&EPA
          United States
          Environmental Protection
          Agency
            Office of Water
            4304T
EPA-822-B-02-001
December 2002
Ambient Aquatic Life
Water Quality Criteria
for Tributyltin (TBT) - Draft

-------
                                  ADDENDUM

   The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a draft ambient water quality criteria
document for tributyltin (TBT) on August 7, 1997. This document was issued to the public for
scientific and technical input through a notice of availability published in the Federal Register
(62 FR 42554). After consideration of peer review, scientific and technical input, and additional
data which became available after the draft was published, EPA is issuing new ambient water
quality criteria for TBT for scientific and technical input.

   A comprehensive literature search for toxicity information on TBT was conducted before the
draft criteria document for TBT was issued in 1997.  In preparing the new TBT criteria
document, more recent aquatic life toxicity data have been considered (* see new references at
end of Addendum).  The major effect of inclusion of this new information on TBT is the
lowering of the draft saltwater four day average, once in  three year exceedence, chronic criterion
of 0.01 ug/1 to a new chronic criterion of 0.001 ug/1.

   EPA's Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP) has recently updated its Environmental Risk
Characterization for TBT. EPA's Office of Water (OW) has coordinated closely with OPP in
preparing the new ambient water quality criteria document for TBT. This collaboration has
enabled OW to access more recent information on the toxicity of TBT. Consideration of the
more recent data available for TBT leads to the following conclusions:

  * TBT is an immunosuppressing agent and an endocrine disrupter

  * TBT biomagnifies through the food chain and has been found in tissues of marine mammals

  * TBT causes adverse reproductive and developmental effects in aquatic organisms at very low
    concentrations

  * TBT degrades much more slowly in sediment than earlier studies had indicated and is likely
    to persist in sediments at concentrations which cause adverse biological effects

    After considering peer review, scientific and technical input from the public, and more
recent data, EPA has set the new saltwater chronic criterion for TBT at 0.001 ug/1.

References:

  * Fisher, W.S., L.M. Oliver, W.W.  Walker, C.S. Manning, T.F. Lytle.  1999. Decreased
    resistance of eastern oysters (Crassostrea Virginicd)  to a protozoan pathogen (Perkinsus
    marinus) after sublethal  exposure to tributyltin oxide. Marine Environ. Res. 47: 185-201.

  * Matthiessen, P. and P.E. Gibbs.  1998. Critical appraisal of the evidence for tributyltin-
  mediated endocrine disruption in mollusks.  Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 17: 37-43.

  * Other references are available, but were not relied upon for derivation of the criteria

-------
                              EXECUTIVE SUMMARY



BACKGROUND:



     Tributyltin (TBT)is a highly toxic biocide that has been used extensively



to protect the hulls of large ships.  It is a problem in the aquatic



environment  because it is extremely toxic to non-target organisms, is linked



to imposex and immuno-supression in snails and bivalves, and is very



persistent.   EPA is developing ambient water quality criteria for TBT through



its authority under Section 304(a)  of the Clean Water Act (CWA).   These water



quality criteria may be used by States and Tribes to establish water quality



standards for TBT.








CRITERIA:



Freshwater:



     For TBT, the criterion to protect freshwater aquatic life from chronic



toxic effects is 0.063 ug/L.  This criterion is implemented as a four-day



average, not to be exceeded more than once every three years on the average.



The criterion to protect freshwater aquatic life from acute toxic effects is



0.46 ug/L.  This criterion is implemented as a one-hour average,  not to be



exceeded more than once every three years on the average.








Saltwater:



     For TBT, the criterion to protect saltwater aquatic life from chronic



toxic effects is 0.001 ug/L.  This criterion is implemented as a four-day



average, not to be exceeded more than once every three years on the average.



The criterion to protect saltwater aquatic life from acute toxic effects is



0.38 ug/L.  This criterion is implemented as a one-hour average,  not to be



exceeded more than once every three years on the average.
     The saltwater chronic criterion for TBT differs significantly from the



criterion that was originally proposed for public review (0.010 ug/L).   The



development of the saltwater chronic criterion for TBT considers four lines of

-------
evidence:



   (1)  the traditional endpoints of adverse effects on survival, growth, and



reproduction as demonstrated in numerous laboratory studies;



   (2)  the endocrine disrupting capability of TBT as observed in the



production of imposex in field studies



   (3)  that TBT bioaccumulates in commercially and recreationally important



freshwater and saltwater species



   (4)  that an important commercial organism already known to be vulnerable to



a prevalent pathogen was made even more vulnerable by prior exposure to TBT.



For these reasons, the criterion to protect saltwater aquatic life from



chronic toxic effects is set at 0.001 ug/L.



     This document provides guidance to States and Tribes authorized to



establish water quality standards under the Clean Water Act (CWA) to protect



aquatic life from acute and chronic effects of TBT.  Under the CWA,  States and



Tribes are to establish water quality criteria to protect designated uses.



While this document constitutes U.S. EPA's scientific recommendations



regarding ambient concentrations of TBT, this document does not substitute for



the CWA or U.S. EPA's regulations; nor is it a regulation itself.  Thus, it



cannot impose legally binding requirements on U.S. EPA, States, Tribes, or the



regulated community, and it might not apply to a particular situation based



upon the circumstances.  State and Tribal decision-makers retain the



discretion to adopt approaches on a case-by-case basis that differ from this



guidance when appropriate.  U.S. EPA may change this guidance in the future.

-------
AMBIENT AQUATIC LIFE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA  FOR

                  TRIBUTYLTIN

         CAS Registry Number (See Text)
      U.S.  ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

                OFFICE  OF WATER
        OFFICE OF  SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
    HEALTH AND ECOLOGICAL CRITERIA DIVISION
                WASHINGTON D.C.

       OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
        MID-CONTINENT ECOLOGY DIVISION
               DULUTH,  MINNESOTA
           ATLANTIC ECOLOGY  DIVISION
         NARRAGANSETT,  RHODE ISLAND

-------
                                 NOTICES
This document has been reviewed by the Health and Ecological Criteria Division
(HECD),  Office of Science and Technology, Office of Water, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, and approved for publication.

Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement
or recommendation for use.

-------
                                   FOREWORD
Under Section 304(a)of the Clean Water Act  (CWA) of 1977  (P.L. 95-217), the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)is to periodically revise water
quality criteria to accurately reflect the latest scientific knowledge.  This
document is a revision of previous criteria based upon consideration of
scientific and technical input received from other federal agencies, state
agencies, special interest groups, and individual scientists.  Criteria
contained in this document replace any previously published U.S. EPA aquatic
life criteria for tributyltin (TBT).

This document provides guidance to States and Tribes authorized to establish
water quality standards under the CWA to protect aquatic life from toxic
effects of TBT.  Under the CWA,  States and Tribes are to establish water
quality standards to protect designated uses.  While this document constitutes
the U.S. EPA's scientific recommendations regarding ambient concentrations of
TBT, this document does not substitute for the CWA or the U.S. EPA's
regulations, nor is it a regulation itself.  Thus, it cannot impose legally
binding requirements on the U.S. EPA,  States, Tribes or the regulated
community, and might not apply to a particular situation based upon the
circumstances.  The U.S. EPA may change this guidance in the future.

-------
                                ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Great Lakes Environmental Center  (GLEC),  Traverse City, MI produced this
document under U.S. EPA Contract Number 68-C6-0038, Work Assignment B-04.
people listed on this page contributed to this document in the stated
capacities.
                                    The
                                    AUTHORS
Larry T. Brooke (freshwater)
University of Wisconsin-Superior
Superior, Wisconsin and Great
Lakes Environmental Center,
Traverse City, Michigan
 David J.  Hansen  (saltwater)
 U.S.  EPA
 Atlantic  Ecology  Division
 Office of Research  and Development
Narragansett,  Rhode Island and
 Great Lakes Environmental  Center,
 Traverse  City, Michigan
Frank Gostomski (document coordinator)
U.S. EPA
Health and Ecological Criteria Division
Office of Science and Technology
Office of Water
Washington, DC


Great Lakes Environmental Center, Inc. Work Assignment Leader: Dennis McCauley
                     TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE AND PEER REVIEW
Herbert E. Allen
University of Delaware
Newark, Delaware

Peter M. Chapman
EVS Environmental Consultants
North Vancouver, British Columbia

Michael H. Salazar
Applied Biomonitoring
Kirkland, Washington

Robert L. Spehar
U.S. EPA
Mid-Continent Ecology Division
Duluth, Minnesota
 Rick D.  Cardwell
 Parametrix,  Inc.,
 Redmond,  Washington

 Lenwood  W.  Hall
 University  of  Maryland
 Queenstown,  Maryland

 Peter F.  Seligman
 U.S.  Navy SSC  SD
 San  Diego,  California

 Glen Thursby
 U.S.  EPA
 Atlantic Ecology Division
 Narragansett,  Rhode Island

-------
                                   CONTENTS








                                                                          Page



Foreword	 iii



Acknowledgments	  iv



Tables	  vii



Text Tables 	 viii





Introduction	   1



Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals	   7



Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals	   9



Toxicity to Aquatic Plants	  13



Bioaccumulation	  14



Other Data	  15



Unused Data	  34



Summary	  37



National Criteria	  43



Implementation	  43








References	  89

-------
                                    TABLES
                                                                         Page



1.  Acute Toxicity of Tributyltin to Aquatic Animals 	  44-A






2.  Chronic Toxicity of Tributyltin to Aquatic Animals 	  51



3.  Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic



      Ratios	53



4.  Toxicity of Tributyltin to Aquatic Plants  	  57



5.  Bioaccumulation of Tributyltin by Aquatic Organisms  	  59



6.  Other Data on Effects of Tributyltin on Aquatic Organisms  	  63

-------
                                  TEXT TABLES
1.     Summary of available laboratory and  field  studies
       relating the extent of  imposex of  female snails,
       measured by relative penis size  (volume female
       penis / male penis = RPSI) and the vas deferens
       sequence index  (VDSI),  as a  function of tributyltin
       concentration in water  and dry tissue	   25

2.     Summary of laboratory and field data on the effects
       of tributyltin on saltwater  organisms at concentrations
       less than the Final Chronic  Value  of 0.0605 ug/L	   33

-------
Introduction



      Organotins are compounds consisting of one to four organic components



attached to a tin atom via carbon-tin covalent bonds.   When there are fewer



than four carbon-tin bonds, the organotin cation can combine with an anion



such as acetate, carbonate, chloride, fluoride, hydroxide,  oxide, or sulfide.



Thus a species such as tributyltin (TBT) is a cation whose formula is



(C4H9)3Sn+.   In  sea water  TBT  exists mainly  as  a  mixture  of  the  chloride,  the



hydroxide, the aquo complex,  and the carbonate complex  (Laughlin et al.



1986a) .



      The principal use  of organotins is as a stabilizer in the manufacturing



of plastic products, for example, as an anti-yellowing agent in clear plastics



and as a catalyst in poly(vinyl chloride)  products (Piver 1973).  Another and



less extensive use of organotins is as a biocide (fungicide, bactericide,



insecticide) and as a preservative for wood, textiles, paper,  leather and



electrical equipment.  Total  world-wide production of organotin compounds is



estimated at 50,000 tons per  year with between 15 and 20% of the production



used in the biologically active triorganotins (Bennett 1996).



      A large market exists  for organotins  in antifouling paint for the wet



bottom of ship hulls.  The most common organometallics used in these paints



are TBT oxide and TBT methacrylate.  Protection from fouling with these paints



lasts more than two years and is superior to copper- and mercury-based paints.



These paints have an additional advantage over other antifouling paints, such



as copper sulfate based paint, by not promoting bimetallic corrosion.  The



earliest paints containing TBT were "free association" paints that contained a



free suspension of TBT and caused high concentrations of TBT to be leached to



the aquatic environment when  the paint application was new.  A later



refinement was the "ablative" paint that shed the outer layer when in contact



with water but at a slower rate than the free association paint.  Further



development of organometallic antifouling paints have been in the production



of paints containing copolymers that control the release of the organotins and



result in longer useful life  of the paint as an antifoulant (Bennett 1996;



Champ and Seligman 1996; Kirk-Othmer 1981). The U.S. Navy  (1984) proposed

-------
application of some paints containing TBT to hulls of naval ships.  Such paint



formulations have been shown to be an effective and relatively long-lived



deterrent to adhesion of barnacles and other fouling organisms.  Encrustations



on ships' hulls by these organisms reduce maximum speed and increase fuel



consumption.  According to the U.S. Navy (1984), use of TBT paints, relative



to other antifouling paints, would not only reduce fuel consumption by 15% but



would also increase time between repainting from less than 5 years to 5 to 7



years.   Interaction between the toxicities of TBT and other ingredients in



the paint apparently is negligible, but needs further study (Davidson et al.



1986a).   The use of TBT in antifouling paints on ships, boats, nets, docks,



and water cooling towers probably contributes most to direct release of



organotins into the aquatic environment (Clark et al. 1988; Hall and Pinkney



1985; Kinnetic Laboratory 1984) .



      The solubility of TBT compounds in water  is influenced by such factors



as the oxidation-reduction potential, pH,  temperature, ionic strength,  and



concentration and composition of the dissolved organic matter  (Clark et al.



1988; Corbin 1976).   The solubility of tributyltin oxide in water was reported



to be 750 ug/L at pH of 6.6, 31,000 ug/L at pH of 8.1 and 30,000 ug/L at pH



2.6  (Maguire et al.  1983).  The carbon-tin covalent bond does not hydrolyze in



water (Maguire et al.  1983,1984), and the half-life for photolysis due to



sunlight is greater than 89 days (Maguire et al. 1985; Seligman et al.  1986) .



Biodegradation is the major breakdown pathway for TBT in water and sediments



with half-lives of several days in water to months or more than a year in



sediments (Clark et al. 1988;  de Mora et al. 1989; Lee et al.  1987; Maguire



and Tkacz 1985; Seligman et al. 1986, 1988, 1989; Stang and Seligman 1986).



Breakdown products include di-, monobutyltins and tin with some methyltins



detected (Yonezawa et al.  1994) when sulfate reducing conditions were present.



Porous sediments with aerobic conditions decrease degradation time  (Watanabe



et al. 1995) .



      Several review papers have been written which cover the production,



use, chemistry, toxicity,  fate and hazards of TBT in the aquatic environment



(Alzieu 1996;  Batley 1996; Clark et al.  1988; Eisler 1989; Gibbs and Bryan

-------
1996b; Hall and Bushong 1996; Laughlin 1996; Laughlin et al.  1996; Maguire



1996; Waldock et al.  1996; WHO 1990).  The toxicities of organotin compounds



are related to the number of organic components bonded to the tin atom and to



the number of carbon atoms in the organic components.  Toxicity to aquatic



organisms generally increases as the number of organic components increases



from one to three and decreases with the incorporation of a fourth, making



triorganotins more toxic than other forms.  Within the triorganotins,  toxicity



increases as the number of carbon atoms in the organic moiety increases from



one to four, then decreases.  Thus the organotin most toxic to aquatic life is



TBT  (Hall and Pinkney 1985; Laughlin and Linden 1985; Laughlin et al.  1985).



TBTs inhibit Na+ and  K+ ATPases and are ionophores controlling exchange of Cl~,



Br",  F" and other ions across cell membranes  (Selwyn  1976).



      Metabolism of TBT has been studied  in several  species.  Some species of



algae, bacteria, and fungi have been shown to degrade TBT by sequential



dealkylation, resulting in dibutyltin, then monobutyltin, and finally



inorganic tin (Barug 1981; Maguire et al. 1984).  Barug  (1981)  observed the



biodegradation of TBT to di- and monobutyltin by bacteria and fungi only under



aerobic conditions and only when a secondary carbon source was supplied.



Inorganic tin can be methylated and demethylated by estuarine microorganisms



(Jackson et al.  1982).  Maguire et al. (1984)  reported that a 28-day culture



of TBT with the green alga, Ankistrodesmus falcatus, resulted in  7% inorganic



tin.  Maguire (1986)  reported that the half-life of TBT exposed to microbial



degradation was five months under aerobic conditions and 1.5 months under



anaerobic conditions.  TBT is also accumulated and metabolized by an eel



grass, Zostera marina (Francios et al. 1989) .  Chiles et al.  (1989) found that



much of the TBT accumulated on the surface of saltwater algae and bacteria as



well as within the cell.  The major metabolite of TBT in saltwater crabs,



fish, and shrimp was dibutyltin (Lee 1985, 1986) .   A review of the metabolism



of TBT by marine aquatic organisms has been provided by Lee (1996).



      TBT is an endocrine-disrupting  chemical  (Matthiessen and Gibbs 1998) .



The chemical causes masculinization of certain female gastropods.  It is



likely the best studied example of endocrine-disrupting effect.   The metabolic

-------
mechanism is thought to be due to elevating testosterone titers in the animals



and over-riding the effects of estrogen.  There are several theories of how



TBT accomplishes the buildup of testosterone and evidence suggests  that



competitive inhibition of cytochrome P450-dependent aromatase is probably



occurring in TBT exposed gastropods  (Matthiessen and Gibbs 1998).   TBT may



interfer with sulfur conjugation of testosterone and its phase I metabolites



and their excretion resulting in a build-up of pharmacologically active



androgens in some animal tissues (Ronis and Mason 1996).



      TBT has been measured in the water column and found highly  (70-90%)



associated with the dissolved phase  (Johnson et al. 1987; Maguire 1986;



Valkirs et al.  1986a).   However,  TBT readily sorbs to sediments and suspended



solids and can persist there (Cardarelli and Evans 1980; Harris et al.  1996;



Seligman et al.  1996).   TBT accumulates in sediments with sorption



coefficients which range from l.lxlO2 to 8.2xl03 L/Kg and desorption  appears



to be a two step process (Unger et al.  1987,1988).  At environmentally



realistic concentrations of 10 ng/L, TBT partitioning coefficients were closer



to 2.5 xlO4  (Langston and Pope,  1995).   In a modeling and risk assessment



study of TBT in a freshwater lake,  Traas et al. (1996)  predicted that TBT



concentrations in the water and suspended matter would decrease rapidly and



TBT concentrations in sediment and benthic organisms would decrease at a much



slower rate.



      The water surface microlayer contains a much higher concentration of



TBT than the water column (deary and Stebbing 1987; Hall et al. 1986;  Maguire



1986; Valkirs et al. 1986a).   Gucinski  (1986)  suggested that this enrichment



of the surface microlayer could increase the bioavailability of TBT to



organisms in contact with this layer.



      Elevated TBT concentrations in fresh and salt waters, sediments, and



biota are primarily associated with harbors and marinas  (Cleary and Stebbing



1985; Espourteille et al. 1993;  Gibbs and Bryan 1996a;  Grovhoug et al.  1996;



Hall 1988; Hall et al.  1986;  Langston et al. 1987; Maguire 1984,1986; Maguire



and Tkacz 1985;  Maguire et al.  1982; Minchin and Minchin 1997; Peven et al.



1996; Prouse and Ellis 1997;  Quevauviller et al.  1989;  Salazar and Salazar

-------
1985b; Seligman et al.  1986,1989; Short and Sharp 1989; Stallard et al.  1986;



Stang and Seligman 1986; Unger et al.  1986; Valkirs et al.  1986b; Waite et al.



1996; Waldock and Miller 1983; Waldock et al.  1987).  Several studies have



been conducted in harbors to measure the effects of TBT on biota.  Lenihan et



al.   (1990)  hypothesized that changes in faunal composition in hard bottom



communities in San Diego Bay were related to boat mooring and TBT.  Salazar



and Salazar (1988) found an apparent relationship between concentrations of



TBT in waters of San Diego Bay and reduced growth of mussels.  No organotins



were detected in the muscle tissue of feral Chinook salmon,  Oncorhynchus



tshawytscha,  caught near Auke Bay, Alaska, but concentrations as high as 900



ug/kg were reported in muscle tissue of Chinook salmon held  in shallow-water



pens treated with TBT (Short 1987; Short and Thrower 1986a).   Organotin



concentrations in European coastal waters in the low part per trillion range



have been associated with oyster shell malformations (Alzieu et al. 1989;



Minchin et al. 1987).  Reevaluation of harbors in the United Kingdom revealed



that since the 1987 restrictions which banned the retail sale and use of TBT



paints for small boats or mariculture purposes, oyster culture has returned in



the harbor areas where boat traffic is low and water exchange is good (Dyrynda



1992; Evans et al. 1996; Minchin et al. 1996,1997; Page and Widdows 1991;



Waite et al.  1991).  Tissue concentrations of TBT in oysters have decreased in



most of the sites sampled in the Gulf of Mexico since the introduction of



restrictions (1988-1989) on its use (Wade et al. 1991).  Canada restricted the



use of TBT-containing boat-hull paints in 1989 and there has been a reduction



in female snail reproductive deformities  (imposex) in many Canadian west coast



sampling sites (Tester et al.  1996).  In a four-year (1987-1990) monitoring



study for butyltins in mussel tissue on the two U.S. coasts,  a general



decrease in tissue concentrations was measured on the west coast and east



coast sites showed mixed responses  (Uhler et al. 1989,1993).   Some small ports



in France have not seen a decline in imposex since the ban on TBT in boat hull



paints (Huet et al. 1996).  Suspicions are that the legislation banning the



paints is being ignored.  Several freshwater ecosystems were studied since the



ban on antifouling paints in Switzerland in 1988.  By 1993 TBT concentrations

-------
were decreasing in the water, but declines were not seen in the sediment or in



the zebra mussel,  Dreissena polymorpha  (Becker-van Slooten and Tarradellas



1995; Pent and Hunn 1995).



      Because of the assumption that certain anions do not contribute to TBT



toxicity, only data generated in toxicity and bioconcentration tests on TBTC1



(tributyltin chloride; CAS 1461-22-9),  TBTF (tributyltin fluoride; CAS 1983-



10-4), TBTO  [bis(tributyltin) oxide; CAS 56-35-9], commonly called



"tributyltin oxide" and TBTS  [bis(tributyltin)  sulfide; CAS 4808-30-4],



commonly called "tributyltin sulfide"  were used in the derivation of the water



quality criteria concentrations for aquatic life presented herein.  All



concentrations from such tests are expressed as TBT,  not as tin and not as the



chemical tested.  The conversion factors are 0.8911 for TBTC1,  0.9385 for



TBTF, 0.9477 for TBTO, 0.9005 for TBTS, and 2.444 for Tin  (Sn).   Therefore,



many concentrations listed herein are not those in the reference cited but are



concentrations adjusted to TBT.  A comprehension of the "Guidelines for



Deriving Numerical National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of



Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses" (Stephan et al. 1985), hereinafter referred



to as the Guidelines, and the response to public comment (U.S.  EPA 1985a)  is



necessary to understand the following text, tables, and calculations.  Results



of such intermediate calculations as recalculated LCSOs and Species Mean Acute



Values are given to four significant figures to prevent roundoff error in



subsequent calculations, not to reflect the precision of the value.  The



Guidelines require that all available pertinent laboratory and field



information be used to derive a criterion consistent with sound scientific



evidence.  The saltwater criterion for TBT follows this requirement by using



data from chronic exposures of copepods and molluscs rather than Final Acute



Values and Acute-Chronic Ratios to derive the Final Chronic Value.  The



Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) data base of



information from the pesticide industry was searched and some useful



information was located for deriving the criteria.  The latest comprehensive



literature search for information for this document was conducted in January



1997 for fresh- and saltwater organisms.  Some more recent data have been

-------
included in the document.








Acute Toxicitv to Aquatic Animals



      Data that may be used, according to the Guidelines, in the derivation



of Final Acute Values for TBT are presented in Table 1.  Acute values are



available for thirteen freshwater species representing twelve genera.  For



freshwater Species Mean Acute Values, 23% were <2.0 ug/L, 38% were <4.0 ug/L,



69% were <8.0 ug/L, and 92% were <12.73 ug/L.  A freshwater clam, Elliptio



complanatus,  had an LC50 of 24,600 U9/L.  The relatively low sensitivity of



the freshwater clam to TBT is surprising due to the mollusicidal qualities of



TBT.  The organism likely closes itself to the environment,  minimizing



chemical intake, and is able to temporarily tolerate high concentrations of



TBT.



      The most  sensitive freshwater  organisms tested are from the phylum



Coelenterata (Table 3).  Three species of hydras were tested and have Species



Mean Acute Values  (SMAVs) ranging from 1.14 to 1.80 U9/L.  Other invertebrate



species tested in flow-through measured tests include an amphipod,  Gammarus



pseudolimnaeus,  and an annelid, Lumbriculus variegatus, and in a static



measured test,  larvae of a mosquito, Culex sp  (Brooke et al. 1986).  The 96-hr



LCSOs and SMAVs are 3.7, 5.4 and 10.2 ug/L, respectively.  Six tests were



conducted with the cladoceran,  Daphnia magna,.  The 48-hr EC50 value of 66.3



ug/L (Foster 1981) was considerably less sensitive than those from the other



tests which ranged from 1.58 U9/L (LeBlanc 1976)  to 18 U9/L (Crisinel et al.



1994).   The SMAV for D. magna is 4.3 U9/L because,  according to the



Guidelines, when test results are available from flow-through and



concentration measured tests, these have precedence over other types of acute



tests.   The freshwater clam, Elliptio camplanatus,  had an unusually high LC50



value of 24,600 ug/L-



      All the vertebrate species tested are  fish.  The most sensitive species



is the fathead minnow,  Pimephales promelas, which has a SMAV of 2.6 U9/L from



a single 96-hr flow-through measured test  (Brooke et al.  1986) .   Rainbow



trout,  Oncorhynchus mykiss, were tested by four groups with good agreement

-------
between them.  The 96-hr LCSOs ranged from 3.45 to 7.1 ug/L with a SMAV of



4.571 ug/L for the three tests (Brooke et al.  1986; Martin et al.  1989; ABC



Laboratories, Inc. 1990a),  which were conducted using flow-through conditions



and measured concentrations.  Juvenile catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, were



exposed to TBT in a flow-through and measured concentration test and resulted



in a 96-hr LC50 of 5.5 ug/L which is in good agreement with the other tested



freshwater fish species.  Bluegill,  Lepomis macrochirus, were tested by three



groups.  The value of 227.4 ug/L (Foster 1981)  appears high compared to those



of 7.2 ug/L  (Buccafusco 1976b) and 8.3 ug/L (ABC Laboratories, Inc. 1990b).



Only the flow-through measured test (ABC Laboratories, Inc. 1990b) can be



used, according to the Guidelines,  to calculate the SMAV of 8.3 ug/L.



      Freshwater Genus mean Acute Values  (GMAVs) are available for twelve



genera which vary by more than 21,000 times from the least sensitive to the



most sensitive.  Removing the least sensitive genera,  Elliptio, the remainder



differ from one another by a maximum factor of 11.2 times.  Based upon the



twelve available GMAVs the Final Acute Value (FAV)  for freshwater organisms is



0.9177 ug/L.  The FAV is lower than the lowest freshwater SMAV of 1.14 ug/L.



The freshwater Criterion Maximum Concentration is 0.4589 U9/L which is



calculated by dividing the FAV by two.



       Tests of  the  acute  toxicity  of TBT  to resident North American



saltwater species that are useful for deriving water quality criteria



concentrations have been performed with 26 species of invertebrates and seven



species of fish  (Table 1).    The range of acute toxicity to saltwater animals



is a factor of about 1,176.  Acute values range from 0.24 ug/L for juveniles



of the copepod, Acatia tonsa  (Kusk and Petersen 1997)  to 282.2 ug/L for adult



Pacific oysters,  Crassostrea gigas  (Thain 1983).  The 96-hr LCSOs for six



saltwater fish species range from 1.460 U9/L for juvenile Chinook salmon,



Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Short and Thrower 1986b)  to 25.9 ug/L for subadult



sheepshead minnows, Cyprinodon variegatus  (Bushong et al. 1988).



       Larval  bivalve molluscs and  juvenile crustaceans  appear to be much



more sensitive than adults during acute exposures.   The 96-hr LC50 for larval



Pacific oysters,  Crassostrea gigas,  was 1.557 ug/L, whereas the value for

-------
adults was 282.2 ug/L (Thain 1983).  The 96-hr LCSOs for larval and adult blue



mussels, Mytilus edulis, were 2.238 and 36.98 ug/L, respectively  (Thain 1983).



The 96-hr LC50 of 0.01466 ug/L reported by Becerra-Huencho (1984)  for post



larvae of the hard clam, M. mercenaria, was not used because results of other



studies with embryos, larvae, and post larvae of the hard clam where acutely



lethal concentrations range from 0.6 to 4.0 ug/L (Tables 1 and 6)  cast doubt



on this LC50 value. Juveniles of the crustaceans Acanthomysis sculpta and



Metamysidopsis elongata were slightly more sensitive to TBT than adults



(Davidson et al. 1986a,1986b; Valkirs et al.  1985;  Salazar and Salazar 1989).



Four genera of amphipods were tested and sensitivity to TBT ranged from 1.3 to



22.8 ug/L.  As with bivalve molluscs and other crustaceans, one genus



(Gammarus) demonstrated greater sensitivity to TBT at the younger life-stage



(Bushong et al. 1988).



        Genus Mean  Acute Values  for  30  saltwater genera  range  from 0.61 ug/L



for Acanthomysis to 204.4 ug/L for Ostrea  (Table 3).  Genus Mean Acute Values



for the 12 most sensitive genera differ by a factor of less than four.



Included within these genera are four species of molluscs, eight species of



crustaceans, and one species of fish.  The saltwater Final Acute Value (FAV)



for TBT was calculated to be 0.7673 ug/L (Table 3), which is greater than the



lowest saltwater Species Mean Acute Value of 0.61 ug/L.  The saltwater



Criterion Maximum Concentation is 0.3836 ug/L and is calculated by dividing



the FAV by two.



Chronic Toxicitv to Aquatic Animals



        The  available  data  that  are  usable, according to the Guidelines,



concerning the chronic toxicity of TBT are presented in Table 2.  Brooke et



al.  (1986) conducted a 21-day life-cycle test with a freshwater cladoceran and



reported that the survival of adult D. magna was 40% at a TBT concentration of



0.5 ug/L, and 100% at 0.2 ug/L.  The mean number of young per adult per



reproductive day was reduced 30% by 0.2 ug/L, and was reduced only 6% by 0.1



ug/L.   The chronic limits are 0.1 and 0.2 ug/L based upon reproductive effects



on adult daphnids.  The chronic value for D. magna  is 0.1414 ug/L  (geometric



mean of the chronic limits), and the acute-chronic ratio of 30.41 is

-------
calculated using the acute value of 4.3 ug/L from the same study.



        Daphnia  magna were  exposed  in  a  second  21-day life-cycle  test  to  TBT



(ABC Laboratories, Inc. 1990d).   Exposure concentrations ranged from 0.12 to



1.27 ug/L as TBT.  Survival of adults was significantly reduced  (45%)  from the



controls at >.0.34 ug/L but not at 0.19 ug/L.  Mean number of young per adult



per reproductive day was significantly reduced at the same concentrations



affecting survival. The chronic limits are 0.19 ug/L where no effects were



seen and 0.34 ug/L where survival and reproduction were reduced.   The Chronic



Value is 0.2542 ug/L and the Acute-Chronic Ratio is 44.06 when calculated from



the acute value of 11.2 ug/L from the same test.  The Acute-Chronic Ratio for



D. rnagna is 36.60 which is the geometric mean of the two available Acute-



Chronic ratios  (30.41 and 44.06)  for this species.



        In  an  early life-stage test  (32-day  duration)  with  the  fathead minnow,



Pimephales promelas, all fish exposed to the highest exposure concentration of



2.20 ug/L died during the test (Brooke et al.  1986).   Survival was not reduced



at 0.92 ug/L or any of the lower TBT concentrations.   The mean weight of the



surviving fish was reduced 4% at 0.08 ug/L,  9% at 0.15 ug/L, 26% at 0.45 ug/L,



and 48% at 0.92 ug/L when compared to the control fish.  Mean length of fry at



the end of the test was significantly (p«€.05) reduced at concentrations >.0.45



ug/L.  The mean biomass at the end of the test was higher at the two lowest



TBT concentrations  (0.08 and 0.15 ug/L)  than in the controls, but was reduced



by 13 and 52% at TBT concentrations of 0.45 and 0.92 ug/L,  respectively.



Because the reductions in weight of individual fish were small at the two



lowest concentrations  (0.08 and 0.15 ug/L)  and the mean biomass increased at



these same concentrations,  the chronic limits are 0.15 and 0.45 ug/L based



upon growth (length and weight).   Thus the chronic value is 0.2598 ug/L and



the acute-chronic ratio is 10.01 calculated using the acute value of 2.6 ug/L



from the same study.



        A partial  life  cycle  test  (began with egg  capsules  and  ended before



egg capsules were produced by the F1 generation)  was  conducted with the



stenoglossan snail Nucella lapillus  (Harding et al.  1996) .  The study was



conducted for one year with observations of egg capsule production, survival,
                                      10

-------
and growth. The study by Harding et al.  (1996)  was a continuation of a study



by Bailey et al.  (1991)  during which they exposed eggs and juvenile snails for



one year to TBT concentrations similar to those used by Bailey et al.  (1991).



The study by Harding et al.  (1996)  began with egg capsules produced by adults



at the end of the study by Bailey et al.  (1991) .   Negative effects due to TBT



were only observed in egg capsule production from the adults of the previous



study.  Females that had not been exposed for one year to TBT produced 14.42



egg capsules per female.  Females that had been exposed to <0.0027, 0.0077,



0.0334, and 0.1246 ugTBT/L for one year in the previous study  (Bailey et al.



1991), produced 135.6, 104.6,  44.8, and 23.4% as many egg capsules as the



controls for the respective TBT concentrations.  The chronic value is based



upon reproductive effects and is the geometric mean of the lowest observed



effect concentration  (LOEC)  of 0.0334 ug/L and the no observed effect



concentration  (NOEC)  of 0.0077 ug/L which is 0.0153 ug/L.  Survival and growth



were not affected at any TBT tested concentration.  An acute-chronic ratio of



4,752 can be calculated using the acute value from this test of 72.7 ug/L.



The acute-chronic ratio for N. lapillus is about 108 times higher than the



next lower acute-chronic ratio for D. magna  (36.60).  It is not used to



calculate a final acute-chronic ratio because it is more than ten times higher



than any other ratio.



        Two partial life-cycle  toxicity tests were  conducted using  the



copepod, Eurytemora affinis (Hall et al.  1987, 1988a).  Tests began with egg-



carrying females and lasted 13 days.  In the first test, mean brood size was



reduced from 15.2 neonates/female in the control to 0.2 neonates/female in



0.479 ug/L after three days.  Percentage survival of neonates was 79% less



than control survival in the lowest tested TBT concentration (0.088 ug/L), and



0% in 0.479 ug/L. The chronic value is <0.088 ug/L in this test.



        In  the  second  copepod  test,  percentage  survival  of neonates was



significantly reduced (73% less than control survival)  in 0.224 ug/L;  brood



size was unaffected in any tested concentration  (0.018-0.224 ug/L).  No



statistically significant effects were detected in concentrations '€.094 ug/L.



The chronic value in this test is 0.145  ug/L. It is calculated as the
                                      11

-------
geometric mean of the NOEC (0.094 ug/L)and the LOEC  (0.224 ug/L).   The acute-



chronic ratio is 15.17 when the acute value of 2.2 ug/L from this test is



used.



        Life-cycle toxicity tests were  conducted  with the  saltwater mysid,



Acanthomysis sculpta  (Davidson et al. 1986a, 1986b).   The effects of TBT on



survival, growth, and reproduction of A. sculpta were determined in five



separate tests lasting from 28 to 63 days.   The tests separately examined



effects of TBT on survival (1 test), growth (3 tests) and reproduction (1



test) instead of the approach of examining all endpoints in one life-cycle



test.  All tests began with newly released juveniles  and lasted through



maturation and spawning; therefore,  they are treated as one life-cycle test.



