United States office o! Water EPA 822/R-93-001 a
Environmental Protection (WH-586) November 1992
Agency
*?EPA Technical Support Document
for Land Application
of Sewage Sludge
Volume I
Printed on Recycled Paper
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TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT
FOR
LAND APPLICATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE
VOLUME I
Prepared for
Office of Water
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street SW
Washington, DC 20460
Prepared by
Eastern Research Group
110 Hartwell Avenue
Lexington, MA 02173
November 1992
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The technical writing, editing, and production of this
document was managed by Eastern Research Group, Inc. (ERG). A
Technical Subcommittee of the Peer Review Committee (PRC) conducted
the risk assessments for Pathways 1 through 10 for agricultural
land in Section Five. Dr. Charles Henry of the University of
Washington conducted the risk assessment for the nine pathways for
nonagricultural land. Abt Associates Inc. prepared the risk
assessment for Pathways 12, 13, and 14 in Section Five and
contributed to section Three. This work was performed for the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency's Health and Ecological Criteria
Division of the Office of Water. The following personnel from ERG,
Abt Associates, and the Technical Subcommittee of the PRC
contributed to this document.
Eastern Research Group
Anne Jones
Leslie Beyer
Michael Rookwood
Janice Pacenka
John Bergin
Abt Associates
Kirkman O'Neal
Vicki Hutson
Daniel McMartin
Elizabeth Fechner Levy
Project Manager
Task Manager/Environmental Scientist
Environmental Scientist
Environmental Scientist
Copyeditor/Production Coordinator
Principal Investigator
Project Manager
Environmental Scientist
Environmental Scientist
Members of the Technical Subc-mmm-i-fr-hee of the Peer Review Committee
Dr. Rufus Chaney
Dr. Andrew Chang
Dr. Willard Chappell
Dr. Lawrence Gratt
Dr. Robert Griffin
Dr. Charles Henry
Dr. Terry Logan
Dr. George O'Connor
Dr. A1 Page
Dr. James Ryan
Dr. John Walker
Dr. Mel Webber
ERG and Abt Associates staff would like to thank Dr. Alan B.
Rubin for his guidance and support as EPA Project Manager. We also
would like to thank Robert M. Southworth, Mark L. Morris, and
Barbara A. Corcoran of the Office of Water, and Dr. James Ryan of
the Office of Research and Development for their useful comments
and valuable insights on various aspects of this project.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOLUME I
Page
LIST OF UNITS AND ACRONYMS 1
LIST OF TABLES 7
LIST OF FIGURES 16
GLOSSARY..... ....17
SECTION ONE INTRODUCTION 1-1
1.1 Background to the Part 503 Regulation 1-1
1.2 Description of the Part 503 Regulation .1-2
1.3 Scope of the Land Application Technical Support Document .... 1-3
SECTION TWO LAND APPLICATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE 2-1
2.1 Agricultural Land 2-3
2.2 Forests, Public Contact Sites, and Reclamation Sites 2-4
SECTION THREE RISK ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY 3-1
3.1 Hazard Identification 1.3-1
3.2 Dose-Response Evaluation 3-5
3.3 Exposure Evaluation 3-7
3.3.1 Monitoring 3-8
3.32 Modeling 3-9
3.33 Population Analysis .......... 3-9
3.4 Risk Characterization 3-10
SECTION FOUR POLLUTANTS OF CONCERN FOR PART 503
RISK ASSESSMENT 4-1
4.1 Initial List of Pollutants 4-1
4.2 Environmental Profiles 4-2
4.3 Additional Pathways 4-5
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)
Page
SECTION FIVE RISK ASSESSMENT FOR THE LAND APPLICATION OF
SEWAGE SLUDGE 5-1
5.1 Introduction * 5-1
5.1.1 Acknowledgments 5-1
5.1.2 EPA Decisions Concerning Assumptions, Data Used for
Environmental Exposure Evaluations 5-3
5.2 Application of Sewage Sludge to Agricultural Laid 5-20
5.2.1 Agricultural Pathway 1 5-20
5.2.2 Agricultural Pathway 2 5-79
5.23 Agricultural Pathway 3 5-104
5.2.4 Agricultural Pathway 4 5-120
5.2.5 Agricultural Pathway 5 5-151
5.2.6 Agricultural Pathway 6 5-172
5.2.7 Agricultural Pathway 7 5-183
5.2.8 Agricultural Pathway 8 5-192
5.2.9 Agricultural Pathway 9 5-216
5.2.10 Agricultural Pathway 10 5-223
5.2.11 Agricultural Pathway 11 : 5-242
5.2.12 Agricultural Pathway 12 5-248
5.2.13 Agricultural Pathway 13 5-285
5.2.14 Agricultural Pathway 14 5-299
5.3 Application of Sewage Sludge on Nonagricultural Land 5-317
5.3.1 Nonagricultural Pathway 1 5-321
5.3.2 Nonagricultural Pathway 2 5-357
5.33 Nonagricultural Pathway 3 5-358
5.3.4 Nonagricultural Pathway 4 5-377
5.3.5 Nonagricultural Pathway 5 5-400
53.6 Nonagricultural Pathway 6 5-410
53.7 Nonagricultural Pathway 7 5-416
53.8 Nonagricultural Pathway 8 5-420
5.3.9 Nonagricultural Pathway 9 5-424
53.10 Nonagricultural Pathway 10 5-427
5.3.11 Nonagricultural Pathway 11 5-429
5.3.12 Nonagricultural Pathway 12 5-429
5.3.13 Nonagricultural Pathway 13 5-429
53.14 Nonagricultural Pathway 14 5-429
5.4 Agricultural and Nonagricultural Results 5-430
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)
Page
SECTION SIX POLLUTANT LIMITS 6-1
6.1 Deletion of Organic Pollutants from the Final Rule 6-1
6.2 Limiting Concentrations for Inorganic Pollutants . 6-1
6.3 Development of Regulatory Limits 6-4
6.3.1 Pollutant Loading Rates 6-4
6.32 Pollutant Concentration Limits 6-7
6.4 Implementation of Regulatory Limits 6-13
6.4.1 Pollutant Limits for Bulk Sewage Applied to the Land 6-13
6.4.2 Pollutant Limits for Sewage Sludge Sold or Given
Away in a Bag or Other Container for Application to the Land 6-18
6.4 J Pollutant Limit for Domestic Septage . 6-19
SECTION SEVEN POLICY DECISIONS FOR THE PART 503 REGULATION 7-1
7.1 Annual Whole Sludge Application Rate (AWSAR) 7-1
7.2 Pollutant Limits 7-1
7.3 Site-Specific Factors 7-2
7.4 Other Container 7-3
SECTION EIGHT APPLICABILITY 8-1
8.1 Applicability of Subpart B Requirements 8-1
8.2 Exemptions 8-1
SECTION NINE DEFINITIONS 9-1
9.1 General Definitions 9-1
9.2 Special Definitions for Land Application of Sewage Sludge 9-2
9.3 Special Definitions for Pathogen and Vector Attraction Reduction 9-2
SECTION TEN GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 10-1
10.1 General Requirements for the Person Who Prepares
Sewage Sludge for Application to the Land 10-1
10.2 General Requirements for the Person Who Applies
Sewage Sludge to the Land 10-2
10.3 Exemptions from General Requirements 10-4
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont)
Page
SECTION ELEVEN MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 11-1
11.1 Protection of Threatened or Endangered Species 11-1
11.2 Restriction on the Application toFIooded, Frozen,
or Snow-Covered Land 11-1
11.3 Ten-Meter Buffer for U.S. Waters 11-2
11.4 Amount Applied Limited by Agronomic Rate 11-3
11.5 Labeling Requirements 11-4
11.6 Exemptions from Management Practices 11-4
SECTION TWELVE PATHOGEN AND VECTOR ATTRACTION REDUCTION
REQUIREMENTS 12-1
12.1 Sewage Sludge 12-1
12.1.1 Pathogen Requirements 12-1
12.1.2 Vector Attraction Reduction Requirements 12-2
12.2 Domestic Septage 12-3
12.2.1 Pathogen Requirements 12-3
12.2.2 Vector Attraction Reduction Requirements 12-3
SECTION THIRTEEN FREQUENCY OF MONITORING 13-1
13.1 Sewage Sludge 1 13-1
13.2 Domestic Septage 13-3
SECTION FOURTEEN RECORDKEEPING 14-1
14.1 Sewage Sludge Meeting Pollutant Concentration
Limits, Class A Pathogen Requirements, and One of the
Vector Attraction Reduction Requirements in
503.33(b)(1) Through 503.33(b)(8) 14-1
14.2 Material Derived from Bulk Sewage Sludge That Meets Pollutant
Concentration Limits, Class A Pathogen Requirements,
and One of the Vector Attraction Reduction Requirements
in 503.33(b)(1) Through 503.33(b)(8) 14-4
14.3 Bulk Sewage Sludge Meeting Pollution Concentration
Limits, Class A Pathogen Requirements, and One of the
Vector Attraction Reduction Requirements in
503.33(b)(9) or 503.33(b)(10) . 14-5
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (conL)
Page
14.4 Bulk Sewage Sludge Meeting Pollutant Ceiling
Concentrations and Cumulative Pollutant Loading Rates 14-5
14.5 Bulk Sewage Sludge Meeting Pollutant Concentration
Limits and Class B Pathogen Requirements 14-7
14.6 Sewage Sludge Sold or Given Away in a Bag or Other Container
for Application to the Land That Meets Annual
Pollutant Loading Rates 14-8
14.7 Domestic Septage 14-9
SECTION FIFTEEN REPORTING 15-1
SECTION SIXTEEN REFERENCES 16-1
APPENDIX A 40 CFR PART 503 STANDARDS FOR THE USE OR
DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE SLUDGE, SUBPARTS A,
B, AND D A-l
APPENDIX B JUSTIFICATION FOR DELETION OF POLLUTANTS FROM
TUL' n\JAf GTAMTIADnC C/YO TUii" TTCC fTD riTCDACAI
1 jtiiL rlNAL# alAliUAJnllo rUK 1x112/ USlJS UK i/lijrUijAL
OF SEWAGE SLUDGE B-l
APPENDIX C PLANT UPTAKE TABLES C-l
APPENDIX D ANIMAL UPTAKE TABLES D-l
APPENDIX E RESULTS OF THE PLANT PHOTOTOXICITY LITERATURE
SEARCH E-l
APPENDIX F PHOTOTOXICITY DATA FROM FIELD
EXPERIMENTS WITH SLUDGE F-l
APPENDIX G ACCUMULATION OF POLLUTANT IN TREATED SOIL,
AND CALCULATION OF SQUARE WAVE FOR THE
GROUND WATER PATHWAY G-l
APPENDIX H - PARTITIONING OF POLLUTANTS AMONG AIR, WATER,
AND SOLIDS IN SOIL H-l
APPENDIX I DERIVATION OF FIRST-ORDER COEFFICIENT FOR
LOSSES TO LEACHING 1-1
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cool.)
. ... Page
APPENDIX J INPUT PARAMETERS USED TO DERIVE REFERENCE
APPLICATION RATES FOR PATHWAYS 12 THROUGH 14 J-l
APPENDIX K JUSTIFICATION FOR THE ANNUAL APPLICATION RATE
FOR DOMESTIC SEPTAGE IN THE STANDARDS FOR THE
USE OR DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE SLUDGE K-l
APPENDIX L CALCULATION OF THE AMOUNT OF SEWAGE SLUDGE USED
- OR DISPOSED FOR THE PART 503 FREQUENCY OF
MONITORING REQUIREMENTS L-l
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LIST OE UNITS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND ACRONYMS
a pollutant-specific empirical constant
of, intermediate variable (m2/sec)
(3 pollutant-specific empirical constant
0, air-filled porosity of soil (unitless)
0c effective porosity of soil (unitless)
$w water-filled porosity of soil (unitless)
k intermediate variable (unitless)
pa - particle density of sewage sludge-soil mixture (kg/ra3)
pv density of water (kg/1)
gz standard deviation of the vertical distribution of concentrations (m)
S> wind speed (m/sec)
fig microgram
a empirical constant
A area of SMA (ra2)
ABI background concentration of pollutant in animal organ (pg-pollutant/g-
organ DW)
ac acre
ACGIH American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
ADI acceptable daily intake (mg/kg-BW)
APLR annual pollutant loading rate (kg/ha *yr)
AR sewage sludge application rate (mt/ha)
ARe cumulative sewage sludge application rate (mg/sewage sludge/ha)
A^, area affected by sewage sludge management (ha)
atm atmosphere
A„ area of the watershed (ha)
AWSAR annual whole sludge application rate (mt DW-sludge/ha*yr)
b empirical constant
BACC bioaccuraulation factor for soil organisms (pg-pollutant/g-soil organism
DW)(pg-p°Uutant/g-soil DW)"1
BAF bioaccumulation factor for pollutants in aquatic organisms (I/kg)
BAV bioavailability factor for pollutants in the soil in soil organisms (unitless)
BC background concentration of pollutant in plant tissue
(pg-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)
BCF pollutant-specific bioconcentration factor for pollutants in fish (1/kg)
BD bulk density of soil in mixing zone (kg/m3)
BI background intake of pollutant from a given exposure route (mg-
pollutant/day)
BS background concentration of pollutant in soil (ug-pollutant/g-soil DW)
BW body weight (kg)
C concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (pg-pollutant/g-sewage sludge
DW)
C, vapor concentration of pollutant in air-filled pore space
of treated soil (kg-pollutant/m3)
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CAST
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology
CB
background concentration of pollutant in well-water
(rag-pollutant/l-well-water)
. QEC
Cation Exchange Capacity (cmol/kg)
CFR
Code of Federal Regulations
Cue
unit concentration of the pollutant in leachate (1 mg-pollutant/l)
cm
centimeter
CPLR
cumulative pollutant loading rate (kg-pollutant/ha)
c.
concentration of adsorbed pollutant in treated soil
(kg-pollutant/kg-soil)
Q-
dry weight concentration of pollutant in eroded soil
(mg-pollutant/kg-soil DW)
c„
average pollutant concentration for soil eroding from the SMA
(mg-pollutant/kg)
cw
concentration of pollutant in surface water
(mg-pollutant/l-surfece water)
c,
total concentration of pollutant in treated soil (kg-pollutant/m3)
CWA
Clean Water Act
predicted concentration of the pollutant in well (mg-pollutant/1)
CWSS
Community Water Supply Study
' DA
daily dietary consumption of animal tissue food group (g-animal tissue
DW/day)
DC
daily dietary consumption of food group (g-diet DW/day)
the molecular diffusity of pollutant vapor in air (cm2/sec)
d.
depth of soil eroded from site each year (m/yr)
DE
exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
De,
intermediate variable (m2/sec)
DF
dilution factor (unitless)
dj
depth of incorporation for sewage sludge (m)
dL
deciliter
DW
dry weight
e
base of natural logarithms, 2.718 (unitless)
Eh
potential required to transfer electrons from the oxidant to the reductant
EPA
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EXP*,
dose of pollutant received through surface water pathway
(rag/kg* day)
FA
fraction of food group assumed to be derived from animals which ingest
sewage sludge or forage grown on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
FC
fraction of food group produced on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
FD
fraction of diet considered to be soil organisms (g-soil organisms DW/g-
dietDW)
FDA
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
fraction of total loss caused by degradation (unitless)
fraction of total loss caused by erosion (unitless)
FL
fraction of the animal diet assumed to be soil (g-soil DW/g-diet DW)
fraction of total loss caused by leaching (unitless)
f-
fraction of total cumulative loading lost in human
lifetime (unitless)
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FM
pollutant-specific food chain multiplier (unitless)
FS
fraction of animal diet that is sewage sludge (g-sewage sludge DW/g-diet
DW)
£rol
fraction of total loss caused by volatilization (unitless)
ratio of predicted concentration of pollutant in well to concentration in
leachate (unitless)
FY
fiscal year
g
gram
GEMS
Graphical Exposure Modeling System
ft
nondimensional Henry's Law constant for the pollutant
H
Henry's law constant for the pollutant (atm-m3/mol)
fisn
hectare
HEI
Highly Exposed Individual
i.
inhalation volume (m3/day)
daily consumption of fish (kg/day)
IRIS
Integrated Risk Information System
I.
soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
Iw
daily consumption of water (1-water/day)
k
loss rate constant (yr1)
K
kilojoules
KD
equilibrium partition coefficient for the pollutant (m3/kg)
K*g
loss rate coefficient for degradation (units)
KDW
partitioning coefficient between solids and liquids within the stream (1/kg)
K,re
loss rate coefficient for erosion (units)
kg
kilogram
loss rate coefficient for leaching (yr'1)
km
kilometer
KOC
organic carbon partition coefficient (mJ/kg)
KOW
octanol-water partition coefficient for pollutant (units)
K*.
total loss rate coefficient for the pollutant in treated soil (yr1)
Kvol
loss rate coefficient for volatilization (yr1)
1
liter
lc50
lethal concentration of chemical (in liquid) at which SO percent of study
animals die
LDa
lethal dose of chemical at which 50 percent of study animals die
In
natural logarithm
LOAEL
Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level
LOEL
Lowest Observed Effect Level
LS
human life expectancy (yr)
L».
distance between the SMA and the receiving water body (m)
m
meter
MCL
maximum contaminant level in drinking water, established by U.S. EPA
(mg/1)
MDC
maximum concentration of pollutant in dust (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MED
maximum equivalent dose
MEm
estimated rate of soil loss for the SMA (kg/ha*yr)
ME.,
estimated rate of soil loss for the watershed (kg/ha *yr)
mg
milligram
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MGD
million gallons/day
ml
mUlillter
Mb
mass of pollutant at end of individual lifetime (kg-pollutant/ha)
mn
mass of pollutant after N applications (kg-pollutant/ha)
mo
month
mol
mole
MS
assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 on (2 •10* g-soil DW/ha)
mt
metric tons
M,
mass of pollutant in soil at end of year t (kg/ha)
MTD
maximum tolerated dose
n
years of application (yr) until steady state conditions are reached
N
number of years in which sewage sludge is applied
Na
total emissions from the soil surface over time interval t„ (kg/m2)
Na,
emissions from the soil surface in first second (kg/ra2,sec)
NAS
National Academy of Sciences
Na^
emissions from the soil surface in first year (kg/m2*yr)
NCI
National Cancer Institute
NFCS
Nationwide Food Consumption Survey
NHANES II
Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
NIOSH
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
NOAEL
No Observed Adverse Effect Level
NOEL
No Observed Effect Level
NR
annual recharge to ground water beneath the sludge
management area (m/yr)
NSSS
National Sewage Sludge Survey
OPPTS
Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances (EPA) (formally
OPTS)
OPTS
Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances (EPA) (now OPPTS)
ORD
Office of Research and Development (EPA)
OST
Office of Science and Technology (EPA)
OSW
Office of Solid Waste (EPA) (suboffice of OSWER)
OW
Office of Water (EPA)
OWRS
Office of Water Regulations and Standards (EPA) (now OST)
PCBs
polychlorinated biphenyls
PCGEMS
Personal Computer version of the Graphical Exposure Modeling System
Pi
ratio of pollutant concentration in the edible portion of
fish to concentration in whole fish (unitless)
P.
percent liquid in the water column (unitless)
POtws
publicly owned treatment works
ppm
parts per million
P,
percent solids in the water column (unitless)
human cancer potency (rag/kg'day)"1
R
ideal gas constant (8.21 • 10 s atm-m3/k*mol)
RC*
reference air concentration for pollutant (ftg-pollutant/m3)
RCp,
reference water concentration (mg/1)
RCue
reference concentration of pollutant in leachate beneath the land
application site (mg-pollutant/1)
RCRA
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
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RC
reference concentration of pollutant for soil eroding
into stream (mg-pollutant/kg)
RC^
reference concentration for soil eroding from the sludge management
area (rag/kg)
reference pollutant concentration for soil eroding from the SMA
(mg-pollutant/kg)
RC„
reference water concentration for surface water (mg/1)
RDA
Recommended Dietary Allowance (mg/day)
RE
relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
RF
reference concentration of pollutant in diet (/xg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RF^
referent annual flux of pollutant emitted from the
site (kg-pollutant/ha • yr)
RfD
orai reference dose (nig/kg* day)
reference annual flux of pollutant beneath the site (units)
RI
reference intake for carcinogen (nig/kg* day)
RIA
adjusted reference intake of pollutants in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
RL
risk level (unitless)
RLC
reference concentration of pollutant in soil (/ig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RP.
reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha • yr)
RPC
reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RSC
reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (pg-pollutant/g-
sewage sludge DW)
RWS
Rural Water Survey
r'
distance from the center of the site to the receptor (m)
S
intermediate variable (unitless)
SCS
Soil Conservation Survey
sec
seconds
SMA
sludge management area
SMSA
Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area
SRAB
Sludge Risk Assessment Branch (EPA)
SRR
source-receptor ratio (sec/m)
sediment delivery ratio for the SMA (unitless)
S„
sediment delivery ratio for the watershed (unitless)
T
temperature (kelvin)
T0.s
half-life of pollutant in soil (yr)
TA
threshold concentration of pollutant in feed (/ig-pollutant/g-feed DW)
TBI
total background intake of pollutant from all sources of
exposure other than sewage sludge (mg-pollutant/day)
TBI,
TBI for adults (mg/day)
TBI,
TBI for toddlers (mg/day)
TDA
ACGIH total dust standard (10 mg/m3)
t.
duration of emissions (sec)
TO
threshold concentration of pollutant in animal organ (pg-pollutant/g-organ
DW)
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TP length of "square wave" in which maximum total loss rate of pollutant
(kg-po!iutant/ha*yr) depletes total mass of pollutant applied annually to
site (yr)
IPC threshold phytotoxic concentration of pollutant in plaint issue
Oxg-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW^g-pollutant/ha)1
TPI threshold pollutant intake level (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act
TSD Technical Support Document
TSS total suspended solids content of the stream (rag/I)
TWA time-weighted average (pg/m3)
UA uptake response slope of pollutant in animal tissue food group (jig-
pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)(pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)1
UC uptake response slope of pollutant in plant tissue (^g-pollutant/g-plant
tissue DW)(kg-pollutant/ha)"1
USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
USLE Universal Soil Loss Equation
v vertical term (unitless)
VADOFT Vadose Zone Row and Transport
wk week
WW wet weight
x distance from center of SMA to the receptor (km)
xr lateral virtual distance (m)
yr year
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
4-1 Environmental Pathways of Concern Identified
for the Land Application of Sewage Sludge 4-3
4-2 Pollutants Selected for Environmental Profile
Development for Land Application 4-4
4-3 Pollutants for Which Risk Was Assessed for
Pathways 1 Through 10 4-6
44 Pollutants for Which Risk Assessments Were
Performed for Pathway 11 (Tractor Operator)
for Land Application of Sewage Sludge 4-8
4-5 Pollutants for Which Risk Assessments Were
Performed for Pathway 12 (Surface Water) and
Pathway 14 (Ground Water) for Land Application
of Sewage Sludge 4-9
4-6 Pollutants for Which Risk Assessments Were
Performed for Pathway 13 (Vapor) for Land
Application of Sewage Sludge 4-10
5.2.1-1 Environmental Pathways of Concern Identified for
Application of Sewage Sludge to Agricultural Land 5-2
5.2.1-2 Pollutants Evaluated for Agricultural Pathway 1 5-21
5.2.1-3 RfDs and RDAs 5-25
5.2.1-4 Total Background Intake—Adults 5-29
5.2.1-5 Sewage Sludge Stuty Data Points 5-37
5.2.1-6 National Background Concentrations of
Pollutants in U.S. Soil 5-39
5.2.1-7 Study Types Used to Calculate Plant Group
Uptake of Pollutants 5-42
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LIST OF TABLES (coiit.)
Page
5.2.1-8 Uptake Slopes for Inorganic Pollutants
by Plant Group 5-44
5.2.1-9 Food Consumption Rates for Raw
Agricultural Commodities by Age and Sex 5-45
5.2.1-10 Dietary Intake of Foods for Different
Age Groups and Estimated Lifetime Average
Daily Food Intake for 70 Years 5-48
5.2.1-11 Estimated Annual Cropland Requirements for
Utilization of the Sludge in Agriculture in the
United States in 1985 5-53
5.2.1-12 Input and Output Values for Inorganic Pollutants for
Agricultural Pathway 1 5-56
5.2.1-13 Oral Uptake Slopes for Carcinogens 5-64
5.2.1-14 Aerobic Degradation of Pollutants 5-67
5.2.1-15 Input and Output Values for Organic Pollutants
for Agricultural Pathway 1 5-69
5.22-1 Pollutants Evaluated for Agricultural Pathway 2 5-80
5.2.2-2 Uptake Slopes for Inorganic Pollutants by Plant Group, UC 5-84
5.2.2-3 Annual Consumption of Homegrown Foods 5-85
5.22-4 Input and Output Values for Inorganic Pollutants for
Agricultural Pathway 2 5-87
5.22-5 Input and Output Values for Organic Pollutants for
Agricultural Pathway 2 5-95
5.23-1 Pollutants Evaluated for Agricultural Pathway 3 5-105
523-2 RfDs and RDAs for Agricultural Pathway 3 5-109
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LIST OF TABLES (cont.)
Page
5.23-3 Total Background Intake: Toddlers 5-110
5.23-4 Input and Output Values for Inorganic
Pollutants for Agricultural Pathway 3 5-112
5.23-5 Input and Output Values for Organic
Pollutants for Agricultural Pathway 3 5-118
5.2.4-1 Pollutants Evaluated for Agricultural Pathway 4 5-121
5.2.4-2 Food Groups Considered for Human Consumption of
Animal Tissue 5-126
5.2.4-3 Uptake Slope of Inorganic Pollutants in
Animal Tissue Food Groups, UA 5-131
5.2.4-4 Input and Output Values for Inorganic
Pollutants for Agricultural Pathway 4 5-133
5.2.4-5 Uptake Slope of Organic Pollutants in
Animal Tissue Food Groups, UA 5-140
5.2.4-6 Input and Output Values for Organic
Pollutants for Agricultural Pathway 4 5-143
5.2.5-1 Pollutants Evaluated for Agricultural Pathway 5 ~ 5-153
525-2 Input and Output Values for Inorganic Pollutants
for Agricultural Pathway 5 5-158
5.2.5-3 Input and Output Values for Organic Pollutants
for Agricultural Pathway 5 5-165
5.2.6-1 Pollutants Evaluated for Agricultural Pathway 6 5-173
5.2.6-2 TPI Values for Agricultural Pathway 6 5-176
5.2.6-3 Input and Output Values for Agricultural Pathway 6 5-181
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LIST OF TABLES (coni.)
Page
5.2.7-1 Pollutants Evaluated for Agricultural Pathway 7 5-184
5.2.7-2 Threshold Pollutant Intake Levels for Pathway 7 ... 5-187
5.2.7-3 Background Concentration of Pollutants in Soil for Pathway 7 5-189
5.2.7-4 Input and Output Values for Agricultural Pathway 7 5-190
5.2.8-1 Pollutants Evaluated for Agricultural Pathway 8 5-193
5.2.8-2 Relative Sensitivity of Crops to Sludge-Applied
Heavy Metals 5-198
5.2.8-3 Probability of Zinc in Com Grown on Sludge-
Treated Soils Exceeding the Phytotoxidty
Tolerance Threshold 5-206
5.2.8-4 Probability of Copper in Com Grown in Sludge-
Treated Soils Exceeding the Phytotoxidty
Tolerance Threshold 5-208
5.2.8-5 Probability of Com Grown in Sludge-Treated Soils
Exceeding the Nickel Phytotoxidty Tolerance Threshold 5-211
5.2.8-6 Probability of Com Grown on Sludge-Treated Soils
Exceeding the Chromium Phytotoxidty Tolerance Threshold 5-212
5.2.8-5 Input and Output Values from Risk Assessment
for Agricultural Pathway 8 5-215
5.2.8-6 Probability Analysis Results for Agricultural
Pathway 8 5-215
5.2.8-7 Limiting Results for Agricultural Pathway 8 5-215
5.2.9-1 Input and Output Values for Agricultural
Pathway 9 5-222
5.2.10-1 Input and Output Values for Inorganic
Pollutants for Agricultural Pathway 10,
from Standard Methodology 5-230
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LIST OF TABLES (eont.)
Page
5,2.10-2 Output Values for Cadmium for
Agricultural Pathway 10 . 5-236
5.2.10-3 Input and Output Values for Organic Pollutants
for Agricultural Pathway 10 5-240
5.2.11-1 Pollutants of Concern for Agricultural
Pathway 11 5-243
5.2.11-2 NIOSH Recommended Occupational Health
Standards 5-244
5.2.11-3 Input and Output Values for Agricultural
Pathway 11 5-247
5.2.12-1 Pollutants Evaluated for Agricultural
Pathway 12 5-249
5.2.12-2 Reference Application Rates for Pollutants, Pathway 12 5-265
5.2.12-3 Site Parameters for Sample Equations 5-266
5.2.12-4 Pollutant-Specific Parameters for Sample
Equations * 5-267
5.2.13-1 Pollutants of Concern for Agricultural
Pathway 13 5-286
5.2.13-2 Parameters Used to Calculate ax 5-290
5.2.13-3 Reference Application Rates for Pollutants, Pathway 13 5-292
5.2.13-4 Site Parameter Values Used in Sample Equations 5-293
5.2.13-5 Parameter Values Used in Sample Equations
for PCBs 5-294
5.2.14-1 Pollutants Evaluated for Agricultural
Pathway 14 5-300
5.2.14-2 Reference Application Rates for Pollutants, Pathway 14 5-309
5.2.14-3 Input Parameter Values Used in Sample Equations 5-310
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LIST OF TABLES (cont.)
Page
5.3-1 Environmental Pathways of Concern Identified
for Application of Sewage Sludge to
Nonagricultural Land 5-319
5.3.1-1 Pollutants Evaluated for Nonagricultural
Pathway 1 . 5-322
5.3.1-2 Input and Output Values for Inorganic
Pollutants for Nonagricultural Pathway 1,
Forest Land 5-327
5.3.1-3 Input and Output Values for Inorganic
Pollutants for Nonagricultural Pathway 1,
Soil Reclamation Sites and Public Contact Sites 5-330
5.3.1-4 Input and Output Values for Organic
Pollutants for Nonagricultural Pathway 1,
Forest Land 5-338
5.3.1-5 Input and Output Values for Organic
Pollutants for Nonagricultural Pathway 1,
Soil Reclamation Sites and Public Contact
Sites 5-345
5.3.3-1 Pollutants Evaluated for Nonagricultural
Pathway3 5-359
5.33-2 RfDs and RDAs for Nonagricultural Pathway 3 5-362
5.33-3 Input and Output Values for Inorganic
Pollutants for Nonagricultural Pathway 3,
Forest Land and Soil Reclamation Sites 5-365
533-4 Input and Output Values for Inorganic
Pollutants for Nonagricultural Pathway 3,
Public Contact Sites 5-366
5.33-5 Input and Output Values for Organic
Pollutants for Nonagricultural Pathway 3,
Forest Land and Soil Reclamation Sites 5-372
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LIST OF TABLES (conL)
tMS.
5.33-6 Input and Output Values for Organic
Pollutants for Nonagricultural Pathway 3,
Public Contact Sites 5-373
5.3.4-1 Pollutants Evaluated for Nonagricultural
Pathway4 5-378
5.3.4-2 Assumptions for Pathway 4 Dietary Intake
and Fraction of Animal Tissue from Animals
Living on Sewage Sludge-Amended Soil 5-383
5.3.4-3 Input and Output Values for Inorganic
Pollutants for Nonagricultural Pathway 4,
Forest Land and Soil Reclamation Sites 5-384
5.3.4-4 Input and Output Values for Organic Pollutants
for Nonagricultural Pathway 4 for Forest Land
and Soil Reclamation Sites 5-3%
5.3.5-1 Pollutants Evaluated for Nonagricultural
Pathway 5 5-401
5.3.5-2 Input and Output Values for Inorganic
Pollutants for Nonagricultural Pathway 5 5-403
5.3.5-3 Input and Output Values for Organic Pollutants
for Nonagricultural Pathway 5 5-405
5.3.6-1 Input and Output Values for Nonagricultural
Pathway 6 for Public Contact Sites 5-413
5.3.6-2 Input and Output Values for Nonagricultural
Pathway 6 for Forest Land and Soil Reclamation Sites 5-414
5.3.7-1 Pollutants Evaluated for Nonagricultural
Pathway 7 5-417
5.3.7-2 Input and Output Values for Nonagricultural
Pathway 7 5-419
5.3.8-1 Pollutants Evaluated for Nonagricultural
Pathway 8 * 5-421
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LIST OF TABLES (coot.)
Page
5.3.8-2 limiting Results for Nonagricultural Pathway 8 5-423
5.3.9-1 Input and Output Values for Nonagricultural
Pathway 9 5-426
5.4-1 Agricultural Results for Inorganic Pollutants 5431
5.4-2 Nonagricultural Results for Inorganic Pollutants
for Forest Land 5-432
5.4-3 Nonagricultural Results for Inorganic Pollutants
for Soil Reclamation Sites 5-433
5.4-4 Nonagricultural Results for Inorganic Pollutants
for Public Contact Sites 5-434
5.4-5 Limiting Results for each Pathway for Inorganic Pollutants 5-435
5.4-6 Agricultural Results for Organic Pollutants 5-436
5.4-7 Nonagricultural Results for Organic Pollutants for Forest Land 5-437
5.4-8 Nonagricultural Results for Organic Pollutants for Soil
Reclamation Sites 5-438
5.4-9 Nonagricultural Results for Organic Pollutants for
Public Contact Sites 5-439
5.4-10 Limiting Results for each Pathway for Organic Pollutants 5-440
6-1 Limiting Results for Each Pathway for
Inorganic Pollutants 6-3
6-2 limiting Results for each Pathway for
Inorganic Pollutants Reported as Reference
Cumulative Application Rates of Pollutant 6-5
6-3 Risk-Based Pollutant Limits and Limiting Pathways 6-6
6-4 Cumulative Pollutant Loading Rates 6-8
6-5 Annual Pollutant Loading Rates 6-9
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LIST OF TABLES (coot.)
Page
6-6 NSSS 99th Percentile Values 6-10
6-7 Numbers Used to Derive the Pollutant
Concentrations 6-12
6-8 Numbers Used to Derive Ceiling
Concentrations 6-14
6-9 Ceiling Concentrations 6-15
6-10 Pollutant Concentrations 6-16
13-1 Frequency of Monitoring—Land Application ... 13-2
14-1 Recordkeeping Responsibilities by Type of
Sewage Sludge and Person Responsible 14-2
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
5.2.1-1 Generalized Plant Uptake Response Curves
for Trace Elements in the 503 Rule, and the
Effect of Applying a Linear Response Model 5-33
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GLOSSARY
Words and phrases specific to this document are defined below. Many of these
definitions are included in Section 503,9, General Definitions, of Subpart A; Section 503.11,
Special Definitions, of Subpart B; and Section 503.31, Special Definitions, of Subpart D (see
Appendix A).
Adjusted reference intake of pollutants in humans—A health-based number that indicates how much
of a pollutant can be ingested/inhaled by a person. If this exposure is exceeded, adverse
health effects might occur in exposed individuals. This number is termed adjusted
because it has been adjusted from a per weight basis to a particular body weight and
exposure to other sources has been subtracted.
Agricultural land—Land on which a food crop, a feed crop, or a fiber crop is grown. This
includes range land and land used as pasture.
Agronomic rate—The whole sludge application rate (dry-weight basis) designed (1) to provide the
amount of nitrogen needed by the food crop, feed crop, fiber crop, cover crop, or
vegetation grown on the land, and (2) to minimize the amount of nitrogen in the sewage
sludge that passes below the root zone of the crop or vegetation grown on the land to the
ground water.
Allowable daily intake (ADI)—The daily intake of a chemical that during an entire lifetime
appears to be without appreciable risk on the basis of all the known facts at the time. It
is expressed in milligrams of the chemical per kilogram of body weight (mg/kg).
Annual application rate—The pollutant limit for domestic septage applied to agricultural land,
forests, or reclamation sites. The annual application rate depends on the nitrogen
requirement of the crop or vegetation grown on the land where the domestic septage is
applied and is expressed as an hydraulic loading rate in gallons per acre per year.
Annual pollutant loading rate—The maximum amount of a pollutant that can be applied to an
area of land during a 365-day period.
Annual whole sludge application rate—The maximum amount of sewage sludge that can be applied
to an area of land during a 365-day period.
Base flood—A flood that has a 1 percent chance of occurring in any given year (i.e., a flood with
a magnitude equalled once in 100 years).
Bioaccumulation factor (BACC)—A factor that describes the concentration that is present in an
organism because of a specific concentration of bioavailabie pollutant in the soil.
Bioavailability factor (BAV)—A factor that describes the bioavailability of pollutants in sewage
sludge/soil mixtures for uptake by organisms.
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BioconcentraHon factor—A measure of the partitioning of a chemical between water and aquatic
organisms such as fish.
Bulk sewage sludge—Sewage sludge that is not sold or given away in a bag or other container for
application to the land.
Cancer potency value (q')—The cancer potency value (qt*) represents the relationship between a
specified carcinogenic dose and its associated degree of risk. The qt* is based on
continual exposure of an individual to a specified concentration over a period of 70 years.
Established EPA methodology for determining cancer potency values assumes that any
degree of exposure to a carcinogen produces a measurable risk. The q,* value is
expressed in terms of risk per dose and is measured in units of milligrams of pollutant
per kilogram of body weight per day of exposure (mg/kg«day)"1.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC)—The upper limit on the ability of a solution to trade a positively
charged ion for a negatively charged one.
Class I sewage sludge management facility—Any publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) as
defined in 40 CFR 403.30 as being required to have an approved pretreatment program
(including such POTWs located in a state that has elected to assume local program
responsibilities pursuant to 40 CHI 403.10 (e)J and any treatment works treating
domestic sewage, as defined in 40 CFR 122.2, classified as a Class I sludge management
facility by the EPA Regional Administrator, or in the case of approved state programs,
the Regional Administrator in conjunction with the State Director, because of the
potential for its sewage sludge use or disposal practices to affect public health and the
environment adversely.
Cover crop—A small grain crop, such as oats, wheat, or barley, not grown for harvest.
Cumulative pollutant loading rate—The maximum amount of an inorganic pollutant that can be
applied to a unit area of land.
Distributor—A person who either delivers bulk sewage sludge to a person who applies the bulk
sewage sludge to the land or who delivers bulk sewage sludge to a person who prepares
the bulk sewage sludge for application to the land.
Domestic septage—Liquid or solid material removed from a septic tank, cesspool, portable toilet,
Type in marine sanitation device, or similar treatment works that receives only domestic
sewage. Domestic septage does not include liquid or solid material removed from a
septic tank, cesspool, or similar treatment works that receives either commercial or
industrial wastewater and does not include grease removed from a grease trap at a
restaurant.
Domestic sewage—Waste and wastewater from humans or household operations that is discharged
to or otherwise enters a treatment works.
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Dry-weight (DW) basis—The method of measuring weight where, prior to be weighed, the
material is dried at 105 °C until reaching a constant mass (i.e., essentially 100 percent
solids content).
Feed crops—Crops produced primarily for consumption for animals.
Fiber crops—Crops such as flax and cotton.
Food crops—Craps consumed by humans.
Forage—Crops consumed by animals.
Hatf-life of pollutant—The time required for one-half of the atoms of an isotope to decay.
Hectare—A metric measurement of land area equal to 2.471 acres.
Helminth ova—The egg of a parasitic intestinal worm.
Highly exposed individual (HEI)—The HEI is an individual who remains for an extended period
of time at or adjacent to the site where the maximum exposure occurs.
Industrial wastewater—Wastewater generated in a commercial, industrial, or manufacturing
process.
Integrated uptake biokinetic model (IUBK)—An uptake/biokinetic model developed by U.S. EPA's
Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office. It predicts blood lead levels in
populations exposed to lead in air, diet, drinking water, indoor dust, soil and paint.
Land application—The spraying or spreading of sewage sludge onto the land surface; the injection
of sewage sludge below the land surface; or the incorporation of sewage sludge into the
soil so that the sewage sludge can either condition the soil or fertilize crops or vegetation
grown in the soil.
Land with a high potential for public exposure—Land that the public uses frequently. This
includes, but is not limited to, a public contact site (e.g., park or golf course), and a
reclamation site located in a populated area.
Monthly average—The arithmetic mean of all measurements taken during a given month.
Most probable number (MPN)—A unit that expresses the amount of bacteria per gram of total dry
solids in sewage sludge.
National Sewage Sludge Survey (NSSS)—A survey conducted by the U.S. EPA in which
questionnaires were administered to 479 POTWs practicing secondary or advanced
treatment. In addition, sewage samples were collected from 200 of the POTWs and
analyzed.
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Oral reference dose (fffiD)—See Reference dose.
