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                                                          DRAFT
                                                           1997
AMBIENT AQUATIC LIFE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR

                  TRIBUTYLTIN

         CAS.Registry Number (See Text)
                  Prepared by

       University of Wisconsin - Superior
               Superior,  WI  54880

                      and

        Great Lakes Environmental Center
            Traverse City, MI  49686
                  Prepared for

      U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                Office  of Water
        Office of Science and Technology
    Health  and Ecological Criteria  Division
                Washington D.C.

       Office of Research and Development
       Environmental  Research Laboratories
               Duluth,  Minnesota
           Narragansett, Rhode Island

          EPA Contract  No. 68-C6-0036
            Work Assignment No. B-04
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                                   NOTICES
      This document has been reviewed by the Environmental Research
Laboratories, Duluth, MN and Narragansett, RI, Office Of Research and
Development and the Health and Ecological Criteria Division, Office of Science
and Technology, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for
publication.

      Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.

      This document  is available to the public through the National Technical
Information Service  (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA  22161.
                                        ii
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                                  FOREWORD
      section 304(a)(l) of, the Clean Water Act of 1977  (P.L.  95-217) requires
the Administrator of  the Environmental Protection Agency to Publislv water
    iS criteria that accurately reflect the latest scientific knowledge on
    kind and extent of all identifiable effects • on health and welfare that
      be expected from the presence ,of pollutants in any body of water,
      iJa Sound water.  This document is a revision of proposed criteria
      win consideration of  comments received from other federal agencies,
sate afeScies"? special interest groups, and individual scientists.  Criteria
containld in this document replace any previously published EPA aquatic life
criteria for the same pollutant (s) .
    ssr ^sr^iriJi:  srsss-*".
 Sandards unSr section 303, they represent maximum acceptable pollutant
 concenSltlono in ambient w^terswithin that  state that are •^^iS
 issuance of discharge limitations in  NPDES permits.  Water quality criteria
 aaop?ed in state water quality standards could have the same numerical values
 as' criteria developed under section 3O4. However, in many situations states
 might want to. adjult water quality criteria developed under section 304 to
 reflect local environmental conditions and human  exposure patterns.
 Alternatively  states may use different data  and  assumptions than EPA in
 Serlving'numeric criteria that are scientifically defensible ^protective of
 designated uses.  It is not until their adoption  as part of state water
 quality standards that criteria become regulatory.  Guidelines to assist the
 Sates and Indian tribes in modifying the criteria presented in this document
 are contained  in the Water Quality Standards  Handbook  (U.S. EPA 1994).  This
 handbook  and additional guidance on the development of water quality standards
 and other water-related programs of this Agency have been developed by the
 Office of Water. .

       This  document,  if finalized, would be guidance only.'  It would not
 establish or  affect legal rights or obligations.   It would not establish a
 binding norm and would not  be finally determinative of the "sues  addressed.
 Agency decisions in any particular situation will be made by applying the
 Clean Water Act and EPA regulations on  the basis of specific facts presented
 and scientific information  then  available.
                                    Tudor T. Davies
                                    Director
                                    Office of Science and Technology
                                       iii
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                               ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Larry T. Brooke
(freshwater author)
University of Wisconsin-Superior
Superior, Wisconsin
David J. Hansen
(saltwater author)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Narr'agansett, Rhode Island
Robert L. Spehar
(document coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota
Glen Thursby
(saltwater coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Narragansett, Rhode Island
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                                   CONTENTS

                                                                         Page
Foreword	*.*.•-•	 iii
Acknowledgments	-	  iv
Tables	• • -	?	•	*	  vi
Text Tables	 vii

Introduction	..*	   1
Acute, Toxicity to Aquatic Animals	   5
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals	   7
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants	• •  10
Bioaccumulation	  11
Other Data	•  12
Unused Data			.••-.•'	  26
Summary. ..................•.....•••••••••••••««««•«••«»•«••««••»«•«••••••  29
National Criteria			  31
Implementation	••••	 •  31
References.
                                                                            71
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                                    TABLES
                   .                                                    .  Page
1.  Acute Toxicity of Tributyltin to Aquatic Animals .	33
2.  Chronic Toxicity of Tributyltin to Aquatic Animals  .  .	50
3.  Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic
      Ratios i	52
4.  Toxicity of Tributyltin to Aquatic Plants  .'....	  .   56
5.  Bioaccumulation of Tributyltin by Aquatic Orqanisms	   58
6.  Other Data on Effects of Tributyltin on Aquatic Organisms  .' . .  .  .   61
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                          TEXT TABLES
                                                                Page
Summary of available laboratory and field studies
relating the extent of imposex of female snails,
measured by relative penis size (volume female
penis + male penis = RPS) and the vas deferens
sequence index  (VDS), as a function of tributyltin
concentration in water and dry tissue .	
Summary of laboratory and field data on the effects
of tributyltin on saltwater organisms at concentrations
less than the Final Chronic Value of 0.0500 pg/L  . . .
16
23
                               V1J.
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Introduction                                                               .

      Organotins are compounds consisting of one to four organic moieties

attached to a tin atom via carbon-tin covalent bonds.  When there are fewer

than four carbon-tin bonds, the organotin compound will be a cation unless the

remaining valences of tin are occupied by an anion such as acetate, carbonate,

chloride, fluoride, hydroxide, oxide, or sulfide.  Thus a species such as

tributyltin (TBT) is a cation whose formula is (C4H9)3Sn+.  In sea water TBT


exists mainly as a mixture of the chloride, the hydroxide, the aguo complex,

and the carbonate complex  (Laughlin et al. 1986a).

      Several review papers have been written which cover the production,

use, chemistry, toxicity, fate and hazards of TBT in the aquatic environment

(Clark et al. 1988; Eisler 1989; Oceans 86 1986; Oceans 87 1987; WHO 1990).

The toxicities of organotin compounds are related to the number of organic

moieties bonded to the tin atom and to the number of carbon atoms in the

organic moieties.  Toxicity to aquatic organisms generally increases as the

number of organic moieties increases from one to three and decreases with the
  *                                             .
incorporation of a fourth, making triorganotins more toxic than other forms.

Within the triorganotins, toxicity increases as the number of carbon atoms in

the organic moiety increases from one to four, then decreases.  Thus the

organotin most toxic to aquatic life is TBT (Hall and Pinkney 1985; Laughlin

and Linden 1985; Laughlin et al. 1985).  TBTs inhibit Na+ and K+ ATPases and


are. ionophores controlling exchange of Cl",  Br~, F" and other ions across cell


membranes  (Selwyh 1976).