The number of juveniles released per female at a TBT concentration of 0.19



ug/L was 50% of the number released in the control treatment, whereas the



number released at the next lower TBT concentration  (0.09 ug/L) was not



significantly different from the control treatment.  Reductions in juveniles



released resulted from deaths of embryos within brood pouches of individual



females and not from reduced fecundity.  Numbers of  females releasing viable



juveniles was reduced in 0.19 and 0.33 ug/L.  At concentrations of 0.38 ug/L



and above, survival and weight of female mysids were  reduced; all mysids in



0.48 ug/L died.  The chronic value  (0.1308 ug/L)  is  the geometric mean of 0.09



ug/L and 0.19 ug/L and is based upon reproductive effects.  The acute-chronic



ratio is 4.664 when an acute value of 0.61 ug/L reported by Valkirs et al.



(1985)  is used (Table 2).  The acute and chronic tests were conducted in the



same laboratory.



        The  Final Acute-Chronic Ratio of  12.69  was  calculated as the geometric



mean of the acute-chronic ratios of 36.60 for  D. magna, 10.01  for £. promelas,



4.664 for A. sculpta and 15.17 for E_. af finis.  Division of the freshwater and



saltwater Final Acute Values by 12.69 results  in Final Chronic Values for



freshwater of 0.0723 ug/L and for saltwater of 0.0605 ug/L (Table 3).   Both of



these Chronic Values are below the experimentally determined chronic values



from life-cycle or early life-stage tests (0.1414 ug/L for D.  magna and  0.1308



ug/L for A. sculpta) .  The close agreement between the saltwater Final Chronic
                                      12

-------
Value and the freshwater Final Chronic Value suggests that salinity has little



if any affect on the toxicity of TBT.








Toxicitv to Aquatic Plants



       The  various  plant  species  tested  are  highly  variable  in  sensitivity  to



TBT.  Twenty-one species of algae and diatoms were tested in fresh and salt



water.  The saltwater species are more sensitive to TBT than the freshwater



species for which data are available.  No explanation is apparent.



       Blanck et al.  (1984)  reported the concentrations of TBT  that prevented



growth of thirteen  freshwater algal species  (Table 4).   These concentrations



ranged from 56.1 to 1,782 ug/L, but most were between 100 and 250 ug/L.



Fargasova and Kizlink (1996), Huang et al. (1993), and Miana et al.  (1993)



measured severe reduction in growth of several green alga species at TBT



concentrations ranging from 1 to 12.4 ug/L.  Several green alga species appear



to be as sensitive  to TBT as many animal species  (compare Table 4 with Table




1) .



       Toxicity tests on  TBT have  been conducted  with  five species of



saltwater phytoplankton including the diatoms, Skeletonema costatum, Nitzshia



sp., flagellate green alga, Dunaliella tertiolecta, D. salina,  and D.  viridis.



The 14-day ECSO's (reduction in growth)   for  S_. costatum of >0.12 but <0.24



ug/L in one test and 0.06 ug/L in a second test (EG&G Bionomics 1981c)  were



the lowest values reported for algal species.  Thain (1983)  reported that



measured concentrations from 0.97 to 17  ug/L were algistatic to the same



species in five-day exposures.  The results  for algal toxicity tests with the



same species varied between laboratories by more than an order of magnitude.



A diatom, Nitzschia sp., and two flagellate green alga of the genus Dunaliella



sp.  were less sensitive to TBT than Skeletonema costatum, but they were more



sensitive than most species of freshwater algae.  No data are available on the



effects of TBT on fresh or saltwater vascular plants.



       A Final Plant Value,  as defined in the  Guidelines, cannot  be obtained



because no test in which the concentrations of TBT were measured and the



endpoint was biologically important has  been conducted with an important
                                      13

-------
aquatic plant species.  The available data do indicate that freshwater and



saltwater plants will be protected by TBT concentrations that adequately



protect freshwater and saltwater animals.








Bioaccumulation



       Bioaccumulation of  TBT has been measured  in  one  species of  freshwater



mollusc and four species of freshwater fish  (Table 5).   Adults of the zebra



mussel, Dreissena polvmorpha,  were placed in cages at a marina and at an



uncontaminated site in a lake  for 105 days (Becker-van Slooten and Tarradellas



1994).   Subsamples of the organisms were periodically monitored for TBT tissue



concentrations.  They reached  steady-state concentrations after 35 days.  The



BCF/BAF was 17,483 when adjusted for wet weight and lipid normalized to 1% for



TBT at  an average water exposure concentration of 0.0703 ug/L.  Growth of the



TBT-exposed organisms may have been slightly reduced.  Martin et al.  (1989)



determined the whole body bioconcentration factor (BCF)  for rainbow trout,



Oncorhyncus mykiss to be 406 after a 64-day exposure to 0.513 ug TBT/L.



Equilibrium of the TBT concentration was achieved in the fish in 24 to 48 hrs.



In a separate exposure to 1.026 ugTBT/L,  rainbow trout organs were assayed for



TBT content after a 15-day exposure.  The BCFs ranged from 312 for muscle to



5,419 for peritoneal fat.  TBT was more highly concentrated than the



metabolites of di- and monobutyltin or tin.   Carp, Cyprinus carpio, and guppy,



Poecilia reticulatus, demonstrated plateau BCF's in 14 days.  BCFs were 501.2



and 460,  respectively.  Goldfish, Carassius auratus, reached a much higher BCF



(1,976) in the whole body than the other fish species tested.



       The extent  to  which TBT  is accumulated by saltwater  animals from the



field or from laboratory tests lasting 28 days or more has been investigated



with three species of bivalve  molluscs,  two species of snails, and a fish



(Table  5).  Thain and Waldock  (1985) reported a BCF of 6,833 for the soft



parts of blue mussel spat exposed to 0.24 ug/L for 45 days.  In other



laboratory exposures of blue mussels, Salazar and Salazar (1987)  observed BCFs



of 10,400 to 37,500 after 56 days of exposure.  BAFs from field deployments of



mussels were similar to BCFs from laboratory studies; 11,000 to 25,000
                                      14

-------
(Salazar and Salazar 1990a) and 5,000 to 60,000  (Salazar and Salazar 1991).



In a study by Bryan et al.  (1987a), laboratory BCFs for the snail Nucella



lapillus (11,000 to 38,000) also were similar to field BAFs (17,000).  Year-



long laboratory studies by Bailey et al.  (1991) and Harding et al.   (1996)



produced similar BAFs in the snail N. lapillus ranging from 6,172 to 21,964.



In these tests, TBT concentrations ranged from 0.00257 to 0.125 ug/L, but



there was no increase in BAFs with increased water concentration of TBT.



        The  soft parts of the  Pacific oyster,  Crassostrea  gigas,  exposed to



TBT for 56 days contained 11,400 times the exposure concentration of 0.146



ug/L (Waldock and Thain 1983).  A BCF of 6,047 was observed for the soft parts



of the Pacific oyster exposed to 0.1460 ug/L for 21 days  (Waldock et al.



1983).   The lowest steady-state BCF reported for a bivalve was 192.3 for the



soft parts of the European flat oyster, Ostrea edulis, exposed to a TBT



concentration of 2.62 ug/L for 45 days (Thain and Waldock 1985; Thain 1986).



Other tests with the same species  (Table 5)  resulted in BCFs ranging from 397



to 1,167.  One fish species,  Poecilia reticulatus, was exposed in salt water



to 0.28 ug/L for 14 days and a plateau BCF of 240 was demonstrated  (Tsuda et



al.  1990b).  The BCF agrees reasonably well with the freshwater BCF  (460) with



the same species.



        In  a  field  study conducted  in the Icelandic harbor of  Reykjavik  with



the blue mussel, M. edulis, and the Atlantic dogwhelk, N. lapillus,  seasonal



fluctuations were seen in body burdens of TBT and DBT (Skarphedinsdottir et



al.  1996).   They did not report the water concentrations for TBT, and



speculated that because shipping did not vary seasonally,  the fluctuations  in



body burdens were due to seasonal feeding and resting activities.  They



demonstrated that body burdens of TBT and DBT were highest at high latitudes



during late summer or early autumn.



        No U.S.  FDA action  level or other maximum acceptable concentration  in



tissue, as defined in the Guidelines, is available for TBT,  and,  therefore, no



Final Residue Value can be calculated.








Other Data
                                      15

-------
        Some data  (Table  6) were  located  on  the  lethal  and  sublethal  effects



of TBT on aquatic species that were insufficient to meet the criteria for



inclusion in the tables for acute toxicity,  chronic toxicity, plant toxicity,



or bioconcentration in this document.  These data are potentially useful and



sometimes support data in other tables.  Sometimes the data are unique and



useful to evaluate TBT affects on aquatic organisms.



        Several  studies report  the  effects of TBT  on natural  groups of



organisms in laboratory microcosms.  In most of these studies, the effects of



TBT administered to the water were rapid.  Two microcosm studies were



conducted with freshwater organisms  (Delupis and Miniero, 1989; Miniero and



Delupis, 1991)  in which single dose effects were measured on natural



assemblages of organisms.  In both studies,  the effects were immediate.  D.



rnagna disappeared soon after an 80 ug/L dose of TBT, ostracods increased, and



algal species increased immediately then gradually disappeared during the 55-



day study. In the second  study  (Miniero and Delupis,  1991), metabolism was



monitored by measuring oxygen consumption and again the effects were rapid.



Doses of TBT (4.7 and 14.9 ug/L)  were administered once and metabolism was



reduced at 2.5 days and returned to normal in 14.1 days in the lower exposure.



In the higher exposure, metabolism was reduced in one day and returned to



normal in 16 days.  Kelly et al.  (1990a)  observed a similar response in a



seagrass bed at 22.21 ug/L of TBT.   The primary herbivor, Cymadusa compta,



declined and the sea grass increased in biomass.  Saltwater microbial



populations were exposed for one hour to TBT concentrations of 4.454 and 89.07



ug/L then incubated for 10 days  (Jonas et al.  1990).  At the lower



concentration,  metabolism of nutrient substrates was reduced and at the higher



concentration,  50 percent mortality of microbes occurred.



        Several  fresh  and  saltwater algal  species  were  exposed  to  TBT for



various time intervals and several endpoints determined.  Toxicity (EC50) in



freshwater species ranged from 5 ug/L for a natural assemblage to 20 ug/L for



the green alga Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Wong et al. 1982). Several salt water



alga, a green alga, Dunaliella tertiolecta; the diatoms, Minutocellus



polymorphus, Nitzshia sp., Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Skeletonema costatum.
                                      16

-------
and Thailassiosira pseudonana; the dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium splendens, the



microalga, Pavlova lutheri and the macroalga, Fucus vesiculosus were tested



for growth endpoints. The 72-hr ECSOs based on population growth ranged from



approximately 0.3 to <0.5 ug/L (Table 6).   Lethal concentrations were



generally more than an order of magnitude greater than ECSOs and ranged from



10.24 to 13.82 ug/L.  Identical tests conducted with tributyltin acetate,



tributyltin chloride, tributyltin fluoride, and tributyltin oxide exposures



with S. costatum resulted in ECSOs from 0.2346 to 0.4693 ug/L and LCSOs from



10.24 to 13.82 ug/L  (Walsh et al.  1985).



        The  freshwater  invertebrates,  a  rotifer  (Brachionus  calyciflorus)  and



a coelentrate (Hydra sp.), showed widely differing sensitivites to TBT.  Hydra



sp. were affected at 0.5 ug/L resulting in deformed tentacles, but the rotifer



did not show an effect on hatching success until the exposure concentration



reached 72 iag/L.  The cladoceran,  D. magna, has 24-hr ECSOs ranging from 3



(Polster and Halacha 1972) to 13.6 ug/L (Vighi and Calamari 1985).  When the



endpoint of altered phototaxis was examined in a longer-term exposure of 8



days, a much lower effect concentration of 0.45 U9/L was measured (Meador



1986) .



        Saltwater  invertebrates  (exclusive  of  molluscs)  had  reduced  survival



at concentrations as low as 0.500 ug/L for the polychaete worm, Neanthes



arenaceodentata in a 10 week exposure to TBT  (Moore et al.  1991)  and 0.003



ug/L in a copepod, Acartia tonsa,  in a eight-day exposure.   Other



invertebrates were more hardy including an amphipod, Orchestia traskiana, that



had an LC80 and an LC90 of 9.7 ug/L for nine day exposures  to TBTO and TBTF,



respectively.  Larvae of the mud crab, Rhithropanopeus harrisii, tolerated



high concentrations of TBT with one test resulting in an LC50 of 33.6 ug/L for



a 40 day exposure (Laughlin and French 1989) .



        A  number of  studies  showed that  TBT exposure resulted  in developmental



problems for non-mollusc invertebrates.  For example,  the copepod, A. tonsa,



had slower rate of development from nauplii to copepodid stage at 0.003 ug/L



(Kusk and Petersen 1997); the grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio, had retarded



telson regeneration at 0.1 ug/L (Khan et al.  1993); the mud crab,  R. harrisii,
                                      17

-------
had reduced developmental rate at 14.60 ug/L (Laughlin et al.  1983); retarded



limb regeneration in the fiddler crab, Uca pugilator, at 0.5 ug/L  (Weis et al.



1987a);  and retarded arm regeneration in the brittle star,  Brevoortia



tyrannus,  at •€.! ug/L  (Walsh et al.  1986a).  Lapota et al.  (1993) reported



reduced shell growth in the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis, at 0.050 ug/L and no



reduction of shell development at 0.006 ug/L in a 33-d study.   The test had



exposure solutions renewed every third or fourth day during which time TBT



concentrations declined 33 to 90%.



       Vertebrates  are  as  sensitive  to  TBT as  invertebrates when  the



exposures are of sufficient duration.  Rainbow trout, 0. mykiss,  exposed  in



short-term exposures of 24 to 48 hr have LC50 and EC50 values from 18.9 to



30.8 ug/L (Table 6).  When the exposure is increased to 110  days  (Seinen et



al.  1981), the LC100 decreased to 4.46 ug/L and a 20% reduction in growth was



seen at 0.18 ug/L.  De Vries et al.  (1991)  measured a similar response in



rainbow trout growth in another 110 day exposure.  They demonstrated decreased



survival and growth at 0.200 ug/L but not at 0.040 ug/L.  Triebskorn et al.



(1994)  found reduced growth and behavior changes in the fish at 21 days when



exposed to 0.5 ug/L.  Hall et al. (1988b)  observed reduced growth in the



inland silverside, Menidia beryllina, at 0.093 ug/L in a 28 day exposure.  The



frog,  Rana temporaria, has a LC50 of 28.2 ug/L for a 5-day exposure to TBT.



       An attempt was made  to measure the  bioconcentration of TBT with the



green alga,  Ankistrodesmus falcatus  (Maguire et al. 1984) .  The algae are able



to degrade TBT to its di- and monobutyl forms.   As a result,  the



concentrations of TBT steadily declined during the 28-day study.  During the



first seven days of exposure, the concentrations declined from 20 to 5.2 ug/L



and the calculated BCF was 300  (Table 6).   After 28 days of  exposure,  the TBT



concentration had declined to 1.5 ug/L and the calculated BCF was 467.



Several studies reported BCFs for fish but failed to demonstrate plateau



concentrations in the organism.   In these studies, rainbow trout BCFs ranged



from 990 (Triebskorn et al. 1994)  to 3,833 (Schwaiger et al.  1992).  Goldfish



achieved a BCF of 1,230  (Tsuda et al. 1988b)  in a 14-day exposure and carp



achieved a BCF of 295 in the muscle tissue in 7 days (Tsuda  et al. 1987) .
                                      18

-------
       TBT  has  been  shown  to  produce  the  superimposition  of  male  sexual



characteristics on female neogastropod  (stenoglossan) snails  (Smith 1981b,



Gibbs and Bryan 1987) and one freshwater gastropod  (Prosobranchia),  Marisa



cornuarietis  (Schulte-Oehlmann et al.  1995).  This phenomenon, termed



"imposex," can result in females with a penis, a duct leading to the vas



deferens, and a convolution of the normally straight oviduct  (Smith 1981a).



Other anatomical changes associated with imposex are detailed in Gibbs et al.



(1988)  and Gibbs and Bryan  (1987).   Severity of imposex is quantified using



relative penis size  (RPSI;  ratio of female to male penis volume3 x 100)  and



the six developmental stages of the vas deferens sequence index (VDSI) (Bryan



et al.  1986; Gibbs et al.  1987).  TBT has been shown to impact populations of



the Atlantic dogwhinkle (dogwhelk),  Nucella lapillus, which  has direct



development.  In neoglossian snails with indirect development (planktonic



larval  stages), the impacts of TBT are less certain because  recruitment from



distant stocks of organisms can occur.  Natural pseudohemaphroditism in



neoglossans occurs (Salazar and Champ 1988) and may be caused by other



organotin compounds  (Bryan et al. 1988a).  However, increased global incidence



and severity of imposex has been associated with areas of high boating



activity and low to moderate concentrations (low parts per trillion) of TBT in



water,  sediment or snails and other biota  (Alvarez and Ellis 1990; Bailey and



Davies  1988a, 1988b;  Bryan et al. 1986, 1987a; Davies et al. 1987, Durchon



1982; Ellis and Pottisina 1990;  Gibbs and Bryan 1986, 1987;  Gibbs et al.  1987;



Langston et al. 1990; Short et al.  1989; Smith 1981a, 1981b; Spence et al.



1990a).  Imposex has been observed (12% of the females)  in common whelk,



Buccinum undatum, in the North Sea as far as 110 nautical miles from land (Ide



et al.  1997).  The sample from this site averaged 1.4 ugTBT/kg of wet weight



soft tissues.  Other samples of organisms collected  nearer  to shore in



various places in the North Sea generally had higher TBT concentrations.



       Although imposex has been observed  in  45  species of  snails worldwide



(Ellis  and Pattisima 1990,  Jenner 1979), definitive laboratory and field



studies implicating TBT as the cause have focused on seven North American or



cosmopolitan species; the Atlantic dogwhinkle (N. lapillus),  file dogwhinkle
                                      19

-------
(N. lima),  eastern mud snail  [Ilyanassa  (Nassarius) obsoleta], a  snail  (Hinia



reticulta),  whelks (Thais orbita and T. clavigera), and the  European sting



winkle (Ocenebra erinacea).   Imposex has been associated with reduced



reproductive potential and altered density and population structure in field



populations of N. lapillus  (Harding et al.  1997; Spence et al. 1990a).  This



is related to blockage of the oviduct by the vas deferens, hence, prevention



of release of egg capsules,  sterilization of the female or change into an



apparently fuctional male (Bryan et al. 1986; Gibbs et al. 1987,1988; Gibbs



and Bryan 1986,1987).   TBT may reduce populations of N. lima  because snails



were absent from marinas in Auke Bay, AK.  At intermediate distances from



marinas,  about 25 were caught per hour of sampling and 250 per hour were



caught at sites distant from marinas (Short et al. 1989).  Snails from



intermediate sites had blocked oviducts.  Reduced proportions of  female I_.



obsoleta in Sarah Creek, VA also suggests population impacts  (Bryan et al.



1989a).   However, other causes may explain this as oviducts were  not blocked



and indirect development  (plantonic larvae) facilitating recruitment from



other areas may limit impacts.



       Several  field  studies  have  used  transplantations of  snails between



sites or snails painted with TBT paints to investigate the role of TBT or



proximity to marinas in the development of imposex without defining actual



exposure concentrations of TBT.  Short et al. (1989)  painted  N.  lima with TBT-



based paint, copper paints or unpainted controls.  For 21 females painted with



TBT paint,  seven developed penises within one month,  whereas, penises were



absent from 35 females from other treatments.  Smith (1981a) transplanted I_.



obsoleta between marinas and "clean" locations and found that incidence of



imposex was unchanged after 19 weeks in snails kept at clean locations or



marinas,  increased in snails transplanted from clean sites to marinas and



decreased somewhat in transplants from marinas to clean sites.  Snails exposed



in the laboratory to TBT-based paints in two separate experiments developed



imposex within one month with maximum impact within 6 to 12 months  (Smith



1981a).   Snails painted with non-TBT paints were unaffected.



       Concentration-response  data  demonstrate  a  similarity in the  response
                                      20

-------
of snails to TBT in controlled laboratory and field studies  (Text Table 1).



Eastern mud snails, I_. obsoleta, collected from the York River, VA near Sarah



Creek had no incidence of imposex  (Bryan et al. 1989a) and contained no
                                      21

-------
Text Table 1.  Summary of Available Laboratory and Field Studies  relating the  Extent  of Imposex
   of Female Snails,  Measured by Relative Penis Size (Volume3 Female Penis/Male Penis  = RPSI)
            and  the Vas  Deferens Sequence Index (VDSI),  as a Function of Tributyltin
                             Concentration  in Water and Dry  Tissue
                           TBT Concentration
Imposex


Spec i es

Eastern mud
sna i I ,
I I yanassa
obso I eta
Sna i I ,
H i n i a
ret i cu I ata
Whelk,
Thais orbita












Experi mental
Desiqn Water
uq/L
Field-York 0.0016
River, UK 0.01-
-Sarah Creek 0.023

Field-32 sites
N and NW
France
Field-Queens-
cl iff , UK
-Sandringham
-Brighton
-Portar I i ngton
-Morn i ngton
-Will iamstown
-Martha Point
-Ki rk Poi nt
-Cape Schanck
-Cape Schanck
-Barwon Heads
-Barwon Heads
Sna i I
Ti ssue
ug/g dry

<0.02
-0.1 -0.73


<1 .5
>1 .5

0.365*

0.224*
<0.002*
0.255*
0.045*
<0.002*
0.031*
0.011*
0.108*
0.095*
ND
0.071*


RPS I

-
-


<10
>30

19.55

12.16
7.34
3.67
2.55
1 .25
0.03
0.02
0
0
0
0


VDS I Comments

No i mposex
40-100% incidence


<3.0 Low i mposex incidence
>3.0 High i mposex incidence

100% incidence

100% incidence
100% incidence
92 . 3% i nci dence
100% incidence
100% incidence
25% incidence
35.7% incidence
0% i nc i dence
0% i nc i dence
0% i nc i dence
0% i nc i dence


Reference

Bryan et
a I . 1989a


Stroben et
a I . 1992a

Foale 1993













-------
Text Table 1.  Continued
                                     TBT Concentration
                                                               Imposex


Spec i es
Fi le
dogwh i nkle,
Nucel la I i ma

At I ant i c
dogwh i nkl e ,
(adu Its) ,
Nuce I I a
I api I I us


Exper i menta I
Des i qn
Field
-Auke Bay, AK
-Auke Bay, AK

Crook lets
Beach, UK
Laboratory : 2
year exposure



Water
ua/L

-
-

<0.0012
*
0.0036*
0.0083*
0.046*
0.26*
Sna i I
Ti ssue
uq/q dry

ND(<0.01)
0.03-0.16

0.14-0.25*

0.41*
0.74*
4.5*
8.5*


RPSI

0.0
14-34

2-65

10/14.2
43.8
56.4
63.3


VDS I Comments

0.0 0% incidence
2.2-4.3 100% incidence, reduced
abundance
2.9

3.7/3.7
3.9
4.0
4.1 Some steri I ization


Reference
Short et
a I . 1989


Bryan et
a I . 1987a




At I ant i c
dogwh i nkle,
NucelI a
Iapi  I I us

At I ant i c
dogwh i nkle,
(egg capsuI
to aduIt),
NucelI a
lap!  I I us
Laboratory,
spi res
pa i nted,  8 mo.


Crook Iets
Beach,  UK
Laboratory; 2
year exposure
<0.0012
0.0036
0.0093
0.049
0.24
0.19
0.58
1 .4
4.1
7.7
3.7
48.4
96.6
109
90.4
3.2
4.4
5.1
5.0
5.0
NormaI  femaIes
1/3 sterile,  160 capsules
AI I  steri le,  2 capsules
AI I  steri le,  0 capsules
AI I  steri le,  0 capsules
                            Bryan et
                            al . 1987b
Gibbs et
a I .  1988
                                                          23

-------
Text Table 1.  Continued
                                     TBT Concentration
Imposex

Exper i menta I
Species Desiqn Water
ua/L
European Field -19 sites
st i ng wi nkle, SW UK
Ocenebra
er i nacea
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Sna i I
Ti ssue
ug/g dry

0.185
<0.024
0.187
0.773
2.313
0.976
1 .057
1 .200
0.303
0.122
0.703
0.764
0.527
0.488
0.366
0.253
0.832
1 .010
0.510


RPSI

0
0
16.3
66.9
88.2
71 .1
53.4
84.2
7.4
7.0
36.0
52.7
46.5
42.3
0.04
33.9
58.0
79.3
59.7


VDS I Comments

No i mposex
No i mposex
Fema I es somewhat deformed
Females highly deformed
Females highly deformed
Females highly deformed
Females highly deformed
Females highly deformed
Fema I es somewhat deformed
Fema I es somewhat deformed
Females highly deformed
Females highly deformed
Females highly deformed
Females highly deformed
Fema I es somewhat deformed
Females highly deformed
Females highly deformed
Females highly deformed
Females highly deformed


Reference

Gibbs et
a I . 1990

















                                                         24

-------
At 1 ant i c
dogwh i nkl e ,
Nuce 1 1 a
1 api 1 1 us


Atlantic
dogwh inkle,
Nucel la
1 ap i 1 1 us


At 1 ant i c
dogwh inkle,
Nuce 1 la
1 ap i 1 1 us







At 1 ant i c
dogwh inkle,
Nuce 1 la
1 ap i 1 1 us



Field, S.W.
UK




Port Joke, UK
Crook 1 ets
Beach
Meadfoot
Renney Rocks
Batten Bay
Laboratory,
f 1 ow-through ,
one year








Laboratory,
f 1 ow-through ,
one year




0.002-
0.005*
• 6.010

• 6.017-
0.025
-
-

-
-
-
<0.0015
<0.0015

<0.0027

0.0077

0.0334

0.1246

<0.0015
<0.0015

0.0026
0.0074
0.0278
0.1077
<0.5*

0.5-1 .0*

<1 .0*

0.11*
0.21*

0.32*
0.43*
1 .54*
<0.10*
<0.10*

0.35*

1 .10*

3.05*

4.85*

<0.10
<0.10

<0.10
0.38
1 .12
3.32
• ?0-60

• 80-70

• 80-
100
0.0
2.0

30.6
38.9
22.9
0.10
0.04

5.33

20.84

42.08

63.40

0.07
0.04

64.04
88.57
90.96
117.70
• 2.0-
4.5
• 4.5-
6.0
• 4.5-
6.0
-
-

-
-
-
1 .06
0.70

3.15

3.97

4.33

4.25

1 .28
1 .14

3.98
4.96
5.00
4.99
Li m i ted ster i I i ty

• 50% steri le

A I I steri le

0% aborted egg capsules
0% aborted egg capsules

15% aborted egg capsules
38% aborted egg capsules
79% aborted egg capsules
Control, 37.1% i mposex
Solvent control , 24.3%
i mposex
5.3% reduced growth,
92 . 3% i mposex
11.0% reduced growth,
1 00% i mposex
17.1% reduced growth,
1 00% i mposex
18.9% reduced growth,
1 00% i mposex
Control, 42.2% i mposex
Solvent control, 37.5%
i mposex
98.9% i mposex
98.8% i mposex
1 00% i mposex
98 . 7% i mposex
Gibbs et
a I . 1987




Gibbs and
Bryan 1986;
Gibbs et
a I . 1987


Ba i I ey et
a I . 1991









Harding et
a I . 1996





Concentrations changed from ug Sn/L or ug  Sn/g  to ug  TBT/L  or  ug  TBT/g  dry weight.
 of wet we ight.
Dry weight estimated as
                                                   25

-------
detectable TBT, (<0.020 ug/g dry weight).  The average TBT concentrations of



York River water was 0.0016 ug/L.  In contrast, the average TBT concentrations



from four locations in Sarah Creek, VA were from 0.010 to 0.023 ug/L, snails



contained about 0.1 to 0.73 ug/g and there was a 40 to 100% incidence of



imposex.  Short et al.  (1989)  collected file dogwinkle snails, N. lima,  from



Auke Bay, AK and did not detect imposex or TBT in snails from sites far from



marinas.  Snails from locations near marinas all exhibited imposex and



contained 0.03 to 0.16 ug/g-  undersized egg capsules produced.



Concentrations of TBT in females were 0.19 ug/g in the field, 0.58 ug/g in the



0.0036 ug/L treatment and from 1.39 to 7.71 ug/g in >0.0093 ug/L.  Similar



concentrations of TBT (9.7 ug/g)  were found in snails which became sterile



after they were placed in the Dart Estuary, UK where TBT concentrations range



from 0.022 to 0.046 ug/L.  Gibbs and Bryan  (1986)  and Gibbs et al.



(1987)report imposex and reproductive failures at other marine sites where TBT



concentrations in female snails range from 0.32 to 1.54 ug/g-  In two studies



conducted concurrently with N. lapillus for one year each, imposex was



observed.  In the first study (Bailey et al. 1991), imposex  (••stage 2) was



observed in »92.3% of the females exposed to TBT at '6.0027 ug/L  at the end of



the study.  Harding et al.  (1996) exposed the offspring from parents exposed



the study by Bailey et al.  (1991) for one year to similar TBT concentrations.



In the second generation of TBT-treated snails, body burdens of TBT were lower



in the second generation at similar treatment concentrations used in the first



generation.  Also, the RPSI and VDSI values were higher for the same



treatments in the second generation.  Harding et al.  (1996) found «98.7%



imposex in females at TBT concentrations '€.0026 ug/L.



      In summary, in both field and laboratory studies, concentrations of TBT



in water of about 0.001 ug/L or less and in tissues of about 0.2 ug/g or less



appear to not cause imposex in N. lapillus.  Imposex begins to occur, and



cause some reproductive failure at about 0.004 ug/L with complete sterility








 occurring after chronic exposure of sensitive early life-stages at  >.0.009



ug/L and for less sensitive stages at 0.02 ug/L in some studies and greater
                                      26

-------
than 0.2 ug/L in others.  If N. lapillus or similarly sensitive species are



ecologically important at specific sites, TBT concentrations <.0.001 ug/L may



be required to limit development of imposex.



      Reproductive abnormalities have also been observed in the European flat



oyster  (Thain 1986).  After exposure for 75 days to a TBT concentration of



0.24 ug/L, a retardation in the sex change from male to female was observed



and larval production was completely inhibited.  A TBT concentration of 2.6



ug/L prevented development of gonads.   Salazar et  al.  (1987)  found no



negative effects in the same species at 0.157 ug/L, but Thain and Waldock



(1985)  and Thain (1986) measured reduced growth at 0.2392 ug/L and reduced



survival  (30%)  at 2.6 ug/L.



      Four species of  snails  (Hinia reticulata, Thais orbita, T.  clavigera,



Ocenebra erinacea)  not resident to North America also demonstrated imposex



effects when exposed to TBT in field studies  (Text Table 1).  The snail H.



reticulata is less sensitive to TBT than other snails having higher body



burdens (>1.5 ug/g)  before showing affects of imposex.   Thais sp. showed high



imposex incidence at tissue concentrations as low as 0.005 ug/g and no imposex



at other locations with tissue concentrations of 0.108  ug/g-  Ocenebra



erinacea did not show imposex in a field study at body burdens as high as



0.185 ug/g- but females were deformed at all higher concentrations.



      Survival and growth of several commercially  important saltwater bivalve



molluscs have been studied during acute and long-term exposures to TBT.



Mortality of larval blue mussels,  Mytilus edulis,  exposed to 0.0973 ug/L for



15 days was 51%; survivors were moribund and stunted (Beaumont and Budd 1984).



Similarly, Dixon and Prosser (1986)  observed 79% mortality of mussel larva



after 4 days exposure to 0.1 ug/L.  Growth of juvenile  blue mussels was



significantly reduced after 7 to 66 days at 0.31 to 0.3893 ug/L (Stromgren and



Bongard 1987; Valkirs et al. 1985).   Growth rates of mussels transplanted into



San Diego Harbor were impacted at sites where TBT concentrations exceeded 0.2



ug/L (Salazar and Salazar 1990b).   At locations where concentrations were less



than 0.1 ug/L,  the presence of optimum environmental conditions for growth



appear to limit or mask the effects of TBT.  Less than  optimum conditions for
                                      27

-------
growth may permit the effect of TBT on growth to be expressed.  Salazar et al.



(1987) observed that 0.157 ug/L reduced growth of mussels after 56 days



exposure in the laboratory; a concentration within less than a factor of two



of that reducing growth in the field.  Similarly, Salazar and Salazar  (1987)



observed reduced growth of mussels exposed to 0.070 ug/L for 196 days in the



laboratory.  The 66-day LC50 for 2.5 to 4.1 cm blue mussels was 0.97 ug/L



(Valkirs et al.  1985,1987).  Alzieu et al.  (1980) reported 30% mortality and



abnormal shell thickening among Pacific oyster larvae exposed to 0.2 ug/L for



113 days.  Abnormal development was also observed in exposures of embryos for



24 hrs or less to TBT concentrations ^0.8604 ug/L  (Robert and His 1981).



Waldock and Thain  (1983) observed reduced growth and thickening of the upper



shell valve of Pacific oyster spat exposed to 0.1460 ug/L for 56 days.  Shell



thickening in Crassostrea gigas was associated with tissue concentrations of



>0.2 mg/kg (Davies et al.  1988).    Abnormal shell development was observed in



an exposure to 0.77 U9/L that began with embryos of the eastern oyster,



Crassostrea virginica, and lasted for 48 hours  (Roberts, 1987) .  Adult eastern



oysters were also sensitive to TBT with reductions in condition index after



exposure for 57 days to ^0.1 ug/L (Henderson 1986; Valkirs et al. 1985).



Salazar et al. (1987) found no effect on growth after 56 days exposure to



0.157 ug/L to the oysters C. virginica, Ostrea edulis and 0. lurida.



Condition of adult clams,  Macoma nasuta, and scallops, Hinnites multirugosus



were not affected after 110 days exposure to 0.204 ug/L (Salazar et al. 1987).



      Long-term exposures have been conducted with a number of saltwater



crustacean species.  Johansen and Mohlenberg (1987) exposed adult A.  tonsa for



five days to TBT and observed impaired  (25% reduction)  egg production on days



3, 4 and 5 in 0.1 ug/L.  Impaired egg production to a lessor amount was



observed on day 5 in 0.01 and 0.05 ug/L.  Davidson et al.  (1986a, 1986b) ,



Laughlin et al.  (1983,1984b), and Salazar and Salazar (1985a)  reported that



TBT acts slowly on crustaceans and that behavior might be affected several



days before mortality occurs.  Survival of larval amphipods, Gammarus



oceanicus, was significantly reduced after eight weeks of exposure to TBT



concentrations ^0.2816 ug/L  (Laughlin et al.  1984b).  Hall et al. (1988b)
                                      28

-------
observed no effect of 0.579 ug/L on Gammarus sp. after 24 days.  Developmental



rates and growth of larval mud crabs,  Rhithropanopeus harrisii, were reduced



by a 15-day exposure to >.14.60 ug/L.  R. harrisii might accumulate more TBT



via ingested food than directly from water  (Evans and Laughlin 1984).   TBTF,



TBTO, and TBTS were about equally toxic to amphipods and crabs (Laughlin et



al.  1982,1983,1984a) .   Laughlin and French  (1989) observed LC50 values for



larval developmental stages of 13 ug/L for crabs (R. Harrisii) from California



vs 33.6 ug/L for crabs from Florida.  Limb malformations and reduced burrowing



were observed in fiddler crabs exposed to 0.5 ug/L  (Weis and Kim 1988; Weis



and Perlmutter 1987).   Arm regeneration was reduced in brittle stars exposed



to 0.1 ug/L  (Walsh et al. 1986a) .  Exposure to  >.0.1 ug/L during settlement of



fouling organisms reduced number of species and species diversity of



communities  (Henderson 1986).   The hierarchy of sensitivities of phyla in this



test was similar to that of single species tests.



      Exposure of embryos of the California grunion, Leuresthes tenuis,  for



ten days to 74 ug/L caused a 50% reduction in hatching success (Newton et al.



