Draft
8/16/88
AMBIENT AQUATIC LIFE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR
PHENANTHRENE
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORIES
DULUTH, MINNESOTA
NARRAGANSETT, RHODE ISLAND
-------
-------
NOTICES
This document has been
bv the
Standards Division, Office
ronmental Protection Agency, and
«°«c0.n«nj."f:nn""n:i.""'""' Pr0""CtS d°eS n0t «»«'««, .<.,....,
-------
-------
FOREWORD
Section 304(a)(l) of the Clean Water Act requires the Administrator of
the Environmental Protection Agency to publish water quality criteria that
accurately reflect the latest scientific knowledge on the kind and extent of
all identifiable effects on health ,:d welfare that might be expected from the
presence of pollutants in any body of water. Pursuant to that end this
document proposes water quality criteria for the protection of aquatic life
These criteria do not involve consideration of effects on human health.
This _ document is a draft, distributed for public review and comment
After considering all public comments and making any needed changes, EPA will
issue the criteria in final form, at which time they will replacf any
previously published EPA aquatic life criteria for the same pollutant.
W«<- I**? "'"/'"^oL?11?,1"7 criteria" is used in two sections of the Clean
r±L,AGJ' SeCtl°n 30t(a)(1) and section 303(0(2). In section 304, the term
represents a non-regulatory, scientific assessment of effects. Criteria
presented in this document are such scientific assessments. If water quality
criteria associated with specific stream uses are adopted by a State as water
quality standards under section 303, then they become maximum acceptable
si can be used to derive
Water quality criteria adopted in State water quality standards could
have the same numerical values as criteria developed under section 304
However in many situations States might want to adjust water quality criteria
developed under section 304 to reflect local environmental conditions before
assisTst*^ ^^ wate* 5uality standards. Guidance is available from EPA to
assist States^in the modification of section 304(a)(l) criteria, and in the
development of water quality standards. It is not until their adoption as
part of State water quality standards that the criteria become regulatory
Martha G. Prothro
Director
Office of Water Regulations and Standards
iii
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Loren J. Larson
(freshwater author)
University of Wisconsin-Superior
Superior, Wisconsin
Robert S. Carr
(saltwater author)
Battelle Ocean Sciences
Duxbury, Massachusetts
Charles E. Stephan
(document coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota
David J. Hansen
(saltwater coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Narragansett, Rhode Island
i v
-------
CONTENTS
: Page
Foreword
i i i
Acknowledgments
i v
Tables..
v i
Introduction
1
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
4
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants
D
Bioaccumulation.. .
5
Other Data....
6
Unused Data....
7
Summary
9
National Criteria...
9
Implementation..
10
References.
25
-------
TABLES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Page
Acute Toxicity of Phenanthrene to Aquatic Animals 12
Chronic Toxicity of Phenanthrene to Aquatic Animals 15
Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic
Ratios
' ID
Toxicity of Phenanthrene to Aquatic Plants ,g
Bioaccumulation of Phenanthrene by Aquatic Organisms 20
Other Data on Effects of Phenanthrene on Aquatic Organisms 21
VI
-------
[ntroduct i on
Phenanthrene contains three fused aromatic rings and is one of the
chemicals -known as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). It commonly
occurs in petroleum products and by-products and is used in several
manufacturing processes, including the production of plastics. Pyrosynthesis
and early diagenesis of organic matter, particularly steroids, are important
sources of phenanthrene in aquatic environments (Anderson et al. 1986).
Concentrations as high as 1,200 Mg/kg have been reported in sediment
(Varanasi et al. 1985).
Phenanthrene is a solid at room temperature, with a melting point of
lOl'C (Callahan et al. 1979). It has a molecular weight of 178.23, a vapor
pressure of 6.8 X 1
-------
classify phenanthrene as a PAH whose toxicity is not: greatly enhanced by
photo-activation.
A comprehension of the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water
Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses"
(Stephan et al. 1985), hereinafter referred to as the Guidelines, and the
response to public comment (U.S. EPA 1985a) is necessary in order to
understand the following text, tables, and calculations. Results of such
intermediate calculations as recalculated LCSOs and Species Mean Acute Values
are given to four significant figures to prevent roundoff error in subsequent
calculations, not to reflect the, precision of the value. The criteria
presented herein supersede previous national aquatic life water quality
criteria for phenanthrene (U.S EPA 1980) because these new criteria were
derived using improved procedures and additional information. The latest
comprehensive literature search for information for this document was
conducted in July, 1986; some more recent information was included.
Acute Toxicitv to Aquatic Animals
Data that may be used, a, >rding to the Guidelines, in the derivation of
Final Acute Values for phenanthrene are presented in Table 1. The acute
toxicity of phenanthrene has been measured with nine freshwater species. Call
et al. (1986) exposed six species to phenanthrene in flow-through tests in
which the concentrations were measured. The acute values were 96, 117, 126,
375, and 234 Mg/L for the hydra, Daphnia ma^na. amphipod, rainbow trout,
and bluegill, respectively. An annelid, Lumbriculu* V.JMP^^ was more
resistant to phenanthrene with a 96-hr LC50 of > 419 Mg/L. Eastmond et al.
(1984) and Milleman et al. (1984) conducted static tests with Daphnia mama.
Their 48-hr ECSOs were about 6 to 7 times higher than the value reported by
Call et al. (1986). Another Daphnia species, D. £uiex, was tested by Geiger
2
-------
and Buikema (1981,1982) and Trucco et al. (1983). Trucco et.al., reported a
48-hr EC50 of.10,0 Mg/L, which is close to the value obtained by Call et al.
(1986) for D. ma^na. Geiger and Buikema reported the 48-hr EC50 to be above
the highest tested concentration. Because this result was from a test in
which the concentrations of phenanthrene were not measured, and data from a
test with the same species in which the concentrations were measured are
available which are in agreement with other data on daphnids, this later value
was not used to calculate the mean acute value for D. pulex. Data on the '
acute toxicity of phenanthrene to insects is limited to a single species,
Chironomus tentans. Millemann e,t al. (1984) reported a 48-hr EC50 of
490 Mg/L for the larva of this midge. Milleman and co-workers also tested
the fathead minnow, Pimephales firomejas. and reported the 96-hr LC50 to be
greater than the highest tested concentration.
Freshwater Species Mean Acute Values (Table 1) were calculated as
geometric means of the available acute values, .and Genus Mean Acute Values
(Table 3) were calculated as geometric means of uie Species Mean Acute
Values. Of the eight freshwater genera for which mean acute values are
available, the most sensitive genus, Hvdr-a. is at least 13 times more
sensitive than the most resistant, Pimeohales. The range of values for the
four most sensitive genera, which include three invertebrates and one fish, is
a factor of 2.4. The freshwater Final Acute Value for phenanthrene was
calculated to be 59.63 Mg/L usnng the procedure described in the
Guidelines and the Genus Mean Acute Values in Table 3. The Final Acute Value
is lower than the lowest freshwater Species Mean Acute Value.