      Organotins are used  in  several manufacturing processes, for example, as

an anti-yellowing agent in clear plastics and as a catalyst in poly(vinyl

chloride) products  (Piver  1973).  One of the more extensive uses of organotins

is as biocides  (fungicides, bactericides, insecticides) and as preservatives

for wood, textiles, paper, leather and electrical equipment.  The use of TBT

in antifouling paints on'ships, boats, docks and cooling towers probably

contributes most significantly to direct release of organotins into the

aquatic environment  (Clark et al. 1988; Hall and Pinkney 1985; Kinnetic

Laboratory 1984).
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      The U.S. Navy  (1984) proposed application of some paints containing TBT
to hulls of naval ships.  Such paint formulations have been shown to be an
effective and relatively long-lived deterrent to adhesion of barnacles and
                                                                        '     f
other fouling organisms.  Encrustations of these organisms on ships' hulls
reduce maximum speed and increase fuel consumption.  According to the U.S.
Navy (1984), use of TBT paints, relative to other antifouling paints/ would
not only reduce fuel consumption by 15% but would also increase time between
repainting from less than 5 years to .5 to 7 years.  Release of TBT to water
occurs during repainting in shipyards when old paint is sand-blasted off and
new paint applied.   TBT would also be released continuously from ,the hulls of
the painted  ships.   Antifouling paints in current use contain copper as the
primary biocide, whereas the proposed TBT paints would contain both copper and
TBT.  Interaction between the toxicities of TBT and other  ingredients  in the
paint apparently is  negligible  (Davidson et al. 1986a).
       The solubility of TBT compounds in water is influenced by such factors
as the oxidation-reduction  potential, pH, temperature, ionic  strength, and
concentration and  composition  of  the dissolved organic matter (Clark et al.
1988;  Corbin 1976).   The solubility of tributyltin oxide  in water was  reported
to be  750 fig/L at  pH of 6.6,  31,000 j/g/L at pH of 8.1  and 30,000 jig/L  at  pH
2.6  (Maguire et al.  1983).   The carbon-tin covalent  bond  does not hydrolyze  in
water  (Maguire et  al. 1983,1984), and the half-life  for photolysis due to
 sunlight is greater than 89 days (Maguire et  al.  1985;  Seligman et al. 1986).
Biodegradation is the major breakdown pathway for TBT in  water and sediments
with half-lives of several days in water to several  weeks in sediments (Clark
 et al.  1988; Lee et al. 1987; Maguire and Tkacz 1985;  Seligman et al.  1986,
 1988,  1989; Stang and Seligman 1986).  Breakdown products include di- and
 monobutyltins with some butylmethyltins detected-
       Some  species  of algae, bacteria, and fungi have been shown to degrade
 TBT by sequential dealkylation, resulting in dibutyltin,  then monobutyltin,
 and finally inorganic tin  (Barug 1981; Maguire et al. 1984).  Barug (1981)
 observed the biodegradation of TBT to di- and monobutyltin by bacteria and
 fungi only under aerobic conditions and only when a secondary carbon  source
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was supplied.  Inorganic tin can be methylated by estuarine microorganisms
(Jackson et al. 1982).  Maguire et al. (1984) reported that a 28-day culture
of TBT with the green alga, Ankistrodesmus falcatus. resulted in 7% inorganic
tin.  Maguire  (1986) reported that the half-life of TBT exposed to microbial
degradation was five months under aerobic* co'nditions and 1.5 months under
anaerobic conditions.  TBT is also accumulated and metabolized by Zostera
marina  (Francios et al. 1989).  Chiles et al. (1989) found that much of the
TBT accumulated on the surface of saltwater algae and bacteria as well as
within  the cell.  The major metabolite of TBT in saltwater crabs, fish, and
shrimp  was dibutyltin  (Lee 1986).                                    .
      TBT readily  sorbs to sediments  and suspended  solids  and can persist
there (Cardarelli  and Evans 1980).  In some instances, most TBT in the water
column  (70-90%) is  associated with the dissolved phase  (Valkirs et al. 1986a;
Maguire 1986;  Johnson  et  al. 1987).   The half-life  for degradation of TBT  from
sediments is reported  to  be greater than ten months  (Maguire  and  Tkacz 1985).
In a modeling  and  risk assessment study  of TBT, Traas et al.  (1996) predicted
that TBT concentrations  in the water  and suspended  matter  would decrease
rapidly and  TBT concentrations  in sediment and benthic  organisms  would
decrease at  a  much slower rate.                  '
     . Elevated TBT concentrations in fresh and salt waters,  sediments or
biota,  are primarily associated with  harbors and marinas  (Cleary  and Stebbing
 1985; Hall 1988;  Hall et al.  1986;  Langston  et  al.  1987; Maguire  1984,1986;
Maguire and Tkacz 1985;  Maguire et  al.  1982;  Quevauviller  et al.  1989;  Salazar
 and Salazar 1985b; Seligman et al.  1986,1989;  Short and Sharp 1989;  Stallard
 et al.  1986; Stang and Seligman 1986; Unger  et al.  1986; Valkirs  et al.  1986b;
 Waldock and Miller 1983; Waldock et al.  1987).   Lenihan et al. (1990)
•hypothesized that changes in faunal composition in hard bottom communities in
 San Diego Bay were related to boat mooring and TBT.  Salazar and Salazar
 (1988)  -found an apparent relationship between concentrations of TBT in waters
 of San Diego Bay and reduced growth of mussels.  Organotin concentrations in
 the low part per trillion range have been associated with oyster shell
 malformations  (Alzieu et al. 1989; Minchin et al. 1987).  Reevaluation of a
                                       , 3
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harbor in the United Kingdom show that since the 1987 restrictions on
tributyltin use, oyster culture has returned in the harbor (Dyrynda 1992).  In
some cases the water surface microlayer contained a much higher concentration
of TBT than the water column (Cleary and Stebbing 1987; Hall et al. 1986;
Valkirs et al. 1986a).  Gucinski (1986) suggested that this enrichment of the
surface microlayer might increase the bioavailability of TBT.  TBT accumulates
in sediments with sorption coefficients which may range from l.lxlO2 to
8.2xl03 L/Kg and desorption appears to be a two step process (Onger et al.
1987,1988).  No organotins were detected in the muscle tissue of feral chinook
salmon, Qneorhvnehus tshawytseha. caught near Auke  Bay, Alaska, but
concentrations as high  as 900  pg/kg were reported in muscle tissue of chinook
salmon held  in pens treated with TBT  (Short 1987; Short and Thrower  1986a).
       Only data generated in toxicity and bioconcentration tests  on TBTC
 (tributyltin chloride;  CAS 1461-22-9),  TBTF  (tributyltin  fluoride; CAS 1983-
10-4),  TBTO  [bis(tributyltin)  oxide;  CAS  56-35-9],  commonly called
"tributyltin oxide"  and TBTS  [bis(tributyltin)  sulfide; CAS 4808-30-4],
commonly  called "tributyltin sulfide" were used in  the derivation of the water
quality criteria concentrations for  aquatic  life presented herein.   All
concentrations  from such tests are expressed as TBT,  not  as tin and not  as the
chemical  tested.   Therefore,  many concentrations listed herein are not those
in the reference cited but are concentrations adjusted to TBT.  A
 comprehension of the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National  Water Quality
 Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses"  (Stephan et
 al. 1985), hereinafter referred to as the Guidelines, and the response to
 public comment (U.S. EPA 1985a) is necessary to understand the following text,
 tables, and calculations.  Results of such intermediate calculations as
'recalculated LCSOs and Species Mean Acute Values are given to four significant
 figures to prevent roundoff error in subsequent calculations, not to reflect
 the precision of the value.   The Guidelines requires that all available
 pertinent laboratory and field information be used to derive a criterion
 consistent with sound  scientific evidence.  The saltwater criterion for TBT
 follows this requirement by using data from chronic exposures of copepods  and
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molluscs rather than Final Acute Values and Acute-Chronic Ratios to derive the