1985).  At TBT concentrations between 0.14 and 1.72 ug/L,  growth,  hatching



success, and survival were significantly enhanced.   In contrast,  growth of



inland silverside larvae was reduced after 28 days exposure to 0.093 ug/L



(Hall et al.  1988b).  Juvenile Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus,



avoided a TBT concentration of 5.437 ug/L and juvenile striped bass,  Morone



saxatilis,
avoided 24.9 ug/L (Hall et al.  1984).  BCFs were 4,300 for liver, 1,300 for



brain, and 200 for muscle tissue of Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha,



exposed to 1,490 ug/L for 96 hours (Short and Thrower 1986a,1986c).



      TBT concentrations less than the Final Chronic Value of  0.0605 ug/L



from Table 3 have been shown to affect the growth of early life-stages of



commercially important bivalve molluscs and survival of ecologically important



copepods (Table 6; Text Table 2).   Survival of the copepod A.  tonsa was



significantly reduced in three tests in 0.029,  0.023 and 0.024 ug/L; 30, 27
                                      29

-------
and 51 percent of control survival, respectively  (Bushong et al. 1990).



Survival decreased with increase in exposure concentration but was not



significantly affected in the 0.012 ug/L exposure concentration.



      Laughlin et al.  (1987, 1988) observed a significant decrease in  growth



of hard clam  (Mercenaria mercinaria) larvae exposed for 14 days to >.0.01  ug/L



(Text Table 2).   Growth rate (increase in valve length) was 75% of controls in



0.01 ug/L, 63% in 0.025 ug/L, 59% in 0.05 ug/L,  45% in 0.1 ug/L, 29% in 0.25



ug/L and 2.2% in 0.5 ug/L.  A five-day exposure followed by nine days  in TBT-



free water produced similar responses and little evidence of recovery.



      Pacific oyster  (Crassostrea gigas) spat exhibited shell  thickening  in



0.01 and 0.05 ug/L and reduced valve lengths in >.0.02  ug/L  (Lawler and Aldrich
1987; Text Table 2).   Increase in valve length was 101% of control lengths in



0.01 ug/L, 72% in 0.02 ug/L, 17% in 0.05 ug/L, 35% in 0.1 ug/L and 0% in 0.2



ug/L. Shell thickening was also observed in this species exposed to  >.0.02  ug/L



for 49 days (Thain et al.  1987).  They predicted from these data that



approximately 0.008 ug/L would be the maximum TBT concentration permitting
                                      30

-------
      Text  Table  2.   Summary of laboratory and field data on the effects of tributyltin on saltwater
               organisms at concentrations less than the Final  Chronic  Value  of  0.0605  ug/L
Species
Copepod  (nauplii-
adult),
Acartia tonsa
Hard clam  (4 hr
larvae -
metamorphosis),
Mercenaria
mercenaria
Experimental Design3
#1: F,M, 9-day
duration, •10
copepods/replicate,
4 replicates

#2: F,M, 6-day
duration,
• 10
copepods/replicate,
4 replicates

#3: F,M, 6-day
duration,
• 10
copepods/replicate,
4 replicates
R,M, 14-day
duration,
<150
larvae/replicate,
three replicates.
Measured = 80-100%
nominal at t = 0.4
hr;
20-30% at t = 24 hr
Concentration (uq/L)

      Measured

       control
        0.029
      0.05-0.5


       control
     0.007-0.012
        0.023
     0.048-0.102


       control
     0.006-0.010
        0.024
     0.051-0.115


       Nominal

       control

      0.01-0.5
Response
77% survival
23% survival13
0-2% survival13


71% survival
32% survival
19% survival13
0-14% survival13


59% survival
44-46% survival
30% survival13
2-35% survival13
100% Growth
(Valve length)
~75%-22% Growth
(Value length)13
Reference
Bushong et al.
1990
Laughlin et al
1987,1988
                                                    Nominal

-------
Pacific oyster
(spat),
Crassostrea gigas
R,N, 48-day
duration,
20 spat/treatment
        control
       0.01-0.05
        control
        0.01-0.2
        0.02-0.2
Shell thickening
100% Growth
(Valve length)
101% Growth (Value
length)
0-72% Growth (Value
length)13
Lawler and
Aldrich 1987
Text Table 2.
(Continued)

Species
Pacific oyster
(larvae
and spat),
Crassostrea gigas
Pacific oyster
(spat),
Crassostrea gigas
European oyster
(spat),
Ostrea edulis
Experimental Design3
                      Field
R,M/N, 21-day
duration,
75,000
larvae/replicate
R,M, 4 week
duration, 4
replicates, 30 spat
each
R,N, 20-day
duration,
50 spat/treatment
  Concentration (ug/L)

        Measured

      0.011-0.015
      -0.018-0.060



     0.24,0.29,0.69




        Measured

Control,0.005,0.010,0.0
        15,0.020



        Nominal

  control, 0.1, 0.05,
0.025


        Nominal

        control
        0.02-2.0
        control
        0.02-2.0
Response
No shell thickening
Shell thickening
and decreased meat
weight

Mortality 100% by
day 1
Growth decreased
79% in 0.005, 78%
in 0.010, 78% in
0.015, 84% in 0.020
                                                                     Mortality 100%  in
                                                                     0.05 and 1.0 ug/L;
                                                                     86% in 0.025 ug/L
100 length
76-81% lengthb
202% weight gain
151-50% weight gain
Reference
Springborn
Bionomics, Inc.
1984a
Nell and Chvojka
1992
Thain and
Waldock 1985

-------
 European oyster
 (adult),
 Ostrea edulis
R,N, 96-hr duration
                                                     Nominal

                                                      0.010
12% decrease of      Axiak et al.
height of digestive  1995a
cells
a   R =  renewal;  F =  flow-through,  N =  nominal,  M = measured.
b   Significantly different  from controls.
                                                     33

-------
culture of commercially acceptable adults.  Their field studies agreed with



laboratory results showing "acceptable" shell thickness where TBT



concentrations averaged 0.011 and 0.015 ug/L but not at higher concentrations.



Decreased weights of oyster meats were associated with locations where there



was shell thickening.  Survival of Crassostrea gigas larvae exposed for 21



days was reduced in 0.025 ug/L (Springborn Bionomics 1984a) .   No larvae



survived in >.0.050 ug/L.



      Growth of spat of the European oyster  (Ostrea edulis) was  reduced at



^0.02 ug/L (Thain and Waldock 1985; Text Table 2).   Spat exposed to TBT in



static tests were 82% of control lengths and 75% of control weights; extent of



impact increased with increased exposure.  In these static and flow-through



tests at exposures at about 0.02 ug/L,  weight gain was identical; i.e., 35% of



controls.  Growth of larger spat was marginally reduced by 0.2392 ug/L (Thain



1986; Thain and Waldock 1985) .



      The National Guidelines  (Stephan et al. 1985; pp 18  and 54) requires



that the criterion be lowered if sound scientific evidence indicates that



adverse effects might be expected on important species.  The above data



demonstrate that the reductions in growth occur in commercially or



ecologically important saltwater species at concentrations of TBT less than



the Final Chronic Value of 0.0605 ug/L derived using Final Acute Values and



Acute-Chronic Ratios from Table 3.  Therefore, EPA believes the Final Chronic



Value should be lowered to 0.001 ug/L to limit unacceptable impacts on A.



tonsa, Mercenaria mercenaria, Crassostrea gigas and Ostrea edulis observed at



0.02 ug/L.  At this criteria concentration,  imposex would not be expected in



Ilyanassa obsoleta, N. lapillus and similarly sensitive neogastropods;



populations of N. lapillus and similarly sensitive snails with direct



development would not be impacted and growth of M. mercenaria would not be



lowered.
Unused Data



      Some data concerning the effects of TBT on aquatic organisms were not
                                      34

-------
used because the tests were conducted with species that  are  not  resident  in



North America  (e.g., Ali et al. 1990; Allen et al. 1980; Axiak et  al.  1995b;



Batley et al.   1989,1992; Burridge et al. 1995; Carney  and Paulini 1964;



Danil'chenko 1982; Deschiens and Floch  1968; Deschiens et  al. 1964,1966a,



1966b; de Sousa and Paulini 1970; Pent  1991, 1992; Pent  and  Hunn 1993;  Pent



and Meier 1992; Frick and DeJimenez 1964; Girard  et al.  1996; Helmstetter and



Alden 1995; Hopf and Muller 1962; Jantataeme 1991; Karande and Ganti  1994;



Karande et al.  1993; Kubo et al. 1984;  Langston and Burt 1991; Lewis  et al.



1995; Nagabhushanam et al. 1991; Nagase et al. 1991;  Nias  et  al. 1993;



Nishuichi and  Yoshida 1972; Oehlmann et al. 1996; Reddy  et al. 1992;  Ringwood



1992; Ritchie  et al. 1964; Ruiz et al.  1994a, 1994b,  1995a,  1995b,  1995c,



1997; Sarojini et al. 1991, 1992; Scadding 1990;  Scammell  et  al. 1991;  Seiffer



and Schoof 1967; Shiff et al.  1975; Shimizu and Kimura 1992;  Smith et  al.



1979; Spence et al. 1990b; Stebbing et  al. 1990;  Sujatha et  al.  1996;  Tsuda  et



al.  1986, 1991a; Upatham 1975; Upatham  et al. 1980a,  1980b;  Vitturi et  al.



1992; Webbe and Sturrock 1964; Yamada et al. 1994; Yla-Mononen 1989).



      Alzieu (1986) , Cardarelli and Evans  (1980) , Cardwell and  Sheldon



(1986), Cardwell and Vogue (1986), Champ (1986),  Chau (1986), Eisler  (1989),



Envirosphere Company (1986),  Evans and  Leksono  (1995), Gibbs  and Bryan  (1987),



Gibbs et al. (1991a), Good et  al.  (1980), Guard et al.  (1982), Hall (1988,



1991), Hall and Pinkney  (1985), Hall et al. (1991), Hodge  et  al.  (1979),



International  Joint Commission  (1976),  Jensen  (1977), Kimbrough  (1976),



Kumpulainen and Koivistoinen  (1977), Lau (1991),  Laughlin  (1986),  Laughlin and



Linden (1985),  Laughlin et al.  (1984a), McCullough et al.  (1980),  Monaghan et



al.   (1980), North Carolina Department of Natural  Resources and Community



Development (1983,1985), Rexrode  (1987), Salazar  (1989), Seligman  et  al.



(1986) , Slesinger and Dressier  (1978) ,  Stebbing  (1985) ,  Thayer  (1984) ,



Thompson et al. (1985), U.S.  EPA  (1975,1985b), U.S. Navy (1984), von  Rumker  et



al.   (1974), Walsh (1986) and Zuckerman  et al.  (1978)  compiled data from other



sources.   Studies by Gibbs et  al.  (1987) were not used because data were  from



the first year of a two-year experiment reported  in Gibbs  et  al.  (1988).



      Results  were  not used when  the  test  procedures, test material,  or
                                       35

-------
results were not adequately described  (e.g., Bruno and Ellis 1988; Cardwell



and Stuart 1988; Chau et al.  1983; Danil'chenko and Buzinova 1982; de la Court



1980; Deschiens 1968; EG&G Bionomics 1981b; Filenko and Isakova 1980; Holwerda



and Herwig 1986; Kelly et al.  1990b; Kolosova et al.  1980; Laughlin 1983;



Mercier et al.  1994; Nosov and Kolosova 1979; Smith 1981c; Stroganov et al.



1972,1977).   Data from the life-cycle test with sheepshead minnows (Ward et



al.  1981)  were not used because ratios of measured and nominal concentrations



were inconsistent within and between tests suggesting problems in delivering



TBT, analytical chemistry or both.  Results of some laboratory tests were not



used because the tests were conducted in distilled or deionized water without



addition of appropriate salts (e.g., Gras and Rioux 1965; Kumar Das et al.



1984).   The concentration of dissolved oxygen was too low in tests reported by



EG&G Bionomics  (1981a).   Douglas et al. (1986) did not observe sufficient



mortalities to calculate a useful LC50.



      Data were not used when TBT was  a component of a formulation, mixture,



paint,  or sediment  (Boike and Rathburn 1973; Cardarelli 1978; Deschiens and



Floch 1970;  Goss et al.  1979;  Henderson and Salazar 1996; Mattiessen and Thain



1989; North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community Development



1983; Pope 1981; Quick and Cardarelli 1977; Salazar and Salazar 1985a, 1985b;



Santos  et al. 1977; Sherman 1983; Sherman and Hoang 1981; Sherman and Jackson



1981; Walker 1977; Weisfeld 1970), unless data were available to show that the



toxicity was the same as for TBT alone.  Data were not used when the organisms



were exposed to TBT by injection or gavage  (e.g., Pent and Stegeman 1991,



1993; Horiguchi et al. 1997;  Rice et al.  1995; Rice and Weeks 1990; Rouleau et



al.  1995).  Caricchia et al.  (1991), Salazar and Chadwick (1991), and Steinert



and Pickwell (1993), did not  identify the organism exposed to TBT.  Some



studies did not report toxic  effects of TBT  (e.g., Balls 1987; Gibbs 1993;



Meador  et al. 1984; Page 1995;  Salazar 1986; Salazar and Champ 1988).



      Data were not used when the test organisms were infested with tapeworms



(e.g.,  Hnath 1970).  Mottley (1978)  and Mottley and Griffiths (1977)  conducted



tests with a mutant form of an alga.  Results of tests in which enzymes,



excised or homogenized tissue,  or cell cultures were exposed to the test
                                      36

-------
material were not used  (e.g., Avery et al. 1993; Blair et al. 1982;



Bruschweiler et al.  1996; Falcioni et al. 1996; Pent and Bucheli 1994; Pent



and Stegeman 1991; Fisher et al.  1990; Josephson et al. 1989; Joshi and Gupta



1990; Pickwell and Steinert 1988; Reader et al. 1994,  1996; Rice and Weeks



1991; Virkki and Nikinmaa 1993; Wishkovsky et al. 1989; Zucker et al. 1992).



Tests conducted with too few test organisms were not used  (e.g., EG&G



Bionomics 1976; Good et al. 1979).  High control mortalities occurred in tests



reported by Rhea et al.  (1995), Salazar and Salazar  (1989) and Valkirs et al.



(1985).   Some data were not used because of problems with the concentration of



the test material (e.g., Springborn Bionomics 1984b; Stephenson et al. 1986;



Ward et  al.  1981) or low survival in the exposure organisms  (Chagot et al.



1990; Pent and Looser 1995).  BCFs were not used when  the concentration of TBT



in the test solution was not measured (Davies et al. 1986; Laughlin et al.



1986b;  Paul and Davies 1986) or were highly variable (Becker et al. 1992;



Laughlin and French 1988).  Reports of the concentrations in wild aquatic



animals  were not used if concentrations in water were  unavailable or
excessively variable  (e.g., Curtis and Barse 1990; Davies et al. 1987, 1988;



Davies and McKie 1987; Gibbs et al. 1991b; Hall 1988; Han and Weber 1988;



Kannan et al.  1996; Oehlmann et al. 1991; Stab et al. 1995; Thrower and Short



1991; Wade et al.  1988; Zuolian and Jensen 1989).








Summary



      Freshwater Acute Toxicity.   The  acute  toxicity values  for twelve



freshwater animal  species range from 1.14 ug/L for a hydra, Hydra  oligactis,
                                      37

-------
to 12.73 ug/L for the lake trout, Salvelinus naymavcush.  A thirteenth



species, a clam  (Elliptio complanatus), had an exceptionally high toxicity



value of 24,600 ug/L.  There was no apparent trend in sensitivities with



taxonomy; fish were nearly as sensitive as the most sensitive invertebrates



and more sensitive than others.  When the much less sensitive clam was not



considered,  remaining species sensitivities varied by a maximum of 11.2 times.



Plants were about as sensitive as animals to TBT.



      Freshwater Chronic Toxicity.  Three chronic  toxicity tests have been



conducted with freshwater animals.  Reproduction of D. magna was reduced by



0.2 ug/L, but not by 0.1 ug/L, and the Acute-Chronic Ratio is 30.41.  In



another test with D. magna reproduction and survival was reduced at 0.34 ug/L



but not at 0.19,  and the Acute-Chronic Ratio is 44.06.  The species-mean



Acute-Chronic Ratio for D. magna is 36.60, which is the geometric mean of the



two available Acute-Chronic Ratios (30.41 and 44.06)  for this species. Weight



of fathead minnows  (£. promelas) was reduced by 0.45 ug/L, but not by 0.15



ug/L, and the Acute-Chronic Ratio for this species was 10.01.



Bioconcentration of TBT was measured in zebra mussels, Dreissena polymorpha,



at 180,427 times the water concentration for the soft parts and in rainbow



trout, Oncorhyncus mykiss, at 406 times the water concentration for the whole



body.  Growth of thirteen species of freshwater algae was inhibited by



concentrations ranging from 56.1 to 1,782 ug/L.



       Saltwater Acute Toxicity.  Acute values for 33 species of saltwater



animals range from 0.61 ug/L for the mysid,  Acanthomysis sculpta, to 204.4



ug/L for adult European flat oysters,  Ostrea edulis.  Acute values for the



twelve most sensitive genera, including molluscs, crustaceans,  and fishes,



differ by less than a factor of four.   Larvae and juveniles appear to be more



acutely sensitive to TBT than adults.



      Saltwater  Chronic Toxicity.  A partial life-cycle test of one-year



duration was conducted with the snail, Nucella lapillus.  TBT reduced egg



capsule production.  The chronic value for this species was 0.0153 ug/L.  No



Acute-Chronic Ratio is available for this species.  A life-cycle test was



conducted with the copepod, Eurytemora affinis.  The chronic value is based
                                      38

-------
upon neonate survival and is 0.145 ug/L and the Acute/Chronic Ratio is 15.17.



A life-cycle toxicity test was conducted with the saltwater mysid,



Acanthomysis sculpta.  The chronic value for A. sculpta was 0.1308 ug/L based



on reduced reproduction and the Acute-Chronic Ratio was 4.664.



Bioconcentration factors for three species of bivalve molluscs range from



192.3 for soft parts of the European flat oyster to 11,400 for soft parts of



the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas.



      The Final Acute-Chronic Ratio of 12.69 was calculated as the geometric



mean of the Acute-Chronic Ratios of 36.60 for D. magna, 10.01 for £. promelas



(the two freshwater species), and 4.664 for A. sculpta and 15.17  for E_.



affinis (the two saltwater species).  Division of the freshwater and saltwater



Final Acute Values by 12.69 results in Final Chronic Values for freshwater of



0.0723 ug/L and for saltwater of 0.0605ug/L (Table 3). Both of these Chronic



Values are below the experimentally determined chronic values from life-cycle



or early life-stage tests (0.144 ug/L for D. magna and 0.1308 ug/L for A.



sculpta).



      Tributyltin  chronically affects certain saltwater copepods, gastropods,



and pelecypods at concentrations less than those predicted from "standard"



acute and chronic toxicity tests. The data show that reductions in growth



occur in commercially or ecologically important saltwater species at



concentrations of TBT less than the Final Chronic Value of 0.0605 ug/L derived



using Final Acute Values and Acute-Chronic Ratios from Table 3.   Survival of



the copepod A. tonsa was reduced in >.0.023 ug/L.  Growth of larvae or spat of



two species of oysters, Crassostrea gigas and Ostrea edulis was reduced in



about 0.02 ug/L; some C_. gigas larvae died in 0.025 ug/L.  Shell thickening



and reduced meat weights was observed in the C. gigas at 0.01 ug/L. Since



these levels were ones at which an effect was seen, a protective level for



these commercially important species is,  therefore, below 0.01 ug/L.



      Weight of Evidence Considerations.  The National Guidelines  (Stephan




et.al. 1985) require that the criterion be lowered if sound scientific




evidence indicates that adverse effects might be expected on  important




species. The above data demonstrate that the reductions in growth occur in
                                      39

-------
commercially or ecologically important saltwater species at concentrations of




TBT less than the final Chronic Value of 0.0605 ug/L derived using Final Acute




Values and Acute-Chronic Ratios from Table 3. Consistent with the Guidelines




directive to consider other relevant data when establishing criteria, EPA




believes the final Chronic Value should be lowered to 0.001 ug/L.




      Organometallics, particularly TBT and methyl mercury, have been shown




to impair the environment in multiple ways.




      A major concern with TBT is its ability to cause imposex  (the




superimposition of male anatomical characteristics on females)  in a variety of




species. Imposex has been observed in 45 species of snails worldwide, with




definitive laboratory and field studies implicating TBT as the cause in seven




North American or cosmopolitan species. As listed on Table 6,  adult




dogwhinkle, Nucella lapillus,  exposed to 0.05 ug/L TBT for 120 days showed 41%




of the organisms evidencing imposex. A six month study of the same species in




1992 with a concentration of 0.012 ug/L TBT also showed imposex in the




organisms. Other studies showed more than 92% of the female N.  Lapillus




exposed to TBT at 0.0027 ug/L exhibiting imposex; a followup study of




offspring showed almost 99% imposex in females at TBT concentrations of 0.0026




ug/L. Thus, numerous studies show imposex effects at doses well below the




calculated Final Chronic Value of 0.0605 ug/L. Many of the studies did not




produce a No Observed Adverse Effect Level because significant effects were




observed at the lowest concentration tested. The imposex effect may partially




explain the results of the studies in Tables 2 and 6 which show abnormal




growth patterns seen in other studies, including reduced growth, shell




thickening, and deformities. Imposex has also been linked with population




declines of snails in Canada (Tester et. al. 1996)  and oysters in the United




Kingdom (Dyrynda 1992 and others); these declines were reversed after




restrictions on TBT use went into effect.




      Another factor causing increased concern is the very high




bioaccumulation and bioconcentration factors associated with TBT.  For some
                                      40

-------
species, these factors reach into the thousands and tens of thousands. Data




are summarized in Table 5. They show BCF/BAF factors in the thousands for




rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss,  where TBT concentrations were




approximately 1.0 ug/L, and in goldfish, Carassius auratus,  where TBT




concentrations were approximately 0.1 ug/L. For saltwater species, field




studies of blue mussels, Mytilus edulis, at TBT concentrations of <0.1 ug/L,




showed BCF or BAF concentrations up to 60,000 (Salazar 1990 and 1991); the




American oyster,  Crassostrea virginica, exhibited factors of 15,000 in TBT




concentrations of <0.3 ug/L (Roberts et.al. 1996); and the Pacific oyster,




Crassostrea gigas,  had factors in the thousands when exposed to TBT in




concentrations of from 0.24 to 1.5 ug/L.




      The National Research Council  (NRC) conducted a four year study to




"...review critically the literature on hormonally-active agents in the




environment..." and "...identify the known and suspected toxicologic




mechanisms and impacts on fish, wildlife and humans...."  The report, entitled




Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment (National Research Council,  1999),




cited Bettin et.  al.   (1996) who reported that TBT "is thought to cause penis




growth in female molluscs by affecting steroid metabolism."[p. 102]




Immunologic effects have been observed in eastern oysters exposed to 0.03 ug/1




TBT which resulted in increased infection intensity and mortality when later




exposed to "Dermo", a protozoan pathogen. TBT is widely assumed to enhance the




impairment caused by Dermo.  However, data are currently insufficient to




determine which levels of Dermo and of TBT result in this heightened




interaction. Because levels of both Dermo and TBT are known to fluctuate




widely, it is prudent in the face of this uncertainty regarding impact on a




commercially important species to be conservative when establishing acceptable




levels.




      Conclusion. The development of a  chronic criterion for TBT in saltwater




considers four lines of evidence.  The first line of evidence is the




traditional endpoints of adverse effects on survival, growth, and reproduction
                                      41

-------
as demonstrated in numerous laboratory studies, recognizes that a number of




these studies have unbounded LOAELs  at or near 0.01 ug/L, and recognizes




further that only one study included levels below 0.01 ug/L and that study (on




Acartia tonsa at 0.003ug/L) showed inhibition of development.




      The next three lines of evidence are additional factors. These are: 1)




the production of imposex in field studies and the impact of imposex on




commercially significant species population levels,  2) the accumulation and/or




concentration of TBT in commercially and recreationally important freshwater




and saltwater species,  and 3)  the potential immunological effects of TBT, as




well as the finding that an important commercial organism (Eastern oyster)




already known to be vulnerable to the prevalent pathogen Dermo was made even




more vulnerable by prior exposure to TBT.




      Considering only the traditional endpoints of adverse effects on




survival, growth, and reproduction, and the criteria calculation procedures




described in the National Guidelines, the Final Chronic Value would be set at




0.06 ug/L. However, the Agency believes that this level would not be




adequately protective because of the additional factors cited above. These




types of effects are unusual and seem to be characteristic of TBT's ability to




produce toxicity through multiple mechanisms.




      The Agency is faced with the uncertainty created by the lack of




understanding of the relationship of these multiple factors. TBT does not lend




itself to the ordinary application of the existing criteria calculation




procedures described in the National Guidelines.  Therefore, considering the




low levels at which adverse effects have been observed, the lack of data




showing no effect below these levels, and the importance of the species




affected, a lower criterion must be established for TBT.




      The National Guidelines require that a criterion be consistent with




sound scientific evidence, based on all available pertinent laboratory and




field information.  The available information for TBT indicates that it causes




imposex to occur in saltwater snails at concentrations less than 0.003 ug/L.
                                      42

-------
Considering that less than 0.003 ug/L is an effect level and the weight of




evidence for multiple adverse effects, EPA believes that a Final Chronic Value




for TBT in saltwater of 0.001 ug/L is likely to be protective in most




situations.








National Criteria



      The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical



National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and



Their Uses"  indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species



is very sensitive,  freshwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be



affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of tributyltin



does not exceed 0.063 • g/L more than once every three years on the average and



if the one-hour average concentration does not exceed 0.46 •g/L more than once



every three years on the average.



      The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical



National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and



Their Uses"  indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species



is very sensitive,  saltwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be



affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of tributyltin



does not exceed 0.001 •g/L more than once every three years on the average and



if the one-hour average concentration does not exceed 0.38 •g/L more than once



every three years on the average.








Implementation



      As discussed in the Water Quality Standards Regulation  (U.S. EPA 1983)



and the Foreword of this document,  a water quality criterion for aquatic life



has regulatory impact only if it has been adopted in a state water quality



standard.   Such a standard specifies a criterion for a pollutant that is



consistent with a particular designated use.   With the concurrence of the U.S.



EPA, states designate one or more uses for each body of water or segment



thereof and adopt criteria that are consistent with the use(s)  (U.S. EPA



1987,1994).   Water quality criteria adopted in state water quality standards






                                      43

-------
could have the same numerical values as criteria developed under Section 304,



of the Clean Water Act.  However, in many situations states might want to



adjust water quality criteria developed under Section 304 to reflect local



environmental conditions and human exposure patterns.  Alternatively, states



may use different data and assumptions than EPA in deriving numeric criteria



that are scientifically defensible and protective of designated uses.  State



water quality standards include both numeric and narrative criteria.  A state



may adopt a numeric criterion within its water quality standards and apply it



either state-wide to all waters designated for the use the criterion is



designed to protect or to a specific site.  A state may use an indicator



parameter or the national criterion, supplemented with other relevant



information, to interpret its narrative criteria within its water quality



standards when developing NPDES effluent limitations under 40 CFR



122.44(d)(1)(vi).2



      Site-specific criteria may include not only site-specific criterion



concentrations (U.S. EPA 1994), but also site-specific, and possibly



pollutant-specific, durations of averaging periods and frequencies of allowed



excursions  (U.S.  EPA 1991).   The averaging periods of "one hour" and "four



days" were selected by the U.S. EPA on the basis of data concerning the speed



with which some aquatic species can react to increases in the concentrations



of some aquatic pollutants,  and "three years" is the Agency's best scientific



judgment of the average amount of time aquatic ecosystems should be provided



between excursions  (Stephan et al.  1985; U.S. EPA 1991).  However, various



species and ecosystems react and recover at greatly differing rates.



Therefore,  if adequate justification is provided, site-specific and/or



pollutant-specific concentrations,  durations, and frequencies may be higher or



lower than those given in national water quality criteria for aquatic life.



      Use of criteria, which have been adopted in state water quality



standards,  for developing water quality-based permit limits and for designing



waste treatment facilities requires selection of an appropriate wasteload



allocation model.  Although dynamic models are preferred for the application



of these criteria  (U.S. EPA 1991),  limited data or other considerations might
                                      44

-------
require the use of a steady-state model (U.S. EPA 1986).



      Guidance on mixing zones and the design of monitoring programs is also



available (U.S. EPA 1987,  1991) .
                                      45

-------
Table 1.  Acute Toxicity of Tributyltin to Aquatic Animals
Species
Hydra,
Hydra littoralis
Hydra,
Hydra littoralis
Hydra,
Hydra oliqactis
Hydra,
Chlorohydra viridissmia
Annelid (9 mg) ,
Lumbriculus varieqatus
Freshwater clam,
(113 mm TL; 153 g)
Elliptio complanatus
Cladoceran,
Daphnia maqna
Cladoceran (adult) ,
Daphnia maqna
Cladoceran (<24 hr) ,
Daphnia maqna
Cladoceran (<24 hr) ,
Daphnia maqna
Cladoceran (<24 hr) ,
Daphnia maqna
Cladoceran (<24 hr) ,
Daphnia maqna
Amphipod,
Gammarus pseudolimnaeus
Hardness
(mg/L as
Method8 Chemical13 CaCOJ
FRESHWATER SPECIES
S,M TBTO 100
(97.5%)
S,M TBTO 120
(97.5%)
S,M TBTO 100
(97.5%)
S,M TBTO 120
(97.5%)
F,M TBTO 51.8
(96%)
S,U TBTO
(95%)
S,U TBTO

S,U TBTC1

S,U TBTO
(95%)
R,M TBTO 172
(97.5%)
F,M TBTO 51.5
(96%)
S,U TBTC1 250

F,M TBTO 51.8
(96%)
LC50
or EC50
(uq/L)c

1. 11
1.30
1. 14
1. 80
5.4
24,600

66 .3

5.26

1.58

11.2

4.3

18

3.7
Species mean
Acute value
(uq/L)

1.201
1.14
1.80
5.4
24,600

-

-

_

-

4 .3

-

3 .7
                                                                       References
                                                                       TAI Environmental
                                                                       Sciences, Inc. 1989a

                                                                       TAI Environmental
                                                                       Sciences, Inc. 1989b

                                                                       TAI Environmental
                                                                       Sciences, Inc. 1989a

                                                                       TAI Environmental
                                                                       Sciences, Inc. 1989b

                                                                       Brooke et al. 1986
                                                                       Buccafusco 1976a
                                                                       Foster 1981
                                                                       Meador 1986
                                                                       LeBlanc 1976
                                                                       ABC Laboratories,
                                                                       Inc. 1990c

                                                                       Brooke et al. 1986
                                                                       Crisinel et al. 1994
                                                                       Brooke et al. 1986

-------
Mosquito  (larva),                S,M            TBTO        51.5           10.2               10.2          Brooke  et al.  1986
Culex sp.                                       (96%)

-------
Table 1.  (continued)
Species
Rainbow trout,
(45 mm TL; 0.68 g)
Oncorhynchus mykiss
Rainbow trout
(juvenile) ,
Oncorhynchus mykiss
Rainbow trout (1.47 g) ,
Oncorhynchus mykiss
Rainbow trout (1.4 g) ,
Oncorhynchus mykiss
Lake trout (5.94 g) ,
Salvelinus naymaycush
Fathead minnow
(juvenile) ,
Pimephales promelas
Channel catfish,
(65 mm TL; 1.9 g)
Ictalurus punctatus
Channel catfish
(juvenile) ,
Ictalurus punctatus
Bluegill,
Lepomis macrochirus
Bluegill,
(36 mm TL: 0.67 g) ,
Lepomis macrochirus
Bluegill (1.01 g) ,
Lepomis macrochirus
Hardness LC50
(mg/L as or EC50
Method3 Chemical13 CaCO,) C«t/L)c
S,U TBTO - 6.5
(95%)
F,M TBTO 50.6 3.9
(96%)
F,M TBTO 135 3.45
(97%)
F,M TBTO 44 7.1
(97.5%)
F,M TBTO 135 12.73
(97%)
F,M TBTO 51.5 2.6
(96%)
S,U TBTO - 11.4
(95%)
F,M TBTO 51.8 5.5
(96%)
S,U TBTO - 227.4
S,U TBTO - 7.2
(95%)
F,M TBTO 44 8.3
(97.5%)
Species Mean
Acute Value
(•ft(/L) References
Buccafusco et al.
1978
Brooke et al. 1986

Martin et al. 1989
4.571 ABC Laboratories,
Inc. 1990a
12.73 Martin et al. 1989
2.6 Brooke et al. 1986

Buccafusco 1976a
5.5 Brooke et al. 1986
Foster 1981
Buccafusco 1976b
8.3 ABC Laboratories,
Inc. 1990b
                                                       SALTWATER SPECIES

-------
                                                                                                        Walsh et al.  1986b
Lugworm (larva), S,U TBTO 28C «S-4
Arenicola cristata
Lugworm (larva), S,U TBTA 28 «5-10
Arenicola cristata
Table 1. (Continued)
LC50
Salinity or EC50
Species Method3 Chemical13 (q/kq) (uq/L) c
Polychaete (juvenile), S,U TBTO 33-34 6.812
Neanthes arenaceodentata
Polychaete (adult), S,U TBTO 33-34 21.418
Neanthes arenaceodentata
Polychaete (adult), R,M TBTC1 28.5 25
Armandia brevis (96%)
Blue mussel (larva), R, - TATO - 2.238
Mytilus edulis
Blue mussel (adult), R, - TBTO - 36.98e
Mytilus edulis
Blue mussel (adult), S,U TBTO 33-34 34 . 06e
Mytilus edulis
Pacific oyster (larva), R, - TBTO - 1.557
Crassostrea qiqas
Pacific oyster (adult), R, - TBTO - 282. 2e
Crassostrea qiqas
Eastern oyster (embryo), S,U TBTO 22 0.8759
Crassostrea virqinica
Eastern oyster (embryo), R,U TBTC1 18-22 1.30
Crassostrea virqinica
Eastern oyster (embryo), R,U TBTC1 18-22 0.71


• 5.03 Walsh et al .