Other container—Either an open or closed receptacle. This includes, but is not limited to, a
bucket, a box, a carton, and a vehicle or trailer with a load capacity of 1 metric ton or
less.
Pasture—Land on which animals feed directly on feed crops such as legumes, grasses, grain
stubble, or stover.
Pathogenic organisms—Disease-causing organisms. This includes, but is not limited to, certain
bacteria, protozoa, viruses, and viable helminth ova.
• Permitting authority—Either EPA or a state with an EPA-approved sewage sludge management
program.
Person who prepares sewage sludge—Either the person who generates sewage sludge during the
treatment of domestic sewage in a treatment works or the person who derives a material
from sewage sludge.
pjf—The logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration. The pH measures
acidity/alkalinity and ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 indicates the material is neutral.
Moving from a pH of 7 to 0, the pH indicates progressively more acid conditions.
Moving from a pH of 7 to 14, the pH indicates progressively more alkaline conditions.
Pollutant ceiling concentrations—A pollutant concentration in sewage sludge, measured in
milligrams of pollutant per kilogram of sewage sludge dry weight (mg-pollutant/kg-sewage
sludge DW), above which sewage sludge cannot be applied to land.
Pollutant concentration limit—A pollutant concentration in sewage sludge, measured in milligrams
of pollutant per kilogram of sewage sludge dry weight (mg-pollutant/kg-sewage sludge
DW), above which treatment works are not subject to certain requirements of Subpart B.
Pollutant limit—A numerical value that describes the amount of a pollutant allowed per unit
amount of sewage sludge (e.g., milligrams per jdlogram of total solids); the amount of a
pollutant that can be applied to an area of land (e.g., kilograms per hectare); or the
volume of a material that can be applied to an area of land (e.g.» gallons per acre).
Primary treatment sewage sludge—Sewage sludge resulting from primary wastewater treatment.
Public contact site—Land with a high potential for contact by the public. This includes, but is not
limited to, public parks, ball fields, cemeteries, plant nurseries, turf forms, and golf
courses.
Publicly owned treatment work (POTW)—Any device or system owned by a municipality or state
entity used to treat (including recycling and reclamation) either domestic sewage or a
combination of domestic sewage and industrial waste of a liquid nature.
Range land—Open land with indigenous vegetation.
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Reclamation site—Drastically disturbed land that is reclaimed using sewage sludge. This includes,
but is not limited to, strip mines and construction sites.
5 Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs)-RDAs are defined as the levels of intake of essential
nutrients that, on the basis of scientific knowledge, are judged by the Food and Nutrition
Board to be adequate to meet the known nutrient needs of practically all healthy persons
(NAS, 1989).
Reference application rate of pollutant (RP)—The amount of pollutant that can be applied to a
hectare of land without adverse effects. The units are kg-pollutant/ha.
Reference concentration of pollutant—The maximum concentration of pollutant in soil that is
without adverse effects. The units are /*g-pollutant/g-soil DW.
Reference dose (HfD)—A threshold dose below which adverse effects to human health are unlikely
to occur. RfDs have units of rag-cheraical/kg-body weight "day. EPA has developed
RfDs for over 300 substances; they are listed in EPA's computerized Integrated Risk
Information System (IRIS).
Regional Administrator—The administrator of EPA within the EPA Region.
Relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure—A unitless factor that accounts for the differences in
the toxicological effectiveness of the source. These differences include bioavailability
associated with the exposure medium (water vs. food) as well as differences in absorption
caused by differences in the route of exposure (inhalation vs. ingestion).
Sewage sludge—Solid, semi-solid, or liquid residue generated during the treatment of domestic
sewage in a treatment works. Sewage sludge includes, but is not limited to, domestic
septage; scum or solids removed in primary, secondary, or advanced wastewater treatment
processes; and material derived from sewage sludge. Sewage sludge does not include ash
generated during the firing of sewage sludge in a sewage sludge incinerator or grit and
screenings generated during preliminary treatment of domestic sewage in a treatment
works.
Sewage sludge-amended soil—Soil to which sewage sludge has been added.
Sewage sludge sold or given away in a tag or other container—Formerly known as distribution and
marketing. Sewage sludge that is either sold or given away in an open or closed
receptacle with a load capacity of 1 metric ton or less. This includes, but is not limited
to, a bucket, a box, a carton, and a vehicle or trailer with a load capacity of 1 metric ton
or less.
Soil organisms—A broad range of organisms, including microorganisms and various invertebrates
living in or on the soil.
Specific oxygen uptake rate (SOUR)—The mass of oxygen consumed per unit time per unit mass of
total solids (diy-weight basis).
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Standard metropolitan statistical area (SMSA)—Areas defined by the U.S. Census Bureau in which
cities are combined with the surrounding suburban areas. These areas are used in many
types of statistical analyses.
State Director—The director of the state agency that has an EPA-approved sewage sludge
management program.
Subsurface injection of sewage sludge—Injection of sewage sludge beneath the surface of the land
(one of the ten vector attraction reduction requirements in Part 503).
Surface disposal—The placement of sewage sludge on a surface disposal site. A surface disposal
site is an area of land that contains one or more active sewage sludge units. An active
unit is a unit of land that has not been closed on which only sewage sludge is placed for
final disposal.
Threatened or endangered species—Species listed pursuant to Section 4 of the Endangered Species
Act.
Threshold phytatwdc concentration of pollutant in plant tissue—The concentration of pollutant in
plant tissue at which phytotojricity (plant toxicity) is observed. The unit is ^g-pollutant/g-
plant tissue DW.
Threshold pollutant intake level—The maximum* intake of a pollutant that would not cause a toxic
effect to the most sensitive/most exposed species.
Time-weighted average (TWA) exposure—Average exposure to a contaminant that is calculated by
weighting each exposure measurement by duration. For example, if one measurement
was 50 ppm for 1 hour and the other measurement was 30 ppm for 2 hours, the TWA
would be [(50 • 1) + (30 • 2)] (1 + 2) = 37 ppm. Most regulatory measures for
worker safety are based on 8- or 10-hr TWAs.
Total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of exposure (TBI)—A summed total
of all intakes from all exposures from sources other than sewage sludge. These exposures
include background levels (natural and/or anthropic) in drinking water, food, and air.
Treatment of sewage sludge—Tlte preparation of sewage sludge for final use or disposal. This
includes, but is not limited to, thickening, stabilization, and dewatering of sewage sludge;
it does not include storage of sewage sludge.
Treatment works—Any federally owned, publicly owned, or privately owned device or system used
to treat (including recycle and reclaim) either domestic sewage or a combination of
domestic sewage and industrial waste of a liquid nature.
Uptake response slope of pollutant—Calculated by regressing the concentration of pollutant in plant
tissue (/xg-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW) against a cumulative pollutant loading rate
-------
Vector attraction—The characteristic of sewage sludge that attracts rodents, flies, mosquitoes, or
other organisms capable of transporting infectious agents.
r Wet weight—Weight measured of material that has not been dried ^see Dry-weight basis).
Wetlands—Areas that are inundated or saturated by surface water or ground water at a frequency .
and duration to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence
of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally
include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas.
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SECTION ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE PART 503 REGULATION
Under Section 405(d) of the Clean Water Act, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) is mandated to develop regulations to protect public health and the environment from
reasonably anticipated adverse effects of pollutants that may be present in sewage sludge. This
Act directs the Agency to develop and promulgate regulations for the use or disposal of sewage
sludge.
In 1982, EPA established an Intra-Agency Sludge Task Force to recommend procedures
for implementing a comprehensive regutatoiy program for sewage sludge management. Hie Task
Force recommended the implementation of two regulations: one that would establish
requirements for state sewage sludge management programs and one that would provide
technical criteria for the use or disposal of sewage sludge.
As a result of the Task Force recommendation, EPA promulgated State Sludge
Management Program Regulations (40 CFR Part 501). These regulations require states to develop
management programs that comply with existing federal criteria for the use or disposal of sewage
sludge. Hie regulations focus on the procedural requirements for submission, review, and
approval of state sewage sludge management programs. These regulations also amend the
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit programs.
The recommendation of the Task Force also prompted renewed efforts to develop a
sewage sludge regulation that provided technical criteria for the use or disposal of sewage sludge.
Although the EPA Office of Solid Waste began preparing this regulation in 1980, the task was
transferred to the Office of Water in 1984. A Wastewater Solids Criteria Branch was established
under the Office of Water Regulations and Standards within the Office of Water to develop the
risk assessment to support the rule. After the Office of Water was reorganized, the Office of
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Water Regulations and Standards was renamed the Office of Science and Technology (OST),
and the Wastewater Solids Criteria Branch was renamed the Sludge Risk Assessment Branch
(SRAB). The SRAB developed Standards for the Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludge (40 CFR Part
503) and the risk assessment methodology used for the regulation.
Ut DESCRIPTION OF THE PART 503 REGULATION
Part 503 sets requirements for sewage sludge applied to the land, placed on a surface
disposal site, or fired in a sewage sludge incinerator. These requirements are included in five
Subparts, Subparts A through E. Subpart A contains General Provisions. Subparts B and C
specify requirements for sewage sludge applied to the land and placed on a surface disposal site,
respectively. Subpart D, Pathogens and Vector Attraction Reduction, specifies requirements to
reduce pathogens and vector attraction in sewage sludge that is applied to the land or placed on
a surface disposal site. Subpart E contains the provisions for sewage sludge fired in a sewage
sludge incinerator. The two subparts that molt affect land application—Subparts A and B—are
described in more detail in the following paragraphs.
Subpart A, General Provisions, defines the purpose and applicability of Part 503; specifies
the compliance period for this regulation; specifies permits and direct enforceability; discusses
the relationship of Part 503 to other regulations; allows for additional or more stringent
requirements; specifics exclusions from the Part 503 regulation; specifics requirements for a
person who prepares sewage sludge; presents methods for analyzing sewage sludge samples; and
defines general terms used throughout Part 503. Subpart A requirements are presented in
Appendix A.
Subpart B, Land Application of Sewage Sludge, specifies general requirements, pollutant
limits, management practices, pathogen and vector attraction reduction requirements, frequency
of monitoring requirements, recordkeeping requirements, and reporting requirements when
sewage sludge is applied to the land.
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1J SCOPE OF THE LAND APPLICATION TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT
- This technical, support document, which consistSLof 16 sections, provides the risk .
assessment and the technical data and justifications that support Subpart B. The information
contained here was used to establish general requirements, management practices, operational
standards, frequency of monitoring, recordkeeping requirements, and reporting requirement
practices, which are essential to protect human health and environment from pollutants in
sewage sludge when the sewage sludge is applied to the land.
Section Two of this document, Land Application of Sewage Sludge, defines land
application and discusses the types of land on which sewage sludge is used.
Sections Three through Five provide information on the risk assessment that supports
Subpart B. Section Three describes the four steps used to develop a risk assessment: hazard
identification, exposure assessment, dose/response analysis, and risk characterization. Section
Four lists the organic and inorganic pollutants considered in the risk assessment and describes
how EPA selected these pollutants. Section Five presents the risk assessment, which was
conducted for 14 environmental pathways through which sewage sludge pollutants may reach
target organisms such as plants, animals, and humans.
Section Six presents the pollutant limits in Part 503 and how they were derived from the
risk assessment.
Section Seven describes the decisions that were made in developing Part 503, including
the reasoning behind certain management practices, and the basis for EPA's decision to prohibit
the development of site-specific pollutant limits.
Sections Eight through Fifteen present a summary of the requirements of Subpart B and
provide justifications for these requirements. Section Eight discusses to whom and to what the
land application requirements apply and exemptions from these requirements. Section Nine
identifies words, phrases, and acronyms specific to Part 503. Most of these words, phrases, and
acronyms are defined in the Glossary at the beginning of this document. Section Ten specifies
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general requirements for the preparers and appliers of sewage sludge or domestic septage.
Section Eleven specifies management practices designed to control impacts of sewage sludge
applied toJand. .Section Twelve presents ihe .pathogen^nd-vector attraction reduction
requirements for sewage sludge and domestic septage applied to the land. Section Thirteen
describes the frequency of monitoring of sewage sludge for pollutant concentrations, pathogens,
and vector attraction reduction. It also presents the monitoring requirements for domestic
septage for pathogens and vector attraction reduction. Section Fourteen describes the
recordkeeping requirements for sewage sludge and domestic septage applied to the land. Section
Fifteen presents the reporting requirements of sewage sludge treatment facilities. The references
are contained in Section Sixteen.
In addition, 12 appendices are included. Fart 503, Subparts A, B, and D are included in
Appendix A. The justification for deletion of pollutants from Part 503 is included in Appendix
B. The plant and animal uptake tables are included in Appendices C and D, respectively. Hie
results of the plant phytotoxicity literature search and the phytotoxicity spreadsheets for copper,
*
chromium, nickel, and zinc are included in Appendices E and F, respectively. Accumulation of
Pollutant in Treated Soil, and Calculation of Square Wave for Ground Water Pathway is
included in Appendix G. Partitioning of Pollutants Among Air, Water, and Solids in Soil is
included in Appendix H. Derivation of First-Order Coefficient for Losses to Leaching is
included in Appendix I. The input parameters used to derive reference application rates for
Pathways 12 through 14 are included in Appendix J. Appendix K contains the justification for
the annual application of domestic septage. Finally, Appendix L presents the calculations of
amounts of sewage sludge, used or disposed, on which the frequency of monitoring requirements
arc based.
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SECTION TWO
LAND APPLICATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE
Sewage sludge is solid, semi-solid, or liquid residue generated during the treatment of
domestic sewage in a treatment works. Sewage sludge indudes domestic septage; scum or solids
removed in primary, secondary, or advanced wastewater treatment processes; and a material
derived from sewage sludge (40 CFR Part 503).
Sewage sludge must be used or disposed properly. Most of the sewage sludge generated
is used or disposed through land application, surface disposal, or incineration, or is codisposed
with municipal solid waste. This section discusses the land application of sewage sludge. Surface
disposal and incineration of sewage sludge are discussed in the Technical Support Document for
the Surface Disposal of Sewage Sludge (U.S. EPA, 1992d) and the Technical Support Document for
Sewage Sludge Incineration (U.S. EPA, 1992f), respectively. Requirements for sewage sludge
disposed with municipal solid waste are presented in 40 CFR Part 258, Criteria far Municipal
Solid Waste Landfills.
Land application is the spraying or spreading of sewage sludge onto the land surface; the
injection of sewage sludge below the land surface; or die incorporation of sewage sludge into the
soil so that the sewage sludge can either condition the soil, or fertilize crops or vegetation grown
in the soil (40 CFR Part 503). Recently, land application of sewage sludge has gained attention
as a viable option because of the growing amount of sewage sludge generated; the need to
conserve natural resources; the need to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers yet still provide
valuable plant nutrients; the legal restrictions on other disposal practices (e.g., ocean dumping);
and the increasing costs of other disposal practices. However, certain concerns about land
application need to be addressed. Land application of sewage sludge contaminated with toxic
organics or inorganics can interfere with plant growth. These pollutants also can move up the
food chain from plants to humans or plants to animals (including soil organisms and soil
organism predators) and from plants to animals to humans. Furthermore, children might directly
ingest sewage sludge, as might animals that are subsequently ingested, or whose products are
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ingested, by humans. In addition, when sewage sludge Is improperly applied to land, pollutants
can leach from the sewage sludge, contaminating surface and pound waters. Other pathways
' include airborne dust containing sewage- sludge - particles or-air containing volatile pollutants that
can be inhaled by humans. The pollutant limits set forth in Part 503 protect against these
effects.
Part 503 distinguishes between the terms "apply" sewage sludge to land and "placing"
sewage sludge on land and contains different requirements for each of these practices. The term
"apply" means to apply sewage sludge to land to use the nutrient content or sofl conditioning
properties of the sewage sludge. When this is done, the land application requirements in Subpart
B apply. When sewage sludge is not used for nutrients or soil conditioning, Part 503 defines the
activity as "placing" sewage sludge on land; placing sewage sludge on land is termed surface
disposal. When this is done, the surface disposal requirements in Subpart C apply.
Part 503 also distinguishes between "bulk sewage sludge" and "sewage sludge sold or given
*
away in a bag or other container for application to the land" (formerly referred to as distribution
and marketing). Bulk sewage sludge is sewage sludge in large quantities that is sold or given
away to users such as manufacturers of sewage sludge fertilizer products for application to large
areas of land (e.g.f agricultural land). Sewage sludge is also sold or given away in bags or other
containers for direct use by the purchaser or receiver of the sewage sludge as a fertilizer or soil
conditioner on smaller units of land (e.g., lawns, home gardens, public contact sites). An "other
container" is defined in Part 503 as an open or dosed receptacle, such as a bucket, a box, a
carton, or a vehicle with a load capacity of 1 metric ton or less (e.g., a pick-up trade or a trailer
pulled by an automobile). A vehide load capacity of 1 metric ton was chosen as the cut-off
because the Agency assumed that the sewage sludge is applied to the land in small amounts and
that it is not applied to the land in several applications.
Treatment of sewage sludge varies. It includes, but is not limited to, aerobic or anaerobic
digestion, heat .drying, mechanical dewatering, air drying, or composting. These treatment
processes reduce the water content of sewage sludge, minimize odors and vector attraction, and
decrease pathogens and organic chemical concentrations. In addition, wood chips or nutrient
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additives may be blended with sewage sludge to increase its fertilizing or soil-conditioning value.
Lime or other chemicals also may be added to sewage sludge for various reasons (e.g., pH
adjustmenror pathogen reduction).
He risk assessment for the land application of sewage sludge (see Section Five) evaluates
the possible contamination of surface and ground waters with pollutants from sewage sludge
applied to the land, as well as the effects of human and wildlife ingestion of products grown on
land on which sewage sludge has been applied. Adherence to the requirements in Part 503 also
reduces pathogens in sewage sludge and the vector attraction of sewage sludge, and minimizes
the potential for contamination of ground water with nitrogen.
Sewage sludge is applied to different types of land. It is applied to agricultural land to
increase the production of crops such as food crops, feed crops and forage, and fiber crops (e.g.,
cotton). Sewage sludge also is applied to forest lands, reclamation sites (i.e., drastically disturbed
lands), and public contact sites (e.g., golf courses).
2.1 AGRICULTURAL LAND
Both liquid and dewatered sewage sludge can be applied to agricultural lands. Hie
method of application depends on the soil, the crops grown on the land, and the physical
characteristics of the sewage sludge. Liquid sewage sludge can be applied using tractors, tank
wagons, irrigation systems, or special application vehicles, or it can be injected under the surface
layer of the soil. Surface application is normally limited to slopes of 6 percent or less to reduce
surface runoff. As the sewage sludge dries, exposure to sun and air helps further degrade any
orgamcs, partially volatilize other organics, and reduce pathogens. After partial drying, the
sewage sludge is usually incorporated into the topsoil by plowing or disking before row crops are
planted.
Dewatered sewage sludge typically is applied to cropland using equipment similar to that
used for applying limestone, animal manures, or commercial chemical fertilizers. Generally, the
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dewatered sewage sludge is applied to the surface and then incorporated into the soil by plowing
or disking. When applied to pasture land, sewage sludge is usually applied to the surface without
- subsequent incorporation into the soil.
liquid sewage sludge also can be injected below the surface. Injecting sewage sludge
beneath the surface reduces the potential exposure of crops, grazing animals, and humans to
sewage sludge pathogens and pollutants. In addition, subsurface application reduces odor and
the attraction of vectors to the sewage sludge.
23, FORESTS, PUBLIC CONTACT SITES, AND RECLAMATION SITES
As previously discussed, sewage sludge also is applied to forest lands, public contact sites,
and reclamation sites to fertilize vegetation grown on the land and to condition the soil. Sewage
sludge application to forests increases forest productivity by enhancing the level of nutrients in
the soil. The application rate for sewage sludge used in forests is approximately 10 to 100 metric
tons dry weight per hectare (mt DW/ha) in a single application every 3 to 5 years. These rates
typically are limited by the nitrogen needs of the trees.
Sewage sludge also is used as a soil conditioner or fertilizer on land having a high
potential for public contact. These types of land include: public parks, ball fields, cemeteries,
plant nurseries, highway median strip, and golf courses.
In land reclamation, sewage sludge is used to return barren land to productivity, or to
provide the vegetative cover necessary for controlling soil erosion. A relatively large amount of
sewage sludge must be applied to a land area (7 to 450 mt DW/ha) (Jewell, 1982) to provide
sufficient organic matter and nutrients capable of supporting vegetation until a self-sustaining
ecosystem can be established. Because of these typically large, one-time applications of sewage
sludge, effective management criteria must concentrate on the extent to which surface water is
contaminated by runoff and ground water contaminated by leaching.
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The application of sewage sludge to forests and reclaimed land has received far less
attention as an option for using sewage sludge than applying it to agricultural land; however, a
r considerable amount of research in the United States and elsewhere has focused on the effects of
these practices. On an experimental basis, sewage sludge has been applied to forests in at least
10 states and most extensively in the Pacific Northwest (Preamble to 40 CFR Parts 257 and 503,
1989). Metropolitan Seattle and a number of smaller towns in the state of Washington apply
sewage sludge to forests on a relatively large scale. These forests represent a wide array of site
conditions and tree species. Pilot and full-scale demonstration projects have been undertaken in
at least 20 states to study the application of sewage sludge to land that has been reclaimed. The
results of research on application of sewage sludge to forests and reclaimed lands suggest that
sewage sludge can be used effectively to increase forest productivity, help reclaim disturbed sites,
and improve low-productivity soils without causing significant environmental problems when the
application of the sewage sludge is managed properly. Hie following factors should be
considered in these situations:
*
*
• Degree to which the sewage sludge is stabilized (e.g., pathogen and vector
attraction reduction).
• Sewage sludge application rates.
• Degree of land slope.
• Siting issues (e.g., quality of aquifer, depth to ground water, type and age of tree
stand, buffer zones).
Research on application of sewage sludge to forest land also has shown that trees and
herbaceous plants-take up inorganics from the soil and accumulate them at significant, but
different, rates. Pollutant uptake levels observed in trees under field conditions have generally
been small and do not cause phytotoxic conditions, although not all tree species responded well
under all test conditions. Nonetheless, excellent growth responses for some species, even
exceeding growth achieved using chemical fertilizers, have been noted.
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SECTION THREE
RISK ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY
This chapter discusses current EPA methods and established Agency policies for
performing a risk assessment. This process was outlined originally by the National Academy of
Sciences (NAS, 1983a) and was established as final Risk Assessment Guidelines in the Federal
Register (1986d). Five types of guidelines were issued:
• Guidelines for Carcinogen Assessment
• Guidelines for Estimating Exposure
• Guidelines for Mutagenicity Risk Assessment
• Guidelines for Health Effects of Suspect Developmental Toxicants
• Guidelines for Health Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures.
*
The Risk Assessment Methodology consists of four distinct steps: hazard identification,
dose-response evaluation, exposure evaluation, and characterization of risks.
3.1 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
The primary purposes of hazard identification are to determine whether the chemical
poses a hazard and whether there is sufficient information to perform a quantitative risk
assessment. Hazard identification consists of gathering and evaluating all relevant data that help
determine whether a pollutant poses a specific hazard, then qualitatively evaluating those data on
the basis of the type of health effect produced, the conditions of exposure, and the metabolic
processes that govern chemical behavior within the body. Thus, the goals of hazard identification
are to determine whether it is appropriate scientifically to infer that effects observed under one
set of conditions (e.g., in experimental animals) are likely to occur in other settings (e.g., in
human beings), and whether data are adequate to support a quantitative risk assessment.
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The first step in hazard identification is gathering information on the toxic properties of
chemical substances. The principal methods are animal studies and controlled epidemiological
—investigations of exposed human populations.
The use of animal toxicity studies is based on the longstanding assumption that effects in
human beings can be inferred from effects in animals. There are three categories of animal
bioassays: acute exposure tests, subchronic tests, and chronic tests. The usual starting point for
such investigations is the study of acute toxicity in experimental animals. Acute exposure tests
expose animals to high doses for short periods of time, usually 24 hours or less. Hie most
common measure of acute toxicity is the lethal dose (LD^), the average dose level that is lethal
to SO percent of the test animals. LDjo refers to oral doses. LCW designates the inhalation dose
at which 50 percent of the animals exposed died. LCX is also used for aquatic toxicity tests and
refers to the concentration of the test substance in the water that results in 50 percent mortality
in the test species. Substances exhibiting a low LD^ (e.g., for sodium cyanide, 6.4 mg/kg) are
more acutely toxic than those with higher values (e.g., for sodium chloride, 3,000 mg/kg)
(NIOSH, 1979).
Subchronic tests for chemicals involve repeated exposures of test animals for 5 to 90 days,
depending on the animal, by exposure routes corresponding to human exposures. These tests are
used to determine the No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL), the Lowest Observed
Adverse Effect Level (LOAEL), and the Maximum Tolerated Dose (MTD). The MID is the
largest dose a test animal can receive for most of its lifetime without demonstrating adverse
effects other than cancer. In studies of chronic effects of chemicals, test animals receive daily
doses of the test agent for approximately 2 to 3 years. The doses are lower than those used in
acute and subchronic studies, and the number of animals is larger because these tests are trying
to detect effects that will be observed in only a small percentage of animals.
The second method of evaluating health effects uses epidemiology—the study of patterns
of disease in human populations and the factors that influence these patterns. In general,
scientists view well-conducted epidemiological studies as the most valuable information from
which to draw inferences about human health risks. Unlike the other approaches used to
evaluate health effects, epidemiological methods evaluate the direct effects of hazardous
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substances on human beings. These studies also help identify human health' hazards without
requiring prior knowledge of disease causation, and they complement the information gained
from animal studies.
Epidemiological studies compare the health status of a group of persons who have been
exposed to a suspected causal agent with that of a comparable nonexposed group. Most
epidemiological studies are either case-control studies or cohort studies. In case-control studies,
a group of Individuals with a specific disease is identified (cases) and compared with individuals
not having the disease (controls) in an attempt to ascertain commonalities in exposures they may
have experienced in the past. Cohort studies start with a group of people (a cohort) considered
free of the disease under investigation. The health status of the cohort known to have a
common exposure is examined over time to determine whether any specific condition or cause of
death occurs more frequently than might be expected from other causes.
Epidemiological studies are well-suited.to situations In which exposure to the risk agent is
relatively high; the advene health effects are unusual (e.g., rare forms of cancer); the symptoms
of exposure are known; the exposed population is dearly defined; the link between the causal
risk agent and adverse effects in the affected population is direct and clear, the risk agent is
present in the bodies of the affected population; and high levels of the risk agent are present in
the environment.
The next step in hazard Identification is to combine the pertinent data to ascertain the
degree of hazard associated with each chemical. In general, EPA uses different approaches for
qualitatively assessing the risk or hazard associated with carcinogenic versus noncarcinogenic
effects. For noncarcinogenic health effects (e.g., systemic toxicity), the Agency's hazard
identification/weight-of-evidence determination has not been formalized and is based on a
qualitative assessment.
EPA's guidelines for carcinogenic risk assessment (Federal Register, 1986b) group all
human and animal data reviewed into the following categories based on degree of evidence of
carcinogenicity:
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• Sufficient evidence
• Limited evidence (e.g., in animals, an increased incidence of benign tumors only)
• Inadequate evidence
• No data available
• No evidence of carcinogenicity.
Human and animal evidence of carcinogenicity in these categories is combined into the
following weight-of-evidence classification scheme:
• Group A—Human carcinogen
• Group B—Probable human carcinogen
B1—Higher degree of evidence
B2—Lower degree of evidence
• Group C—Pcssible human carcinogen
• Group D—Not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity
• Group E—Evidence of noncarcinogenicity
Group B, probable human carcinogens, is usually divided into two subgroups: Bl,
chemicals for which there is some limited evidence of carcinogenicity from epidemiology studies;
and B2, chemicals for which there is sufficient evidence from animal studies but inadequate
evidence from epidemiology studies. EPA treats chemicals classified in categories A and B as
suitable for quantitative risk assessment. Chemicals classified as Category C receive varying
treatment with respect to dose-response assessment, and they are determined on a case-by-case
basis. Chemicals in Groups D and E do not have sufficient evidence to support a quantitative
dose-response assessment.
The following factors are evaluated by judging the relevance of the data for a particular
chemical:
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• Quality of data.
• Resolving power of the studies (significance of the studies as a function of the
number of animals or subjects).
• Relevance of route and timing of exposure,
• Appropriateness of dose selection.
• Replication of effects.
• Number of species examined.
• Availability of human epidemiologic study data.
• Relevance of tumors observed (e.g., forestomach, mouse liver, male rat kidney)
Although the information gathered during die course of identifying each chemical hazard
is not used to estimate risk quantitatively, hazard identification enables researchers to
characterize the body of scientific data in such a way that two questions can be answered:
(1) Is a chemical a hazard? and (2) Is a quantitative assessment appropriate? Hie following two
sections discuss how such quantitative assessments are conducted.
3.2 DOSE-RESPONSE EVALUATION
Estimating the dose-response relationships for the chemical under review is the second
step in the risk assessment methodology. Evaluating dose-response data involves quantitatively
characterizing the connection between exposure to a chemical (measured in terms of quantity
and duration) and the extent of toxic injury or disease. Most dose-response relationships are
estimated based on animal studies, because even good epidemiological studies rarely have
reliable information on exposure. Therefore, this discussion focuses primarily on dose-response
evaluations based on animal data.
There are two general approaches to dose-response evaluation, depending on whether the
health effects are based on threshold or nonthreshold characteristics of the chemical. In this
context, thresholds refer to exposure levels below which no adverse health effects are assumed to
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occur. For effects that involve altering genetic material (including carcinogenicity and
mutagenicity), the Agency's position is that effects occur at veiy low doses, and therefore, they
. are modeled with no thresholds. For most other biological effects, it is usually (but not always)
assumed that "threshold" levels exist.
For nonthreshold effects, the key assumption Is that the dose-response curve for such
chemicals exhibiting these effects in the human population achieves zero risk only at zero dose.
A mathematical model is used to extrapolate response data from doses in the observed
(experimental) range to response estimates in the low-dose ranges. Scientists have developed
several mathematical models to estimate low-dose risks from high-dose experimental risks. Each
model is based on general theories of carcinogenesis rather than on data for specific chemicals.
The choice of extrapolation model can have a significant impact on the dose-response estimate.
For this reason, the Agency's cancer assessment guidelines recommend the use of the multistage
model, which yields estimates of risk that are conservative, representing a plausible upper limit of
risk. With this approach, the estimate of risk is not likely to be lower than the true risk (Federal
Register, 1986b).
The potency value, referred to by the Carcinogenic Assessment Group as qt*, is the
quantitative expression derived from the linearized multistage model that gives a plausible upper-
bound estimate to the slope of the dose-response curve in the low-dose range. Hie q,* is
expressed in terms of risk-per-dose, and has units of (nig/kg* day)"1. These values should be used
only in dose ranges for which the statistical dose-response extrapolation is appropriate. EPA's
q,* values can be found in the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) (U.S. EPA, 1992h),
accessible through the National Library of Medicine.
Dose-response relationships are assumed to exhibit threshold effects for systemic
toxicants or other compounds exhibiting noncardnogenic, nonmutagenic health effects. Dose-
response evaluations for substances exhibiting threshold responses involve calculating what is
known as the Reference Dose (oral exposure) or Reference Concentration (inhalation exposure),
abbreviated to RfD and RfC, respectively. This measure is used as a threshold level for critical
noncancer effects below which a significant risk of adverse effects is not expected. The RfDs and
RfCs developed by EPA can be found in IRIS.
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The R£D/RfC methodology uses four experimental levels: No Observed Effect Level
(NOEL), No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL), Lowest Observed Effect Level (LOEL),
or Lowest Observed Advene Effect Level (LOAEL). EachJevel isstatedin rag/kg*day, and all
the levels are derived from laboratory animal and/or human epidemiology data. When the
appropriate level is determined, it is then divided by an appropriate uncertainty (safety) factor.
The magnitude of safety factors varies according to the nature and quality of the data from
which the NOAEL or LOAEL is derived. The safety factors, ranging from 10 to 10,000, are
used to extrapolate from acute to chronic effects, interspecies sensitivity, and variation in
sensitivity in human populations. They are also used to extrapolate from a LOAEL to a NOAEL.
Ideally, for all threshold effects, a set of route-specific and effect-specific thresholds should be
developed. If information is available for only one route of exposure, this value is used in a
route-to-route extrapolation to estimate the appropriate threshold. Once these values are
derived, the next step is to estimate actual human (or animal) exposure.
*
3-3 EXPOSURE EVALUATION
Exposure evaluation uses data concerning the nature and size of the population exposed
to a substance, the route of exposure (i.e., oral, inhalation, dermal), the extent of exposure
(concentration times time), and the circumstances of exposure.
There are two ways of estimating environmental concentrations:
• Directly measuring levels of chemicals (monitoring)
• Using mathematical models to predict concentrations (modeling)
In addition, an analysis of population exposure is necessary.
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3.3.1 Monitoring
Monitoring involves collecting and analyzing environmental samples. These data provide
the most accurate information about exposure. Hie two kinds of exposure monitoring are
personal monitoring and ambient (or site and location) monitoring.
Most exposure assessments are complicated by the fact that human beings move from
place to place and are therefore exposed to different risk agents throughout the day. Some
exposure assessments attempt to compensate for this variability by personal monitoring. Personal
monitoring uses one or more techniques to measure the actual concentrations of hazardous
substances to which individuals are exposed. One technique is sampling air and water. Hie
amount of time spent in various microenvironments (i.e., home, car, or office), may be combined
with data on environmental concentrations of risk agents in those microenvironments to estimate
exposure.
*
Personal monitoring may also include the sampling of human body fluids (e.g., blood,
urine, or semen). This type of monitoring is often referred to as biological monitoring or
biomonitoring. Biological markers (also called biomarkers) can be classified as markers of
exposure, of effect, and of susceptibility. Biological markers of exposure measure exposure either
to the exogenous material, its metabolite(s), or to the interaction of the xenobiotic agent with the
target cell within an organism. An example of a biomarker of exposure is lead concentration in
blood. In contrast, biologic markers of effect measure some biochemical, physiologic, or other
alteration within the organism that points to impaired health. (Sometimes the term
biomonitoring is also used to refer to the regular sampling of animals, plants, or microorganisms
in an ecosystem to determine the presence and accumulation of pollutants, as well as their effects
on ecosystem components.)
Ambient monitoring (or site or location monitoring) involves collecting samples from the
air, water, soil, or sediments at fixed locations, then analyzing the samples to determine
environmental concentrations of hazardous substances at the locations. Exposures can be further
evaluated by modeling the fete and transport of the pollutants.
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3.3.2 Modeling
Measurements are a direct and preferred source of information for exposure analysis.
However, such measurements are expensive and are often limited geographically. The best use
of such data is to calibrate mathematical models that can be more widely applied. Estimating
concentrations using mathematical models must account not only for physical and chemical
properties related to fate and transport, but must also document mathematical properties (e.g.,
analytical integration versus statistical approach), spatial properties (e.g., one, two, or three
dimensions), and time properties (steady-state versus nonsteady-state).
Hundreds of models for fate, transport, and dispersion from the source are available for
all media. Models can be divided into five general types by media: atmospheric models, surface-
water models, ground water and unsaturated-zone models, multimedia models, and food-chain
models. These five types of models are primarily applicable to chemicals or to radioactive
materials associated with dusts and other particles.
Selecting a model for a given situation depends on the following criteria: capability of
the model to account for important transport, transformation, and transfer mechanisms; fit of the
model to site-specific and substance-specific parameters; data requirements of die model,
compared to availability and reliability of off-site information; and the form and content of the
model output that allow it to address important questions regarding human exposures.
To the extent possible, selection of the appropriate fate and transport model should
follow guidelines specified for particular media where available; for example, the Guidelines on
Air Quality Models (U.S. EPA, 1986f).
3 .3J5 Population Analysis
Population analysis involves describing the size and characteristics (e.g., age/sex
distribution), location (e.g., workplace), and habits (e.g., food consumption) of potentially
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exposed human and nonhuraan populations. Census and other survey data often are useful in
identifying and describing populations exposed to a chemical.
Integrated exposure analysis'involves calculating exposure levcls,alongwith describing the
exposed populations. An integrated exposure analysis quantifies the contact of an exposed
population to each chemical under investigation via all routes of exposure and all pathways from
the sources to the exposed individuals. Finally, uncertainty should be described and quantified to
the extern possible.
3.4 RISK CHARACTERIZATION
This final step in the risk assessment methodology involves integrating die information
developed in hazard identification, dose-response assessment, and exposure assessment to derive
quantitative estimates of risk. Qualitative information should also accompany die numerical risk
estimates, including a discussion of uncertainties, limitations, and assumptions. It is useful to
distinguish methods used for chemicals exhibiting threshold effects (i.e., most noncarcinogens)
from those believed to lack a response threshold (i.e., carcinogens).
For carcinogens, individual risks are generally represented as the probability that an
individual will contract cancer in a lifetime as a result of exposure to a particular chemical or
group of chemicals. Population risks are usually estimated based on expected or average
exposure scenarios (unless information on distributions of exposure is available). The number of
persons above a certain risk level, such as 10"*, or above a series of risk levels (10 s, 10"*, etc.), is
another useful descriptor of population risks. Thus, individual risks also may be presented using
cumulative frequency distributions, where the total number of people exceeding a given risk level
is plotted against the individual risk level.
For noncarcinogens, dose-response data above the threshold are usually lacking.
Therefore, risks are characterized by comparing the dose or concentration to the threshold level,
using a ratio in which the dose is placed in the numerator and the threshold in the denominator.
Aggregate population risks for noncarcinogens can be characterized by the number of people
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exposed above the RfD or RflC. Recall that the hazard identification step fdr threshold
chemicals is addressed qualitatively, because no formal Agency weight-of-evidence evaluation is
currently available for noncarcinogenic chemicals. Hie same approach can be used to assess
both acute and chronic hazards. For assessing acute effects, the toxicity data and exposure
assessment methods must account for the appropriate duration of exposure.
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SECTION FOUR
POLLUTANTS OF CONCERN FOR PART 503 RISK ASSESSMENT
Section 503.13 of Subpart B limits either the concentration of 10 pollutants in sewage
sludge or the amount of these 10 pollutants that can be applied to a unit of land (see Section
Six). This section describes how the Agency selected these 10 regulated pollutants.
4.1 INITIAL LIST OF POLLUTANTS
Hie Agency's initial focus was to identify pollutants that may pose health or
environmental hazards when sewage sludge is used or disposed. Hie EPA Office of Science and
Technology (OST) began by developing a list of pollutants of concern. To develop this list,
which was compiled using readily available data, the following variables were considered:
frequency of occurrence, aquatic toxicity, phototoxicity, human health effects, domestic and
wildlife effects, and plant uptake.
Originally, four use or disposal practices were identified: land application, landfilling
(now called surface disposal), incineration, and ocean dumping. Four meetings of experts were
convened during April and May of 1984. Each meeting evaluated the potential pollutants of
concern for each use or disposal practice by answering the following questions:
• For which pollutants are there sufficient data indicating that such pollutants
present a potential hazard if used or disposed by the practice in question?
• For which pollutants are there sufficient data indicating that such pollutants do
not present a potential hazard or problem to human health or the environment?
• For which pollutants are there insufficient data to make a conclusive
recommendation concerning potential hazard?
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The experts were given broad latitude in determining which pollutants to evaluate; they
were allowed to add or delete items from the list. Based on the experts* recommendations, 50
pollutants and ,7 pathogens were identified for further analysis. In addition, the experts
designated which environmental exposure pathways were of concern for each pollutant or
pathogen. For land application, 10 environmental pathways and 31 pollutants of concern were
identified (see Tables 4-1 and 4-2).
42, ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILES
An environmental profile was developed for each pollutant and each pathogen. Each
profile consisted of two sections: a compilation of data on toxicity, occurrence, and fate and
effects for the pollutant; and an evaluation of the hazard specific to the environmental pathways
for the use or disposal practice of concern.
*
Hazards were evaluated using hazard indices. Hazard indices are calculated using
equations in which the projected concentration of pollutant in soil is compared to the lowest
concentration of that pollutant in soil shown to be toxic to the highly exposed individual. The
concentration of pollutant in soil is projected for both "typical and worst" pollutant
concentrations in sewage sludge for three different sewage sludge loading rates (i.e,, 5 mt/ha, 50
rat/ha, and 500 mt/ha). Values less than 1 indicate that the pollutant is not toxic to the HEI for
the particular combination of pollutant concentration in sewage sludge and sewage sludge loading
rate used in calculating the index. All index values of less than 1 generated under worst-case
conditions (i.e., using worst pollutant concentration in sewage sludge at the highest sewage sludge
loading rate), were dropped for further analysis for the particular pathway.
