United States 815-K-99-001
Environmental Protection December 1999
Office of Vteter (4607)
&EPA Children
and
Drinking
Water
Standards
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There's been a lot of talk lately about drinking water.
You may have seen features in the newspaper, on
television news and in popular magazines, even in
movies and television specials. This media coverage,
combined with the new annual reports on drinking
water quality that water systems are sending
directly to their customers, is making many people
think more about their drinking water. A question
many people have on their minds is: Should I be
concerned about the tap water that my children are
drinking? This booklet explains how national
standards contribute to drinking water safety, and
helps readers make informed, reasonable choices
about the water they and their children drink.
Most tap water is safe for
healthy adults and children.
The United States has one of the safest water
supplies in the world. Although drinking water often
picks up low levels of some contaminants as it flows
in rivers and collects in aquifers, these materials
usually are not detected at harmful levels. Public
water suppliers must monitor their water to make
sure it complies with science-based public health
standards. The United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) sets these maximum
allowable levels of contaminants in drinking water
under the Safe Drinking Water Act. EPA has set
standards for 90 contaminants, seven of which are
new standards that will be enforceable before
January 1, 2002. People at the federal, tribal, state
and local levels work together to protect public
water supplies. Federal standards do not include
private wells (individual wells serving fewer than 25
persons). Therefore, people receiving water from
private wells are responsible for making sure their
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own drinking water is safe. Some states do set
standards for private wells, so well owners should
check their state requirements. "Additional
Information for Private \Afell Owners" on page 8 of
this booklet can help locate resources for well
owners.
Problems with drinking water
can, and do, occur.
Actual events of serious drinking water contamin-
ation are infrequent and usually of short duration.
However, treatment problems or extreme weather
events may allow contaminants to enter water
supplies. In most situations, contaminants are
found at levels that do not pose immediate threats
to public health. Microbial contaminants (such as
bacteria and viruses) are of special concern because
they may cause immediate, or acute, reactions,
such as vomiting or diarrhea. Long-term exposure
to some contaminants (such as pesticides, minerals,
and solvents) at levels above standards may cause
gastrointestinal problems, skin irritations, cancer,
reproductive and developmental problems, and other
chronic health effects. If a public water system
obtains water from a highly contaminated river, lake,
or ground water well, it may have difficulty treating
the water to meet current safety standards. If
contamination poses an immediate health threat,
water suppliers are required by law to notify
customers right away. Any violation of a drinking
water standard requires public notice.
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How drinking water standards
protect children.
EPA's current drinking water standards are designed
to protect children and adults. The standards take
into account the potential effects of contaminants on
segments of the population that are most at risk.
When EPA sets each standard, the agency conducts
a risk assessment, in which scientists evaluate
whether fetuses, infants, children, or other groups are
more vulnerable to a contaminant than the general
population. The standard is set to protect the most
vulnerable group.
Often, children are not the most vulnerable group.
For example, even though children may be more
vulnerable to microbial contaminants than the general
public, people with weakened immune systems are
even more at risk. People with weakened immune
systems include those who have undergone organ
transplants, people with HIV/AIDS or other immune
system disorders, such as lupus or Crohn's disease,
or those under-going chemotherapy. (For more
information see the EPA/Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention's joint guidance on the microbial
pathogen, Cryptosporidium, called "Guidance for
People with Severely Weakened Immune Systems."
It is available by calling the Safe Drinking Water
Hotline ofatwww.epa.gov/safewater/crypto.html.) If
EPA finds that children are the most vulnerable, their
risk becomes the most important factor considered in
developing the standard. Standards for lead, nitrates,
and nitrites are specifically based on risk to children
because they are the most vulnerable to these
contaminants. If a group other than children is the
most sensitive, children are automatically protected.
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For most drinking water contaminants EPA regulates,
there is little data to indicate whether children are
more sensitive than the general public. However,
EPA is undertaking research to address this
important issue. Children, especially infants, drink
more fluid per pound of body weight than adults.