Species Mean
Acute Value
(uq/L) Reference
Salazar and
1989
6.812 Salazar and
1989
25 Meador 1997

Thain 1983

Thain 1983

2 .238 Salazar and
1989
Thain 1983

1.557 Thain 1983



1986b





Salazar

Salazar







Salazar





EG&G Bionomics
1976a, 1977
Roberts 1987

Roberts 1987




Crassostrea virqinica

-------
Eastern oyster,
Crassostrea virqinica

European flat oyster
(adult),
Ostrea edulis

Atlantic dogwhinkle
(<24 hr-old),
Nucella lapillus
R,U


R, -



R,M
                                               TBTC1
TBTO
TBTO
                                                           18-22
            34-35
                                                                          3.96e
                          204.4
                           72 .7
                                                                                            0.9316
                                             204.4
                                             72.7
                                                                                                          Roberts 1987
                                                          Thain 1983
                                                          Harding et al.  1996
Table 1.  (Continued)
Species
Hard clam
(post larva) ,
Mercenaria mercenaria
Hard clam (embryo) ,
Mercenaria mercenaria
Hard clam (larva) ,
Mercenaria mercenaria
Copepod (juvenile) ,
Eurytemora af finis
Copepod (subadult) ,
Eurytemora affinis
Copepod (subadult) ,
Eurytemora affinis
Copepod (adult) ,
Acartia tonsa
Copepod (subadult) ,
Acartia tonsa
Copepod (10-12-d-old) ,
Acartia tonsa
Methoda
S,U
R,U
R,U

F,M
F,M
F,M
R,U
F,M
S,U
Salinity
Chemical" (q/kq)
TBTC1
TBTC1 18-22
TBTC1 18-22

TBTC1 10.6
TBT 10
TBT 10
TBTO
(95%)
TBT 10
TBTC1 18
(99.3%)
LC50
or EC50
0.014661
1. 13
1.65

2.2
2.5
1.4
0.6326
1.1
0.47
Species Mean
Acute Value
(uq/L) References
Becerra-Huencho 1
Roberts 1987
1.365 Roberts 1987

Hall et al. 1988a
Bushong et al .
1987;1988
1.975 Bushong et al .
1987;1988
U'ren 1983
1 . 1 Bushong et al .
1987;1988
Kusk and Petersen
1997

-------
Copepod (10-12-d-old) ,
Acartia tonsa
Copepod (adult) ,
Nitocra spinipes
Copepod (adult) ,
Nitocra spinipes
Mysid (juvenile) ,
Acanthomysis sculpta
Mysid (adult) ,
Acanthomysis sculpta
Mysid (juvenile),
Acanthomysis sculpta
Mysid (juvenile) ,
Metamysidopsis elonqata
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Mysid (subadult),
Metamysidopsis elonqata
Mysid (adult) ,
Metamysidopsis elonqata
Mysid (adult) ,
Metamysidopsis elonqata
Mysid (<1 day) ,
Mysidopsis bahia
Mysid (5 day) ,
Mysidopsis bahia
Mysid (10 day) ,
Mysidopsis bahia
Amphipod (subadult) ,
Gammarus sp .
Amphipod (adult) ,
Gammarus sp .
S,U TBTC1 28 0.24
(99.3%)
S,U TBTF 7 1.877
S,U TBTO 7 1.946
R,M 9 - 0.42
F,M 9 - 1.68e
F,M 9 - 0.61
S,U TBTO 33-34 <0.9732

LC50
Salinity or EC50
Method3 Chemical13 (q/kq) (uq/L) c
S,U TBTO 33-34 1.9468
S,U TBTO 33-34 2.433e
S,U TBTO 33-34 6.812e
F,M TBTC1 19-22 1.1
F,M TBTC1 19-22 2.0
F,M TBTC1 19-22 2.2
F,M TBT 10 1.3
F,M TBT 10 5.3e
Kusk and Petersen
1997
Linden et al. 1979
1.911 Linden et al. 1979
Davidson et al .
1986a, 1986b
Valkirs et al . 1985
0.61 Valkirs et al . 1985
Salazar and Salazar
1989

Species Mean
Acute Value
(uq/L) Reference
Salazar and Salazar
1989
Salazar and Salazar
1989
<0.9732 Salazar and Salazar
1989
Goodman et al . 1988
Goodman et al . 1988
1.692 Goodman et al . 1988
Bushong et al . 1988
1.3 Bushong et al . 1988

-------
Amphipod (adult), R,M
Orchestia traskiana
Amphipod (adults), R,M
Rhepoxynius abronius
Amphipod (3-5 mm; 2-5 R,M
mg) ,
Eohaustorius estuarius
Amphipod (adult) , R,M
Eohaustorius
Washington! anus
Grass shrimp (adult), F,U
Palaemonetes pugio
Grass shrimp (subadult) , F,M
Palaemonetes sp .
Grass shrimp (larvae), R,U
Palaemonetes sp .
Grass shrimp (adult), R,U
Palaemonetes sp .
Table 1. (Continued)
Species Methoda
American lobster R,U
(larva) ,
Homarus americanus
Shore crab (larva) , R, -
Carcinus maenas
Mud crab (larva), R,U
Rhi thropanopeus harrisii
Mud crab (larva), R,U
Rhi thropanopeus harrisii
Shore crab (larva), R,U
Hemigrapsus nudus
Amphioxus, F,U
TBTO 30 >14.60h
TBTC1 32.3 108
(96%)
TBTC1 28.8-29.5 10
(96%)
TBTC1 32.7 9
(96%)
TBTO - 20
TBT 10 >31
TBTO 20 4.07
TBTO 20 31.41e
LC50
Salinity or EC50
Chemical6 (g/kg) (ug/L) c
TBTO 32 1.74511
TBTO - 9.732
TBTS 15 >24.3h
TBTO 15 34.9011
TBTO 32 83.2811
TBTO - <10
>14.60 Laughlin et al . 1982
108 Meador 1997
10 Meador 1993; Meador
et al . 1993; Meador
1997
9 Meador 1997
20 Clark et al . 1987
>31 Bushong et al . 1988
Kahn et al . 1993
4.07 Kahn et al . 1993
Species Mean
Acute Value
(ug/L Reference
1.745 Laughlin and
1980
9.732 Thain 1983
Laughlin et
34.90 Laughlin et
83.28 Laughlin and
1980
<10 Clark et al .
French
al. 1983
al. 1983
French
1987
Branchiostoma caribaeum

-------
Chinook salmon
(juvenile),
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
S,M
                                               TBTO
                                                            28
                                                                         1.460
                                                                                            1.460
Short and Thrower
1986b;1987
Atlantic menhaden
(juvenile) ,
Brevoortia tyrannus
Atlantic menhaden
(juvenile) ,
Brevoortia tyrannus
Sheepshead minnow
(juvenile) ,
Cyprinodon varieqatus
Sheepshead minnow
(juvenile) ,
Cyprinodon varieqatus
Sheepshead minnow
(juvenile) ,
Cyprinodon varieqatus
Sheepshead minnow
(33-49 mm) ,
Cyprinodon varieqatus
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Sheepshead minnow
(juvenile) ,
Cyprinodon varieqatus
Sheepshead minnow
(subadult) ,
Cyprinodon varieqatus
Mummichog (adult) ,
Fundulus heteroclitus
Mumichog (juvenile) ,
F,M TBT 10 4.7 - Bushong et al .
1987;1988
F,M TBT 10 5.2 4.944 Bushong et al .
1987;1988
S,U TBTO 20 16.54 - EG&G Bionomics
S,U TBTO 20 16.54 - EG&G Bionomics
S,U TBTO 20 12.65 - EG&G Bionomics
F,M TBTO 28-32 2.31511 - EG&G Bionomics


LC50 Species Mean
Salinity or EC50 Acute Value
Method3 Chemical13 (q/kq) (uq/L) c (uq/L) Reference
F,M TBTO 15 12.31 - Walker 1989a
F,M TBT 10 25.9 9.037 Bushong et al .

S,U TBTO 25 23.36 - EG&G Bionomics
(95%)
F,M TBTO 2 17.2 - Pinkney et al .
1979
1979
1979
1981d



1988

1976a
1989
Fundulus heteroclitus

-------
Mummichog (larval),
Fundulus heteroclitus
F,M
                                                TBT
                                                            10
                                                                          23 .4
Bushong et al.  1988
Mummichog (subadult),
Fundulus heteroclitus
F,M
                                                TBT
                                                            10
                                                                                           21.34
Bushong et al.  1988
Inland silverside
(larva) ,
Menidia beryllina
Atlantic silverside,
Menidia menidia
Starry flounder
(
-------
                                Table 2.   Chronic Toxicity of Tributyltin to Aquatic Animals.

Species Testa

Cladoceran, LC
Daphnia maqna
Cladoceran, LC
Daphnia maqna
Fathead minnow, ELS
Pimephales promelas

Atlantic dogwhinkle, ELS
Nucella lapillus
Copepod, LC
Eurytemora af finis
Copepod, LC
Eurytemora af finis
Mysid, LC
Acanthomysis sculpta

Chemical13
TBTO
(96%)
TBTO
(100%)
TBTO
(96%)

TBTO
(97%)
TBTC1
TBTC1
d
Hardness Chronic
(mg/L as Limits Chronic Value
CaCO,) (uq/L) c (uq/L) References
FRESHWATER SPECIES
51.5 0.1-0.2 0.1414 Brooke et al . 1986

160-174 0.19-0.34 0.2542 ABC Laboratories, Inc.
1990d
51.5 0.15-0.45 0.2598 Brooke et al . 1986

SALTWATER SPECIES
34-35 0.0077- 0.0153 Harding et al . 1996
0. 0334£
10. 3e <0.088 <0.088 Hall et al. 1987;1988a
14. 6e 0.094-0.224 0.145 Hall et al. 1987;1988a
0.09-0.19 0.1308 Davidson et al.
1986a, 1986b
a  LC =  Life-cycle  or  partial  life-cycle;  ELS  =  early life-stage.
b  TBTO  =  tributyltin  oxide; TBTC1  =  tributyltin chloride.  Percent  purity is  given  in  parentheses  when  available.
c  Measured concentrations  of  the tributyltin  cation.
a  The test organisms  were  exposed  to leachate from panels  coated with antifouling  paint  containing  a tributyltin  polymer  and
cuprous  oxide.            Concentrations of TBT were measured and the authors provided data to demonstrate the similar
toxicity of a pure TBT compound and the TBT from        the paint formulation.
e  Salinity (g/kg).
£  TBT concentrations  are those  reported by Bailey et al.  (1991) .   See text for  explanation.

-------
Table 2.  (continued)
                                  Acute-Chronic Ratios
Hardness
(mg/L as
Species CaCO,) 	
Cladoceran, 51.5
Daphnia maqna
Cladoceran, 160-174
Daphnia maqna
Fathead minnow, 51.5
Pimephales promelas
Copepod,
Eurytemora affinis
Copepod,
Eurytemora affinis
Mysid,
Acanthomysis sculpta
Acute Value
(uq/L)
4.3
11.2
2.6
2.2
2.2
0.61a
Chronic Value
(uq/L)
0.1414
0.2542
0.2598
<0.088
0.145
0.1308
Ratio
30.41
44. 06
10. 01
>25.00
15. 17
4.664
Snail,
Nucella lapillus
                            34-35b
                                              72. 7
a  Reported by Valkirs et al.  (1985)
b  Salinity (g/kg).
                                                              0.0153
                                                                          4752

-------
                Table 3. Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic  Ratios
Rank3
 Genus  Mean
Acute Value
   (uq/L)
                                        Species
Species Mean
Acute  Value
  (uq/L)b
                                                                                                    Species Mean
                                                                                                    Acute-Chronic
                                                                                                        Ratioc
                                              FRESHWATER SPECIES
 12
 11
 10
                       24,600
                       12.73
                        10.2
                        5.5
                        5.4
                       4.571
                        4.3
                        3.7
                        1.80
                       1.170
                   Freshwater  clam,
                   Elliptio  camplanatus

                   Lake  trout,
                   Salvelinus  naymaycush

                   Mosquito,
                   Culex sp.

                   Bluegill,
                   Lepomis macrochirus

                   Channel catfish,
                   Ictalurus punctatus

                   Annelid,
                   Lumbriculus varieqatus

                   Rainbow trout,
                   Oncorhyncus mykiss

                   Cladoceran,
                   Daphnia maqna

                   Amphipod,
                   Gammarus  pseudolimnaeus

                   Fathead minnow,
                   Pimephales  promelas

                   Hydra,
                   Chlorohydra viridissmia

                   Hydra,
                   Hydra littoralis

                   Hydra,
                   Hydra oliqactis
   24,600
                                                                              12.73
                                                                              10.2
                                                                               5.5
                                                                               5.4
                                                                              4.571
                                                                               4.3
                                                                               3.7
                                                                              1.80
                                                                              1.201
                                                                              1.14
                                                                                                        36.60
                                                                                                        10.01

-------
Table 3.  (Continued)
       Rank3
 Genus  Mean
Acute Value
    (uq/L)
                                               Species
Species Mean
Acute  Value
  (uq/L)b
                                                                                                            Species  Mean
                                                                                                           Acute-Chronic
                                                                                                                Ratioc
                                                      SALTWATER SPECIES
         30
         29
         28
         27
         26
         25
         24
         23
         22
         21
         20
         19
         18
                              204.4
                                108
                               83.28
                               72 . 7
                              34.90
                                25
                              24.90
                              21.34
                              >14.60
                               10.1
                               9.732
                               1.534
                   European  flat  oyster,
                   Ostrea  edulis

                   Amphipod,
                   Rhepoxynius  abronius

                   Shore crab,
                   Hemiqrapsus  nudus

                   Atlantic  dogwhinkle,
                   Nucella lapillus

                   Mud  crab,
                   Rhithropanopeus harrisii

                   Polychaete,
                   Armandia  brevis

                   Grass shrimp,
                   Palaemonetes puqio

                   Grass shrimp,
                   Palaemonetes sp.

                   Mummichog,
                   Fundulus  heteroclitus

                   Amphipod,
                   Orchestia traskiana

                   Starry  flounder,
                   Platichthys  stellatus

                   Amphioxus
                   Branchiostoma  caribaeum

                   Shore crab,
                   Carcinus  maenas

                   Amphipod,
                   Eohaustorius estuarius
                                                                                     204.4
                                                                                      108
                                                                                     83.28
                                                                                      72 . 7
                                                                                     34.90
                                                                                       25
                                                                                       20
                                                                                     21.34
                                                                                     >14.60
                                                                                      10. 1
                                                                                     9.732
                                                                                      10. 1
                                                                                                                4752

-------
 Table 3.
(Continued)
                                          Amphipod,
                                          Eohaustorius
                                          washinqtonianus
   Rank3

    17


    16


    15
    14
    13
    12
    11
    10
 Genus  Mean
Acute Value
  (uq/L)
   6.812
                          5.167
                          •5.0
                          4.944
                          2.238
                          1.975
                          1.911
                          1.745
                          1.692
                          1.460
                          1.365
                           1.3
Species

Sheepshead minnow,
Cyprinodon varieqatus

Polychaete,
Neanthes arenacedentata

Inland silverside,
Menidia beryllina

Atlantic silverside,
Menidia menidia

Lugworm,
Arenicola cristata

Atlantic manhaden,
Brevoortia tyrannus

Blue mussel,
Mytilus edulis

Copepod,
Eurytemora affinis

Copepod,
Nitocra spinipes

American lobster,
Homarus americanus

Mysid,
Mysidopsis bahia

Chinook salmon,
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha

Hard clam,
Mercenaria mercenaria

Amphipod,
Gammarus sp.
Species Mean
Acute  Value
    (uq/L)b
                                                                                                       Species Mean
                                                                                                       Acute-Chronic
                                                                                                          Ratio"
                                                          6.812
                                                                                  3.0
                                                                                 • 5.0
                                                                                 4.944
                                                                                 2.238
                                                                                 1.975
                                                                                 1.911
                                                                                 1.745
                                                                                 1.692
                                                                                 1.460
                                                                                 1.365
                                                                                  1.3
                                                                                                           15.17

-------
       4                    1.204           Pacific oyster,                        1.557
                                            Crassostrea qiqas

                                            Eastern oyster,                       0.9316
                                            Crassostrea virqinica

       3                     1.1            Copepod,                                1.1
                                            Acartia tonsa

   Table  3.
  (Continued)


                          Genus  Mean                                           Species Mean              Species Mean
                         Acute Value                                           Acute  Value              Acute-Chronic
     Ranka                  (uq/L)          Species                                (uq/L)b                    Ratio0

       2                   <0.9732          Mysid,                               <0.9732a
                                            Metamysidopsis elonqata


       1                    0.61            Mysid,                                 0.61                      4.664
                                            Acanthomysis sculpta


Ranked from most resistant to most  sensitive based on Genus Mean Acute Value.  Inclusion of  "greater  than"  value does  not
necessarily imply a true ranking, but does allow use of all genera for which data  are available  so  that the Final Acute
Value is not unnecessarily lowered.
From Table 1.
From Table 2.
This was  used  as a  quantitative value,  not as  a "less  than" value  in the calculation  of the Final Acute Value.

-------
       Fresh Water

           Final Acute Value = 0.9177 • g/L

           Criterion Maximum Concentration = (0.9177 • g/L)/2 = 0.4589 • g/L

             Final Acute-Chronic Ratio =  12.69  (see  text)

           Final Chronic Value = (0.9177 «g/L)/12.69 = 0.0723 ug/L



       Salt Water

           Final Acute Value = 0.7673 ug/L

           Criterion Maximum Concentration = (0.7673 ug/L)/2 = 0.3836 ug/L

             Final Acute-Chronic Ratio =  12.69  (see  text)

           Final Chronic Value = (0.7673 ug/L)/12.69 = 0.0605 ug/L

            Final Chronic Value = 0.010 ug/L (lowered to protect growth of commercially  important molluscs  and  survival  of
the ecologically                                                      important copepod  Acartia  tonsa;  see  text)

-------
                                     Table 4.  Toxicity of Tributyltin to Aquatic Plants
Alga,
Bumilleriopsis
filiformis

Alga,
Klebsormidium marinum
Alga,
Monodus subterraneus
Alga,
Raphidonema lonqiseta
Alga,
Tribonema aequale
Blue-green alga,
Oscillatoria sp.
Blue-green alga,
Synechococcus
leopoliensis

Green alga,
Chlamydomonas dysosmas
Green alga,
Chlorella emersonii
                          Chemical3
                            TBTC1
TBTC1
                            TBTC1
                            TBTC1
                            TBTC1
                            TBTC1
                            TBTC1
TBTC1
                            TBTC1
Hardness
(mg/L as Duration
CaCO,) (days) Effect
FRESHWATER SPECIES
14 No growth
14 No growth
14 No growth
14 No growth
14 No growth
14 No growth
14 No growth
14 No growth
14 No growth
Concentration
(uq/L)b Reference
111.4 Blanck
Blanck
1984
222.8 Blanck
Blanck
1984
1,782.2 Blanck
Blanck
1984
56.1 Blanck
Blanck
1984
111.4 Blanck
Blanck
1984
222.8 Blanck
Blanck
1984
111.4 Blanck
Blanck
1984
111.4 Blanck
Blanck
1984
445.5 Blanck
Blanck
1984
1986;
et al
1986;
et al
1986;
et al
1986;
et al
1986;
et al
1986;
et al
1986;
et al
1986;
et al
1986;
et al

-------
Green alga,                 TBTC1
Kirchneriella contorta
Green alga,                 TBTC1
Monoraphidium pusilium
Green alga,                 TBTC1
Scenedesmus
obtusiusculus

Green alga,                 TBTC1
Scenedesmus
quadricauda

Green alga,                  TBTO
Scenedesmus
quadricauda

Table 4.  (Continued)
                                                            14
                                                            14
                                                            14
12
            No growth
            No growth
            No growth
            Reduced
            growth
             (87.6%)

            EC50
            chlorophyll
            production
                                                                                               111.4
                                                                                               111.4
                                                                                               445.5
5.0
            Blanck 1986;
            Blanck et al.
            1984

            Blanck 1986;
            Blanck et al.
            1984

            Blanck 1986;
            Blanck et al.
            1984

            Fargasova and
            Kizlink 1996
            Fargasova 1996
Hardness
(mg/L as
Species Chemical3 CaCO, ) 	
Green alga, TBTO 0.67
Scenedesmus
quadricauda


Green alga, TBT 72.7
Scenedesmus obliquus
Green alga, TBTC1
Selenastrum
capricornutum
Green alga, TBTC1
Selenastrum
capricornutum

Duration
(days) Effect
12 Reduced
growth
87.6%
95.9%
100%
4 EC50 (reduced
growth)
14 No growth
4 EC50


Concentration
(uq/L)b
1
10
100

3.4
111.4
12.4


Reference
Fargasova and
Kizlink 1996


Huang et al . 1993
Blanck 1986;
Blanck et al .
1984
Miana et al . 1993

                                                      SALTWATER SPECIES

-------
Diatom,
Skeletonema costatum
Diatom,
Skeletonema costatum

Diatom,
Skeletonema costatum
Diatom,
Nitzschia sp .
Flagellate alga,
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Mixed algae,
Dunaliella salina and
D. viridis
TBTO

TBTO 30C
(BioMet
Red)
TBTO 30C

TBTO

TBTO

TBT


5 Algistatic
Algicidal
14 EC50 (dry
cell weight)

14 EC50 (dry
cell weight)
8 EC50 (reduced
growth)
8 EC50 (reduced
growth)
4 EC50 (reduced
growth)

0.9732-17.52
>17.52
>0.1216; <0.2433


0.06228

1.19

4.53

0.68


Thain 1983

EG&G Bionomics
1981c

EG&G Bionomics
1981c
Delupis et al .
1987
Delupis et al .
1987
Huang et al . 1993


a  TBTC1  =  tributyltin chloride;  TBTO  =  tributyltin  oxide.   Percent purity  is given  in parentheses when available.
b  Concentration  of  the tributyltin  cation,  not  the  chemical.   If  the  concentrations were not measured and  the published
results were not reported      to be adjusted for purity,  the published results were multiplied by the  purity if it was
reported to be less than 95%.
c  Salinity (g/kg).

-------
                              Table  5.   Bioaccumulation of Tributyltin by Aquatic Organisms
                        Chemical3
Zebra mussel
(1.76±0.094 cm),
Dreissena
polymorpha

Rainbow trout  (13.8
9>,
Oncorhynchus mykiss

Rainbow trout  (32.7
9>,
Oncorhynchus mykiss
Carp  (9.5-11.5 cm;
20.0-27.5 g);
Cyprinus carpio

Carp  (8.5-9.5 cm;
16.5-22.1 g) ;
Cyprinus carpio
                           TBT
TBTO
(97%)
TBTO
(97%)
                           TBTO
TBTO
Hardness
(mg/L as Concentration Duration
(CaCo,) in Water (days) Tissue
FRESHWATER SPECIES
0.0703 105 Soft parts


135 0.513 64 Whole body

135 1.026 15 Liver
Gall
bladder/bil
e
Kidney
Carcass
Peritoneal
fat
Gill
Blood
Gut
Muscle
2.1 14 Muscle

34.5-39.0 1.8 (pH = 14 Whole body
6.0)
1.6 (pH =

BCF or
BAFC Reference

17,483d Becker-van
Slooten and
Tarradellas 1994
406 Martin et al .
1989
1, 179 Martin et al .
1989
331
2,242
1,345

5,419
1, 014
653
487
312

501.2 Tsuda et al.
1988a
• 1190 Tsuda et al.
•1523 1990a
• £250
                                                         6.8)
                                                      1.7  (pH
                                                         7.8)

-------
Goldfish  (3.5-4.0
cm; 1.6-2.9 g) ;
Carassius auratus

Guppy  (2.4-2.7 cm;
0.41-0.55 g);
Poecilia
reticulatus
                          TBTC1
 TBTO
 (95%)
                                          36
                                                         0.13
                              0.54
                                                                        28
                                              14
                                                      Whole body
                            Whole body
                                            1, 976
                                                                       460
Tsuda et al.
1991b
Tsuda et al.
1990b
Table 5.
(Continued)
Snail  (adults),
Littorina littorina

Atlantic dogwhinkle
(female),
Nucella lapillus

Atlantic dogwhinkle
(female),
Nucella lapillus

Atlantic dog
whinkle (18-22 mm),
Nucella lapillus

Atlantic dogwhinkle
(1 year-old),
Nucella lapillus
Atlantic dogwhinkle
(1 year-old),
Nucella lapillus
                        Chemical3
                          TBTC1
 TBT
Field
TBTC1
 TBTO
                           TBTO
             Salinity
               (q/kq)
                35
               34-35
                                         34-35
Concentration    Duration
   in  Water        (days)
    (uq/L)b

 SALTWATER SPECIES
                                                                                Tissue
                                                                                                BCF or
                                                                                                 BAFC
                                                                                                          Reference
0.488
0.976
0.0038 to
0.268
182
182
249 to 408

Soft parts
Soft parts
Soft parts

1,420
1, 020
11,000 to
38, 000
Bauer
1997
Bryan
1987a
et al

et al

0

0.

0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
. 070

0205

0027
0077
0334
1246
0026
0074
0278
1077
529 to 634

49

365
365
365
365
365
365
365
365
Soft

Soft

Soft
Soft
Soft
Soft
Soft
Soft
Soft
Soft
parts

parts

parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
17

30

18
21
16
7
<
10
8
6
, 000

, 000

, 727
, 964
, 756
,625
7782
, 121
, 088
, 172
Bryan et
1987a
Bryan et
1989b
al.

al.

Bailey et al .
1991


Harding
1996





et al




-------
Blue mussel (spat) ,
Mytilus edulis
Blue mussel Field
(adult) ,
Mytilus edulis
Blue mussel Field
(juvenile) ,
Mytilus edulis
Blue mussel,
Mytilus edulis

Blue mussel Field
(juvenile) ,
Mytilus edulis
Table 5 .
(Continued)
Species Chemical8

Blue mussel TBTC1
(3.0 - 3.5 cm) ,
Mytilus edulis
Pacific oyster, TBTO
Crassostrea qiqas
American Oyster (6-
9 cm length) ,
Crassostrea
virqinica
28.5-34.2 0.24 45 Soft parts
<0.1 60
<0.1 60
0.452 56 Soft parts
0.204
0.204
0.079
<0.105 84 Soft parts

Salinity Concentration Duration
(q/kq) in Water (days) Tissue
(uq/L)b
25.1-26.3 0.020 60 Muscle and
mantle
Muscle and
mantle
28-31.5 1.216 21 Soft parts
18±1 0.283 28 Soft parts
6 , 833£ Thain and
Waldock 1985;
Thain 1986
11,000 Salazar and
Salazar 1990a
25,000 Salazar and
Salazar 1990a
23,000 Salazar et al .
27,000 1987
10,400
37, 500
5,000- Salazar and
60,000 Salazar, 1991

BCF or
BAFC Reference

7,700 Guolan and Yong
1995
11, 000
1, 874£ Waldock et al .
1983
15,460 Roberts et al .
1996
Pacific oyster,
Crassostrea qiqas
                           TBTO
                                        28-31.5
                                                       0.1460
                                                                        21
Soft parts     6,047£
Waldock et al.
1983

-------
Pacific oyster,
Crassostrea qiqas

Pacific oyster,
Crassostrea qiqas
Pacific oyster,
Crassostrea qiqas
Pacific oyster
(spat) ,
Crassostrea qiqas
European flat
oyster,
Ostrea edulis
European flat
oyster,
Ostrea edulis
European flat
oyster,
Ostrea edulis
European flat
oyster,
Ostrea edulis

European flat
oyster,
Ostrea edulis
Guppy ( • • 2.4-2.7
cm; 0.41-0.55 g) ;
Poecilia
reticulatus
28.5-34.2 0.24


TBTO 29-32 1.557

TBTO 29-32 0.1460

TBTO - 0.29
0.92
2.83
TBTO 28-31.5 1.216


TBTO 28-34.2 0.24


TBTO 28-34.2 2.62


28.5-34.2 0.24


d
28.5-34.2 2.62


TBTC - 0.28
(95%)


45 Soft parts 7,292£ Thain and
Waldock 1985;
Thain 1986
56 Soft parts 2,300 Waldock and
Thain 1983
56 Soft parts 11,400 Waldock and
Thain 1983
30 Soft parts 2275 Osada et al.
1369 1993
621
21 Soft parts 960f Waldock et al .
1983

75 Soft parts 875£ Waldock et al .
1983

75 Soft parts 397f Thain 1986


45 Soft parts 1,167£ Thain and
Waldock 1985;
Thain 1986

45 Soft parts 192. 3£ Thain and
Waldock 1985;
Thain 1986
14 Whole body 240 Tsuda et al.
1990b


a TBTO =  tributyltin oxide;  Field =  field study.   Percent  purity is  given  in  parentheses  when  available.
b Measured concentration of  the  tributyltin  cation.
c Bioconcentration factors  (BCFs)  and bioaccumulation  factors  (BAFs)  are based on  measured concentrations  of  TBT  in  water
and tissue.
a BCF  normalized to 1%  lipid concentration and converted to  wet  weight  estimate based  upon 85% moisture.
e Test organisms were exposed to leachate from panels  coated with antifouling paint  containing tributyltin.
£ BCFs were calculated  based on  the  increase above the concentration of TBT in control organisms.

-------
                          Table  6.  Other Data on Effects of Tributyltin on Aquatic Organisms
                           Chemical8
Hardness
(mg/L as
 CaCO,)
                                                  Duration   Effect
Concentrati
    on        Reference
    (uq/L)b
Microcosm natural
assemblage
Microcosm natural
assemblage
                             TBTO
                             TBTO
           FRESHWATER  SPECIES

            55 days    Daphnia maqna
                       disappeared; Ostracoda
                       increased; algae
                       increased immediately
                       then gradually
                       disappeared

            24 days    Metabolism reduced (2.5
                       days)
                       Metabolism returned to
                       normal (14.1 days)

                       Metabolism reduced (1
                       day)
                       Metabolism returned to
                       normal (16 days)
                                                                                            80
                                                                                           4.7
                                                                                           14. 9
Alga,
Natural assemblage
Blue-green alga,
Anabaena flos- aquae
Green alga,
Ankistrodesmus falcatus

Green alga, TBTO
Ankistrodesmus falcatus (97%)

Green alga,
Scenedesmus quadricauda
4 hr
4 hr
4 hr
7 days
14 days
21 days
2 8 days
4 hr
EC50
(production)
EC50
(production)
EC50
(production)
(reproduction)
BCF = 300
BCF - 253
BCF =448
BCF = 467
EC50
(production)
5
13
20
5
5.2
4.7
2.1
1.5
16
              Delupis and
              Miniero 1989
              Miniero and
              Delupis 1991
                                                                                                     Wong et al. 1982


                                                                                                     Wong et al. 1982


                                                                                                     Wong et al. 1982
                                                                                                     Maguire et al.
                                                                                                     1984
                                                                                                     Wong et al. 1982

-------
Hydra,
Hydra sp.

Rotifer,
Brachionus calyciflorus

Asiatic clam  (larva),
Corbicula fluminea

Table 6.  (Continued)
Cladoceran,
Daphnia maqna

Cladoceran  (<24 hr),
Daphnia maqna

Cladoceran  (<24 hr),
Daphnia maqna
Cladoceran  (adult),
Daphnia maqna

Cladoceran  (14-d-old),
Daphnia maqna
Cladoceran  (<24-h old),
Daphnia maqna

Fairy shrimp  (cysts),
Streptocephalus texanus

Rainbow trout
(yearling),
Oncorhynchus mykiss

Rainbow trout,
Oncorhynchus mykiss
 TBTO        51.0
 (96%)

TBTC1
 TBTO
                                      Hardness
                                      (mg/L as
                           Chemical8     CaCCO
                             TBTO
 TBTC
 TBTO
                            TBTC1
TBTC1
                            TBTC1
TBTC1
 TBTO
 TBTO
             200
             200
             150
                                        312. I
             250
96 hr     EC50
          (clubbed tentacles)

24 hr     EC50 (hatching)
0 . 5       Brooke et al.
          1986
                       24 hr
                                                    24  hr
                       24 hr
                       7  days
                                                    48  hr
                       24 hr
                       24 hr
                       48 hr
                       24 hr
                                 EC50
                                                  Duration   Effect
                                                             LC50
                                 EC50
                                 (mobility)
                       24 hr     EC50
                                 (mobility)

                       8  days     Altered phototaxis
          Altered behavior
          Reproductive failure
          Digestive storage cells
          reduced

          EC50
          (mobility)

          EC50 (hatching)
                                 LC50
                                 EC50
                                 (rheotaxis)
                                                                72
                                                                         Crisinel et al.
                                                                         1994
                                                              1,990      Foster 1981
                                                           Concentrati
                                                                on       Reference
(uq/L)b
3

11.6
13 .6
0.45
1
1
5
9.8

15

25.2
18 .9
Polster and
Halacha 1972
Vighi and
Calamari 1985
Vighi and
Calamari 1985
Meador 1986
Bodar et al .
1990

Miana et al .
1993
Crisinel et al.
1994
Alabaster 1969

                                                  Chliamovitch and
                                                  Kuhn 1977

-------
Rainbow trout
(embryo, larva),
Oncorhynchus mykiss
Rainbow trout  (fry),
Oncorhynchus mykiss
Ra inbow t rout,
Oncorhynchus mykiss
                            TBTC1
                                        94-102
                            TBTC1
                             TBTO
                                        96-105
Table 6.   (Continued)
                           Chemical3
           Hardness
           (mg/L as
            CaCO3)
                       110 days   20% reduction in growth

                                  23% reduction in
                                  growth; 6.6% mortality

                                  100% mortality

                       110 days   NOEC  (mortality and
                                  growth)
                                  LOEC  (mortality and
                                  growth)

                       28 days    BCF = 3833  (whole body)
                                  BCF = 2850  (whole body)
                                  BCF = 2700  (whole body)
                                  BCF = 1850  (whole body)
                                  Cell necrosis within
                                  gill lamellae
                                                  Duration    Effect
                                                              Seinen et al.
                                                                   1981
0. 18


0. 89

4.46

0.040
0.200
                                                   0.6
                                                   1.0
                                                   2.0
                                                   4.0

                                                   4.0
                                               Concentrati
                                                   on        Reference
                                                   (uq/L)b
                                                             de Vries  et  al.
                                                             1991
           Schwaiger et al.
           1992
Rainbow trout,
Oncorhynchus mykiss
                             TBTO
Rainbow trout  (3 week)
Oncorhynchus mykiss
  TBTO
  (98%)
Goldfish  (2.8-3.5 cm;
0.9-1.7 g),
Carassius auratus
  TBTO
(reagent
 grade)
          28  days    BCF  =  3833  (whole  body)
                    BCF  =  2850  (whole  body)
                    BCF  =  2700  (whole  body)
                    BCF  =  1850  (whole  body)
                    Cell necrosis  within
                    gill lamellae

400       21  days    Reduced  growth
                    Reduced  avoidance
                    BCF  =540  (no  head;  no
                    plateau)

                    BCF  =  990  (no  head;  no
                    plateau

          14  days    BCF  =  1230  (no plateau)
                                                                                            4.0
                                                                                            0.5
                                                                                            2.0
                                                                          Schwaiger et al.
                                                                          1992
           Triebskorn et
           al.  1994
           Tsuda et al.
           1988b

-------
Carp (10.0-11.0 cm;
22.9-30.4 g),
Cyprinus carpio

Guppy (3-4 wk),
Poecilia reticulata
                             TBTO
 TBTO
          7 days    BCF  in muscle  =  295
                    Half-life  =  1.67  days


209        3 mo     Thymus atrophy

                    Hyperplasia  of kidney
                    hemopoietic  tissue

                    Marked liver
                    vacuolation
                                                                                           1. 80
                                                               0.32

                                                               1.0
                                                                                            1.0
                                                                         Tsuda et al.
                                                                         1987
                                        Wester and
                                        Canton 1987
Guppy (4 wk),
Poecilia reticulata

Frog (embryo,  larva)
Rana temporaria
                             TBTO
 TBTO
 TBTF
 TBTO
 TBTF
                    Hyperplasia  of  corneal
                    epithelium

           1 mo     NOEC
           3 mo     NOEC

          5 days    LC40
                    LC50
                    Loss of body water
                    Loss of body water
                              10.0

                              1.0
                              0.32

                              28 .4
                              28 .2
                              28 .4
                              28 .2
Wester and
Canton 1991

Laughlin and
Linden 1982
Table 6.   (Continued)
                           Chemical3
          Salinity
           (q/kq)
                                                  Duration
                                                             Effect
                                               Concentrati
                                                   on       Reference
                                                   (uq/L)b
                                                  SALTWATER SPECIES
Natural microbial
populations


Natural microbial
populations
                            TBTC1
TBTC1
                                      2 and 17
          2 and 17
           1 hr
        (incubated
         10 days)

           1 hr
        (incubated
         10 days)
Significant decrease in      4.454
metabolism of nutrient
substrates

50% mortality                89.07
                                                                         Jonas et al.
                                                                         1984
                                                                         Jonas et al.
                                                                         1984

-------
Fouling communities
Fouling communities
Microcosm (seagrass
bed)
Microcosm (seagrass
bed)
                             TBT
                            TBTC1
Periphyton communities      TBTC1
Periphyton communities       TBTO
Green alga,                  TBTO
Dunaliella tertiolecta

Green alga,                  TBTO
Dunaliella sp.

Green alga,                  TBTO
Dunaliella sp.