For each pathway, remaining pollutants (i.e., pollutants having index values equal to or
greater than 1 underwent an incremental ranking). The purpose of this ranking was to evaluate
what portion of the total hazard associated with a pollutant for a particular pathway was
attributable to sewage sludge. To make such an evaluation, the index value generated using the
null or background value was subtracted from the total hazard index value for the worst-case
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TABLE 4-1
ENVIRONMENTAL PATHWAYS OF CONCERN
IDENTIFIED FOR THE LAND APPLICATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE
P..bw»y Description of HEI |
1. Sludge -* Soil -* Plant -» Human
Consumer ingesting plants grown in sewage
sludge-amended soil.
2. Sludge SoO -~ Plant -* Human
Residential home gardener.
3. Sludge -* Human
Children ingesting sludge.
4. Sludge -~ Soil Plant -» Animal -*
Human
•
Farm households producing a major portion of
the animal products they consume. It is
assumed that the animals eat plants grown in
sewage sludge-amended soil.
5. Sludge -* Soil ¦* Animal -» Human
Farm households consuming livestock that ingest
soil while grazing.
6, Sludge -* Soil -• Plant -* Animal
Livestock ingesting crops grown on sewage
sludge-amended soil.
I 7. Sludge - Soil - Animal
Grazing livestock ingesting sewage sludge-
amended soil.
8. Sludge -* Soil -* Plant
Plants grown in sewage sludge-amended soil.
9. Sludge -* Soil -* Soil Biota
Soil biota living in sewage sludge-amended soil.
I 10, Sludge -» Soil -» Soil Biota -~ Soil
] Biota Predator
Animals eating soil biota living in sewage sludge-
amended soil.
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TABLE 4-2
POLLUTANTS SELECTED FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE DEVELOPMENT
~ FOR LAND APPLICATION
| Inorganics
Orgnnics
Arsenic
Aldrin/Dieldrin
Cadmium
Benzo(a)anthracene
Chromium
Benzo(a)pyrene
Cobalt
Bis (2-ethyIhexyl) phthalate
Copper
Chlordane
Fluoride
DDD/DDE/DDT
Iron
Heptachlor
Lead
Hexachlorobenzene
Mereuiy
*
Hexachlorobutadiene
Molybdenum
Lindane
Nickel
Methylene bis (2-chIoro-aniline) (MOCA)
Selenium
Methylene chloride
Zinc
n-Nitrosodimethylaraine g
Pentachlorophenol
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Toxaphene
Trichloroethylene
Tricresyl phosphate
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scenario. The resulting incremental values were placed in one of four groups: 1ms than 1; 1 to
100; 100 to 1,000; and greater than 1,000. Hie higher rankings signify greater potential risk.
Pollutant/pathway combinations having incremental values of more than 1 were subsequently
evaluated in a detailed risk assessment for the final rule. A summary of the results of the land
application environmental profiles and hazard indices for pollutants can be found in the
Summary of Environmental Profiles and Hazard Indices for Constituents of Municipal Sewage
Sludge: Methods and Results (U.S. EPA, 1985c).
The sewage sludge pollutants evaluated for pathways 1 through 10 for land application
under Part 503 appear in Table 4-3. Not all of the pollutants were assessed for each pathway,
however, because some pollutants were screened out by incremental ranking. Although fluoride
and iron were not screened out, they were not evaluated in the risk assessment for the final rule.
The concern for fluoride was based on one study (Davis, 1980) in which a high concentration was
used and effects were only observed in plants, not animals. Similarly for iron, one stucfy in which
sewage sludge containing 11 to 12 percent iron'was applied to pasture on which oows grazed
directly; the cows had iron-induced copper deficiency (Decker et al., 1980a). Both iron and
fluoride were dropped early in the risk assessment, because the effects of each were based on
single anomalous studies in which the concentration of the pollutant was veiy high relative to
"normal sludge" and because insufficient data were available on which to base a risk assessment.
i
43 ADDITIONAL PATHWAYS
Four of the pathways analyzed for the final Part 503 rulemaking (Pathways 11 through
14) were not evaluated in the initial screening process described in Section 4.2, because they
were not considered very likely routes for exposure, assuming good management practices were
in place for land application of sewage sludge. After this assumption was challenged, the Office
of Research and Development (ORD) developed a methodology to evaluate these pathways,
shown below, in the risk assessment.
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TABLE 4-3
POLLUTANTS FOR WHICH RISK WAS ASSESSED
FOR PATHWAYS 1 THROUGH 10
1
Oiganics |
Arsenic
Aldrin/Dieldrin
Cadmium
Benzo(a)pyrene
Chromium
CMordane
Copper
DDT/DDE/DDD (total)
Lead
Heptachlor
Mercury
Hexachlorobenzene
Molybdenum
Hexachlorobutadiene
Nickel
Lindane
Selenium
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
Zinc
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Toxaphene
Trichloroethylene
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Pathway Number Description
Highly Exposed
Individual
• • Pathway 11 - - Sewage Sludge-^il^Aiiborne Dust-+Humari " Tractor operator
Pathway 12 Sewage Sludge-*Soil-»Surface Water-»Human Humans eating fish
and drinking water
Pathway 13 Sewage Sludge-*Soil-*Air-*Human Humans breathing
volatile pollutants
Pathway 14 Sewage Sludge-*SoiI-*Ground Water-»Human Humans drinking
water from wells
Pathway 11, the particulate resuspension pathway, was analyzed only for agricultural land
application use, with the Highly Exposed Individual (HEI) defined as a tractor driver plowing
large areas. For this pathway, the Agency evaluated the risk of exposure to pollutants listed in
Table 4-4. Exposure to particulates in nonagricultural settings (i.e., in forests, reclamation sites,
and public contact sites) where tractors are not ordinarily used is presumably insignificant;
therefore, it was not modeled.
In the hazard indices generated by EPA in 1985, no hazard indices were generated for
Pathway 12, the surface-water pathway, and Pathway 14, the ground water pathway. However,
because the surface disposal of sewage sludge can be considered a worst-case scenario of land
application, the pollutants listed for the surface disposal practice in the hazard indices were
evaluated for both Pathways 12 and 14 (see Table 4-5). For Pathway 13, which evaluates the
volatilization of pollutants and subsequent inhalation of the vapor, the pollutants assessed are
shown in Table 4-6.
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TABLE 4-4
POLLUTANTS FOR WHICH RISK ASSESSMENTS WERE PERFORMED
FOR PATHWAY 11 (TRACTOR OPERATOR) FOR LAND APPLICATION
—OF SEWAGE SLUDGE
Inorganics
¦ Organics |
Arsenic
Aldrin/Dieldrin
Cadmium
DDD/DDE/DDT
Chromium
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
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TABLE 4-5
POLLUTANTS FOR WHICH RISK ASSESSMENTS WERE PERFORMED
..... _ FOR PAIHWAY 12 (SURFACE WATER) AND PATHWAY-14 (GROUND WATER)
FOR LAND APPLICATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE
Inorganics
Organic*
Arsenic
Benzene
Cadmium
Benzo(a)pyrene
Chromium
Bis (2-ethyl hexyl) phthalate
Copper
Chlordane
Lead
DDT/DDD/DDE
Mercury
Lindane
Nickel
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
Polychlorinated biphenyis (PCBs)
Tbxaphene
1
TrichJoroethylene
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TABLE 4-6
POLLUTANTS FOR WHICH RISK ASSESSMENTS WERE PERFORMED
FOR PATHWAY 13 (VAPOR) FOR LAND APPLICATION OF
SEWAGE SLUDGE
Organics
Benzene
Benzo(a)pyrcne
Bis (2-ethyl hexyl) phthalate
Chlordane
DDT/DDD/DDE
Lindane
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Toxaphcne
Trichloroethylene
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SECTION FIVE
RISK ASSESSMENT FOR THE LAND APPLICATION
" " " OF SEWAGE SLUDGE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Risk assessments were conducted for application of sewage sludge onto agricultural land
and nonagricultural land (i.e., forest land, reclamation land, and public contact sites). These risk
assessments, which are described in this document, form the basis for the sewage sludge pollutant
loading limits specified in Section 503.13 of 40 CFR Part 503 Standards for the Use or Disposal
of Sewage Sludge.
Risk assessments were conducted for 14 exposure pathways identified for agricultural land
and 12 exposure pathways identified for nonagricultural land. Pathway 2, human toxicity from
ingesting plants grown in the home garden, and Pathway 11, human exposure through inhalation
of particulates resuspended by tilling sewage sludge, were not analyzed for nonagricultural
application because these are not appropriate exposure scenarios for nonagricultural land. The
pathways assessed a re summarized in Table 5X1-1.
5.1.1 Acknowledgments
For agricultural land, risk assessments for Pathways 1 through 10 were conducted by the
Peer Review Committee. This committee was formed in response to the proposed rule in which
EPA requested that the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Cooperative States Research
Service (CSRS) Regional Research Technical Committee (W-170) review the scientific and
technical bases of the proposed rule. (The W-170 committee is a CSRS committee formulated
for conducting regional research by researchers from land pant universities, agricultural
experiment stations, and USDA laboratories throughout the United States.) In response, the W-
170 formed a Peer Review Committee (PRC) composed of 35 recognized academic, government,
and private industry experts in the field of sludge application to land. Hie PRC members
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TABLE 5.2.1-1
ENVIRONMENTAL PATHWAYS OF CONCERN
IDENTIFIED FOR APPLICATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE TO AGRICULTURAL LAND
Pathway
Description of HEI |
1. Sewage
SIudgc-*Soil-*Plant-»Human
Human ingesting plants giown in sewage sludge- 1
amended soil. |
2. Sewage
Sludgc-*Soil-*Plant-»Human
Residential home gardener. 1
3. Sewage Sludge-»Human
Children ingesting sewage sludge. g
4. Sewage Sludgc-»Soil-*Plant-»
Animal-*Hunian
Farm households producing a major portion of the 1
animal products they consume. It is assumed that 1
the animals eat plants grown in soil amended with
sewage sludge.
5. Sewage Sludge-*Soil-*AnimaI-»
Human
Farm households consuming livestock that ingest
sewage sludge while grazing.
6. Sewage Sludge-*SoiI-»PIant-»
Animal
Livestock ingesting crops grown on sewage sludge-
amended soil.
7. Sewage SIudgc-»Soil-*Animal
Grazing livestock ingesting sewage sludge.
8. Sewage Sludge-*Soil-»Plant
Plants grown in sewage sludge-amended soil. |
9. Sewage Sludge-»Soil-^Soil
Organism
Soil organisms living in sewage sludge-amended 1
soil. |
10. Sewage Sludge-*Soil-»Soil
Organsim— Soil Organism
Predator
Animals eating soil organisms living in sewage H
sludge-amended soil. 1
11. Sewage Sludge-*SoiI-*Airborne
Dust-»Human
Tractor operator exposed to dust while plowing 1
large areas of sewage sludge-amended soil. |
12. Sewage Sludge-*Soil-*Surface
Water-*Human
Water Quality Criteria for the receiving water for
a person who consumes 0.04 kg/day of fish and 2
liters/day of water.
13. Sewage Sludge-*Soil-«'Air-*Human
Human breathing volatile pollutants from sewage
sludge.
14. Sewage SI udge-*Soil-*Ground
Water-»Human
'
Human drinking water from wells contaminated
with pollutants leaching from sewage sludge-
amended soil to ground water.
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critically evaluated the methodology and data utilized to assess risk as part of developing criteria
for land application of potentially toxic chemicals in municipal sewage sludge. EPA's Office of
- ' Water (OW) conducted the risk assrasnienrfor Pathway 11. "The risk assessments for Pathways
12,13, and 14 were conducted for EPA by Abt Associates Inc. and reviewed by the Peer Review
Committee,
For nonagricultural land, Charles Henry of the University of Washington conducted the
risk assessments for Pathways 1 through 10 (excluding Pathway 2, as discussed above). Pathways
12,13, and 14 are identical for agricultural and nonagricultural land, so Abt Associates'
assessment of agricultural Pathways 12,13, and 14 was also used for the nonagricultural
pathways.
5.1.2 EPA Decisions Concerning Assumptions, Data Used Car Environmental Exposure
Evaluations
c
This section explains the concept of the highly exposed individual (HEI) that EPA used
as a target organism to be protected. Depending on the pathway of exposure, the HEI could be
a human, plant, animal, or environmental endpoint, such as surface or ground water. This
section also explains EPA decisions affecting the risk assessment performed for the land
application of sewage sludge. Hiese decisions represent die way in which EPA applied its risk
assessment methodology to developing pollutant limits for Subpart B of the sewage sludge
regulation.
5.12.1 Highly Exposed Individual
The risk-based models developed for the Part S03 regulation were designed to limit
potential exposure of a highly exposed individual (HEI) to the pollutants of concern. Hie HEI is
an individual who remains for an extended period of time at or adjacent to the site where the
maximum exposure occurs.
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The 1989 proposed Part 503 rule considered the exposed Individual to be a "most exposed
individual" (MEI). EPA changed the exposed individual from the MEI to the HEI so that the
final rule would be consistent with a statement in the rule's legislative history that calls for
protecting individuals and populations that are "highly exposed to reasonably anticipated adverse
conditions." In developing Subpart B of the rale, EPA used different HEIs in evaluating each
pathway of potential exposure from the toxic effects of pollutants in land-applied sewage sludge.
For agricultural settings for Pathway 1, which is designed to protect consumers who eat
produce grown in sewage sludge-amended soil, the HEI is assumed to live in a region where a
relatively high percentage of the available cropland receives sludge applications. Although all
vegetables in the diet could be presumed to be affected, this assumption was considered to be
too severe a worst case. Instead it was assumed that the HEI ingests a mix of crops from land
on which sludge was applied as well as from land on which sludge was not applied.
For nonagri cultural settings for Pathway 1, the HEI is a person who regularly harvests
edible wild plants (i.e., berries and mushrooms) from forests or range lands that have been
amended with sewage sludge. This food is preserved by drying freezing, or canning and is,
hence, available for consumption throughout the year. It is also assumed that an individual could
continue with this practice for a lifetime, estimated as 70 years.
Pathway 2 evaluates the effects to home gardeners from consuming crops grown in
residential home gardens that have been amended with sewage sludge. The major difference
between Pathways 1 and 2 is the fraction of food assumed to be grown on sewage sludge-
amended soil. The HEI for Pathway 2 is the home gardener who produces and consumes
potatoes, leafy vegetables, fresh legumes, root vegetables, garden fruits (e.g., tomatoes,
eggplants), sweet corn, and grains. (These are also consumed but not produced by the HEI in
Pathway 1.) Unlike Pathway 1, peanuts and dried legumes are not included, because the HEI in
Pathway 2 is unlikely to grow them in residential settings.
The HEI for Pathway 3, which assesses the hazard to a child from ingesting undiluted
sewage sludge, is a child ingesting sewage sludge from storage piles or from the soil surface. For
the residential setting, this HEI is assumed to be a child between the ages of 1 and 6. In the
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nonagricultural setting, it is unlikely that a child younger than 4 years old would be unattended
for a long enough time to ingest the sludge. The HEI for the nonagricultural setting is therefore
assumed 'to be exposed-for 2years between ihe-ages of 4 and 6.
The HEI for Pathway 4 is an individual consuming foraging animals that consumed feed
crops or vegetation grown on sewage sludge-amended soils. The HEI is assumed to consume
daily quantities of the various animal tissue foods and to be exposed to background levels of
pollutants from sources other than sludge. For the agricultural setting, the affected animal foods
evaluated were beef, beef liver, lamb, pork, poultiy, dairy, and eggs.
In the nonagricultural setting the HEI for this pathway is assumed to be a hunter who
preserves meat (including liver) for consumption through the year. The animals hunted in the
forest and eaten are assumed to be deer and elk. Although other animals could be hunted and
consumed, the Agency evaluated only these large mammals because their greater size makes
them capable of having a more significant impact on the total human diet.
Pathway 5 involves the application of sewage sludge to the land, the direct ingestion of
this sewage sludge by animals, and, finally, the consumption of contaminated animal tissue by
humans. The HEI is assumed to consume various animal tissue foods and is also assumed to be
exposed to a background intake of pollutants.
Pathway 6 evaluates animals that ingest plants grown on sewage sludge-amended soil.
The HEI for both agricultural and nonagricultural uses is a highly sensitive herbivore that
consumes plants grown on sewage sludge-amended soil. Background intake is taken into account
by considering background concentration of pollutants in forage crops. In a forest application
site there are two HEIs: domestic animals that graze, and small herbivorous mammals such as
deer mice that live their entire lives in a sewage sludge-amended area feeding on seeds and small
plants close to the layer of soil amended with sewage sludge. In the agricultural setting, the HEI
is a larger grazing mammal, such as a sheep.
The HEI for Pathway 7 is an herbivorous animal that incidentally consumes sewage
sludge adhering to forage crops and/or sewage sludge on the soil surface. Background intake is
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considered to be from ingesting soil having background levels of pollutant. Since forest animals
more typically browse rather than graze, the HEI for agricultural settings is used as a reasonable
worst-case surrogate for the nonagricultural HEI.
Pathway 8, the plant phytotoxicity pathway, assumes for its HEI a plant sensitive to the
pollutants in sewage sludge. The literature search carried out for this pathway included
information on nonagronomic species, which were shown to be no more sensitive than agronomic
species. Therefore, the limits set for agricultural species also protect wild species found in
nonagricultural settings.
The HEI for Pathway 9 is a soil organism sensitive to the pollutants in sewage sludge—an
earthworm. Since all soil organisms are wild species, the same HEI is used for the agricultural as
well as the nonagricultural settings.
The HEI for Pathway 10, the soil organism-predator pathway, is wildlife—the shrew
t
mole—that consumes soil organisms that have been feeding on sewage sludge-amended soil. As
with Pathway 9, the same HEI is used for both the nonagricultural and agricultural pathways.
Pathway 11, which protects humans from the effects of airborne dusts containing sewage
sludge, has as its HEI a tractor driver tilling a field. This pathway evaluates the impact of
particles that have been resuspended by the driver's tilling dewatered sewage sludge into the soil.
This pathway applies only to the agricultural setting, since tractors are not usually found in
nonagricultural settings such as forests.
Pathway 12, the soil erosion pathway, has as an HEI a human who consumes 2 liters/day
of drinking water from surface water contaminated by soil eroded from a site where sewage
sludge has been land-applied and who ingests 0.04 kg/day of fish from surface waters
contaminated by sewage sludge pollutants. The HEI is the same for agricultural and
nonagricultural practices.
TTie HEI for Pathway 13 is a human who inhales the vapors of any volatile pollutants that
may be in the sewage sludge when it is applied to the land. The wind direction is assumed never
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to change, so that the HEI is assumed to live at the downwind edge of the site. Hie same plume
model was used for both the agricultural and nonagricultural settings.
The HEI for Pathway 14 for^agricultural and nonagricultural settings is an individual who
obtains his or her drinking water from ground water located directly below a field to which
sewage sludge has been applied.
5.1 J J Decisions Related to Calculating the Human Dose
5.13~2.1 Onl Reference Dose (RID)
An oral reference dose (RfD) of a pollutant is a threshold below which effects adverse to
human health are unlikely to occur. Where the Agency has not published human health criteria
for a noncarcinogenic pollutant, the RfD listed in EPA's computerized Integrated Risk
Information System (IRIS) was used (U.S. EPA, 1992h). Hie RfDs listed in IRIS are based on a
process within the Agency that includes review of the latest scientific information.
S.1XI2 Recommended Dietaiy Allowances (RDAs>
RDAs are defined as the levels of intake of essential nutrients that, on the basis of
scientific knowledge, are judged by the Food and Nutrition Board to be adequate to meet the
known nutrient needs of practically all healthy persons (NAS, 1989). Although RfDs were used
to deteimine the concentrations of inorganic pollutants that are protective of human health, the
RDA was used in two cases: zinc and copper. Since there is at present no Agency-approved
RfD for copper, the RDA was used as a reasonably protective dose. In the case of zinc, the
Agency has established an RfD, but that value is insufficient to meet the daily nutritional
requirements of the exposed population. The Agency therefore chose to use the higher RDA
value.
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5.1JL13 Lead Pollutant Limit
In Pathway 3, EPA used the integrated uptake biokinetic model (IUBK) to evaluate the
effects from lead when children ingest sewage sludge. Hie IUBK model used a lead blood level
not to exceed 10 micrograms per deciliter, a 30 percent Absorption value, and a 95th-percentile
population distribution to protect the HEI. Using these values in the model results in an
allowable lead concentration in sewage sludge of 500 parts per million (ppra). In addition, the
lead pollutant limit calculated by the Land Application Technical Review Committee was based
on the observation that txxfy burdens (absorption) of animals fed up to 10 percent of their diet
as sewage sludge did not change until the lead concentration in the sewage sludge exceeded 300
ppm. To minimize the lead concentration in sewage sludge, the Agency selected the more
conservative numerical limit for this pathway for the final Part 503 rule—300 ppm (or jxg-lead/g-
sewage sludge DW).
Several reasons support this decision. First, such action would provide an additional
margin of safety with respect to lead contamination of soil and thereby any threat to the bodies
of growing children. Because childhood ingestion of dirt is so widespread, and the potential
consequences so severe, a highly conservative limit is warranted, especially in the context of
regulatory decisions that authorize a threshold pollutant such as lead to be added to the
environment. In addition, a 300-ppm concentration of lead in soil corresponds to a lead
concentration in sludge that was consistent with the quality of current sewage sludge at all but a
small number of publicly owned treatment works (POTWs). The social cost of the additional
safety factor is therefore small relative to the potential benefit.
Coinddentally, this approach yielded the same pollutant limit calculated by the Peer
Review Committee based on the observation that animals fed up to 10 percent of their diet as
sewage sludge had body burdens (absorption) exceeding 300 ppm. These data further support
the appropriateness of the value chosen by the Agency.
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5.I.2JL4 Cancer Potency
The cancer potency value (q,*) represents die relationship between a specified
carcinogenic dose and its associated degree of risk. The q,* is based on an individual's continual
exposure to a specified concentration of carcinogen over a period of 70 years. Established EPA
methodology for determining cancer potency values assumes that any degree of exposure to a
carcinogen produces a measurable risk. The qt* value is expressed in terms of risk per dose and
is measured in units of the inverse of milligrams of pollutant per kilogram of txxfy weight per day
of exposure (mg/kg'day)"1.
The organic pollutants in sewage sludge for which limits were proposed for land
application are listed in Table 4-7. However, in the final Part 503 standards for land application,
EPA deleted all of the organic pollutants. Section 6.1 of this document discusses the reasons
for these deletions.
S.IX2J Level of Protection
'The carcinogenic risk level for the HQ is central to EPA's risk assessment methodology.
EPA has selected risk levels of between 1>10~* and 1*10"* in several regulatory applications,
depending on the statute, the surrounding issues, the uncertainties, and the available data bases.
In the case of sewage sludge applied to land, EPA chose as a public health goal the risk level of
1*10"*, or the probability of 1 cancer case in 10,000 individuals. This target was selected because
the aggregate risk assessment did not indicate significant carcinogenic risk from this practice (i.e.,
less than one case per year), even in the absence of regulation.
In determining the appropriate doses to use in the exposure assessment models for
carcinogenic pollutants, EPA used the quotient of an incremental risk and the potency value, q,*.
The incremental risk is defined as the probability that an individual will contract cancer following
a lifetime of exposure to the maximum modeled long-teim ambient concentration. The
incremental risk cannot be construed as an absolute measure of the risk to the exposed
population, because there are inherent uncertainties in determining the cancer potency for each
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chemical. Furthermore, that a case occurs does not indicate the severity of its outcome. Nor
docs an additional cancer case necessarily mean a mortality. Therefore, such estimates are best
construed as relative estimates of the likelihood of cancer.
To reduce this aggregate carcinogenic risk, the Agency chose to regulate land application
of sewage sludge such that each carcinogen present in the sludge does not exceed an incremental
unit risk of 1»10~* to the HEI. The incremental risk for this practice considers only application
of sewage sludge to land; it does not consider exposure from other background sources, natural
or anthropogenic.
5.1.2.2.6 Relative Effectiveness of Exposure (RE)
The relative effectiveness (RE) of exposure value as used in the land application risk
assessment is a unitless factor that shows the relative toxicological effectiveness of an exposure by
a given route when compared with another route. In addition to route differences, R£ can also
reflect differences in the exposure conditions (e.g., when nickel is ingested in water, absorption
has been estimated to be five times greater than when it is ingested in food). It is preferable to
develop reasonable estimates of the RE values for the various exposure assessment pathways.
However, it Is widely recognized that the RE factor should be applied only when well-
documented and well-referenced information is available on the pharmacokinetics of pollutants.
Time constraints and insufficient documentation of these factors led the Agency to the
conservative assumption that all of the RE factors used in the land application risk assessment
for the final rule are equal to one.
5.1.2JL7 Duration of Exposure
For all pathways, accept Pathway 3, the exposure was assumed to occur for 70 years,
based on the Agency-approved estimate of 70 years as the lifespan for adults. For Pathway 3,
which assesses children eating sludge, a polity decision was made to use 5 years as the duration
of exposure for the agricultural pathway. The reason is that children exhibit most hand-to-mouth
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activity for the 5 years between the ages of 1 and 6. For nonagricultural settings, such as forest
lands, it is unlikely that a child younger than 4 years of age would be unattended long enough to
' -ingesfsewage- sludge. The assumed duration of exposure for this practice is 2 years between the
ages of 4 and 6,
5.1X2J Body Weight
As defined by EPA's Cancer Assessment Group, lifetime exposures for adults are
estimated for a 70-kg (154-pound) man, which is considered the standard body weight of an adult
male (U.S. EPA, 1990f). In the agricultural setting, it is assumed that a child could potentially
be exposed from ages 1 to 6. In the nonagricultural setting, it is assumed that the child would be
exposed from ages 4 to 6. A toddler in the agricultural setting is estimated to weigh 16 kg (35
pounds), whereas the older child in the nonagricultural setting is estimated to weigh 19 kg (42
pounds).
S.1JL2J Total Background Intake (For Humans)
Total background concentrations of pollutants from sources other than sludge are derived
from typical values for drinking water, air, and food for both adults and children. The Agency
concluded that risk would be underestimated if data for minimally exposed individuals were used,
whereas risk would be overestimated if background values for the most exposed individuals were
used. Since conservative assumptions are used in determining the values for most of the
variables in this risk assessment, more realistic standards for regulating the expected conditions
will be produced by using average values for this parameter.
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5,123 Pathway-Specific Policy Decisions
5.1.2.3.1 Fraction of the Diet Assumed to Be From Sludge-Amended Soil (Pathway 1)
EPA estimated that 2.5 percent of the HEI's vegetable, fruit, and grain diet was grown on
sludge-amended fields. See Section 5.2.1.4.1.2.8 for a complete discussion of the derivation of
this percent.
5.1.23.2 Fraction of Food Produced by Home Gardeners (Pathway 2)
In 1989, in the risk assessment for the proposed rule, the Agency used data from a
USDA market-basket survey for 1965-66 to determine the fraction of vegetable and meat groups
produced by home gardeners. However, as a result of scientific peer review, public comments,
and the availability of more recent data, the Agency has increased the fraction of food that
households produce from their gardens. Furthermore, the Agency multiplied the fraction of food
from the nonmetropolitan categoiy of the more recent 1978 USDA survey by a factor of 2.17.
This factor was derived from the fraction of U.S. households (46 percent) that produce some of
their own food from home gardens. (See Section 5.2.2.4.1 for a complete discussion.)
5.1.2.33 Soil Ingestion Bate for Children (Pathway 3)
The soil ingestion rate for children (02 g/day) used in the Pathway 3 risk assessment is
that recommended and used by the Agency's Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
(OSWER) (U.S. EPA 1989d). OSWER suggests Agency-wide use of this value to protect the
children at highest risk, unless there are compelling reasons to do otherwise.
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5.1134 Ingestion Rate of Soil by Animals/Fraction of Farm Treated with Sewage
Sludge (Pathways 5 and 7)
The Agency determined that the fraction of farmland treated and the rate of sludge
ingested are significantly less than the assumptions used (100 percent and 8 percent, respectively)
in the risk assessment for the proposed rule. The fraction of sewage sludge grazing cattle ingest
(adhering to plants and/or directly from the soil surface averaged over a season) is 2.5 percent
(Chancy et al., 1987; Bertrand et al., 1981). These data are derived from fecal studies of cattle
that were not allowed to graze on pasture during application of sewage sludge or for a 21-day
period after application. However, the maximum fraction of a farm treated with sewage sludge
in a given year is approximately 33 percent (based on discussions with regulatoiy officials in
several states). Assuming that cattle are rotated among several pastures, the actual fraction of
the diet that is sewage sludge (chronic lifetime model approach) will be lower than the 2S
percent assumed.
*
Cattle grazing on land treated with sewage sludge compost that was applied the previous
growing season ingest approximately 1.0 percent sewage sludge (Decker et al., 1980). When a
weighted average is calculated from these two values of ingested sewage sludge (i.e., 0.67 x 2.5 +
0.33 x 1.0), the long-term average sewage sludge in the diet of cattle is 13 percent (Chancy et al.,
1991a). Therefore the exposure assessment for the final rule used 33 percent as the maximum
fraction of a farm's area treated with sewage sludge, and 1.5 percent as the rate at which cattle
ingest sewage sludge (averaged over a season) while grazing in pastures amended 30 days before
the animals enter the field.
5.1.23.5 Decision to Retain The Phototoxicity Pathway (Pathway 8)
Hie Agency decided to continue to evaluate the phytotoxicity pathway for the final rule
and to use, whenever possible, field data derived from sewage sludge. Continuing to evaluate
Pathway 8 is appropriate, because including this pathway in the risk assessment protects public
health and the environment to a greater extent.
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5.113.6 Inhalation Rate for Adults (Pathways II and 13)
The model for both Pathway 11 (inhalation of sewage sludge pollutants by a tractor
operator) and Pathway 13 (inhalation of volatile pollutants from sewage sludge) used the
Agency-approved value of 20 cubic meters of air per hour to represent the inhalation rate for the
highly exposed adult.
5.113.7 Chronic Fresh Water Criteria (Pathway 12)
The reference water concentration of sewage sludge for the surface water pathway is
based on either human health criteria, adjusted for total background intake, or a chronic fresh
water criteria, whichever is more limiting. The Agency based the chronic freshwater criteria on
the latest Ambient Water Quality Criteria where available. Where chronic values were not
available, acute values were substituted. If no criteria were available, the Lowest Observed
Adverse Effect Level (LOAEL) was used.
5.1.23.8 Distance to Well—Surface Water Pathway (Pathway 12)
In performing the risk assessment on the effects on surface waters of applying sewage
sludge to land, the Agency conservatively assumed, as a "reasonably worst-case" exposure
scenario, that the HEI lives at the down-gradient edge of the land application site.
Consequently, the distance from the down-gradient edge of the sewage sludge management area
to a potential well is assumed to be 0 meters.
5.123i Reference Water Concentration for Surface Water (Pathway 12)
The reference water concentration for the surface water pathway is based either on
human health criteria, adjusted for total background intake, or on chronic fresh water criteria,
whichever is the more limiting. It is also assumed that the highly exposed individual ingests 2
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liters of water per day, eats 0.04 kg of fish per day, and weighs 70 kg, based on Agency-approved
exposure factors (U.S. EPA, 1986© Callahan et al., 1989).
5.1.23.10 Width of Buffer Zone (Pathway 12)
Hie width of the buffer zone between the sludge management area and the nearest body .
of surface water is assumed to be 10 meters in the model for estimating the effects of land-
applied sludge pollutants on surface waters. A buffer zone of identical width is also assumed to
protect all remaining surface water within the watershed Since this assumption is critical in
calculating adequately protective criteria for this pathway, the Agency imposed this set-back
distance as a required management practice in the find rule.
5.1.2.3.11 Soil Type (Pathways 12 and 14)
The type of soil in the mixing zone, in the unsaturated zones, and in the saturated zones
affects the ability of the contaminant to move vertically and laterally to aquifers and wells. In
general, the pollutant transfer potential of a soil is greatly affected by the type of clay present,
the shrink/swell potential of that day, and the grain size of the soil. Thus, the less the day
shrinks and swells and the smaller the grain size of the soil, the lower is the pollutant transfer
potential associated with that soil. Soil types in the unsaturated zone, in order of increasing
pollutant transfer potential, are: nonshrinking day, day loam, silty loam, loam, sandy loam,
shrinking day, sand; gravel, and thin or absent soil (U.S. EPA, 1985a). The Agency used sandy
soil as a "reasonable worst-case* value, since no reasonable person would grow crop on gravel or
thin/absent soil amended with sewage sludge.
5.1X3.12 Background Concentrations of Pollutants in Ground Water (Pathway 14)
To ensure that ground water does not exceed the maximum contaminant level (MCL),
any pre-existing ground water concentrations had to be considered in addition to pollutant
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. contributions from land-applied sewage sludge. The Agency used values for background
concentrations of inorganic pollutants taken from the National Inorganic and Radionuclides
Survey. Where concentrations of a given metal in a particular sample fell beneath the limit of
detection, the Agency conservatively decided to use avalue of one-half the detection limit to
derive these averages. Since most organic contaminants have short half-lives and are less likely
to be found in uncontaminated ground waters, EPA assumed their background concentrations
were equal to zero.
5.1.23.13 Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) (Pathway 14)
For all contaminants, except n-nitrosodimethylaraine and DDT, the reference water
concentrations for ground water were calculated by adjusting the Agency-approved MCLs for
background concentrations of the contaminant expected for ground water. For
n-nitrosodimethylamine and DDT, the reference water concentrations were derived from the
human cancer potency at a risk level of 10"* because MCLs were not available.
5.1.23.14 Number of Applications of Sludge (Pathway 14)
Deriving the criteria for the ground water pathway for metals requires that the number of
applications of sludge be specified in order to determine the length of time required for
pollutants to be depleted from the site. Hie Agency made a policy decision to assume that the
modeled land application site receives annual applications of sludge for 20 consecutive years.
The Agency thinks this is a "reasonably worst-case" value and is also consistent with the "useful
life of application sites" described by the U.S. EPA in the 1983 Process Design Manual for Land
Application of Municipal Sludge (U.S. EPA, 1983d).
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5.1X3.15 One-Meter Depth to Ground Water (Pathway 14)
• " ~ Hie model for Pathway 14, the ground water pathway, assumes that the water table under
a site to which sewage sludge is land applied will not be greater than 1 meter from the treated
surface. The Agency chose this value as a "reasonably worst-case" assumption, because it was
unlikely that crops would be grown if the depth to ground water was less than 1 meter.
Otherwise, root zones of plants would become saturated, thereby reducing crop productivity.
5.1.2.3.16 Porosity of Sludge/Soil (Pathway 14)
Porosity is the ratio of the void volume of a given mass of soil or rock to the total volume
of that mass. Porosity, an important factor in calculating leaching of contaminants to ground
water, is usually reported as a decimal fraction or percentage, and ranges from zero (no pore
space) to one (no solids). For soil types with sfttall particle sizes, such as clay, porosity increases
to a maximum of around 0.5. Porosities of coarser media, like gravel, decrease to a minimum of
around 0.3. As explained in Section 5.12.3.11, EPA based the assessment of the ground water
and surface water pathways on sandy soil. In order to consistently use sandy soil as the soil type,
the Agency used the total porosity of sand (0.4) (Todd, 1980) to represent porosity within the
mixing, unsaturated, and saturated soil zones.
5.JL2.S Policy Decisions Effecting Several Pathways
5.1X5.1 Food Consumption for Humans
In the proposed rule, the EPA used the highest consumption data for all age and sex
groups to represent the human diet from infancy to 70 years of age. As a result of public
comment and further reflection, the Agency concluded that the additive effects of these
conservative assumptions yielded an unreasonably worst-case exposure model for the final rule.
Hence, EPA has revised its human dietary exposure for application of sewage sludge to
agricultural land and for sewage sludge sold or given away in a bag or other container. The
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approach used In the risk assessment for the final rule employs integrated consumption rates for
both sexes over a lifetime of 70 years and derives a time-weighted value.
5.1.25.2 Soil Concentrations of Background Pollutants
For the exposure assessment, the Agency used the median background concentrations of
- agricultural soils to represent the background soil levels of inorganic sewage sludge pollutants
(i.e., metals). (Half of these values came from the data base of Holmgren et al. (1993), one of
the most reliable analyses of background concentrations of chemicals in soils available.) EPA
recognized that choosing average values would over-estimate exposure in some cases while
under-estimating in others, but concluded that this represented an appropriate choice. However,
if worst-case background levels for highly contaminated soils had been used in die risk
assessment, It is likely that some areas would have already approached or even exceeded the
allowable cumulative limits. Basing the numeric limits on these few heavily polluted sites would
have eliminated land application for many sewage sludges and violated the beneficial reuse
philosophy of the Agency. This approach was considered too "worst-case" and rejected. Average
values are therefore used to offset the more conservative estimates used for other variables in the
model. The Agency concluded that this approach produced a more realistic rule that still
protects human health and the environment.
In the case of organic pollutants in sewage sludge, most of which degrade over time and
do not persist indefinitely (as is assumed for the metals), the Agency considered it sufficiently
protective to assume zero concentration prior to. applying sewage sludge to the land. Hence, for
organic pollutants, the risk assessment for the final rule evaluates only the incremental risk from
organic pollutants over background exposure. In any case, numeric criteria for all of the organic
pollutants were deleted from the final Part 503 rules for reasons described in Section 6.1.
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5.1JL5 J Depth of Incorporation/Mass of Soil
< ...... In order to-model the effects of applying sewage sludge to land, the Agency had to
assume a particular depth to which sewage sludge is incorporated into the soil. Incorporation is
usually accomplished by disking or chisel-plowing surface-applied sewage sludge, or by directly
injecting it into the soil. For most pathways of exposure, the Agency assumed that sewage sludge
is mixed into the soil to a depth of 15 oil and that the diy mass of this upper layer is 2* 10* g
DW/ha (Naylor and Loehr, 1982; Donahue et al., 1983). Exceptions to this assumption, however,
were made for Pathways 3,5, and 7. For Pathway 3 (the child eating sludge), EPA recognized
that homeowners who fertilize their lawns with sewage sludge are unlikely to incorporate these
. products into an already established cover, thereby destroying their lawns. Instead they would
probably spread it on top of the grass, and children would ingest it in an undiluted form.
Likewise, for Pathways 5 and 7, EPA recognized that animals grazing on land to which sewage
sludge has been applied would also ingest undiluted sludge adhering to roots or foliage.
*
S.lJi4 Minimum pH Requirement
The Agency recognized that soil pH is one of the strongest Influences on the capability of
plants to absorb pollutants from the sewage sludge/soil mixture. Absorption of these pollutants
can cause direct phytotoxic effects to the plant itself or, alternatively, the inorganic pollutants can
accumulate in the plant tissues and cause adverse effects to humans or animals ingesting them.
Hie risk assessment took into account the effects of low pH on plant uptake of metals by
inducting a range of study conditions in evaluating both crop uptake and phototoxicity.
Therefore, the Part 503 numerical limits protect health and the environment under most of U.S.
soil conditions without requiring pH control for all agricultural land practices. Hie result of not
regulating minimum soil pH simply means that under some 'unreasonably worst-case" conditions,
the numeric limitations are not as protective as in the "reasonably worst-case" conditions modeled
in the risk assessments for die final rule.
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5J2 APPLICATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE TO AGRICULTURAL LAND
5X1 Agricultural Pathway 1 (Human Toxicity from Plant Ingestion)
JJJJ Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -* Soil -• Plant -» Human
This pathway evaluates crops grown for human consumption on land to which sewage
sludge had previously been applied. Uptake of sewage sludge pollutants is assumed to occur
through the plant roots. It is assumed that direct adherence of sewage sludge or soil to crop
surfaces is minimal, and that crops are washed before consumption. The relevant practices for
this pathway include agricultural use in both large agribusiness farms and small truck farms.
52d J. Pollutants Evaluated «
As discussed in the Summary of Environmental Profiles and Hazard Indices for Constituents
of Municipal Sludge: Methods and Results (EPA, 1985c), copper, molybdenum, and chromium
were screened out. In addition, lead was not evaluated because no R£D was available (see
Section 5.2.1.4.1.22). Further, four organics that were screened out were evaluated because data
were readily available: hexachlorobutadiene, lindane, n-nitrosodimethylamine, and
trichloroethylene. The evaluated pollutants are listed in Table 5.2.1-2.