Final Chronic Value.  The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
(FIFRA) data base of information from the pesticide industry was searched and
some useful information was located for deriving the criteria.  The latest
comprehensive literature search for information for this document was
conducted in January 1997 'for fresh- and saltwater organisms.
Acute Toxicitv to Aquatic Animals                     ,                      ,
      Data that may be used,  accprding to the Guidelines,  in the derivation
of Final Acute Values  for TBT are presented in Table 1.  Acute values  are
available  for thirteen freshwater species representing twelve genera.   The
acute values range  from 1.14  pg/L for a hydra, Hydra oliaactis.  to  24,600
for  a freshwater  calm,  Elliptic  complanatus.  The  relatively low sensitivity
of the  freshwater clam to TBT is surprising due to the mollusicidal qualities
of TBT.  The organism likely  closes  itself to the  environment, minimizing
chemical intake,  and is able  to  tolerate high concentrations of  TBT
temporarily.                                               •
       The  most sensitive freshwater organisms  tested are hydras (Table 3).
Three  species  were  tested  and have  Species Mean Acute Values (SHAVs) ranging
 from 1.14  to  1.80 fjg/'L. Other  invertebrate  species tested are  an amphipod, a
 cladoceran, an annelid and a dipteran larvae.  Brooke et al. (1986) conducted
 flow-through  measured tests with an amphipod,  Gammarus  pseudolimnaeus. and an
 annelid, Lumbriculus varieqatus. and a static  measured  test  with larvae of a
 mosquito,  Culex sp.  The 96-hr LCSOs and SMAVs are 3.7,  5.4  and 10.2 ^g/L,
 respectively.   Six tests with the daphnid,  Daphnia maqna.  were conducted.   The
 48-hr EC50 value of 66.3 ^g/L (Foster 1981)  was considerably less sensitive
 than those from the other tests which ranged from 1.58 A/g/L  (LeBlanc 1976) to
 18 A/g/L (Crisinel  et al. 1994).  The SMAV for D.  maqna is 4.3 pg/L because,
 according to the Guidelines, when test results are available from flow-through
 and concentration  measured tests, these have precedence over other types of
 acute tests.
       All the vertebrate species tested are fish.  The most sensitive species
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is the fathead minnow. Pimeohalea promelas. which has a SMAV of 2.6 pg/L from
a single 96-hr flow-through meaBured test (Brooke et al. 1986).  Rainbow
trout, oneorhvnchus tnvkisa. were tested by four groups with good agreement.
The 96-hr LCSOs ranged from 3.45 to 7.1 pg/L with a SMAV of 4.571 pg/L for the
three tests (Brooke et al. 1986; Martin et al'."l989; ABC Laboratories, Inc.
1990a) which were conducted flow-through and concentrations were measured.
Juvenile catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. were exposed to TBT in a flow-through
and measured concentration test .and resulted in a 96-hr LC50 of 5.5 //g/L which
is in good agreement with the other tested freshwater fish species.  Bluegill,
Leoorois rnaeroehirus. were tested by three groups.  The value of 227.4 pg/L
 (Foster 1981) appears high compared to those of 7.2 pg/L  (Buccafusco 1976b)
and 8.3 pg/L  (ABC Laboratories, Inc.  1990b).  Only the flow-through measured
test  can be used, according to the Guidelines, to calculate the SMAV of 8.3
pg/L.
       Freshwater Genus  mean Acute Values (GMAVs)  are available for twelve
genera which  vary by  more than  21,000 times  from the least sensitive to the
roost  sensitive.  Removing the least  sensitive genera, Elliptio, the remainder
 differ from one  another by  a maximum factor of  11,2  times.  Based upon the
twelve available GMAVs  the  Final  Acute  Value (FAV)  for  freshwater organisms  is
 0.9177 A/g/L.   The FAV is lower  than  the lowest  freshwater SMAV.
        Tests of the acute toxicity of TBT to resident North American
 saltwater species that are useful for deriving  water quality  criteria
 concentrations have been performed with 23 species of invertebrates and six
 spepies of fish (Table 1).    The range of acute toxicity to  saltwater animals
 is a factor of about 672.   Acute values range from 0.42 pig/L for juveniles of
 the mysid, Acanthomvsis sculpta (Davidson et al.  1986a,1986b) to 282.2 ^g/L
 for adult Pacific oysters, Crassostrea oiaas (Thain 1983).  The 96-hr LCSOs
 for six saltwater fish species range from 1.460 ^g/L for juvenile Chinook
 salmon, Oneorhvnchus tshawvtscha (Short and Thrower 1986b) to 25.9 A/g/L for
 subadult sheepshead minnows, Cvnrinodon varieaatus  (Bushong et al. 1988).
        Larval bivalve  molluscs and  juvenile crustaceans  appear to be much
 more sensitive than adults during acute exposures.  The 96-hr LC50 for larval
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Pacific oysters, craasostrea aiaas. was 1.557 pg/L, whereas the value for
adults was 282.2 j*g/L (Thain 1983).  The 96-hr LCSOs for larval and adult blue
mussels, Mvtilus edulis. were 2.238 and 36.98 pg/L, respectively (Thain 1983).
Juveniles of the crustaceans Aeanthomvsis seulpta and Metamysidopsis elonqata
were slightly more sensitive to TBT than adults (Davidson et al. 1986a,1986b;
                                                                               *
Valkirs et al.  1985; Salazar and Salazar, Manuscript).  Four genera of
amphipods were  tested and sensitivity to TBT ranged from 1.3 to 22.8 jig/L.  As
with bivalve molluscs and other crustaceans, one genus  (Gammarus) demonstrated
greater sensitivity to  TBT  at the younger life-stage  (Bushong  et al. 1988).
        Genus Mean Acute Values for 27 saltwater genera range from 0.61 Aig/L
for Rcanthomvsis to 204.4 M9/L f°* Ostrea  (Table 3).  Genus Mean Acute Values
for the 13  most sensitive genera  differ by  a factor of  less than four.
Included within these genera are  four species of molluscs  and  nine  species of
crustaceans.   The  saltwater Final Acute Value for  TBT was  calculated to be
0.7347 AJg/L (Table 3),  which is greater than the  lowest saltwater  Species Mean
Acute Value of 0.61
 Chronic Toxicitv to Aquatic Animals
         The  available  data that  are usable, according to the Guidelines,
 concerning the chronic toxicity of TBT are presented in Table 2.  Brooke et
 al.  (1986) conducted  a 21-day life-cycle test with a freshwater cladoceran and
 reported that the survival of adult Daphnia maana was 40% at a TBT
 concentration of 0.5>g/Lf and  100% at 0.2 pg/L.  The mean number of young per
 adult per reproductive day was  reduced 30% by 0.2 ng/'L, and was reduced only
 •6% by 0.1 Aig/L.  The  chronic limits are 0.1 and 0.2 /jg/L based upon the
 reproductive effects  on  adult daphnids.  The chronic value for Daphnia maqna
 is calculated to be 0.1414 ^ig/L,  and  the acute-chronic ratio of 30.41  is
 calculated  using the acute value  of 4.3 pg/L from the same study.
         Daphnia maana were exposed in a second 21-day life-cycle test to TBT
  (ABC Laboratories,  Inc.  1990d).  Exposure  concentrations  ranged from 0.12  to
  1.27 ^g/L as TBT.   Survival  of  adults was  significantly  reduced (45%)  from, the
  controls at XK34  pg/L but not  at 0.19 ^g/L.-  Mean number of young per adult
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per reproductive day was significantly reduced at the same concentrations
affecting survival. The chronic limits are set at 0.19 where no effects were
seen and 0.34 pg/L where survival and reproduction were reduced.  The Chronic
Value is 0.2542 pg/L and the Acute-Chronic Ratio is 44.06 when calculated from
the acute value of 11.2 A»g/L from the same test.  The Acute-Chronic Ratio for
J). maana is 36.60 which is the geometric mean of the two available Acute-
Chronic ratios (30.41 and 44.06) for D. maqna.
        In  an early life-stage  test  (32-day duration) with  the  fathead minnow,
           promelas, all' fish exposed to the highest exposure concentration of
2.20'pg/Ii died during the test  (Brooke et al. 1986).  Survival was reduced by
2% at the next lower TBT concentration of 0.92 A/g/L, but was higher than in
the controls and at 0.45 A/g/L and lower concentrations.  The mean weight of
the surviving fish was reduced  4% at 0.08 pg/L, 9% at 0.15 pg/L, 26% at 0.45
pg/L, and 48% at 0.92 pg/L.  Mean length of fry at the end of the test was
significantly reduced at concentrations >0.45 ^g/L.  The mean biomass at the
end of the test was higher at the lowest TBT concentrations ( 0 . 08 and 0.15