Green alga,                  TBTO
Dunaliella tertolecta

Table 6.   (Continued)
             33-36     2 months    Reduced species and
                                   diversity;  no effect at
                                   0.04  ug/L

                       126 days    No effect
             21.5-       6 wks     Fate of  TBT
              28.9                    Sediments 81-88%
                                      Plants 9-17%
                                      Animals 2-4%

                         6 wks     Reduced  plant material
                                   loss;  loss of amphipod
                                   Cymadusa compta

                        15 min     EC50 (reduced
                                   photosynthesis

                        15 min     EC50 (reduced
                                   photosynthesis

             34-40      18 days    Population growth
                         72 hr     Approx.  EC50 (growth)
                         72 hr     100% mortality
                          days     EC50
                                                                                           0.1
                                                                                                     Henderson 1986
   0.204      Salazar et al.
              1987

   0.2-20      Levine et al.
              1990
   22.21      Kelly et al.
              1990a
   28.7       Blanck and Dahl
              1996

   27.9       Blanck and Dahl
              1996

    1. 0       Beaumont and
              Newman 1986

   1.460      Salazar 1985
                                                                2.920      Salazar  1985
   4.53       Delupis et al.
              1987
Species
            Salinity
Chemical8    (q/kq)     Duration    Effect
Concentrati
    on        Reference
    (uq/L)b
Diatom,
Phaeodoctylum
tricornutum

Diatom,
Nitzschia sp.
                             TBTO
  TBTO
                         72 hr     No effect on growth
                          days     EC50
                                                                                       1.460-5.839   Salazar 1985
    1.19       Delupis et al.
              1987

-------
Diatom,
Nitzschia sp .
Diatom,
Nitzschia closterium
Diatom,
Skeletonema costatum
Diatom,
Skeletonema costatum
Diatom,
Skeletonema costatum
Diatom,
Skeletonema costatum
Diatom,
Skeletonema costatum
Diatom,
Skeletonema costatum
Diatom,
Skeletonema costatum
Diatom,
Skeletonema costatum
Diatom,
Skeletonema costatum
Diatom,
Skeletonema costatum
Diatom,
Skeletonema costatum
Table 6 . (Continued)
Species
TBTO - 8 days EC50
TBTC1 - 7 days EC50 (growth)
TBTA 30 72 hr EC50
(population growth)
TBTA 30 72 hr LC50
TBTO 34-40 12-18 days Population growth
TBTO 30 72 hr EC50
(population growth)
TBTO 30 72 hr LC50
TBTC1 30 72 hr EC50
(population growth)
TBTC1 30 72 hr LC50
TBTF 30 72 hr EC50
(population growth)
TBTF 30 72 hr LC50
TBTC1 30.5 96 hr NOEC
TBTC1 - 7 days EC50 (growth)

Salinity
Chemical3 (q/kq) Duration Effect
    1.19
    1.16
   0.3097
   12.65
    1.0
   0.3212
   13.82
   0.3207
   10.24
  >0.2346,
  >0.4693

   11.17
    3.48
Delupis et al.
1987

Nakagawa and
Saeki 1992

Walsh et al.
1985;1987

Walsh et al.
1985;1987

Beaumont and
Newman 1986

Walsh et al.
1985;1987

Walsh et al.
1985

Walsh et al.
1985;1987

Walsh et al.
1985;1987

Walsh et al.
1985;1987

Walsh et al.
1985

Reader and
Pelletier 1992

Nakagawa and
Saeki 1992
Concentrati
     on        Reference
    (uq/L)b

-------
Diatom,                     TBTC1
Chaetoceros debilis

Diatom,                     TBTC1
Chattonella antiqua

Diatom,                     TBTC1
Tetraselmis tetrathele

Diatom,                      TBTO
Minutocellus
polymorphus

Diatom,                     TCTC1
Minutocellus
polymorphus

Diatom,                      TBTA
Thalassiosira
pseudonana

Diatom,                      TBTO
Thalassiosira
pseudonana

Alga,                        TBTO
Pavlova lutheri

Alga,                        TBTO
Pavlova lutheri

Dinoflagellate,              TBTO
Gymnodinium splendens

Macroalgae,                  TBT
Fucus vesiculosus

Giant kelp  (zoospores),      TBT
Macrocystis pvrifera

Polychaete worm             TBTC1
(juvenile),                  (96%)
Neanthes
arenaceodentata

Polychaete worm             TBTC1
(adult) ,                      (96%)
Armandia brevis
32-33
  30
28.5
           7 days    EC50  (growth)
           7 days    EC50  (growth)
           7 days    EC50  (growth)
           48 hr     EC50
                                                                                           1.16
                                                   2.05
           48 hr
                     EC50
 30         72 hr     EC50
                      (population growth)
 30         72 hr     EC50
                      (population growth)
34-40    12-26 days  Population growth
16 days    NOEC
           LOEC

 72 hr     100% mortality


 7  days     Photosynthesis and
           nutrient uptake reduced

 48 hr     EC50 (germination)
           EC50 (growth)

 10 wks     NOEC (survival)
           LOEC (survival)
           10  days    BCF = 5,100  (no
                     plateau)
                                                    S40
                                                   • S30
                                                   1.101
                                                   1.002
                                                    1.0
                                                   5.36
                                                   21.46
                                                   1.460
                                                    0.6
                                                  11.256
                                                  13.629
                                                   0.100
                                                   0.500
                                                    233
                                                   Nakagawa and
                                                   Saeki 1992

                                                   Nakagawa and
                                                   Saeki 1992

                                                   Nakagawa and
                                                   Saeki 1992

                                                   Walsh et al.
                                                   1988
                                                             Walsh et al.
                                                             1988
                                                   Walsh et al.
                                                   1985
Walsh et al.
1985;1987


Beaumont and
Newman 1986

Saint-Louis et
al. 1994

Salazar 1985
Lindblad et al.
1989

Brix et al.
1994a

Moore et al.
1991
                                                              Meador  1997

-------
Rotifer  (neonates),
Brachionus plicatilis

Table 6.   (Continued)
                             TBT
                                         15
                       30 min     Induction of the stress
                                 protein gene SP58
                                                                                           20-30
                                                   Cochrane et al.
                                                   1991
Hydroid,
Campanularia flexuosa

Pale sea anemone
(1-2 cm oral disc),
Aiptasia pallida
Sand dollar  (sperm),
Dendraster excentricus

Starfish  (79 g),
Leptasterias polaris

Dogwhinkle (adult),
Nucella lapillus
Dogwhinkle  (adult),
Nucella lapillus

Dogwhinkle  (subadult)
Nucella lapillus

Mussel  (juvenile),
Mvtilus sp.
                           Chemical8
                             TBTF
 TBT
                             TBT
TBTC1
                            TBTC1
TBTC1
Field
          Salinity
           (q/kq)
                                         35
                                        32-33
            25.!
                                         35
             35
                                                  Duration   Effect
11 days    Colony growth
           stimulation; no growth

28 days    Reduced (90.4%)
           symbiotic zooxanthellae
           populations; incresed
           bacterial aggregates;
           fewer undischarged
           nematocysts

 80 min     EC50 (mortality)
                       48 hr     BCF = 41,374 (whole
                                 body)

                      120  days    41% Imposex
                                 (superimposition of
                                 male anatomical
                                 characteristics on
                                 females)

                      6 months    Imposex induced
                                                                                        Concentrati
                                                                                            on       Reference
                         22
                      12  weeks
                                 BCF = •
                                          ), 000
                                 NOEC tissue cone.
                                 growth = 0.5 ug/g
                                 LOEC tissue cone.
                                 growth = 1.5 ug/g
                                 NOEC (growth)
                                 LOEC (growth)
                                 BAF = 5,000-100,000
(uq/L)b
0 . 01 Stebbing
1.0
0 . 05 Mercier
1997
0.465 Brix et
1994b
0.072 Rouleau
1995
0. 05 Bryan et
1986
• C. 012 Stroben
1992b
0.019 Bryan et
1993
Salazar
Salazar
1996
0.025
0.100
<0.105

1981

et al

al.

et al

al.

et al

al.

and
1990b





-------
Blue mussel  (larva),
Mytilus edulis

Blue mussel  (larva),
Mytilus edulis

Blue mussel  (spat),
Mytilus edulis
Blue mussel  (larva),
Mytilus edulis

Table 6.  (Continued)
                             TBTO
                             TBTO
                             TBTO
                                        28.5-
                                        34.2
                                         33
                        24 hr     No effect on sister           1.0
                                  chromatid exchange

                        4  days     Reduced survival              ^>0.1
                       45 days    100% mortality                2.6
                       15 days    51% mortality; reduced       0.0973
                                  growth
                                                   Dixon and
                                                   Prosser 1986

                                                   Dixon and
                                                   Prosser 1986

                                                   Thain and
                                                   Waldock 1985;
                                                   Thain 1986

                                                   Beaumont and
                                                   Budd 1984
                                      Salinity
                           Chemical3     (q/kq)     Duration   Effect
                                                            Concentrati
                                                                 on       Reference
                                                                (uq/L)b
Blue mussel  (larva),
Mytilus edulis

Blue mussel  (juvenile),       TBTO
Mytilus edulis

Blue mussel  (juvenile),       TBT
Mytilus edulis              (field)
Blue mussel  (juvenile),       TBT
Mytilus edulis             (field)
                       45 days    Reduced growth                0.24
             33.7       7  days     Significant reduction        0.3893
                                  in growth

                        1-2  wk     Reduced growth; at <0.2       0.2
                                  ug/L environmental
                                  factors most important

                        12 wks     Reduced growth                ^0.2
                                                   Thain and
                                                   Waldock 1986

                                                   Stromgren and
                                                   Bongard 1987

                                                   Salazar and
                                                   Salazar 1990b
                                                   Salazar and
                                                   Salazar 1988
Blue mussel  (juvenile)
Mytilus edulis
Blue mussel  (juvenile)
Mytilus edulis

Blue mussel  (juvenile)
Mytilus edulis
Blue mussel  (juvenile)
Mvtilus edulis
  TBT
(field
 12 wks     Reduced growth at
           tissue cone,  of 2.0
           ug/g

56 days    Reduced condition
                       196  days    Reduced growth  (no
                                  effect at day 56 of 0.2
                                  ug/L)

                       56 days    No effect on growth
                                                                                                     Salazar and
                                                                                                     Salazar 1988
                                                                                          0.157      Salazar et al.
                                                                                                     1987

                                                                                          0.070      Salazar and
                                                                                                     Salazar 1987
                                        0.160      Salazar and
                                                   Salazar 1987

-------
Blue mussel
(2.5 to 4.1 cm) ,
Mytilus edulis

Blue mussel
(2.5 to 4.1 cm),
Mytilus edulis

Blue mussel
(juveniles and adults)
Mytilus sp.

Blue mussel (3.0-3.5
cm) ,
Mytilus edulis
  TBT
(field)
  TBT
                       66  days    LC50
                       66  days    Significant  decrease in
                                  shell  growth
84 days    BCF
                       2 days     Reduced ability to
                                  survive anoxia
                                         0.97      Valkirs et al.
                                                   1985;1987
                                                               0.31
3,000-
100,000
                                                   Valkirs et al.
                                                   1985
                                                                          Salazar  1996
                                                   Wang et al. 1992
Table 6.  (Continued)
                                      Salinity
                           Chemical8     (q/kq)     Duration   Effect
                                                            Concentrati
                                                                on        Reference
                                                                (uq/L)b
Blue mussel  (4 cm)
Mytilus edulis
Blue mussel  (8-d-old
larvae),
Mytilus edulis

Scallop (adult),
Hinnites multiruqosus

Pacific oyster (larva)
Crassostrea qiqas

Pacific oyster (larva)
Crassostrea qiqas

Pacific oyster (spat),
Crassostrea qiqas
                            TBTC1
                             TBT
 TBTO
                      2.5 days    Increased respiration
                                  0.15  ug/g tissue
                                  Reduced food absorption
                                  efficiency 10 ug/g

                       33  days    NOEC  (growth)                 0.006
                                  LOEC  (growth)                 0.050
                      110 days    No  effect  on condition       0.204
                       30  days    100%  mortality                2.0
113 days   30% mortality and              0.2
           abnormal development

48 days    Reduced growth                0.020
                                                   Widdows and Page
                                                   1993
                                                   Lapota et al.
                                                   1993
            Salazar et al.
            1987

            Alzieu et al.
            1980

            Alzieu et al.
            1980

            Lawler and
            Aldrich 1987

-------
Pacific oyster (spat),        TBTO
Crassostrea qiqas
Pacific oyster (spat),                  28.5-
Crassostrea qiqas                       34.2

Pacific oyster (spat),                  28.5-
Crassostrea qiqas                       34.2

Pacific oyster (spat),
Crassostrea qiqas

Pacific oyster (spat),       TBT
Crassostrea qiqas

Pacific oyster (spat),       TBTO       29-32
Crassostrea qiqas

Pacific oyster (spat),       TBTO       29-32
Crassostrea qiqas

Pacific oyster (adult),       TBT
Crassostrea qiqas           (field)
14 days    Reduced oxygen
           consumption and feeding
           rates

45 days    40% mortality; reduced
           growth

45 days    90% mortality
45 days    Reduced growth
49 days    Shell thickening
56 days    No growth
56 days    Reduced growth
           Shell thickening
 0.050      Lawler and
           Aldrich  1987
 0.24      Thain and
           Waldock  1985

  2 . 6       Thain and
           Waldock  1985

 0.24      Thain and
           Waldock  1986

 0.020      Thain et al.
           1987

 1.557      Waldock  and
           Thain 1983

0.1460     Waldock  and
           Thain 1983

_>0.014     Wolniakowski  et
           al. 1987
Table 6.  (Continued)
                                      Salinity
                          Chemical8     (q/kq)     Duration   Effect
                                     Concentrati
                                          on        Reference
                                         (uq/L)b
Pacific oyster (larva),       TBTF       18-21     21 days
Crassostrea qiqas
Pacific oyster (larva),       TBTF       18-21
Crassostrea qiqas
Pacific oyster               TBTA        28        24 hr
(embryo),
Crassostrea qiqas
           Reduced number of
           normally developed
           larvae
15 days    100% mortality
           Abnormal development;
           30-40% mortality
                                                                                          0.02346
                                                                                          0.04692
                                                                                          4.304
           Springborn
           Bionomics,  Inc.
           1984a

           Springborn
           Bionomics,  Inc.
           1984a

           His and Robert
           1980

-------
Pacific oyster               TBTA
(embryo),
Crassostrea qiqas

Pacific oyster (larva),       TBTA
Crassostrea qiqas

Pacific oyster (larva),       TBTA
Crassostrea qiqas

Pacific oyster
(150-300 mg) ,
Crassostrea qiqas

Pacific oyster               TBT
(3.5-25 mm),                (field)
Crassostrea qiqas

Pacific oyster               TBTO
(fertilized eggs),
Crassostrea qiqas

Pacific oyster               TBTO
(straight-hinge
larvae),
Crassostrea qiqas

Pacific oyster               TBTO
(spat) ,
Crassostrea qiqas

Pacific oyster               TBTA
(24-h-old),
Crassostrea qiqas
 24 hr     Abnormal development
 24 hr     Abnormal development
 48 hr     100% mortality
56 days    No effect on growth
2-5 mo     Reduced growth rate
           Normal growth rate
 24 hr     LC50
           Delayed development
 24 hr     LC50
 48 hr     LC50
12 days    LC50
                                                                                          0.8604
           Robert and His
           1981
^0.9       Robert and His
           1981

2.581      Robert and His
           1981

0.157      Salazar et al.
           1987
0.040      Stephanson 1991
0.010
 7.0       Osada et al.
 1.8       1993
                                         15 . 0       Osada et al.
                                                   1993
                                         35. 0       Osada et al.
                                                   1993
                                         0.04       His 1996
Table 6.  (Continued)
                                      Salinity
                          Chemical8     (q/kq)     Duration   Effect
                                     Concentrati
                                          on        Reference
                                         (uq/L)b
Eastern oyster
(2.7-5.3 cm),
Crassostrea virqinica
67 days    Decrease in condition
           index (body weight)
 0.73       Valkirs et al.
           1985

-------
Eastern oyster
(2.7-5.3 cm),
Crassostrea virqinica

Eastern oyster  (adult)
Crassostrea virqinica

Eastern oyster  (adult)
Crassostrea virqinica

Eastern oyster
(embryo),
Crassostrea virqinica

Eastern oyster
(juvenile),
Crassostrea virqinica

Eastern oyster  (adult)
Crassostrea virqinica
Eastern oyster (adult)
Crassostrea virqinica

European flat oyster
(spat) ,
Ostrea edulis

European flat oyster
(spat) ,
Ostrea edulis

European flat oyster
(spat) ,
Ostrea edulis

European flat oyster
(spat) ,
Ostrea edulis

European flat oyster
(adult),
Ostrea edulis
TBTC1
 TBTO
                             TBT
TBTO
                      67 days    No effect on survival
33-36     57 days    Decrease in condition
                     index

33-36     30 days    LC50
            18-22       48 hr     Abnormal shell
                                 development
            11-12       96 hr     EC50; shell growth
            8 wks     No affect on sexual
                     development,
                     fertilization

           21 wks    Immune response not
                     weakened

          20 days    Significant reduction
                     in growth
             30
           28.5-
            34.2
           28.5-
            34.2
          45 days    Decreased growth
          45 days    70% mortality
                      20 days    Reduced growth
           28-34      75 days    Complete inhibition of
                                 larval production
                                                                                           1.89
                                                               0.1
                                                               2.5
                                                               0.77
                                                               0.31
                                                              1.142
                                                                                           0.1
                                                             0.01946
                                                              0.2392
                                                               2.6
                                                               0.02
                                                               0.24
                                                             Valkirs et al.
                                                             1985
                                                                         Henderson 1986
                                                                         Henderson 1986
                                                                         Roberts 1987
                                                                         Walker 1989b
                                                                         Roberts et al.
                                                                         1987
Anderson et al.
1996

Thain and
Waldock 1985
Thain and
Waldock 1985;
Thain 1986

Thain and
Waldock 1985;
Thain 1986

Thain and
Waldock 1986
                                                                         Thain 1986
Table 6. (Continued)

-------
                           Chemical8
          Salinity
           (q/kq)
                                                  Duration   Effect
Concentrati
    on        Reference
    (uq/L)b
European flat oyster
(adult),
Ostrea edulis

European flat oyster
(adult),
Ostrea edulis
            28-34      75 days    Retardation of sex
                                 change from male to
                                 female

            28-34      75 days    Prevented gonadal
                                 development
                                                                                           0.24      Thain 1986
    2.6       Thain 1986
European flat oyster
(140-280 mg),
Ostrea edulis

Native Pacific oyster
(100-300 mg),
Ostrea luricla

Quahog clam
(embryo, larva),
Mercenaria mercenaria

Clam  (adult),
Macoma nasuta

Quahog clam (veligers)
Mercenaria mercenaria
Quahog clam  (post
larva),
Mercenaria mercenaria

Quahog clam  (larva),
Mercenaria mercenaria

Common Pacific
Littleneck  (adult),
Protothaca stamina

Copepod  (subadult),
Eurytemora affinis
 TBTO
 TBTO
                             TBTO
TBTC1
 TBTO
 TBT
                      56 days    No effect on growth
                      56 days    No effect on growth
                      14 days    Reduced growth
                      110  days    No effect on condition
                       8  days     Approx. 35% dead;
                                 reduced growth; _>! . 0
                                 ug/L 100 mortality

                      25 days    100% mortality
            18-22       48 hr     Delayed development
            33-34       96 hr     100% survival
             10
                       72 hr     LC50
   0.157      Salazar et al.
              1987
   0.157      Salazar et al.
              1987
  2.0.010      Laughlin et al.
              1987;1988
   0.204      Salazar et al.
              1987

    0.6       Laughlin et al.
              1987;1989
     10        Laughlin et al.
              1987;1989
                                                               0.77       Roberts 1987
                                                              2.2.920      Salazar and
                                                                         Salazar 1989
                                                               0.5       Bushong et al.
                                                                         1988

-------
Copepod (subadult),
Eurytemora affinis
                             TBT
                                         10
                                                   72 hr     LC50
0.6       Bushong et al.
          1988
Copepod,
Acartia tonsa
Table 6. (Continued)
Species
Copepod (adult) ,
Acartia tonsa
Copepod (nauplii) ,
Acartia tonsa
Copepod (nauplii) ,
Acartia tonsa
Copepod (nauplii) ,
Acartia tonsa
Copepod (nauplii) ,
Acartia tonsa
Amphipod (larva,
juvenile) ,
Gammarus oceanus
Amphipod (larva,
juvenile) ,
Gammarus oceanus
Amphipod (larva,
juvenile) ,
Gammarus oceanus
Amphipod (larva,
juvenile) ,
Gammarus oceanus
Amphipod,
Gammarus sp .
TBTO - 6 days
Salinity
Chemical8 (q/kq) Duration
TBTO 28 5 days
TBTC1 10-12 9 days
TBTC1 10-12 6 days
TBTC1 10-12 6 days
TBTC1 18 8 days
TBTO 7 8 wk
TBTF 7 8 wk
TBTO 7 8 wk
TBTF 7 8 wk
TBTC1 10 24 days
EC50
Effect
Reduced egg production
Reduced survival
Reduced survival; no
effect 0.012 ug/L
Reduced survival; no
effect 0.010 ug/L
Inhibition of
development
EC50 (survival)
100% mortality
100% mortality
Reduced survival and
growth
Reduced survival and
increased growth
No effect
0.3893
Concentrati
on
(uq/L)b
0.010
^0.029
0.023
0.024
0.003
0.015-0. 020
2 .920
2 .816
0.2920
0.2816
0.579
U'ren 1983
Reference
Johansen and
Mohlenberg 1987
Bushong et al .
1990
Bushong et al .
1990
Bushong et al .
1990
Kusk and
Peterson 1997
Laughlin et al.
1984b
Laughlin et al.
1984b
Laughlin et al.
1984b
Laughlin et al.
1984b
Hall et al.
1988b

-------
Amphipod (adult) ,
Orchestia traskiana
Amphipod (adult) ,
Orchestia traskiana
Amphipod (adult) ,
Eohaustorius estuarius
Amphipod (adult) ,
Eohaustorius
Washington! anus
Amphipod (adult) ,
Rhepoxynius abronius
Table 6 . (Continued)
Species
Grass shrimp,
Palaemonetes puqio
Grass shrimp,
Palaemonetes puqio
Mud crab (larva) ,
Rhi thropanopeus
harrisii
Mud crab (larva) ,
Rhi thropanopeus
harrisii
Mud crab (larva) ,
Rhi thropanopeus
harrisii
Mud crab (larva) ,
Rhi thropanopeus
harrisii
Mud crab (zoea) ,
Rhitropanopeus harrisii
TBTO 3 0
TBTF 3 0
TBTC1 28.8-
(96%) 29.5
TBTC1 32.7
(96%)
TBTC1 32.3
(96%)
Salinity
Chemical3 (q/kq)
TBTO 9.9-11.2
(95%)
TBTO 2 0
TBTO 15
TBTS 15
TBTO 15
TBTS 15
TBTO 15
9 days Approx. 80% mortality
9 days Approx. 90% mortality
10 days BCF = 41,200 (no
plateau)
10 days BCF = 60,300 (no
plateau)
10 days BCF = 1,700 (no
plateau)
Duration Effect
20 min No avoidance
14 days Telson regeneration
retarded; molting
retarded
15 days Reduced developmental
rate and growth
15 days Reduced developmental
rate and growth
15 days 63% mortality
15 days 74% mortality
20 days LC50
9.732 Laughlin et al.
1982
9.732 Laughlin et al.
1982
0.48 Meador et al .
1993
109 Meador 1997
660 Meador 1997
Concentrati
on Reference
(uq/L)b
30 Pinkney et al .
1985
0.1 Khan et al. 1993
14.60 Laughlin et al.
1983
18.95 Laughlin et al.
1983
>24.33 Laughlin et al.
1983
28.43 Laughlin et al.
1983
13.0 Laughlin and
French 1989

-------
Mud crab (zoea) ,
Rhi thropanopeus
harrisii
Mud crab,
Rhi thropanopeus
harrisii
Mud crab,
Rhi thropanopeus
harrisii
Mud crab,
Rhi thropanopeus
harrisii
Mud crab,
Rhi thropanopeus
harrisii
Mud crab,
Rhi thropanopeus
harrisii
Fiddler crab,
Uca puqilator

Fiddler crab,
Uca puqilator
Table 6 . (Continued)

Species

Fiddler crab,
Uca puqilator

TBTO 15 40 days LC50 33.6 Laughlin and
French 1989

TBTO 15 6 days BCF=24 for carapace 5.937 Evans and
Laughlin 1984

TBTO 15 6 days BCF=6 for 5.937 Evans and
hepatopancreas Laughlin 1984

TBTO 15 6 days BCF=0.6 for testes 5.937 Evans and
Laughlin 1984

TBTO 15 6 days BCF=41 for gill tissue 5.937 Evans and
Laughlin 1984

TBTO 15 6 days BCF=1.5 for chelae 5.937 Evans and
muscle Laughlin 1984

TBTO 25 <24 days Retarded limb 0.5 Weis et al.
regeneration and 1987a
molting
TBTO 25 3 weeks Reduced burrowing 0.5 Weis and
Perlmutter 1987

Salinity Concentrati
Chemical3 (q/kq) Duration Effect on Reference
(uq/L)b
TBTO 25 7 days Limb malformation 0.5 Weis and Kim
1988; Weis et
al. 1987a
Blue crab (6-8-day-old
embryos),
Callinectes sapidus
                             TBT
                                         28
4 days    EC50  (hatching)
                                                                                           0.047
                                                                                                     Lee et al.  1996

-------
Brittle star,
Ophioderma brevispina
Atlantic menhaden
(juvenile) ,
Brevoortia tyrannus
Atlantic menhaden
(juvenile) ,
Brevoortia tyrannus
Chinook salmon (adult) ,
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha
Chinook salmon (adult) ,
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha
Chinook salmon (adult) ,
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha
Mummichog (juvenile) ,
Fundulus heteroclitus

Mummichog,
Fundulus heteroclitus
Inland silverside
(larva) ,
Menidia beryllina
Mummichog (embryo) ,
Fundulus heteroclitus
Mummichog (5.3 cm; 1 . 8
g>,
Fundulus heteroclitus
Three-spined
stickleback (45-60 mm) ,
Gasterosteus aculeatus
TBTO 18-22

TBTC1 10


TBTO 9-11


TBTO 2 8


TBTO 2 8


TBTO 2 8


TBTO 2


TBTO 9.9-11.2

TBTC1 10


TBTO 2 5

TBTO 15
(95%) 16-19.5

TBTO 15-35
(painted
panels)
4 wks Retarded arm
regeneration
28 days No effect


Avoidance


96 hr BCF=4300 for liver


96 hr BCF=1300 for brain


96 hr BCF=200 for muscle


6 wks Gill pathology


20 min Avoidance

28 days Reduced growth


10 days Teratotogy

96 hr LC50
6 wks NOEC

7.5 mo 80% mortality (2
months)
Histological effects
• C.I Walsh et al
1986a
0.490 Hall et al.
1988b

5.437 Hall et al.


1.49 Short and
Thrower
1986a, 1986c
1.49 Short and
Thrower
1986a, 1986c
1.49 Short and
Thrower
1986a, 1986c





1984











17.2 Pinkney 1988;
Pinkney et
1989a
3 . 7 Pinkney et
1985
0.093 Hall et al.
1988b

30 Weis et al.
1987b
17 .2 Pinkney et
2.000 1989a

10 Holm et al.
2.5

al.

al.






al.


1991


Table 6. (Continued)

-------
                           Chemical8
Salinity
 (q/kq)
                                                  Duration
                                                             Effect
                          Concentrati
                               on       Reference
                              (uq/L)b
California grunion
(gamete through
embryo),
Leuresthes tenuis

California grunion
(gamete through
embryo),
Leuresthes tenuis

California grunion
(gamete through
embryo),
Leuresthes tenuis

California grunion
(embryo),
Leuresthes tenuis
            10 days    Significantly enhanced
                       growth and hatching
                       success
            10 days    Significantly enhanced
                       growth and hatching
                       success
            10 days    50% reduction in
                       hatching success
            10 days
California grunion
(larva) ,
Leuresthes tenuis
Striped bass
(juvenile) ,
Morone saxatilis
Striped bass
(juvenile) ,
Morone saxatilis
Striped bass
(juvenile) ,
Morone saxatilis
Speckled sanddab
(adult) ,
Citharichthys stiqmaeus
Stripped mullet (3.2
g);
G

TBTO 9-11
(95%)
TBT 13.0-
(painted 15.0
panels)
TBT 1.1-3.0
(painted 1.9-3.0
panels) 12.2-
14.5
TBTO 33-34
TBTO
(96%)
7 days

-
14
6 days
7 days
7 days
96 hr
8 wks
No adverse effect on
hatching success or
growth

Survival increased as
concentration increased
                                                             Avoidance
                                                             NOEC  (serum  ion
                                                             concentrations and
                                                             enzyme activity)

                                                             NOEC  0.067;  LOEC  0.766
                                                             NOEC  0.444;  LOEC  1.498
                                                             LOEC  >0.514
                                                             LC50
                                                             BCF 3000  (no plateau)
                                                             BCF 3600  (no plateau)
                                                                                         0.14-1.71
                                                  0.14-1.72
                                                  0.14-1.72
                                                                                         0.14-1.72
                                                                                           24. 9
                                                                                           1. 09
                                                                                           18.5
                                                    0.122
                                                    0.106
                                        Newton et al.
                                        1985
                                        Newton et al.
                                        1985
                               74        Newton et al.
                                        1985
Newton et al.
1985
                                                                                                     Newton et al.
                                                                                                     1985
                                                                                                     Hall et al. 1984
                                                               Pinkney et al.
                                                               1989b
                                                               Pinkney et al.
                                                               1990
                                                                                                     Salazar and
                                                                                                     Salazar 1989
                                        Yamada and
                                        Takayanagi 1992
Muqil cephalus

-------
Starry flounder             TBTC1       30.2      10 days    BCF 8,700 (no plateau)         194      Meador  1997
(
-------
                                  REFERENCES










ABC Laboratories, Inc. 1990a. Acute 96-hour flow-through toxicity of bis(tri-





n-butyltin) oxide to rainbow trout  (Oncorhynchus mykiss).  ABC study number





38306. Analytical Bio-Chemistry Laboratories, Inc., Columbia, MO. 277 pp.










ABC Laboratories, Inc. 1990b. Acute 96-hour flow-through toxicity of bis(tri-





n-butyltin) oxide to bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus).  ABC study number 38307.





Analytical Bio-Chemistry Laboratories, Inc., Columbia, MO. 279 pp.










ABC Laboratories, Inc. 1990c. Acute toxicity of bis(tributyltin) oxide to





Daphnia magna.  ABC study number 38308. Analytical Bio-Chemistry Laboratories,





Inc., Columbia, MO. 255 pp.










ABC Laboratories, Inc. 1990d. Chronic toxicity of bis(tributyltin) oxide to





Daphnia magna.  ABC report number 38310. Analytical Bio-Chemistry Laboratories,





Inc., Columbia, MO. 318 pp.










Alabaster, J.S. 1969. Survival of fish in 164 herbicides,  insecticides,





fungicides, wetting agents and miscellaneous substances. Int. Pest Control





11:29-35.










Ali, A.A., R.K. Upreti and A.M.  Kidwai. 1990. Assessment of di- and tri-





butyltin interaction with skeletal muscle membranes.  Bull. Environ. Contam.





Toxicol.  44:29-38.





Allen, A.J., B.M. Quitter and C.M. Radick. 1980. The biocidal mechanisms of





                                      80

-------
controlled release bis(tri-n-butyltin) oxide in Biomphalaria glabrata.  In:





Controlled release of bioactive materials. Baker, R.  (Ed.).  Academic Press,





New York, NY. pp. 399-413.










Alvarez, M.M.S. and D.V. Ellis. 1990. Widespread neogastropod imposex in the





Northeast Pacific: Implications for TBT contamination surveys. Mar. Pollut.





Bull. 21:244-247.










Alzieu, C. 1986. TBT detrimental effects on oyster culture in France -





Evolution since antifouling paint regulation. In: Oceans 86, Vol. 4.





Proceedings International Organotin Symposium. Marine Technology Society,





Washington, DC. pp. 1130-1134.










Alzieu, C. 1996. Biological effects of tributyltin on marine organisms.  In:





Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant.  (Ed.) S.J. de Mora.





Cambridge University Press, UK. pp. 167-211.










Alzieu, C., J. Sanjuan,  P. Michel, M. Borel and J.P. Dreno.  1989. Monitoring





and assessment of butyltins in Atlantic Coastal waters. Mar. Pollut. Bull.





20:22-26.










Alzieu, C., Y. Thibaud,  M. Heral and B. Boutier. 1980. Evaluation of the risks





of using antifouling paints near oyster zones. Rev. Trav. Inst.  Peches Marit.





44:301-348.










Anderson, R.S., M.A. Unger and E.M. Burreson. 1996. Enhancement of Perkinsus





                                      81

-------
marinus disease progression in TBT-exposed oysters  (Crassostrea virginica).





Mar. Environ. Res. 42:1-4.










Avery, S.V., G.A. Codd and G.M. Gadd. 1993. Biosorption of tributyltin and





other organotin compounds by cyanobacteria and microalgae. Appl.  Micro.





Biotech. 39:812-817.










Axiak, V., M Sammut, P. Chircop, A. Vella and B. Mintoff. 1995a.  Laboratory





and field investigations on the effects of organotin  (tributyltin)  on the





oyster, Ostrea edulis.  Sci. Total Environ. 171:117-120.










Axiak, V., A.J. Vella,  D. Micallef, P. Chircop and B. Mintoff. 1995b. Imposex





in Hexaplex trunculus  (gastropoda: Muricidae):  First results from





biomonitoring of tributyltin contamination in the Mediterranean.  Mar. Biol.





121:685-691.










Bailey, S.K. and I.M. Davies.  1988a. Tributyltin contamination in the Firth of





Forth  (1975-87). Sci. Total Environ. 76:185-192.










Bailey, S.K. and I.M. Davies.  1988b. Tributyltin contamination around an oil





terminal in Sullom Voc (Shetland). Environ. Pollut. 55:161-172.










Bailey, S.K., I.M. Davies and M.J.C. Harding.  1995. Tributyltin contamination





and its impact on Nucella lapillus populations. Proc. Royal Soc.  Edinburgh





1036:113-126.
                                      82

-------
Bailey, S.K., I.M. Davies, M.J.C. Harding and A.M. Shanks. 1991. Effects of





tributyltin oxide on the dogwhelk Nucella lapillus (L.).  The Scottish Office





Agriculture and Fisheries Department Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen, Scotland.





Fisheries Research Services Report. Project No. P14/39/13/2, 11 November.





153p.










Balls, P.W. 1987. Tributyltin  (TBT) in the waters of a Scottish sea loch





arising from the use of antifoulant treated netting by salmon farms.





Aquaculture 65:227-237.










Batley, G. 1996. The distribution and fate of tributyltin in the marine





environment. In: Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant.





(Ed.) S.J. de Mora. Cambridge University Press, UK. pp. 139-166.










Batley, G.E., C. Fuhua, C.I. Brockbank and K.J. Flegg. 1989. Accumulation of





tributyltin by the Sydney rock oyster, Saccostrea commercialis. Aust.  J. Mar.





Freshwater Res. 40:49-54.










Batley, G.E., M.S. Scammell and C.I. Brockbank. 1992. The impact of banning of





tributyltin-based antifouling paints on the Sydney rock oyster, Saccostrea





commercialis. Sci. Total Environ. 122:301-314.










Barug, D. 1981. Microbial degradation of bis(tributyltin)  oxide. Chemosphere





10:1145-1154.










Bauer, B., P. Fioroni, U. Schulte-Oehlmann, J. Oehlmann and W. Kalbfus.  1997.





                                      83

-------
The use of Littorina littorea for tributyltin (TBT)  effect monitoring -




Results from the German TBT survey 1994/1995 and laboratory experiments.