SJJJ Highly Exposed Individual
Pathway 1 is designed to protect consumers who eat produce grown in soil amended with
sewage sludge. This HEI is assumed to reside in a region where a relatively high percentage of
the available cropland receives sewage sludge applications, so that all crops in the diet could be
affected. However, it is assumed that the HEI ingests a mix of crops from land on which sewage
sludge is applied and from land on which sewage sludge is not applied. Hie percentage of crops
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TABLE 5X1-2
POLLUTANTS EVALUATED
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 1
Inorganics
Organics
| Arsenic
Aldrin/Dieldrin
f Cadmium
Benzo(a)pyrene
| Mercury
Chlordane
| Nickel
DDD/DDE/DDT
f Selenium
Heptachlor f
Zinc
¦ ¦ ¦
Hexachlorobenzene
Hexachlorobuiadiene
Lindane
, n-Nitrosodimethylamine
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Toxaphcne
Trichloroethylene
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grown on sewage sludge-amended land and ingested by the HEI is set at 2.5 percent. This
assumption is discussed in detail in Section 5.2.1.4.1.2.8. The assumed duration of exposure is 70
years.
SJ1.1.4 Algorithm Development
For pathways in which humans aie the target organism, the endpoint of the analysis is a
reference application rate of pollutant, RP (kg-poliutant/ha), which is the amount of the
pollutant that can be applied to a hectare of agricultural land without adverse effects. The RP is
either a cumulative application rate, RPC, or an annual application rate, RP,. RPC is the total
amount of pollutant that can be applied to a hectare; it is used for pollutants that are assumed
not to degrade in the environment (i.e., inorganics, aldrin/dieldrin, and chlordane). RP, is
appropriate for organic compounds that do degrade in the environment (e.g., lindane,
trichloroethylene), because it allows for degradation effects to be incorporated into the analysis.
To evaluate the potential for adverse effects, aft adjusted reference intake of pollutants for
humans (R1A pg-poliutanl/day) was calculated; it is a health-based number that indicates how
much of the pollutant can be ingested by a person with minimal risk of adverse effects. If die
RIA were to be exceeded, adverse health effects might occur in the exposed individuals. Hie
RIA is termed "adjusted," because it is a health-based reference intake value that has been
adjusted from a per weight basis to a particular human body weight, and from which exposure to
other sources has been subtracted. The resultant number is the allowable intake over and above
background per person.
The procedure for determining RIA varies according to whether the pollutant acts by a
threshold or nonthreshold mechanism of toxicity. For reasons explained in Section 5.2.1.4.1.2.2,
inorganic compounds were treated as having a threshold mechanism of toxicity, while organic
compounds were evaluated as carcinogens having no threshold of toxicity. The equations and
descriptions of the variables in the equations used to derive the RIA are presented separately for
inorganics and organics.
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5.2.1.4.1 Inorganics
522.4:1.1 Equations
RIA is calculated from:
(1)
bia = (*2libw - mj. 10»
where:
RIA - adjusted reference intake of pollutants in humans (/xg-pollutant/day)
RfD = oral reference dose (mg/kg*day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources
of exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
103 = conversion factor (jxgfmg)
Then, RPe is calculated from:
rp = BM; (21
e E(uq*Dq«pcp
where:
RPe = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (jig-pollutant/day)
UQ = uptake response slope of pollutants in plant tissue for the food
group i (/ig-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)(kg-pollutant DW/ha)"1
DC; = daily dietary consumption of the food group i (g-diet DW/day)
FC; = fraction of food group i produced on sewage sludge-amended soil
(unitless)
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5J2d.4.1.2 Input Parameters
Sm2>* 1 *1 »-2« 1
Adjusted Reference Intake
The values used to calculate RIAs are designed to protect the sensitive members of the
population. Thus, if the entire population experienced the level of exposure these values
represent, only a small portion of the population would be at risk. The definition and derivation
of each of the parameters used to estimate RIA for threshold-acting toxicants are further
discussed in the following sections.
5.2.1.4.1.22 Oral Reference Dose, RfD
When toxicant exposure is by ingestion, the threshold assumption has traditionally been
used to establish an "acceptable daily intake," or ADI. The Food and Agricultural Organization
*
and the World Health Organization have defined ADI as "the daily intake of a chemical which,
during an entire lifetime, appears to be without appreciable risk on the basis of all the known
facts at the time. It is expressed in milligrams of the chemical per kilogram of body weight
(mg/kg)" (Lu, 1983). Procedures for estimating the ADI from various types of toxicological data
were outlined by the U.S. EPA in 1980 (Federal Register, 1980a). The Agency has since adopted
the term, "oral reference dose," or RfD, to avoid the connotation of acceptability.
Values of RfD for noncarcinogenic or systemic toxicity have been derived by several
groups within the Agency. These values were developed by EPA and are found in EPA's
Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), which is accessible through the National Library of
Medicine. IRIS contains RfDs for over 300 chemicals (U.S. EPA, 1992h). For Pathway 1, the
applicable RfDs from IRIS and the health effects they protect against are shown in Table 5.2.1-3.
For zinc, the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) was used instead of the RfD, because
the RfD does not provide the recommended dietary allowance of zinc, which is required to
maintain health in the exposed population.
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TABLE 5.2.1-3
RIDS ANDRDAS
Pollutant
RfD (mg/kg«day)
Route of Exposure
(animal)
*
Most Sensitive 1
Endpoint
Arsenic
0.0008
oral (human)
Hyperpigmentation,
keratosis, and
possible vascular
complications
Cadmium
0.001
oral (human)
Proteinuria
Mercury
H (inorganic)
0.0003
oral (rat)
Autoimmune effects j
| Nickel
0.02
oral (rat)
Decreased body and
organ weights
Selenium
0.005
oral (rat)
t
Selenosis (hair, nail
loss, etc.)
Zinc
0.21*
oral (human)
Decrease in
erythrocyte
superoxide dismutase I
(ESOD) J
The RfD did not meet the minimum recommended dietaiy allowance (RDA).
Therefore, in lieu of the RfD, the RDA was used: the RDA of 15 mg/day for adults
(NAS, 1989, p.209) was divided by 70 kg (body weight) to yield 0.21 mg/kg"day.
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The RfD for inorganic arsenic for this pathway was 0.0008 rag/kg*day, based on
hyperpigmentation, keratosis, and possible vascular complications following oral exposure to
humans. The Agency's approved RfD is currently 0.0003 rag/kg*day. However, there was not a
dear consensus among Agency scientists on the oral RfD. Strong scientific arguments can be
made for various values, within a factor of 2 or 3 of the currently recommended RfD value (I.c.,
0.0001 to 0.0008 rag/kg-day). Utilizing the flexibility offered by this range, EPA elected to use
the least conservative value, 0.0008 nig/kg* day, as the most appropriate value to use in the risk
assessment, because most of the model inputs, as well as the low probability of continuous
exposure from this source as compared to other sources such as drinking water, are conservative.
When an RfD was not available in IRIS, the pending value was used, if available, or, if
one had been previously used but had been withdrawn, the former approved value was used.
Where pollutants had both carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic effects, the carcinogenic
effect was used as the most sensitive endpoint, unless the cancer was associated with a route of
«
exposure other than ingestion of food, because Pathway 1 evaluates effects related to ingestion of
food. Some inorganic compounds have carcinogenic effects noted in IRIS, but all were based on
routes of exposure other than ingesting food. For example, lung cancer is associated with
inhaling arsenic, and skin cancer is associated with drinking water contaminated with arsenic, but
no cancer is related to ingestion of arsenic in food. Therefore, arsenic is treated as a
noncarcinogen for this risk assessment. Because all the cancer effects associated with inorganic
compounds were due to routes of exposure other than food ingestion, inorganic compounds were
assessed as noncarcinogens. All organic compounds were assessed as carcinogens as discussed
further in Section 5.2.1.4.2.2.5.
5.2.1.4.1.2.3 Human Body Weight, BW
The choice of human body weight, BW (kg), for use in risk assessment depends on the
definition of the individual at risk, which, in turn, depends on exposure and susceptibility to
adverse effects. Since the RfD is defined as the dose of pollutant per unit of body weight that
can be tolerated over a lifetime, an adult body weight of 70 kg was used.
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5.2.1.4.1X4 Relative Effectiveness of Ingestion Exposure, RE
" - Rclativc'cf&ctiveness-of ingestion exposure-(RE) is a mnitless factor that accounts for the
differences in the toxicological effectiveness of the source. These differences indude
bioavailability associated with the exposure medium (water versus food), as well as differences in
absorption caused by differences in the route of exposure (inhalation versus ingestion).
Differences in absorption between the routes of inhalation and ingestion can significantly
influence: the quantity of a chemical that reaches a particular target tissue; the length of time it
takes to get there; and the degree and duration of the effect. For example, carbon tetrachloride
and chloroform were estimated to be 40 percent and 65 percent as effective, respectively, by
inhalation as by ingestion, based on absorption differences (U.S. EPA, 1984ij).
In addition to route differences, RE can also reflect differences in bioavailability
associated with the exposure matrix. For example, absorption of nickel ingested in water has
been estimated to be five times that of nickel ingested in diet (U.S. EPA, 1985e). RE also
reflects changes in chemical specification in the food and changes in absorption caused by the
simultaneous presence of other chemicals.
An RE factor should be applied only where well-documented/referenced information is
available on the pollutant's observed relative effectiveness, or its pharmacokinetics. Since limited
information exists for die pollutants and exposure pathways evaluated in this risk assessment, RE
was conservatively set to 1 for all pollutants for all pathways in this risk assessment
5X1.4.1X5 Total Background Intake Rate of Pollutant bom All Other Sources of
Exposure, TBI
Humans are exposed to pollutants found in sewage sludge (e.g., cadmium, volatile organic
compounds), even if no sewage sludge is applied to agricultural land. These sources indude
background levels (natural and/or anthropogenic) in drinking water, food, and air.
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The total background intake (TBI) rate of pollutant from all other sources of exposure
should be a summed total of all toxicologically effective Intakes from all exposures not related to
sewage sludge. To determine the effective TBI, the background intake of pollutant from a given
exposure route, BI, must be divided by the relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (RE) for
that route. Thus, the TBI can be derived after all the background exposures have been
determined using the following equation:
TBI (mg/day) * BI (food> + 81 + m(
-------
TABLE 5.2.1-4
TOTAL BACKGROUND INTAKE—ADULTS
(mg/day)
| Chemical
All*
Diet*
Water*
Total
| Arsenic
0.005
0.006M
0.001
0.012
1 Cadmium
0.00014
0.012b
0.004
0.01614
Mercury
0.0002
0.002b
0.001
0.0032
Nickel
0.001
0.162'
0.010
0.173
Selenium
0.001
0.104"
0.010
0.115
Zinc
negligible
13.0b
0.42
13.42 |
•Source: Contractor Reports to EPA on Occurrence and Exposure in Relation to Drinking
Water Regulations.
bData from Dr. M. Bolger of FDA (Personal communication to lira Ryan, 1992). Represents
exposure for food and aU liquids except drinking water for the 1988 to present market basket
analysis.
Dietary intake was reported as 0.29 mg/day for total arsenic. Since approximately 80 percent of
dietary arsenic is in the less toxic organic form, only 20 percent of the total is used to evaluate
the effects of inorganic arsenic from dietary sources.
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Plant Uptake of Metals
Many different kinds of studies have been conducted to determine the relationship
between concentration of metal in the growthitiedium and pant uptake of that metal. Studies
have been conducted in the Held or in pots, and with different forms of metal—metal salts, metal
salt-amended sludges, and nonamended sludges (Logan and Chaney, 1983; Page et al., 1987).
Depending on the study design, widely divergent plant uptake has been observed. These findings
relate to the differences between salts and sludge, and between growing plants in pots and
growing them in the field (see also deVries, 1980).
Some studies compared the metal uptake of plants grown in pots inside and outside the
greenhouse to plants grown with equal metal applications in the form of sludge in the field
(deVries and Tiller, 1978; Davis, 1981a,b). When sludge was applied in the field, much lower
plant uptake slopes [(plant metal concentration):(soil metal concentration)] were obtained than
when the same plants were grown with the same soil outdoors in pots; plants grown indoors in
pots had even higher uptake slopes. Pot studies overestimate metal phytoavailability for four
reasons. First, the indoor and outside environments differ in patterns of soil temperature and
water use. In the humid greenhouse, transpiration is increased, which increases metal flow to the
roots by convection, and increases transfer to leaves in the transpiration stream. Second, all of
the nutrients required to support the growth of the test plants in pots must be applied to a
limited soil volume; this soil volume has a very high concentration of soluble salts, which
increases the concentration of metals and the diffusion of metals from the soil particles to the
roots. Third, when fertilizers contain NH4-N, rhizosphere acidification in the small volume of
soil in a pot can increase metal uptake. Fourth, the soil-sludge mixture in pots comprises the
whole rooting medium, while in the field the sludge is mixed only into the tillage depth (usually
less than 20-cm deep), and much of the plant root system is below this depth.
Perhaps the biggest source of difference in plant uptake is attributable to the form in
which the metal is applied: metal salts and metals in nonsalt forms as found in sewage sludge.
Although metal salts are not typically found in sewage sludge, they have been used extensively in
experimental studies to measure plant uptake of metals. Studies using metal salts, however,
added either to soil or a sewage sludge-soil mixture, tend to overpredict field response. In many
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studies in which metal salts and metal-contaminated sludge were added to the same soil, the salts
caused severe phytotoxicity in crops, while yield increased in crops to which sludge alone had
been applied.
Although many of these studies suffered from errors due to difference in pH between the
salts and the sludge (added metal salts displace protons from the soil and lower pH), some had
equal pH. For example, in the greenhouse pot study of Korcak (1986), equivalent metal salts or
224 mt/ha of sludge were added to a number of soils with widely different properties; salts
caused phytotoxicity to corn on all soils, but sludge containing an equal amount of metallic
pollutant caused no phytotoxicity. Plant uptake of metal salts and metal in sludge was also
compared in field studies. For instance, Ham and Dowdy (1978) compared metal uptake by
soybean when equivalent concentrations of metal as metal salts and metal in sludge were applied
in the field, and they found much higher metal uptake from the salts. Soil properties strongly
affected metal uptake on the metal salt-amended soils, but had little effect on the
sludge-amended soils. *
A limit to plant uptake has not been found in studies conducted with metal salts, even
though plants increasingly take up metal salts as their concentration in sewage sludge is
increased. Researchers have attempted to characterize the chemical aspects of sludge that make
metals in sludge so much less available to plants (phytoavailable) than metal salts.
Phytoavailability is directly related to the specific metal adsorption capacity—the ability to
selectively adsorb, heavy metals in the presence of 3-10 raM Caz+, which is present in the soil
solution of most fertile soils. In sludge, this capacity increases the ability of die soil-sludge
mixture to adsorb metals, thereby reducing the phytoavailability of sludge-borne metals.
The inorganic part of the sludge contributes much of the specific capacity of sludge to
adsorb metals. As summarized by Corey et al. (1987), iron, aluminum, and manganese oxides in
soil and sludge exhibit specific metal adsorption properties. Even though sludge organic matter
is oxidized over time, if soil pH does not fall, the rate at which crops accumulate metals in soil
decreases over time. This finding indicates that the adsorption sites of the inorganic components
of sludge are sufficient to adsorb enough metals so that metals in sludges are, over time, less
available to plants. Because the sludge chemistiy controls the phytoavailability of sludge-applied
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metals, plant uptake approaches a plateau with increasing rates of applying sludge, rather than
showing the usual linear increase with increasing rates of applying metal salts.
All these data from research tin sludge versus metal salts,' and the effect of sludge metal
concentration on phytoavailabiiity of sludge-applied metals (including the plateau response
finding of Chancy et al., 1982) led Corey et al. (1987) to conclude that specific adsorption of
metals by sludge surfaces would normally be the controlling factor in metal phytoavailabiiity in
soil-sludge mixtures. They also concluded that a plateau response would be the expected pattern
of response, and that some sludges could be so low in metals, and so high in metal-specific
adsorption capacity, that addition of sludge could actually reduce metal uptake by plants. This
response has been observed for cadmium with several studies in pots and field. This model
integrates data from many studies that initially appeared to offer conflicting results. Uptake by
plants of sludge-applied cadmium is additive, but along a plateau response curve rather than a
linear response curve.
This phenomenon has been argued to be due to competition between solids in soil and in
sludge for trace metal binding, which progressively favors sludge as the sludge application rate
increases. This suggests that there should be a maximum plant uptake for a trace metal in a
given sludge (Corey et al., 1987; Logan, 1989). (Such behavior has not been observed with metal
salts.) In some studies, particularly with copper, lead, and chromium, there was no plant uptake
response to added sludge beyond that of the first sludge increment.
Based on evaluating hundreds of plant uptake studies, metals can be placed in three
groups in decreasing order of uptake as follows: (1) cadmium, molybdenum, and zinc; (2)
mercury, nickel, and selenium; (3) copper, chromium, and lead (Logan, 1992). In all cases, a
dose examination of the data show that the rate response curves have a tendency to be
curvilinear (i.e., the rate of uptake decreases with increased sludge metal loading). For copper,
chromium, and lead, there appears to be an upper bound to trace metal content in the plant
regardless of sludge metal loading. For the other metals, plant concentration increases over the
entire range of sludge metal loading, but to levels that are lower than those predicted using a
linear response model. The results are shown in Figure 5.2.1-1, which shows that when a linear
5-32
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FIGURE 5.2.1-1
GENERALIZED PLANT UPTAKE RESPONSE CURVES FOR
TRACE ELEMENTS IN THE 503 RULE, AND THE EFFECT OF
APPLYING A LINEAR RESPONSE MODEL.
Cd, Mo, Zn
Co, Cr, Pb
Hg,Nl, Se
Sludge Metal Loading (kg-polluiant/ha)
Source: Logan, 1992.
5-33
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response is assumed, the plant uptake of metal from sewage sludge is underestimated at low
metal loadings and overestimated at high loadings.
Elapsed Tine after Sewage Sludge Application. Another factor shown to affect plant
uptake of sewage sludge metals is time elapsed after sewage sludge application. In their analysis
of long-term field sewage sludge studies, Chang et al. (1987b) concluded that plant availability of
sludge-bome metals was highest during the first year after sewage sludge is applied.
Jing and Logan (1992b) reported on the phytoavailability of sludge-applied cadmium from
many different sludges, where equal amounts of cadmium were applied in each pot. Crop uptake
of cadmium increased with increasing concentration of cadmium in sludge. This is explained in
terms of the filling of specific cadmium binding sites in the sludge. The population of cadmium
binding sites varies widely in strength of specific cadmium adsorption; as sludge cadmium
concentration increases, the least strongly bound cadmium is more phytoavailabie. Over time,
some of the cadmium is taken up by plants or removed through leaching or erosion. As the
cadmium concentration in soil decreases, the remaining cadmium is bound to the most strongly
adsorbing sites in the sludge, decreasing its availability to plants and its subsequent uptake by
plants. The specific metal adsorptive capacity of sludge persists as long as the heavy metals of
concern persist in the soil (Chaney and Ryan, 1992a). Hie persistence of metal adsorption by
sewage sludge has been demonstrated in studies on field plots, some of which have been
monitored for up to 20 years after the last sludge application, and studies in greenhouses
evaluating soil from farms to which sewage sludge has been applied on a long-term basis.
Because plant uptake of pollutants in sewage sludge decreases as the time since the last
application of sewage sludge increases, using the first-year response curve generated by a single,
large addition of sewage sludge will overestimate the metal accumulation in plants grown in well-
stabilized sewage sludge/soil systems. Since the risk assessment of sewage sludge disposal
addresses long-term risk, data from field sewage sludge studies with long-term data (i.e., data for
more than 1 year of sewage sludge application) were preferentially used when available.
However, most of the field studies of sewage sludge were conducted for less than 5 years.
Although these studies would be expected to show more uptake than studies of shorter duration,
5-34
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the data in these studies were used, since they constituted the best available information. The
data used in this risk assessment, therefore, are conservative.
pH. Of all the soil variables reported to affect plant uptake of sludge-applied metals
(e.g., organic matter content, cation exchange capacity, soil texture, pH), only pH consistently has
a significant effect (Page et al., 1987). Sanders and coworkers found that for each sludge/metal
combination, as pH was decreased, a threshold pH was reached below which metal solubility
sharply increased (Sanders et al., 1986a). However, sewage sludge tends to buffer soil pH in the
range of 6 to 7, except on add soils of low-buffering capacity where sewage sludge is low in base-
forming metals (e.g., calcium, magnesium); and on soils with significant free calcium carbonate,
which are buffered by carbonate equilibria at pH ranges of 7 to 8. In phytotoxicity studies in
sludge-containing metals, phytotoxicity has been observed when extremely low pH was reached.
When high cumulative applications of sludges containing low concentrations of metals were
applied, and when soil pH was allowed to drop to 4.5, phytotoxicity to soybeans (Lutrick et al.,
1982) and iye (King and Morris, 1972) was observed. Correcting the soil pH to almost 6
completely halted the yield reduction.
In natural soil systems, as the pH decreases below 5.5, a rapid exponential increase in
soluble aluminum and manganese occurs. This increase adversely affects plant growth in ail but
the most tolerant species (Pearson and Adams, 1967). Normally, good agricultural practice
requires the soil pH to be greater than 5.5 to avoid natural aluminum and manganese
phytotoxicity in crops. Therefore, agricultural lands to which sludge is applied will rarely, if ever,
have pH beftsw 5 J. Nevertheless, the data set oh which plant uptake was based includes data
from studies with pH measures as low as 4.5. Overall, 40 percent of the total data set comes
from studies in which the pH was less than 6. Thus, the add soil system is well represented
within the data set. Hie remaining data came from studies in which the pH ranged from 6 to 8.
Cation Exchange Capacity (C1C). Although cation exchange capadty (CEC) has been
used for the past 10 to 15 years as one of the primary soil properties to govern metal loadings,
research on the relationship between CEC and plant uptake of metals has been minimal and the
results conflicting (Sommers et al., 1987). For example, Hinesly et al. (1982) evaluated the effect
of CEC on cadmium uptake by corn grown in pots. The study showed that CEC inversely
5-35
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affected the uptake of cadmium by corn when the cadmium was supplied as a soluble salt, but
not when it was supplied as a constituent of municipal sewage sludge (Sommers et al„ 1987).
Korcak and Fanning (1985) confirmed these findings in greenhouse studies. Based on these and
other studies, Sommers et al. (1987) recommended abandoning the practice ofusing CEC as a
basis for establishing metal-loading limits. Consequently, the effect of CEC on metal uptake by
plants has not been considered in this risk assessment.
Comparison of Data Used to Results of the National Sewage Sludge Survey
Since sewage sludge metal concentrations and/or sewage sludge loadings were not given
in all of the references cited, it was not possible to determine soil metal concentrations for all
studies. However, total metal loadings were given for all studies. These metal loadings were
compared with the metal loadings calculated using the National Sewage Sludge Survey (NSSS)
data for the median, 90th, and 95th percentiles and a sewage sludge application rate of 1,000
metric tons dry weight per hectare (mt DW/ha). Hie results are presented in Table 5.2.1-5; they
t
document that the data base for plant uptake of metals covers the high-end range of the
concentration distributions for cadmium, nickel, and lead documented in the NSSS.
Since only two studies in the data base (the high-rate studies at the University of
California-Riverside and the University of Illinois) had application rates greater than 1,000 mt
DW/ha, the high metal concentrations of the studies in the data base do not result from larger or
more frequent applications of sewage sludge, but from higher metal concentrations in the sewage
sludge under study. Most of the studies in the data base were conducted in the 1970s and 1980s
when sewage sludge contained higher concentrations of pollutants than it does now. For
example, die Chicago sewage sludge of the 1970s had a cadmium concentration of approximately
200 mg/kg, whereas in the NSSS, the 95th percentile for cadmium was 90 mg/kg, Since uptake
slopes decrease with lower metal sludges versus higher metal sludges, using the data base, which
contains data on high-metal sludges, will overpredict plant uptake. Thus this risk assessment
conservatively estimates plant uptake of metals in sludge by including studies on sludges with
high metal loadings.
5-36
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TABLE 5X1-5
SEWAGE SLUDGE STUDY DATA POINTS
Metal
Field Sewage
Stodge Stady
Data Points
Percentage of Data Points from Plant Uptake
Studies with Metal Loadings Greater Than
Values from NSSS at These Percentiles When
Applied at 1,000 dmt/ha
Mean
90th Percentile
95th Percentile
Arsenic
4
0
0
0
Cadmium
167
35.9
35.9
183
Copper
127
0
0
0
Lead
52
26.9
5.8
5.8
Mercury
20
0
0
0
Nickel
125
49.9
25.6
8.8
Selenium
21
93
0
0
Zinc
154
7.1
0
0
Source: Logan, 1992.
5-37
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Methodology for Calculating Plant Uptake Slopes
To select the input factors, the data collected for the previous EPA risk assessment for
the land application1 of sewage sludge (U.S. EPA, 1989f) were reviewed and edited using a five-
step approach. First, all references for the data base were obtained either from EPA's own
archive or from other sources. All secondaiy references were replaced with primary references
where possible. The original papers were checked against the reference citation, and the citation
was changed if necessary. Next, the data in the papers were checked against the tabulated data,
and changes were made as needed. Then missing or misleading information was noted with each
tabular citation as needed. Fourth, corrected data were used to calculate new uptake slopes.
Fifth, the corrected data base was supplemented with additional data from the literature.
The plant uptake slope was determined for each pollutant for each study used. Uptake
response slopes were calculated by regressing the concentration of pollutant in plant tissue 0*1-
pollutant/g-plant tissue DW) against a cumulative pollutant loading rate (kg-pollutant/ha) for the
various treatment levels, including the control.* It should be noted that, where the control
application rate was zero, the tissue concentration was greater than zero because of background
levels of these elements in the soil.
For this risk assessment, the sources from which the data were extracted presented the
sewage sludge metal loadings in a variety of ways, making it difficult to calculate uptake slopes in
a systematic manner. For example, some studies gave the sewage sludge loading rate and a
metal analysis of the sewage sludge, making it necessary to calculate the metal-loading rate
(kg/ha). Other studies provided soil metal concentrations, in which case the depth to which
sewage sludge was incorporated had to be assumed to calculate an effective metal-loading rate.
Some studies did not provide the metal concentration in the control plot (i.e., the plot on which
sewage sludge was not applied). In this case, an average background level for that metal was
assumed (Table 5.2.1-6). To address these differences in the data sources, the following
procedures for extracting data, converting it, and calculating uptake slopes were followed:
1. Once a reference was obtained, a full reference citation was recorded and the
pertinent data were extracted.
5-38
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TABLE 5.2.1-6
NATIONAL BACKGROUND CONCENTRATIONS OF POLLUTANTS IN U.S. SOIL
Chemical
Number of Samples
Soil
Concentration
(mfs)
References
Arsenic
16
3.0
Baxter et al., 1983*
Cadmium
3,325
0.2"
Holmgren et al., 1992 ;
Mercuiy
NRe
0.1
US Geological Survey, 1970 (p. 1)
Nickel
3,325
18.0b
Holmgren et al., 1992
Selenium
NRC
0.21
Cappon, 1984 (p. 100)
Zinc
3,325
54.0"
Holmgren et al., 1992
•As quoted in U.S. EPA, 1989f.
bMedian.
®NR « Not reported.
-------
2. Ancillary data, such as plant type, soil pH, type of sewage sludge, and application
rates, were recorded.
3. If sewage sludge loading and sewage sludge metal concentration data were given,
.the inorganic loading rat£j(kg/ha) was calculated by the formula:
Metal load (kg/ha) =
Sewage sludge load (mt DW/ha) • sewage sludge metal concentration (mg/kg) •
ID*
4. If the metal concentration in soil was given, the metal loading rate (kg/ha) was
calculated from the formula:
Metal load (kg/ha) = soil metal concentration (mg/kg) • 2 (conversion factor)
(The conversion factor was based on the assumption that the soil in which the
sewage sludge is incorporated weighs 2,000 mt DW/ha based on an assumed
average bulk density of 133 g/cm3 and a soil incorporation depth of IS cm.)
5. The plant uptake slope was calculated for each study. For studies in which one
metal application rate and one plant tissue concentration were given the uptake
slope is:
TTr _ Tissue Concentration (ttg-oollutant/g-plant tissue DW>
~ Metal Application Rate (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
For studies in which multiple application rates and tissue concentrations were
given, the slope was determined by least squares linear regression.
6. Where calculated uptake slopes were negative or less than 0.001, the value of the
slope was set equal to 0.001 as a conservative default.
All of the studies in the data base were placed in one of three categories:
• Type A Studies—Studies conducted in the field with sewage sludge.
• Type B Studies—All other studies conducted with sewage sludge. These include
field studies with sewage sludge spiked with additional metals; and greenhouse
studies in which the plants were grown in pots, not in the field (referred to in this
document as pot studies).
• Type C Studies—All other studies. These studies are primarily those with metal
salts or metal-contaminated soils, or mine tailings.
5-40
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Data derived from sewage sludge applications in the field are most appropriate for use in
risk assessments because they most resemble the conditions being regulated. Field data were
••used when-available.- Greenhouse-studies where plants are grown in pots are often known to
oveipredict uptake under field conditions (Logan and Chaney, 1983). However, in the absence
of field data, data from pot studies may be useful, especially those in which large pots are used
to minimize restriction of root growth. Therefore, some data from pot studies were used to
provide an upper bound of exposure when no other data were available. Studies where plants
are grown in solution culture were not used, since no reliable method for relating concentration
in solution to total soil concentration in the field or to application rate has been developed (U.S.
EPA, 1989a). Similarly, studies where sewage sludge was applied over growing plants
demonstrate physical adherence rather than physiological uptake through the root system, so they .
were not used either. Because plants take up metal salts to a greater degree than other forms of
metal, and because metal salts are not found in sewage sludge, using metal salt data would
greatly overpredict plant uptake of metals in sewage sludge. Therefore, metal salt data were
used in this risk assessment only to evaluate plant uptake of metals in cases where no other data
were available.
A summary of the types of studies used, in terms of plant group and pollutant, is
presented in Table 5.2.1-7. In all but three cases, the exposure assessment was based entirely on
Type A studies. Data from Type B sewage sludge pot studies were used for mercury and
selenium. Type C data were used for arsenic for all food groups except leafy vegetables, for
which Type A data were available. Although preference was given to sewage sludge studies
¦
conducted in the field with multiple rates and multiple years of application, the limited data base
for most contaminants required that all Type A studies be considered, regardless of duration.
Appendix C contains all the data points, including the type of plant and the plant part
(e.g., leaf, grain) studied, as well as plant uptake slopes for each study reviewed. The crops that
humans consume were divided into seven categories: grains and cereals (e.g., barley, wheat);
potatoes; leafy vegetables (e.g., swiss chard, rape, collard greens, lettuce, cabbage, broccoli);
legumes (e.g., beans, peas); root vegetables (e.g., carrots, turnips, onions, beets, radishes); garden
fruits (e.g., tomatoes, eggplant, peppers); and peanuts. (These categories correspond to those
used to estimate human dietary intake in Table 5.2.1-9, discussed in the next section.) For each
5-41
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TABLE 5.2.1-7
STUDY TYPES USED TO CALCULATE PLANT GROUP UPTAKE OF POLLUTANTS
Food Group
Arsenic
Cadmium
Memity
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc
Garden fruits
C
A
A
A
A
A
Grains and cereals
c
A
B
A
A
A
Leafy vegetables
A
A
A
A *
A
A
Legumes
C
A
A
A
A
A
Potatoes
C
A
B
A
B
A
Root vegetables
n
A
A
A
A
A
Note: If no data were available, a default uptake slope of 0.001 was used.
-------
pollutant, the plant uptake slopes for the studies applicable to each plant group were averaged,
using the geometric mean of the uptake slopes. The results are summarized in Table 5.2.1-8. In
the case of peanuts, UC value was set equal to that of the other legumes for which data were
available.
*
5.4.1.4.1.2.7 Daily Dietaiy Consumption of Food Group, DC
To quantify potential dietaiy exposures resulting from the land application of sewage
sludge, the amounts of various types of foods consumed over a lifetime were estimated. Tlie
most detailed sources of dietaiy information indude the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA) Nationwide Food Consumption Survey 1977-78 (NFCS), and the Second National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1976-1980 (NHANESII). Pennington (1983) used
both of these sources to calculate food consumption rates for eight age/sex groups, ranging in age
from infancy to 65 years. Because Pennington's work is the most recent and the best
documented evaluation of dietaiy intake, it was considered to be the best available information.
The list provides average, fresh-weight consumption data for over 234 foods (201 adult foods and
33 infant/junior foods). Although the Pennington (1983) food list provides a very detailed
picture of the human diet, it cannot be used in its published form for risk assessments of the
present type, because of the food items listed are complex prepared foods (such as soup, pizza),
rather than the raw commodities (such as vegetables, meats) for which contaminant uptake data
arc available. Therefore, to predict the impact of sewage sludge application using uptake data,
the diet must be reorganized to determine the respective consumed amounts of these raw
commodities that are consumed.
Two previous efforts have been made to reorganize the Pennington (1983) diet. In 1981,
the U.S. EPA Office of Solid Waste (OSW) proposed an approach that grouped the 201 adult
foods into the 12 dietaiy categories (used in the previous FDA Total Diet Study food list) to
estimate the amount of cadmium in the typical U.S. diet (Flynn, 1981). However, the individual
foods in the 12 categories are not broken down according to their contents (e.g., beef and
vegetable stew was listed in the "meat, fish, and poultry" group). In addition, some of the listed
items consist largely of added water, such as canned, reconstituted bouillon (also listed under
5-43
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TABLE 5.2.1-8
UPTAKE SLOPES FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS BY PLANT GROUP
Plant Group
Pollutant |
Arsenic
Cadmium
Metcuiy
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc 1
1 Grains and cereals
0.002
0.031
0.043
0.003
0.001
0.027 |
[ Potatoes
0.002
0.004
0.001
0.005
0.021
0.012
| Leafy vegetables
0.018
0.182
0.005
0.016
0.008
0.125
Legumes
0.001
0.002.
0.001
0.031
0.012
0.018
Root Vegetables
0.004
0.032
0.007
0.004
0.011
0.022
Garden fruits
0.001
0.045
0.005
0.003
0.010
0.023
Peanuts
0.001
0.002
0.001
0.031
0.012
0.018 |
#
5-44
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TABLE 5.2.1-9
FOOD CONSUMPTION RATES FOR RAW AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES BY AGE AND SEX
Consumption by Age and Sex
Categoiy
6-11 MO.
2 YR.
14-16 F
14-16 M
25-30 F
25-30 M
60-65 F
60-6$ M
g dry weight/day-—
..
Food Derived Directly From Plants
J
Wheat
27.6020
42.2344
61.5025
97,2110
52.8166
78.5058
45.8331
64.4170
Corn
3.9986
15.3541
18.5795
27.8431
13.8710
21.7827
12.3873
17.2590
Rice
2.2249
4.5845
5.1368
6.6381
4.7765
6.7825
4.0244
4.3960
Oats
3.7298
2.6502
1.0994
2.6740
1.0900
1.5519
1,8611
2.i391
Other grain
0.0106
0.0771
0.1022
1.3660
2.8673
24.0360
0.8504
7.9668
Total grain
37.5658
64.9004
86.4205
135.7323 *
75.4214
132.6589
64.9562
96.1779
Potatoes
5.6673
10.0335
15.9724
22.8305
13.2108
21.3447
12.0376
17.5425
Leafy vegetables
0.8380
0.4854
1.1341
1.2970
2.1703
2.1527
2.7815
23232
Legumes
3.8094
4.5571
6.3902
10.5176
7.8752
11.7527
8.1826
10.8195
Roots
3.0400
0.6678
1.3125
2.1398
1.5157
2.0296
1.5110
1.7705
Garden fruits*
0.6650
1.6690
3.0740
3.8632
4.1004
5.4053
4.5935
5.1207
Peanuts
0.3363
2.2082
1.7821
4.0428
1.5396
3.3153
1.3398
2.4798
Mushrooms
0.0001
0.0127
0.0551
0.0320
0.1374
0.1355
0.0508
0.0705
Vegetable oil
27.6209
17.6867
30.2176
44.5719
29.7018
44.7022
23.7050
31.9650
Food Derived From Animals
Beef
3.9890
9.6621
16.6613
26.5872
17.3708
29.1939
14.1238
22.5623
Beef liver
0.1666
0.2401
0.2766
0.4363
1.2309
0.9214
0.9639
1.4427
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TABLE 5.2.1-9 (coot.)
[ Consumption by Age and Sex
Category
6-11 MO.
2 YR.
1446 F
14-16 M
25-30 F
25-30 M
60-65 F
60-65 M
——g dty weight/day—
Lamb
0.1393
0.0768
0.0618
0.0439
0.3317
0.2600
0.2110
0.2134
Pork
1.3382
4.2907
7.4094
10.3101
7.0893
13.4471
7.5549
12.3284
Poultry
2.2693
3.7573
6.3271
7.7314
6.1537
9.1333
6.2793
7.4611
Fish
0.3387
1.2005
2.5395
2.6764
3.5013
4.6697
3.6293
,4.1075
Egg
3.2709
6.9135
6.0974
8.9355
6.6567
10.0347
7.1952
11.4666
Dairy
40.6970
32.9356
34.0111
53.0223
22.5046
32.5447
19.3580
25.4705
Beef fat
2.4448
6.4794
12.5395
19.8966
13.8234
26.9786
10.7518
17.3979
Beef liver fat
0.0455
0.0656
0.0756
0.1193
0.3364
0.2518
0.2634
0.3943
Lamb fat
0.1443
0.0795
0.0640
0.0455
0.3435
0.2693
0.2185
0.2210
Dairy fat
38.9867
16.4844
18.7030
30.1483
15.1627
22.7856
12.2980
16.7264
Pork fat
2.0059
8.1900
10.2186
15.2742
9.7095
19.2524
9.9596
16.1116
Poultry fat
1.0957
0.8319
1.2237
1.5970
1.2416
1.8352
1.2157
1.3982
Other
78.8062
67.7638
85.1162
127.2669
80.8883
105.5348
78.6520
94.0083
'Garden fruits refers to the vegetables we eat that are fruits (botanically speaking), such as tomatoes, peppers, and cucumbers. It does
not refer to apples, blueberries, etc.
Source: U.S. EPA, 1989a.
-------
"meat, fish, and poultiy"). Therefore, the resulting consumption values for each food still did not
reflect the raw commodities.
A second approach was presented in the draft Air Quality Criteria Document for Lead
(U.S. EPA, 1984a). Here, many of the individual foods from the Pennington (1983) diet were
fractionally apportioned into different food groups. For example, the food item "pancakes" was
apportioned as follows: 60 percent food crops, 10 percent dairy, and 30 percent meat,
representing the contribution from grains and milk and eggs, respectively. However, the number
of food groups employed was too few for use with the present methodology; that is, all oops
were lumped into a single categoiy. In addition, the apportionments were made not on the basis
of weight of each ingredient as desired for this analysis, but on the basis of the amount of lead in
each ingredient
Therefore, a new analysis of the Pennington (1983) diet was required for this
methodology. EPA converted the list into amoftnts of unprocessed commodities consumed (U.S.
EPA, 1989a). The percentages of dry matter and fat for each component were also listed.
These components were then aggregated into the specific commodity groups required for this
methodology. A summary of consumption for each categoiy by each age/sex group is presented
in Table 5.2.1-9. Two categories listed in Table 5.2.1-9 were later dropped—vegetable oil and
mushrooms. Vegetable oil was excluded, because it is the Agency's understanding that neither
the organic or inorganic pollutants from sewage sludge would remain after commercial
processing. Mushrooms were not evaluated because they constitute a negligible portion of the
human diet.
Table 5.2.1-9 presents food consumption for the eight age/sex groups that constitute a
subset of the total population. To develop an estimate of food consumption for the population
as a whole, the dietaiy consumption rates in Table 5.2.1-9 of males and females for each age
group (i.e., 14 to 16 years, 25 to 30 yean, and 60 to 65 years) were averaged. Since the data in
Table 5.2.1-9 did not cover all possible ages from infancy to 70 years, the age categories were
enlarged. To do this, the intake data for infants 6 to 11 months old in Table 5.2.1-9 were used
to represent all infants less than 1 year old in Table 5.2.1-10; the data for 2-year-olds in Table
5.2.1-9 were used to represent the intake of 1- to 5-year-olds in Table 5.2.1-10; the intake data
5-47
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TABLE 5.2.1-10
DIETARY INTAKE OF FOODS FOR DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS AND
ESTIMATED LIFETIME AVERAGE DAILY FOOD INTAKE FOR 70 YEARS.
AGE (yrs.)
Categoiy
<1
1-5
6-13
14-19
20-44
45-70
Estimated
Lifetime
g-diet DW/day
Food Derived Directly From Plants
Wheat
27.6020
42.2344
60.7956
79.3568
65.6612
55.1251
60.3
Com
3.9986
15.3541
19.2827
23.2113
17.8269
14.8232
17.0
Rice
2.2249 .