Very young children's immune systems are not yet
fully developed, making them less able than healthy
adults to fight microbes in drinking water. These
microbes may induce diarrhea and vomiting, which
may cause children to become dehydrated more
quickly than adults. Children may also be more
susceptible to chemical contaminants that affect
learning, motor skills, and sex hormones during
important stages of growth.
Despite high confidence in existing standards, EPA
is conducting additional research regarding possible
impacts of various contaminants on children and
other vulnerable populations, and on new and
emerging contaminants. For example, EPA is
conducting risk assessments that will consider
infants' and children's sensitivity and exposure to
certain pesticides. EPA is committed to using the
best available, peer-reviewed science and data in
developing new standards and reevaluating existing
ones. Also, EPA continues to monitor localized
health problems, including outbreaks caused by
microbial contaminants in drinking water and other
health problems that may be associated with other
contaminants (e.g., solvents and other industrial
chemicals).
(Continued on page 9)
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Contaminants to
Which Children May
Be Particularly
Sensitive
Children are particularly sensitive
to the contaminants in the table on
the following pages. EPA sets
standards at levels that protect
them. In most circumstances,
these contaminants do not present
problems, because they do not
occur in the drinking water source
or because they are reduced,
removed or rendered harmless
during treatment. If you are
concerned about a particular
contaminant in your tap water, you
should first ask your public water
system about the concentration in
your tap water, check your annual
water quality report (also called
Consumer Confidence Report), or
have your well water tested. Health
effects discussed on this table
are specific to children. General
information about the contaminants
and their potential health effects is
listed at www.epa.gov/safewater/
mcl.html and is available from the
Safe Drinking Water Hotline, (800)
426-4791. For personal health
advice, you should contact your
health care provider.
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CONTAMINANTS TO WHICH CHILDREN MAY BE PARTICULARLY SENSITIVE
Contaminant and
Drinking Water Standard
Likely Sources of
the Contaminant in
Drinking Water
Ways that Children are
Exposed Other Than
Drinking Water
Children's Potential Health Effects from
Ingesting the Contaminant in Water at Levels
Above EPA Drinking Water Standards
What To Do If You Have High Levels
in Your Drinking Water?
10 parts per million
Nitrite
1 part per million
Runoff from fertilizer use; leaching
from septic tanks, cesspools,
sewage; erosion of natural deposits
Infants most often get blue baby
syndrome when they are already sick,
consume food that is high in nitrates,
such as spinach, broccoli and cured
meats, and drink formula mixed with
water that is high in nitrates.
"Blue baby syndrome" in infants under six months —
life threatening without immediate medical attention.
Symptoms: Infant looks blue and has shortness of breath.
Do NOT boil water to attempt to reduce nitrates. Boiling
water increases nitrate concentration and the potential
risk. Talk to your health care provider about alternatives
to using boiled water in baby formula.
Public water systems must sample
tap water from a percentage of
sites with lead pipes or copper
pipes with lead in solder and/or
service lines. Treatment steps
must be taken if lead levels
exceed 0.015 parts per million
in at least 10 percent of samples,
or if copper levels exceed
1.3 parts per million.
Corrosion of household plumbing
systems2; erosion of natural deposits.
Paint chips and dust from lead paint in old
buildings are the primary routes of
children's exposure to lead.
For both infants and children, continuous exposure to high levels
of lead may lead to delays in physical or mental development.
Children could show slight deficits in attention span and
learning abilities.
Do NOT boil the water to attempt to reduce lead. Flush
your pipes by running the water before using it for
drinking or cooking and use only water from the cold
water tap for cooking, drinking, and preparing baby
formula. Allow the water to run until it's cold (this water
can be used for plants to reduce waste). If you have high
lead levels, talk to your health care provider about
alternatives to using boiled water in baby formula.
See standard for lead, above.
Microbial Contaminants3
Standards vary by contaminant.