pg/L) than in the controls, but was reduced by 13 and 52% at TBT
concentrations of 0.45 and 0.92 ptg/L, respectively.  Because the reductions in
weight of individual fish were  small at the two lowest concentrations (0.08
and 0.15 ftg/L) and the mean biomass increased at these same concentrations,
the chronic limits are 0.15 and 0.45 nqfL based upon growth (length and
weight).  Thus the chronic value is 0.2598 pg/L and the acute-chronic ratio is
10.01 calculated using the acute value of 2.6 pg/L from the same study.
        Two partial life-cycle toxicity tests were conducted using the
copepod, Eurvtemora affinis  (Hall et al. 1987;1988a)f  Tests began with egg-
carrying females and lasted 13  days.  In the first test, mean brood size was
reduced from 15.2 neonates/ female in the control to 0.2 neonates/ female in
0.479 A*g/L-  Percentage  survival of neonates relative to controls was 21% in
0.088 pg/L  (nominal concentration of 0.100 pg/L) , and 0% in 0.479 ^9/L- The
chronic value is <0.088  Aig/L  in this test.
        In the second copepod test,  percentage survival of neonates was
significantly reduced  (27% relative to  controls)  in 0.224 pg/L; brood size was
                                       8
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unaffected in any tested concentration (0.018-0.224 f/g/L).  Although no
statistically significant effects were detected in <0.100 pg/L, percentage
survival of neonates appears reduced; 76% vs 90% in controls.  The chronic
value in this test is 0.150 ug/L. Survival of neonates in both tests in the
0.100 tig fit nominal concentration (mean measured concentration =0.094 pg/L)
averaged 42% relative to controls.  If this is the best estimate of the upper
chronic value, and the 0*056 pg/L treatment from the second test is the best
estimate of the lower chronic value, the overall chronic value for the two
tests is 0.0725 pg/L.  The overall acute-chronic ratio is 27.24 when the  acute
value of 1.9.75 A*g/L  (mean of acute values of 1.4, 2.2 and 2.5 pg/L) is used.
        Life-cycle toxicity tests have been conducted with the saltwater       ;
roysid, Aeanthomvsis  sculpta  (Davidson et al. 1986a,1986b).  The effects of TBT
on survival, growth, and reproduction of A. seulpta were determined in five
separate tests lasting from  28  to 63 days*  The tests separately examined
effects of  TBT on survival  (1 test), growth (3 tests) and reproduction  (1
test)  instead of  the approach of examining all endpoints  in one life-cycle
test.  All  tests  began with  newly released juveniles  and lasted through
maturation  and  spawning, therefore,  are treated as one  life-cycle  test.   The
number of  juveniles released per female at a TBT  concentration of  0.19 A/g/L
was 50%  of  the  number  released  in the control treatment,  whereas the  number
released at 0.09  ^g/L  was  higher than in the control treatment.  Reductipns in
 juveniles'releasepl resulted from deaths of embryos within brood pouches of
 individual females and not from reduced fecundity.   Numbers  of females
 releasing viable juveniles was  reduced in 0.19  and 0.33 A/g/L. At
 concentrations ,of 0.38 A/9/L and above, survival and weight of female mysids
 were reduced;  all mysids in 0.48 /jg/L died.  The chronic value is 0.1308 A/g/L,
 and the acute-chronic ratio is 4.664 (Table 2).
        The Final Acute-Chronic Ratio  of  14.69 was calculated as the geometric
 mean of the acute-chronic ratios of 36.60 for Daphnia magna, 10.01 for
 Pimephales promelas, 4.664 for Aeanthomvsis sculpta and 27.24 for Eurvtemora
 affinis.  Division_of the freshwater and saltwater Final Acute Values by 14.69
 results in Final Chronic Values for freshwater of 0.0625 Aig/L and for
-------
 saltwater of 0.0500  pg/L (Table 3).   Both of these Chronic Values  are below
 the experimentally determined chronic values from life-cycle or early life-
 stage tests.
 Toxicitv to Aquatic Plants
        Blanck et al. (1984) reported the concentrations of TBT that prevented
 growth of thirteen freshwater algal species (Table 4).   These concentrations
 ranged from 56.1 to 1,782  pg/I>,  but most were between 100 and 250 i*g/L.
 Fargasova and Kizlink (1996),  Huang et al.  (1993), and Miana et al.  (1993)
 measured severe reduction  in growth of several green alga species at TBT
 concentrations ranging from 1 to 12.4 pg/L.  Several green alga species  appear
 to be as sensitive to TBT  as many animal species (Table 1).  No data are
 available on the effects of TBT on freshwater vascular plants.
        Toxicity tests on TBT have been conducted with five species of
 saltwater phytoplankton including the green alga,  Dunaliella tertiolecta; the
 diatoms,  Mlnutoeellus polvmorphus, Nitzshia sp., Phaeodactvlum tricornutum.
 Skeletonema costatum. and  Thallassiosira pseudonana; the dinoflagellate,
 Gvmnodinium splendens., the micrbalga, Pavlova lutheri and the macroalga, Fucus
 vesiculosus (Tables 4 and  6).   The 14-day EC50 of 0.06228 /jg/L for S. costatum
 (EGSG Bionomics 1981c)  was the lowest value reported,  but Thain (1983)
 reported that a measured concentration of 0.9732 pg/L was algistatic to  the
 same species (Table 4). The 72-hr ECSOs based on population growth ranged
 from approximately 0.3 to  <0.5 £«g/L (Table 6).  Lethal concentrations were
 generally more than an order of magnitude greater than ECBOs and ranged  from
 10.24 to 13.82 £ig/L.  Identical tests conducted on tributyltin acetate,
 tributyltin chloride, tributyltin fluoride, and tributyltin oxide with S.
' costatum resulted in ECSOs from 0.2346 to 0.4693 £jg/L and LCSOs-from 10.24  to
 13.82 pg/L (Walsh et al. 1985).
        A Final Plant Value, as  defined in  the  Guidelines,  cannot be  obtained
 because no test in which the concentrations of TBT were measured and the
 endpoint was biologically  important has been conducted with an important
 aquatic plant species.   The available data do indicate that freshwater and
                                       10
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saltwater plants will be protected by TBT concentrations that adequately
protect freshwater and saltwater animals.         ,
B ioac cumu1ation
        Bioaccumulation of TBT  has been measured in one species  of  freshwater
mollusc and four species of freshwater fish (Table 5).  The zebra mussel,
Dressena polvmorpha. was monitored in cages in a marina and at an
uncontaminated site in a lake  for 105 days (van S loot en and Tarradellas 1994).
The organisms reached  steady-state concentrations after 35 days.  The BCF/BAF
was 180,427 for TBT at an average water exposure concentration  of 0.0703 pg/L.
Growth of the TBT-exposed organisms may have been slightly reduced.  Martin et
al.  (1989) determined  the whole body bioconcentration factor  (BCF)  for rainbow
trout  to be 406 after  a 64-day exposure to 0.513 /ug TBT/L.  Equilibrium of the
TBT  concentration was  achieved in the fish in 24 to 48 hrs.   In a  separate
exposure to  1.026 ^gTBT/L,  rainbow trout  organs were  assayed  for TBT content
after  a 15-day exposure.   The BCFs ranged from 312 for muscle to 5,419  for
peritoneal fat.   TBT was more highly concentrated than the metabolites  of  di-
 and monobutyltin or tin.   Carp and guppy  demonstrated a  plateau BCF in  14  days
 and BCFs of 501.2 and 460,  respectively.  Goldfish reached  a much .higher BCF
 (1,976) in the whole body than the  other  fish species tested.
         The extent to  which JTBT is accumulated by saltwater animals  from the
 field or from laboratory tests lasting 28 days or more  has been investigated
 with three species of  bivalve molluscs, a snail,  and a fish  (Table 5).   Thain
 and Waldock (1985) reported a BCF of 6,833 for the soft parts of blue mussel
 spat exposed to 0.24  vg/I>  for 45 days.  In other laboratory  exposures of blue
 mussels, Salazar  and  Salazar  (1987) observed BCFs of 10,400  to  37,500 after 56
 days.   BAFs from  field deployments of mussels were similar to  BCFs  from
 laboratory studies; 11,000 to 25,000 (Salazar and Salazar 1990a) and 5,000 to
 60,000 (Salazar  and Salazar  1991).  Laboratory BCFs  for the  snail Nucella
 lapillus  (11,000  to  38,000) were also  similar to field BAFs  (17,000) (Bryan et
 al. 1987).  The  soft  parts of the Pacific oyster exposed to  TBT for 56 days
 contained 11,400 times the exposure concentration of 0.146 /jg/L (Waldock  and