4.5845
5.2360
5.8875
5.7795
4.2102
5.03
Oats
3.7298
2.6502
2.2685
1.8867
1.3210
2.0001
1.85
Other grain
0.0106
0.0771
0.4056
0.7341
13.4516
4.4086
6.49
Total grain
37.5658
64.9004
87.9884
111.0764
104.0402
80.5671
90.7
Potato
5.6673
10.0335
14.7175
19.4015
17.2777
14.7901
15.6
Leafy vegetables
0.8380
0.4854
0.8505
1.2155
2.1615
2.6523
1.97
Legumes
3.8094
4.5571
6.5055
8.4539
9.8139
9.5011
8.75
Roots
3.0400
0.6678
1.1970
1.7262
1.7726
1.6408
1.60
Garden fruits
0.6650
1.6690
2.5688
3.4686
4.7529
4.8571
4.15
Peanuts
0.3363
2.2082
2.5603
2.9125
2.4274
1.9098
2.25
Mushrooms
0.0001
0.0127
0.0282
0.0436
0.1365
0.0606
0.078
Vegetable oil
27.6209
17.6867
27.5407
37.3947
37.2020
27.8350
31.2
-------
TABLE 5.2.1-10 (conk)
AGE (yrs.)
Categoiy
<1
1-5
6-13
14-19
20-44
45-70
i
Estimated
Lifetime
—gullet DW/day—
Food Derived From Animals
Beef
3.9890
9.6621
15.6432
21.6243
23.2823
18.3431
Beef liver
0.1666
0.2401
0.2983
0.3565
1.0762
1.2033
0.90
Lamb
0.1393
0.0768
0.0648
0.0529
0.2958
0.2122
0.20
Pork
1.3382
4.2907
6.5752
8.8598
10.2682
9.9417
?.05
Poultry
2.2693
3.7573
5.3933
7.0292
7.6435
6.8702
6.70
Fish
0.3387
1.2005
1.9042
2.6080
4.0855
3.8684
3J7
Egg
3.2709
6.9135
7,2149
7.5164
8.3457
9.3309
8M
Dairy
40.6970
32.9356
38.2261
43.5167
27.5246
22.4142
28.9
Beef fat
2.4448
6.4794
11.3488
16.2181
20.4010
14.0748
15J
Beef liver fat
0.0455
0.0656
0.0815
0.0974
0.2941
0.3289
0^246 |
Lamb fat
0.1443
0.0795
0.0671
0.0548
0.3064
0.2198
0.208 1
Dairy fat
38.9867
16.4844
20.4550
24.4256
18.9742
14.5122
18.1 j
if
Pork fat
2.0059
8.1900
10.4682
12.7464
14.4810
13.0356
12.7
Poultiy fat
1.0957
0.8319
1.1211
1.4103
1.5384
1.3069
1J4
-------
TABLE 5.2.1-10 (cont)
j AGE (yw.)
Category
<1
1-5
6-13
14-19
20-44
45-70
Estimated
Lifetime
g-dkl DW/d»y-«—
Other
78.8062
67.7638
86.9777
106.1915
93.2116
86.3302
89.1
^Average D%me - <' * 5 ' ('"5) * 8 ' (6'13) * 6 ' ('4"19) * 25 ' (2°"l4) * 25 ' (45"70)
Food Intake 70
-------
for ages 14 to 16 were used to represent the intake of 14- to 19-year-olds in Table 5.2.1-10; for
ages 6 to 13 years, intake was arbitrarily set equal to the average of that for the 1- to 5-year-olds
and the 14- to 19-ycar-olds in Table 5.2.1-9; the intake data for 25- to 30-year-olds in Table
5.2.1-9 were used to represent the intake of 20- to 44-year-olds in Table 5.2.1-10; and the intake
data for 60- to 65-year-olds in Table 5.2.1-9 were used to represent the intake for 45- to 70-year-
olds in Table 5-2.1-10. Hie resulting numbers were used to calculate a weighted average intake
for each food group over a lifetime according to the equation shown at the bottom of
Table 5.2.1-10. This weighted average is called the Estimated Lifetime Average Daily Food
Intake.
5.2.1.4.1.24 Fraction of Food Produced on Sewage Sludge-Amended Soil, FC
The fraction of an individual's diet affected by sewage sludge is proportional to the
percentage of diet produced on sewage sludge-afaended land. If the sewage sludge was
distributed proportionally by crop on the available land, the fraction of a food group originating
from sewage sludge-amended soil could not exceed (lie fraction of cropland in the United States
that would be needed to receive ail the sewage sludge produced. This approach assumes that
using typical rates of fertilization and irrigation results in yields equivalent to those resulting
from sewage sludge application.
The Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST, 1976) estimated that if all
the sewage sludge generated in the United States was distributed evenly on cropland and crops,
0.49 to 1.98 percent of the total available cropland was required based on 1 percent and 4
percent available (inorganic) nitrogen, respectively, plus an additional 15 to 20 percent of this
amount in the organic form. (Acreages were calculated on the basis of applying sewage sludge at
rates that supply 100 lb of available nitrogen per acre (112 kg/ha).) If the same percentage of
each food group was grown on sewage sludge-amended soil, the fraction of a food group
assumed to originate from sewage sludge-amended soil would be 0.49 to 1.98 percent If mixing
were-incomplete, the fraction of a particular food group grown on sewage sludge-amended soil
could be much lower or much higher. Of the 48 states for which data were available, the range
of cropland needed was 146 percent for Rhode Island and 0.08 percent for North Dakota (see
5-51
-------
Table 5.2.1-11). Therefore, assuming complete mixing nationwide may not be sufficiently
conservative. Since using the CAST estimate of the United States as a whole may not be
sufficiently worst-case, the arithmetic mean of the estimates for the United States and New
Jersey, 29 percent [(2 + S5)/2], was used to represent the percentage of food grown on
agricultural land that has been treated with sewage sludge for the case in which all sewage sludge
is applied to land used exclusively to grow crops for human consumption.
Not all of the sewage sludge produced, however, is applied to land. Large treatment
plants (greater than 10 million gallons/day [MOD]), characteristic of large population centers,
apply 16 percent of- their sewage sludge to land; while small plants (less than 1 MGD),
characteristic of rural areas, apply 31 percent of their sewage sludge to land (Pierce and Bailey,
1982). Although both of these percentages apply to all land (agricultural as well as other types
of land), for the purposes of this risk assessment, the conservative assumption was made that
these percentages applied solely to agricultural land. Pierce and Bailey (1982) used a weighted
average of the small and large plants and estimated that 17 percent of all sewage sludge
*
produced is applied to agricultural land.
The product of the percentage of human diet from crops grown on sewage sludge-
amended soil if all sewage sludge is land-applied to agricultural land (29 percent), times the
estimated percentage of sewage sludge that is actually land-applied (17 percent), yields a value of
0.050 (0.29 x 0.17), or 5.0 percent, as a reasonable worst-case estimate. The use of this value for
all food group may overestimate exposure, because not all sewage sludge-grown crops are used
for human consumption. For example, livestock feed, export, and seed uses of grain produced in
the United States exceed the amounts used directly for human food production (CAST, 1976).
Therefore one-half of 5.0 percent, or 2.5 percent, was used as a reasonable estimate of the
percentage of food grown for human consumption on agricultural land on which sewage sludge
has been applied.
5.2.1.4.1.3 Input and Output Values
Input and output values for inorganic pollutants are presented in Table 5.2.1-12.
5-52
-------
TABLE 5.2.1-11
ESTIMATED ANNUAL CROPLAND REQUIREMENTS FOR UTILIZATION
OF THE SLUDGE IN AtSRICULTURE INTHE UNTTEDrSTATES IN 1985
Cropland Required to Accept the |
Sludge Having the Indicated Content
of Nitrogen*
1% Available
Nitrogen
4% Available
Nitrogen
State
Population"
(Millions)
Percent of
Total Cropland
Percent of
Total Cropland
Alabama
3.91
0.75
3.02 |
Arkansas
2.45
139
5.54
Alaska
2.18
0.19
0.75
California
23.66
252
10.09
Colorado
2.73*
033
1.31
Connecticut
3.53
16.11
64.42
Delaware
0.66
0.90
3.61 1
Florida
9.90
4.91
19.64
Georgia
5.51
0.77
3.10
Idaho
0.72
0.11
0.46
Illinois
12.56
038
1.51
Indiana
6.07
0.34
136
Iowa
2.95
0.08
033
Kansas
2.25
0.07
0.28
Kentucky
3.79
055
2.21
Louisiana
3.84
0.72
2.87
Maine
0.98
1.60
639
Maryland
4.86
2.17
8.70
Massachusetts
6.56
29.93
119.72
Michigan
10.18
1.11
4.44
Minnesota
433
0.15
059
5-53
-------
TABLE 5X1-11 (cont)
Cropland Required to Accept the
Sludge Having the Indicated Content
of Nitrogen*
1% Available
Nitrogen
4% Available
Nitrogen
Q State
Population"
(Millions)
Percent of
Total Cropland
Percent of
Total Cropland |
Mississippi
2.39
0.29
1.18 |
Missouri
5.25
0.27
1.09 j
Montana
0.67
0.05
0,20
Nebraska
1.53
0.06
0.24
Nevada
0.68
0.93
3.72
New Hampshire
0.88
5.48
21.90
New Jersey
8.49
13.83
55.34
New Mexico
1.09
0.60
2.41 |
New York
20.13
3.38
13.51 |
North Carolina
6.09
0.88
3.51 J
North Dakota
0.57
0.02
0.08
Ohio
12.12
0.77
3.09
Oklahoma
2.88
0.19
0.76 |
1 Oregon
2.43
0.63
2.52
Pennsylvania
13.03
1.99
7.96
Rhode Island
1.07
36.61
146.46
South Carolina
2.97
0.74
2.97
I South Dakota
0.65
0.03
0.12
Tennessee
4.86
0.72
2.89
Texas
12.85
0.38
1.52 1
Utah
1.23
0.73
2.90 |
Vermont
0.50
0.59
2.36 I
1
5.70
1.37
5.48 |
5-54
-------
TABLE 5A1-11 (coot.)
. -. Cropland Required to Accept the |
Sludge Having the Indicated Content 1
of Nitrogen*
1% Available
Nitrogen
4% Available
Nitrogen
State
Population*
(Millions)
Percent of
Total Cropland
Percent of
Total Cropland
| Washington
3.68
0.52
2.09
West Virginia
1.84
1.66
6.63
Wisconsin
4.87
0.36
1.46
1 Wyoming
033
0.12
030 1
) USA
234JO
0.49
1.98 |
*1985 population estimates for population and cropland projects (Water Resources
Council, 1972),
bSewage sludge containing 1 percent or 4 percent available nitrogen (i.e., inorganic
nitrogen) plus an additional 15 to 20 percent of this amount in organic form. Percentage of
cropland is calculated on the baas of applying sludge at rates that supply 112 kg of available
nitrogen per hectare.
Source: CAST, 1976
5-55
-------
TABLE 5.2.1-12
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 1
Arsenic
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RID
0.0008
Potatoes
0.002
15.5954
0.025
0.00073
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.018
1.9672
0.025
0.00091
RE
I
Legumes
o.ooi
8.7462
0.025
0.00024
TBI
0.012
Root vegetables
0.004
1.5950
0.025
0.00015
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.025
0.00015
RIA
44
Peanuts
0.001
2.2538
0.025
0.00006
Grains and cereals
0.002
90.6802
0.025
0.00430
|RPc
6700|
sum UC*DC*FC
0.00654
Cadmium
| Food Group
UC
DC
* FC
UCDC-FC
Potatoes
0.004
15.5954
0.025
0.00155
Leafy vegetables
0.182
1.9672
0.025
0.00895
Legumes
0.002
8.7462
0.025
0.00041
Root vegetables
0.032
1.5950
0.025
0.00129
Garden fruits
0.045
4.1517
0.025
0.00468
Peanuts
0.002
2.2538
0.025
0.00011
Grains and cereals
0.031
90.6802
0.025
0.07118
sum UC-DC-FC
0.08817
Mercury
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.025
0.00039
Leafy vegetables
0.004
1.9672
0.025
0.00022
Legumes
0.001
8.7462
0.025
0.00023
Root vegetables
0.007
1.5950
0.025
0.00028
Garden fruits
0.005
4.1517
0.025
0.00047
Peanuts
0.001
2.2538
0.025
0.00006
Grains and cereals
0.043
90.6802
0.025
0.09688
sum
UC*DC*FC
0.09854
RfD
0.001
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.01614
53.86
IRPC | 6101
RfD
0.0003
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.0032
RIA
17.8
wmmmmmm
|RPc
29
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-56
-------
TABLE 5.2.1-12 (coat)
Nickel
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Potatoes
0.005
15.5954
0.025
0.00195
Leafy vegetables
0.016
1.9672
0.025
0.00078
0.031
8.7462
0.025
0.00672
Root vegetables
0.004
1.5950
0.025
0.00015
fiawlen fruits
0.003
4.1517
0.025
0.00034
Peanuts
0.031
2.2538
0.025
0.00173
Grains and cereals
0.003
90.6802
0.025
0.00755
Selenium
sum UC*DC*FC
0.01922
Potatoes
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
0.021
15.5954
0.025
0.00810
Leafy vegetables
0.008
1.9672
* 0.025
0.00038
Legumes
0.012
8.7462
0.025
0.00273
Root vegetables
0.011
13950
0.025
0.00043
Garden fruits
0.010
4.1517
0.025
0.00106
Peanuts
0.012
2.2538
0.025
0.00070
Grains and cereals
0.001
90.6802
0.025
0.00227
sum UC*DC*FC
0.01567
Zinc
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Potatoes
0.012
15.5954
0.025
0.00454
Leafy vegetables
0.125
1.9672
0.025
0.00613
Legumes
0.018
8.7462
0.025
0.90387
Root vegetables
0.022
1.5950
0.025
0.00087
Garden fruits
0.023
4.1517
0.025
0.00240
Peanuts
0.018
2.2538
0.025
0.00100
Grains and cereals
0.027
90.6802
0.025
0.06064
sum
JC*DC*FC
0.07944
RID
0.02
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.173
RIA
1227
|RFc | 63000|
RfD
0.005
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.115
RIA
235
|RFe | 140001
RfD
0.21
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
13.42
RIA
1280
I1600°1
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of tabic for acronym definitions and units.
5-57
-------
TABLE 5,2.1-12 (coat)
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UC * uptake response slope of pollutant in plant tissue (jig-poHutant/g-plant tissue DW)/(kg-pollutanl/ha)
DC « daily dietary consumption of food group (g-diet DW/day)
FC w fraction of food group produced on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
RfD » oral reference dose (mg/kg-day) -
BW =* human body weight (kg)
RE * relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI** total background intake rase of pollutant from all other sources of exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
RIA *= adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (jig-pollutant/day)
RPc » reference cumulative application rats of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
5-58
-------
5.2.1.4.1.4 Sample Calculations
-The following calculations, iisingrarscnlc as an example, show the derivation of the risk
assessment output for Agricultural Pathway 1:
MA-f"0 • BW . tb,) . 10»
\ RE )
= 44 |ig-tfsenic/g«day
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutants in humans (/xg-pollutant/day)
RfD = oral reference dose (iog/Kg* day)
BW = human body weight (kg) *
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from ail other sources of
exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
103 = conversion factor (/tg/mg)
Substituting the above value for RIA and the value for the E(UODOFC) as given in Table
5.2.1-12 into Equation 2, RPC is calculated to be:
_ RIA
C
EOjq.Dq.FC,)
44 (5)
~ 0.00654
= 6,700 kg-atseoic/ha
where:
RPC = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (/ig-pollutant/day)
5-59
-------
UCj = uptake response slope of pollutants in plant tissue for the food group
i (fig-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)(kg-poilutant DW/ha)"1
DCj = daily dietary consumption of the food group i (g-diet DW/day)
FQ = fraction of food group i produced on sewage-sludge-amended soil
(unitlcss)
52J.42 Organics
5.2.1.4.2.1 Equations
The RIA is calculated from:
RIA
RL'BW
q^.RE
- TBI
(6)
where:
RIA
_
adjusted reference intake in humans (jig-pollutant/day)
RL
=
risk level
BW
=
human body weight
q»*
__
human cancer potency (rag/kg* day)"1
RE
=
relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI
=
total background intake rate of pollutant (mg-pollutant/day)
103
—
conversion factor (fig/mg)
For organics, plant uptake is regressed against soil concentration; therefore the next step
is to calculate RLC from:
RLC » •= — (7)
ECUq^DC/PCj)
where:
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (^g-pollutant/day)
UCj = uptake response slope of pollutants in plant tissue for the food group
i (jug-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)(/ig-pollutant/g-soil DW)"1
DC, = daily dietaiy consumption of the food group i (g-diet DW/day)
FQ = fraction of food group i produced on sewage-sludge-amended soil
(unitlcss)
5-60
-------
It should be noted that the units for UQ in equation (7) differ from those in equation
(2), because in this equation the concentration of pollutant in plant tissue is regressed against
concentration of pollutant in soil, whereas in equation (2) plant tissue is regressed against the
application rate of pollutants to the soil.
Finally, soil concentration RLC is converted to an annual application rate (RP,) by
considering the mass of soil (MS) and the decay series:
RP, = RLC*MS*10"9,[1 +e"k+e"Jk+.,..+e
-------
5.2.1.4X2 Input Parameters
SJ.1.422.1 Adjusted Reference Intake in Humans, RIA
As stated in Section 5.2.1.4.1.2.1, the values used to calculate RIAs are designed to
protect the sensitive members of the population. Thus, if the entire population experienced the
level of exposure these values represent, only a small portion of the population would be at risk.
Hie definition and derivation of each of the parameters used to estimate RIA for
nonthreshold-acting toxicants are farther discussed in the following sections.
5.2.1.4.2X2 Risk Level, RL
Since by definition no "safe" level exists for exposure to nonthreshold toxicants,
specification of a given risk level on which to base regulations is a matter of policy. For this risk
assessment, RL was set at 10"*. The RIA will; therefore, be the concentration that, for lifetime
exposure, is calculated to haw an upper-bound cancer risk of one case in 10,OCX) individuals
exposed. This risk level refers to excess cancer risk that is over and above the background cancer
risk in unexposed individuals.
5X1.4X2 J Body Weight, BW
An adult body weight of 70 kg was used, as explained in Section 5.2.1.4.1.23.
5X1.4X24 Total Background Intake Rate of Pollutant, TBI
Because there is no available data, the TBI values for inorganics are assumed to be
negligible.
5-62
-------
5.2.1.4.2.25 Human Cancer Potency, q,*
Thc-canccf-potcncy value (q,*) represents 4he«relationship.between a specified
carcinogenic dose and its associated degree of risk. Hie qt* is based on continual exposure of an
individual to a specified concentration over a period of 70 years. Established EPA methodology
for determining cancer potency values assumes that any degree of exposure to a carcinogen
produces a measurable risk. The q,* value is the cancer risk (the proportion affected) per unit
of dose; it is expressed in terms of risk per dose and is measured in units of milligrams of
pollutant per kilogram of body weight per day of exposure (mg/kg'day)"1. Hie q,*s were taken
from IRIS. When a qx* was not available in IRIS, the pending value was used, if applicable, or,
if one had been previously approved but had been withdrawn, the former approved number was
used. For aldrin/dieldrin, the q* for dieldrin was used, and for DDE/DDD/DDT, the q,* for
DDT was used. See Table 5.2.1-13 for a summary of the qt*s used in this risk assessment.
*
Si.l.4iX6 Relative Effectiveness of Ingestion Exposure, RE
As stated previously, an RE factor should be applied only where well-documented/refer-
enced information is available on the contaminant's observed relative effectiveness. Since this
information was not available for any of the carcinogens, RE was set equal to 1.
5.2.1.4.2JL7 Reference Concentration of Pollutant in Soil, RLC
Since plant uptake is assumed to be in direct proportion to the concentration of pollutant
in soil, the allowable concentration of pollutant is given as the reference concentration of
pollutant in soil.
5-63
-------
TABLE 5.2.1-13
ORAL UPTAKE SLOPES FOR CARCINOGENS (mg/kg*day)
| Pollutant
Oral Uptake Slope (qt*) (mg/kg«day)
Aldrin/Dieldrin
16 (based on dieldrin)*
Benzo(a)pyrene
7.3
Chlordane
13
DDT/DDE/DDD
034 (based on DDT)b
Heptachlor
4.5
Hexachlorobenzene
1.6
Hexachlorobutadiene
0.078
Lindane
133®
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
51
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
7.7
*
Toxaphene
1.1
Trichloroethylene
0.011d
* The q,* for aldrin is 17, but aldrin is rarely found in sludges, so the q,* for dieldrin was used.
h The q,*s for DDD and DDE are .24 and .34, respectively.
° Pending.
- Withdrawn by EPA 7/1/92.
5-64
-------
5^1.4218 Uptake Response Slope of Pollutants io Plant Tissue for the Food Group,
UC
Because veiy little data were available on the uptake of organic compounds by plants, the
response slopes could not be calculated. They were therefore conservatively set to a default
slope of 0.001.
SJ.1.422J Daily Dietary Consumption of tlie Food Group, DC
The daily dietary consumption of each food group is the same as that presented for the
inorganic compounds in Section 5.2.1.4.1.2.7.
5X1.4X2.10 Fraction of Food Group Produced on Sewage Sludge-Amended Soil, FC
t
Hie fraction of each food group produced on sewage sludge-amended soil is the same for
organic compounds as for inorganic compounds—2.5 percent See Section 5X1.4.1.2.8 for a
discussion of the derivation of this value.
5X1.4X2.11 Reference Annual Application Rate of Pollutant, RP,
h
The reference annual application rate applies to organic compounds that degrade in the
environment. The amount of pollutant in sludge that can be added to a hectare each year takes
this degradation into account.
5X1.4X2.12 Assumed Mass of Dry Soil in Upper 15 em, MS
Where sewage sludge is incorporated into the upper layer of soil, incorporation is usually
accomplished by disking or chisel plowing of surface-applied sludge, or by directly injecting it
5-65
-------
into the soil. An assumption typically used is that sludge is mixed into the soil to a depth of 15
cm (6 in), and that the soil has a bulk density of 1.33 g/cm3. This is based on the average density
of clay and loam found in the root zone of the crop. Therefore, the dry mass of this upper layer
of soil is 2*.10*g DW/ha (Naylor^and Loehr, 1982;. Donahue et al., 1983).
5.2.1.4.2.2.13 Decay Rate Constant, k
Organic pollutants may be subject to some or all of the following loss processes:
volatilization, degradation, and leaching. Modeling of these processes is extremely complex. A
simpler means for estimating loss is based on empirical data from soil systems that have been
monitored over time. Such data may be used to estimate a first-order decay rate constant for
pollutants. Years of application, k, is calculated as a function of the empirically derived half-life
of the pollutant in soil, T0J(yr), from the following equation:
where:
k = first-order decay rate constant (yr1)
In = natural logarithm
half-life of pollutant in soil (yr)
The loss rate constant (k) is used in a decay series that represents pollutant loss from the
soil. This series could be expanded indefinitely. It is therefore necessary to determine how many
terms, n, to use. The ideal point to stop adding more terms is when additional terms make an
insignificant change in the total sum of the series (i.e. the series has converged). The half-lives
used to calculate the loss rate constants are presented in Table 5.2.1-14.
Years of Application, n. The number of terms, n, required to reach convergence can be
determined from:
n » ^ (11)
5-66
-------
TABLE 5.2.1-14
AEROBIC DEGRADATION OF POLLUTANTS
| Pollutant
Decay Rates (days) |
1 Aldrin
4.77*
| Benzo(a)pyrene
0.48*
1 Chlordane
0k
I DDT
0.04s
1 Dieldrin
0"*
Heptachlor
6.02®
Hexachlorobenzene
0.12**
Hexachlorobutadiene
1.4V4
Lindane
1.2*
1 Nitrosodimethylamine
5.1'
| PCBs
0.063k
1 Toxaphene
1.21
1 Trichloroethene
0.78- |
'Castro and Yoshida, 1971.
•"Howard, 1991.
U-S. EPA. Pesticide and Industrial Chemical Risk Analysis and Hazard Assessment.
PIRANHA, Version 2.0.
dBeck and Hansen, 1974.
•Howard et al., 1991.
'Zoeteman et al., 1980 and Tabak and Barth, 1978.
•Coover and Sims, 1987.
kEllington et al., 1988.
Stewart and Chisholm, 1971.
Tate and Alexander, 1975.
'Fries, 1982.
¦Consensus value agreed upon by the PRC at their March 8,1991 meeting.
"Dilling et al., 1975.
5-67
-------
where:
n » years of application until equilibrium conditions are reached (yr)
k = loss rate constant (yr1)
In Equation 11, it can be deduced that, if n is greater than or equal to 5.6 divided by k,
the final term, e*1**^, will be less than 0.01, the effect on the concentration of pollutant in soil of
further applications of sewage sludge-will then be zero. A more practical explanation of this is
that the rate of loss of pollutant from the soil becomes very nearly equal to the rate of
application, and therefore soil concentration does not increase significantly. However, for this
risk assessment the decision was made to set n at 100 years for consistency; for some organics the
half-life is sufficiently long that convergence occurs after 100 years, while convergence occurs
before 100 years for other organics. This assumption is conservative, given that the risk for
humans in all pathways in which the HEI is a human (except Pathway 3: child eating sludge) is
assessed for a 70-year lifetime based on the use of the RID and the q,*, both of which are based
on a 70-year lifetime exposure.
t
Si.1.423 Input and Output Values
Input and output values are presented in Table 5.2.1-15.
5.2.1.4JL4 Sample Calculations
As discussed in Section 5.2.1.4.2.1, there are two approaches for calculating risk
assessment outputs for organics. Hie first is for organics that degrade over time. Hie following
is a sample calculation for such an organic, benzo(a)pyrene.
5-68
-------
TABLE 5.2.1-15
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
' TOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 1
Aldrin/Diddrii)
1 Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Potatoes
0,001
IS.5954
0.025
0.00039
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.025
0.00005
Legumes
0.001
8.7462
0.025
0.00022
Roc* vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.025
0.00004
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.025
0.00010
Peanuts
0.001
2.2538
0.025
0.00006
Grains and cereals
0.001
90.6802
0.025
0.00227
sum
UC*DC*FC
0.00312
Benzo(a)pyrene
«
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.025
0.00039
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.025
0.00005
Legumes
0.001
8.7462
0.025
0.00022
Roc* vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.025
0.00004
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.025
0.00010
Peanuts
0.001
2.2538
0.025
0.00006
Grains and cereals
0.001
90.6802
0.025
0.00227
sum
JC*DC*FC
0.00312
RL
I.OOE-04
BW
70
ui*
16
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
RIA
0.438
RLC
140.012
|RPc 280|
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
at*
7.3
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
k
0.48
RIA
0.959
RLC
306.875
IrpT
Kmmhh
2301
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see cod of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-69
-------
TABLE 5.2.1-15 (cont.)
Chlordane
Food Group
UC
DC
UC*DC*FC
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.025
0.00039
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.025
0.00005
Legumes
0.001
8.7462
0.025
0.00022
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.025
0.00004
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.025
0.00010
Peanuts
0.001
2.2538
0.025
0.00006
Grains and cereals
0.001
90.6802
0.025
0.00227
sum
[JC*DOFC
0.00312
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
1.3
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
RIA
5.385
RLC
1723.22
|RPc | 34001
DDT
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
1.00E-04
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.025
0.00039
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.025
0.00005
ql«
0.34
Legumes
0.001
8.7462
0.025
0.00022
RE
1
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.025
0.00004
DE
1
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.025
0.00010
MS
2E+09
Peanuts
0.001
2.2538
0.025
0.00006
c
0.04
Grains and cereals
0.001
90.6802
0.025
0.00227
sum
LJC*DOFC
0.00312
RIA
20.588
1
RLC
RPa j
6588.789
560|
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-70
-------
TABLE 5.2.1-15 (eont)
Heptachlor
H Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.025
0.00039
RLeafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.025
0.00005
iLegumes
0.001
8.7462
0.025
0,00022
¦Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.025
0.00004
(Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.025
0.00010
jjPeanuts
0.001
2.2538
0.025
0.00006
(Grains and cereals
0.001
90.6802
0.025
0.00227
I
SUB
UODC-FC
0.00312
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
4.5
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
k
6.024
RIA
1.556
RLC
497.820
|RPa | 990|
Hexachlorobenzene
1 Food Group
UC
0.001
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
1.001-04
Potatoes
15.5954
0.025
0.00039
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.025
0.00005
q1*
1.6
Legumes
0.001
8.7462
0.025
0.00022
RE
1
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.025
0.00004
DE
1
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.025
0.00010
MS
21409
Peanuts
0.001
2.2538
0.025
0.00006
t
0.122
Grains and cereals
0.001
90.6802
0.025
0.00227
sum-
UC*DC*FC
0.00312
RIA
4.375
RLC
1400.118
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end oftablelbr acronym definitions and units.
«
5-71
-------
TABLE 5.2.1-15 (cont)
Hexichlorobutadiene
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC»FC
RL
1.00E-04
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.025
0.00039
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.025
0.00005
0.078
Legumes
0.001
8.7462
0.025
0.00022
RE
1
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.025
0.00004
DE
1
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.025
0.00010
MS
2E+09
Peanuts
0.001
2.2538
0,025
0.00006
It
1.406
Grains and cereals
0.001
90.6802
0.025
0.00227
sum
UC*DC»FC
0.00312
RIA
89.744
RLC
28720.361
j_ 43000I
Lindane
Food Group •
UC
DC
• FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
1.00E-04
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.025
0.00039
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.025
0.00005
ql*
1.33
Legumes
0.001
8.7462
0.025
0.00022
RE
1
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.025
0.00004
DE
1
Garden ftuits
0.001
4.1517
0.025
0.00010
MS
2E+09
Peanuts
0.001
2.2538
0.025
0.00006
c
1.2
Grains and cereals
0.001
90.6802
0.025
0.00227
snm.UC*DC*FC
0.00312
RIA
5.263
RLC
1684.352
jRPa | 2300|
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see aid of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-72
-------
TABLE 5.2.1-15 (cont)
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
Food Group
uc
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
1.00E-04
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.025
0.00039
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.025
0.00005
ql*
51
Legumes
0.001
8.7462
0.025
0.00022
RE
1
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.025
0.00004
DE
I
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.025
0.00010
MS
2E+09
Peanuts
0.001
2.2538
0.025
0.00006
It
5.1
fGrains and cereals
0.001
90.6802
0.025
0.00227
r
sum UC*DC*FC
0.00312
RIA
0.137
RLC
43.925
|RP» | 87|
PCBs
| Food Group
UC
DC
" FC
UC*DC*FC
jPotatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.025
0.00039
iLeafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.025
0.00005
|Legumes
0.001
8.7462
0.025
0.00022
|Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.025
0.00004
|Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.025
0.00010
Peanuts
0.001
2.2538
0.025
0.00006
Grains and cereals
0.001
90.6802
0.025
0.00227
1
sum UC*DC*FC
0.00312
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
Ql*
7.7
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
i
0.063
RIA
0.909
RLC
290.934
|RP» | 37|
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-73
-------
TABLE 5.2.1-15 (cont)
Toxaphene
| Food Group
UC
0.001
PC
15.5954
FC
UC-DC-FC
Potatoes
0.025
0.00039
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.025
0.00005
Legumes
0.001
8.7462
0.025
0.00022
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.025
0.00004
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.025
0.00010
Peanuts
0.001
2.2538
0.025
0.00006
Grains and cereals
0.001
90.6802
0.025
0.00227
sum
SJC*DC*FC
0.00312
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
til*
1.1
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
k
1.2
RIA
6,364
RLC
2036.535
|rPii
15551
T richloroethylene
Food Group
UC
DC
. FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
1.00E-04
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.025
0.00039
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.025
0.00005
ql*
0.011
Legumes
0.001
8.7462
0.025
0.00022
RE
1
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.025
0.00004
DE
1
Gardes fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.025
0.00010
MS
2E+09
Peanuts
0.001
2.2538
0.025
0.00006
c
0.78
Grains and cereals
0.001
90.6802
0.025
0.00227
sum
LJC*DC*FC
0.00312
636.364
|RP»
203653.47
220000|
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UC * uptake response slope of pollutant in plant tissue (ng-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)/(kg-poOutant/ha)
DC = daily dietary consumption of food group (g-diet DW/day)
FC - fraction of food group produced on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
RL * risk level (unitless)
BW « human body weight (kg)
qf * human cancer potency (mg/kg-day^H-1)
RE * relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
DE s exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
MS * assumed mass of dry soQ in upper IS cm (g-soil DW/ha)
5-74
-------
TABLE 5.2.1-15 (cont)
k «loss rate constant (yr)*(-l)
RIA ^^djustedTBfiaxace intakeofpolhitant in humans (ng-pollutant/day)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (jig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RPc = reference cumulative application rate at pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RPa = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha-yr)
5-75
-------
1L*BW *
» *»* PW - TBI .10s
, RE
0.0001 »70
(12)
V }
* 0.959 pg-beozo(a)pyEeiie/day
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (/ig-pollutant/day)
RL = risk level
BW = human body weight
q,* = human cancer potency (mg/kg'day)"1
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant (rag-pollutant/day)
10* = conversion factor (/ig/mg)
For organics, plant uptake is regressed against soil concentration; therefore, the next step
is to calculate RLC from:
RLC =
ECUq.DCj'PCj)
0.959
0.003
(13)
¦ 306.875 |ig-beazo(a)pyKaK/g-soil DW
where:
DC, -
FC, =
RLC -
RIA =
UC, -
reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
adjusted reference intake in humans (/ig-pollutant/day)
uptake response slope of pollutants in plant tissue for the
food group i (/xg-poilutant/g-plant tissue DW)(pg-poUutant/g-soil DW)*1
daily dietary consumption of the food group i (g-diet DW/day)
fraction of food group i produced on sewage sludge-amended soil
(unitless)
5-76
-------
Next, it is necessary to incorporate into the analysis pollutant loss from the soil,
order loss rate constant is derived from the pollutant half-life:
A first-
k « M • .M. » 0.48yr"1 (14)
toj 144
where:
k = first-order decay rate constant (yr1)
In = natural logarithm
To5 - half-life of pollutant in soil (yr)
Finally, soil concentration RLC is converted to an annual application rate by considering
mass of soil (MS) and the 100-year decay series discussed above:
RP, - RLC +e"*+e+e(l**)k]"1
= 230 kg-beozo(&)pyiens/ha«yr*
where:
RP, = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha • yr)
RLC - reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = 2* 10* g-soil DW/ha = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm
10"® = conversion factor (kg/jtg)
e = base of natural logarithms, 2.718 (unitless)
k = loss rate constant (yr1)
n = years of application until equilibrium conditions reached (yr)
The second approach is for organics that do not degrade over time. Hie calculations are
identical to the first approach for organics, until the final calculation. The difference between
the two approaches is that the output of the second approach is a cumulative pollutant
application rate of the pollutant, as shown for chlordane:
5-77
-------
RPC - RLOMS^IO"9
- i723.22-<2»ioVio-* (16)
- « 3,400 ig-chlocdane/ba
where:
RPC = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RLC as reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = 2*10* g-soil DW/ha = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm
10"® = conversion factor (kg//ig)
5-78
-------
SJ.2 Agricultaral Pathway 2 (Hunan Toxicity from Plant Ingestion—Home Gardener)
~S22.lJD*scriptu>nofPathway
SeWage Sludge -» Soil -* Plant -* Human
This pathway evaluates the case in which the soil in a home garden has been amended
with sewage sludge. The major difference between Pathways 1 and 2 is the fraction of food
groups produced on sewage sludge-amended soil, represented by the variable FC. In addition,
peanuts and dried legumes are not included, because it is unlikely that home gardeners would
grow them.
5JJJ Pollutants Evaluated
*
like Agricultural Pathway 1, both die inorganic and organic pollutants were evaluated.
See Pathway 1 for further discussion. The pollutants evaluated for this pathway are listed in
Table 5.22-1.
5.2 J J Highly Exposed Individual
The HEI for this pathway is the home gardener who grows a major portion of his or her
diet in soil that has been amended with sewage sludge.
522.4 Algorithm Development
5JL2.4.1 Inorganics
Equations
The RIA for inorganics is derived as follows:
5-79
-------
TABLE SJJL-l
POLLUTANTS EVALUATED
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 2
| Iooiganics
Organic;, |
Arsenic
Aldrin/Dieldrin |
Cadmium
Bcn2D(a)pyrene |
Mercury
ChJordane
Nickel
DDD/DDEflDDT
Selenium
Heptachlor
Zinc
Hexachlorobenzcne
Hexachlorobutadienc
Lindane
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
t
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Toxaphene
Trichloroethylene
5-80
-------
RIA = " TBlj • 10* CD
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutants in human beings (pg-pollutant/day)
RfD = oral reference dose (mg/kgBday)
BW = human body weight (kg)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of
exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
10* = conversion factor (/tg/mg)
Then, RPe is calculated from:
RP « (21
c E(uc1.dc|.fci)
where:
RPC = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (/ig-pollutant/day)
UC; = uptake response slope of pollutants in plant tissue for the food group
i (/ig-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)(kg-poliutant DW/ha)'1
DC, = daily dietary consumption of die food group i (g-diet DW/day)
FQ = fraction of food group i produced on sewage sludge-amended soil
(unitless)
Input Parameters
Adjusted Reference Intake, RIA. The values used to calculate RIAs are designed to
protect the sensitive members of the population. The definition and derivation of each of the
parameters used to estimate RIA for threshold-acting toxicants are farther discussed in the
following sections.
Oral Reference Dose, RID. Hie same RfDs were used in this pathway as in Pathway 1
(see Table 5.2.1-3). Inorganics were assessed as threshold chemicals, and the RfDs were taken
from IRIS (U.S. EPA, 1992h). For zinc, the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) was used
instead of the RfD, because the RfD did not meet the RDA, which is required to maintain
health. (For a more detailed discussion, see Section 52.1AA22 in Pathway 1.)
5-81
-------
Hainan Body Weight, BW. An adult body weight of 70 kg was used (see Section
5.2.1.4.1.23).
Relative Effectiveness of Ingestion Exposure, RE. An RE factorshoirfdbe -applied only
where well-docuraented/referenced information is available on the contaminant's observed
relative effectiveness. Since this information was not available for any of the pollutants, RE was
set equal to 1 (see Section 5.2.1.4.1.2.4).
Total Background Intake Rate of Pollutant from All Other Sources of Exposure, TBI.
Humans are exposed to pollutants found in sewage sludge (e.g,, cadmium, volatile organic
compounds), even if no sewage sludge is applied to agricultural land. These sources include
background levels (natural and/or anthropogenic) in drinking water, food, and air. When TBI is
subtracted from the weight-adjusted RfD, the remainder defines the increment that can result
from use or disposal of sewage sludge without exceeding the threshold. The TBIs used for adults
are summarized in Table 5.2.1-4 in Pathway 1.
«
Daity Dietaiy Consumption of Food Group, DC. The Highly Exposed Individual is the
home gardener who produces and consumes grains and cereals, potatoes, leafy vegetables, fresh
legumes, root vegetables, and garden fruits; these are also consumed, but not produced, by the
HEI in Pathway 1. In Pathway 1, the category of legume vegetables includes dried legumes
(e.g., dried beans), and fresh legumes. For Pathway 2, only fresh legumes were included, since
home gardeners do not usually grow the dried legumes they consume. To determine the
consumption of fresh legumes, the EPA reanalysis of the FDA Revised Total Food Diet List
(U.S. EPA, 1989a) was revisited. Those food Items comprised of fresh or canned legumes were
retained (e.g., lima beans, immature, frozen, boiled), while food items containing dried legumes
(e.g., pinto beans, boiled from dried) were not included. Peanuts were not included in the crops
grown and consumed by the HEI in Pathway 2, because home gardeners do not usually grow
peanuts in their gardens. Sweet com was added as a food group for home gardeners, because so
many gardeners grow corn. In Pathway 1, sweet corn is included in the category of cereals and
grains; for Pathway 2, the EPA reanalysis was reviewed (U.S. EPA, 1989a) and those items
pertinent to sweet corn were identified. Sweet corn consumption was subtracted from the
category of cereals and grains and treated as a separate category. This is because, for Pathway 2,
5-82
-------
the percentage of sweet com, and of grains and cereals that are homegrown, differs. The two
groups cannot, therefore, be combined.
Uptake Response Slope of Pollutants in Plant Tissue for the Food Group, UC. As
explained above for Pathway 2, seven plant groups were evaluated: potatoes, leafy vegetables,
fresh legumes, root vegetables, garden fruits, sweet corn, and grains and cereals. The uptake
slopes for these plant groups are presented, by pollutant, in Table 5.22-2. The slopes were
derived by using the same methodology used and described in Pathway 1. (See Section
5.2.1.4.1.2.6 for a detailed discussion of the methodology used to derive uptake slopes for plant
groups.)