For details, see www.epa.gov/
safewater/mcl.html or call EPA's
Safe Drinking Water Hotline,
(800) 426-4791.
Corrosion of household plumbing
systems; erosion of natural
deposits; leaching from wood
preservatives.
Human and animal fecal waste
(e.g., animal feedlots); leaking
from septic systems and
cesspools.
Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts (DBFs)4
Total Trihalomethanes: 0.10 parts While disinfectants are effective
per million. In 2002, more
stringent standards will be
enforceable. See footnote.
in controlling many microorganisms,
they react with matter in water to
form disinfection byproducts.
Unchlorinated private well water
is unlikely to contain any DBFs.
Children may be exposed to copper in
food, but not usually at high enough
levels to pose a health risk. If food is
improperly stored in a copper container,
ingestion may lead to nausea or vomiting.
Food; unsanitary diaper changing
practices; person-to-person contact.
Not known.
High levels of copper in drinking water may cause nausea or
vomiting in children.
Same procedure as lead, above.
Exposure may cause gastro-intestinal problems. Those with
weakened immune systems are most vulnerable. Diarrhea
and vomiting may cause children to become dehydrated more
quickly than adults. However, in most healthy children,
problems are temporary. Contact your health care provider
and be sure children drink enough water (from a safe source)
to prevent dehydration.
^^^m
Varies depending on the DBF. Some epidemiological studies
may indicate a link between certain DBFs and a slight
increased risk of reproductive and developmental effects.
For a new regulation that will be implemented in 2002, EPA
has evaluated the environmental health or safety effects
of DBFs on children and concluded that the public health
goals are protective.
Boil your water vigorously for one minute before using it.
Alternatively, purchase bottled water treated by
distillation or reverse osmosis.
Drinking lots of water during pregnancy is important.
If you are notified of a violation, follow instructions from
your public water system. For personal health advice,
you should contact your health care provider regarding
using bottled water.
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Notes
1 Standards for nitrate and nitrite are based on annual averages of
1-4 samples. Requirements differ among systems.
2 Lead: It is possible that lead levels at your home may be higher
than at other homes in the community as a result of materials
used in your home's plumbing. If you are concerned about
elevated lead levels in your home's water, you may wish to have
your water tested. To locate a state certified laboratory, see
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/faq/sco.html, or call the Safe
Drinking Water Hotline at (800) 426-4791.
3 Microbial Contaminants: In 1998, EPA established the Interim
Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule, which strengthens
control over microbial contaminants, including the pathogen,
Cryptosporidium. By 2002, public water systems using surface
water (or ground water under the direct influence of surface water)
and serving more than 10,000 people must comply with the rule.
States must adopt the new standards by 2001. EPA is conducting
research in several areas including: analyzing occurrence data on
microbial contaminants at more than 500 utilities nationwide;
collecting data on the incidence of pathogens in water and the
effectiveness of techniques for removing pathogens to understand
potential exposure of adults and children; a variety of studies on
incidence of diarrhea in adults and children and its possible
association with drinking water. This research will be used for
determining priorities for the drinking water program, including
guidance, future standards and reevaluation of existing standards.
4 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts: In 1998, EPA
established the Stage 1 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts
Rule, which strengthened protection from DBFs. In 2002, new
standards, all listed in parts per million, will be enforceable:
Disinfectant Residuals: Chlorine - 4.0; Chloramine - 4.0; Chlorine
Dioxide - 0.8. Disinfection Byproducts: Total Trihalomethanes -
0.080; Haloacetic Adds - 0.060; Chlorite - 1.0; Bmmate - 0.0/0.
EPA is conducting research in several areas including: analyzing
occurrence data on DBF levels at more than 500 utilities
nationwide; examining factors that contribute to the formation of
DBFs; evaluating the effectiveness of treatment technologies to
remove materials from water that react with chlorine to form
DBFs; and conducting health effects research to better understand
the potential risk associated with exposure. Due to the length of
time required to conduct large scale epidemiology studies, the
results of some new research will not be completed until after the
2002 statutory deadline for the Stage 2 Disinfectants and
Disinfection Byproducts Rule. Howeve r, a number of these
important studies that are evaluating potential risks to pregnant
women will be completed in time for the rulemaking.