The acute toxicity of phenanthrene to resident North American saltwater
animals has been determined with eight species of invertebrates and two
species of fish (Table 1). The acute values range from 17.7 Mg/L (Battel-le
Ocean Sciences 1987) and 27.1 Mg/L (Kuhn and Lussier 1987) for the mysid,
3
-------
My$id°P3is ^Ma, to 600 ^g/L for the polychaete worm, Neanthes
arenaceodentata .(Rossi and Neff 1978). The mysid is about five times more
sensitive than the next most sensitive species, the Atlantic siiverside,
Menidia menidia. and the range of sensitivites of the five most sensitive
species is a factor of 8.4. The saltwater Final Acute Value for phenanthrene
was calculated to be 15.46 n/L. which is lower than the mean acute value
for the most sensitive saltwater species tested.
Chronic Toxicitv to Aquatic Animals
The available data that are usable according to the Guidelines concerning
the chronic toxicity of phenanthrene are presented in Table 2. Call et al.
(1986) conducted a life-cycle test, with Daphnia magna and found that
163 Mg/L prevented reproduction. The total number of young per test
chamber was reduced by 45 and 46% at phenanthrene concentrations of 57 and
46 pg/L, respectively, although those values were not found to be
statistically different from the control due to variability amongst
replicates. The morta.;ty in the control treatment in this test was 25%. The
chronic value is 96 Mg/L, and the acute-chronic ratio is 1.214.
In an early life-stage test with rainbow trout, no fish survived at
66 »g/L and survival was reduced to 57% at 8 Mg/L (Call et al. 1986).
Total biomass per test chamber at the end of the test was reduced 75, 44, 33,
and 9%. in comparison to the control treatment, by phenanthrene concentrations
of 32, 14, 8, and 5 MgA, respectively. The chronic value for this species
is 6.325 ng/L and the acute-chronic ratio is 59.29.
The chronic toxicity of phenanthrene has been determined in a life-cycle
toxicity test with the saltwater mysid, Mvsidonsi. h.hu (Kuhn and Lussier
1987). All mysids exposed to 11.91 Mg/L died. Survival, growth, and
-------
reproduction were not significantly reduced by 5.549 ,ug/L. However, '533
fewer young per_reproducti ve day were produced in 5.549 ^g/L. The chronic
value was 8.129 ^g/L (Table 2). The acute-chronic ratio, calculated using
this chronic value and the acute value of 27.10 ng/L, is 3.333
The available Species Mean Acute-Chronic Ratios are 59.29, 1.214, and
3.333 (Table 3). This range is too great to allow calculation of a Final
Acute-Chronic Ratio as the geometric mean of the three ratios. The ratio of
1.214 was obtained with one of the most acutely sensitive tested freshwater
species. It is used as the freshwater Final Acute-Chronic Ratio, which
results in a freshwater Final Chronic Value of 49.12 Mg/L. However, this
value must be lowered to 6.324 Mg/L (Table 2) to protect the important
rainbow trout. Because the ratio of 3.333 was obtained with the most acutely
sensitive of the tested saltwater species, it is used as the saltwater Final
Acute-Chronic Ratio. Division of the saltwater Final Acute Value by 3.333
results in a saltwater Final Chronic Value of 4.638
Toxicitv to Aquatic Plants
Call et aL. (1986) exposed the duckweed, Lemna minor, to phenanthrene.
Frond production was reduced 36% by 658 Mg/L, 7% by 356 Mg/L, and 24% by
198 Mg/L. Hsieh et al. (1980) exposed a freshwater alga, Selenastmm
eapricornutnm. to phenanthren* as well as to 17 other PAHs using an "algal
lawn" technique. Although it is difficult to relate results of such tests to
phenanthrene concentration in water, it is noteworthy that phenanthrene was
one of the most toxic of the chemicals. Data in Table 6 also suggest that
algae might be quite sensitive- to phenanthrene. No data are available
concerning the toxicity of phenanthrene to saltwater plants. A Final Plant
Value, as defined in the Guidelines, cannot be obtained because no test in
-------
which the concentrations of phenanthrene were measured has been conducted with
sensitive aquatrc plant species.
Bi oaccumulation
Carlson et al. (1979) studied the uptake of phenanthrene by the fathead
minnow, Pimephales promelas (Table 5). In exposures of'?, 14, 18, 21, and 28
days, mean bioconcentration factors (BCFs) were 1,875, 2,100, 3,700, 2,100 and
2,820, respectively. The effect of particulate-bound phenanthrene on uptake
by the fathead minnow was negligible in exposures less than 10 days, although
after 14 days the presence of pa,rticulates reduced the BCF (Gerhart et al'.
1981). In exposures of 24 to 90 hr with either Daphnia magna or DaphnU
£Hiez, BCFs ranged from 300 to 600 (Eastmond et al. J.984; Newsted and Giesy
1987; Southworth et al. 1978). In a 24-hr exposure of green alga, Selenastrun.
.capricornutum, Casserly et al. (1983) obtained a BCF of 10.6 (Table 6).
No data are available from which steady-state BCFs can be calculated or
estimated for saltwater species. However, the extent to which phenanthrene
bioconcentrates in the blue mussel, Mvti 1 us eduMs. and the common rangia,
RancOa cuneata, has been determined in tests lasting < 24 hours (Table 6).
Blue mussels exposed to ^C-labeled phenanthrene for 8 hours'accumulated 68
times the 0.3 /zg/L in the test solution and 81 times the 1.9 Mg/L in a
second treatment (Hansen et al. 1978). Less than 50% of the phenanthrene was
depurated from the soft tissues within 24 hours; after 12 days 5% remained.
The BCF was 32 after 24-hours exposure of the common rangia to 89 Mg/L
(Neff et al. 1976).
No U.S. FDA action level or other maximum acceptable concentration in
tissue. defined in the Guidelines, is available for phenanthrene, and,
therefore, no Final Residue Value can be calculated.
-------
Other Data
Additionaj._data on the lethal and sublethal effects of phenanthrene on '
aquatic species are presented in Table 6. Rogerson et al. (1983) reported the
acute toxicity thresholds to be greater than the solubility limit for two
freshwater protozoans, Colpidium colpoda and Tetrahvmena elliotti. in 18-hr
and 24-hr exposures, respectively. Millemann et al. (1984) reported the 48-hr
LC50 for a snail, Phvsa .^na, to be greater than the highest concentration
tested. An amphipod, Gammarus nmvus, was more sensitive to phenanthrene with
a 48-hr LC50 of 460 n/L. The ECSOs, based on death and deformity of
embryos and larvae, for rainbow trout, Salrno gairdneri. and largemouth bass,
Micropterus salmonies. were reported to be 30 and 250 Mg/L, respectively.
Developmental rates and survival of larval mud crabs were reduced in
200 Mg/L. The effect was greatest at a salinity of 5 g/kg than at 15 or 25
g/kg (Laughlin and Neff 1979). Respiration rate and growth of larval crabs
were reduced in < 37.5 Mg/L (Laughlin and Neff 1980). The phototaxis of
barnacle nauplii, BaUnus amjjutri^, was inhibited by phenanthrene; the EC50
was at 55% of a saturated solution (Donahue et al. 1977).