                                        11                    •
-------
Thain 1983).  A BCF of 6,047 was observed for the soft parts of the Pacific
oyster exposed to 0.1460 pg/L for 21 days (Waldock et al. 1983).  The lowest
steady-state BCF reported for a bivalve was 192.3 for the soft parts of the
European flat oyster, Ostrea edulis. exposed to a TBT concentration of 2.62
/jg/L for 45 days (Thain 1986; Thain and Waldock 1985).  Other tests with the
same species  (Table 5) resulted in BCFs ranging from 397 to 1,167.  One
species of saltwater fish was exposed to 0.28 pg/L «°r " days and a plateau
BCF of 240 was demonstrated  (Tsuda et al. 1990b).
        No U.S.  FDA action level or other maximum acceptable concentration in
tissue, as defined in the Guidelines, is available for TBT, and,, therefore, no
Final Residue Value  can be calculated.
 Other Data
        Additional data on the lethal and sublethal effects of TBT on aquatic
 species are presented in Table 6.   Two microcosm studies were conducted by
 Delupis and Miniero (1989,  1991) in which single dose effects were measured on
 natural assemblages of organisms.   In both studies the effects were immediate.
 Paohnia tnaana disappeared soon after a 80 jug/L dose of TBT, ostracods
 increased, and algal species increased immediately then gradually disappeared.
 In the second study metabolism was monitored by measuring oxygen consumption.
 Doses of TBT (4.7 and 14.9 pg/L) were administered once and metabolism was
 reduced by 2.5 days and returned to normal in 14.1 days in the lower exposure.
 In the higher exposure, metabolism was reduced in one day and returned to
 normal in 16 days.
         Wong et  al.  (1982)  exposed a natural  assemblage of  freshwater algae
 and  several pure cultures of various algal species to TBT  in 4-hr exposures.
 Effects  (ECSOs) were  seen in all  cases on the production or reproduction  at
 concentrations  ranging  from 5 to  20 /jg/L which demonstrates a  high  sensitivity
 to TBT.
         Freshwater rotifers fBrachionus ealvciflorusi and coelentrate (Hydra
 sp.) showed widely differing  sensitivites to TBT.   Hydra sp.  were affected at
 0.5  pg/L resulting in deformed tentacles, but the rotifer  was not affected at
                                        12
-------
the sensitive life-stage of hatching until an exposure concentration reached
72 pg/L.
        Larvae of  the clam,  Corbicula fluminea.  has  a  24-hr  EC50  of 1,990 pg/L
which is a high concentration relative to most other species of tested
freshwater organisms.  Another species of clam, ElUptio complanatus, also
showed  low sensitivity1 to TBT with a 96-hr LC50 of  24,600 M9/L (Table 1).
Various bivalve clam species may have the ability to reduce exposure to  TBT
temporarily  by closing the  valves.
        The cladpceran, Daphnia maana, has 24-hr ECSOs ranging from 3 to 13.6
jig/L (Polster and Halacha  1972; Vighi and Calamari  1985).   When  a more
 sensitive endpoint of altered  phototaxis was examined in a  longer-term
 exposure of 8 days, the  effect concentration (0.45  pg/L)  was  much lower
 (Meador 1986).  Similarly,  rainbow trout mneorhvnchus mvkiss) exposed  in
 short-term exposures of  24 to 48 hr have LC50 and EC50 values from, 18.9 to
 30 1 8 jjg/L (Table 6).  When the exposure is increased to 110 days (Seinen et
 al. 1981), the LC100 decreased to 4.46 ^g/L and a 10% reduction in growth is
 seen at 0.18 jig/L.  De Tries et al.  (1991)  measured a similar response in
 rainbow trout growth in another 110  day exposure.  They demonstrated decreased
 survival and growth at 0.200 nqfL but not at 0.040 (igfL.  Triebskdrn et al.
  (1994)' found reduced  growth and behavior changes at 21 days when exposed to
 0.5 ^g/L.    The  frog, Rana temooraria.  has  a LC50  of 28.2  nqfL for a 5-day
 exposure to TBT .
         An attempt was made to measure the bioconcentration of TBT with the
  green  alga, Rnklstrodesmus falcatus (Maguire et  al.  1984).   The  algae  are  able
  to degrade  TBT  to its di-  and monobutyl forms.   As a result, the
  concentrations  of TBT steadily declined during the 28-day  study.   During the
  first  seven days of exposure, the concentrations declined  from  20 to 5.2 ^g/L
  and the calculated BCF  was 300 (Table 6).   After 28  days of  exposure,  the TBT
  concentration had declined to 1.5 ^g/L and the calculated  BCF was 467.
  Several studies reported BCFs for fish but failed to demonstrate plateau
  concentrations .in the organism.  In these Btudies, rainbow trout BCFB ranged
  from  990 (Triebskorn et al, 1994) to 3,833 (Schwaiger et al. 1992).  Goldfish
                                        13
-------
achieved a BCF of 1,230 (Tsuda et al. 1988b) in a 14-day exposure and carp
achieved a BCF of 295 in the muscle tissue in 7 days (Tsuda et al. 1987).
       TBT has been  shown to produce the superimposition of male  sexual
characteristics on female neogastropotf (stenoglossan) snails (Smith 1981b,
Gibbs and Bryan 1987).  This phenomenon, termed "imposex," can result in
females with a penis, a duct leading to the vas deferens, and: a convolution of
the normally straight oviduct (Smith 1981a).  Other anatomical changes
associated with imposex are detailed in Gibbs et al. (1988) and Gibbs and
Bryan (1987).  Severity of imposex is quantified using relative penis size
(RPS; ratio of female to male penis volume) and the six, developmental .stages
of the vas deferens  sequence (VDS) (Bryan et al. 1986; Gibbs et al. 1987).
TBT has been shown to impact populations of the Atlantic dogwhinkle
(dogwhelk), Nucella  laoillus. which has direct development.  In neoglossian
snails with indirect development through planktonic larval stages, the impacts
of TBT are less certain because recruitment is facilitated.  Natural
pseudohemaphiodism in neoglossans occurs  (Salazar and Champ 1988) and may be
caused by other organotin compounds  (Bryan  et al. 1988a).  However, increased
global incidence  and severity of imposex has been associated with areas  of
high boating activity and high concentrations of TBT in water, sediment  or
snails and other  biota  (Alvarez  and  Ellis  1990; Bailey and Davies 1988a,1988b;
Bryan et al. 1986,1987,; Davies  et al.  1987, Durchon 1982; Ellis  and Pattisima
1990; Gibbs and Bryan 1986,1987; Gibbs  et  al.  1987; Langston et al. 1990;
Short et al. 1989;  Smith 1981a,  1981b;  Spence  et al. 1990a).
        Although imposex has been observed in 45 species of snails worldwide
 (Ellis and Pattisima 1990,  Jenner  1979),  definitive laboratory and  field
studies  implicating TBT as  the cause have focused  on seven North  American or
cosmopolitan  species; the Atlantic dogwhinkle  (Nucella  lapillus). file
dogwhinkle  (N.  lima), eastern mud snail (Ilvanassa (Nassarius) obsoletal,  a
snail  (Hinia  reticulta), welks f Thais orb it a and T. clavicreral,  and the
European sting winkle (Ocenebra erinaeea).  Imposex has been associated with
reduced reproductive potential and altered density and population structure in
 field populations of N. lapillus (Spence et al.  1990a).   This is related to