Fraction of Food Group Produced on Sewage Sludge-Amended Soil, FC. The U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) periodically conducts surveys of the annual consumption of
homegrown foods. In the most recent (1978) study for which data are available, the annual
consumption of homegrown foods was surveyed for three population groups: nonmetropolitan,
suburban, and central city (USDA, 1982). Hie results of the survey are shown in Table 522-3.
Of the food groups in this table, only three overlap with the food groups previously identified
(see Table 5.2.1-10 in Pathway 1): potatoes, fresh vegetables, and flour and cereal (similar to the
grains-and-cereals category in Pathway 1).
Although the home gardener (a nonmetropolitan resident) was identified as the highly
exposed individual (HEI) for this pathway, the data in Table 5.22-3 represent the percent of
food consumed by the total population (gardeners and nongardeners). Therefore, the data
probably under-represent the percentage of the gardener's diet that is homegrown. Kaitz (1978b)
found that 46 percent of households in the United States produced some of their own food. It is
reasonable to assume that die data in Table 5.22-3 adequately represent the distribution of the
types of homegrown food eaten by households that produce some of their own food. As a
reasonable worst-case assumption, it was assumed that 100 percent of gardeners produce some of
their own food. To increase the values in Table 5.22-3 so that they represent the percentage of
each food group that is homegrown if 100 percent, instead of 46 percent, of the diet is
homegrown, the values in Table 522-3 were multiplied by the ratio of 100/46 (2.17). The results
of multiplying the figures in Table 5.22-3 by 2.17 are:
5-83
-------
TABLE 5X2*2
UPTAKE SLOPES FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS BY PLANT GROUP,
UC Oig-pollutant/g-pLant tissue DW)(kg-pollutant/ha)
Pollutant |
Plant Group
Arsenic
Cadmium
Mercuiy
Niclwl
Selenium
Zinc 1
Grains and Cereals
0.013
0.018
0.043
0.005
0.001
0.050
Potatoes
0.002
0.004
0.001
0.005
0.021
0.012
Leafy Vegetables
0.018
0.182
0.004
0.016
0.008
0.125
Fresh Legumes
0.001
0.002
0.001
0.031
0.012
0.018
Root Vegetables
0.004
0.032
0.007
0.004
0.011
0.022
Garden Fruits
0.001
0.045
0.005
0.003
0.010
0.023
Sweet Cora
0.001
0.059
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.010
5-84
-------
TABLE 5.22-3
ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF HOMEGROWN FOODS
• - (percent homegrown)
Nonmetro-
politan'
Suburban*
Central City*
0
1 Milk, cream, cheese
3.1
03
Fats, oil
0.9
0
0
Flour, cereal
02
0
0
Meat
9.7
2.0
02
Poultiy, fish
10.8
5.9
1.9
| Eggs
7.9
2.2
0
|j Sugar, sweets
25
1.6
05
1 Potatoes, sweet potatoes
17 2
4.6
15
| Vegetables (fresh, canned, frozen) «
27.0
13.9
5.6
| Fruit (fresh, canned, frozen)
9.8
55
2.0
1 Juice (vegetable, fruit)
3.8
13
0.4
| Dried vegetables, fruit
7.7
4.0
0
¦Nonmetropolitan = All U.S. areas not within a standard metropolitan statistical area
(SMSA).
''Suburban = Generally within the boundaries of a SMSA, but not within legal limits of a
central city SMSA.
'Central City = Populations of 50,000 or more and, main or core city within a SMSA.
Source: USDA, 1982.
5-85
-------
Food Group
Percept Homegrown
Potatoes, sweet potatoes 37.32 (172 x 2.17)
Vegetables (fresh, canned, frozen) 58.59 (27.0 x 2.17)
Hour, cereal 0.43 (02 x 2.17)
The percentage of homegrown vegetables (58.59 percent) was used to estimate the
percentage of homegrown leafy vegetables, fresh legumes, root vegetables, garden fruit, and
sweet asm. The value for potatoes (3732 percent) was used to estimate the percentage of
homegrown potatoes, and the value for flour, cereal (0.43 percent) was used to estimate the
%
percentage of homegrown grains and cereals. These values represent the food consumption of a
small segment of home gardeners who are at the high end of the consumption distribution. It
would be difficult for most home gardeners to grow more than 59 percent of the vegetables they
consume, given that the growing season in most parts of the country is considerably shorter than
the entire year in which vegetables are consumed.
t.
Input and Output Values
Table 5.22-4 presents the input and output values for inorganic compounds for
Agricultural Pathway 2.
Sample Calculations
The following are sample calculations for inorganic pollutants for Agricultural Pathway 2.
The pollutant used as an example is arsenic.
First, RIA is calculated to be:
5-86
-------
TABLE 5.2.2-4
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 2
Arsenic
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RfD
0.0008
Potatoes
0.002
15.5954
0.37
0.0108
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.018
1.9672
0.59
0.0214
RE
1
Fresh legumes
0.001
3.2235
0.59
0.0021
TBI
0.012
Root vegetables
0.004
1.5950
0.59
0.0035
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.59
0.0035
RIA
44
Sweet com
0.001
1.5969
0.59
00009
Grains and cereals
0.013
89.0833
0.0043
0.0050
|RPc
9301
sum UC*DC*FC
0.0472
Cadmium
| Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RID
0.001
(Potatoes
0.004
15.5954
0.37
0.0230
BW
70
(Leafy vegetables
0.182
1.9672
0.59
0.2112
RE
1
iFrcsh legumes
0.002
3.2235
0.59
0.0036
TBI
0.01614
Root vegetables
0.032
1.5950
0.59
0.0305
Garden fruits
0.045
4.1517
0.59
0.1104
RIA
53.86
Sweet com
0.059
1.5969
0.59
0.0552
Grains and cereals
0.018
89.0833
0.0043
0.0070
|RPc 1
120|
'
sum UC*DC*FC
0.4408
Mercury
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC-DC-FC
RfD
0.0003
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.37
0.0058
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.004
1.9672
0.59
0.0052
RE
I
Fresh legumes
0.001
3.2235
0.59
0.0020
TBI
0.0032
Root vegetables
0.007
1.5950
0.59
0.0066
Garden fruits
0.005
4.1517
0.59
0.0112
RIA
17.8
Sweet com
0.001
1.5969
0.59
0.0009
Grains and cereals
0.043
89.0833
0.0043
0.0164
|RPc | 3701
sum UC*DC*FC
0.0481
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-87
-------
TABLE 5.2.2-4 (cont)
Nickel
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RID
0.02
Potatoes
0.005
15.5954
0.37
0.0289
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.016
1.9672
0.59
0.0183
RE
1
Fresh legumes
0.031
3.2235
0.59
0.0585
TBI
0.173
Root vegetables
0.004
1.5950
0J9
0.0035
Garden fruits
0.003
4.1517
0.59
0.0081
RIA
1227
Sweet corn
0.001
1.5969
0.59
0.0009
Grains and cereals
0.005
89.0833
0.0043
0.0021
|RPc
I 10000]
sum UC*DC*FC
0.1203
Selenium
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RfD
0.005
Potatoes
0.021
15.5954
0.37
0.1199
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.008
1.9672
0.59
0.0089
RE
1
Fresh legumes
0.012
3.2235
U59
0.0238
TBI
0.115
Root vegetables
0.011
1.5950
0.59
0.0100
Garden fruits
0.010
4.1517
0.59
0.0251
RIA
235
Sweet com
0.001
1.5969
0.59
0.0009
Grains and cereals
0.001
89.0833
0.0043
0.0004
|RPc
1200|
sum UC*DC*FC
0.1891
Zinc
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UCDC'FC
RfD
0.21
Potatoes
0.012
15.5954
0.37
0.0671
BW
70
Leafy vegetables -
0.125
1.9672
0.59
0.1448
RE
1
Fresh legumes
0.018
3.2235
0.59
0.0337
TBI
13.42
Root vegetables
0.022
1.5950
0.59
0.0206
Garden fruits
0.023
4.1517
0.59
0.0566
MA
1280
Sweet com
0.010
1.5969
0.59
0.0092
Grains and cereals
0.050
89.0833
0.0043
0.0190
IRPc |
3600|
sum UC*DC*FC
0.3509
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UC * uptake response slope of pollutant in plant tissue (pg-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)/(kg-pollutant/ha)
DC = daily dietary consumption of food group (g-dist DW/day)
5-88
-------
TABLE 5.2.2-4 (cont)
FC = fraction of food group produced oil sewage sludge-amended soil (unhless)
RfD = oral reference dose (mg/kg-day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unhless)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (|ig-pollutant/day)
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
5-89
-------
RIA = - TBI | . 10s
RE
(3)
(0 00°^ ' 70 - 0.012) • 10*
44 pg-axsemc/g*da.y
where:
RIA - adjusted reference intake of pollutants in humans (/ig-pollutant/day)
RfD = oral reference dose (mg/kg*day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of
exposure (rag-pollutant/day)
RE - relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
103 = conversion factor (/xg/mg)
Substituting the above value for RIA and the value for the E(UODOFC) as given in
Table 5.22-4 into Equation 2, RPe is calculated to be:
RPC
RIA
E(Uq*DC,«FCp
44 W
0.0472
930 kg-arseaic/h* (romideddownto2sigaificantfigures)
where:
RPe = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RIA =3 adjusted reference intake in humans (/ig-pollutant/day)
UC, = uptake response slope of pollutants in plant tissue for the food group
i (pg-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)(kg-pollutant DW/ha)"1
DQ = daily dietary consumption of the food group i (g-diet DW/day)
FQ = fraction of food group i produced on sewage sludge-amended soil
(unitless)
5iJ.i2 Oiganics
Equations ,
The RIA is calculated from:
5-90
-------
RIA
where:
RL*BW
q/ *RE
- TBI
-10s
(5)
RIA
RL
BW
qi*
RE
TBI
10J
adjusted reference intake in humans (/tg-pollutant/day)
risk level
human body weight
human cancer potency (rag/kg* day)"1
relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
total background intake rate of pollutant (mg-pollutant/day)
conversion factor (pg/mg)
For organics, plant uptake is regressed against soQ concentration; therefore the next step
is to calculate RLC from:
RLC " EGJC^DCj'FCj) (6)
where: «
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (/xg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
UQ = uptake response slope of pollutants in plant tissue for the food group
i (pg-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)(pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)'1
DC; = daily dietary consumption of the food group i (g-diet DW/day)
FQ = fraction of food group i produced on sewage sludge-amended soil
(unitless)
It should be noted that the units for UC{ in this equation differ from those in equation (2),
because in equation (4) the fconcentration of pollutant in plant tissue is regressed against
concentration of pollutant in soil, whereas in equation (2) plant tissue is regressed against the
application rate of pollutants to the soil.
Finally, soil concentration RLC is convened to an annual application rate (RPa) by
considering the mass of soil (MS) and the decay series as shown below.
RP, = RLC'MS^IO-9*!!+e"k+e"2k-t'.... ~e0""*]'1 (7)
where:
RP, = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha • yr)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
5-91
-------
k
11
MS
10-*
e
2*10® g-soil DW/ha = assumed mass of diy soil in upper 15 cm
conversion factor (kg//xg)
base of natural logarithms, 2.718 (unitless)
loss rate constant (yrl)
years of application until equilibrium conditions are reached (yr)
The half-lives of dieldrin and chlordane indicate that these organic pollutants do not
degrade. Thus they are treated slightly differently from the other organics in that a cumulative
pollutant application rate, not an annual application rate, is calculated from:
where:
RPC reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = 2*10* g-soil DW/ha = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 an
10"® = conversion factor (kg//tg)
*
Input Parameters
Adjusted Reference Intake hi Humans, RIA. Hie values used to calculate RIAs are
designed to protect the sensitive members of the population. Thus, if the entire population
experienced the level of exposure these values represent, only a small portion of the population
would be at risk. The definition and derivation of each of the parameters used to estimate RIA
for nonthreshold-acting toxicants are further discussed in the following sections.
Risk Level, RL. Since by definition no 'safe* level exists for exposure to nonthreshold
toxicants, specification of a given risk level on which to base regulations is a matter of policy.
For this risk assessment, RL was set at 10~*. The RIA will, therefore, be the concentration of the
pollutant that is calculated to have an upper-bound cancer risk of one case in 10,000 individuals
exposed for a lifetime. This risk level refers to excess cancer risk that is over and above the
background cancer risk in unexposed individuals.
Body Weight, BW. In keeping with U.S. EPA policy, an adult body weight of 70 kg was
used (see Section 5.2.1.4.1.23).
!Pe » RLC-MS-IO"9
(8)
5-92
-------
Total Background Intake Rate of Pollutant, TBI. No TBI values are available for organic
compounds; the values were assumed to be negligible.
Human Cancer Potency, q,*. See Table 5.2.1-13 in Pathway 1 for the q^'s used. A
complete discussion of the qi*s can be found in Section 5.2.1.4.2.2.5.
Relative Effectiveness of Ingestion Exposure, RE. As stated previously, an RE factor
should be applied only where well-documented/referenced information is available concerning the
contaminant's observed relative effectiveness. Since this information was not available for any of
the carcinogens, RE was set equal to 1.
Reference Concentration of Pollutant in Soil, RLC. Since plant uptake is related to the
concentration of pollutant in soil, the allowable concentration of pollutant is given as the
reference concentration of pollutant in soil.
t
Uptake Response Slope of Pollutants in Plant Tissue for the Food Group, UC. Since
vety little data were available on the uptake of organic compounds by plants, the response slopes
could not be calculated and were therefore conservatively set at a default slope of 0.001.
Daily Dietary Consumption of the Food Group, DC. The daily dietary consumption of
each food group is the same as that presented for the inorganic compounds in Section 5.22.4.1,
Daily Dietary Consumption of Food Group, DC.
Fraction of Food Group Produced on Sewage Sludge-Amended Soil, FC. The fraction of
each food group produced on sewage sludge-amended soil is the same for organic compounds as
for inorganic compounds: 37 percent for potatoes, 59 percent for vegetables, and 0.43 percent
for flour and cereal (see Section 5.22.4.1, Fraction of Food Group Produced on Sewage Sludge-
Amended Soil, FC).
Reference Annual Application Rate of Pollutant, RP,. Hie reference annual application
rate applies to organic compounds that degrade in the environment. Hie amount of pollutant in
sludge that can be added to a hectare each year takes this degradation into account.
5-93
-------
Assumed Mass of Dry Soil in Upper 15 cm, MS. The assumed mass of dry soil in the
upper 15 cm is 2*10' g-soil DW/ha. (See Section 5.2.1.42.2.12 for a complete derivation of this
value.)
Decay Rate Constant, k. See Section 5.2.1.4.2.2.13 in Pathway 1 for a complete
discussion of this variable. The k values are presented in Table 5.2.1-14, also in Pathway 1.
Input and Output Values
Table 5.2.2-5 presents the input and output values for organic compounds for Agricultural
Pathway 2.
Sample Calculations
«
As discussed in Section 5.2.1.4.2.1, there are two approaches for calculating risk
assessment outputs for organics. Hie first is used for those organlcs that degrade over time, as
shown by the following sample calculations for organic pollutants for Agricultural Pathway 2.
The pollutant used is benzo(a)pyrene.
First, RIA is calculated to be:
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
RL = risk level
BW = human body weight
q,* = human cancer potency (mg/kg*day)*1
RE * relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI » total background Intake rate of pollutant (mg-poll utant/day)
103 = conversion factor (pg/mg)
0.0001-70
where:
5-94
-------
TABLE 5.2.2-5
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 2
Aidrin/Dieldria
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.37
0.0058
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.59
0.0012
Fresh legumes
0.001
3.2235
0.59
0.0019
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.59
0.0009
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.59
0.0024
jjSweet com
0.001
1.5969
0.59
0.0009
¦Grains and cereals
0.001
89.0833
0.0043
0.0004
1
sum UC*DC*FC
0.0135
Benzo(a)pyrene
t
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.37
0.0058
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.59
0.0012
Fresh legumes
0.001
3.2235
0.59
0.0019
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.59
0.0009
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.59
0.0024
Sweet com
0.001
1.5969
0.59
0.0009
Grains and cereals
0.001
89.0833
0.0043
0.0004
sum UC*DC*FC
0.0135
RL
l.QOE-04
BW
70
ut*
16
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
RIA
0.438
RLC
32.291
IRPc i 641
•
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ut*
7.3
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
t
0.48
RIA
0.959
RLC
70.775
EU
541
mmmmm
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-95
-------
TABLE 5.2.2-5 (coot)
Chlordane
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.37
0.0058
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.59
0.0012
Fresh legumes
0.001
3.2235
0.59
0.0019
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.59
0.0009
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.59
0.0024
Sweet com
0.001
1.5969
0.59
0.0009
Grains and cereals
0.001
89.0833
0.0043
0.0004
sum UC*DC*FC
0.0135
DDT
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Potatoes
0.001
15 5954
0.37
0.0058
Leafy vegetables
0.001
i 9672
*0 59
0.0012
Fresh legumes
0.001
3.2235
0.59
0.0019
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0,59
0.0009
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.59
0.0024
Sweet corn
0.001
1.5969
0.59
0.0009
Grains and cereals
0.001
89.0833
0.0043
0.0004
•
sum UC*DC*FC
0.0135
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
1.3
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
RIA
5.385
RLC
397.430
IRPc | 790|
1.00E-04
BW
70
Hi*
0.34
RE
1
DE
1
MS
21+09
t
0.04
RIA
20.588
RLC
1519.587
|5K
Note: Totals may not add die to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-96
-------
Heptachlor
TABLE S.2.2-S (coat)
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
l.OOE-04
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.37
0.0058
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.59
00012
-------
TABLE 5.2.2-5 (cont)
Hexichlorobutadiene
|RP» I
| Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
1.00E-04
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.37
0.0058
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.59
0.0012
qi*
0.078
Fresh legumes
0.001
3.2235
0.59
0.0019
RE
1
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.59
0.0009
DE
1
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.59
0.0024
MS
2E+09
Sweet com
0.001
1.5969
0.59
0.0009
k
1.406
Grains and cereals
0.001
89.0833
0.0043
0.0004
sum UODC*FC
0.0135
RIA
89.744
RLC
6623.840
100001
Lindane
[rp«
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
1.00E-04
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.37
0 0058
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.59
0.0012
ql*
1.33
Fresh legumes
0.001
3.2235
0.59
0.0019
RE
1
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.59
0.0009
DE
1
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.59
0.0024
MS
2E+09
Sweet com
0.001
1.5969
0.59
0.0009
c
1.2
Grains and cereals
0.001
89.0833
0.0043
0.0004
sum UC»DC*FC
0.0135
RIA
5.263
RLC
388.466
*540|
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-98
-------
TABLE 5.2.2-5 (cont.)
n-Nitrosodiroethyl*mine
I Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC«DC«FC
RL
1.00E-04
(Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.37
0.0058
BW
70
¦Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0;59
0.0012
qt*
51
Fresh legumes
0.001
3.2235
0.59
0.0019
RE
1
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.59
0.0009
DE
1
Garden fniits
0.001
4.1517
0.59
0.0024
MS
2E+09
jSwectcom
0.001
1.5969
0.59
0.0009
k
5.1
(Grains and cereals
0.001
89.0833
0.0043
0.0004
sum UC-DC-FC
0.0135
RIA
0.137
RLC
10.131
HE
i£l
PCBs
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
1.00E-04
Potatoes
0.001
. 15.5954
0.37
0.0058
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.59
0.0012
*1*
7.7
Fresh legumes
0.001
3.2235
0.59
0.0019
np
KJE#
1
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.59
0.0009
DE
1
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.59
0.0024
MS
2E+09
Sweet corn
0.001
1.5969
0.59
0.0009
c
0.063
Grains and cereals
0.001
89.0833
0.0043
0.0004
sum UC*DC*FC
0.0135
RIA
0.909
RLC
67.099
EE
M
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-99
-------
TABLE 5.2.2-5 (cont)
Toxaphene
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
1.00E-04
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.37
0.0058
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.001
1.9672
0.59
0.0012
ql*
1.1
Fresh legumes
0.001
3.2235
0.59
0.0019
RE
1
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.59
0.0009
DE
1
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.59
0.0024
MS
2E+09
Sweet com
0.001
1.5969
0.59
0.0009
k
1.2
Grains and cereals
0.001
89.0833
0.0043
0.0004
sum UCDC-FC
0.0135
RIA
6.364
1
RLC
RPa
469.690
650|
T richloroethylene
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
1.00E-04
Potatoes
0.001
15.5954
0.37
0.0058
BW
70
Leafy vegetables
0.00!
1.9672
0.59
0.0012
ql*
0.011
Fresh legumes
0.001
3.2235
0.59
0.0019
RE
1
Root vegetables
0.001
1.5950
0.59
0.0009
DE
1
Garden fruits
0.001
4.1517
0.59
0.0024
MS
. 2E+09
Sweet com
0.001
1.5969
0.59
0.0009
t
0.78
Grains and cereals
0.001
89.0833
0.0043
0.0004
sum UC*DC*FC
0.0135
RIA
636.364
RLC
46969.050
|RP» 1 SlOOOl
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UC * uptake response slope of pollutant in plant tissue (ng-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)/(kg-pollutant/ha)
DC s daily dietary consumption of food group (g-diet DW/day)
FC =¦ fraction of food group produced on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
RL - risk level (unitless)
BW * human body weight (kg)
ql* * human cancer potency (mg/kg-day^-l)
RE « relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
DE * exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
MS = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm (g-soil DW/ha)
5-100
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¦»
TABLE 5.2.2-5 (cont)
k = loss rate constant (yr^-l)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (ng-poliutant/day)
RLC - reference coocentratioo of pollutant in soil (ng-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RPa = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha-yr)
tr
5-101
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Then, RLC is calculated to be: v
RIA
RLC -
ECUCj.DC^PC,)
0.959 <10>
0.0135
70.775 ng -benzoOOpyrene/g -soil DW
where:
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (/ig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (pg-poilutant/day)
UQ = uptake response slope of pollutants in plant tissue for the
food group 1 (^g-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)(pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)'1
DC| = daily dietary consumption of the food group i (g-diet DW/day)
FC| = fraction of food group i produced on sewage sludge-amended soil
(unitless)
Next, k is calculated to be:
k » M . -M. = 0.48 yr"1 • (11)
Tm 1.44
where:
k = first-order decay rate constant (yr1)
In * natural logarithm
Tos = half-life of pollutant in soil (yr)
Finally, RP, is calculated to be:
RP, - RLC •MS«10~**[l +e-k+e-2k+....-^(1-')k]"1
»70.775«2»l0,«10-9«[l^e-ox,+e-2*a4,+....^e(|-lw*>*
-------
The second approach is used for organics that do not degrade over time. The
calculations are identical to those used in the first approach for organics, until the final
calculation. Hie difference .between the two approaches is lhat ihe. output o£ the.second
approach is a reference cumulative application rate of pollutant. The following calculation, using
chlordane as an example, shows only the final step in the procedure.
RPC is calculated to be:
RPe = RLOMS-10-*
» 397.430*(2•109)*10~*
= 790 kg-cMordaac^lu (rounded down to2signifiamt figures)
(13)
where:
RPe
RLC
MS
10*
reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
reference concentration of pollutant in soil (/xg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
2* 10* g-soil DW/ha = assumed mass of diy soil in upper 15 am
conversion factor (kg/jig)
5-103
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5.23 Agricultural Pathway 3 (Human Toxicity from Sewage Sludge Ingestion—Child)
- -Si2J.I Oneriptknt' of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -* Human
This pathway assesses the hazard to a child of ingesting undiluted sewage sludge.
5J232 Pollutants Evaluated
Even though some , of the inorganic pollutants were eliminated for this pathway in the
screening procedure, outlined in the Summary of Environmental Profiles and Hazard Indices for
Constituents of Municipal Sewage Sludge: Methods and Results (U.S. EPA, 1985c), ail of the
metals were re-evaluated In die risk assessment for the final rule, at the request of EPA's Office
«
of Solid Waste, which evaluates a comparable pathway for setting action levels for hazardous
wastes. In addition, all 12 organic pollutants were assessed for this pathway. Table 523-1 lists
the pollutants evaluated for this pathway.
5333 Highly Exposed Individual
The HEI is the normal child between the ages of 1 and 6 who ingests sewage sludge from
storage piles or from the soil surface for a maximum of 5 years. It is assumed that the sewage
sludge is not diluted with soil when exposure occurs. The HEI is not a PICA child (a PICA
child exhibits excessive hand-to-mouth activity), because it is assumed that parents of PICA
children will take precautions to prevent their children from eating sewage sludge. However,
protection for worst-case exposure is introduced by adjusting the value derived from the
Integrated Uptake/BioMnetic model (IUBK) for lead (described later in this pathway) downward
to provide additional protection.
5-104
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TABLE 5.2.3-1
POLLUTANTS EVALUATED FOR AGRICULTURAL
PATHWAY 3
| Inorgaaics
Orgaoics
1 Arsenic
Aldrin/Dieldrin
1 Cadmium
Benzo(a)pyrene
Chromium
Chlordane
Copper
DDT/DDE/DDD (total)
Lead
lindane |
Mercury
Heptachlor |
Molybdenum
Hexachlorobenzene j
Nickel
Hexachlorobutadiene
1 Selenium
n-Nitrosodimethylaraine
Zinc
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Toxaphene
Trichloroethylcne
5-105
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533.4 Algorithm Development
5.23.4.1 Inorganics
Equations
The RIA for inorganics is derived as follows:
'RfD • BW
1UA * j
where:
RIA - ( ^ -TBI]. 10s (1)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutants in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
RfD = oral reference dose (nig/kg • day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of
exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
10* = conversion factor (jigfAg)
Because this pathway considers the direct ingestion of sewage sludge, die reference
concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge is calculated by dividing the adjusted reference intake
of pollutant in humans by the product of a soil ingestion rate and a duration-of-exposure
adjustment factor:
where:
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge
(pg-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (/xg-pollutant/day)
I, » soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
DE = exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
5-106
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Input Parameters
Adjusted Reference Intake ^f PoUutante in Hainan^ (RIA).^ The valuesiiscd to calculate
RIAs are designed to protect the sensitive members of the population. Thus, if the entire
population experienced the level of exposure these values represent, only a small portion of the
population would be at risk.
Oral Reference Dose, RID. Inorganics were assessed as threshold chemicals, and the
RfDs were taken from IRIS (U.S. EPA, 1992h). The RfD for trivalent chromium was used,
because EPA determined that chromium in sewage sludge and soils is generally in the trivalent
(not hexavalent) state. According to an EPA publication, Application of Sewage Sludge to
CroplandAppraisal of Potential Hazards of the Heavy Metals to Plants and Animals (U.S. EPA,
1976c), hexavalent chromium is toxic to plants, but sludges contain little, if any, hexavalent
chromium, because it is reduced to the trivalent state during the process of digesting sewage
sludge. In soil, hexavalent chromium remains jn a soluble form for a short time, but eventually it
is reduced to trivalent chromium and then changed to forms having low solubility. This
conclusion is also supported by the findings of Patterson and Kodukula (1984), who determined
metal distributions in activated sewage-sludge systems. Similarly, the RfDs for inorganic mercury
and for inorganic arsenic were used, since the organic forms of these metals are rarely found in
sludge.
The RfD for inorganic arsenic for this pathway was 0.0008 rag/kg*day, based on
hyperpigmentation, keratosis, and possible vascular complications following oral exposure to
humans. The Agency's approved RfD is currently 0.0003 rag/kg* day. However, there was not a
clear consensus among Agency scientists on the oral RfD. Strong scientific arguments can be
made for various values, within a factor of 2 or 3 of the currently recommended RfD value (i.e.,
0.0001 to 0.0008 mg/kg*day). Utilizing the flexibility offered by this range, EPA elected to use
the least conservative value, 0.0008 nig/kg-day, as the most appropriate value to use in the risk
assessment, because most of the model inputs, as well as the low probability of continuous
exposure from this source as compared to other sources such as drinking water, are conservative.
5-107
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For three inorganics (zinc, copper, and lead) RfDs were not used. For zinc, the
recommended dietary allowance (RDA) was used, because the RfD did not meet the RDA,
which Is required to maintain health. RDAs are provided separately for adults, toddlers, and
other specified groups. Since this pathway evaluates toddlers, the RDA for zinc for toddlers was
used (10 rag/day), then it was divided by the appropriate body weight (16 kg) to yield 0.6
rag/kg'day. For copper, the RDA was used because ah Agency-approved RfD was not available.
Based on a RDA for children of 2 mg/day, the adjusted RDA is 0.12S rag/kg* day (2 16 kg =
0.125). The RfDs and RDAs are summarized in Table 5.23-2.
For lead, neither an RfD nor an RDA was available. Consequently, EPA's integrated
uptake biokinetic (IUBK) model, designed to predict levels of lead in the blood based on total
exposure, was used. The Indoor Quality and Total Human Exposure Committee of EFA's
Science Advisory Board (SAB) reviewed the IUBK model and concluded that it was sound and
could be effectively applied for many current needs throughout the Agency.
In the proposed TSD, the effects on Children of ingesting lead-contaminated sewage
sludge were evaluated by extrapolating from cattle data. For the present risk assessment, EFA's
Office of Research and Development (ORD) and its Office of Water (OW) both agreed to use
the IUBK model instead of extrapolating from the cattle data.
Human Body Weight, BW. This pathway assesses children 1 to 6 years old. The
corresponding body weight used was 16 kg.
Relative Effectiveness of Ingestion Exposure, RE. As stated previously, an RE factor
should be applied only where well-documented/referenced information is available on the
contaminant's observed relative effectiveness. Since this information was not available for any of
• the pollutants, RE was set equal to 1.
Total Background Intake Rate of Pollutant from All Other Sources of Exposure, TBI.
The TBIs (natural and/or anthropogenic) in drinking water, food, and air for toddlers are
presented in Table 5.23-3. TBIs were available only for seven of the inorganics (arsenic,
5-108
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TABLE 5.23-2
RIDS AND RDAS FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 3
1 Pollutant
RfD (mg/kg*day)
Route of Exposure
(animal)
Most Sensitive
Endpoint
Arsenic
(inorganic)
0.0008
oral (human)
Hyperpigmentation,
keratosis, and
possible vascular
complications
| Cadmium
0.001
oral (human)
Proteinuria
| Chromium3*
1.0
oral (rat)
No effects*
| Copper
0.125*
NA
NA
1 Mercury
J (inorganic)
0.0003
oral (rat)
Autoimmune effects
| Molybdenum
0.005
Not available
Not available
| Nickel
0.02
oral (rat)
Decreased body,
organ weights
1 Selenium
0.005
oral (rat)
Selenosis (hair, nail
loss, etc.)
| Zinc
0.625e
NA
NA
'Based on a NOAEL.
bNo RfD available, so the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) was used. The RDA
for children is 2 mg/day (NAS, 1989, p.228). 2 mg/day 4- 16 kg (body weight of a child)
= 0.125 mg/kg'day.
The RfD did not meet the minimum RDA. Therefore, the RDA was used in lieu of the
RfD. The RDA for children is 10 mg/day (NAS, 1989, p.209). 10 mg/day + 16 kg (body
weight of a child) = 0.625 mg/kg-day.
NA=Not Applicable.
5-109
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TABLE 5.23-3
-TOTAL-BACKGROUND INTAKE: TODDLERS
(mg/day)
Chemical
Air**
Diet
Water**
Total
Arsenic
0.002
0.002**
0.0005
0.0045
Cadmium
0.000056
0.0061*
0.002
0.008156
Chromium
0.0024
0.045*
0.002
0.0494
Mercury
0.00008
0.0007"
0.0005
0.00128
Nickel
0.0004
0.150*
0.005
0.1554
Selenium
0.0004
0.054*
0.005
0.0594
Zinc
negligible
6.50*
0.21
\
"Sources: Contractor Reports to EPA on Occurrence and Exposure in Relation to Drinking
Water Regulations.
kAir intakes were generally reported for adults and were converted for toddlers by a ratio
of: 8 m*/dav =0.4
20 m'/day
•Water intakes were generally reported for adults and were converted for toddlers by a ratio
of. 11/dav = 0 J
2 I/day
'Data from Dr. M. Bolger of FDA. Represents exposure for food and all liquids except drinking
water from 1988 to present market-basket analysis.
•Dietary intake for total arsenic was reported as 0.0092 mg/day for 2-year-old children. Since
approximately 80 percent of dietary arsenic is in the less toxic organic form, only 20 percent of
the total is used to evaluate the effects of inorganic arsenic from dietary sources.
5-110
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cadmium, chromium, mercury, nickel, selenium, and zinc). See Section 5.2.1.4.1.2.5 in Pathway 1
for a complete description of TBIs.
Sewage Sludge Ingestion Rate, It. The soil ingestion rate used was 0.2 g-soil DW/day,
based on the 1989 EPA directive from the Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
(OSWER) recommending this value for the children at highest risk (U.S. EPA, 1989d).
~
Exposure Duration Adjustment, DE. EPA's Office of Research and Development
(ORD) expressed concern about the suitability of using RfDs based on lifetime exposure for
evaluating the effects to children of ingesting inorganic pollutants in sewage sludge/soil mixtures.
Scientists from ORD and the Office of Water re-evaluated the bases for the lifetime RfDs and
proposed new values based on less-than-lifetime exposures. These new numbers were then
submitted to the Agency's RfD Committee for approval. The Committee was unable to reach
consensus on approving the new numbers, because there is no Agency method for calculating
less-than-lifetime RfDs. There are plans for qontinuing these efforts in the future and, if
completed in time, these new less-than-lifetime RfDs will be used by OW to evaluate inorganic
pollutants for this pathway in future rule making. Since no EPA-approved method was available
for adjusting exposure durations associated with RfDs before promulgating the Part S03 rule, the
DE was set equal to 1.
Input and Output Values
Table 5.23-4 presents the input and output values for inorganic pollutants for
Agricultural Pathway 3.
At the March 13, 1992, meeting, a consensus was reached among OW, ORD, the Office
of Pesticides and Toxic Substances (OPTS), and the Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response (OSWER) that the IUBK model should not cause a blood lead level to exceed
10 /xg/dl and should protect a high percentage of the exposed population. Using a 30-percent
absorption value, and a 95th percentile of the population distribution, the model generated an
allowable soil lead concentration of 500 ppm. Because Superfund action levels range from 500
5-111
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TABLE 5.23-4
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 3
Pollutant
RfD
RDA
BW
RE
TBI
RIA
Is
DE
RSC
Arsenic
0.0008
16
1
0.0045
8.3
0.2
1
41
Cadmium
0.001
16
1
0.008156
7.844
0.2
1
39
Chromium
1
16
1
0.0494
15950.6
0.2
1
79000
Copper
0.125
16
1
0
2000
0.2
1
10000
Lead
Based on EPA policy decision
300
Mercury
0.0003
16
1
0.00128
3.52
0.2
1
17
Molybdenum
0.005
16
1
0
80
0.2
1
400
Nickel
0.02
16
1
0.1554
164.6
0.2
1
820
Selenium
0.005
16
1
0.0594
20.6
0.2
1
100
Zinc
0.625
16
1
6.71
3290
0.2
1
16000
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
RfD - oral reference dose (mg/kg-day)
RDA » Recommended Dietary Allowance (mg/kg-day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
RE * relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI * total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
RIA * adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (jig-pollutant/day)
Is " soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
DE - exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (pg-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
5-112
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to 1,000 ppm, EPA concluded that allowing concentrations of lead in soil up to the action level
was insufficiently protective. The group therefore made a policy decision to set the allowable
lead concentration in sewage .sludge at 300 ppm for this.pathway.
Several reasons support this decision. First, such action would provide an additional
margin of safety with respect to contamination of soil by lead and any threat to the bodies of
developing children. Because childhood ingestion of dirt is so widespread, and because the
potential consequences are so severe, a high order of conservatism is warranted on this point,
especially in the context of regulatory decisions authorizing the addition of lead, a threshold
pollutant, to the environment. In addition, a 300-ppra soil concentration yielded an allowable
concentration of lead in sludge that was widely consistent with current sewage sludge quality at
all but a small number of POTWs. As a result, the social cost of an additional safety factor is
small relative to the potential benefit.
Co incidentally, this is the same pollutant limit calculated by the Peer Review Committee
on the basis of observing that body burdens (absorption) of animals fed up to 10 percent of their
diet as sewage sludge did not change until the concentration of lead in the sewage sludge
exceeded 300 ppm. These data provide further support for the appropriateness of the value
chosen by the Agency.
Sample Calculations
The following is a sample calculation for inorganic pollutants for Agricultural Pathway 3.
The pollutant used as an example is arsenic.
First, RIA is calculated from:
(3)
5-113
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RIA * p-000^ * 16 _ o.004sj • 103
RIA « 8.300 (ig-arsenic/day
where:
RIA =
adjusted reference intake of pollutants in humans 0
-------
5.2J.4.2 Organics
Equations
The RIA is calculated from:
RIA
- TBlUlO3
q/.RE
(9)
where:
RIA
RL
BW
Qi*
RE
TBI
103
adjusted reference intake in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
risk level
human body weight (kg)
human cancer potency (rag/kg* day)'1
relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
total background intake rate of pollutant (rag-pollutant/day)
conversion factor (jig/rng)
Because this pathway considers the direct ingestion of sewage sludge, the reference
calculation of pollutant in sewage sludge is calculated by dividing the adjusted reference intake
of pollutant in humans by the product of a soil ingestion rate and a duration exposure
adjustment factor
RSC =
RIA
I,«DE
(4)
where:
RSC =
RIA =
I,
DE =
reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge
(/tg-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (jig-pollutant/day)
soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
Degradation of organics is not considered in this pathway, because the sludge is not
mixed with soil and is subject to little degradation in the environment.
5-115
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Input Parameters
Adjuited Reference Intake in Humans, RIA. The values used to calculate RIAs are
designed to protect the sensitive members of the population. Thus, if the entire population
experienced the level of exposure these values represent, only a small portion of the population
would be at risk. The definition and derivation of each of the parameters used to estimate RIA
for nonthreshold-acting toxicants are further discussed in the following sections.
Risk Level, RL. Since, by definition, no "safe" level exists for exposure to nonthreshold
agents, specification of a given risk level on which to base regulations is a matter of policy. For
this risk assessment, RL was set at Iff4. The RIA will therefore be the concentration that, for
lifetime exposure, is calculated to have an upper-bound cancer risk of one case in 10,000
individuals exposed. This risk level refers to excess cancer risk over and above the background
cancer risk in unexposed individuals.
Body Weight, BW. As with inorganics' the body weight used for toddlers was 16 kg.
Total Background Intake Rate of Pollutant, TBI. No TBI values are available for organic
compounds; they were assumed to be negligible.
Human Cancer Potency, q,*. See Table 5.2.1-13 in Pathway 1 for a summary of die q,*s
used in the risk assessment for land application. Section S2.1A225 explains the derivation of
the q,*s used.
Relative Effectiveness of Ingestion Exposure, RE. As stated previously, an RE factor
should be applied only where well-documented/referenced information is available on the
contaminant's observed relative effectiveness. Since this information was not available for any of
the carcinogens, RE was set equal to 1.
Sewage Sludge Ingestion Rate, I,. The soil ingestion rate used was 0.2 g-soil DW/day
based on the 1989 OSWER directive suggesting this value for the children at highest risk (U.S.
EPA, 1989d).
5-116
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Exposure Duration A4justment, DE. An adjustment to the RIA was required, based on
the brief duration (5 years) of this exposure. Values of qt* are usually calculated to represent a
lifetime exposure- Adjusting^
-------
TABLE 5.2.3-5
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
--TOR AGRICULTURAL-PATHWAY 3-
I 1 RL
BW
ql*
RE
RIA
Is
DE |
lAldrin/Dieldrin
1.00E-04
16
16
1
0.1
0.2
0.0714
lBenzo(a)pyrene
1.00E-04
16
7.3
1
0.219
0.2
0.0714
jjChlordane
1.00E-04
16
1.3
I
1.231
0.2
0.0714 J
pDT
1.00E-04
16
0.34
1
4.706
0.2
0.0714 j
iHeptachlor
1.00E-04
16
4.5
1
0.356
0.2
0.0714 j
iHexachlorobenzene
1.00E-04
16
1.6
1
1
0.2
0.07141
Hexachlorobutadiene
1.00E-04
16
0.078
1
20.51
0.2
0.07141
Lindane
1.00E-04
16
1.33
1
1.203
0.2
0.07141
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
1.00E-04
16
51
1
0.031
0.2
0.07141
PCBs
1.00E-04
16
7.7
1
0.208
0.2
0.07141
Toxaphene
1.00E-04
16.
1.1
1
1.455
0.2
0.07141
Trichloroethylene
1.00E-04
16
0.011
1
145.5
0.2
0.07141
RSC
7,0
15
86
320
24
70
1400
84
2.1
14
100
10000
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
RL » risk levd (unitless)
BW = human body weight (kg)
ql* - human cancer potency (mg/kg-day)A(-1)
EE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (ng-pollutant/day)
Is = soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
DE = exposure duration adjustment (unitless) .