Unused Data
Some data concerning the effects of phenanthrene on aquatic organisms and
their uses were not used because the tests were conducted with species that
are not resident in North America (e.g., Afolabi et al. 1983; Freitag et al.
1984). Results of tests conducted with brine shrimp. Artemia sp. (e.g.,
Foster and Tullis 1984,1985) were not used because these species are from a
unique saltwater environment. Eadie (1984), Covers et al. (1984), Hallett and
Brecher (1984), Neff (1979,1982.,b), and Richards and Shieh (1986) compiled
data from other sources. Bartell (1984) reported computer simulated data
only.
-------
Results were not used when the test procedures were not adequately
described (e.g.," She 1 ford 1917; Solbakken et al. I984c; Strength et al.
1982). Except in biocongentration test,, data were not used when phenanthrene
was a component of an effluent, mixture, oil, or sediment (e.g., Augenfeld et
al. 1980-1981.1982; Black 1983a.b; Carr et al. 1986; Casserly et al. 1983;
Dauble et al. 1981; Gray et al. 1983; Grushko et al. 1980; Hall et al. 1984;
Horning et al. 1984; Lopez-Avila et al. 1985; Palawski et al. 1985; Pickering
1983; Vandermeulen et al. 1985; Woodward et al. 1981). Data were not used
when the organisms were exposed to phenanthrene by injection or gavage (e.g.,
Niimi and Palazzo 1986; Solbakken and Palmork 1981,1984a,b; Solbakken et al.
1983,1984a). Histological studies were not used (e.g., Gerhart and Carlson
1978). Results of some laboratory tests were not used because the tests were
conducted in distilled or deionized water without addition of appropriate
salts (e.g.. Abernethy et al. 1986; Bobra et al. 1983; Zepp and Schlotzhauer
1983).
Results of laboratory bioconcentration tests were not used when the test
was not flow-through or renewal (e.g., Landrum et al. 1985) or when the
concentration of phenanthrene in the te.t solution was not adequately measured
(e.g., Geiger and Buikema 1982; Krahn and Malins 1982). Studies using
radiolabeled phenanthrene in which only radioactivity was measured in the
water or in exposed organisms were not used (Freitag et al. 1985; Geyer et al.
1984). Reports of the concentrations of phenanthrene in wild aquatic
organisms (e.g., Black et al. 1981b; Boehm et al. 1982; Dunn and Fee 1979;
Eadie et al. 1982; Farrington et al. 1982; Grahl-Nielson et al. 1978; Heit et
al. 1980; Humason and Gadbois 1982; Kalas et al. 1980; Knutsen and Sortlund
1982; Kveseth and Sortlund 1982; Lee et al. 1981; Maccubbin et al. 1985;
Mackie et al. 1980; Malins et al. 1985; Mix 1982; Mix and Schaffer 1983a,b;
Pittinger et al. 1985; Pruell et al. 1984; Rainio et al. 1986; Sirota and Uthe
8
-------
1981; Sirota et al. 1983; Vassilaros et al. 1982; Veith et al. 1981) were not
used to calculate bioaccumulation factors when the number of measurements of
the concentration in water was too small or the range of the measured
concentration in water was too lar^e
-------
National Criteria
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except where a locally important species is very
sensitive, freshwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be affected
unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of'phenanthrene does not
exceed 6.3 /ig/L more than once every three years on the average and if the
one-hour average concentration doe.s not ex.ceed 30 Mg/L more than once
every three years on the average. Because sensitive freshwater animals appear
to have a narrow range of susceptibilities to phenanthrene, this criterion
will probably be as protective as intended only when the magnitudes and/or
durations of excursions are appropriately small.
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except where a locally important species is very
sensitive, saltwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be affected
unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of phenanthrene does not
exceed 4.6 Mg/L more than once every three years on the average and if the
one-hour average concentration does not exceed 7.7 Mg/L more than once
every three years on the average.
Implementation
As discussed in the Hater Quality Standards Regulation (U.S. EPA 1983a)
and the Foreword to this document, a water quality criterion for aquatic life
has regulatory impact only after it has been adopted in a state water quality
standard. Such a standard specifies a criterion for a pollutant that is
consistent with a particular designated use. With the concurrence of the U.S.
EPA. states designate one or more uses for each body of water or segment
10
-------
thereof and adopt criteria that are consistent with the use(s) (U.S. EPA
1983b,1987). In^each standard a state may adopt the national criterion, if
one exists, or, if adequately justified, a site-specific criterion.
Site-specific criteria may include not only site-specific criterion
concentrations (U.S. EPA 1983b), but also site-specific, and nossibly
pollutant-specific, durations of averaging periods and frequencies of allowed
excursions (U.S. EPA 1985b). The averaging periods of "one hour" and "four
days" were selected by the U.S. EPA on the basis of data concerning how
rapidly some aquatic species react to increases in the concentrations of .some
aquatic pollutants, and "three years" is the Agency's best scientific judgment
of the average amount of time aquatic ecosystems should be provided between
excursions (Stephan et al. 1985; U.S. EPA 1985b). However, various species
and ecosystems react and recover at greatly differing rates. Therefore, if
adequate justification is provided, site-specific and/or pollutant-specific
concentrations, durations, and frequencies may be higher or lower than those
given in national water quality criteria for aquatic life.
Use of criteria, which have been adopted in state water quality
standards, for developing water quality-based permit limits and for designing
waste treatment facilities requires selection of an appropriate wasteload
allocation model. Although dynamic models are preferred for the application
of these criteria (U.S. EPA 1985b), limited data or other considerations might
require the use of a steady-state model (U.S. EPA 1986). Guidance on mixing
zones and the design of monitoring programs is also available (U.S. EPA
1985b,1987).
11
-------
CO
01
e 3
o o
Cladocer
D a p h n i a
^ 4
c a
C9 f*
Cl odocen
Daphnio i
-o
3 3
0 01
> - (3
Amphi pod
Gamma r us
0)
~*
e
I e
a o
w c
<: 0)
-K vi
Midge {4t
Chi ronomu
a>
.f,
"~~ 'u
*- «>
3 c
o -o
u. u
* 0
0
-a o
= E
a a
OS CO
12
-------
to
01
co
a co
o en
o
» CO
o O)
o
o rv.
« CO
a; co
o ci
o
« c
a)
CD C
*- 0)
; .
0) 3
Q. O
1/1 «
O
LO
in
CO
a
a
a
a>
S 8-1
k. en
o <_>
0) cv
-c «
O i
U. 0-
. (rt ^_
s
- 0)
E o
u o
o c
2
0
O
o
Cf
* 0>
t.
a, 0
0) V)
o «a>
.c -e
U -i-
> e
. o
O 0)
0. Z
~l
3 a
o -a
snai 1 (
sarius o
o «
3 O
2 Z
3
- o
^D
O CO
^" *
3
0) -0
V) 4>
«
i s
3 *
°a 2
E 0) ._
_o ^:
tl M
l-shell <
arenorii
« o
o »
o^ ZZ
0
«
> »
a
» M
- Q
O
-o ^
w «
3» »
3i a
13
-------
u
e
9)
U
01
0
ce
o
O
O
-
o
CO
CO
o
u
c
a>
o
Irt
o
o
a
4)
o
CO
CO
V)
u
e
0)
u
VI
0)
u
0
0)
o
CO
OO
M
0)
o
C
0)
0
O">
m
a-
o>
CM
3.
a a
in o>
o _
o
O
0)
a «.