                                       14
-------
blockage of the oviduct by the vas deferens, hence, .prevention of release of
egg capsules, sterilization of the female or change into an apparently
fuctional male (Bryan et al. 1986; Gibbs et al. 1987,1988; Gibbs and Bryan
1986,1987).  TBT may reduce populations of N. lima as snails were absent from
marinas in Auke Bay, AK.  At intermediate distances from marinas, about 25
were caught per hour of sampling and 250 per hour were caught at sites distant
from marinas  (Short et al. 1989).  Snails from intermediate sites had blocked
oviducts.  Reduced proportions of female I. obsoleta in Sarah Creek, VA also
suggests population impacts  (Bryan et  al. 1989).  However, other causes may
explain this  as oviducts were not blocked and indirect development
facilitating  recruitment may limit impacts.
        Several field studies have used transplantations of snails between
 sites or snails painted with TBT paints to  investigate the role of  TBT  or
proximity to marinas  in the development of  imposex without defining actual
 exposure concentrations of TBT.   Short et  ali  (1989) painted Nucellus lima
 with TBT-based paint,  copper paints  or unpainted controls.  For 21  females
 painted with TBT paint, seven developed penises within  one month, whereas
 penises were absent from 35 females from other treatments.  Smith (1981a)
 transplanted jr.  obsoleta between marinas and "clean" locations and found that
 incidence of imposex was unchanged after 19 weeks in snails kept at clean
 locations or marinas, increased in sna-ils. transplanted from clean sites to
 marinas and decreased somewhat in transplants from marinas to clean sites.
 Snails exposed in the laboratory to TBT-based paints in two separate
 experiments developed imposex within  one month with maximum impact within  6 to
 12 months  (Smith  1981a).  Snails painted with non-TBT paints were unaffected.
         Concentration-response data demonstrate a similarity in the response
 of  snails to TBT  in controlled  laboratory  and field studies  (Text  Table  1).
 Eastern mud  snails, Illvanassa  obsoleta. collected  from the York River,  VA
 near Sarah  Creek had  no  incidence of  imposex  (Bryan et al.  1989) and contained
 no  detectable TBT,  (<6.020 ^g/g dry weight).  The average TBT  concentrations
 of  York River water  was  0.0016  /jg/L.   In  contrast,  the average TBT
  concentrations  from four locations  in Sarah Creek,  VA were  from 0.010  to 0.023
                                        15
-------
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    , snails contained about 0.1 to 0.73 pg/g and there was a 40 to 100%
incidence of imposex.  Short et al. (1989) collected file dogwinkle snails,
Nueella lima, from Auke Bay, AK and did not detect imposex or TBT in snails
from sites far*from marinas.  Snails from locations near marinas all exhibited
imposex and contained 0.03 to 0.16 pg/g.
        The effects of TBT on the development of imposex has been studied most
in the Atlantic dogwhinkle, Nueella laoillus.   Bryan et al.  (1987a) exposed
adult snails for two years to.0.0036  (control),  0.0083, 0.046 and 0.26 j/g/L  in
the  laboratory and compared responses to a field control.   Imposex was present
in laboratory -control"  snails exposed to 0.0036 pg/L  and extent pf penis and
vas  deferens development increased significantly-with  increase  in TBT
exposure;  sterility occurred in  some  snails  exposed to 0.26 pg/L.  In a
similar laboratory experiment that began with snail egg capsules and lasted
two  years  (Gibbs  et al.  1988), imposex  development was more severe.  Field
controls spawned  and females were normal  in  <0.0012 /jg/L.   In the laboratory,
one-third of the  snails exposed  to 0.0036 pg/L were sterile and 160 egg  cases
were produced.  At >0.0093 ^g/L  all females  were sterile with only two
undersized egg capsules .produced.  Concentrations of  TBT in females were O.19
Hg/g in the field, 0.58 pg/g in the 0.0036  jug/L treatment  and from  1.39  to
 7.71 jjg/g in >O.O093 ^g/L.  Similar concentrations of TBT  (9.7  j/9/9)  were
 found in snails which became sterile after they were placed in the  Dart
 Estuary, UK where TBT concentrations range from 0.022 to 0.046 ^g/L.   Gibbs
 and Bryan  (1986)  and Gibbs et al. (1987) report imposex and reproductive
 failures at other marine
 sites where TBT concentrations in female snails range from 0.32 to 1.54 ^9/9-
        In  summary,  in both field  and  laboratory studies, concentrations  of TBT
 in water of about  0.001 pg/L or  less and in  tissues of about 0.2 pg/g or  less
 appear to  not cause  imposex  in N. lapillus.   Imposex  begins to occur, and
 cause  some reproductive failure  at about 0.004 /jg/L with complete sterility
 occurring  after  chronic exposure of .sensitive early"life-stages at >0.009 ^g/
 and for less sensitive  stages at 0.02 pig/L  in some studies and greater  than
 0.2 pg/L  in others.   If N.  lapillus  or  similarly  sensitive species are
 ecologically  important  at specific  sites, TBT concentrations <0.001 A*g/L may
-------
be required to  limit  development of  imposex.
       Reproductive abnormalities  have also been observed in the European flat
oyster (Thain 1986).   After exposure for  75 days to a TBT concentration of
0.24 Aig/L,  a  retardation in the sex  change from male to «female was observed
and larval  production was completely inhibited.  A TBT concentration of .2.6
pg/L prevented  development of gonads.  Salazar et  al. (1987) found no
negative effects in the same species at 0.157 A/g/L, but Thain and Waldock
 (1985) and Thain (1986) measured  reduced  growth at 0.2392 pg/L and reduce
 survival (30%)  at 2.6 pg/I>.
       Four species of snails  fHinia reticulata. Thais orbita, £. claviqera,
 Ocenebra srinaeeal not resident to North America also demonstrated imposex
 effects when exposed to TBT in field studies (Text Table 1).  The snail g.
 reticulata is less sensitive to TBT than other snails having higher body
 burdens  (>1.5 pg/L) before showing affects of imposex.  Thais sp. showed high
 imposex  incidence at tissue concentrations as low as 0.005 pg/L and no imposex
 at other locations with tissue concentrations of 0.108 ^g/L.  Ocenebra
 erinaeea did not show imposex in a field study at body burdens as high as
 0.185 pg/L, but females were  deformed at all higher concentrations.
        Survival and growth of several commercially  important saltwater bivalve
 molluscs have  been studied during acute and  long-term exposures to TBT.
 Mortality  of larval  blue mussels, Mvtilus  edulis.  exposed to 0.0973 jig/L was
 51%;  survivors were  moribund and stunted  (Beaumont and  Budd 1984).  Simi-larly,
 Dixon and  Prosser  (1986)  observed 79% mortality of mussel larva after 4 days
 exposure to  0.1 ^g/L.   Growth of juvenile blue mussels  was  significantly
 reduced after  7 to 66 days at 0.31  to 0.3893 fig/1  (Stromgren and  Bongard  1987;
 Valkirs et al. 1985).   Growth rates of mussels transplanted into  San  Diego
" Harbor were  impacted at sites where TBT  concentrations  exceeded 0.2 vg/L
  (Salazar and Salazar 1990b).  At locations where concentrations were  less than
 0.1 fig/Ij,  the  presence of optimum environmental conditions  for growth appear
 to limit or  mask the effects of  TBT.  Less than optimum conditions for growth
 raay permit the effect of TBT on  growth to be expressed., Salazar et al. (1987)
                                        20
-------
observed that 0.157 M9/L reduced growth of mussels after 56 days exposure in
the laboratory; a concentration within less than a factor of two of that
reducing growth in the field.  Similarly, Salazar and Salazar  (1987) observed
reduced growth of mussels exposed to 0.070 pg/L for 196 days in the
laboratory.  The 66-day LC50 for 2.5 to 4.l'cm blue mussels was 0.97 /ig/L
(Valkirs et al. 1985,1987)'.  Alzieii et al.  (1980) reported 30% mortality and
abnormal shell thickening among Pacific oyster larvae exposed  to 0.2 ^g/L for
113 days.  Abnormal development was also  observed in exposures of embryos for
24 hrs or  less to TBT concentrations >0.8604  f/g/L  (Robert and  His 1981).
Waldock  and Thain  (1983) observed  reduced growth and thickening of the upper
shell valve of Pacific oyster  spat"exposed to 0.1460 pg/L  for  56 days.  Shell
thickening in crassostrea  aiaas was  associated with tissue concentrations of
>0.2  mg/kg (Davies  et al.  1988).   Abnormal shell  development  was observed  in
an exposure to 0.77 pg/L that began with embryos  of the eastern oyster,.
Crassostrea virolnica. and lasted for 48 hours (Roberts,  1987).  Adult eastern
 oysters were also sensitive to TBT with reductions in condition index after
 exposure for 57 days to >0.1 /jg/L (Henderson 1986; Valkirs et al.  1985).
 Salazar et al. (1987) found no effect-on"growth after 56 days exposure to
 0.157 j^g/L to the oysters C. vircrinica, Ostrea edulis and O. lurida.
 Condition of adult clams, Macoma nasuta. and scallops, Hinmites multiruqosus
 were not affected after 110 days exposure.to 0.204 pg/L (Salazar et al. 1987).
      ' Long-term exposures  have been conducted with a number of saltwater
 crustacean species.   Johansen and Kohlenberg  (1987) exposed adult Acartia
 tonsa' for five days  to TBT  and observed  impaired egg production on days 3, 4
 and  5 in  0.1 /jg/L  and only on day 5 in 6.01  and 0.05 /ug/L.  For the five days,
 overall egg production was reduced markedly  (25%)  only in  0.1 pg/L.   Davidson
 et al.  (1986a,1986b), Laughlin et al.  (1983,1984b), and Salazar and Salazar
  (1985a) reported that TBT acts  slowly  on crustaceans  and  that behavior might
 be affected several days  before  mortality occurs.  Survival of larval
  amphipods,  Gammarus oceanicus.  was  significantly reduced  after eight  weeks of
'  exposure  to TBT concentrations XJ.2816 yg/L (Laughlin et  al.  1984b).   Hall et
                                        21
-------
al. (1988b) observed no effect of 0.579 pg/l. on Gammarus sp. after 24 days.
Developmental rates and growth of larval mud crabs, Rhithropanopeus harrisii,
were reduced by a 15-day exposure to >14.60 pg/L.  R. harrisii might
