570/9-91-005. September 1991. .
National Primary Drinking Water
Standards. EPA 810-F-94-001.
February 1994.
Drinking Water Treatment for Small
Communities—A Focus on EPA's
Research. EPA/640/K-94/003. May
1994.
Is Your Drinking Water Safe? EPA
810-F-94-002.Mayl994.
Safe Drinking Water: Health/Safety
Requirements and Resulting Costs.
EPA 810-K-94-001. November 1994.
Lead And Copper Rule: Fact Sheet.
EPA 570/9-91-400. January 1995.
Surface Water Treatment Rule: Fact
Sheet. EPA 570/9-91-300. January
1995.
The Phase I Rule: Fact Sheet. EPA
570/9-91-026FS. January 1995.
The Phase II Rule: Fact Sheet. EPA
570/9-91-027FS. January 1995.
The Phase VRule: Fact Sheet. EPA
811-F-92-001. January 1995.
Strengthening the Safety of Our
Drinking Water: A Report on
' Progress and Challenges and An
Agenda for Action. EPA 810-R-95-
001. March 1995.
The National Public Water System
Supervision Program. FY1995
Compliance Report. EPA 812-R-96-
001 i October 1996.
Office of Ground Water and Drinking
Water Publications. EPA 810-B-96-
001. June 1996.
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21
Appendix C
Sources of Additional
Information
American Water Works
Association
Public Affairs Department
6666 West Quincy Avenue
Denver, CO 80235
Phone:(303)347-6284
Web: http://www.awwa.org
Association of Metropolitan Water
Agencies
1717 K Street, NW; Suite 1102
Washington, DC 20036
Phone:(202)331-2820
Fax:(202)785-1845 •
Association of State Drinking
Water Administrators •
1120 Connecticut Avenue, NW
Suite 1060 • - ..
Washington, DC 20036
Phone:(202)293-7655
Fax: (202) 293-7656
Environmental Working Group
1718 Connecticut Avenue, NW
Suite 600
Washington, DC 20009
Phone: (202) 667-6982
Fax: (202) 232-2592
Web: http://www.ewg.org
Friends of the Earth
1025 Vermont Avenue, NW
Suite 300
Washington, DC 20005
Phone: (202) 783-7400
Fax: (202) 783-0444
Groundwater Foundation
P.O. Box 22558
Lincoln, NE 68542
Phone: (800) 858-4844
Fax: (402) 434-2742
Web: http://groundwater.org
Know Your Watershed
1220 Potter Drive, Room 170
West Lafayette, IN 47906-1383
Phone:(317)494-9555
Fax:(317)494-5969
League of Women Voters
Education Fund
1730 M Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036
Phone:(202)429-1965
Fax:(202)429-0854 .
National Association of Water
Companies
1725 K Street, NW; Suite 1212
Washington, DC 20006
Phone:(202)833-8383
Fax:(202)331-7442
National Drinking Water Clearing-
house
West Virginia University
P.O. Box 6064
Morgantown, WV 26506-6064
Phone:(800)624-8301
E-mail: webmaster@estd.wvu.edu
Web: http://www.ndwc.wvu.edu
Natural Resources Defense Council
1200 New York Avenue, NW
Suite 400
Washington, DC 20005
Phone: (202) 289-6868
Web: http://www.igc.apc.org/nrdc/
National Rural Water Association
2915 South 13th Street
Duncan, OK 73533
Phone: (405) 252-0629
Web: http://www.cais.com/nrwainfo/
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Rural Utility Service
1400 Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20250
Phone:(202)690-2670
Web: http://www.usda.gov/rus
U.S. Geological Survey
Hydrologic Information Unit
419 National Center
Reston, VA 22092
Phone:(703)648-6818
U.S. EPA
; 401 M Street,-SW
Washington, DC 20460
Water Resource Center
Phone: (202) 260-7786
SDWA Hotline: (800) 426-4791.
Web: http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW
EPA Regional Offices
EPA Region 1
(CT, ME, MA, NH, RI, VT)
Phone:(617)565-3478
EPA Region 2
(NJ, NY, PR, VI)
Phone: (212) 637-3725
EPA Region 3
(DE, DC, MD, PA, VA, WV)
Phone:(215)566-5701
EPA Region 4
(AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN)
Phone: (404) 562-9424
EPA Region 5
(IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI)
Phone:(312)353-4919
EPA Region 6
(AR, LA, NM, OK, TX)
Phone: (214) 665-7155
EPA Region 7
(IA, KS, MO, NE)
Phone:(913)551-7030
EPA Region 8
(CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY)
Phone:(303)312-6260
EPA Region 9
(AZ, CA, HI, NV, AS, GU)
Phone:(415)744-1818 ,
EPA Region 10
(AK, ID, OR, WA)
Phone:(206)553-1230
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Appendix
Glossary
Cryptosporidium
A protozoan associated with the
disease cryptosporidiosis in
humans. The disease can be
transmitted through ingestion of
drinking water, person-to-person
contact, or other exposure routes.
Cryptosporidiosis may cause acute
diarrhea, abdominal pain, vomit-
ing, and fever that last 1-2 weeks
in healthy adults, but may be
chronic or fatal in immuno-
compromised people.
Exposure
Contact between a person and a
chemical. Exposures are calcu-
lated as the amount of chemical
available for absorption by a
person.
Giardia lamblia
A protozoan, which can survive in
water for 1 to 3 months, associated
with the disease giardiasis. Inges-
tion of this protozoan in contami-
nated drinking water, exposure
from person-to-person contact,
and other exposure routes may
cause giardiasis. The symptoms of
this gastrointestinal disease may
persist for weeks or months and
include diarrhea, fatigue, and
cramps.
Maximum Contaminant
Level (MCL)
Maximum permissible level of a
contaminant in water which is
delivered to any user of a public
water system.
Nitrates
Inorganic compounds that can
enter water supplies from fertilizer
runoff and sanitary wastewater
discharges. Nitrates in drinking
water are associated with meth-
emoglobinemia, or blue baby
syndrome, which results from
interferences in the blood's ability
to carry oxygen.
Organics
Chemical molecules that contain
carbon and other elements such as
hydrogen. Organic contaminants
of concern to drinking water
include chlorohydrocarbons,
pesticides, and others.
Per capita
Per person; generally used in
expressions of water use, gallons
per capita per day (gpcd).
Point-of-Use Water
Treatment
Refers to devices used in the home
or office on a specific tap to
provide additional drinking water
treatment.
Point-of-Entry Water
Treatment
Refers to devices used in the home
where water pipes enter to provide
additional treatment of drinking
water used throughout the home.
Radionuclides
Elements that undergo a process
of natural decay. As radionuclides
decay, they emit radiation in the
form of alpha or beta particles and
gamma photons. Radiation can
cause adverse health effects, such
as cancer, so limits are placed on
radionuclide concentrations in
drinking water.
Risk
The potential for harm to people
exposed to chemicals. In order for
there to be risk, there must be
hazard and there must be expo-
sure.
Treatment Technique
A specific treatment method
required by EPA to be used to
control the level of a contaminant
in drinking water. In specific cases
where EPA has determined it is
not technically or economically
feasible to establish an MCL, EPA
can instead specify a treatment
technique.
Total Coliform
Bacteria that are used as indicators
of fecal contaminants in drinking
water.
Toxicity .
The property of a chemical to
harm people who come into
contact with it.
Volatile Organics
Chemicals that, as liquid, evapo-
rate into the air.
ft 0, & GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1997-521-281/90255
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