41
Q.
- O
e ~
o
e
o
u
H
U
0)
a
1/1
~
Z3
T>
0
*"^ *
1-
U
(0
M
O
L.
0
-C
O
c
a.
« M
01
0)
c
o
OJ
0
0
a.
*-
o
o
ja
o
u
o
'I
u
OJ
=:
&
u
a
u
o
c
o
M
=>
l_
3
CT
O
a.
K
o
c
e
*i
^
o
4)
J=
V)
a_
0)
CO
«
g;
0}
.z,
=
a
o
Of
L.
5
a
o
o
-
a
e_j
-4- 0)
O
{O «
O 0)
B VI
s
a
14
-------
to
00
a
a
o
e
e
CTl
in
a.
o
W 6) I
« e J
a w1
= _i o
o ». «
L. en o
o
in
u-i
o
u
-e
o
to
a
W VI I
a ° m
5 ^. 8
u 01 o
o
e
CD
O
-O
o
«| CD
ail u
I o
u| -o
0\ 0
al
|/>I <-»
01
u
c
o
15
-------
o
ec
e
o
o
u u
V O
u ce
ei a
Q. U
3
U
to
o>
in
o
3
O
=»
u
<
B
**
LJ
O.
CO
CC
LJ
^
^
CO
UJ
ce
.
»
o
e
c
'i
T3
Q)
0
U.
«
-
E
o
u
0-
w
0)
0
0
E
a.
o
c
^
o
V)
o
-------
-------
a
=
ai
o
in
0)
W Q. L.
3 S 0
c
a> o
o >.
o
c .- -o
o u
o -c
o « o
CJ 0) .
o
1)
0) -«.
«
CNJ 0)
en
9 4-
3
II O
u
J .*_
en m
y. o
.a
w =
c-3 'o
=1.
O
>o
r>,
-^ zr <
X 01
II O) 3,
f" *" oo
o> »o
~~ Ol to
«
« "^ Ol
I - ° ^r
o «_ ._
» -«- - -o ^
U3
Ol
«
V
c
o
o w o
u a) c
vi o> o
o « -a «
o
V)
ffi
J3
6
a
«- 10
in en
u in
CM
0) *)
U3
O
=> o
u
-o
C 01
o u
I- O>
^ O
o>
18
-------
CO
en
91
u
OJ
t*.
11
OJ CO CO IO CO
us en u-> u->
I**) tO
0)
.=
a.
fM ro
&
t/>
M 14 I
« O
4) l~-
C _1 O
O ~^ O
U 91 O
o B <->
41
u
01
19
-------
6)
U
c
U
fc
o
w
01
a
a
. -
a
a
CO
o
a.
O
s
c
o
=1 S
a.
o
o
o
.o
o
CM
I
CM
I
a
o
G
E
4)
C
O
o in
u. . a.
a> L.
u a
to
»
o
20
-------
in
00
01
CO
01
O
W (!) I
w o J
a>
a
o> g
o
O 13
O 3
CT) U.
0)
e u.
01 o
a>
4)
I. 0)
o
21
-------
CO
01
CO
01
to
CO
01
- o
o o
a
O L.
-- cn
e «.
o x
z o
u
CO
M - PI a
O
U
to
s>
0
O»
o
c
0)
u
k.
o
-
c
o
E
t-
"w
o
c
Cl
0>
.
e
o
0
M
O
O
i.
o.
c
c
o,
0
S
3
a
o
o
_
e
O
NJ
O
0
L.
a.
^
c
^
0)
e:
0)
e
a
01
1
o
e
0
= 0
0 E
u
a o
w
o s.
0 J=
o o
o
0 e=>
e a
0
e: o
0 £
01 0
o e
"O .e
o o
0
~ 0
o
c o
£ 6
a o
0 C
o a
U Q
V 0
g
o E
« 0
o e
^? *~
o a
0
o <=>
x
41
O O
« 0
o 'c
a o
o
X
CO
a a
« 0
o e
o a
< ^ C3
X
(U
e 3
0 0
01 0
o c
o .e
o a
o
<_> a
22
-------
CO
en
CO
01
o
0
US
a
o
o>
CD
tfi 3
(/)
a
in
E
o
-a _
a. o o
un « _
CJ ^3 Q)
CN O
fO o.
in
o
UJ
» O O
o -a ...
s-4
u
2 ff«
3
3<8
to
d
00
CM
in
o
0)
-a
> "a? =
^ = <-
^_ ^
to
3 3
T3 C
O
E
w w
O 3
O
f 1
* 0 »
3 > C
0 U -0
u a u
- o
« 0 0
0 >-
-QUO
f t -5
OS -f- <5
^
L.
o -^
o
* a
0
.1 1
0 1?
CC t/1
. ._
c jr
4) O
> O
3 ^
^^^ a
e
CO
W 0
3 a
ea i
^
o
E
(A -
CO ''^ o
o o t/>
-0 :>
J" w
u
00
E :~ a
W u 0
u" "s o
O
OD 2
o. -*-
a ,c
c: a
Q
a»
to
o e
e o
L.
0 0
CO CD
3
a
o
.Z "a
C C
t- u
e o
(0 O -
3 E C7
x E «
0) 00
C 0 CC
a
23
-------
03
O
e
o
u
C!
a.
a
m
o
u
-C I
*- Q.
v k o
«- o -.
O i. 4)
U 01 >
a
o u
o
.a
o
a>
-O
3
O
M
O
at
^»
CD
e
u
si
-
0
ol
Jl
a
u
o
*
**
O
o*
u
T5
3
«
V)
n
(J
C
o
u
_^
(O
a>
^~
«
^
^
1 o
o
o
<_>
^
o
^
4>
VI
O
.0
24
-------
REFERENCES
Abnernethy, S., A.M. Bobra, W.Y. Shiu, P.G. Wells and D. Mackay. 1986. Acute
lethal toxicity.of hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons to two planktonic
.crustaceans: The key role of organism-water partitioning. Aquat. Toxicol.
8:163-174.
Afolabi, O.A., E.A. Adesulu and O.L. Oke. 1983. Polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons in some Nigerian preserved freshwater fish species. J. Agric.
Food Chem. 31:1083-1090.
Anderson, J.W., J.M. Neff and P.O. Boehm. 1986. Sources, fate and effects of
aromatic hydrocarbons in the Alaska marine environment with recommendations
for monitoring strategies. Report submitted to EPA under interagency agreement
No. TD 1668 with U.S. DOE.
Augenfeld, J.M., J.W. Anderson, D.L. Woodruff and J.L. Webster. 1980-1981.