RSC - reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge ((ig-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
5-118
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RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (/tg-pollutant/day)
RL = risk level
BW = human body weight (kg)
qx* = —human cancer potency. (mg/kg» day)*1
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant (rag-pollutant/day)
10s = conversion factor (/tg/mg)
Then, RSC is calculated from
RIA
1,-DE
RSC = (14)
RSC = —— (15)
0.2*0.0714
RSC = 15 iig-poIhiUiit/g-sewagesludgeDW (roundeddownto2signific«iitfigures) (W
where:
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge
(pg-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
I, = soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
DE = exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
5-119
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5JL4 AfrieoKinl Patkmy 4 (Human Toxicity bom Animal Products Produced from
Animals Fed Forages Grain oa Sewage Sludge-Amended Soil)
— 5X4,1 Pathway Description
Sewage Sludge ¦* Soil -» Plait -• AnimalHunan
In this pathway, animals ingest forage and grain produced on sewage sludge-amended
soil. As the data show, the plant uptake of pollutants is related to concentration of the
pollutants in the soil, and the subsequent uptake of pollutants in the plants by animals is related
to the concentration of the pollutants in the plants. The animals are then ingested by humans
who consume beef, pork, lamb, poultiy, daily products, and eggs.
5.24.2 Pollutants Evaluated
*
As discussed in the Summary of Environmental Profiles and Hazard Indices for Constituents
of Municipal Sludge: Methods and Remits (U.SJ2PA, 1985c), several inorganic and organic
pollutants were recommended for further evaluation. All of these pollutants were evaluated for
this pathway. Table 5.2.4-1 presents the pollutants evaluated for Agricultural Pathway 4.
5.24 J Highly Exposed Individual
The highly exposed individuals are from a farm household raising a substantial percentage
of their own meat and other animal products. The animals consume forage grown on sewage
sludge-amended soil. The HEI is assumed to consume daily quantities of the various animal
tissue food groups. It is assumed that the HEI is also exposed to a background intake of
pollutant.
5-120
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TABLE 5.24-1
POLLUTANTS EVALUATED FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 4
| Inorganics
Otpnict I
Cadmium
Aldrin/Dicldrin |
Mercuiy
Chlordane
Selenium
DDE/DDD/DDT
Zinc
Heptachlor |
Hexachlorobenzene j
lindane |
Polychlorinatcd Biphcnyls (PCBs) I
Toxaphene |
5-121
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5.24.4 Algorithm Development
5X4A1-iHorgaaics
53.4.4JJ Equations
The RIA for inorganics is derived as follows:
MA. - _ TBlj • M5 (1)
where;
RIA « adjusted reference intake of pollutants in human beings (pg-pollutant/day)
RfD - oral reference dose (mg/kgaday)
BW = human body weight (kg)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of
exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
103 = conversion factor (pgfmg)
Because this pathway involves the consumption of animal products by humans, the next
equation in this analysis is a reference application rate of pollutant, RF (/ig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
as shown below:
RIA.
RF m
(UAj'DAj'FAj)
where:
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet fag-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RIA s adjusted reference intake in humans (/jg-pollutant/day)
UAj = uptake response slope of pollutant in animal tissue rood group i
Oig-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW) (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)'1
DA{ — daily dietary consumption of animal tissue food group i (g-animal tissue
DW/day)
FAj = fraction of food group i assumed to be derived from animals which ingest
forage grown on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
5-122
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For inorganics, a cumulative reference application rate of pollutant, RF (kg-pollutant/ha)
is calculated:
' 'RF - 'JE. " ~ ™ "(3)
uc
where:
RPC = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
UC s uptake response slope of pollutant in forage crop (/tg-pollutant/g forage
DW) (kg-pollutant/ha)"1
5J.4.4J J Input Parameters
5.2*4.4.1.2.1 Adjusted Reference Intake of Pollutants la Hainan Beings, RIA
The values used to calculate the RIA'are designed to protect the sensitive members of
the population. The definition and derivation of each of the parameters used to estimate RIA
for threshold-acting toxicants are further discussed in the following sections.
5^4.4.1^2 Oral Reference Dose, RID
Inorganics were assessed as threshold chemicals and the RfDs were taken, when
available, from IRS (U.S. EPA, 1992h). The same RfDs used in Pathway 1 for cadmium,
mercuiy, and selenium were used for this pathway. The recommended dietaiy allowance (RDA)
was used for zinc instead of the RfD, because the RfD was less than the RDA, which is required
to maintain health (see Table 5.2.1-3). (For a more detailed discussion, see Section 5.2.1.4.1.23
in Pathway 1.)
5-123
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5.24.4.1.23 Hainan Body Weight, BW
An adult txxfy weight of 70 kg was used as explained in Section 5.2.1.4.1.23.
5.24.4.1.24 Relative Effectiveness of Ingestion Exposure, RE
As stated previously, an RE factor should only be applied where well-
documented/referenced information is available on the contaminant's observed relative
effectiveness. Since this information was not available for any of the pollutants, RE was set
equal to 1.
5.24.4.1.25 Total Background Intake Rate of Pollutant from All Other Sources of
Exposure, TBI
. «
Humans are exposed to pollutants found in sewage sludge (e.g., cadmium, volatile organic
compounds), even if no sewage sludge is applied to agricultural land. These sources include
background levels (natural and/or anthropogenic) in drinking water, food, and air. When TBI is
subtracted from the weight-adjusted R£D, the remainder defines the increment that can be added
from sewage sludge use or disposal without exceeding the threshold. The TBIs used for adults
are presented in Table 5.2.1-4 in Pathway 1.
5.24.4.1.2.6 Uptake Response Slope of Pollutant in Animal Tissue Food Group, UA
Animal tissue uptake slopes relate the concentration of pollutant in animal tissue to the
concentration of pollutant in animal feed. In the proposed TSD (U.S. EPA, 1989f), the data
were taken from an extensive literature search in which both primary and secondary sources were
reviewed and the data in them were extracted for use in calculating animal uptake slopes. For
this effort, the amiable literature of that cited in the TSD was obtained from EPA, and the data
points were checked and corrected, if necessary. (Due to time constraints, studies not available
through EPA were not reviewed.) Hie final data set is located in Appendix D.
5-124
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From these studies, uptake slopes were calculated for each animal-tissue food group
listed in Agricultural Pathway 1 (i.e., bee£ beef liver, pork, lamb, poultry, dairy products, eggs).
- Uptake slopes are calculated, generally, by taking the geometric mean of appropriate studies; To
calculate the geometric mean for a food group not represented in the data, appropriate surrogate
data from comparable food groups having data were used. These steps are described in detail in
the following subsections.
Data Extraction
The analysis for this pathway was performed assuming that human consumption of animal
tissue occurs in the major food groups listed in Table 52.4-2. These food groups were included
in the EPA Reanalysis of the Pennington diet as explained in Section 5.2.14.12.7. Data were
extracted only for these food groups. Fats were evaluated for organic pollutants, because
organics sequester predominantly in the fatty portions of tissue. Note that for liver and eggs the
whole tissue is evaluated. This is because data for these tissues were reported for the whole
tissue rather than the fatty portion.
The following information was recorded for each study:
• Species
• Number of animals studied
• Part of animal from which tissue samples were analyzed
• Number of tissue samples analyzed
• Form of chemical in animal feed
• Either concentration of pollutant in feed, or quantity of pollutant and feed
consumed each day (from which feed concentration was calculated)
• Whether the above feed data were reported in terms of wet or dry weight
• Tissue concentration, and range of values if multiple readings were reported
• Any other pertinent information
5-125
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TABLE 5.2.4-2
FOOD GROUPS CONSIDERED FOR HUMAN
CONSUMPTION OF ANIMAL TISSUE
8 Food Groups for
| Inorganic Pollutants
Food Groups for
Organic Pollutants
Beef
Beef fat
Beef Ever
Beef liver
Lamb
I*anib 1st
Pork
Pork fat
Poultry
Poultry fat
Dairy
Daily fat
Eggs
Eggs
5-126
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Calculation of Animal Uptake Slopes
-- To- calculate an uptake slope of-polhitant in animal tissue for each study, from the
resulting data set, the following methodology was adopted:
1.
The concentration of pollutant in animal feed (wg-pollutant/g-feed) was either
directty recorded, or was calculated by dividing the quantity of pollutant
consumed each day by the quantity of feed consumed each day.
Feed concentration was reported either in terms of wet weight, dry weight, or it
was not specified. For the purposes of this analysis all data must be in dry weight.
Because it was impossible to determine the moisture content of animal feed, no
attempt was made to convert wet weight data to dry weight.
Concentration of pollutant in feed is used as the denominator in calculating
uptake slopes. Converting the feed data from wet to dry weight increases the
concentration of pollutant in the feed (because the bulk weight of the feed
decreases as moisture is removed), thereby decreasing the uptake slope. Thus not
converting the data is a conservative measure. Although it would have been
preferable to convert the data to dry weight, the lack of reliable information
precluded carrying out such a calculation.
Hie concentration of pollutant in the animal tissue (ug-pollutant/g-aniraal tissue
DW) was directly reported either as wet or diy weight. As with feed
concentration, this analysis requires that the data be in terms of dry weight.
Unlike the feed concentration data, moisture content of animal tissues is available
from USDA (see Appendix D tables for specific sources). Conversions from wet
to dry weight were carried out as follows:
DryWright (4)
(1 -moisturecontent)
The uptake response slope of pollutant in animal tissue food group, UA (pg-
pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)(jig-pollutant/g- feed)"1 was then calculated by
regressing the concentration of pollutant in the animal tissue against the
concentration of pollutant in the animal feed.
For each particular pollutant/food group combination (i.e., mercury uptake in poultry),
the geometric mean of the uptake slopes from the individual studies was calculated and used to
represent the uptake slope.
5-127
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Hie consumption of beet lamb, pork, and poultry includes consumption of organ meats
as well as muscle. Since liver mid kidney can sequester pollutants to a much higher degree than
muscle, and liver and kidney are the most frequently eaten organ meats, uptake in liver and
kidney was included.
The methodology adopted for incorporating the uptake of liver and kidney was to
calculate a weighted geometric mean of muscle, liver, and kidney data in the ratio 50:5:3. These
ratios are based on typical body weight ratios for these organs. If only liver, or only kidney data
were available, the weighted mean included only that data. That is, if muscle and liver data were
used the weighted mean was calculated with a ratio of 50:5, or if muscle and kidney data were
used the ratio was 50:3. The following equation shows how the calculation was performed if all
three data sets were used:
weightedgeometricmean - ^(muscle data)30 • (liverdata)9 • (kidney data)* ^
*
Use of Surrogate Data from Comparable Food Groups
For some pollutant/food group combinations, little or no data were available. When this
occurred it was necessary to use data from surrogate tissue groups. The following criteria,
organized by food group, were followed in choosing the data used as the basis for calculating the
uptake slopes. (Specific details of which studies were used for each food group/pollutant
combination are given in the tables in Appendix D.)
Beef
1. Where muscle and kidney data were available, the weighted geometric mean of
beef muscle and beef kidney data in the ratio of 50:3 (muscle:kidney) were used.
2. In the absence of kidney data, only beef muscle data were used.
3. In the absence of either muscle or kidney data, daily data were substituted.
5-128
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Beef Liver
1.- Bcef liver datawereusedwhere available.
2. Where no beef liver data were available, liver data from other animals were
substituted.
3. For the pollutants where no liver data were available, the most conservative of
either beef data, dairy data, or the geometric mean of beef and dairy data were
used.
Lamb, Pork, and Poultry
1. Where possible, the weighted geometric mean of muscle, liver, and kidney data
(in the ratio 50:5:3) for each food group were used. If either liver or kidney data
were not available, the geometric mean of muscle and the available data were
used instead (see equation 2).
«
2. If no data were available directly relating to the food group, the weighted mean of
all other meat uptakes was substituted. If less than 15 uptake slopes were
available from meat studies, dairy data were incoiporated on an equal weighting
with muscle.
3. If only beef and dairy data were available, the most conservative of either beef
data, daiiy data, or the geometric mean of beef and daily data were used.
Daily
1. Milk data were used where available.
2. If no milk data were available, data for beef were substituted.
3. If the number of studies used to calculate beef uptake was less than five, the
geometric mean of all other meat groups was substituted. Note that the limiting
number of studies is less than that for the criteria for pork. This is because dairy
products are primarily derived from cattle.
5-129
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Eggs
1. Egg data were used where available.
2. If no egg data were available, poultry data were substituted.
3. If neither of the above were available, the data used for daily products were
substituted.
The animal uptake slopes calculated are presented in Table 5.2.4-3 for each animal food
group/inorganic pollutant pairing.
S2AAA3J Da% Dietaiy Consumption of Animal Tissue Food Group, DA
*
Daily dietary consumption of animal-tissue food groups, DA, is determined using the
same EPA dietaiy analysis (Estimated lifetime Average Daily Food Intake) discussed for the
daily dietaiy consumption of food group, DC, which was presented in Section 5.2.1.4.1.2.7 in
Pathway 1. For this pathway, the relevant food groups are identical to those listed in Table
5.2.4-2. See Table 5.2.1-10 for the consumption figures for each of these food groups.
5^4.4.1^8 Fraction of Food Group Assumed to be Derived from Animals that Ingest
Forage Grown on Sewage SludgcAmended Soil, FA
The HEI for this pathway is a farm household raising a substantial percentage of their
own meat and other animal products. Therefore, the values of FA are based on the annual
consumption of homegrown foods on nonmetropolitan areas (i.e., all U.S. areas not within a
SMSA). They are presented in Table 522-3. The FA value for poultry is 11 percent and for
beef, beef liver, lamb, and pork it is 10 percent as shown in Table 5.2.2-3. The FA value used
5-130
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TABLE 5.2.4-3
UPTAKE SLOPE OF INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
IN ANIMAL TISSUE FOOD GROUPS,
UA Oig-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)/(fig-poIiutant/g-diet DW)
Pollutant
Beef
Beef
Liver
Lamb
Pork
Poultrv
Dairy
Cadmium
0.008
0.413
0.008
0.003
0.085
0,001
0.002
Mercury
0.004
0.262
0.024
o;024
0.024
0.020
0.020
Selenium
0.151
1.195
0.901
2.939
0.901
0.901
0.901
Zinc
0.006
0.003
1.106
0.002
0.007
0.005
0.007
5-131
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for dairy products In this analysis is that used for the categoiy of milk, cream, and cheese in
Table 5.22-3 (i.e., 3 percent). For eggs, the FA value from Table 5.2.2-3 is 8 percent
524.4.129 Uptake Response Slope of Pollutants in Forage, UC
The uptake slopes for forage were derived using the same methodology used and
described in Pathway 1. See Section 5.2.1.4.1.2.6 for a detailed discussion. The geometric mean
of the uptake slopes for each inorganic evaluated are: 0.07 for cadmium, 0.043 for mercury, 0.003
for selenium, and 0.048 for zinc.
53.4.4J. J Input and Output Values
Table 5.2.4-4 presents the input and qutput values for inorganic compounds for
Agricultural Pathway 4.
53.4.4 J.4 Sample Calculations
Hie following are sample calculations for inorganics for Agricultural Pathway 4. The
pollutant used as an example is cadmium.
First RIA is calculated to be:
BIA
('
0.001 » 70
- 0.01614
RIA. - 53.86 (ig-cadmhimAlay
(8)
5-132
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TABLE 5.2.4-4
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 4
Cadmium
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
RfD
0.001
Beef
0.008
19.2547
0.10
0.0145
BW
70
Beef liver
0.413
0.8983
0.10
0.0371
RE
1
Lamb
0.008
0.2008
0.10
0.0002
TBI
0.01614
Pork
0.003
9.0543
0.10
0.0024
UC
0.070
Poultry
0.08S
6.7031
0.11
0.0627
Daiiy
0.001
28.8679
0.03
0.0010
RIA
53.86
Eggs
0.002
8.3224
0.08
0.0012
RF
452.0611
sum UA*DA*FA
0.1191
Mercury
| Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
RfD
0.0003
Beef
0.004
19.2547
0.10
0.0076
BW
70
Beef liver
0.262
0.8983
0.10
0.0235
RE
1
Lamb
0.024
0.2008
0.10
0.0005
TBI
0.0032
Pork
0.024
9.0543
0.10
0.0222
UC
0.043
Poultry
0.024
6.7031
0.11
0.0181
Dairy
0.020
28.8679
0.03
0.0171
RIA
17.8
Eggs
0.020
8.3224
0.08
0.0132
RF
174.397
sum UA*DA*FA
0.1021
|RPc
4000|
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-133
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TABLE 5.2.4-4 (coat)
Selenium
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA'DA-FA
RfD
0.005
Beef
0.151
19.2547
0.10
0.2904
BW
70
Beef Ever
1.195
0.8983
0.10
0.1074
RE
1
Lamb
0.901
0.2008
0.10
0.0181
TBI
0.115
Pork
2.939
9.0543
0.10
2.6610
UC
0.003
Poultry
0.901
6.7031
0.11
0.6642
Daiiy
0.901
28.8679
0.03
0.7802
RIA
235
Eggs
0.901
8.3224
0.08
0.5998
RF
45.889
sum UA*DA*FA
5.1210
|RFc
15000|
Zinc
1 Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef
0.006
19.2547
. 0.10
0.0107
Beef liver
0.003
0.8983
0.10
0.0002
Lamb
1.106
0.2008
0.10
0.0222
Pork
0.002
9.0543
0.10
0.0017
Poultry
0.007
6.7031
0.11
0.0054
Dairy
0.005
28.8679
0.03
0.0045
Eggs
0.007
8.3224
0.08
0.0049
sum UA*DA*FA
0.0496
RfD
0.21
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
13.42
UC
0.048
RIA
1280
RF
25781.192
|RPc
53QOOO|
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UA ** uptake slope of pollutant in animal tissue
(Hg-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)/(fig-pollutant/g-dict DW)
DA = daily dietary consumption of animal tissue food group (g-diet DW/day)
FA = fraction of food group assumed to be derived from animals which ingest sewage sludge (unitless)
RfD = oral reference dose (mg/kg-day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
RE — relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI= total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
UC = uptake response slope of pollutant in forage (ng-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)/(kg-pollutant/ha)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (jig-pollutant/day)
RF * reference concentration of pollutant in diet (ng-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RPc - reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutanfha)
5-134
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where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutants in human beings (jig-pollutant/day)
RfD = oral reference dose (rag/kg* day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitiess)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of
exposure (mg-poll utant/day)
10* = conversion factor (pg/rag)
Then, RF is calculated to be:
RF - — — (9)
52 (UAj'DAi'FA,)
RF - JML (10)
0.1191
RF - 452.061 jig-cadminm/g-dietDW (11)
where:
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet ftig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (pg-poliutant/day)
UAj = uptake response slope of pollutant in animal tissue food group i
(pg-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW) (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)*1
DAj = daily dietary consumption of animal tissue food group i (g-animal tissue
DW/day)
FA; = fraction of food group i assumed to be derived from animals that ingest
forage grown on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitiess)
Finally, RPe is calculated to be:
- §
BP - 452 061 (13)
0.070
5-135
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RPC - 6,400 kg-c*dnrium/h* (roundeddownto2signifiamtfigures) (14)
where: .... — ....
RPC = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
UC = uptake response slope of pollutant in forage crop (/ig-pollutant/g forage
DW) (kg-pollutant/ha)"1
53*4.42 Organics
52.4.42.1 Equations
The RIA is calculated from:
RIA. -
f- !BlW
^ qj"»RE
(15)
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (ug-pollutant/day)
RL » risk level
BW = human body weight
q,* = human cancer potency (nig/kg* day)"1
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant (rag-pollutant/day)
103 = conversion factor (jigfmg)
Because this pathway involves the consumption of animal products by humans, the next
equation in this analysis is a reference application rate of pollutant, RF (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
as shown below:
RF - — — (16)
£ (UA1*DAi»FA1)
where:
5-136
-------
RF - reference concentration of pollutant in diet Qig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (/ig-pollutant/day)
UAj = uptake response slope of pollutant in animal tissue food group i
.—- (/ig-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)(jig-poliutant/g-diet DW)"1
DAj = daily dietary consumption of animal tissue food group i (g-animal tissue
DW/day)
FAj = fraction of food group i assumed to be derived from animals which ingest
forage grown on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
For organics, a reference concentration of pollutant in soil is calculated:
RLC - -H (17)
where:
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (/ig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RF « reference concentration of pollutant in diet (/ig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
UC = uptake response slope of pollutant in forage crop (pg-poliutant/g-forage
DW)(pg-pollutant/g-soil)"1
Finally, soil concentration, RLC, is converted to an annual application rate (RP,) by
considering the mass of soil (MS) and the decay series as shown below:
RP, - RLOMS*10"**[l+e"k+e~2k+ +e<1"^k]"1 (18)
where:
RP, = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha • yr)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm (g-soil DW/ha)
10* = conversion factor (kg/jig)
e = base of natural logarithms, 2.718 (unitless)
k = loss rate constant (yr1)
n = years of application until equilibrium conditions are reached (yr)
The half-lives of dieldrin and chlordane indicate that these organic pollutants do not
degrade. Thus they are treated slightly differently from the other organics in that a cumulative
pollutant application rate, not an annual application rate, is calculated from:
RPe - RLC*MS*10"* (»)
5-137
-------
where:
RPe = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (^g-pollutant/g-soil DW)
. MS .= .assumed-mass, of-diy soil in upper 15 cm (grsoil DW/ha)
10* «= conversion factor (kg/fig)
52.4.422 Input Parameters
SM4JX1 Adjusted Reference Intake in Humans, RIA
Hie values used to calculate RIAs are designed to protect the sensitive members of the
population. Thus, if the entire population experienced the level of exposure these values
represent, only a small portion of the population would be at risk. The definition and derivation
of each of the parameters used to estimate RIA for nonthreshold-acting toxicants are further
discussed in the following sections.
«
S2A.4222, Risk Level, RL
Since by definition no "safe" level exists for exposure to nonthreshold agents, specification
of a given risk level on which to base regulations is a matter of policy. For this risk assessment,
RL was set at 10"4, so the RIA will be the concentration that, for lifetime exposure, is calculated
to have an upper-bound cancer risk of one case in 10,000 individuals exposed. This risk level
refers to excess cancer risk that is over and above the background cancer risk in unexposed
individuals.
S2A.4223 Body Weight, BW
In keeping with U.S. EPA policy, an adult body weight of 70 kg was used as explained in
Section 5.2.1.4.1.23.
5-138
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5JL4.4JL14 Human Cancer Potency, q,*
—. Thisvariableis described in detail jn Pathway 1 in Section 52.1A2.2~5. See Table 5.2.1-
13, also in Pathway 1, for a summary of the qt*s used in the risk assessment for land application.
5JLAA2JL5 Relative Effectiveness of Ingestion Exposure, RE
As stated previously, an RE factor should only be applied where well-documented/refer-.
enced information is available on the contaminant's observed relative effectiveness. Since this
information was not available for any of the carcinogens, RE was set equal to 1.
5.24.4.12.6 Total Background Intake Rate of Pollutant, TBI
t
No TBI values are available for organic compounds; they were assumed to be negligible.
5.2.4.4.2.2.7 Reference Concentration of Pollutant in Diet. RF
Animal uptake is in direct proportion to the concentration of pollutant in food. RLC
relates the adjusted reference intake in humans (R1A) to animal uptake of pollutants and human
dietary consumption.
S.2AAX2JS Uptake Response Slope of Pollutant in Animal Tissue Food Group, UA
Animal tissue uptake slopes relate the concentration of pollutant in animal tissue to its
concentration in animal feed. The derivation of the uptake slopes is described in detail in
Section 5.2.4.4.1.2.6 in this pathway. The slopes derived for organic pollutants are presented in
Table 5.2.4-5.
5-139
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TABLE 5.2.4-5
.. UPTAKE SLOPE OF ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
IN ANIMAL TISSUE FOOD GROUPS,
UA (jig-pollutaiit/g-animal tissue DW)/(fig-poUutant/g-diet DW)
Beef
Beef
Lamb
Pork
Poultry
Dairy
I Pollutant
(fat)
Liver
ffat)
(fat)
(fat)
ffat)
Eees
Aldrin/Dieldrin
2.156
2.873
1.553
7.143
45.753
12.880
33.422
Chlordane
0.071
0.071
0.071
0.071
0.071
0.060
0.060
DDT
2.800
12.891
2.289
7.357
81.597
5.601
9.767
iHeptachlor
3.718
12.362
0.853
3.398
3.398
12.362
12.362
{Hexachlorobenzene
3.482
6.461
8.353
6.383
8.834
6.461
3.042
iHcxachtorobutadicne
3.482
6.461
8.353
6.383
8.834
6.461
3.042
(Lindane
1.117
1.117
1.117
1.117
1,117
1.117
1.117
IPCBs
4.215
6.664
6.664
6.664
6.664
10.536
10.536
jToxaphene
18.653
18.653
18.653
18.653
18.653
18.653
18.653
5-140
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524X2.9 Daily Dietaiy Consumption of the Food Group, DA
Since organks sequester in the fet And liver, th& food groups assessed were: beef fet, total
beef liver and liver fat, lamb fet, pork Cat, poultry fat, dairy fiat, and eggs. The daily dietaiy
consumption of each of these food groups can be found in Table 5.2.1-10 in Pathway 1.
524.42110 Fraction of Food Gronp Assumed to be Derived from Animals that Ingest
Forage Grown on Sewage S fudge-Amended Soil, FA
The fraction of food group i derived from animals that ingest forage assumed to be grown
on sewage sludge-amended soil, FA are the same as for inorganics: 0.10 for beef, beef liver,
lamb, and pork; 0.11 for poultry; 0.03 for dairy; and 0.08 for eggs.
#
524.4X2.11 Reference Concentration of Pollutant in Soil, RLC
Since plant uptake is related to the concentration of pollutant in soil as discussed in
Pathway 1, Section 521.4.1.2.6, the allowable concentration of pollutant is given as the reference
concentration of pollutant in soil.
5X4.422.12 Uptake Response Slope or Pollutants in Forage, UC
As very little data were available on the uptake of organic compounds by plants, the
response slopes could not be calculated and were therefore conservatively set to a default slope
of 0.001.
5-141
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5J4.42i.13 Reference Annual Application Rate of Pollutant, RP.
. —Hie reference. annual-application-rate applies to .organic compounds, that .degrade in the
environment. The amount of pollutant in sludge that can be added to a hectare each year takes
this degradation into account
5X4.4X2.14 Mass of Diy Soil iii Upper 15 cm, MS
The assumed mass of dry soil in the upper 15 cm is 2*10* g-soil DW/ha. (See Section
5.2.1.4J2.2.12 for a complete description of the derivation of this value.)
5X4.4X2.15 Decay Rate Constant, k
*
See Pathway 1, Section 5X1.42X13 for a complete description of this variable. The
values used for k are presented in Table 5X1-14; also in Pathway 1.
SJ2.4.423 Input and Output Values
Table 5X4-6 presents the input and output values for organic cor.:pounds for
Agricultural Pathway 4.
/
S2A.42.4 Sample Calculations
As discussed previously, two approaches are used for organic pollutants. The first, for
those organics that degrade over time, is shown by the following sample calculations. The
pollutant used as an example is heptachlor.
First, RIA is calculated from:
5-142
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TABLE 5.2.44
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 4
Aldrin/Dieldrin
| Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
[Beef (fat)
2.156
15.4977
0.10
3.3413
iBeef liver (incl. fat)
2.873
1.1438
0.10
0.3286
¦Lamb (fat)
1.553
0.2080
0.10
0.0323
BPork (fat)
7.143
12.7299
0.10
9.0928
¦Poultry (fat)
45.753
1.3403
0.11
6.7455
flDairy (fat)
12.880
18.1252
0.03
7.0037
JEggs
33.422
8.3224
0.08
22.2519
sum UA*DA*FA
48.7959
Chlordane
Beef liver (incl. fat)
Lamb (fat)
Pork (fat)
Poultry (fat)
[Patty (fat)
Food Group
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fat)
15.4977
0.071
0.1096
0.071
0.071
0.071
0.071
0.060
0.060
1.1438
0.2080
12.7299
1.3403
18.1252
8.3224
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.11
0.03
0.08
sum UA*DA*FA
0.0081
0.0015
0.0900
0.0104
0.0324
0.0396
0.2916
RL
I.0OE-O4
BW
70
qf
16
RE
1
UC
0.001
MS
2E+09
RIA
0.438
RF
0.009
RLC
8.966
|RPc 171
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
1.3
RE
1
UC
0.001
MS
2E+09
RIA
5.385
RF
18.466
RLC
18465.936
[rpT
360001
Note: Totals may not add doe to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-143
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TABLE 5.2.4-6 (cant.)
DDT/DDE/DDD
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA |
RL
1.00E-04
Beef flat)
2.800
15.4977
0.10
4.3390
BW
70
Beef liver CincLfet)
12.891
1.1438
0.10
1.4745
ql*
0.34
Lamb (fat)
2.289
0.2080
0.10
0.0476
RE
1
Pork (fat)
7.357
12.7299
0.10
9.3652
UC
0.001
Poultry (fit)
81.597
1.3403
0.11
12.0301
MS
2E+09
Dairy (fit)
5.601
18.1252
0.03
3.0453
k
0.04
Errs
9.767
8.3224
0.08
6.5025
sum UA*DA*FA
36.8043
RIA
20.588
RF
0.559
RLC
559.397
EZZIZZ3
HepUchlor
*
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
RL
1.00E-04
Beef(fet)
3.718
15.4977
0.10
5.7617
BW
70
Beef liver (incl. fat)
12.362
1.1438
0.10
1.4139
ql*
4.5
Lamb (fit)
0.853
0.2080
0.10
0.0177
RE
1
Pork (fat)
3.398
12.7299
0.10
4.3250
UC
0.001
Poultry (fit)
3.398
1.3403
0.11
0.5009
MS
2E+09
Dairy (fat)
12.362
18.1252
0.03
6.7218
k
6.024
Bscs
12.362
8.3224
0.08
8.2304
sum UA*DA*FA
26.9716
RIA
1.556
RF
0.058
RLC
57.674
PET
TTo|
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-144
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TABLE 5.2.4-6 (cont)
Heirachlorobenzene
I Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA-DA-FA
RL
i.OOE-04
Beef(fet)
3.482
15.4977
0.10
5.3962
BW
70
Beef liver (incl. fat)
6.461
1.1438
0.10
0.7390
ql*
1.6
Lamb (fet)
8.353
0.2080
0.10
0.1737
RE
1
Pork (fet)
6.383
12.7299
0.10
8.1254
ue
0.001
Poultry (fat)
8.834
1.3403
0.11
1.3024
MS
2E+09
Dairy (fat)
6.461
18.1252
0.03
3.5132
k
0.122
Fggs
3.042
8.3224
0.08
2.0255
P3
sun UA*DA*FA
21.2754
RIA
4.375
RF
0.206
RLC
205.637
RP*
Lindane
| Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
RL
1.001-04
peef(fet)
1.117
15.4977
0.10
1.7315
BW
70
iBeef liver (incl. fat)
1.117
1.1438
0.10
0.1278
«1*
1.33
Lamb (fat)
1.117
0.2080
0.10
0.0232
RE
1
Pork (fat)
1.117
12.7299
0.10
1.4223
UC
0.001
Poultry (fat)
1.117
1.3403
0.11
0.1647
MS
21+09
Dairy (fit)
1.117
18.1252
0.03
0.6075
k
1.2
lEggfi
1.117
8.3224
0.08
0.7439
r
sum UA*DA*FA
4.8209
RIA
5.263
RF
1.092
RLC
1091.733
[rpT
15001
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-145
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TABLE 5.2.4-6 (coot)
PCBs
Food Group
UA
4.215
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef(fet)
15.4977
0.10
6.5318
Beef liver (incl. fet)
6.664
1.1438
0.10
0.7622
Lamb (fat)
6.664
0.2080
0.10
0.1386
Pork (fat)
6.664
12.7299
0.10
8.4828
Poultry (fet)
6.664
1.3403
0.11
0.9825
Dairy (fat)
10.536
18.1252
0.03
5.7289
Eggs
10.536
8.3224
0.08
7.0147
sum UA*DA*FA
29.6415
Toxapbene
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef(fet)
18.653
15.4977
0.10
28.9079
Beef liver (incl. fat)
18.653
1.1438
0.10
2.1335
Lamb (fat)
18.653
0.2080
0.10
0.3880
Pork (fet)
18.653
12.7299
0.10
23.7452
Poultry (fat)
18.653
1.3403
0.11
2.7501
Dairy (fat)
18.653
18.1252
0.03
10.1427
Eggs
18.653
8.3224
0.08
12.4191
sum UA*DA*FA
80.4865
RL
1.001-04
BW
70
ql*
7.7
RE
1
UC
0.001
MS
2E+09
Ic
0.063
R1A
0.909
RF
0.031
RLC
30.670
|RP» | 4.3|
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
1.1
RE
1
UC
0.001
MS
2E+09
E
1.2
RIA
6.364
RF
0.079
RLC
79.065
|RP.
120|
5-146
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TABLE 5.2.4-6 (cont.)
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UA = uptake slope of pollutant is animal tissue
(jig-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)/(ng-pollutant/g-dict DW)
DA = daily dietary consumption of animal tissue food group (g-diet DW/day)
FA = fraction of food group assumed to be derived from animals which ingest sewage sludge (unitless)
RL = risk level (unitless)
BW - human body weight 0%)
ql* = human cancer potency (mg/kg-dayXX-l)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
UC = uptake response slope of pollutant in forage (jig-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)/(kg-poUutant/ha)
MS = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm (g-soil DW/ha)
k = loss rate constant (yr^-l)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (ng-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (jig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-poUutant/ha)
RPa = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha-yr)
5-147
-------
RIA -
'rL-BW _
k q^.RE
•10s (20)
RIA. - (0-0OOU70 _ 0 00\.103 (21)
\ 4.5*1 ;
RIA - 1356 jig-hqpticlilor/day (22)
where:
RIA = adjusted reference Intake in humans (jig-pollutant/day)
RL = risk level
BW = human body weight
qt* = human cancer potency (rag/kg"day)"1
EE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant (mg-pollutant/day)
10s = conversion factor (jigfmg)
Next, RF is calculated to be:
RF - 31^ (23)
£ 1
RF - 1556 (24)
26.972
RF - 0.058 ng-heptacfaloc/g-dtetDW (25)
where:
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RIA — adjusted referent intake in humans (f^-pollutant/day)
UAj = uptake response slope of pollutant in animal tissue food group i
(/ig-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)(pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)*1
DAj » daily dietaiy consumption of animal tissue food group i (g-animal tissue
DW/day)
5-148
-------
FAj -= fraction of food group i assumed to be derived from animals that ingest
forage grown on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
Next, RLC is calculated to be:
RLC - —IL (26)
uc
RLC - 0 058 (27)
0.001
RLC - 57.674 ^g-hepachlor/g-soilDW (28)
where:
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (/ig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
UC = uptake response slope ©f pollutant in forage crop (ag-pollutant/g-forage
DW^g-pollutant/g-soil)1
Finally, RP, is calculated to be:
IP. - RLC • MS ~ 10~**[l +e"ke"a+....+e0-"*]-1 (29)
RP, - 57.674»2« 10^* 10"**[l +e~*ao+e~2**aa +.... (3®)
RP, - 110 fy-be&MsMatlbtL^yT (rounded downto2signiiIcantfigures) (31)
where:
RP, = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha • yr)
RLC >b reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS * assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 an (g-soil DW/ha)
10* = conversion factor (kg/j*g)
e = base of natural logarithms, 2.718 (unitless)
k s loss rate constant (yr1)
n = years of application until equilibrium conditions are readied (yr)
5-149
-------
The second approach is for those orgastics that do not degrade over time. The
calculations are identical to the fiist approach for organics up until the final calculation. The
difference between the two approaches is that the -output oHhesecondapproadHsa reference
cumulative application rate of pollutant. The following calculation, using chlordane as an
example, shows only the final step in the procedure, where RPC is calculated to be:
RPC - RLC-MS-10-* (32)
RPe - 18,466*2*109«10"* (33)
RPe - 36,000 kg-chlordane/yr (roundeddownto2aignificatitfigures) (34)
where:
RPC = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (ug-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS ~ assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm (g-soil DW/ha)
10* = conversion factor (kg/jig)
5-150
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5.2.5 Agricultural Pathway 5 (Human Toxicity from Consumption of Animal Products
Produced from Animals that Incidentally Ingest Sewage Sludge)
5.2.5.1 Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -*• Animal -» Human
This pathway involves the application of sewage sludge to the land, the direct ingestion of
this sewage sludge by animals, and, finally, the consumption of contaminated animal tissue by
humans.
A grazing animal can be exposed to direct ingestion of sewage sludge by two quite
different methods. The first involves direct ingestion of sewage sludge by livestock, when sewage
sludge has been surface-applied to pasture crops. livestock can ingest sewage sludge adhering to
the crops or lying on the soil surface. Alternatively, sewage sludge can be injected into the soil
or mixed with the plow-layer soil, and the grazing livestock ingest the soil-sewage sludge mixture.
Exposure will be maximized when sewage sludge is ingested directly with no dilution with soil,
and hence this exposure scenario is considered in this analysis.
It is assumed that only a small percentage of the grazing livestock's diet is sewage sludge,
and that not all of the animal tissue consumed by the HEI is derived from livestock that have
been feeding on sewage sludge-amended soil.
Background pollutant intake by the HEI (i.e., the ingestion of pollutants from all sources
other than that associated with the application of sewage sludge to the land), is taken into
consideration in the equations for this pathway.
5.2.5.2 Pollutants Evaluated
As discussed in the Summary of Environmental Profiles and Hazard Indices for Constituents
of Municipal Sludge: Methods and Results (EPA, 1985c), 11 pollutants remained for analysis when
5-151
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the incremental ranking was completed. In addition, because data for selenium and zinc were
available, they were evaluated, too. Hie pollutants shown in Table 5.2.5-1 were all evaluated for
ihis pathway. . . . . —
5.233 Highly Exposed Individual
The analysis developed for this pathway is designed to assist in setting pollutant loading
limits to protect a highly exposed human consuming the tissue of foraging animals that have
incidentally ingested undiluted sewage sludge. Hie HEI is assumed to consume daily quantities
of the various animal-tissue food groups as determined by EPA's Estimated Lifetime Average
Daily Food Intake. The HEI is also assumed to be exposed to a background intake of pollutant.
5.2.5.4 Algorithm Development
t
5.25.4.1 Inorganics
Equations
Because this pathway involves the direct ingestion of sewage sludge by animals, the
output of the analysis is a reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge, RSC. To
calculate RSC, the adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans, RIA (/ig-pollutant/day) is
divided by a function of factors that relate to the exposure of livestock to sewage sludge, the
uptake of a pollutant in the animal tissue, and the human consumption of this tissue. These
factors are the uptake response slope of pollutant in the animal-tissue food group i, UA; (pg-
pol lutant/g-animal tissue DW)(/ag-polIutant/g-diet DW)'1, the daily dietary consumption of the
animal tissue food group i, DA, (g-aniraal tissue DW/day), and the fraction of food group i
assumed to be derived from animals that ingest sewage sludge, FAj (unitless). This conversion
generates an overall reference feed concentration of pollutant, RF (jig-pollutant/g-diet DW) for
forage animals. Because sewage sludge constitutes only a small portion of the animals' diet, RF
5-152
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TABLE 5.2.5-1
POLLUTANTS EVALUATED FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 5
Inorganics
Organics
Cadmium
Aldrin/Dieldrin
Mercury
Chlordane
Selenium
DDT/DDE/DDD
Zinc
Heptachlor
Hexachlorobenzene
Hexachlorobutadiene
Lindane
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Toxaphei\e
5-153
-------
is then divided by the fraction of diet that is sewage sludge, FS (g-sewage sludge DW/g-soil DW)
to calculate RSC. Because the sewage sludge is directly ingested, there is no difference in
, ... .^calculationsJjetwecH organic and inorgaRic -pollutants. -As- discussed-above, thefirst step in the
algorithm is the calculation of RIA.
For inorganics RIA is calculated from:
«u - paiSE -»). * W
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutants in humans (/xg-pollutant/day)
RfD = oral reference dose (nig/kg* day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
TBI total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of
exposure (rag-pollutant/day)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
10* = conversion factor (pgftng)
RF = — — (2)
5^ (UAj-DAj'FA^
where:
RF = reference feed concentration of pollutant in diet (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (jtg-pollutant/day)
UAj = uptake response slope of pollutant in the animal tissue food group i
(yxg-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)(pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)"1
DAj => daily dietaiy consumption of the animil tissue food group i (g-animal
tissue DW/day)
FAj = fraction of food group i assumed to be derived from animals that ingest
sewage sludge (unitless).