Information for Private Well Owners
Private water supplies are not regulated by EPA,
although some states and municipalities have standards
that apply to these wells. If you have a private well, you
are responsible for testing your water to make sure it is
safe. This is especially important in areas where homes
and nearby businesses are on septic systems. Since
many contaminants are colorless and odorless, testing is
the only way to determine whether your well water is
safe to drink. EPA drinking water standards and health
information are good guidelines for you in protecting your
own drinking water.
Wells should be tested annually for nitrate and coliform
bacteria to detect contamination problems early. Test
more frequently and for more potential contaminants,
such as radon, pesticides or industrial chemicals if
you suspect a problem. Contact your state laboratory
certification office for a listing of certified drinking
water laboratories in your state. In addition, you can
help protect your water supply by carefully managing
activities near the water source. The organization,
Farm*A*Syst/ Home*A*Syst, (608) 262-0024, provides
fact sheets and worksheets to help farmers and rural
residents assess pollution risks and develop manage-
ment plans geared towards their circumstances.
The Safe Drinking Water Hotline, (800) 426-4791,
can provide you with the phone numbers for these
organizations. Resources are also available on the
Internet:
• State Certification Officers,
www. epa. go v/safewater/faq/sco. html
• Farm*A*Syst/Home*A*Syst,
www. wisc.edu/farmasyst/
• Wellhead Protection Program,
www. epa. go v/safewater/protect html
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(Continued from page 4)
Many layers of protection
ensure tap water quality.
Federal, state and tribal governments, in partner-
ship with public water systems, are continuously
working to ensure tap water safety. In fact, 1999
marks the 25th year of public health protection
under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This statute gives
EPA the authority to set enforceable drinking water
standards for public water systems. EPA has set
standards for 90 chemical, microbiological, radiologi-
cal, and physical contaminants in drinking water.
Public water systems must monitor water according
to specific schedules, and deliver water that meets
all standards. EPA is required by the Safe Drinking
Water Act to focus on the contaminants that pose
the greatest public health risk, in setting national
standards. The Agency must ensure the standards
protect public health, are technically feasible, and
are cost-effective.
When setting new drinking water standards, EPA
does extensive peer-reviewed research and analysis
to ensure the standards will protect public health.
States can either adopt and enforce these standards
or set and enforce even stricter ones. EPA also
establishes guidance, which some states chose
to adopt and enforce, to control contaminants that
may cause cosmetic effects (such as skin or tooth
discoloration) or aesthetic effects (such as taste,
odor, or color) in drinking water. Public water
systems are responsible for controlling the level of
contaminants in drinking water to meet these
standards.
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Drinking water standards are part of a "multiple
barriers" approach to drinking water safety. This
includes: protecting drinking water sources to
prevent contamination; controlling the discharge of
contaminants underground through injection wells
(not used for drinking) or shallow disposal systems;
treating water to make sure it meets standards;
making sure water systems are run by qualified
operators; ensuring distribution systems are
functioning properly; and making information
available to the public on the quality of drinking
water. These protections work together to help
ensure tap water in the United States is safe.
New requirements ensure
protection to children will
increase.
In 1997, Resident Clinton issued an executive order
that specifies that each federal agency "shall make it
a high priority to identify and assess environmental
health and safety
risks that may
disproportionately
^grip^F* I affect children,"
I and "shall ensure
- v_ I that its policies,
I programs,
activities, and standards address disproportionate
risks to children that result from environmental
health risks or safety risks."