Effects of Prud^oe Bay crude oil-contaminated sediments on Protothaca staminea
(Mollusca: Pelecypoda): Hydrocarbon content, condition index, free amino acid
level. Mar. Environ. Res. 4:135-143.
Augenfeld, J.M., J.W. Anderson, R.G. Riley and B.L. Thomas. 1982. The fate of
polyaromatic hydrocarbons in an intertidal sediment exposure system:
Bioavailabi.lity to Macoma inquinata (Mdllusca: Pelecypoda) and Abarenicola
pacifica- (Annelida: Polychaeta.). Mar. Environ. Res. 7:31-50.
25
-------
Bartell, S.M. 1984. Forecasting fate and .effects of aromatic hydrocarbons in
aquatic systems. " In: Synthetic fossil fuel technologies. Cowser, K.E. and C.R.
Richmond (Eds.). Butterwqrth, Stoneham, MA. pp. 523-539.
Bastian. M.V. and D.W. Toetz. 1985. Effect of polynuclear hydrocarbons on
alga, nitrogen fixation (acetylene reduction). Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.
35:258-265.
Battelle Ocean Sciences. 1987. Acute toxicity of phenanthrene to saltwater
animals. Report to U.S. EPA Criteria and Standards Division. Battelle Ocean
Sciences, Duxbury, MA.
Baumann, P.C., Smith, W.D. and M. Ribick. 1982. Hepatic tumor rates and
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon levels in two populations of brown bullhead
(Ictaiurus nebuiosus). In: Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons: Physical and
biological chemistry. Cooke, M. andA.J. Dennis (Eds. ) . Battel le, Columbus,
OH. pp. 93-102.
Black, J.A., W.J. Birge, A.G. ffesterman and P.C. Francis. 1983. Comparative
aquatic toxicology of aromatic hydrocarbons. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 3:353-358.
Black, J.J. 1983a. Field and laboratory studies of environmental
carcinogenesis in Niagara River fish. J. Great Lakes Res. 9:326-334.
Black, J.J. I983b. Epidermal hyperplasia and neoplasia in brown bullheads
nebuTosus) in response to repeated appl ication of a PAH containing
26
-------
extract of polluted river sediment. In: Aromatic hydrocarbons: Formation,
metabolism, admeasurement. Cooke, M. and A.J. Dennis (Eds.). Battelle.
Columbus, OH. pp. 99-111.
Black, J.J.. P.P. Dymerski and W.F. Zapisek. 1981a. Environmental
carcinogenesis studies in the western New York Great Lakes aquatic
environment. In: Aquatic toxicology and hazard assessment. ASTM STP 737.
Branson, D.R. and K.L. Dickson (Eds.). American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, PA. pp. 215-225.
Black, J.J., T.F. Hart, Jr. and^E. Evans. 1981b. HPLC studies of PAH pollution
in a Michigan trout stream. In: Chemical analysis and biological fate:
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. Cooke, M. and A. Dennis (Eds.). Battelle,
Columbus, OH. pp. 343-355.
Bobra, A.M., W.Y. Shiu and D. Mackay. 1983. A predictive correlation for the
acute toxicity of hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons to the water flea
(Daphnia ma^ria). Chemosphere 12:1121-1129.
Boehm, P.O., J.E. Barak, D.L. Fiest and A. Elskus. 1982. A chemical
investigation of the transport and fate of petroleum hydrocarbons in littoral
and benthic environments: The Tsesis oil spill. Mar. Environ. Res. 6:157-188.
Call,.L J., L.T. Brooke, S.L. Harting, S.H. Poirier and D.J. McCauley, 1986.
Toxicity of phenanthrene to several freshwater species. Center for Lake
.Superior Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin-Superior, Superior,
27
-------
Callahan, M.A., M.W. Slimak, N'.W. Gabel, l.P. May, C.F. Fowler, J ;.. Freed P
Jennings. R.L; Urn-fee, F.C. Whitmore, B. Maestri, W.R. Mabey, B.R. Holt and C.
Gould. 1979. Water-related environmental fate of 129 priority pollutants. Vol.
II. EPA-440/4-79-029b. National Technical Information Service, Springfield,
V'A. pp. 96-1 to 96-20.
Carlson, R.M., A.R. Oyler. E.H. Gerhart, R. Caple, K.J. Welch, H.L. Kopperman,
D. Bodenner and D. Swanson. 1979. Implications to the aquatic environment of
polynuolear aromatic hydrocarbons liberated from northern Great Plains coal.
EPA-600/3-79-093. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Carr, R.S., J.M. Neff and P.D. .Boehm. 1986. A study of the fate and effects of
chemically and physically dispersed oil on benthic marine communities using
large-scale continuous flow exposure systems. In: Pollution physiology of
estuari- organisms. Vernberg. J., A. Calabrese, F. Thurberg and W.B. Vernberg
(Eds.). University of South Carolina Press, Charleston, SC Un press).
Casserly, D E.M. Davis, T.D. Downs and R.K. Guthrie. 1983. Sorption of
organics by Selenastrum capricornntnm Water Res. 17:1591-1594.
Dauble, D.D., W.E. Fallen, R.H. Gray and R.M. Bean. 1981. Chronic toxicity of
water-soluble fractions of fresh and water-leached solvent-refined coal
(SRC-11) liquids to a freshwater benthic invertebrate. In: Coal conversion and
the environment. Mahlum, D.D., R.H. Gray and W.D. Felix (Eds.). DE82-000105.
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Donahue, W.H., R.T. Wang, M. Welch and J.A.C. Nichol. 1977. Effects of '
water-soluble components ,f petroleum oils and aromatic hydrocarbons on
barnacle larvae. Mar. Environ. Res. 13:187-202.
28
-------
Dunn, B.P. and J. Fee. 1979. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon carcinogens in
commercial seafoods. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 36:1469-1476.
Eadie, B.J. 1984,. Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the
Great Lakes. In: Toxic contaminants in the Great Lakes. Nriagu, J.O. and M.S.
Simmons (Eds.), ffiley, New York, NY. pp. 195-211.
Eadie, B.J., W. Faust, W.S. Gardner and T. Nalepa. 1982. Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons in sediments and associated benthos in Lake Erie. Chemosphere
11:185-191.
Bait-end.- D.A.. G.M. Booth and M. L.. Lee. 1984. Tozicity, accumulation, and
elimination of polycyclic aromatic sulfur heterocycles in DaeMia majrna. Arch.
Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 13:105-111.
Farrington, J.W., A.C. Davis, N.M. Frew and K.S. Rabin. 1982. No. 2 fuel oil
compounds in Mvtilug ejVnn_Q Mar. Biol. 66:15-26.
Foster, G.D. andR.E. Tullis. 1984. A quantitative structure-activity
relationship between partition coefficients and the acute toxicity of
naphthalene derivatives in Artenua sa_Mna naupl i i. Aquat. Toxicol. 5:245-254.
Foster, G.D. andR.E, Tullis. 1985. Quanitative structure-toxicity
relationships with osmotically stressed Artemia salina nauplii. Environ.
Pollut. 38A:273-281.