Environ. Ploout.  96:299-309.










Beaumont,  A.R. and M.D. Budd. 1984. High mortality of the larvae of the common




mussel at low concentrations of tributyltin. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 15:402-405.










Beaumont,  A.R. and P.B. Newmann. 1986. Low levels of tributyltin reduce growth




of marine micro-algae. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 17:457-461.










Becerra-Huencho,  R.M. 1984. The effect of organotin and copper sulfate on the




late development and presettlement behavior of the hard clam Mercenaria




mercenaria.  Master's thesis, University of Maryland, College Park,  MD.  85 pp.










Becker, K.,  L. Merlini, N. de Bertrand, L.F. de Alencastro and J.  Tarradellas.




1992. Elevated levels of organotins in Lake Geneva:  Bivalves as sentinel




organism.  Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 48:37-44.










Becker-van Slooten, K. and J. Tarradellas. 1994. Accumulation, depuration and




growth effects of tributyltin in the freshwater bivalve Dreissena polymorpha




under field conditions. Environ. Toxicol. Chem.  13:755-762.










Becker-van Slooten, K. and J. Tarradellas. 1995. Organotins in Swiss lakes




after their ban:  Assessment of water,  sediment,  and Dreissena Polymorpha




contamination over a four-year period. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.  29:384-




392.





                                      84

-------
Bennett, R.F. 1996. Industrial manufacture and applications of tributyltin





compounds. In: Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant. (Ed.)





S.J. de Mora. Cambridge University Press, UK. pp. 21-61.










Blair, W.R.,  G.J. Olson, F.E. Brinckman and W.P. Iverson. 1982. Accumulation





and fate of tri-n-butyltin cation in estuarine bacteria. Microb. Ecol.  8:241-





251.










Blanck, H. 1986. University of Goteborg, Goteborg,  Sweden. (Memorandum to D.J.





Call,  Center for Lake Superior Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin-





Superior, Superior, WI.  March 11.).










Blanck, H. and B. Dahl.  1996. Pollution-induced community tolerance  (PICT) in





marine periphyton in a gradient of tri-n-butyltin (TBT)  contamination.  Aquat.





Toxicol. 35:59-77.










Blanck, H., G. Wallin and S.A. Wangberg. 1984. Species-dependent variation in





algal  sensitivity to chemical compounds. Ecotoxicol.  Environ. Saf. 8:339-351.










Bodar, C.W.M., E.G. van Donselaar and H.J. Herwig.  1990. Cytopathological





investigations of digestive tract and storage cells in Daphnia magna exposed





to cadmium and tributyltin. Aquat. Toxicol. 17:325-338.










Boike, A.H.,  Jr. and C.B. Rathburn, Jr. 1973. An evaluation of several  toxic





rubber compounds as mosquito larvicides. Mosq. News 33:501-505.
                                      85

-------
Brix, K.V.,  F.P. Sweeney and R. D. Cardwell. 1994a. Procedures for conducting





germination and growth tests to determine the acute toxicity of





bis(tributyltin)oxide to the giant kelp Macrocvstis pyrifera.  Elf Atochem





North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. Laboratory Project No.  55-1807-05-





(02A).  25 pp.










Brix, K.V.,  F.P. Sweeney and R.D. Cardwell. 1994b. Procedures for conducting





acute toxicity tests using the echinoderm sperm cell test to determine the





acute toxicity of bis(tributyltin)oxide.  Elf Atochem North America, Inc.,





Philadelphia, PA. Laboratory Project No.  55-1807-05 (02A).  20 pp.










Brooke, L.T., D.J. Call, S.H. Poirier, T.P. Markee, C.A. Lindberg, D.J.





McCauley and P.G. Simonson. 1986. Acute toxicity and chronic effects of





bis(tri-n-butyltin)  oxide to several species of freshwater organisms. Center





for Lake Superior Environmental Studies,  University of Wisconsin-Superior,





Superior, WI. 20 pp.










Bruno,  D.W.  and A.E. Ellis. 1988. Histopathological effects in Atlantic





salmon, Salmo salar L., attributed to the use of tributyltin antifoulant.





Aquaculture 72:15-20.










Bruschweiler, B.J.,  F.E. Wurgler and K. Fent.  1996. Inhibition of cytochrome





P4501A by organotins in fish hepatoma cells PLHC-1. Environ. Toxicol. Chem.





15:728-735.










Bryan,  G.W., D.A. Bright, L.G. Hummerstone and G.R. Burt. 1993. Uptake tissue





                                      86

-------
distribution and metabolism of 14C-labelled tributyltin  (TBT) in the dog-





whelk, Nucella lapillus. J. Mar. Biol.  Assoc. U.K. 73:889-912.










Bryan, G.W., P.E. Gibbs and G.R. Burt.  1988a. A comparison of the





effectiveness of tri-n-butyltin chloride and five other organotin compounds in





promoting the development of imposex in the dog-whelk, Nucella lapillus.  J.





Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 68:733-744.










Bryan, G.W., P.E. Gibbs, G.R. Burt and L.G. Hummerstone. 1987a. The effects of





tributyltin  (TBT) accumulation on adult dog-whelks, Nucella lapillus:  Long-





term field and laboratory experiments.  J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 67:525-544.










Bryan, G.W., P.E. Gibbs, R.J. Huggett,  L.A. Curtis, D.S. Bailey and D.M.





Dauer. 1989a. Effects of tributyltin pollution on the mud snail, Ilyanassa





obsoleta,  from the York River and Sarah Creek, Chesapeake Bay.  Mar. Pollut.





Bull. 20:458-462.










Bryan, G.W., P.E. Gibbs, L.G. Hummerstone and G.R. Burt. 1986.  The decline of





the gastropod Nucella lapillus around south-west England: Evidence for the





effect of tributyltin from antifouling paints. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U. K.





66:611-640.










Bryan, G.W., P.E. Gibbs, L.G. Hummerstone and G.R. Burt. 1987b. Copper, zinc





and organotin as long-term factors governing the distribution of organisms in





the Fal Estuary in southwest England. Estuaries. 10:208-219.
                                      87

-------
Bryan, G.W., P.E. Gibbs, L.G. Hummerstone and G.R. Hurt. 1989b. Uptake and




transformation of 14C-labelled tributyltin chloride by the dog-whelk, Nucella




lapillus:  Importance of absorption from the diet. Mar. Environ. Res. 28:241-




245.










Buccafusco, R. 1976a. Acute toxicity of tri-n-butyltin oxide to channel




catfish (Ictalurus punctatus),  the freshwater clam (Elliptio camplanatus),  the




common mummichog  (Fundulus heteroclitus) and the American oyster  (Crassostrea




virginica). US EPA-OPP Registration Standard.










Buccafusco, R. 1976b. Acute toxicity of tri-n-butyltin oxide to bluegill




(Lepomis macrochirus).  U.S. EPA-OPP Registration Standard.










Buccafusco, R., C. Stiefel, D.  Sullivan, B. Robinson and J. Maloney, Jr. 1978.




Acute toxicity of bis(tri-n-butyl-tin) oxide to rainbow trout  (Salmo




gairdneri). U.S. EPA-OPP Registration Standard.










Burridge,  T.R., T. Lavery and P.K.S. Lam. 1995. Effects of tributyltin and




formaldehyde on the germination and growth of Phyllospora comosa




(Labillardiere) C. Agardh  (Phaeophyta: Fucales).  Bull. Environ. Contam.




Toxicol. 55:525-532.










Bushong, S.J., L.W. Hall, Jr.,  W.S. Hall, W.E. Johnson and R.L. Herman. 1988.




Acute toxicity of tributyltin to selected Chesapeake Bay fish and




invertebrates. Water Res. 22:1027-1032.

-------
Bushong, S.J., W.S. Hall, W.E. Johnson and L.W. Hall, Jr. 1987. Toxicity of




tributyltin to selected Chesapeake Bay biota. In: Oceans 87, Vol. 4.




Proceedings International Organotin Symposium. Marine Technology Society,




Washington, DC. pp. 1499-1503.










Bushong, S.J., M.C. Ziegenfuss, M.A. Unger and L.W. Hall, Jr. 1990. Chronic




tributyltin toxicity experiments with the Chesapeake Bay copepod, Acartia




tonsa.  Environ. Toxicol.  Chem. 9:359-366.










Carney,  T. and E. Paulini. 1964. Molluscicide activity of some organotin




compounds. Rev. Bras. Malariol. Doencas Trop. 16:487-491.










Cardarelli, N.F. 1978. Controlled release organotins as mosquito larvicides.




Mosq. News 38:328-333.










Cardarelli, N.F. and W. Evans. 1980. Chemodynamics and environmental




toxicology of controlled release organotin molluscicides. In: Controlled




release of bioactive materials. Baker, R. (Ed.).  Academic Press, New York, NY.




pp. 357-385.










Cardwell, R.D. and A.W. Sheldon. 1986. A risk assessment concerning the fate




and effects of tributyltins in the aquatic environment. In:  Oceans 86, Vol. 4.




Proceedings International Organotin Symposium. Marine Technology Society,




Washington, DC. pp. 1117-1129.










Cardwell, R.D. and R.E. Stuart. 1988. An investigation of causes of shell





                                      89

-------
thickening and chambering in Pacific oysters from Coos Bay, Oregon. Draft




Report. Envirosphere Company, pp. 104-125.










Cardwell, R.D. and P.A. Vogue. 1986. Provisional estimates of water quality




criteria for the protection of aquatic life and their uses: Tributyltin




compounds. Report by Envirosphere Company, Bellevue, WA.,  to M&T Chemicals,




Woodbridge, NJ.










Caricchia, A.M., S. Chiavarini, C. Cremisini, R. Morabito and R. Scerbo. 1991.




Organotin compounds in marine mussels collected from Italian coasts. Anal.




Sci. 7:1193-1196.










Chagot, D., C. Alzieu, J. Sanjuan and H. Grizel. 1990. Sublethal and




histopathological effects of trace levels of tributyltin fluoride on adult




oysters Crassostrea gigas.  Aquat. Living Resour. 3:121-130.










Champ,  M.A. 1986. Organotin symposium: introduction and overview. In: Oceans




86, Vol. 4. Proceedings International Organotin Symposium. Marine Technology




Society. Washington, DC. 8  pp.










Champ,  M.A. and P.F. Seligman. 1996. An introduction to organotin compounds




and their use in antifouling coatings.  In: Organotin: Environmental Fate and




Effects.  (Eds.) Champ, M.A. and P.F. Seligman. Chapman and Hall, London, pp.




1-25.










Chau, Y.K. 1986. Occurrence and speciation of organometallic compounds in





                                      90

-------
freshwater systems. Sci. Total Environ. 49:305-323.










Chau, Y.K., R.J. Maguire and P.T. Wong. 1983. Alkyltin compounds in the





aquatic environment. In: Proceedings of the ninth annual aquatic toxicity





workshop. Mckay, W.C.  (Ed.). Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and





Aquatic Sciences No. 1163. Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Ottawa,





Ontario, Canada, p. 204.










Chiles, T., P.D. Pendoley and R.B. Laughlin, Jr. 1989. Mechanisms of tri-n-





butyltin bioaccumulation by marine phytoplankton.  Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.





46:859-862.










Chliamovitch, Y.P. and C. Kuhn.  1977. Behavior, haemotological and





histological studies on acute toxicity of bis(tri-n-butyltin) oxide on Salmo





gairdneri Richardson and Tilapia rendalli Boulenger. J. Fish Biol.  10:575-585.










Clark, J.R., J.M. Patrick, Jr.,  J.C. Moore and E.M. Lores. 1987. Waterborne





and sediment-source toxicities of six organic chemicals to grass shrimp





(Palaemonetes pugio) and amphioxus  (Branchiostoma caribaeum). Arch. Environ.





Contam. Toxicol. 16:401-407.










Clark, E.A., R.M. Sterritt and J.N. Lester. 1988.  The fate of tributyltin in





the aquatic environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 22:600-604.










deary, J.J. and A.R.D. Stebbing. 1985. Organotin and total tin in coastal





water of southwest England. Mar. Pollut. Bull.  16:350-355.





                                      91

-------
deary, J.J. and A.R.D. Stebbing. 1987. Organotin in the surface microlayer




and subsurface waters of southwest England. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 18:238-246.










Cochrane, B.J., R.B. Irby and T.W. Snell. 1991. Effects of copper and




tributyltin on stress protein abundance in the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis.




Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 92C:385-390.










Corbin, H.B. 1976. The solubilities of bis(tributyltin) oxide  (TBTO),




tributyltin fluoride (TBTF),  triphenyltin hydroxide  (TPTH),  triphenyltin




fluoride (TPTF),  and tricyclohexyltin hydroxide (TCTH)  in water as functions




of temperature and pH value.  Research and Development Technical Memorandum R-




1145-M. M&T Chemicals Inc.,  Rahway, NJ.










Crisinel, A.,  L.  Delaunay, D. Rossel, J. Tarradellas, H. Meyers, H. Saiah, P.




Vogel, C. Delisle and C. Blaise. 1994. Cyst-based ecotoxicological tests using




anastracans: comparison of two species of Streptocephalus.  Environ. Toxicol.




Wat. Qual.  9:317-326.










Curtis, L.A. and A.M. Barse.  1990. Sexual anomalies in the estuarine snail




Ilyanassa obsoleta:  imposex in females and associated phenomena in males.




Oecologia.  84:371-375.










Danil'chenko,  0.  1982.  A comparison of the reaction of fish embryos and




prolarvae to certain natural  factors and synthesized compounds. J. Ichthyol.




(Engl. Transl. Vopr. Ikhtiol.)  22 (1) : 123-134 .
                                      92

-------
Danil'chenko, 0. and N.C. Buzinova. 1982. Effect of pollution on the mollusc





Lymnaea stagnalis.  I. Survival, reproduction and embryonic development. Biol.





Nauki 25:61-69.










Davidson,  B.M., A.O. Valkirs and P.F. Seligman. 1986a. Acute and chronic





effects of tributyltin on the mysid Acanthomysis sculpta  (Crustacea,





Mysidacea).  NOSC-TR-1116 or AD-A175-294-8.  National Technical Information





Service, Springfield, VA.










Davidson,  B.M., A.O. Valkirs and P.F. Seligman. 1986b. Acute and chronic





effects of tributyltin on the mysid Acanthomysis sculpta  (Crustacea,





Mysidacea).  In: Oceans 86, Vol. 4. Proceeding International Organotin





Symposium. Marine Technology Society, Washington,  DC. pp. 1219-1225.










Davies, I.M., S.K.  Bailey and D.C. Moore. 1987. Tributyltin in Scottish sea





locks,  as indicated by degree of imposex in the dog-whelk, Nucella lapillus





(L).  Mar.  Pollut. Bull. 18:400-404.










Davies, I.M., J. Drinkwater and J.C. McKie. 1988.  Effects of tributyltin





compounds from antifoulants on Pacific oysters  (Crassostrea gigas) in Scottish





sea lochs. Aquaculture 74:319-330.










Davies, I.M. and J.C. McKie. 1987. Accumulation of total tin and tributyltin





in muscle tissue of formed Atlantic salmon. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 18:405-407.










Davies, I.M., J.C.  McKie and J.D. Paul. 1986. Accumulation of tin and





                                      93

-------
tributyltin from anti-fouling paint by cultivated scallops (Pecten maximus)




and Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas).  Aquaculture 55:103-114.










de la Court, F.H. 1980. The value of tributyltin fluoride as a toxicant in




antifouling formulations. J. Col. Chem.  Assoc. 63:465-473.










Delupis, G.D.D., P.M.B. Gucci and L. Volterra. 1987. Toxic effects of bis-




tributyltinoxide on phytoplancton.  Main Group Met. Chem. 10:77-82.










Delupis, G.D.D. and R. Miniero. 1989. Preliminary studies on the TBTO effects




on fresh water biotic communities.  Riv.  Idrobiol.  28:1-2.










de Mora, S.J., N.G. King and M.C. Miller. 1989. Tributyltin and total tin in




marine sediments: Profiles and the apparent rate of TBT degradation. Environ.




Technol. Let. 10:901-908.










Deschiens, R. 1968. Control of infectious microorganisms with chemical




molluscicides. C.R. Hebd. Seances Acad.  Sci. 266D:1860-1861.










Deschiens, R., H. Brottes and L. Mvogo.  1966a. Field application in Cameroon




of the molluscicide tributyltin oxide to control bilharziasis.  Bull. Soc.




Pathol. Exot. 59:968-973.










Deschiens, R., H. Brottes and L. Mvogo.  1966b. Effectiveness of field




applications of the molluscicide tributyltin oxide  (in the control of




bilharziasis). Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot.  59:231-234.





                                      94

-------
Deschiens, R. and H.A. Floch. 1968. Comparison of 6 chemical molluscicides as





to their control of bilharziasis.  Conclusions. Bull. Soc.  Pathol.  Exot.





61:640-650.










Deschiens, R. and H.A. Floch. 1970. Molluscicidal use of polyethylene





impregnated with tributyltin oxide. Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. 63:71-78.










Deschiens, R., H. Floch and T. Floch. 1964. The molluscicidal properties of





tributyltin oxide and acetate for prophylaxis of bilharziasis. Bull. Soc.





Pathol. Exot. 57:454-465.










de Sousa,  C.P. and E. Paulini. 1970. Absorption of molluscicides by calcium





carbonate. Rev. Bras. Malariol.  Doencas Trop. 21:799-818.










de Vries,  H., A.H. Penninks, N.J.  Snoeij and W. Seinen. 1991. Comparative





toxicity of organotin compounds  to rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) yolk





sac fry. Sci. Total. Environ. 103:229-243.










Dixon, D.R. and H. Prosser. 1986.  An investigation of the genotoxic effects of





an organotin antifouling compound  (bis(tributyltin)oxide)  on the chromosomes





of the edible mussel, Mytilus edulis. Aquatic Toxicol. 8:185-195.










Douglas, M.T., D.O. Chanter, I.E.  Pell and G.M. Burney. 1986. A proposal for





the reduction of animal numbers  required for the acute toxicity of fish test





(LC50 determination). Aquat. Toxicol. 8:243-249.
                                      95

-------
Durchon, M. 1982. Experimental activation of the neuroendocrine mechanism




governing the morphogenesis of the penis in the females of Ocenebra erinacea




(a dioecious prosobranch mollusc) by a marine pollutant (tributyltin). C.R.




Seances Acad. Sci. 295 (III) : 627-630 .










Dyrynda, E. 1992. Incidence of abnormal shell thickening in the pacific oyster




Crassostrea gigas in Poole Harbour (UK) , subsequent to the 1987 TBT




restrictions. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 24:156-163.










EG&G Bionomics. 1976. Acute toxicity of tri-n-butyltin oxide to channel




catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), the fresh water clam (Elliptio complanatus),




the common mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) and the American oyster




(Crassostrea virginica).  Final Report to M&T Chemical Co., Rahway, NJ. EPA




Ace. No. 136470.










EG&G Bionomics. 1977. Toxicity of tri-n-butyltin oxide (TBTO) to embryos of




eastern oysters  (Crassostrea virginica). Final Report to M&T Chemical Co.,




Rahway, NJ. EPA Ace. No.  114085.










EG&G Bionomics. 1979. Acute toxicity of three samples of TBTO (tributyltin




oxide)  to juvenile sheepshead minnows  (Cyprinodon variegatus).  Report L14-500




to M&T Chemicals Inc.,  Rahway, NJ.










EG&G Bionomics. 1981a.  Comparative toxicity of tri-butyltin oxide  (TBTO)




produced by two different chemical processes to pink shrimp  (Penaeus




duorarum).  Report BP-81-4-55 to M&T Chemicals Inc., Rahway, NJ.





                                      96

-------
EG&G Bionomics. 1981b. Acute toxicity of BioMet 204 Red to mysid shrimp




(Mysidopsis bahia).  Report BP-81-2-15 to M&T Chemicals Inc., Rahway, NJ.










EG&G Bionomics. 1981c. Comparative toxicity of tri-n-butyltin oxide (TBTO)




produced by two different chemical processes to the marine alga Skeletonema




costatum. Report BP-81-6-109 to M&T Chemcials Inc., Rahway, NJ.










EG&G Bionomics. 1981d. Unpublished laboratory data on acute toxicity of




tributyltin to sheepshead minnow, Cyprinodon variegatus.  Pensacola, FL.










Eisler, R. 1989. Tin hazards to fish, wildlife, and invertebrates: A synoptic




review. U.S. Fish Wildl.  Serv. Biol.  Rep. 85(1.15). 83 pp.










Ellis, D.V. and L.A. Pottisina. 1990. Widespread neogastropod imposex: A




biological indicator of global TBT contamination. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 21:248-




253 .










Envirosphere Company. 1986. A risk assessment concerning potential aquatic




environmental and public  health consequences associated with the use of




tributyltin compounds in  antifouling coatings. Vol. 1 and 2. Prepared for M&T




Chemicals Inc., Woodbridge, NJ.










Espourteille, F.A.,  J. Greaves and R.J. Huggett.  1993. Measurement of




tributyltin contamination of sediments and Crassostrea virginica in the




southern Chesapeake Bay.  Environ. Toxicol.  Chem.  12:305-314.
                                      97

-------
Evans, S.M., P.M. Evans and T Leksono. 1996. Widespread recovery of dogwelks,




Nucella lapillus (L.),  from the tributyltin contamination in the North Sea and




Clyde Sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 32:263-269.










Evans, D.W. and R.B. Laughlin, Jr. 1984. Accumulation of bis(tributyltin)




oxide by the mud crab,  Rhithropanopeus harrisii.  Chemosphere 13:213-219.










Evans, S.M. and T.  Leksono. 1995. The use of whelks and oysters as biological




indicators of pollution from anti-fouling paints. J. Biol.  Edu. 29:97-102.










Falcioni,  G., R. Gabbianelli, A.M. Santroni, G. Zolese, D.E. Griffiths and E.




Bertoli. 1996. Plasma membrane perturbation induced by organotins on




erythrocytes from Salmo irideus trout. Appl. Organo. Chem.  10:451-457.










Fargasova, A. 1996. Inhibitive effect of organotin compOounds on the




chlorophyll content of the green freshwater alga Scenedesmus guadricauda.




Bull. Environ. Contam.  Toxicol. 57:99-106.










Fargasova, A. and J. Kizlink. 1996. Effect of organotin compounds on the




growth of the freshwater alga Scenedesmus guadricauda.  Ecotoxicol. Environ.




Safety. 34:156-159.










Fent, K. 1991. Bioconcentration and elimination of tributyltin chloride by




embryos and larvae of minnows Phoxinus phoxinus.  Aquat. Toxicol. 20:147-158.










Fent, K. 1992. Embryotoxic effects of tributyltin on the minnow Phoxinus





                                      98

-------
phoxinus.  Environ. Pollut. 76:187-194.










Pent, K. and T.D. Bucheli. 1994. Inhibition of hepatic microsomal





monooxygenase system by organotins in vitro in fresh water fish. Aquat.





Toxicol. 28:107-126.










Pent, K. and J. Hunn. 1993. Uptake and elimination of tributyltin in fish-





yolk-sac larvae. Mar. Environ. Res. 35:65-71.










Pent, K. and J. Hunn. 1995. Organotins in freshwater harbors and rivers:





Temporal distribution, annual trends and fate. Environ. Toxicol. Chem.





14:1123-1132.










Pent, K. and P.W. Looser. 1995. Bioaccumulation and bioavailability of





tributyltin chloride: influence of pH and humic acids. Wat. Res. 29:1631-1637.










Pent, K. and W. Meier. 1992. Tributyltin-induced effects on early life stages





of minnows Phoxinus phoxinus. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 22:428-438.










Pent, K. and J.J. Stegeman. 1991. Effects of tributyltin chloride in vitro on





the hepatic microsomal monooxygenase system in the fish Stenotomus chrysops.





Aquat. Toxicol. 20:159-168.










Pent, K. and J.J. Stegeman. 1993. Effects of tributyltin in vivo on hepatic





cytochrome P450 forms in marine fish. Aquat. Toxicol. 24:219-240.
                                      99

-------
Filenko, O.F. and E.F. Isakova. 1980. The prediction of the effects of





pollutants on aquatic organisms based on the data of acute toxicity





experiments. In: Proceedings of the third USA-USSR symposium on the effects of





pollutants upon aquatic ecosystems. Swain, W.R. and V.R. Shannon (Eds.). EPA-





600/9-80-034. National Technical Information Service, Springfield,  VA. pp.





138-155.










Fisher, W.S., A. Wishkovsky and F.E. Chu.  1990. Effects of tributyltin on





defense-related activities of oyster hemocytes. Arch. Environ. Toxicol.





19:354-360.










Foale, S. 1993. An evaluation of the potential of gastropod imposex as a





bioindicator of tributyltin pollution in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria. Mar.





Pollut. Bull. 26:546-552.










Foster, R.B. 1981. Use of Asiatic clam larvae in aquatic hazard evaluations.





In: Ecological assessments of effluent impacts on communities of indigenous





aquatic organisms. Bates, J.M. and C.I. Weber  (Eds.). ASTM STP 730. American





Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA. pp. 280-288.










Francois, R., F.T. Short and J.H. Weber. 1989. Accumulation and persistence of





tributyltin in eelgrass  (Zostera marina L.)  tissue. Environ. Sci. Technol.





23:191-196.










Frick, L.P. and W.Q. DeJimenez. 1964. Molluscicidal qualities of three organo-





tin compounds revealed by 6-hour and 24-hour exposures against representative





                                      100

-------
stages and sizes of Australorbis glabratus.  Bull. W.H.O. 31:429-431.










Gibbs, P.E. 1993. Phenotypic changes in the progeny of Nucella lapillus




(Gastopoda) transplanted from an exposed shore to sheltered inlets. J. Moll.




Stud. 59:187-194.










Gibbs, P.E. and G.W. Bryan. 1986. Reproductive failure in populations of the




dog-whelk, Nucella lapillus,  caused by imposex induced by tributyltin from




antifouling paints. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 66:767-777.










Gibbs, P.E. and G.W. Bryan. 1987. TBT paints and the demise of the dog-whelk,




Nucella lapillus (Gastropoda).  In: Oceans 87, Vol. 4. Proceedings




International Organotin Symposium, Marine Technology Society,  Washington, DC.




pp. 1482-1487.










Gibbs, P.E. and G.W. Bryan. 1996a. Reproductive failure in the gastropod




Nucella lapillus associated with imposex caused by tributyltin pollution: A




review.  In: Organotin: Environmental Fate and Effects.  (Eds.) Champ, M.A. and




P.F. Seligman. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 259-280.










Gibbs, P.E. and G.W. Bryan. 1996b. TBT-induced imposex in neogastropod snails:




masculinization to mass extinction. In: Trybutyltin:  case study of an




environmental contaminant. (Ed.) de Mora, S.J. Cambridge University Press, pp.




212-236.










Gibbs, P.E., G.W. Bryan, P.L.  Pascoe and G.R. Burt.  1987. The use of the dog-





                                      101

-------
whelk, Nucella lapillus,  as an indicator of tributyltin  (TBT) contamination.





J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 67:507-523.










Gibbs, P.E., G.W. Bryan,  P.L. Pascoe and G.R. Burt.  1990. Reproductive





abnormalities in female Ocenebra erinacea  (Gastropoda) resulting from





tributyltin-induces imposex. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 70:639-656.










Gibbs, P.E., P.L. Pascoe and G.R. Burt. 1988. Sex change in the female dog-





whelk, Nucella lapillus,  induced by tributyltin from antifouling paints. J.





Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 68:715-731.










Gibbs, P.E., P.L. Pascoe and G.W. Bryan. 1991a. Tributyltin-induced imposex in





stenoglossan gastropods:  pathological effects on the female reproductive





system. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 100C:231-235 .










Gibbs, P.E., B.E. Spencer and P.L. Pascoe. 1991b. The American oyster drill,





Urosalpinx cinerea  (Gastropoda):  evidence of decline in an imposex-affected





population  (R. Blackwater,  Essex). J. Mar. Biol. Ass. 71:827-838.










Girard, J., C. Christophe,  D. Pesando and P. Payan.  1996. Calcium homeostasis





and early embryotoxicity in marine invertebrates. Comp. Biochem. Physiol.





113C:169-175.










Good, M.L., V.H. Kulkarni,  C.P. Monaghan and J.F. Hoffman. 1979. Antifouling





marine coatings and their long-term environmental impact. In: Proceedings of





third coastal marsh and estuary management symposium: Environmental conditions





                                      102

-------
in the Louisiana coastal zone. Day, J.W., Jr., D.D. Culley, Jr., A.J. Humphrey




and R.E. Turner (Eds.).  Division of Continuing Education, Louisiana State




University, Baton Rouge, LA. pp. 19-30.










Good, M.L., D.S. Dundee and G. Swindler. 1980. Bioassays and environmental




effects of organotin marine antifoulants. In: Controlled release of bioactive




materials. Baker,  R.  (Ed.). Academic Press, New York, NY. pp. 387-398.










Goodman, L.R., G.M. Gripe,  P.H. Moody and D.G. Halsell. 1988. Acute toxicity




of malathion, tetrabromobisphenol-A and tributyltin chloride to mysids




(Mysidopsis bahia)  of three ages. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.  41:746-753.










Goss, L.B., J.M. Jackson, H.B. Flora, E.G. Isom, C. Gooch, S.A. Murray, C.G.




Burton and W.S. Bain. 1979. Control studies on Corbicula for steam-electric




generating plants.  J.C.  Britton  (Ed.) International Corbicula Symposium, 1st,




Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX. 1979. pp. 139-151.










Gras, G. and J.A.  Rioux. 1965. Structure-activity relationships. Organotin




insecticides  (effects on larva of Culex pipiens pipiens L.).  Arch. Inst.




Pasteur Tunis 42:9-21.










Grovhoug, J.G., R.L. Fransham, A.O. Valkirs and B.M. Davidson. 1996.




Tributyltin concentrations in water, sediment, and bivalve tissues from San




Diego Bay and Hawaiian harbors. In: Organotin: Environmental Fate and Effects.




(Eds.) Champ, M.A.  and P.F. Seligman. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 503-533.
                                      103

-------
Guard, H.E., W.M. Coleman, III and A.B. Cobet.  1982. Speciation of tributyltin




compounds in seawater and estuarine sediments.  In: Proceedings of the 185th




National Meeting of the American Chemical Society, Division of Environmental




Chemistry, Las Vegas, NV. 22(1) :180-183.










Gucinski, H. 1986. The effect of sea surface microlayer enrichment on TBT




transport. In: Oceans 86, Vol. 4. Proceedings International Organotin




Symposium. Marine Technology Society,  Washington, DC. pp. 1266-1274.










Guolan, H. and W. Yong. 1995.  Effects of tributyltin chloride on marine




bivalve mussels. Wat. Res. 29:1877-1884.










Hall, L.W.,  Jr. 1988. Tributyltin environmental studies in Chesapeake Bay.




Mar. Pollut. Bull. 19:431-438.










Hall, L.W. Jr. 1991. A synthesis of water quality and contaminants data on




early life stages of striped bass, Morone saxatilis. Rev. Aquat.  Sci. 4:261-




288.










Hall, Jr., L.W. and S.J. Bushong. 1996. A review of acute effects of




tributyltin compounds on aquatic biota.  In: Organotin: Environmental Fate and




Effects.  (Eds.) Champ, M.A. and P.F. Seligman.  Chapman and Hall,  London, pp.




157-190.










Hall, L.W.,  Jr., S.J. Bushong, W.S. Hall and W.E. Johnson. 1987.  Progress




report: Acute and chronic effects of tributyltin on a Chesapeake Bay copepod.





                                      104

-------
Johns Hopkins University, Shady Side, MD.










Hall, L.W., Jr., S.J. Bushong, W.S. Hall and W.E. Johnson. 1988a. Acute and




chronic effects of tributyltin on a Chesapeake Bay copepod. Environ. Toxicol.




Chem. 7:41-46.










Hall, L.W., Jr., S.J. Bushong, M.C. Ziegenfuss, W.E. Johnson, R.L. Herman and




D.A. Wright. 1988b. Chronic toxicity of tributyltin to Chesapeake Bay biota.




Water Air Soil Pollut. 39:365-376.










Hall, L.W. Jr., S.A. Fischer and J.A. Sullivan. 1991. A synthesis of water




quality and contaminants data for the Atlantic Menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus:




implications for Chesapeake Bay. J. Environ. Sci. Health. A26:1513-1544.










Hall, L.W., Jr., M.J. Lenkevich, W.S. Hall, A.E. Pinkney and S.J. Bushong.




1986. Monitoring organotin concentrations  in Maryland waters of Chesapeake




Bay. In: Oceans 86, Vol. 4. Proceedings International Organotin Symposium.




Marine Technology Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1275-1279.










Hall, L.W., Jr. and A.E. Pinkney. 1985. Acute and sublethal effects of




organotin compounds on aquatic biota: An interpretative literature evaluation.




Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 14:159-209.










Hall, L.W., Jr., A.E. Pinkney, S. Zeger, E.T. Burton and M.J. Lenkevich.  1984.




Behavioral responses to two estuarine fish species subjected to bis(tri-n-




butyltin)  oxide. Water Resour. Bull. 20:235-239.





                                      105

-------
Han, J.S. and J.H. Weber. 1988. Speciation of methyl- and butyltin compounds




and inorganic tin in oysters of hydride generation atomic absorption




spectrometry. Anal. Chem. 60:316-319.










Harding, M.J.C., S.K. Bailey and I.M. Davies.  1996. Effects of TBT on the




reproductive success of the dogwhelk Nucella lapillus.  Napier University of




Edinburgh and The Scottish Office of Agriculture, Environment and Fisheries




Department, Aberdeen, Scotland. 75 pp.










Harding, M.J.C., G.K. Rodger, I.M. Davies and J.J. Moore. 1997. Partial




recovery of the dogwhelk (Nucella lapillus)  in Sullom Voe, Shetland from




tributyltin contamination.  Mar. Environ. Res.  44:285-304.










Harris, J.R.W., J.J. deary and A.O. Valkirs.  1996. Particle-water




partitioning and the role of sediments as a sink and secondary source of TBT.




In: Organotin: Environmental Fate and Effects. (Eds.) Champ, M.A. and P.F.




Seligman. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 459-473.










Helmstetter, M.F. and R.W.  Alden III. 1995.  Passive trans-chorionic transport




of toxicants in topically treated Japanese medaka  (Oryzias latipes) eggs.




Aquat.  Toxicol. 32:1-13.










Henderson, R.S. 1986. Effects of organotin antifouling paint leachates on




Pearl Harbor organisms: A site specific flowthrough bioassay. In: Oceans 86,




Vol. 4. Proceedings International Organotin Symposium.  Marine Technology




Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1226-1233.





                                      106

-------
Henderson, R.S. and S.M. Salazar. 1996. Flowthrough bioassay studies on the




effects of antifouling TBT leachates.  In: Organotin: Environmental Fate and




Effects.  (Eds.) Champ, M.A. and P.F. Seligman. Chapman and Hall, London, pp.




281-303.










His, E. 1996. Embryogenesis and larval development in Crassostrea gigas:




Experimental data and field observations on the effect of tributyltin




compounds. In: Organotin: Environmental Fate and Effects. (Eds.) Champ, M.A.




and P.F. Seligman. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 239-258.










His, E. and R. Robert. 1980. Effect of tributyltin acetate on eggs and larvae




of Crassostrea gigas.  Int. Counc. Explor. Sea, Mariculture Committee F:27.










Hnath,  J.G. 1970. Di-n-butyltin oxide as a vermifuge on Eubothrium crassum




(Block, 1779) in rainbow trout. Prog. Fish-Cult. 32:47-50.










Hodge,  V.F., S.L. Seidel and E.D. Goldberg. 1979. Determination of tin(IV) and




organotin compounds in natural waters, coastal sediments, and macro algae by




atomic  absorption spectrometry. Anal. Chem. 51:1256-1259.