accumulate more TBT via ingested food than directly from water (Evans and
Laughlin 1984).  TBTF, TBTO, and TBTS were about equally toxic to amphipods
and crabs  (Laughlin et al. 1982,1983,1984a).  Laughlin and French (1989)
observed LC50 values for larval developmental stages of 13 pg/L for crabs  (B-
Hsgrisii>  from California vs 33.6 pg/L for crabs from Florida.  Limb
malformations and reduced burrowing were observed in fiddler crabs exposed to
0.5 /jg/L (Weis and Kim 1988; Weis and Perlmutter 1987).  Arm regeneration was
reduced in brittle stars exposed to 0.1 /ig/L (Walsh et al. 1986a).  Exposure
to >0.1 /jg/L during settlement of fouling organisms reduced number of species
and species diversity of communities  (Henderson 1986).  The hierarchy of
sensitivities of phyla in this test was similar to that of single species
tests.
       Exposure of  embryos of  the  California grunion, Leuresthes tenuis.  for
ten days to 74 pg/L caused  a  50%  reduction  in hatching success (Newton et  al.
1985).  At TBT concentrations between O.14  and 1.72 ^g/L, growth, hatching .
success, and survival were  significantly enhanced.  In contrast, growth of
inland silverside  larvae was  reduced  after  28 days exposure to, 0.093 pg/L
(Hall  et al. 1988b).  Juvenile Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tvrannus. avoided
a TBT  concentration of 5.437 ,/^g/L and juvenile striped bass, Morone saxatilis,
avoided 24.9 ^g/L  (Hall et  al.  1984).  BCFs were 4,300 for  liver, 1,300  for
brain, and 200 for muscle tissue  of  chinook salmon, Oneorhvnchus tshawvtscha.
exposed to 1,490 Aig/L for 96  hours  (Short  and Thrower 1986a,1986c).
       TBT concentrations  less than the Final Chronic Value of 0.0500  /jg/L
from Table 3 have  been shown  to affect the growth  of  early life-stages  of
commercially important bivalve molluscs  and survival  of  ecologically  important
copepods  (Table  6; Text Table 2).  Survival of the copepod Acartia tonsa was
significantly  reduced in  three tests in  0.029, 0.023  and 0.024 ^g/L;  30,  27
and 51 percent of  control survival,  respectively (Bushong et al.  1990).
                                       22
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Survival decreased with increase in exposure concentration but was not
significantly affected in the 0.012 »g/I> exposure concentration.
      Laughlin et al. (1987, 1988) observed a significant decrease in growth
of hard clam  /Mgrcenaria mercinarial larvae exposed for 14 days to >0.01 pg/L
(Text Table 2).  Growth rate  (increase  in valve  length) was  75% of controls in
0.01 pg/L, 63% in 0.025 pg/L, 59%  in O.05 ^fL,  45% in 0.1 pg/L,  29% in 0.25
Mg/L and  2.2% in 0.5  M9/L-  A five-day  exposure  followed by  nine  days  in TBT-
free water produced similar responses and  little evidence of recovery.
      Pacific oyster /d-assostrea ericas! spat exhibited  shell thickening  in
0.01 .and  0.05 pg/L  and reduced  valve lengths in >0.02 pg/L  (Lawler and Aldrich
 1987; Text  Table 2).  Increase  in valve length was 101%  of  control lengths in
 0.01  ngfL,  72%  in 0.02 /ug/L,  17% in 0.05 ^g/L, 35% in 0.1 ^g/L and 0% in 0.2
 ^g/L.  Shell thickening was also observed in this species exposed to >0.02 pg/L
 for 49  days  (Thain et al. 1987).  They predicted from these data that
 approximately 0.008 ^g/L would be the maximumTBT concentration permitting
 culture of commercially acceptable adults.  Their field studies agreed with
 laboratory results showing "acceptable" shell thickness where TBT
 concentrations averaged 0.011  and 0.015 ./ig/L but not  at higher concentrations.
 Decreased weights  of oyster meats were associated with locations where there
 was shell thickening.  Survival' of Crassostrea  gigas  larvae exposed for 21
 days was reduced in 0.025  pg/L (Springborn  Bionomics  1984a).  No larvae
 survived in >0.050 ^g/L.            •
        Growth of spat of  the  European oyster (Ostrea  edulis) was  reduced  at
 >0.02  pg/L (Thain  and Waldock 1985;  Text  Table 2).   Spat exposed to TBT  in
  static tests were  82% of control lengths  and 75% of  control weights;  extent of
  impact increased with increased exposure.  In these static and flow-through
  tests  at exposures at about 0.02 ^g/L, weight gain was identical; i.e.,  35% of
  controls.   Growth of larger, spat was marginally reduced by 0.2392 /ig/L (Thain
  1986;  Thain and Waldock 1985).
        The National  Guidelines  (Stephan et al.  1985; pp -18  and 54) requires -
,'that the criterion  be lowered if sound scientific evidence indicates that
                                         25
-------
adverse effects might be expected on important species.  The above data
demonstrate that the reductions in growth occur in commercially or
ecologically important saltwater species at concentrations of TBT less than
the Final Chronic Value of 0.0500 pg/L derived using Final Acute Values and
Acute-Chronic Ratios from Table 3.  Therefore', EPA believes the Final Chronic
Value should be lowered to 0.01 pg/L to limit unacceptable impacts on Acartia
tonsa, Mercenaria mercenaria. Crassostrea oioras and Ostrea edulis observed at
0.02 pg/L.  At this criteria concentration, imposex would be expected in
Ilvanassa obsolefca. Nueella lapillus and similarly sensitive neogastropods;
populations of N. lapillus and similarly sensitive snails with direct
development might be impacted and growth of Mercenaria mercenaria might be
somewhat lowered.
Unused Data
      Some data concerning the  effects of TBT on aquatic organisms were not
used because the tests were  conducted with  species that are not resident  in
North America (e.g.,  Ali et  al.  1990; Allen et  al. 1980; Axiak et al.  1995b;
Batley et al. 1989,1992; Burridge et  al. 1995;  Carney and Paulini 1964;
Danil'chenko 1982;  Deschiens and Floch 1968; Deschiens et  al.
1964,1966a,1966b; de Sousa and  Paulini 1970; Fent 1991, 1992; Fent and Hunn
1993; Fent and Meier 1992; Frick and  DeJimenez  1964; Girard et al. 1996;
Harding  et al. 1995; Helmstetter and  Alden  1995; Hopf and  Muller 1962;
Jantataerae 1991; Karande and Ganti 1994; Karande et  al. 1993; Kubo et al.
1984; Langston and Buft 1991; Lewis et  al.  1995; Nagabhushanam et al. 1991;
Nagase  et al. 1991; Nias et  al. 1993; Nishuichi and  Yoshida  1972; Oehlmann et
al. 1996; Reddy et al. 1992; Ringwood 1992; Ritchie  et  al. 1964; Ruiz et al.
1994a,  1994b, 1995a, 1995b,  1995c; Sarojini et  al.  1991,  1992;  Scadding 1990;
Scamraell et al. 1991; Seiffer and Schoof 1967;  Shiff et al.  1975;  Shimizu and
Kimura 1992; Smith et al. 1979; Spence et al.  1990b; Stebbing et al. 1990;
 Sujatha et al. 1996; Tsuda et al. 1986,  1991a;  Upatham 1975;  Upatham et al.
 1980a,1980b; Vitturi et al.  1992; Webbe and Sturrock 1964; Yamada et al. 1994;
                                       26
-------
Yla-Mononen 1989).
      Alzieu (1986), Cardarelli and Evans  (1980), Cardwell and Sheldon  (1986),
Cardwell and Vogue  (1986), Champ  (1986), Chau  (1986), Eisler  (1989),
Envirosphere Company (1986), Evans and Leksono (1995), Gibbs  and Bryan  (1987),
Gibbs et al. (1991a), Good et al.  (1980),  Guard et al.  (1982), Hall  (1988,
1991), Hall and Pinkney  (1985), Hall et al.  (1991), Hodge et. al.  (19790,
International Joint Commission  (1976), Jensen  (1977), Kimbrough  (1976),
Kumpulainen and Koivistoinen  (1977), Lau  (1991), Laughlin  (1986), Laughlin  and
Linden  (1985), Laughlin  et al.  (1984a), McCullough et al.  (1980), Monaghan  et
al.  (1980), North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community
Development  (1983,1985),  Rexrode  (1987), Salazar  (1989), Seligman et al.
 (1986), Slesinger and Dressier  (1978), Stebbing (1985), Thayer  (1984),
Thompson et al.  (1985),  U.S.  EPA  (1975,1985b), U.S. Navy  (1984),  Valkirs  et
al.  (1985]f, von Rumker et al.  (1974), Walsh (1986) and  Zuckerman et  al.  (1978)
compiled data  from  other sources.  Studies by Gibbs et  al.  (1987) were  not
used because data were from  the first year of a two-year experiment  reported
 in Gibbs et  al.  (1988).
       Results  were  not used  when  the test procedures, test material, or
 results were not adequately  described  (e.g., Bruno and  Ellis 1988;  Cardwell
 and Stuart 1988;  Chau et al.  1983; Danil'chenko and Buzinova 1982;  de la Court
 1980; Deschiens  1968;  EG&G Bionomics 1981b; Filenko and Isakova 1980; Holwerda
 and Herwig 1986;  Kelly et al. 1990b; Kolosova et al.  1980; Laughlin 1983; Lee
 1985; Mercier  et al.  1994;  Nosov and Kolosova 1979;  Smith 1981c; Stroganov et
 al. 1972,1977).   Th6 96-hr LC50 of 0.01466 jug/L reported by Becerra-Huericho
 (1984) for post larvae of the hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria.  was not used
 because results of other studies with embryos, larvae,  and post larvae of the
 hard clam where acutely  lethal concentrations range from 0.6 to 4.0 Aig/L
 (Tables 1 and 6) cast doubt on this LC50  value.  Data from the life-cycle test
 with sheepshead minnows  (Ward et al. 1981) were not used because ratios of
 measured and nominal concentrations were  inconsistent within and between tests
 suggesting problems in  delivering TBT, analytical chemistry  or both.  Results
                                        27
-------
of some .laboratory tests were not used because the tests were conducted in
distilled or deionized water without addition of appropriate salts (e.g., Gras
and Rioux 1965; Kumar Das et al. 1984).  The concentration of dissolved oxygen
was too low in tests reported by EG&G Bionomics (1981a).  Douglas et al.
(1986) did not observe sufficient mortalities to calculate a useful LC50.
      Data were not used when TBT was a component of a formulation/ mixture,
paint, or sediment (Boike and Rathburn 1973; Cardarelli 1978; beschiens and
Floch 1970; Goss et al. 1979; Laughlin et al. 1982; Maguire and Tkacz 1985;
Hattiessen and Thain 1989; North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and
Community Development 1983; Pope 1981; Quick and Cardarelli 1977; Salazar and
Salazar 1985a, 1985b; Santos et al. 1977; Sherman 1983; Sherman and Hqang
1981; Sherman and Jackson 1981; Walker 1977; Weisfeld 1970),, unless data were
available to show that the toxicity was the same as for TBT alone.  Data were