Freitag. D., J.P. Lay and F. Korte. 1984. Environmental hazard profile - Test
results as related to structures and translation into the environment. In:
29
-------
QSAR in environmental toxicology. Kaiser, K.L.E. (Ed.). D. Rei<
Company, Boston,- MA. pp. 111-136.
Publ i shi r\"
Freitag, D. , L. Ballhorn, H. Geyer and F. Korte. 1985. Environmental hazard
profile of organic chemicals. Chemosphere 14:1589-1616.
Geiger, J.G. and A.L. Buikema, Jr. 1981. Oxygen consumption and filtering rate
of Daphnia ^uUx after exposure in water-soluble fractions of naphthalene,
phenanthrene, No. 2 fuel ox,, and coal-tar creosote. Bull. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol. 27:783-789.
Geiger, J.G. and A.L. Buikema, Jr. 1982. Hydrocarbons depress growth and
reproduction of Daphnia pulex (Cladocera). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.
39:830-836.
Gerhart, E.H. and R.M. Carlson. 1978. Hepatic mixed-function oxidase activity
in rainbow trout exposed to several polycycl-ic aromatic compounds. Environ.
Res. 17:284-295.
Gerhart, E.H. , R.J. Liukkonen, R.M. Carlson, G.N. Stokes, M. Lukasewycz and
A.R. Oyler. 1981. Histological effects and bioaccumulation potential of coal
particulate-bound phenanthrene in the fathead minnow Pimephales promelas.
Environ. Pollut. (Series A) 25:165-180.
Geyer, H. . G. Politzki and D. Freitag. 1984. Prediction of ecotoxicological
behavior of chemicals. Relationship between n-octanol/water partition
coefficient and bioaccumulation of organic chemicals by alga Chlorella.
Chemosphere 13:269-284.
30
-------
Giddings, J.M. 1979. Acute toxicity to Selenastrum capricorniitnn. »f aromatic
compounds from qoal conversion. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 23:360-364.
Giddings, J.M. 1981. Four-hour algal bioassays for assessing the toxicity of
coal-derived materials. In: Proceedings of the second symposium on process
measurements for environmental assessment. Levins, P.L.,'J.C. Harris and K.D.
Drewitz (Eds.). EPA-600/9-81-018. National Technical Information Service.
Springfield, VA. pp. 104-116.
Covers, H., C. Ruepert and H. AUcing. 1984. Quanitative structure-activity.
relationships for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Correlation between
molecular connectivity, physico-chemical properties, bioconcehtration and
toxicity in Daohnia pulex. Chemosphere 13:227-236.
Grahl-Nielsen, 0., J.T. Staveland and S. ffilhelmsen. 1978. Aromatic
hydrocarbons in benthic organisms from coastal areas polluted by Iranian crude
oil. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 35:615-623.
Gray, R.H., R.M. Bean, D.D. Dauble and W.E. Fallon. 1983. Chemical
characteristics and acute toxicity of sequentially extracted water-soluble
fractions of a coal liquid. Environ. Pollut. (Series A) 32:79-89.
Grushko, Y.M., O.M. Kozhova and L.M. Mamontova. 1980. Accumulation of toxic
substances by hydrobionts after sewage water discharge. Hydrobiol. J! (Engl.
Transl. Gidrobiol. Zh.) 16(3):80-83.
Hall, L.W., Jr., L.O. Horseman and A. Zeger. 1984. Effects of organic and
inorganic chemical contaminants on fertilization, hatching success, and
31
-------
prolarval survival of striped bass. Arch. Environ. Contain. Toxicol.
13:723-729. -
Hallett, D.J. and R.W. Brecher. 1984. Cycling of polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons in the Great Lakes ecosystem. In: Toxic contaminants in the Great
Lakes. Nriagu, J.O. and M.S. Simmons (Eds.). Wiley, New York, NY. pp. 213-237.
Hans,n. N. , V.B. Jensen, H. Appelquist and E. Morch. 1978. The uptake and
release of petroleum hydrocarbons by the marine mussel Mvtilua ednji. Prog.
Water Tech. 10:351-359.
Heit, M., C.S. Klusek and K.M. Miller. 1980. Trace element, radionucl ide, and
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in Unionidae mussels from
northern Lake George. Environ. Sci. Technol. 14:465-468.
Horning, W.B., E.L. Robinson and A.C. Petrasek, Jr. 1984. Reduction in
toxicity of organic priority pollutants by pilot-scale conventional wastewater
treatment process. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 13:191-196.
Hsieh, Y.P., M.B. Tomgon and C.H. Ward. 1980. Toxicity of water-soluble
extracts of No. 2 fuel oil to the freshwater alga Selenastr.n, capricornut.,..
Dev. Ind. Microbiol. 21:401-409.
Humason, A.W. and D.F. Gadbois. 1982. Determination of polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons in the New York Bight area. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.
29:645-650.
32
-------
Hutchinson, T.C., J.A. Heliebust, D. Mackay, D. Tarn and P. Kauss. 1979.
Relationship oj; hydrocarbon solubility to toxicity in algae and cellular
membrane effects. J. Am. Petrol. Inst. 4308:541-547.
Hutchinson, T.C., J.A. Hellebust, D. Tarn, D. Mackay, R.A. Mascarenhas and W.Y.
Shiu. 1980. The correlation of the toxicity to algae of hydrocarbons and
halogenated hydrocarbons with their phys i cal -chemi cal properties. Environ.
Sci. Res. 16:577-586.
Kalas, L., A. Mudroch and F.I. Onuska. 1980. Bioaccumulation of arene and
organochlorine pollutants by Cipangonal nHi n, .KJ^.^ (Gray> 1834)
(Mollusca:GaStropoda) from ponds in the Royal Botanical Gardens, Hamilton,
Ontario. Environ. Sci. Res. 16:567-576.
Knap, A.H., J.E. Solbakken, R.E. Dodge, T.D. Sleeter, S.J. ffyers and K.
Palmork. 1982. Accumulation and elimination of (9-14C) phenanthrene in the
reef-building coral (Diplori a stri^osa) . Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol,
28:271-284
Knutsen, J. and B. Sortland. 1982. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in
some algae and invertebrates from moderately polluted parts of the coast of
Norway. Water Res. 16:421-428.
Krahn, M.M. and D.C. Malins. 1982. Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric
determination of aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites from livers of fish exposed
to fuel oil. J. Chromatogr. 248:99-107.
33
-------
Kuhn. A. and S. Lussier. 1987. Results from acute and life-cycle tests with
Mysidopsis baKia-exposed to phenanthrene. Memorandum to David J. Hansen, U.S.
EPA, Narragansett, RI .
Kveseth, K. and B. Sortland. 1982. Polycyclic aromatic hydro-carbons in sewage,
mussels and tap water. Chemosphere 11:623-639.
Landrum, P.p.. M.D. Reinhold, S.R. Nihart, and B.J. Eadie. 1985. Predicting
the bioavailability of organic xenobiotics to Pontoporeia hojj. in the presence
of humic and fulvic materials and natural dissolved organic matter. Environ.
Toxicol. Chem. 4:459-467.