Holm,  G., L. Norrgren and 0. Linden. 1991. Reproductive and histopathological




effects of long-term experimental exposure to bis(tributyltin)oxide (TBTO) on




the three-spinned stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus linnaeus. J. Fish Biol.




38:373-386.










Holwerda, D.A. and H.J. Herwig. 1986. Accumulation and metabolic effects of





                                      107

-------
di-n-butyltin dichloride in the freshwater clam, Anodonta anatina.  Bull.




Environ. Contam. Toxicol.  36:756-762.










Hopf, H.S. and R.L. Muller. 1962. Laboratory breeding and testing of




Australorbis glabratus for molluscicidal screening. Bull. W.H.O. 27:783-389.










Horiguchi, T., H. Shiraishi, M. Shimizu and M. Morita. 1997. Effects of




triphenyltin chloride and five other organotin compounds on the development of




imposex in the rock shell, Thais clavigera.  Environ. Pollut. 95:85-91.










Horiguchi, T., H. Shiraishi, M. Shimizu, S.  Yamazaki and M. Morita. 1995.




Imposex in Japanese gastropods  (Neogastropoda and Mesogastropoda):  Effects of




tributyltin and triphenyltin from antifouling paints. Mar. Pollut.  Bull.




31:402-405.










Huet, M.,  Y.M. Paulet and M. Glemarec. 1996. Tributyltin  (TBT)  pollution in




the coastal waters of West Brittany as indicated by imposex in Nucella




lapillus.  Mar. Environ. Res. 41:157-167.










Ide, I., E.P. Witten, J. Fischer, W. Kalbfus, A. Zellner, E. Stroben and B




Watermann. 1997. Accumulation of organotin compounds in the common whelk




Buccinum undatum and the red whelk Neptunea antigua in association with




imposex. Mar. Ecol. Prog.  Ser. 152:197-203.










International Joint Commission. 1976. Water quality objectives subcommittee.




Task force on scientific basis for water quality criteria. Great Lakes Water





                                      108

-------
Quality Board, Research Advisory Board, pp. 46-67.










Huang, G., Z. Bai, S. Dai and Q. Xie. 1993. Accumulation and toxic effect of




organometallic compounds on algae. Appl.  Organo. Chem. 7:373-380.










Jackson, J.A., W.R. Blair, F.E. Brinkman and W.P. Iverson. 1982. Gas-




chromatographic speciation of methylstamnanes in the Chesapeake Bay using




purge and trap sampling with a tin-selective detector. Environ. Sci. Technol.




16:110-119.










Jantataeme, S. 1991. Some effects of the molluscicide bis(tri-n-butyltin)




oxide (TBTO)  on the snail Oncomelania quadras! and the larval stages of its




trematode parasite Schistosoma laponicum. Dissert. Abst.  Internat. 52:1290-B.










Jenner,  M.G.  1979. Pseudohermaphroditism in Ilyanassa obsoleta  (Mollusca,




Neogastropoda). Science 205:1407-1409.










Jensen,  K. 1977. Organotin compounds in the aquatic environment. A survey.




Biokon Rep. 4:1-8.










Johansen, K.  and F. Mohlenberg. 1987. Impairment of egg production in Acartia




tonsa exposed to tributyltin oxide. Ophelia 27:137-141.










Johnson, W.E., L.W. Hall, Jr., S.J. Bushong, and W.S. Hall. 1987. Organotin




concentrations in centrifuged vs. uncentrifuged water column samples and in




sediment pore waters of a northern Chesapeake Bay tributary. In: Oceans 87,





                                      109

-------
Vol. 4. Proceedings International Organotin International Symposium. Marine




Technology Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1364-1369.










Jonas, R.B., C.C. Gilmour, D.L. Stoner, M.W. Weir and J.H. Tuttle. 1984.




Comparison of methods to measure acute metal and organometal toxicity to




natural aquatic microbial communities. Appl. Environ, microbiol.  47:1005-1011.










Josephson, D.B., R.C. Lindsay and D.A. Stuiber. 1989. Inhibition of trout gill




and soybean lipoxygenases by organotin compounds. J. Environ. Sci. Health.




B24 (5) :539-558.










Joshi, R.R. and S.K. Gupta. 1990. Biotoxicity of tributyltin acrylate




polymers. Tox. Assess. 5:389-393.










Kannan, K., S. Corsolini, S. Focardi, S. Tanabe and R. Tatsukawa. 1996.




Accumulation pattern of butyltin compounds in dolphin, tuna, and shark




collected from Italian coastal waters. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.  31:19-




23 .










Karande, A.A. and S.S. Ganti. 1994. Laboratory bioassays of tributyltin




toxicity to some common marine organisms. In: Recent Developments in




Biofouling Control. M-F. Thompson, R. Nagabhushanam, R. Sarojini and M.




Fingerman  (Eds.). A.A. Balkema Press, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 115-123.










Karande, A.A., S.S. Ganti and M. Udhayakumar. 1993. Toxicity of tributyltin to




some bivalve species. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 22:153-154.





                                      110

-------
Kelly, J.R., D.T. Rudnick, R.D. Morton, L.A. Buttel and S.N. Levine.  1990a.




Tributyltin and invertebrates of a seagrass ecosystem: Exposure and response




of different species. Mar. Environ. Res. 29:245-276.










Kelly, J.R., S.N. Levine, L.A. Buttel, K.A. Carr, D.T. Rudnick and R.D.




Morton. 1990b. The effects of tributyltin within a Thalassia seagrass




ecosystem. Estuaries. 13:301-310.










Khan, A.T., J.S. Weis, C.E. Saharig and A.E. Polo. 1993. Effect of tributyltin




on mortality and telson regeneration of grass shrimp, Palaemontetes pugio.




Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 50:152-157.










Kimbrough, R.D. 1976. Toxicity and health effects of selected organotin




compounds: a review. Environ. Health Perspect.  14:51-56.










Kinnetic Laboratory. 1984. Status of knowledge concerning environmental




concentrations and effects of tributyltin in aquatic systems. Final Report to




Electric Power Research Institute. KLI-R-84-9.  KLI, Santa Cruz, CA.










Kirk-Othmer. 1981. Encyclopedia of chemical technology. John Wiley and Sons,




New York,  NY. Vol. 6:578-579.










Kolosova,  L.V., V.N. Nosov and I.Q. Dobrovolskii. 1980. Structure of hetero-




organic compounds and their effect on Daphnia.  Hydrobiol.  J. (Engl. Transl.




Gidrobiol. Zh.) 16 (3) : 184-193 .
                                      Ill

-------
Kubo, Y., H. Asano, H. Kumai and G. Fuse. 1984. Studies on the toxic effects





of wood preservatives on the aquatic organisms  (Part 2).  Soc.  Antibac.





Antifum. Agents, Jpn. 12:551-559.










Kumar Das, V.G., L.Y. Kuan, K.I. Sudderuddin, C.K. Chang, V. Thomas, C.K. Yap,





M.K. Lo, G.C. Ong, W.K. Ng and Y. Hoi-sen. 1984. The toxic effects of





triorganotin(IV) compounds on the culicine mosquito, Aedes aegypti  (L.).





Toxicology 32:57-66.










Kumpulainen, J. and P. Koivistoinen. 1977. Advances in tin compound analysis





with special reference to organotin pesticide residues. Residue Rev. 66:1-18.










Kusk, K.O. and S. Petersen. 1997. Acute and chronic toxicity of tributyltin





and linear alkylbenzene sulfonate to the marine copepod Acartia tonsa.





Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 16:1629-1633.










Langston, W.J., G.W. Bryan, G.R. Burt and P.E. Gibbs.  1990. Assessing the





impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions. Funct.  Ecol. 4:433-





443 .










Langston, W.J. and G.R. Burt. 1991. Bioavailability and effects of sediment-





bound TBT in deposit-feeding clams, Scrobicularia plana.  Mar.  Environ. Res.





32:61-77.
                                      112

-------
Langston, W.J., G.R. Burt and Z. Mingjiang. 1987. Tin and organotin in water,




sediments, and benthic organisms of Poole Harbor. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 18:634-




639.










Langston, W.J. and N.D. Pope. 1995. Determinants of TBT adsorption and




desorption in estuarine sediments. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 31:32-33.










Lapota, D., D.E. Rosenberger, M.F. Platter-Rieger and P.F. Seligman. 1993.




Growth and survival of Mytilus edulis larvae exposed to low levels of




dibutyltin and tributyltin. Mar. Biol.  115:413-419.










Lau, M.M. 1991. Tributyltin antifoulings:  A threat to the Hong Kong marine




environment. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.  20:299-304.










Laughlin, R.B., Jr. 1983. Physicochemical factors influencing toxicity of




organotin compounds to crab zoea, Rhithropanopeus harrisii.  Abstract from




Annual Meeting of the American Society of Zoologists, Philadelphia, PA.




23:1004.










Laughlin, R.B., Jr. 1986. Bioaccumulation of tributyltin: The link between




environment and organism. In: Oceans 86, Vol. 4. Proceedings International




Organotin Symposium. Marine Technology Society, Washington,  DC. pp. 1206-1209.










Laughlin, R.B., Jr. 1996. Bioaccumulation of TBT by aquatic organisms.  In:




Organotin: Environmental Fate and Effects. (Eds.) Champ, M.A. and P.F.




Seligman. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 331-335.





                                     113

-------
Laughlin, R.B., Jr. and W.J. French. 1980. Comparative study of the acute





toxicity of a homologous series of trialkyltins to larval shore crabs,





Hemigrapsus nudus,  and lobster, Homarus americanus.  Bull. Environ. Contam.





Toxicol. 25:802-809.










Laughlin, R.B., Jr. and W. French. 1988. Concentration dependence of





bis(tributyltin)oxide accumulation in the mussel, Mytilus edulis.  Environ.





Toxicol. Chem. 7:1021-1026.










Laughlin, R.B., Jr. and W.J. French. 1989. Population-related toxicity





responses to two butyltin compounds by zoea of mud crab Rhithropanopeus





harrisii. Mar. Biol. 102:397-401.










Laughlin, R.B., Jr., W. French and H.E. Guard. 1983. Acute and sublethal





toxicity of tributyltin oxide  (TBTO) and its putative environmental product,





tributyltin sulfide (TBTS) to zoeal mud crabs, Rhithropanopeus harrisii. Water





Air Soil Pollut. 20:69-79.










Laughlin, R.B., Jr., W. French and H.E. Guard. 1986b. Accumulation of





bis(tributyltin) oxide by the marine mussel Mytilus edulis.  Environ. Sci.





Technol. 20:884-890.










Laughlin, R.B., Jr., W. French, R.B. Johannesen, H.E. Guard and F.E.





Brinckman. 1984a. Predicting toxicity using computed molecular topologies: The





example of triorganotin compounds. Chemosphere 13:575-584.
                                      114

-------
Laughlin, R.B., Jr., H.E. Guard and W.M. Coleman, III. 1986a. Tributyltin in





seawater: Speciation and octanol-water partition coefficient. Environ. Sci.





Technol.  20:201-204.










Laughlin, R.B., Jr., R.G. Gustafson and P. Pendoley. 1988. Chronic embryo





larval toxicity of tributyltin (TBT)  to the hard shell clam Mercenaria





mercenaria.  Mar. Ecol.  Progress Ser.  48:29-36.










Laughlin, R.B., Jr., R.G. Gustafson and P. Pendoley. 1989. Acute toxicity of





tributyltin (TBT)  to early life history stages of the hard shell clam,





Mercenaria mercenaria.  Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 42:352-358.










Laughlin, R.B., Jr., R.B. Johannesen, W. French, H. Guard and F.E. Brinckman.





1985. Structure-activity relationships for organotin compounds. Environ.





Toxicol.  Chem. 4:343-351.










Laughlin, R. and 0. Linden. 1982. Sublethal responses of the tadpole of the





European frog, Rana temporaria,  to two tributyltin compounds. Bull. Environ.





Contam. Toxicol. 28:494-499.










Laughlin, R.B., Jr. and 0. Linden. 1985. Fate and effects of organotin





compounds. Ambio 14:88-94.










Laughlin, R.B., Jr., 0. Linden and H.E. Guard. 1982. Acute toxicity of





tributyltins and tributyltin leachates from marine antibiofouling paints.





Bull. Liaison Comite Int. Perm.  Recher. Reser. Mater. Milieu Marin 13:3-26.





                                      115

-------
Laughlin, R.B., Jr., K. Nordlund and 0. Linden. 1984b. Long-term effects of





tributyltin compounds on the Baltic amphipod, Gammarus oceanicus.  Mar.





Environ. Res. 12:243-271.










Laughlin, R.B., Jr., P. Pendoley and R.G. Gustafson. 1987. Sublethal effects





of tributyltin on the hard shell clam, Mercenaria mercenaria.  In:  Oceans 87,





Vol. 4. Proceedings International Tributyltin Symposium. Marine Technology





Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1494-1498.










Laughlin, Jr., R.B., J. Thain,  B. Davidson, A.O. Valkirs and F.C.  Newton, III





1996. Experimental studies of chronic toxicity of tributyltin compounds.  In:





Organotin: Environmental Fate and Effects. (Eds.)  Champ, M.A.  and P.F.





Seligman. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 191-217.










Lawler, I.F. and J.C. Aldrich.  1987. Sublethal effects of bis(tri-n-





butyltin)oxide on Crassostrea gigas spat. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 18:274-278.










LeBlanc, G. 1976. Acute toxicity of tributyltin oxide to Daphnia magna.  US





EPA-OPP Registration Standard.










Lee, R.F. 1985. Metabolism of tributyltin oxide by crabs, oysters and fish.





Mar. Environ. Res. 17:145-148.










Lee, R.F. 1986. Metabolism of bis(tributyltin)oxide by estuarine animals. In:





Oceans 86, Vol. 4. Proceedings International Organotin Symposium.  Marine





Technology Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1182-1188.





                                      116

-------
Lee, R.F. 1996. Metabolism of tributyltin by aquatic organisms.  In:





Organotin: Environmental Fate and Effects. (Eds.) Champ, M.A. and P.F.





Seligman. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 369-382.










Lee, R.F., A.O. Valkius and P.F. Seligman. 1987. Fate of Tributyltin in





estuarine waters. In: Oceans 87, Vol. 4. Proceedings International Organotin





Symposium. Marine Technology Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1411-1419.










Lee, R.F., K. O'Malley and Y. Oshima. 1996. Effects of toxicants on developing





oocytes and embryos of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus.  Mar. Environ. Res.





42:125-128.










Lenihan, H.S., J.S. Oliver and M.A. Stephenson. 1990. Changes in hard bottom





communities related to boat mooring and tributyltin in San Diego Bay: a





natural experiment. Mar. Ecol.  Prog. Ser. 60:147-159.










Levine, S.N., D.T. Rudnick, J.R. Kelly, R.D.  Morton and L.A. Buttel. 1990.





Pollutant dynamics as influenced by seagrass beds: Experiments with





tributyltin in Thalassia microcosms. Mar. Environ. Res. 30:297-322.










Lewis, J.W., A.N. Kay and N.S.  Hanna. 1995. Responses of electric fish  (family





mormyridae)  in inorganic nutrients and tributyltin oxide. Chemosphere.





31:3753-3769.










Lindblad, C., U. Kauatsky, C. Andre, N. Kautsky and M. Tedengren. 1989.





Functional response of Fucus vesiculosus communities to tributyltin measured





                                      117

-------
in an in situ continuous flow-through system. Hydrobiologia 188/189:277-283.










Linden,  E., B. Bengtsson, 0. Svanberg and G. Sundstrom. 1979. The acute




toxicity of 78 chemicals and pesticide formulations against two brackish water




organisms,  the bleak (Alburnus alburnus)  and the harpacticoid Nitocra




spinipes.  Chemosphere 8:843-851.










Maguire, R.J. 1984. Butyltin compounds and inorganic tin in sediments in




Ontario. Environ. Sci.  Technol.  18:291-294.










Maguire, R.J. 1986. Review of the occurrence, persistence and degradation of




tributyltin in fresh water ecosystems in Canada. In: Oceans 86, Vol. 4.




Proceedings International Organotin Symposium. Marine Technology Society,




Washington, DC. pp. 1252-1255.










Maguire, R.J. 1996. The occurrence, fate and toxicity of tributyltin and its




degradation products in fresh water environments. In: Tributyltin: case study




of an environmental contaminant. (Ed.) S.J. de Mora. Cambridge University




Press, UK.  pp. 94-138.










Maguire, R.J., J.H. Carey and E.J.  Hale.  1983. Degradation of the tri-n-




butyltin species in water. J. Agric.  Food Chem. 31:1060-1065.










Maguire, R.J., Y.K. Chau, G.A. Bengert,  E.J. Hale,  P.T. Wong and 0. Kramar.




1982. Occurrence of organotin compounds in Ontario lakes and rivers. Environ.




Sci. Technol. 16:698-702.





                                      118

-------
Maguire, R.J. and R.J. Tkacz. 1985. Degradation of the tri-n-butyltin species





in water and sediment from Toronto harbor. J. Agric.  Food Chem. 33:947-953.










Maguire, R.J., R.J. Tkacz and D.L. Santor. 1985. Butyltin species and





inorganic tin in water sediment of the Detroit and St. Clair Rivers. J. Great





Lakes Res. 11:320-327.










Maguire, R.J., P.T.S. Wong and J.S. Rhamey. 1984. Accumulation and metabolism





of tri-n-butyltin cation by a green alga, Ankistrodesmus falcatus.  Can. J.





Fish. Aquat.  Sci. 41:537-540.










Martin, R.C., D.G. Dixon, R.J. Maguire, P.J. Hodson and R.J. Tkacz. 1989.





Acute toxicity,  uptake,  depuration and tissue distribution of tri-n-butyltin





in rainbow trout, Salmo gardneri.  Aquat. Toxicol. 15:37-52.










Matthiessen,  P.  and P.E. Gibbs. 1998. Critical appraisal of the evidence for





tributyltin-mediated endocrine disruption in mollusks. Environ. Toxicol. Chem.





17:37-43.










Matthiessen,  P.  and J.E. Thain. 1989. A method for studying the impact of





polluted marine sediments on intertidal colonizing organisms; tests with





diesel-based dwelling mud and tributyltin antifouling paint. Hydrobiologia





188/189:477-485.










McCullough, F.S., P.H. Gayral, J.  Duncan and J.D. Christie. 1980.





Molluscicides in schistosomiasis control. Bull. W.H.O. 58:681-689.





                                      119

-------
Meador, J.P. 1986. An analysis of photobehavior of Daphnia magna exposed to





tributyltin. In: Oceans 86, Vol. 4. Proceedings International Organotin





Symposium. Marine Technology Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1213-1218.










Meador, J.P. 1993. The effect of laboratory holding on the toxicity response





of marine infaunal amphipods to cadmium and tributyltin. J. Exp.  Mar. Biol.





Ecol. 174:227-242.










Meador, J.P. 1997. Comparative toxicokinetics of tributyltin in five marine





species and its utility in predicting bioaccumulation and acute toxicity.





Aquat.  Toxicol. 37:307-326.










Meador, J.P.,  U. Varanasi and C.A. Krone. 1993. Differential sensitivity of





marine infaunal amphipods to tributyltin. Mar. Biol. 116:231-239.










Meador, J.P.,  S.C. U'Ren, A.O. Valkirs, M.H. Salazar and S.A. Steinert. 1984.





A flow-through bioassay system to study chronic effects of pollutants:





analysis with bis(tributyltin)oxide  (TBTO).  Mar. Environ. Res. 14:501.










Mensink, B.P., J.M. Everaarts, H. Kralt, C.C. ten Hallers-Tjabbes and J.P.





Boon. 1996. Tributyltin exposure in early life stages induces the development





of male sexual characteristics in the common whelk, Buccinum undatum. Mar.





Environ. Res.  42:151-154.










Mercier, A., E. Pelletier and J. Hamel. 1994. Metabolism and subtle toxic





effects of butyltin compounds in starfish. Aquat. Toxicol. 28:259-273.





                                      120

-------
Mercier, A., E. Pelletier and J. Hamel.  1997. Effects of butyltins on the





symbiotic sea anemone Aiptasia pallida (Verrill).  J. Exp. Mar. Biol.  Ecol.





215:289-304.










Miana, P., S. Scotto, G. Perin and E. Argese. 1993. Sensitivity of Selenastrum





capricornutum, Daphnia magna and submitochondrial  particles to tributyltin.





Environ. Tech. 14:175-181.










Minchin, D., B. Bauer, J. Oehlmann, U. Schulte-Oehlmann and C.B. Duggan.  1997.





Biological indicators used to map organotin contamination from a fishing port,





Killybegs, Ireland. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 34:235-243.










Minchin, D., C.B. Duggan and W. King. 1987. Possible effects of organotins  on





scallop recruitment. Mar. Pollut. Bull.  18:604-608.










Minchin, A. and D. Minchin. 1987. Dispersal of TBT from a fishing port





determined using the dogwhelk Nucella lapillus as  an indicator. Environ.





Technol. 18:1225-1234.










Minchin, D., E. Stroben, J. Oehlmann, B.  Bauer,  C.B. Duggan and M. Keatinge.





1996. Biological indicators used to map organotin  contamination in Cork





Harbour, Ireland. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 32:188-195.










Monaghan, C.P., E.J. O'Brien, Jr., H. Reust and M.L. Good. 1980. Current





status of the chemical speciation of organotin toxicants in antifoulants. Dev.





Ind.  Microbiol. 21:211-215.





                                      121

-------
Miniero, R. and G.D.D. Delupis. 1991. Effects of TBT (tributyltin) on aquatic





microcosms. Toxicol.  Environ. Chem. 31-32:425-431.










Moore, D.W., T.M. Dillon and B.C. Suedel.  1991. Chronic toxicity of





tributyltin to the marine polychaete worm, Neanthes arenaceodentata.  Aquat.





Toxicol. 21:181-198.










Mottley, J. 1978. Studies on the modes of action of n-alkylguanidines and





triorganotins on photosynthetic energy conservation in the pea and the





unicellular alga Chlamydomonas reinhardi Dangeard. Pestic. Biochem. Physiol.





9:340-350.










Mottley, J. and D.E.  Griffiths. 1977. Minimum inhibitory concentrations of a





broad range of inhibitors for the unicellular alga Chlamydomonas reinhardi





Dangeard. J. Gen. Microbiol.  102:431-434.










Nagabhushanam, R., P.S. Reddy and R. Sarojini.  1991. Tissue specific





alterations in glycogen profiles by tributyltin oxide induced stress in the





prawn, Caridina ran adhari.  J. Anim. Morphol.  Physiol. 38:153-156.










Nagase, H., T. Hamasaki, T. Sato, H. Kito, Y. Yoshitada and Y. Ose. 1991.





Structure-activity relationships for organotin compounds on the red killfish





Oryzias latipes.  Appl. Organo. Chem. 5:91-97.










Nakagawa, H. and K. Saeki.  1992. Effects of tri-n-butyltin chloride on growth





of five species of marine phytoplankton. Sci. Bull. Fac. Agr., Kyushu Univ.





                                      122

-------
46:231-236.










Nell, J.A. and R. Chvojka. 1992. The effect of bis-tributyltin oxide  (TBTO)




and copper on the growth of juvenile Sydney rock oysters Saccostrea




commercialis (Iredale and Roughley) and Pacific oysters Crassostrea gigas




Thunberg. Sci.  Total Environ. 125:193-201.










Newton, F., A.  Thum, B. Davidson, A. Valkirs and P. Seligman. 1985. Effects on




the growth and survival of eggs and embryos of the California grunion




(Leuresthes tenuis)  exposed to trace levels of tributyltin. NOSC-TR-1040 or




AD-A162-445-1.  National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA. 17 pp.










Nias, D.J., S.C. McKillup and K.S. Edyvane. 1993. Imposex in Lepsiella vinosa




from southern Australia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 26:380-384.










Nishiuchi, Y. and K. Yoshida. 1972. Toxicities of pesticides to fresh water




snails. Bull. Agric. Chem. Insp. Stn. (Tokyo)  12:86-92.










North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community Development.




1983. Investigation of the effects and uses of biocides and related compounds




in North Carolina. Report No. 83-09. Division of Environmental Management,




Water Quality Section, Raleigh, NC. 60 pp.










North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community Development.




1985. Triorganotin regulations in North Carolina. Division of Environmental




Management, Water Quality Section, Planning Branch, Raleigh, NC.





                                      123

-------
Nosov, V.N. and L.V. Kolosova. 1979. Features of a toxicological curve as a





function of the chemical structure of hetero-organic compounds. Biol.  Nauki





22:97-101.










Oehlmann, J., P. Fioroni, E. Stroben and B. Markert. 1996. Tributyltin (TBT)





effects on Ocinebrina aciculata (Gastropoda: Muricidae):  Imposex development,





sterilization, sex change and population decline. Sci. Tot. Environ. 188:205-





223 .










Oehlmann, J., E. Stroben and P. Fioroni. 1991. The morphological expression of





imposex in Nucella lapillus (Linnaeus)   (Gastropoda: Muricidae). J. Moll.  Stud.





57:375-390.










Osada, M., T. Nomura and K. Mori.  1993. Acute toxicity and accumulation of





tributyltin oxide in the Japanese oyster, Crassostrea gigas.  Suisanzoshoku





41:439-443.










Page, D.S. 1995. A six-year monitoring study of tributyltin and dibutyltin in





mussel tissues from the Lynher river, Tamar Estuary, U.K. Mar. Pollut. Bull.





30:746-749 .










Page, D.S. and J. Widdows.  1991. Temporal and spatial variation in levels of





alkyltins in mussel tissues: A toxicological interpretation of field data.





Mar.  Environ. Res. 32:113-129.










Paul, J.D. and I.M. Davies. 1986.  Effects of copper- and tin-based anti-





                                     124

-------
fouling compounds on the growth of scallops (Pecten maximus)  and oysters




(Crassostrea gigas).  Aguaculture 54:191-203.










Peven, C.S., A.D. Uhler, R.E. Hillman and W.G. Steinhauer. 1996.




Concentrations of organic contaminants in Mytilus edulis from the Hudson-




Raritan estuary and Long Island Sound. Sci. Tot. Environ. 179:135-147.










Pickwell, G.V. and S.A. Steinert. 1988. Accumulation and effects of organotin




compounds in oyster and mussels: Correlation with serum biochemical and




cytological factors and tissue burdens. Mar. Environ. Res. 24:215-218.










Pinkney, A.E. 1988.  Biochemical, histological and physiological effects of




tributyltin compounds in estuarine fish. Ph.D. Dissertation.  University of




Maryland. 92 pp.










Pinkney, A.E., L.W.  Hall, Jr., M.L. Lenkevich, D.T. Burton and S. Zeger. 1985.




Comparison of avoidance responses of an estuarine fish, Fundulus heteroclitus,




and crustacean, Palaemonetes pugio, to bis(tri-n-butyltin) oxide. Water Air




Soil Pollut. 25:33-40.










Pinkney, A.E., D.A.  Wright and G.N. Hughes. 1989a. A morphometric study of the




effects of tributyltin compounds on the gills of the munnichog, Fundulus




heteroclitus. J. Fish Biol.  34:665-677.










Pinkney, A.E., L.L.  Matteson and D.A. Wright. 1990. Effects of tributyltin on




survival, growth, morphometry and RNA-DNA ratio of larval striped bass, Morone





                                      125

-------
saxatilis.  Arch. Environ. Contain. Toxicol.  19:235-240.










Pinkney, A.E., D.A. Wright, M.A. Jepson and D.W. Towle. 1989b. Effects of




tributyltin compounds on ionic regulation and gill ATPase activity in




estuarine fish. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 92C:125-129.










Piver, W.T. 1973. Organotin compounds: industrial applications and biological




investigation. Environ. Health Perspect.  4:61-79.




Polster, M. and K. Halacha. 1972. Hygenic-toxicological problems of some




antimicrobially-used organotin compounds. Ernaehrungsforschung 16:527-535.










Pope, D.H.  1981. Effect of biocides on algae and legionnaires disease




bacteria. DE81-028768. National Technical Information Service, Springfield,




VA.










Prouse, N.J. and D.V. Ellis. 1997. A baseline survey of dogwhelk (Nucella




lapillus) imposex in eastern Canada (1995)  and interpretation in terms of




tributyltin (TBT) contamination. Environ. Technol. 18:1255-1264.










Quevauviller,  P., R. Lavigne and M. Ostruc.  1989. Organotins in sediments and




mussels from the Sado estuarine system (Portugal). Environ. Pollut. 57:149-




166.










Quick, T. and N.E. Cardarelli. 1977. Environmental impact of controlled




release molluscicides and their degradation products: a preliminary report.




In: Controlled release pesticides. Scher, H.B.  (Ed.). ACS Symposium Series No.





                                      126

-------
53. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC. pp. 90-104.










Reader, S., R.S. Louis, E. Pelletier and F. Denizeau. 1996. Accumulation and





biotransformation of tri-n-butyltin by isolated rainbow trout hepatocytes.





Environ. Toxicol.  Chem. 15:2049-2052.










Reader, S. and E.  Pellitier. 1992. Bioabsorption and degradation of butyltin





compounds by the marine diatom Skeletoneme costatum and the associated





bacterial community at low temperatures. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.





48:599-607.










Reader, S., H.B. Steen and F. Denizeau. 1994. Intracellular calcium and pH





alterations induced by tri-n-butyltin chloride in isolated rainbow trout





hepatocytes: a flow cytometric analysis. Arch. Biochem. Biophys.  312:407-413.










Reddy, P.S., R. Nagabhushanam and R. Sarojini. 1992. Retardation of moulting





in the prawn,  Caridina ran adhari exposed to tributyltin oxide  (TBTO) .  Proc.





Nat. Acad. Sci. India. 62:353-356.










Rexrode, M. 1987.  Ecotoxicity of tributyltin. In: Oceans 87, Vol. 4.





Proceedings International Organotin Symposium. Marine Technology Society,





Washington, DC. pp. 1443-1455.










Rhea, M.R., A. Proctor and R.D. Cardwell. 1995. Chronic life-cycle toxicity of





bis(tributyltin)oxide to Mysidopsis bahia. Elf Atochem North America,  Inc.,





Philadelphia,  PA.  Laboratory Project No. 44-1807-16-01-MYSID. 33  pp.





                                      127

-------
Rice, C.D., M.M. Banes and T.C. Ardelt. 1995. Immunotoxicity in channel




catfish, Ictalurus punctatus ,  following acute exposure to tributyltin. Arch.




Environ. Contam. Toxicol.  28:464-470.










Rice, C.D. and B.A. Weeks. 1990. The influence of in vivo exposure to




tributyltin on reactive oxygen formation in oyster toadfish macrophages.  Arch.




Environ. Contam. Toxicol.  19:854-857.










Rice, C.D. and B.A. Weeks. 1991. Tributyltin stimulates reactive oxygen




formation in toadfish macrophages. Dev. Comp. Immun. 15:431-436.










Ringwood, A.H. 1992. Comparative sensitivity of gametes and early




developmental stages of a sea urchin species (Echinometra mathaei) and a




bivalve species (Isognomon californicum) during metal exposures. Arch.




Environ. Contam. Toxicol.  22:288-295.










Ritchie, L.S., L.A. Berrios-Duran, L.P. Frick and I. Fox. 1964. Molluscicidal




time-concentration relationships of organo-tin compounds. Bull. W.H.O. 31:147-




149.










Robert, R. and E.  His. 1981. The effects of tributyltin acetate on the eggs




and larvae of the two commercially important molluscs Crassostrea gigas




(Thurberg) and Mytilus galloprovincialis (Link).  Int. Counc.  Explor. Sea,




Mariculture Committee F:42. 16 pp.










Roberts, M.H., Jr. 1987. Acute toxicity of tributyltin chloride to embyos and





                                      128

-------
larvae of two bivalve mollusks, Crassostrea virginica and Mercenaria





mercenaria.  Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.  39:1012-1019.










Roberts, M.H., Jr., M.E. Bender, P.F. DeLisle, H.C. Sutton and R.L. Williams.





1987. Sex ratio and gamete production in American oysters exposed to





tributyltin in the laboratory. In: Oceans 87, Vol. 4. Proceedings





International Organotin Symposium. Marine Technology Society, Washington, DC.





pp. 1471-1476.










Roberts, M.H., Jr., R.J. Huggett, M.E. Bender, H. slone and P.F. DeLisle.





1996. Tributyltin bioconcentration from solution and suspended sediments by





oysters, with a comparison with uptake in field experiment. In: Organotin:





Environmental Fate and Effects.  (Eds.) Champ, M.A. and P.F. Seligman. Chapman





and Hall, London, pp. 357-368.










Ronis, M.J.J. and A.Z. Mason. 1996. The metabolism of testosterone by the





periwinkle (Littorina littorea) in vitro and in vivo: Effects of tributyl tin.





Mar. Envir.  Res. 42 (1-4) :161-166 .










Rouleau, C.,  E. Pelletier and H. Tjalve. 1995. Distribution kinetics of





trophic and single doses of methylmercury, tributyltin, and corresponding





inorganic ions in the starfish Leptasterias polaris.  Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.





124:143-158.










Ruiz, J.M.,  G.W. Bryan and P.E. Gibbs. 1994a. Bioassaying the toxicity of





tributyltin-(TBT)-polluted sediment to spat of the bivalve Scrobicularia





                                      129

-------
plana. Mar. Ecol.  Prog. Ser. 113:119-130.










Ruiz, J.M., G.W. Bryan and P.E. Gibbs.  1994b. Chronic toxicity of water





tributyltin (TBT)  and copper to spat of the bivalve Scrobicularia plana:





ecological implications. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 113:105-117.










Ruiz, J.M., G.W. Bryan and P.E. Gibbs.  1995a. Acute and chronic toxicity of





tributyltin (TBT)  to pediveliger larvae of the bivalve Scrobicularia plana.





Mar. Biol. 124:119-126.










Ruiz, J.M., G.W. Bryan and P.E. Gibbs.  1995b. Effects of tributyltin (TBT)





exposure on the veliger larvae development of the bivalve Scrobicularia plana





(da Costa). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 186:53-63.










Ruiz, J.M., G.W. Bryan, G.D. Wigham and P.E. Gibbs. 1995c. Effects of





tributyltin (TBT)  exposure on the reproduction and embryonic development of





the bivalve Scobicularia plana. Mar. Environ. Res. 40:363-379.










Ruiz, J.M., J. Szpunar and O.F.X. Donard. 1997. Butyltins in sediments and





deposit-feeding bivalves Scribicularia plana from Arcachon Bay, France. Sci.





Tot. Environ.  198:225-231.










Saint-Louis,  R., E. Pelletier, P. Masot and R. Fournier. 1994. Distribution





and effects of tributyltin chloride and its degredation products on the growth





of the marine alga Pavlova lutheri in continuous culture. Wat. Res. 28:2533-





2544.





                                     130

-------
Salazar, M.H. 1986. Environmental significance and interpretation of oragnotin




bioassays. Proc.  Oceans 1986 Conference, Washington,  D.C., 23 - 25 September




1986, Organotin Symposium, Vol. 4.










Salazar, M.H. 1989. Mortality, growth and bioaccumulation in mussels exposed




to TBT: differences between the laboratory and the field. Proc. Oceans 1989,




Seattle, Washington. 18-21 September, 1989, Organotin Symposium, Vol. 2.










Salazar, M.H. 1992. Use and misuse of mussels in natural resource damage




assessment. Proc. MTS '92, Washington, D.C., 19-21 October,  1992, Vol. 1,




Global Ocean Resources,  pp. 257-264, Marine Technology Society.










Salazar, M.H. and D.B. Chadwick. 1991. Using real-time physical/chemical




sensors and in-situ biological indicators to monitor water pollution. In: L.C.




Wrobel and C.A. Brebbia (Eds.) Water Pollution: Modelling, measuring and




prediction. First International Conference on Water Pollution Modeling,




Measuring and Prediction,  1991. Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp. 463.480.










Salazar, M.H. and M.A. Champ. 1988. Tributyltin and water quality: A question




of environmental  significance. In: Oceans 88, Vol. 4. Proceedings




International Organotin Symposium. Marine Technology Society, Washington, DC.