not used when the organisms were exposed to TBT by injection or gavage  (e.g.,
Fent and Stegeman 1991, 1993; Rice et al. 1995; Rice and Weeks 1990; Rouleau
et al.' 1995).  Caricchia et al.  (1991), Salazar and Chadwick (1991), Salazar
and Salazar  (1990a, 1990b, 1991), and Steinert and Pickwell  (1993), did not
identify the organism exposed to TBT.  Some studies did not report toxic
effects of TBT  (e.g., Balls 1987; Gibbs 1993; Meador et al. 1984; Page  1995;
Salazar 1986; Salazar and Champ 1988).
      Data were  not used when the test organisms were infested with tapeworms
 (e.g., Hnath 1970).  Mottley  (1978) and Mottley and Griffiths  (1977) conducted
tests with a mutant form of an  alga.  Results of tests  in which enzymes,
excised or homogenized tissue,  or cell cultures were exposed to the test
material were not used  (e.g., Avery et al.  1993; Blair  et al.  1982;
Bruschweiler et  al. 1996; Falcioni'et  al.  1996; Fent and Bucheli  1994;  Fent
and Stegeman 1991; Fisher et  al.  1990; Josephson et al.  1989;  Joshi and Gupta
1990; Pickwell  and Steinert  1988; Reader  et al. 1994,  1996;  Rice  and Weeks
1991; Virkki and Nikinmaa  1993; Wishkovsky et  al.  1989;  Zucker et al.  1992).
Tests conducted with  too  few test  organisms were not used  (e.g.,  EG&G
Bionomics  1976;  Good  et  al.  1979).  High  control mortalities occurred  in tests
                                       28
-------
reported by Rhea et al. (1995), Salazar and Salazar (Manuscript) and Valkirs
et al. (1985).  Some data were not used because of problems with the
concentration of the test material (e.g., Springborn Bionomics 1984b;
Stephenson et al. 1986; Ward et al. 1981) or low survival in the exposure
organisms (Chagot et al. 1990; Fent and Looser 1995).  BCFs were not used when
the concentration of TBT in the test solution was not measured  (Laughlin et
al. 1986b; Paul and Davies 1986) or were highly variable  (Becker et al. 1992;
Laughlin and French 1988).  Reports of the concentrations in wild aquatic
animals were not used  if concentrations in water were unavailable or
excessively variable  (e.g., Curtis and Barse 1990; Davies et al. 1987,  1988;
Davies and McKie 1987; Gibbs et al. 1991b; Hall 1988; Han and Weber 1988;
Kannan et al. 1996; Oehlmann et al. 1991; Stab et al. 1995; Thrower and Short
1991; .Wade et al.  1988).
 Summary                                                         ,
      ' The acute toxicity values for thirteen freshwater animal species range
 from 1.14 j^g/L for a hydra fHvdra oliaactisl to 24,600 j^g/L for a  clam
 (Elliptic complanatus i .   There was no apparent trend in sensitivities with
 taxonomy; fish were nearly as sensitive as the most sensitive invertebrates
 and more sensitive than others.  When the much less sensitive clam was not
 considered, the remaining species sensitivities varied by a maximum of 11.2
 times.  Three chronic toxicity tests have been conducted with  freshwater
 animals;  Reproduction of Daphnia maana was reduced by 0.2 ^g/L, but not by
 0.1 P9/L, and the Acute-Chronic Ratio is 30.41.  In another test with D. maqna
 reproduction and survival was reduced at 0.34 ^g/L but not at 0.19, and the
 Acute-Chronic Ratio is 44.06.  Weight of fathead minnows was reduced by 0.45
 ^ig/L, but not by 0.15 ngfL, and the acute-chronic ratio for this species was
 10.01.  Bioconcentration of TBT was measured in zebra mussels, Dressena
 polvmorpha, at  180,427 times the water concentration for the soft parts and in
 rainbow trout,  Oncorhvnchus mvkiss. at 406  times the water concentration for
 the whole body.  Growth  of thirteen species of freshwater algae was  inhibited
                                        29
-------
by concentrations ranging from 56.1 to 1,782 Atg/I>.
       Acute values for 27 species of saltwater animals range from 0.61
for the mysid, Reanthomvsis sculpta. to 204.4 f*g/L for adult European flat
oysters, Ostrea edulis.  Acute values for the twelve most sensitive genera,
including molluscs, crustaceans, and fishes, differ by less than a factor of
4.  Larvae and juveniles appear to be more sensitive than adults.  A life-
cycle toxicity test has been conducted with the saltwater mysid, Acanthomysis
sculpta.  The chronic  value for A. sculpta was 0.1308 pg/L based on reduced
reproduction and the acute-chronic ratio was 4.664.  Bioconcentration factors
for three species  of bivalve molluscs range from  192.3 for soft parts of the
European flat oyster to  11,400 for soft parts of  the Pacific oyster,
CrasBoatrea oigas.  Tributyltin  chronically affects certain saltwater
copepods, gastropods,  and pelecypods at concentrations less than those
predicted from "standard"  acute  and chronic toxicity tests.  Survival of the
copepod Acartia tonsa was reduced in >0.023 ^gfL. Growth of larvae or  spat of
two  species  of oysters,  Crassostrea giaas  and Ostrea edulis was reduced in
about 0.02 pg/L;  some c. aicras larvae  died in 0.025 /ug/L. • Generally
concentrations <0.01 /jg/L have not been demonstrated to  affect sensitive  life-
 stages, of  saltwater organisms.  This  above data demonstrate that  reductions  in
growth occur in commercially or ecologically important saltwater  species  at
 concentrations of TBT less than the Final Chronic Value  of  0.0500 pg/L derived
 using Final Acute Values and Acute-Chronic Ratios from Table 3.   Therefore,
 EPA believes the Final Chronic Value should be lowered to 0.01 pg/L to limit
 unacceptable impacts  on Aeartia tonsa, Mercenaria mercenaria,  Crassostrea
 gigas and Ostrea edulis observed at 0.02 Aig/L.   At this criteria
 concentration, imposex would be expected.in Ilvanassa obsoleta, Nucella
 lapillus and similarly sensitive neogastropbds;  populations of N. lapillus and
 similarly sensitive snails with direct development might be impacted and
 growth  of Mercenaria  mercenaria might be somewhat lowered.
                                        30
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National Criteria
      The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species
is very sensitive, freshwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be
affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of tributyltin
does not exceed 0.063 pg/L more than once every three years on the average and
if the one-hour average concentration 'does not exceed 0.46 f/g/L more than once
every three years on.the average.
      The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species
is very sensitive,  saltwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be
affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of tributyltin
does not exceed  0.010 j/g/L more than once every three years on the average and
if the  one-hour  average  concentration does not exceed 0.37 pg/L more than once
every three years on the average.                                          -
 Implementation
     '.  As discussed in the Water Quality Standards Regulation (U.S..  EPA 1983)
 and the Foreword of this document, a water quality criterion for aquatic life
 has regulatory impact only if it has been adopted in a state water quality
 standard.  Such a standard specifies a criterion for a pollutant that is
 consistent with a particular designated use.  With the concurrence of the U.S.
 EPA, states designate one or more uses for each body of water or segment
 thereof and adopt criteria that are consistent with the use(s) (U.S. EPA
"1987,1994).  Water quality criteria adopted in state water quality standards
 could have the same numerical values as criteria developed under Section 304,
 of the Clean Water Act.  However, in many situations states might want to
 adjust water quality criteria developed under Section 304 to' reflect local
 environmental conditions and human exposure patterns.  Alternatively, states
                                        31
-------
may use different data and assumptions than EPA in deriving numeric criteria
that are scientifically defensible and protective of designated uses.  State
water quality standards include both numeric and narrative criteria.  A state
may adopt a numeric criterion within its water quality standards and apply it
either state-wide to all waters designated for the use the criterion is
designed to protect or to a specific site.  A state may use an indicator
parameter or the national criterion, supplemented with other relevant
information, to interpret its narrative criteria within its water quality
standards when developing NPDES effluent limitations under 40 CFR
122.44(d)(l)(vi).2
      Site-specific criteria may  include not only site-specific criterion
                                                 t
concentrations  (U.S. EPA 1994), but also site-specific, and possibly
pollutant-specific, durations of  averaging periods and frequencies  of allowed
excursions  (U.S.  EPA  1991).  The  averaging periods of "one hour" and "four
days" were  selected by the  U.S. EPA on the basis of data  concerning the  speed
with which  some aquatic species  can react to increases in the concentrations
of some aquatic pollutants,  and "three years"  is the Agency's best  scientific
judgment of the average amount  of time aquatic ecosystems should be provided
between excursions (Stephan et  al. 1985;  U.S.  EPA  1991).   However,  various
 species and ecosystems react and recover at  greatly differing rates.
Therefore,  if adequate justification is provided,  site-specific and/or
pollutant-specific concentrations, durations,  and frequencies may  be higher or
 lower than those given in national water quality criteria for  aquatic life.
       Use of criteria, which have been adopted in state water  quality
 standards,  for developing, water quality-based' permit limits and for designing
 waste treatment facilities requires selection of an appropriate wasteload
'allocation model.  Although dynamic models are preferred for the application
 of these criteria  (U.S. EPA, 1991), limited data or other considerations might
 require the use of a  steady-state model (U.S. EPA 1986).
       Guidance on mixing zones and the design of monitoring programs is also
 available  (U.S. EPA 1987,  1991).
                                        32
-------
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