Laughlin, R.B., Jr. and J.M. Neff. 1979. Interactive effects of salinity,
temperature, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on the survival and
development rate of larvae of the mud crab, Rhithr0n.n«n»n. K^-^ Mar.
Biol. 53:281-291.
Laughlin, R.B.. Jr. and J.M. Neff. 1980. Influence of temperature, salinity,
and phenanthrene (a petroleum derived polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon) on the
respiration of larval mud crabs, Rhithrop.nop,,,, harrisU.. Estuarine Coastal
Mar. Sci. 10:655-669.
Lee, R.F...B. Dornseif, F. Gonsoulin, K. Tenore and R. Hanson. 1981. Fate and
effects of a heavy fuel oil spill on a Georgia salt marsh. Mar. Environ. Res.
5:125-143.'
Lopez-Avila. V., W.D. McKeniie, W.W. Sutton, R. Kaminsky, U. Spanagel, T.A.
Olsson and J.H. Taylor. 1985. Application of chemical fractionati on/aquatic
34
-------
or
bioassay procedure to hazardous waste site monitoring. EPA-600/4-85-059
PB86-109493. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Maccubbin, A.E.. P. Black, L. Trzeciak and J.J. Black. 1985. Evidence for
polynuclear hydrocarbons in the diet of bottom-feeding fish. Bull. Environ.
Contam. Toxicol. 34:876-882.
MacKay, D. and W.Y. Shiu. 1977. Aqueous solubility of polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons. J. Chem. Eng. Data 22:399-402.
Mackie, P.R., R. Hardy, K.J. Whittle, C. Bruce and A.S. McGi11. 1980. The
tissue hydrocarbon burden of mussels from various sites around the Scottish
coast. In: Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons: Chemical biological effects.
Bjorseth, A. and A.J. Dennis (Eds.). Battelle Pre33, Columbus, OH. pp.
379-393.
Malins, D.C., M.M. Krahn, D.W. Brown, L.P. Rhodes, M.S. Myers, B.B. McCain and
S.L. Chan. 1985.. Toxic chemicals in marine sediments and biota from Mukilteo,
Washington: Relationships with hepatic neoplasms and other hepatic lesions in
English sole (Parophrys vetulus). J. Nat. Cancer Inst. 74:487-494.
May, I.E.. S.P. ffasik and D.H. Freeman. 1978. Determination of the solubi1ity
behavior of some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water. Anal. Chem.
50:997-1000..
Millemann, R.E., W.J. Birge. J.A. Black, R.M. Cushman, K.L. Daniels, P.J.
Franco, J.M. Giddings, J.F. McCarthy and A.J. Stewart. 1984. Comparative acute
toxicity to aquatic organism* of components of coal-derived synthetic fuels.
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 113:74-85.
35
-------
Mix, M.C. 1982. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons and cellular prol i f erat i ve
disorders in bivalve molluscs from Oregon estuarines. PB82-189523. National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Mix. M.C. and R.L. Schaffer. 1983a. Concentrations of unsubsti tuted polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons in softshell clams from Coos Bay, Oregon, USA. Mar.-
Poll. Bull. 14:94-97.
Mix, M.C. and R.L. Schaffer. 1983b. Concentration of unsubstituted polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons in bay mussels (Mvtilus eduUs) from Oregon. USA. Mar.
Environ. Res. 9:193-209.
Moore. M.N. , J. tfiddows, J.S. deary, R.K. Pipe, P.N. Salkeld, P. Donkin. S.V.
Farrar. S.V. Evans and P.E. Thompson. 1984. Responses of the .missel Mvtilus
MulU to copper and phenanthre.e : Interactive effects. Mar. Environ. Res.
14:167-183.
Morehead. N.R., B.J. Eadie, B. Lake, P.F. Landrum and D. Berner. 1986. The
sorption of PAH onto dissolved organic matter in Lake Michigan waters.
Chemosphere 15:403-412.
Neff. J.M. 1975. Accumulation and release of petroleum-derived aromatic
hydrocarbons by marine animals. Pet. Chem. Am. Chem. Soc. 20:839-850.
Neff. J.M. 1979. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the aquatic environment
Sources, fates and biological effects. Applied Sciences Publishers, Barking,
England.
36
-------
Neff, J.M. 1982a. Accumulation and release of polycyc1ic aromatic hydrocarbons
from water, food, and sediment by marine animals. In: Symposium: Carcinogenic
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the marine environment. Richards, N.L.
and B.L. Jackson (Eds.)."EPA-600/9-82-013. National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA. pp. 282-320.
Neff, J.M. 1982b. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the aquatic environment
and cancer risk to aquatic organisms and man. In: Symposium: Carcinogenic
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the marine environment. Richards, N.L.
and B.L. Jackson (Eds.). EPA-600/9-82-013. National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA. pp. 385-409.
Neff, J.M., J.W. Anderson, B.A. Cox, R.B. Laughlin, Jr., S.S. Rossi and H.E.
Tatem. 1976. Effects of petroleum on survival, respiration and growth of
marine animals. In: Proceedings of symposium on sources, effects and sinks of
hydrocarbons in the aquatic environment. American Institute of Biological
Sciences, pp. 516-539.
w
Newsted, J.L. and J.P. Giesy. 1987. Predictive models of photoinduced acute
toxicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to Daphnia majrna Strauss.
(Cladocera, Crustacea). Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 6:445-461.
Niimi, A.J. and V. Palazzo. 1986. Biological half-lives of eight polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneriK Water Res.
20:503-507.
Oris, J.T. and'J.P. Giesy, Jr. 1987. The photo-induced toxicity of polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons to larvae of the fathead minnow (Pimenhales firomeUs).
Chemosphere 16:1395-1404.
37
-------
Palawski, D., J.B. Hunn and F.J. Dwyer. 1985. Sensitivity of young striped
bass to organic" and inorganic contaminants in fresh and saline waters. Trans.
Am. rish. Soc. 114:748-753.
Palmork. K.H. and J.E. Solbakken. 1981. Distribution and elimination of
(9-UC) phenanthrene in the horse mussel (Mp_dioU. modu^). Bull. Environ.
Contam. Toxicol. 26:196-201.
Pickering, Q.H 1983. Chronic toxicity to fathead minnow Pime^hales ^romejas
of wastewater from a conventional wastewater treatment system receiving
organic priority pollutants. Environ. Pollut. (Series A) 31:105-117.
Pittinger. C.A., A.L. Buikema, Jr., S.G. Hornor and R.W. Young.' 1985.
Variation in tissue burdens of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in indigenous
and relocated oysters. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 4:379-387.
Pruell, R.J., E.J. Hoffman and J.G. Quinn. 1984. Total hydrocarbons,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and synthetic organic compounds in the hard
shell clam, Mercenaria mercenaria. purchased at commercial seafood stores.
Mar. Environ. Res. 11:163-181.
Radding, S.B., T. Mill, C.W. Gould, D.H. Liu, H.L. Johnson, D.S. Bomberger and
C.V. Fojo. 1976. The environmental fate of selected polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons. EPA 560/5-755-009. National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA.