Even before the 1997 executive order, children were
a priority for EPA's drinking water program. The
1996 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act
require EPA to strengthen protection of children by
considering the risk to the most vulnerable popula-
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tions when setting standards. The amendments call
for better science, including an analysis of the health
effects of vulnerable populations, to use when
making regulatory decisions. To address these
requirements, EPA considers the special needs of
children when identifying new contaminants to
regulate, includes children in risk assessments to
determine public health goal, and conducts research
on children's exposure to contaminants. The 1996
amendments also require EPA to reassess all
drinking water standards every six years and
consider new data, and thus ensure that standards
continue to protect public health, including children.
Meeting new challenges is costly
and can require technological
improvements.
As new standards are set to reinforce public health
protection, public water systems sometimes must
install new equipment, improve or replace infra-
structure, or make improvements in the way they
operate water systems. To help with these costs,
EPA provides grants to states, which in turn
provide low-interest loans to public water systems
to help them comply with new standards. There
are also significant costs associated with conduct-
ing necessary research and protecting drinking
water sources.
Protecting drinking
water sources.
EPA emphasizes protecting sources of drinking
water from contamination. It is more desirable,
effective and economical to prevent contamination
of drinking water supplies than to pay for treatment.
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or to clean up an already-polluted source. States are
currently assessing all the drinking water sources
within their boundaries. These assessments map the
rivers, lakes and ground water wells that supply
public drinking water and identify principal threats to
water quality. States can also utilize millions of
federal dollars to take actions to protect source
waters. To learn more about protecting drinking
water sources, see www.epa.gov/safewater/
pmtect.html, or call the Safe Drinking Water Hotline.
Once informed about the sources and quality of
your local drinking water (see next page), you can
make the best possible choices about the water
you and your children drink.
For More Information
Drinking Water Safety, Sources, and
Prevention of Contamination:
EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline
(800) 426-4791
EPA Safewater Web Site
www.epa.gov/safewater
Other Environmental Issues Affecting
Children, Such as Asthma, Sun Exposure,
and Safety Measures in the Home
EPA Office of Children's Health
Protection Web Site
www, epa. govlchildren
EPA Children's Environmental
Health Hotline
(877) 590-KIDS
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What YOU can do to make sure tap water is
safe for the children of today... and tomorrow
Water is an essential nutrient -necessary for maintaining
body temperature, transporting nutrients throughout the
body, keeping joints moist, digesting food, ridding the body
of waste products, and cooling the body. The American
Medical Association recommends that adults should
consume about 2!/2 quarts of water a day; children about
half this much. While the best way to consume this
amount is by drinking plain water, food and beverages
made with water, such as soup and juice, count for part
of this amount. It is important to know how to protect
this essential nutrient and vital resource.
Learn about your local drinking water: Start by reading
your Consumer Confidence Report to learn whether your
water system meets all drinking water standards. This
report is available from your water supplier, and may be
online at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/dwinfo.htm.
Understand how your local water supplier is working to
provide your community with safe drinking water. Don't be
afraid to ask questions. Your water supplier and EPA's Safe
Drinking Water Hotline (800) 426-4791 are there to help.
Consider the source: Get to know the source of your
drinking water, and get involved in activities to protect it.
Drinking water source protection is a low-cost means to
providing a vital resource. Here are a few simple things
you can do to help keep pollution out of the river, lake,
stream or aquifer that is your drinking water source:
• Take used motor oil to a recycling center. If you let it
drain into a storm sewer or bury it in the trash, it can
leak into lakes, rivers and wells. Just one pint of used
motor oil can expand over great distances and cause
adverse effects to human health and the environment.
• Properly dispose of toxic household trash. For example,
batteries contain lead and mercury. Some household
cleaners also contain substances that contaminate
water. Many communities have special collection sites
for these items.
• Do not dispose of chemicals into septic systems, dry
wells, stormwater drainage wells or other shallow
disposal systems that discharge to ground water.
• Find out what your community is doing to protect your
water source and get involved. Work with schools,
civic groups and others to start a protection program.
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Water Resource Center (RC-4100)
401 M St. S.W.
Washington D.C. 20460
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