10 pp.










Salazar, M.H. and S.M. Salazar. 1985a. The effects of sediment on the survival




of mysids exposed to organotins. Proc. llth U.S./Japan Experts meeting,




Management of bottom sediments containing toxic substances.  4-6 November,





                                      131

-------
1985, Seattle, Washington. T.P. Patin, (Ed.).










Salazar, M.H. and S.M. Salazar. 1985b. Ecological evaluation of organotin-




contaminated sediment. NOSC-TR-1050 or AD-A160-748-0.  National Technical




Information Service, Springfield,  VA. 22 pp.










Salazar, M.H. and S.M. Salazar. 1987. Tributyltin effects on juvenile mussel




growth. In: Oceans 87, Vol. 4. Proceedings International Organotin Symposium.




Marine Technology Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1504-1510.










Salazar, M.H. and S.M. Salazar. 1988. Tributyltin and mussel growth in San




Diego Bay. In: Oceans 1988, Vol. 4. Proceedings International Organotin




Symposium. Marine Technology Society, Washington, DC.  pp. 1188-1197.










Salazar, M.H. and S.M. Salazar. 1989. Acute effects of  (bis)tributyltin oxide




on marine organisms. Naval Oceans Systems Center Technical Report 1299, San




Diego, CA. May 1989. 60 pp + appendix.










Salazar, M.H. and S.M. Salazar. 1990a. Utility of mussel growth in assessing




the environmental effects of tributyltin. Proc. 3rd International Organotin




Symposium April 17-20, 1990, Monaco, pp.  132-136.










Salazar, M.H. and S.M. Salazar. 1990b. Mussels as bioindicators:  A case study




of tributyltin effects on San Diego Bay.   In: Chapman, P.M., F.S. Bishay, E.A.




Power, K. Hall, L. Harding, D. McLeay and M. Nassichuk  (Eds.), Proceedings,




17th annual Aquatic toxicity workshop, Vancouver, Canada, 5-7 November. Can.





                                      132

-------
Tech. Report. Fish. Aq. Sci. 1774:47-75.










Salazar, M.H. and S.M. Salazar. 1991. Assessing site-specific effects of TBT




with mussel growth rates. Mar. Environ. Res. 32:131-150.










Salazar, M.H. and S.M. Salazar. 1996. Mussels as bioindicators:  Effects of TBT




on survival, bioaccumulation, and growth under natural conditions. In:




Organotins: Environmental Fate and Effects. Champ, M.A., and P.F. Seligman




(Eds.).  Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 305-330.










Salazar, S.M. 1985. The effects of bis(tri-n-butyltin) oxide on three species




of marine phytoplankton.  NOSC-TR-1039 or AD-A162-115-0.  National Technical




Information Service, Springfield, VA. 17 pp.










Salazar, S.M., B.M. Davidson, M.H. Salazar, P.M. Stang and K.J.  Meyers-




Schulte. 1987. Effects of tributyltin on marine organisms: Field assessment of




a new site-specific bioassay system. In: Oceans 87, Vol  4. Proceedings




International Organotin Symposium. Marine Technology Society, Washinton, DC.




pp. 1461-1470.










Salazar, S.M. and M.H. Salazar. 1990a. Bioaccumulation of tributyltin in




mussels. Proc. 3rd International Organotin Symposium, April 17-20, 1990,




Monaco,  pp. 79-83.










Santos,  A.T., M.J. Santos, B.L. Bias and E.A. Banez. 1977. Field trials using




slow release rubber molluscicide formulations. MT-1E  (Biomet SRM) and CBL-9B.





                                      133

-------
In: Controlled release pesticides. Scher, H.B.  (Ed.).  ACS Symposium Series No.




53. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC. pp. 114-123.










Sarojini, R., B. Indira and R. Nagabhushanam, 1991. Effect of antifouling




organometallic compounds on the brain of mature female prawn Caridina weberi.




J. Adv. Zool. 12:93-99.










Sarojini, R., P.S. Reddy and R. Nagabhushanam. 1992. Acute and chronic




tributyltin induced alterations in digestive enzymes of the prawn, Caridina




raiadhari.  Uttar Pradesh J. Zool. 12:20-24.










Scadding, S.R. 1990. Effects of tributyltin oxide on the skeletal structures




of developing and regenerating limbs of the axolotl larvae, Ambvstoma




mexicanum.  Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 45:574-581.










Scammell, M.S.,  G.E. Batley and C.I. Brockbank. 1991.  A field study of the




impact on oysters of tributyltin introduction and removal in a pristine lake.




Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 20:276-281.










Schulte-Oehlmann, U., C. Bettin, P. Fioroni, J. Oehlmann and e. Stroben. 1995.




Marisa cornuarietis  (Gastropoda, Prosobranchia): a potential TBT bioindicator




for freshwater environments. Ecotoxicology 4:372-384.










Schwaiger,  J., F. Bucher, H. Ferling, W. Kalbfus and R. Negele. 1992. A




prolonged toxicity study on the effects of sublethal concentrations of




bis(tri-n-butyltin)oxide (TBTO): Histopathological and histochemical findings





                                      134

-------
in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).  Aquat.  Toxicol.  23:31-48.










Seiffer, E.A. and H.F. Schoof. 1967. Tests of 15 experimental molluscicides




against Australorbis glabratus.  Public Health Rep. 82:833-839.










Seinen, W., T. Helder, H. Vernij,  A. Penninks and P. Leeuwangh. 1981. Short




term toxicity of tri-n-butyltin chloride in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri




Richardson) yolk sac fry. Sci. Total Environ. 19:155-166.










Seligman, P.F.,  J.G. Grovhoug, A.O. Valkirs, P.M. Stang, R.  Fransham, M.O.




Stalland, B. Davidson and R.F. Lee. 1989. Distribution and fate of tributyltin




in the United States marine environment. Appl.  Organo. Chem. 3:31-47.










Seligman, P.F.,  R.J. Maguire, R.F. Lee,  K.R. Hinga, A.O. Valkirs and P.M.




Stang. 1996. Persistence and fate of tributyltin in aquatic ecosystems. In:




Organotin: Environmental Fate and Effects.  (Eds.) Champ, M.A. and P.F.




Seligman. Chapman and Hall, London, pp.  429-457.










Seligman, P.F.,  A.O. Valkirs and R.F. Lee. 1986. Degradation of tributyltin in




San Diego Bay, CA waters. Draft Report.  Naval Ocean Systems Center, San Diego,




CA. 7 pp.










Seligman, P.F.,  A.O. Valkirs, P.M. Stang and R.F. Lee. 1988. Evidence for




rapid degradation of tributyltin in a marina. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 19:531-534.










Selwyn, M.J. 1976.  Triorganotin compounds as ionophores and inhibitors of ion





                                      135

-------
translocating ATPases.  In: Organotin Compounds: New Chemistry and





Applications. Zuckerman, J.J.  (Ed), pp. 204-226.










Sherman, L.R. 1983. A model for the controlled release of tri-n-butyltin





fluoride from polymeric molluscicides and mosquito larvicides. J. Appl.





Polymer Sci. 28:2823-2829.










Sherman, L.R. and H. Hoang. 1981. The bioassay and analysis of tributyltin





fluoride. Anal. Proc. 18:196-198.










Sherman, L.R. and J.C.  Jackson. 1981. Tri-n-butyltin fluoride as a controlled-





release mosquito larvicide. In: Controlled Release of Pesticides and





Pharmaceuticals. Lewis, D.H.  (Ed.). Plenum Press, New York, NY. pp. 287-294.










Shiff, C.J., C. Yiannakis and A.C. Evans. 1975. Further trials with TBTO and





other slow release molluscicides in Rhodesia. In: Proceedings of 1975





International Controlled Release Pesticide Symposium. Harris, F.W. (Ed.).





Wright State University, Dayton, OH. pp. 177-188.










Shimizu, A. and S. Kimura. 1992. Long-term effects of bis(n-tributyltin)oxide





(TBTO) on salt-water goby Chasmichothys dolichognathus.  Nippon Suisan





Gakkaishi. 59:1595-1602.










Short, J.W. 1987. Measuring tri-n-butyltin in salmon by atomic absorption:





Analysis with and without gas chromatography. Bull. Environ. Contam.  Toxicol.





39:412-416.





                                      136

-------
Short, J.S., S.D. Rice, C.C. Brodersen and W.B. Stickle. 1989. Occurrence of





tri-n-butyltin-caused imposex in the Pacific marine snail Nucella lima in Auke





Bay, Alaska. Mar. Biol. 102:291-297.










Short, J.W. and J.L. Sharp. 1989. Tributyltin in bay mussels  (Mytilus edulis)





of the Pacific coast of the United States. Environ. Sci. Technol.  23:740-743.










Short, J.W. and F.P. Thrower. 1986a. Accumulation of butyltins in muscle





tissue of chinook salmon reared in sea pens treated with tri-n-butyltin. In:





Oceans 86, Vol. 4. Proceedings International Organotin Symposium.  Marine





Technology Society,  Washington, DC. pp. 1177-1181.










Short, J.W. and F.P. Thrower. 1986b. Tri-n-butyltin caused mortality of





chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha,  on transfer to a TBT-treated marine





net pen. In: Oceans 86, Vol. 4. Proceedings International Organotin Symposium.





Marine Technology Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1202-1205.










Short, J.W. and F.P. Thrower. 1986c. Accumulation of butyltins in muscle





tissue of chinook salmon reared in sea pens treated with tri-n-butyltins.  Mar.





Pollut. Bull. 17:542-545.










Short, J.W. and F.P. Thrower. 1987. Toxicity of tri-n-butyl-tin to chinook





salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, adapted to seawater. Aquaculture 61:193-200.










Skarphedinsdottir, H., K. Olapsdottir, J.  Svavarsson and T. Johannesson. 1996.





Seasonal fluctuations of tributyltin(TBT)  and dibutyltin (DBT) in the





                                      137

-------
dogwhelk, Nucella lapillus (L.), and the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis L., in




Icelandic waters. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 32:358-361.










Slesinger, A.E. and I. Dressier. 1978. The environmental chemistry of three




organotin chemicals. In: Report of the Organotin Workshop. Good, M.  (Ed.).




University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA. pp. 115-162.










Smith, S.B. 1981a. Male characteristics on female mud snails caused by




antifouling bottom paints. J. Appl.  Toxicol.  1:22-25.










Smith, S.B. 1981b. Reproductive anomalies in stenoglossian snails related to




pollution from marinas. J. Appl. Toxicol. 1:15-21.










Smith, S.B. 1981c. Tributyltin compounds induce male characteristics on female




mud snails Nassarius obsoletus = Ilyanassa obsoleta.  J. Appl. Toxicol. 1:141-




144.










Smith, P.J., A.J. Crowe, V.G. Kumar Das and J. Duncan. 1979. Structure-




activity relationships for some organotin molluscicides. Pestic. Sci. 10:419-




422.










Spence, S.K., G.W. Bryan, P.E. Gibbs, D. Masters, L.  Morris and S.J. Hawkins.




1990a. Effects of TBT contamination on Nucella populations. Funct.  Ecol.




4:425-432.










Spence, S.K., S.J. Hawkins and R.S.  Santos. 1990b. The mollusc Thais





                                      138

-------
haemastoma -an exhibitor of 'imposex' and potential biological indicator of




tributyltin pollution. Mar. Ecol.  11:147-156.










Springborn Bionomics, Inc. 1984a.  Acute and chronic toxicity of tributyltin




fluoride to Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas).  Report submitted to M&T




Chemicals Inc., Rahway,  NJ.










Springborn Bionomics, Inc. 1984b.  Effects of tributyltin fluoride on survival,




growth, and development of sheepshead minnow  (Cyprinodon variegatus).  Report




B4-84-7 to M&T Chemicals Inc., Rahway, NJ.










Stab, J.A., M. Frenay, I.L. Freriks, U.A. Brinkman and W.P. Cofino. 1995.




Survey of nine organotin compounds in The Netherlands using the zebra mussel




(Dreissena polymorpha) as biomonitor. Environ. Toxicol.  Chem. 14:2023-2032.










Stallard, N.,  V. Hodge and E.D. Goldberg. 1986.  TBT in California coastal




waters: monitoring and assessment. Environ. Monit.  Assess. 9:195-220.










Stang, P.M. and P.F. Seligman. 1986. Distribution and fate of butyltin




compounds in the sediment of San Diego Bay. In:  Oceans 86, Vol. 4. Proceedings




International  Organotin Symposium. Washington, DC.  pp. 1256-1261.










Stebbing, A.R.D. 1981. Hormesis -  stimulation of colony growth in Campanularia




flexuosa (Hydrozoa) by copper, cadmium and other toxicants. Aquat. Toxicol.




1:227-238.
                                      139

-------
Stebbing, A.R.D. 1985. Organotins and water quality, some lessons to be





learned. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 16:383-390.










Stebbing, A.R.D., S. Soria, G.R. Burt and J.J. Cleary. 1990. Water quality





bioassays in two Bermudan harbours using the ciliate Euplotes vannus,  in





relation to tributyltin distribution. J. Exp.  Mar. Biol.  Ecol.  138:159-166.










Steinert, S.A. and G.V. Pickwell. 1993. Induction of HSP70 proteins in mussels





by ingestion of tributyltin. Mar. Environ. Res. 35:89-93.










Stephan, C.E., D.I. Mount, D.J. Hansen, J.H. Gentile, G.A. Chapman and W.A.





Brungs.  1985. Guidelines for deriving numerical national  water quality





criteria for the protection of aquatic organisms and their uses.  PB85-227049.





National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.  90 pp.










Stephenson, M. 1991. A field bioassay approach to determining tributyltin





toxicity to oysters in California. Mar. Environ. Res. 32:51-59.










Stephenson, M.D., D.R. Smith,  J. Goetzl, G. Ichikawa and M. Martin. 1986.





Growth abnormalities in mussels and oysters from areas with high levels of





tributyltin in San Diego Bay.  In: Oceans 86, Vol. 4. Proceedings International





Organotin Symposium. Marine Technology Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1246-1251.










Stroben, E., J. Oehlmann and P. Fioroni. 1992a. The morphological expression





of imposex in Hinia reticulata  (Gastropoda: Buccinida): A potential indicator





of tributyltin pollution. Mar. Biol. 113:625-636.





                                      140

-------
Stroben, E., J. Oehlmann and P. Fioroni.  1992b. Hina reticulata and Nucella




lapillus comparison of two gastropod tributyltin bioindicators.  Mar. Biol.




114:289-296.










Stroganov, N.S., 0. Danil'chenko and E.H. Amochaeva.  1977. Changes in




developmental metabolism of the mollusc Lvmnaea stagnalis under the effect  of




tributyltin chloride in low concentrations. Biol. Nauki 20:75-78.










Stroganov, N.S., V.G. Khobotev and L.V. Kolosova. 1972. Study of the




connection of the chemical composition of organometallic compounds with their




toxicity for hydrobionts. PB-208082. National Technical Information Service,




Springfield, VA.










Stromgren, T. and T. Bongard. 1987. The effect of tributyltin oxide on growth




of Mytilus edulis.  Mar. Pollut. Bull. 18:30-31.










Sujatha, C.H., S.M. Nair and J. Chacko. 1996. Tributyltin oxide induced




physiological and biochemical changes in a tropical estuarine clam. Bull.




Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 56:33-310.










TAI Environmental Sciences Inc. 1989a. Toxicity of tri-butyl tin oxide to two




species of Hydra. Mobile, AL, 15 August.  31 pp.










TAI Environmental Sciences Inc. 1989b. Toxicity of tri-butyl tin oxide to




Hydra littoralis and Chlorohydra viridissima. Mobile,  AL, 13 September. 25  pp.
                                      141

-------
Tester, M., D.V. Ellis and J.A.J. Thompson. 1996. Neogastropod imposex for





monitoring recovery from marine TBT contamination. Environ. Toxicol.  Chem.





15:560-567.










Thain, J.E. 1983. The acute toxicity of bis(tributyltin)  oxide to the adults





and larvae of some marine organisms. Int. Counc.  Explor.  Sea, Mariculture





Committee E:13. 5 pp.










Thain, J.E. 1986. Toxicity of TBT to bivalves: Effects on reproduction, growth





and survival. In: Oceans 86, Vol. 4. Proceedings  International Organotin





Symposium. Marine Technology Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1306-1313.










Thain, J.E. and M.J. Waldock. 1985. The growth of bivalve spat exposed to





organotin leachates from antifouling paints.  Int. Counc.  Explor. Sea,





Mariculture Committee E:28. 10 pp.










Thain, J.E., M.J. Waldock and M.E. Waite. 1987. Toxicity and degradation





studies of tributyltin (TBT) and dibutyltin (DBT) in the aquatic environment.





In: Oceans 87, Vol. 4. Proceedings International  Organotin Symposium. Marine





Technology Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1398-1404.










Thain, J.E. and M.J. Waldock. 1986. The impact of tributyl tin  (TBT)





antifouling paints on molluscan fisheries. Wat. Sci. Tech. 18:193-202.










Thayer, J.S. 1984. Organometallic compounds and living organisms. Academic





Press, Orlando, FL. 245 pp.





                                      142

-------
Thompson, J.A.J., M.G. Sheffer, R.C. Pierce, Y.K. Chau, J.J. Cooney, W.R.





Cullen and R.J. Maguire. 1985. Organotin compounds in the aquatic environment:





Environmental quality. NRCC 22494. National Research Council Canada, Ottawa,





Canada. 287 pp.










Thrower, F.P. and J.W. Short. 1991. Accumulation and persistence of tri-n-





butyltin in pink and chum salmon fry cultured in marine net-pens. Aquaculture.





96:233-239.










Tin. EPA-560/2-75-005. National Technical Information Service, Springfield,





VA.










Traas, T.P., J.A. Stab, P.R.G. Kramer, W.P. Cofino and T. Aldenberg. 1996.





Modeling and risk assessment of tributyltin accumulation in the food web of a





shallow freshwater lake. Environ. Sci. Technol.  30:1227-1237.










Triebskorn, R., H. Kohler, J. Flemming, T. Braunbeck, R. Negele and H.





Rahmann. 1994. Evaluation of bis(tri-n-butyltin)oxide  (TBTO) neurotoxicity in





rainbow trout  (Oncorhynchus mykiss). I. Behaviour, weight increase, and tin





content. Aguat. Toxicol. 30:189-197.










Tsuda, T., H. Nakanishi, S. Aoki and J. Takebayashi.  1986. Bioconcentration of





butyltin compounds by round crucian carp. Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 12:137-143.










Tsuda, T., H. Nakanishi, S. Aoki and J. Takebayashi.  1988a. Bioconcentration





and metabolism of butyltin compounds in carp. Wat. Res. 22:647-651.





                                      143

-------
Tsuda, T., S. Aoki, M. Kojima and H. Harada.  1990a. The influence of ph on the




accumulation of tri-n-butyltin chloride and triphenyltin chloride in carp.




Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 95C:151-153.










Tsuda, T., S. Aoki, M. Kojima and T. Fujita.  1991a. Accumulation and excretion




of tri-n-butyltin chloride and triphenyltin chloride by willow shiner. Comp.




Biochem. Physiol. 101C:67-70.










Tsuda, T., S. Aoki, M. Kojima and H. Harada.  1991b. Accumulation of tri-n-




butyltin chloride and triphenyltin chloride by oral and via gill intake of




goldfish  (Carassius auratus) . Comp. Biochem.  Physiol. 99C:69-72.










Tsuda, T., S. Aoki, M. Kojima and H. Harada.  1990b. Differences between




freshwater and seawater-acclimated guppies in the accumulation and excretion




of tri-n-butyltin chloride and triphenyltin chloride. Wat. Res. 24:1373-1376.










Tsuda, T., M. Wada, S. Aoki and Y. Matsui. 1887. Excretion of bis(tri-n-




butyltin) oxide and triphenyltin chloride from carp. Toxicol.  Environ. Chem.




16:17-22.










Tsuda, T., M. Wada, S. Aoki and Y. Matsui. 1988b. Bioconcentration, excretion




and metabolism of bis  (tri-n-butyltin)  oxide and triphenyltin chloride by




goldfish.  Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 18:11-20.










Uhler, A.D., T.H. Coogan,  K.S. Davis, G.S. Durell, W.G. Steinhauer, S.Y.




Freitas and P.O. Boeh. 1989. Findings of tributyltin, dibutyltin and





                                     144

-------
monobutyltin in bivalves from selected U.S. coastal waters. Environ. Toxicol.




Chem. 8:971-979.










Uhler, A.D., G.S. Durell, W.G. Steinhauer and A.M. Spellacy. 1993. Tributyltin




levels in bivalve mollusks from the east and west coasts of the United States:




Results from the 1988-1990 national status and trends mussel watch project.




Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 12:139-153.










Unger, M.A., W.G. Maclntyre,  J. Greaves and R.J. Huggett.  1986. GC determina-




tion of butyltins in natural  waters by flame photometric detection of hexyl




derivatives with mass spectrometric confirmation. Chemosphere 15:461-470.










Unger, M.A., W.G. Maclntyre and R.J. Huggett. 1987. Equilibrium sorption of




tributyltin chloride by Chesapeake Bay sediments. In: Oceans 87, Vol. 4.




Proceedings International Organotin Symposium. Marine Technological Society,




Washington, DC. pp. 1381-1385.










Unger, M.A., W.G. Maclntyre and R.J. Huggett. 1988. Sorption behavior of




tributyltin on estuarine and freshwater sediments. Environ. Toxicol. Chem.




7:907-915.










Upatham, E.S. 1975. Field studies on slow-release TBTO-pellets  (Biomet SRM)




against St. Lucian Biomphalaria glabrata.  In: Proceedings  of 1975




international controlled release pesticide symposium. Harris, F.W.  (Ed.).




Wright State University, Dayton, OH. pp. 189-195.
                                      145

-------
Upatham, E.S., M. Koura, M.D. Ahmed and A.H. Awad. 1980b. Laboratory trials of




controlled release molluscicides on Bulinus (Ph.) abvssinicus,  the




intermediate host of Schistosoma haematobium in Somalia. In: Controlled




Release of Bioactive Materials. Baker, R.  (Ed.).  Academic Press, New York, NY.




pp. 461-469.










Upatham, E.S., M. Koura, M.A. Dagal, A.H. Awad and M.D. Ahmed.  1980a. Focal




control of Schistosoma haematobium-transmitting snails, Bulinus (Ph.)




abvssinicus, using controlled release tri-n-butyltin fluoride and copper




sulphate. In: Controlled Release of Bioactive Materials. Baker, R.  (Ed.).




Academic Press, New York, NY. pp. 449-459.










U'ren, S.C. 1983. Acute toxicity of bis(tributyltin)  oxide to a marine




copepod. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 14:303-306.










U.S. EPA. 1975. Preliminary investigation of effects on the environment of




boron, indium, nickel, selenium, tin, vanadium and their compounds. Vol. V










U.S. EPA. 1983. Water quality standards regulation. Federal Regist. 48:51400-




51413. November 8.










U.S. EPA. 1985a. Appendix B - Response to public comments on "Guidelines for




deriving numerical national water quality criteria for the protection of




aquatic organisms and their uses." Federal Regist. 50:30793-30796. July 29.










U.S. EPA. 1985b. Tributyltin support document. Office of Pesticides and Toxic





                                      146

-------
Substances. Washington, DC.










U.S. EPA. 1986. Chapter I - Stream design flow for steady-state modeling. In:




Book VI - Design conditions. In: Technical guidance manual for performing




waste load allocation. Office of Water, Washington, DC. August.










U.S. EPA. 1987. Permit writer's guide to water quality-based permitting for




toxic pollutants. EPA-440/4-87-005.  Office of Water, Washington, DC.










U.S. EPA. 1991. Technical support document for water quality-based toxics




control. Office of Water, Washington, DC, March 1991, EPA 505/2-90-001 or




PB91-127415, National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.










U.S. EPA. 1994. Water Quality Standards Handbook: 2nd ed. EPA-823-B-94-005a,b.




Washington, DC.










U.S. Navy. 1984. Environmental assessment. Fleetwide use of organotin




antifouling paint. U.S. Naval Sea Systems Command, Washington, DC. 128 pp.










Valkirs, A., B. Davidson and P. Seligman. 1985. Sublethal growth effects and




mortality to marine bivalves and fish from long-term exposure to tributyltin.




NOSC-TR-1042 or AD-A162-629-0. National Technical Information Service,




Springfield, VA.










Valkirs, A.O., B.M. Davidson and P.F. Seligman. 1987. Sublethal growth effects




and mortality to marine bivalves from long-term exposure to tributyltin.





                                      147

-------
Chemosphere 16:201-220.










Valkirs, A.O., P.F. Seligman and R.F. Lee. 1986a. Butyltin partitioning in





marine waters and sediments. In: Oceans 86, Vol. 4. Proceedings International





Organotin Symposium. Marine Technology Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1165-1170










Valkirs, A.O., P.F. Seligman, P.M. Stang, V. Homer, S.H. Lieberman, G. Vafa





and C.A. Dooley. 1986b. Measurement of butyltin compounds in San Diego Bay.





Mar. Pollut. Bull. 17:319-324.
Vighi, M. and D. Calamari. 1985. QSARs for organotin compounds on Daphnia




magna. Chemosphere 14:1925-1932.










Virkki, L. and M. Niknmaa. 1993. Tributyltin inhibition of adrenergically




activated sodium/proton exchange in erythrocytes of rainbow trout




(Oncorhynchus mykiss).  Aquat.  Toxicol. 25:139-146.










Vitturi, R., C. Mansueto, E. Catalano, L. Pellerito and M.A. Girasolo. 1992.




Spermatocyte chromosome alterations in Truncatella subcylindrica  (L., 1767)




(Mollusca, Mesogastropoda) following exposure to dibutyltin (IV) and




tributyltin  (IV) chlorides. Appl.  Organo. Chem. 6:525-532.










von Rumker, R., E.W. Lawless,  A.F. Meiners, K.A. Lawrence, G.L. Kelso and F.




Horay. 1974. Production, distribution, use and environmental impact potential




of selected pesticides. PB-238795 or EPA-540/1-74-001.  National Technical





                                      148

-------
Information Service, Springfield, VA. pp. 334-346.










Waite, M.E., J.E. Thain, M.J. Waldock, J.J. deary, A.R.D. Stebbing and R.





Abel. 1996. Changes in concentrations of organotins in water and sediment in





England and Wales following legislation.  In: Organotin: Environmental Fate





and Effects. (Eds.)  Champ, M.A. and P.F. Seligman. Chapman and Hall, London.





pp.553-580.










Waite, M.E., M.J. Waldock, J.E. Thain, D.J. Smith and S.M. Milton. 1991.





Reductions in TBT concentrations in UK estuaries following legislation in 1986





and 1987. Mar.  Environ. Res. 32:89-111.










Wade, T.L., B.  Garcia-Romero and J. Brooks. 1988. Tributyltin contamination in





bivalves from United States Coastal Estuaries. Envirion. Sci. Technol.





22:1488-1493.










Wade, T.L., B.  Garcia-Romero and J.M. Brooks. 1991. Oysters as biomonitors of





butyltins in the Gulf of Mexico. Mar. Environ. Res. 32:233-241.










Waldock, M.J.  and D. Miller. 1983. The determination of total and tributyltin





in seawater and oysters in areas of high pleasure craft activity. Int. Counc.





Explor. Sea, Mariculture Committee E:12. 14 pp.










Waldock, M.J.  and J.E. Thain. 1983. Shell thickening in Crassostrea gigas:





Organotin antifouling or sediment induced? Mar. Pollut. Bull. 14:411-415.
                                      149

-------
Waldock, M.J., J. Thain and D. Miller. 1983. The accumulation and depuration




of bis(tributyltin)  oxide in oysters. A comparison between the Pacific oyster




(Crassostrea gigas)  and the European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis).  Int. Counc.




Explor.  Sea, Mariculture Committee E:52. 8 pp.










Waldock, M.J., J.E.  Thain and M.E. Waite. 1987. The distribution and potential




toxic effects of TBT in U.K. estuaries during 1986. Appl.  Organo.  Chem. 1:287-




301.










Waldock, M.J., J.E.  Thain and M.E. Waite. 1996. An assessment of the value of




shell thickening in Crassostrea gigas as an indicator of exposure to




tributyltin. In: Organotin: Environmental Fate and Effects.  (Eds.)  Champ, M.A.




and P.F. Seligman. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 219-237.










Walker,  K.E. 1977. Organotin contact studies. In: Controlled Release




Pesticides. Scher, H.B. (Ed.). ACS Symposium Series No. 53. American Chemical




Society, Washington, DC. pp. 124-131.










Walker,  W.W. 1989a.  Acute toxicity of bis(tributyltin)oxide to the sheepshead




minnow in a flow-through system. Final Report to M&T Chemcials, Inc. and




Sherex Chemical Co., Inc.  94 pp.










Walker,  W.W. 1989b.  Acute effect of bis(tributyltin)  oxide on new shell




deposition by the Eastern oyster  (Crassostrea virginica) under flow-through




conditions. Draft Report to M&T Chemicals and Sherex Chemical Co.,  Inc.
                                      150

-------
Walsh, G.E. 1986. Organotin toxicity studies conducted with selected marine




organisms at EPA's Environmental Research Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida.




In: Oceans 86, Vol. 4. Proceedings International Organotin Symposium. Marine




Technology Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1210-1212.










Walsh, G.E., C.H. Deans,  and L.L. McLaughlin. 1987. Comparison of the ECSOs of




algal toxicity tests calculated by four methods. Environ. Toxicol. Chem 6:767-




770.










Walsh, G.E., M.K. Louie,  L.L. McLaughlin and E.M. Lorez. 1986b. Lugworm




(Arenicola cristata) larvae in toxicity tests: Survival and development when




exposed to organotins. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 5:749-754.










Walsh, G.E., L.L. McLaughlin, E.M. Lores, M.K. Louie and C.H. Deans. 1985.




Effects of organotins on growth and survival of two marine diatoms,




Skeletonema costatum and Thalassiosira pseudonana. Chemosphere 14:383-392.










Walsh, G.E., L.L. McLaughlin, M.K. Louie, C.H. Deans and E.M. Lores. 1986a.




Inhibition of arm regeneration by Ophioderma brevispina  (Echinodermata,




Ophiuroidea) by tributyltin oxide and triphenyltin oxide. Ecotoxicol. Environ.




Safety 12:95-100.










Walsh, G.E., L.L. McLaughlin, N.J. Yoder, P.H. Moody, E.M. Lores, J. Forester




and P.B. Wessinger-Duval.  1988. Minutocellus polymorphus: A new marine diatom




for use in algal toxicity tests. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 7:925-929.
                                      151

-------
Wang, W.X., J. Widdows and D.S. Page. 1992. Effects of organic toxicants on





the anoxic energy metabolism of the mussel Mytilus edulis.  Mar. Environ. Res.





34:327-331.










Ward, G.S., G.C. Cramm, P.R. Parrish, H. Trachman and A. Slesinger. 1981.





Bioaccumulation and chronic toxicity of bis tributyltin oxide  (TBTO):  Tests





with a saltwater fish. In: Aquatic Toxicology and Hazard Assessment.  Branson,





D.R. and K.L. Dickson  (Eds.). ASTM STP 737. American Society for Testing





Materials, Philadelphia,  PA. pp. 183-200.










Watanabe, N., S. Sakai and H. Takatsuki. 1995. Release and degradation half





lives of tributyltin in sediment. Chemosphere 31:2809-2816.










Webbe, G. and R.F. Sturrock. 1964. Laboratory tests of some new molluscicides





in Tanganyika. Ann. Trop.  Med. Parasitol. 58:234-239.










Weis, J.S., J. Gottleib and J. Kwiatkowski. 1987a. Tributyltin retards





regeneration and produces  deformities of limbs in the fiddler crab, Uca





pugilator. Arch. Environ.  Contam. Toxicol. 16:321-326.










Weis, J.S. and K. Kim. 1988. Tributyltin is a teratogen in producing





deformities in limbs of the fiddler crab, Uca pugilator. Arch. Environ.





Contam. Toxicol. 17:583-587.










Weis, J.S. and J. Perlmutter. 1987. Effects of tributyltin on activity and





burrowing behavior of the  fiddler crab, Uca pugilator. Estuaries. 10:342-346.





                                      152

-------
Weis, J.S., P. Weis and F. Wang. 1987b. Developmental effects of tributyltin




on the fiddler crab, Uca pugilator,  and the killifish, Fundulus heteroclitus.




In: Oceans 87, Vol. 4. Proceedings International Organotin Symposium. Marine




Technology Society, Washington, DC.  pp. 1456-1460.










Weisfeld, L.B. 1970. Evaluation of an accelerated test method for organotin




and organolead antifouling coating:  guppy mortality. J. Paint Technol.  42:564-




568.










Wester, P.W. and J.H. Canton. 1987.  Histopathological study of Poecilia




reticulata  (guppy)  after long-term exposure to bis(tri-n-butyltin)oxide (TBTO)




and di-n-butyltindichloride  (DBTC).  Aquat.  Toxicol.  10:143-165.










Wester, P.W. and J.H. Canton. 1991.  The usefulness of histopathology in




aquatic toxicity studies. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 1000:115-117.










Widdows,  J. and D.S. Page. 1993. Effects of tributyltin and dibutyltin on the




physiological energetics of the mussel, Mytilus edulis. Mar. Environ. Res.




35:233-249.










WHO. 1990. International programme on chemical safety environmental health




criteria for tributyltin. World Health Organization (ICS/EHC/89.29),  Geneva,




Switzerland. 229 pp.










Wishkovsky, A., E.S. Mathews and B.A. Weeks. 1989. Effect of tributyltin on




the chemiluminescent response of phagocytes from three species of estuarine





                                      153

-------
fish. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.  18:826-831.










Wolniakowski, K.U.,  M.D. Stephenson and G.S. Ichikawa. 1987. Tributyltin




concentrations and Pacific oyster deformations in Coos Bay, Oregon. In: Oceans




87, Vol. 4. Proceedings International  Organotin Symposium. Marine Technology




Society, Washington, DC. pp. 1438-1442.










Wong, P.T., Y.K. Chau, 0. Kramar and G.A. Bengert.  1982. Structure-toxicity




relationship of tin compounds on algae. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 39:483-488.










Yamada,  H. and K. Takayanagi. 1992. Bioconcentration and elimination of




bis(tributyltin)oxide  (TBTO) and triphenyltin chloride  (TPTC)  in several




marine fish species. Wat. Res. 36:1589-1595.










Yamada,  H., M. Tateishi and K. Takayanagi. 1994. Bioaccumulation of organotin




compounds in the red sea bream (Pagrus manor) by two uptake pathways:  dietary




uptake and direct uptake from water. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 13:1415-1422.










Yla-Mononen, L. 1989. The effects of tri-n-butyltin chloride (TBTC) on the




early life stages of perch  (Perca fluviatilis L.) in brackish water. Aqua.




Fenn. 19:129-133.










Yonezawa, Y. M. Fukui, T. Yoshida, A.  Ochi, T. Tanaka, Y. Noguti, T. Kowata,




Y. Sato, S. Masunaga and Y. Urushigawa. 1994. Degradation of tri-n-butyltin in




Ise Bay sediment. Chemosphere 29:1349-1356.
                                      154

-------
Zucker, R.M., E.J. Massaro and K.H. Elstein. 1992. The reversibility of





tributyltin-induced toxicity in vitro as a function of concentration and





duration of exposure (C x T)  1. Environ. Res. 57:107-116.










Zuckerman, J.J., R.P. Reisdorf, H.V. Ellis III and R.R. Wilkinson. 1978.





Organotins in biology and the environment. In: Organometals and





organometaloids, occurrence and fate in the environment. American Chemical





Society, Brinkman, F.E., and J.M. Bellama  (Eds), pp. 388-424.










Zuolian, C. and A. Jensen. 1989. Accumulation of organic and inorganic tin in





blue mussel,  Mytilus edulis,  under natural conditions. Mar. Pollut. bul.





20:281-286.
                                      155

-------