Rainio, K., R.R. Linko and L. Ruotsila. 1986. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
in mussels and fish from the Finnish Archipelago Sea. Bull. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol. 37:337-343.
38
-------
Richards, D.J. and W.K. Shieh. 1986. Biological fate of organic priority
pollutants in the aquatic environment. Water Res. 20:1077-1090.
Rogerson, A., W.Y. Shiu/G.L. Huang, D. MacKay and J. Berger. 1983.
Determination and interpretation of hydrocarbon toxicity to ciliate protozoa.
Aquat. Toxicol. 3:215-228.
Rossi, S.S. and J.M. Neff. 1978. Toxicity of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
to the polychaete Neanthes arenaceodentata. Mar. Poll. Bull. 9:220-223.
Shelford, V.E. 1917. An experimental study of the effects of gas waste upon
fishes, with special reference to stream pollution. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv.
Bull. 11:381-410.
Sirota, G.R. and J.F. Uthe. 1981. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in marine
shellfish. Chemical analytical, biological fate. In: Polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons. Cooke, M. and A.J. Dennis (Eds.). Battelle Press, Columbus, OH.
pp. 329-341.
Sirota, G.R., J.F. Uthe, A. Sreedharan, R. Mathespn, C.J. Musial and K.
Hamilton. 1983. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in lobster (Homarns
americanus) and sediments in the vicinity of a coking facility. In:
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons: Formation, metabolism and measurement.
Cooke, M. and A.J. Dennis (Eds.). Battelle Press, Columbus, OH. pp. 1123-1136.
Solbakken, J.E. and K.H. Palmork. 1981. Metabolism of phenanthrene in various
marine animals. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 70C:21-26.
39
-------
Solbakken. J.E. and K.H. Palmork. 1984a. A note on the predominance of
non-K-region metabolites of phenanthrene found in bony fish. Fisk. Dir. Skr
Ser. Hav. Unders. 17:499-500.
Solbakken, J.E. and K.H. Palmork. 1984b. An autobiographic study of the
chlorinated biphenyl, 2, 4, 5, 2' , 4' , 5' -hexachlorobiphenyl , and the polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbon, phenanthrene, in flounder (Platlchth^s Hesus)
determined by liquid scinti 1 lation counting: Mar. Environ. Res. 14:446-447.
Solbakken, J.E.. M. Solberg and K.H. Palmork. 1983. A comparative study on the
disposition of three aromatic hydrocarbons in flounder ( Piatichthis fiesus ) .
Fisk. Dir. Sci. Hav. Unders. 17:473-481.
Solbakken, J.E., K. Ingebrigsten and K.H. Palmork. 1984a. Comparative study of
the fate of the polychlorinated biphneyl 2,4, 5, 2' , 4' , 5' -hexachlorobiphneyl and
the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, phenanthrene, in flounder (Platiehthv,
HfilHl), determined by liquid scintillation counting and autoradiography. Mar.
Biol. 83:239-246.
Solbakken, J.E., A.H. Knap, T.D. Sleeter, C.E. Searle and K.H. Palmork. 1984b.
Investigation into the fate of "c-l.beled xenobiotics (naphthalene,
Phenanthrene, 2,4,5,2' ,4' ,5' -hexachlorobiphenyl , octachlorostyrene) in
Bermudian corals. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 16:149-154.
Solbakken, J.E., S. Tilseth and K.H. Palmork. 1984c. Uptake and elimination of
aromatic hydrocarbons and a chlorinated biphenyl in eggs and larvae of cod,
Gadus mo£hua. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 16:297-301.
40
-------
Southworth, G.R., J.J. Beauchamp and P.K. Schmieder. 1978. Bioaccumulation
potential of pojycyclic-aromatic hydrocarbons in Daphnia pule*. Water Res.
12:973-977.
Stephan, C.E., D.I. Mount, D.J. Hansen, J.H. Gentile, G.A. Chapman and W.A.
Brungs. 1985. Guidelines for deriving numerical national *ater quality
criteria for the protection of aquatic organisms and their uses. PB85-227049.
National Technical Information Service, Springfield. VA.
Strength, D.R., D.V. Saradambal,.S.L. Wang. H.H. DaronandW.P. Shoor. 1982.
Glucuronosyl- and sulfo-transferases in fish exposed to environmental
carcinogens. Fed. Proc. 14:1147. Abstract no. 5122.
Trucco. R.G.. F.R. Engelhardt and B. Stacey. 1983. Tozicity, accumulation and
clearance of aromatic hydrocarbons in Daphnia gule^. Environ. Pollut. (Series
A) 31:191-202.
U.S. EPA. 1980. Ambient water quality criteria for polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons. EPA-440/5-80-069 or PB81-117806. National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA.
U.S. EPA. 1983a. Water quality standards regulation. Federal Regist.
48:51400-51413. November 8.
U.S. EPA. 1983b. Water quality standards handbook. Office of Water Regulations
and Standards, Washington, DC.
41
-------
U.S. EPA. 1985a. Appendix B - Response to public comments on "Guidelines for
deriving numerical national water quality criteria for the protection of
aquatic organisms and their uses." Federal Regist. 50:30793-30796. July 29.
U.S. EPA. 1985b. Technical support document for water quality-based toxics
control. EPA-440/4-85-032 or PB86-150067. National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA.
U.S. EPA. 1986. Chapter I - Stream design flow for steady-state modeling. In:
Book VI - Design conditions. In: Technical guidance manual for performin,
waste load allocation. Office of Water. Washington. DC. August.
U.S. EPA. 1987. Permit writer's guide to water quality-based oermitting for
toxic pollutants. EPA-440/4-87-005. Office of Water. Washington, DC.
Vandermeulen, J.H.. A. Foda and C. Stuttard. 1985. Toxicity vs. mutagenicity
of some crude oils, distillates and their water soluble fractions. Water Res.
10:1283-1289.
Varanasi, U. . W.L. Relchert, J.E. Stein, D.W. Brown and H.R. Sanborn. 1985.
Bioavailability and biotransformation of aromatic hydrocarbons in benthic
organisms exposed to sediment from an urban estuary. Environ. Sci. Technol.
19:836-841.
Vassilaros. D.L., P.W. Stoker. G.M. Booth and M.L. Lee. 1982. Capillary gas
.chromatographic determination of polycyclic aromatic compounds in vertebrate
fish tissue. Anal. Chem. 54:106-112.
42
-------
Veith, G.D., D.W. Kuehl, E.N. Leonard, K. Welch and G. Pratt. 1981.
Polychlorinated^biphenyls and other organic chemical residues in fish from
major United States watersheds near the Great Lakes. 1978. Pestic. Monit. J.
15:1-7.
Woodward, D.F., D.M. Mehrle, Jr. and W.L. Mauck. 1981. Accumulation and
sublethal effects of a Wyoming crude oil in cutthroat trout. Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc. 110:437-445.
T
Zepp, R.G. and P.F. Schlotzhauer. 1983. Influence of algae on photolysis rates
of chemicals in water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 17:462-468.
43
-------
------- |