Because this pathway involves the direct ingestion of sewage sludge by animals, the
output of the analysis is a reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge, RSC, calculated
from:
5-154
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(3)
reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge O*g-pollutant/g-
sewage sludge DW)
reference feed concentration of pollutant in diet (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
fraction of animal diet that is sewage sludge (g-sewage sludge DW/g-diet
DW)
Input Parameters
Adjusted Reference Intake of Pollutants in Humans, MIA. The values used to calculate
RIAs are designed to protect the sensitive members of the population. The definition and
derivation of each of the parameters used to estimate RIA for threshold-acting toxicants are
further discussed in die following sections.
Oral Reference Dose, RfD. The same RfDs were used in this pathway as in Pathway 1
(see Table 5.2.1-3). Inorganics were assessed as threshold chemicals and the RfDs were taken
from IRIS (U.S. EPA, 1992h). (For a more detailed discussion, see Section 5.2.1.4.1.2.2 in
Pathway 1).
Human Body Weight, BW. An adult body weight of 70 kg was used as explained in
Section 5.2.1.4.1.23.
Relative Effectiveness of Ingestion Exposure, RE. As stated previously, an RE factor
should only be applied where well-documented/referenced information is available on the
contaminant's observed relative effectiveness. Since this information was not available for any of
the pollutants, RE was set equal to 1.
RSC - ™
FS
where:
RSC =
RF
FS
5-155
-------
Total Background Intake Rate of Pollutant from All Other Sources of Exposure, TBI.
Humans are exposed to pollutants found in sewage sludge (e.g., cadmium, mercury), even if no
sewage sludge is applied to agricultural land. These sources include background levels (natural
and/or anthropogenic) in drinking water, food, and air. When TBI is subtracted from the weight-
adjusted R£D, the remainder defines the increment that can be added from sewage sludge use or
disposal without exceeding the threshold. The TBIs used for adults are presented in Table 5.2.1-
4 in Pathway 1.
Uptake Response Slope of Pollutant in the Animal Tissue Food Group, UA. Animal
tissue uptake slopes relate the concentration of pollutant in animal tissue to the concentration in
the animals* feed. The original data were taken from an extensive literature search. Hie
methodology for calculating uptake slopes for each feed/tissue combination depends on how the
data were presented in the literature. Uptake slopes for each food group are, generally, the
geometric mean of the uptake slopes from a number of feed/tissue combinations. For a
complete discussion of the derivation of these.numbers, see Section 5.2.4.4.1. Hie data used are
presented in Appendix D. For hexachlorobutadiene, no data were available, so the uptake slope
for hexachlorobenzene was used based on the similar toxicology of these pollutants.
Daily Dietaiy Consumption of the Animal Tissue Food Group, DA. For this pathway,
only dietaiy consumption of animals that graze was considered. Thus consumption of beef, beef
liver, lamb, and dairy products was retained in the analysis. Since pigs and poultry (e.g., dudes,
chickens) do not graze and would not, therefore, be directly exposed to sludge applied to land,
pork, poultry, and eggs were not included in the analysis. The same values of DA were used for
this pathway as were previously presented for Pathway 4. See Table 5.2.1-10 for the consumption
figures for each of these food groups.
Fraction of Food Group Assumed to be Derived From Animals That Ingest Sewage
Sludge, FA. Hie HEI for this pathway is a farm household raising a substantial percentage of its
own meat and other animal products. Therefore, as in Pathway 4, the values of FA are based on
the annual consumption of homegrown foods in nonmetropolitan areas [i.e., all U.S. areas not
within a Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA) (SMSA is explained further in the
5-156
-------
glossary located at the front of this document}]. They are presented in Table 522-3. The FA
value for beef; beef liver, and lamb is that shown for meat in Table 522-3 (i.e., 10 percent). The
value used for dairy products in this analysis is the value for the categoiy consisting of milk,
cream, and cheese in Table 5.22-3 (i.e., 3 percent).
Fraction of Animal Diet That is Sewage Sludge, FS. Hie fraction of sewage sludge
ingested (adhering to plants and/or directly from the soil surface) by grazing cattle averaged over
a season is 23 percent (Chaney et at, 1987a; Bert rand et al., 1981). Hiese data are derived from
cattle feces' studies, where livestock were not allowed to graze on pasture during sewage sludge
application or for a 21-day period thereafter. However, given that in any 1 year, the maximum
fraction of a farm treated with sewage sludge is approximately 33 percent (based on discussions
with regulatoiy officials in several states), and if one assumes the cattle are rotated among
several pasture fields, the actual fraction of the diet that is sewage sludge (chronic lifetime model
approach) will be lower than the 2.5 percent assumed.
*
Cattle grazing on land treated with sewage sludge compost that was applied the previous
growing season have been shown to ingest approximately 1.0 percent sewage sludge (Decker et
al., 1980a). When a weighted average is calculated from these two values of sewage sludge
ingestion (i.e., 0.67 x 2.5 + 0.33 x 1,0), the long-term average sewage sludge in the diet is 13
percent (Chaney at el., 1991a).
Input and Output Values
The input and output values for inorganics for Agricultural Pathway 5 are listed in Table
5.23-2.
5-157
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TABLE 5.23-2
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 5
Cadmium
1 Food Group
UA
DA
FA
0.10
UA*DA*FA
Beef
0.008
19.2547
0.0145
Beef liver
0.413
0.8983
0.10
0.0371
Lamb
0.008
0.2008
0.10
0.0002
Dairy
0.001
28.8679
0.03
0.0010
sum UA*DA*FA
0.0528
RID
0.001
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.01614
FS
0.015
RIA
53.861
RF
1020.5561
Mercury
|rsc"
i Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
RfD
0.0003
iBeef
0.004
19.2547
0.10
0.0076
BW
70
Beef liver
0.262
0.8983
0.10
0.0235
RE
1
Lamb
0.024
0.2008
0.10
0.0005
TBI
0.0032
Daily
0.020
28.8679
0.03
0.0171
FS
0.015
1
sum UA*DA*FA
0.0487
RIA
17.8
RF
365.714
|rsc
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-158
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Selenium
TABLE 5.2.5-2 (coiit.)
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef
0.151
19.2547
0.10
0.2904
Beef liver
1.195
0.8983
0.10
0.1074
Lamb
0.901
0.2008
0.10
0.0181
Dairy
0.901
28.8679
0.03
0.7802
sum UA*DA*FA
1.1960
Zinc
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA"DA»FA
Beef
0.006
19.2547
1 0.10
0.0107
Beef liver
0.003
0.8983
0.10
0.0002
Lamb
1.106
0.2008
0.10
0.0222
Dairy
0.005
28.8679
- 0.03
0.0045
sum UA*DA*FA
0.0377
RID
0.005
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.115
FS
0.015
RIA
235
RF
196.487
|RSC 130001
RID
0.21
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
13.42
FS
0.015
RIA
1280
RF
33970.494
|rsc"
22000001
¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦J
Notes: .
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UA - uptake slope of pollutant in animal tissue (ng-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)/(ng-pollutant/g-diet DW)
DA = daily dietary consumption of animal tissue food group (g-diet DW/day)
FA = fraction of food group assumed to be derived from animals which ingest sewage sludge (unitless)
RfD - oral reference dose (mg/kg-day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
FS = fraction of animal diet that is sewage sludge (g-sewage sludge DW/g<
-------
Sample Calculations
. The following are ,sample calculations for inorganics for.Agricultural Pathway 5. Hie
pollutant used as an example Is cadmium.
First, RIA is calculated to be:
RIA
/RfD « i
( RE
— - TBl] • 10* (4)
RIA. . ^0 001i * 70 - 0.01614j • 10s (5)
RIA « 53.86 (ig -cadmiuin/day (•)
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutants In human beings (/ig-pollutant/day)
RfD = oral reference dose (mg/kg-day)
BW =« human body weight (kg)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitiess)
TBI z= total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of
exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
103 = conversion factor (fig/mg)
Then, RF is calculated to be:
RF - — — (7)
^(UAfDA^FAJ
RF - (8)
0.0528
RF = 1020.556 |ig-cadmium/g-dietDW W
5-160
-------
where:
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
UAj = uptake response slope of pollutant in animal tissue food group i
(pg-pollutant/g-aniraal tissue DW) (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)'1
DAj = daily dietary consumption of animal tissue food group i (g-animal tissue
DW/day)
FAj = fraction of food group i assumed to be derived from animals that ingest
forage grown on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
Finally, RSC is calculated to be:
RSC = — (10)
re
rsc = 1020-556 (11)
0.015
RSC = 68,000 ng-cadmium/g -se^gesludgeDW(roundeddowato2 significant figures) (12)
where:
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (pg-pollutant/g-
sewage sludge DW)
RF = reference feed concentration of pollutant in diet (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
FS = fraction of animal diet that is sewage sludge (g-sewage sludge DW/g-diet
DW)
5.2£.4.2 Organics
For organics RIA is calculated from:
RIA
RL»BW
q'.RE
- TBI
103
(13)
5-161
-------
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
RL = risk level
BW = human body weight
= human cancer potency (mg/kg-day)'1
RE — relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant (mg-pollutant/day)
Iff5 = conversion factor (jig/mg)
RF is calculated from:
RIA
E(UAi«DA1»FA1)
RF . (14)
where:
RF = reference feed concentration of pollutant in diet (/ig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (/ig-pollutant/day)
UAj = uptake response slope of pollutant in the animal tissue food group i
(/xg-pcllutant/g-animal tissue DW)(^g-pollutant/g-diet DW)"1
DAj = dally dietary consumption of the animal tissue food group i (g-animal
tissue DW/day) —
FA; = fraction of food group i assumed to be derived from animals that ingest
sewage sludge (unitless).
RSC is calculated from:
RSC - (IS)
FS
where:
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (pg-pollutant/g-
sewage sludge DW)
RF = reference feed concentration of pollutant in diet (/tg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
FS = fraction of animal diet that is sewage sludge (g-sewage sludge DW/g-diet
DW)
5-162
-------
Input Parameters
Adjusted Reference Intake in Humans, RIA. Hie values used to calculate RIAs are
designed to protect the sensitive members of the population. Thus, if the entire population
experienced the level of exposure these values represent, only a small portion of the population
would be at risk. The definition and derivation of each of the parameters used to estimate RIA
for nonthreshold-acting toxicants are further discussed in the following sections.
Risk Level, RL. Since by definition no "safe" level exists for exposure to nonthreshold
agents, specification of a given risk level on which to base regulations is a matter of policy. For
this risk assessment, RL was set at 10"4, so the RIA will be the concentration for lifetime
exposure that is calculated to have an upper-bound cancer risk of one case in 10,000 individuals
exposed. This risk level refers to excess cancer risk that is over and above the background cancer
risk in unexposed individuals.
*
Body Weight, BW. In keeping with U.S. EPA policy, an adult body weight of 70 kg was
used as explained in Section 5.2.1.4.1.23.
Human Cancer Potency, q,*. This variable is described in detail in Pathway 1, Section
5.2.1.42.2 J. See Table 5.2.1-13, also in Pathway 1, for a summary of the q,*s used in the risk
assessment for land application.
Relative Effectiveness of Ingestion Exposure, RE. As stated previously, an RE factor
should only be applied where well-documented/referenced information is available on the
contaminant's observed relative effectiveness. Since this information was not available for any of
the carcinogens, RE was set equal to 1.
Total Background Intake Rate of Pollutant, TBI. No TBI values are available for organic
compounds; they were assumed to be negligible.
5-163
-------
Reference Concentration of Pollutant in Soil, RF. Since animal uptake is related to the
concentration of pollutant in sludge the allowable concentration of pollutant in animal products
is given as the reference concentration of pollutant in diet.
Uptake Response Slope of Pollutant in the Animal Tissue Food Group, UA. Animal
uptake of pollutants from sludge is represented by the uptake response slopes, which relate the
concentration of pollutant in animal tissue to the concentration in the sludge. The method by
which these uptake slopes were calculated is presented in Pathway 4, Section 5.2:4.4.1.2.6. The
resultant slopes can be found in the table of input and output values for organics, Table 5.25-3.
Daily Dietaiy Consumption of the Animal Tissue Food Group, DA. For this pathway,
only dietary consumption of animals that graze were considered. Thus only consumption of beef,
beef liver, lamb, and daily products were retained in the analysis. Values of DA were used for
this pathway as were previously presented. Since organics sequester in the liver and in fat, the
food groups used were beef fat, total beef liver and liver fat, lamb fiat, and dairy fat. No animal
«
uptake study gave separate uptake numbers for uptake in beef liver fiat, so the combined uptake
in the liver and liver fat was used. See Table 5.2.1-10 in Pathway 1 for the consumption figures
for these four food groups.
Fraction of Food Group Assumed to be Derived From Animals That Ingest Sewage
Sludge, FA. As in Pathway 4, the values of FA come from the annual consumption of
homegrown foods in nonmetropolitan areas (i.e., all U.S. areas not within a SMSA). They are
presented in Table 5.22-3. The values for beef, beef liver, and lamb are those shown for meat in
Table 5.22-3 (i.e., 10 percent), while the value used for dairy products in this analysis is the
value for milk, cream, cheese in Table 5.2.2-3 (i.e., 3 percent).
Fraction of Animal Diet That is Sewage Sludge, FS. The fraction of sewage sludge
(adhering to plants and/or directly from the soil surface) by grazing cattle is 2.5 percent (Chaney
et al., 1987a; Bertrand et al., 1981). Cattle grazing on land treated with sewage sludge compost
applied the previous growing season ingest approximately 1.0 percent sewage sludge (Decker et
al., 1980). When a weighted average is calculated from these two values of sewage sludge
5-164
-------
TABLE 5.2 £-3
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 5
Aldrin/Dieldrin
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fat)
2.156
15.4977
0.10
3.3413
Beef liver (incl. fat)
2.873
1.1438
0.10
0.3286
Lamb (fat)
1.553
0.2080
0.10
0.0323
Dairy (fet)
12.880
18.1252
0.03
7.0037
sum UA*DA*FA
10.7058
Chlordane
«
|| Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fet)
0.071
15.4977
0.10
0.1096
Beef liver (incl. fet)
0.071
1.1438
0.10
0.0081
Lamb (fet)
0.071
0.2080
0.10
0.0015
Dairy (fet)
0.060
18.1252
0.03
0.0324
sum UA*DA*FA
0.1515
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
16
RE
1
FS
0.015
RIA
0.438
RF
0.041
fRSC | 2.7|
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
1.3
RE
1
PS
0.015
5.385
RF
35.538
Use"
Ibiiimmi
¦¦¦¦¦
23001
mnbbhmmJI
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-165
-------
TABLE 5.2.5-3 (cont)
DDT/DDE/DDD
Heptachlor
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA-DA'FA
Beef (fel)
2.800
15.4977
0.10
» 4.3390
Beef liver (incl. fat)
12.891
1.1438
0.10
1.4745
Lamb (fit)
2.289
0.2080
0.10
0.0476
Dairy (fit)
5.601
18.1252
0.03
3.0453
sum UA*DA*FA
8.9065
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fit)
3.718
15.4977
0.10
5.7617
Beef liver (incl. fit)
12.362
1.1438
0.10
1.4139
Lamb (fit)
0.853
0.2080
0.10
0.0177
Dairy (fit)
12.362
18.1252
0.03
6.7218
sum UA*DA*FA
13.9153
RL
1.001-04
BW
70
ql*
0.34
RE
1
FS
0.015
RIA
20.588
RF
2.312
|RSC
150|
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
4.5
RE
1
FS
0.015
RIA
1.556
RF
0.112
|RSC
7.41
HexacUorobenzene
1 Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fit)
3.482
15.4977
0.10
5.3962
Beef liver (incl. fit)
6.461
1.1438
0.10
0.7390
Lamb (fit)
8.353
0.2080
0.10
0.1737
Dairy (fit)
6.461
18.1252
0.03
3.5132
sum UA*DA*FA
9.8221
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
1.6
RE
1
FS
0.015
RIA
4.375
RF
0.445
msc
29|
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitiotis and units.
5-166
-------
TABLE 5.2.5-3 (cont)
Hexachlorobutadiene
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fat)
3.482
15.4977
0.10
5.3962
Beef liver (incl. fat)
6.461
1.1438
0.10
0.7390
Lamb (fet)
8.353
0.2080
0.10
0.1737
Dairy (fet)
6.461
18.1252
0.03
3.5132
sum UA*DA*FA
9.8221
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
0.078
RE
1
FS
0.015
RIA
89.744
RF
9.137
jRSC"
600|
Lindane
PCBs
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fet)
1.117
15.4977
. 0.10
1.7315
Beef liver (incl. fat)
1.117
1.1438
0.10
0.1278
Lamb (fet)
1.117
0.2080
0.10
0.0232
Dairy (fet)
1.117
18.1252
0.03
0.6075
sum UA*DA*FA
2.4901
I Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fet)
4.215
15.4977
0.10
6.5318
Beef liver (incl. fet)
6.664
1.1438
0.10
0.7622
Lamb (fet)
6.664
0.2080
0.10
0.1386
Dairy (fet)
10.536
18.1252
0.03
5.7289
sum UA*DA*FA
13.1615
RL
l.OOE-04
BW
70
ql*
1.33
RE
1
FS
0.015
RIA
5.263
RF
2.114
.
|RSC 140|
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
qt*
7.7
RE
1
FS
0.015
RIA
0.909
RF
0.069
Use"
1
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-167
-------
TABLE 5.2.5-3 (cont)
Toxaphene
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
RL
1.00E-04
Beef (fat)
18.653
15.4977
0.10
28.9079
BW
70
Beef liver (incl. fat)
18.653
1.1438
0,10
2.1335
ql*
1.1
Lamb (fat)
18.653
0.2080
0.10
0.3880
RE
1
Dairy (fat)
18.653
18.1252
0.03
10.1427
FS
0.015
sum UA*DA*FA
41.5722
RIA
6.364
RF
0.153
|RSC | 10|
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UA ~ uptake slope of pollutant in animal tissue (ng-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)/(ng-pollutant/g-
-------
ingestion (i.e., 0.67 x 2.5 + 033 x 1.0), the long-term average sewage sludge in the diet is 1.5
percent (Chaney et al., 1991a). This is the same value used for this pathway for inorganics.
Input and Output Values
The input and output values for organics for Agricultural Pathway 5 are listed in Table
5.25-3.
Sample Calculations
The following are sample calculations for organics for Agricultural Pathway 5. The
pollutant used as an example is heptachlor.
c
First RIA is calculated to be:
RIA -
' RL-BW __
- TBI
qj'.RE
¦10* (16)
MA = |° ^*7° " O^'IO® (1?)
RIA = 1.556 ^ g -heptachlor/day (18)
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (/ig-pollutant/day)
RL = risk level
BW = human body weight
qt* = human cancer potency (mg/kg'day)'1
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant (mg-pollutant/day)
103 = conversion factor (/tg/mg)
5-169
-------
Then, RF is calculated to be:
RF = — — (19)
RF = 1~556 (20)
13.915
RF = 0.112 ng -heptachlor/g -dietDW (21)
where:
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (j*g-pollutant/day)
UAj = uptake response slope of pollutant in animal tissue food group i
(/ig-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW) (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)'1
DA; = daily dietary consumption of animal tissue food group i (g-animal tissue
DW/day)
FAj = fraction of food group i assumed to be derived from animals that ingest
forage grown on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
Finally, RSC is calculated to be:
RSC = (22)
FS
RSC = (23)
0.015
RSC = 7.4 ng -heptachloi/g -sewage sludge DW (24)
(rounded down to 2 gignifir^nt figures)
where:
5-170
-------
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (jig-pollutant/g-
sewage sludge DW)
RF = reference feed concentration of pollutant in diet (^g-pollutant/g-diet DW)
FS ~=b fraction of -animal diet that is sewage' sludge (g-sewage sludge DW/g-diet
DW)
5-171
-------
5.2.6 Agricultural Pathway 6 (Animal Toxicity from Plant Consumption)
53.6.1 Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -* Soil -» Plant -» Animal
This pathway protects animals that ingest plants (forage and grain) grown on sewage
sludge-amended soil.
53.63 Pollutants Evaluated
As discussed in the Summary of Environmental Profiles and Hazard Indices for Constituents
of Municipal Sludge: Methods and, Results (U.S. EPA, 1985c), all pollutants except cadmium,
copper, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc were screened out during the initial evaluation. Since
the original screening was completed, further research indicates that arsenic, chromium, nickel,
and lead are also a concern to animals consuming plants grown on sewage sludge-amended soils.
Therefore, the following pollutants were evaluated: arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead,
molybdenum, nickel, selenium, and zinc (see Table 5.2.6-1).
53.6.3 Highly Exposed Individual (HEI)
The HEI is the most sensitive/most exposed herbivorous livestock that consumes plants
grown on sewage sludge-amended soil. It is assumed that 100 percent of the livestock diet
consists of forage grown on sewage sludge-amended land, and that the animal is exposed to a
background pollutant intake. The animal of concern varies by pollutant, and thus, where a
sensitive species has been identified for a pollutant, the species is identified in the section specific
to each pollutant.
5-172
-------
TABLE 5.2.6-1
POLLUTANTS EVALUATED FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 6
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Molybdenum
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc
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52.6.4 Algorithm Development
526.4.1 Equations
For pathways that consider herbivorous animals consuming plants either as the target
organism, or as an intermediate member of the food chain, the endpoint of the analysis is a
reference application rate of pollutant, RP (kg-pollutant/ha). To calculate RP, it is first
necessary to determine a reference concentration of pollutant in forage, RF (pg-pollutant/g-
fbrage DW). RF is the allowable concentration of pollutant in the diet ingested as a result of
the application of sewage sludge to the land. RF is calculated by subtracting the background
concentration of pollutant in forage, BC (pg-pollutant/g-forage DW), from the maximum
allowable pollutant concentration in the diet [i.e., the threshold pollutant intake level, TPI (jig-
pollutant/g-diet DW)]. To make the connection between animal intake and plant uptake, RP is
then calculated by dividing RF by the uptake slope of forage, UC (pg-pollutant/g-forage DW)(kg-
pollutant/ha)*1.
«
As discussed above, RF is calculated by subtracting BC from TPI, thus:
RF = TPI-BC (1)
where:
RF ° = reference concentration of pollutant in forage (pg-pollutant/g-forage DW)
TPI = threshold pollutant intake level (/xg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
BC = background concentration of pollutant in forage (pg-pollutant/g-forage DW)
For inorganics, which are the only pollutants considered in this pathway, a cumulative
application rate of pollutant, RP, is calculated by dividing RF by UC, thus:
RP - — (2)
UC
where:
RP — reference application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in forage (pg-pollutant/g-forage DW)
UC = uptake slope of forage (pg-pollutant/g-forage DW)(kg-pollutant/ha)"1
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5.2.6.4.2 Input Parameters
... Threshold Pollutant Intake Level, TPI
For each pollutant, the available literature was reviewed in order to estimate the
maximum intake of a pollutant that would not cause a toxic effect to a most sensitive/most
exposed herbivorous animal. Unlike the reference intake of pollutant in humans, which is
expressed as an allowable daily intake of pollutant, the TPI is expressed as an allowable
concentration of pollutant in the animals' diet. Threshold pollutant intake levels are taken
directly from recommendations by the National Academy of Science (NAS, 1980e), except in the
cases of copper, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc; their derivation is described next. TPI values
are presented in Table 5.2.6-2.
Copper. Hie NAS recommended a maximum intake level of 25 pg-pollutant/g-diet DW,
which was derived from an experiment in which copper salts were fed to sheep with low dietary
*
zinc. When excessive bioavailable copper is chronically present in animal diets, copper
accumulates to a toxic level in the liver. At that point, other stresses can trigger a hemolytic
crisis and injury or death. Many sheep haw been poisoned when they grazed in fields to which,
fertilizers or pesticides had been applied because the copper level in the ingested diet was the
combined amount of copper both in and on the forage. Further, zinc in forage interferes with
copper absorption by livestock, so forage containing excessive zinc can induce copper deficiency
in livestock fed diets low in copper. Forage grown on sewage sludge-amended soils has a normal
or increased concentration of zinc.
A few studies have been conducted in which test animals were fed forage crops grown on
sewage sludge-amended soils (e.g., Bray et al., 1985; Dowdy et al., 1983a,b; and Dowdy et al.,
1984). Data are available from goat and sheep feeding studies in which corn silage grown on
sewage sludge-amended soil constituted greater than 90 percent of the animals' diet. The silage,
which was grown on sewage sludge-amended plots, contained elevated levels of cadmium, copper,
and zinc. However, the livestock did not have increased levels of copper in the liver, which is the
pattern observed when toxic levels of copper salts are ingested. Similarly in a 90-day feeding
study, cattle fed forage grown on soils amended with 224 mt/ha of sludge compost (resulting in a
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TABLE 5.2.6-2
TPI VALUES FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 6
Pollutant
(TPI) Threshold |
Pollutant |
Intake Level
Oig-pollntant/g-diet DW)
Arsenic
50
Cadmium
10
Chromium
3,000
1 Copper
50
| Lead
30 1
1 Molybdenum
10 I
Nickel
100 I
Selenium *
2.3 I
Zinc
600
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somewhat increased concentration of copper in the crop), did not have increased levels of copper
in the liver. This was also obseived when guinea pigs were fed Swiss chard containing a high
concentration of copper (Chaney et al ~ 1987b). Further, there have been no'findings of livestock
toxicity due to copper as a result of ingesting forage crops grown on sewage sludge-amended
soils, reported in the literature. Chaney et al. (1987a) noted that no toxicity was found in sheep
grazed an entire season in pastures treated with swine manure containing high levels of copper,
even though dietary copper reached over 100 rag/kg.
The data on which NAS based its recommended maximum tolerable concentration of
copper in feed for sheep, 25 jtg-copper/g-diet DW, are from studies in which sheep were fed
copper salts (as discussed above). Copper salts are more toxic titan nonsalt forms of copper and
results from studies in which copper salts were used are not representative of conditions found in
fields treated with sewage sludge. Nevertheless, so little data are available that the data should
not be ignored.
«
Therefore, the TPI for copper has been set at the geometric mean of the NAS
recommended concentration (25 /xg-copper/g-diet DW) and the data from Chaney et al. (1987a)
(100 rag/kg); the TPI is 50 /ig-copper/g-diet DW.
Molybdenum. Excessive soil molybdenum in neutral pH soils can poison livestock
through uptake by forage crops (Logan and Chaney, 1983). The toxicity mechanism is well-
characterized: molybdenum is transformed in the rumen to thiomolybdate, which binds rapper
and prevents both copper absorption from the intestines and copper utilization within the animal.
Hie most sensitive livestock are cattle and sheep, which are deficient in copper since the
increased diet molybdenum further interferes with copper utilization in the animal (NAS, 1980c;
Mills and Davis, 1987).
Forage crops grown on sewage sludge-amended soils are not copper deficient, and would
not promote a worse-than-normal molybdenum toxicity. Rather, sewage sludge-fertilized crops
(at cumulative sewage sludge loadings at which molybdenum applications might be of
importance) would have normal to somewhat enriched copper levels depending on soil and
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sewage sludge properties. Therefore, the impact of increased soil molybdenum is reduced
considerably in sewage sludge-amended soils as compared to copper deficient soils.
Ingestion by-ruminants of forage shows that ingestion of cured forage from high-
molybdenum areas is less toxic than the same forage grazed in a succulent state (Mills and Davis,
1987). The higher the energy level of the diet, the more sulfide is produced in the rumen,
accentuating formation of thiomolybdate which causes the actual toxic effect of molybdenum by
inducing copper deficiency. Accordingly, the form of molybdenum, as well as the forage type
and crop species, must be taken into consideration when relating dietary levels of molybdenum to
the degree of toxicity to ruminants.
The NAS (1980c) evaluated low-level chronic molybdenum toxicity to the most sensitive
livestock (beef cattle) and concluded that 5 to 10 ppm (jig/g) molybdenum, which is the dose that
has been weakly associated with impaired bone development in young horses and cattle, was the
critical level. It must be emphasized that substantially higher levels of molybdenum are tolerated
in the presence of adequate copper and inorganic sulfate (sulfate inhibits molybdate absorption
in the intestine). Forages grown on sewage sludge-amended soils (high cumulative rates) have
normal copper and sulfate concentrations, so the higher recommended permissible concentration
of about 10 /xg-molybdenum/g-forage is more appropriate. A large body of data on the toxicity
of forages grown on soil naturally high in molybdenum (not molybdenum salt additions to diets)
and containing toxic concentrations of idenum supports the use of 10 /ig-molybdenura/g-
forage assuming the diet contains a no: ... copper concentration (NAS, 1980c, Table 1, page 5).
Based on the above considerations the TPI for molybdenum has been set at 10 pg/g.
Selenium. Moxon (1937) determined that there was no observed adverse effects when
chickens were fed 2 pg-selenium/g-diet DW in the form of seleniferous corn, barley, and wheat.
At 2.5 pg-selenium/g-diet DW, however, many hatched chicks had wiry down and increased
mortality was observed. The TPI has been set at 2.3 /xg-selenium/g-diet DW, the geometric mean
of these two values. This value is higher than the NAS (1980b) recommendation of 2 /xg-
selenium/g-diet, although the NAS noted that there was little demonstrated toxicity to livestock
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until chronic diets contained about 5 pg-seienium/g-diet.
at 2.3 jig-selenium/g-diet DW.
The TPI for selenium has thus been set
Zinc. There have been no findings of toxicity to livestock from zinc in forage crops
grown on sewage sludge-amended soils reported in the available literature. This is likely a result
of the plateau response of plant zinc concentration to sewage sludge-applied zinc, such that a
high concentration of zinc cannot be reached in crops unless substantial phytotoxicity has
occurred. Data from Bray et al. (1985), Dowdy et al. (1983a, b), and Dowdy et al. (1984), are
from goat and sheep feeding studies in which com silage grown on sewage sludge-amended soil
constituted greater than 90 percent of the animals* diet Although the silage contained elevated
levels of cadmium, copper, and zinc, the livestock did not have increased levels of zinc in the
liver (the pattern observed when toxic levels of zinc are fed). Similarly, forage grown on soils
amended with 224 mt/ha of sewage sludge compost and fed to cattle had a somewhat increased
zinc content, but no accumulated zinc was found in cattle in a feeding study lasting over 90 days
with the conserved forage. Further, when guinea pigs were fed Swiss chard, which was grown on
acidic soil amended with sludge and contained a high concentration of zinc, no accumulation of
zinc was found in the liver of the guinea pigs (Chancy et al., 1987b).
Dietary copper levels have been repeatedly shown to interact with zinc toxicity to
livestock. Excessive copper in crops or copper salts directly fed can induce zinc deficiency in
livestock fed diets low in zinc. (The potential toxicity of inorganic zinc salts is invariably greater
than the same element present in plant tissue.) Although forages grown on sewage sludge-
amended soils can have highly increased zinc concentrations under conditions of very low soil pH
and high cumulative sludge applications, these same forages have increased concentrations of
copper, not deficient levels of copper. Thus, forages grown on sewage sludge-treated soil are not
deficient in copper and do not cause zinc-induced copper dsficiency in animals ingesting forages
grown on sewage sludge-amended soils.
Although many studies with zinc salts fed to cattle with normal dietary copper intake
found no toxicity until 1,000 pg-zinc/g-diet DW, and nonruminants fed high levels of zinc salts in
, normal diets had no toxicity until zinc concentration exceeded 1,000 jtg-zinc/g-diet DW, to
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maintain a conservative analysis, the TPI for forage zinc is concluded to be 600 pg-zinc/g-diet
DW.
I
Background Concentration of Pollutant in Forage, BC
Background concentrations in forage are calculated by taking the geometric mean of
pollutant concentrations in forage crops grown in soil to which sewage sludge has not been added
(see Appendix C, Plant Uptake Tables, Table C-9). In the case of molybdenum, increasing pH
causes an increase in plant response, therefore only the neutral studies were utilized in the
calculation of the geometric mean.
Uptake Slope of Forage, UC
Plant uptake of pollutants (see Section *5.2.1.4.1.2.6 in Agricultural Pathway 1) is defined
by a single uptake slope for each plant/pollutant combination. Uptake is assumed to be linear in
all cases, with zero plant concentration when soil concentration is zero. Plant uptake is reported
either in terms of a pollutant loading rate per hectare, or in terms of a soil concentration.
Conversion between the two reporting methods relies upon the assumption that the mass of diy
soil in one hectare of land is 2*10' g-soil DW. Forage crop uptake slopes in this analysis are
calculated by regressing forage crop plant tissue pollutant concentration against pollutant
application rate per hectare.
Uptake slopes for each pollutant for each plant group are derived by calculating the
geometric mean from a large number of studies. The data from these studies is presented in
Appendix C, Plant Uptake Tables.
5.2.6 J Input and Output Values
The input and output values for this pathway are summarized in Table 5.2.6-3.
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TABLE 5.2.6-3
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 6
Pollutant
TPI
BC
RF
UC 1
Arsenic
50
0.304
49.696
0.030
ICadmium
10
0.225
9.775
0.070
jchromium
3000
**
**
JCopper
50
5.842
44.158
0.012
Lead
30
2.204
27.796
0.002
Molybdenum
10
2.084
7.916
0.423
Nickel
100
0.696
99,304
0.055
Selenium
2.3
0.055
2.245
0.003
Zinc
600
17.372
582.628
0.048
RPc
1600
140
3700
11000
18
1800
790
12000
Notes:
•~No data
Totals may not add due to rounding.
TPI = threshold pollutant intake level (fig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
BC = background concentration of pollutant in forage (ng-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (ng-pollutant/g-diet DW)
UC = uptake slope of pollutant in forage (jig-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)/(kg-pollutant/ha)
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
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53.6.6 Sample Calculations
The following are sample calculations for Agricultural Pathway 6. The pollutant used as
an example is zinc:
First, RF is calculated to be:
RF - TPI-BC (3)
RF = 600-17.372 (4)
RF = 582.628 ng-zinc/g-forageDW (5)
where:
RF — reference concentration of pollutant in forage (pg-pollutant/g-forage DW)
TPI = threshold pollutant intake level (/xg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
BC = background concentration of pollutant in forage (pg-pollutant/g-forage DW)
Next, RPC is calculated to be:
RP = — (6)
UC
RP « 582 628 (7)
0.048
RP - 12,000 kg -zinc/ha (rounded down to2significantfigures) (®)
where:
RP = reference application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in forage (/ig-pollutant/g-forage DW)
UC = uptake slope of forage (pg-pollutant/g-forage DW)(kg-pollutant/ha)'1
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5.2,7 Agricultural Pathway 7 (Animal Toxicity from Sewage Sludge Ingestion)
~ 53:7.1 Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -» Animal
This pathway involves the application of sewage sludge to the land and the direct
ingestion of this sewage sludge by animals. A grazing animal can be exposed to direct ingestion
of sewage sludge by two quite different methods. The first involves direct ingestion of sewage
sludge by livestock, where sewage sludge has been surface-applied to pasture crops. Livestock
can ingest sewage sludge adhering to the crops or lying on the soil surface. It is assumed that
each year the grazing livestock are exposed to freshly applied sewage sludge with no time for
dissipation of the organic chemicals. Alternatively, sewage sludge can be injected into the soil or
mixed with the plow-layer soil, and the grazing livestock will ingest the soil-sewage sludge
mixture. Exposure will be maximized when swage sludge is directly ingested, and hence this
exposure route is considered in this analysis. It is assumed that only a small percentage of the
grazing livestock's diet is sewage sludge.
5.2.72 Pollutants Evaluated
As discussed in the Summary of Environmental Profiles and Hazard Indices for Constituents
of Municipal Sludge: Methods and Remits (U.S. EPA 1985c), aU pollutants except copper and
iron were screened out during the initial evaluation. Since the original screening was completed,
further research indicates that iron is not a problem to animals incidentally eating sludge (see
Section 4.2) and that arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, and zinc
are also of concern for animals incidentally ingesting sludge. Table 5.2.7-1 presents the
pollutants evaluated.
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TABLE 5.2.7-1
POLLUTANTS EVALUATED FOR
AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 7
Inorganics
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Molybdenum
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc
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52.73 Highly Exposed Individual (HEI)
* ' -The for this-pathway is herbivorous livestock; ^whiclHncidentally-consumes'sewage
sludge adhering to forage crops and/or sewage sludge on the soil surface. It is assumed that the
percent of sewage sludge in the livestock diet is 1.5 percent and that the animal is exposed to a
background pollutant intake. The animal of concern varies by pollutant, and, thus, where a
sensitive species has been identified for a pollutant, the species is identified in the individual
sections for each pollutant.
52.7.4 Algorithm Development
5.2.7.4.1 Equations
As for Pathway 5, because the ingestion of sludge results in the highest rate of pollutant
ingestion, the endpoint of this analysis is a reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge,
RSC (/ig-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW). To calculate RSC, it is first necessary to determine a
reference concentration of pollutant in diet, RF (/xg-pollutant/g-diet DW). RSC is calculated by
dividing RF by the fraction of animal diet that is sewage sludge, FS (g-sewage sludge DW/g-diet
DW). RF is calculated by subtracting the background concentration of pollutant in soil, BS (jtg-
poliutant/g-soil DW) from the threshold pollutant intake level, TFI (/xg-pollutant/g-diet DW).
Because this pathway relates to the ingestion of soii, RF is calculated by subtracting BS
from TPI, thus;
RF = TPI-BS CD
where:
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (/ig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
TPI = threshold pollutant intake level (/ig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
BS = background concentration of pollutant in soil (/ig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
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For inorganics, which are the only pollutants considered in this pathway, RSC is
calculated by dividing RF by FS, thus:
RSC - SE ®
PS
where:
ESC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (/ig-pollutant/g-
sewage sludge DW)
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
FS = fraction of animal diet that is sewage sludge (g-sewage sludge DW/g-diet
DW)
5JL7.4.2 Input Parameters
Threshold Pollutant Intake Level, TPI (pg-pollatanl/g-diet DW)
t
For each pollutant, the available literature was reviewed to estimate the maximum intake
of a pollutant that would not cause a toxic effect to a most sensitive/most exposed herbivorous
animal. Unlike the reference intake of pollutant in humans, which is expressed as an allowable
daily intake of pollutant, the TPI in this pathway is referenced in the literature as an allowable
pollutant concentration in the animals' diet.
Threshold pollutant intake levels are taken directly from recommendations by the
National Academy of Science (NAS, 1980e), except in the cases of copper, molybdenum,
selenium, and zinc, and are listed in Table 5.2.7-2. The sources of the threshold pollutant intake
levels for these four pollutants are discussed in Section 5.2.6.4.2, Pathway 6.
Background Concentration of Pollutant in Soil, BS (/tg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
As discussed in Pathway 9, BS may be the natural background concentration or may
result from other pollution sources. Since inorganics are considered, for the purposes of this
i
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TABLE 5.2.7-2
THRESHOLD POLLUTANT INTAKE LEVEL FOR PAIHWAY 7
Pollutant
TPP
Arsenic
50
Cadmium
10
Chromium
3,000
Copper
50
Lead
30
Molybdenum
10
Nickel
100
Selenium
2.3
Zinc
600
*Mg-poliuiant/g-diet DW
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analysis, never to be lost from the soil, the application of sewage sludge to the land is limited by
the total allowable concentration of pollutants on a cumulative basis. Where background levels
are significant compared to the maximum allowable pollutant concentration, the allowable
pollutant loading from sewage sludge will be noticeably reduced. Soil background levels are
listed in Table 5.2.7-3.
Fraction of Animal Diet that Is Sewage Sludge, FS (g-sewage sludge DW/g-diet DW)
The fraction of sludge ingested (adhering to plants and/or directly from the soil surface)
by grazing cattle has been estimated to be 2.5 percent averaged over a season (Chaney et al.,
1987a; Bert rand et al., 1981). These data are derived from cattle feces studies, where livestock
were not allowed to graze in pastures during sludge application or for a 21-day period after
application. However, given that (based on discussions with regulatory officials in several states)
in any 1 year, the maximum fraction of a farm treated with sludge is approximately 33 percent, if
it is assumed that the cattle are rotated among several pasture fields, the actual fraction of the
diet that is sludge will be lower than the 2,5 percent assumed.
Cattle grazing on land treated with sludge compost that was applied during the previous
growing season have been shown to ingest approximately 1.0 percent sludge (Decker et al.,
1980a). When a weighted average is calculated from these two values of sludge ingestion (i.e.,
0.67 x 2.5 + 0.33 x 1.0), the long-term average percent of sludge in diet is estimated to be 1,5
(Chaney et al., 1991a).
5J..7S Input and Output Values
The input and output values for this pathway are presented in Table 5.2.7-4.
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TABLE 5.2.7-3
BACKGROUND CONCENTRATION OF POLLUTANTS IN SOIL FOR PATHWAY 7
Pollutant
BS*
Arsenic
3
Cadmium
0.2
Chromium
100
Copper
19
Lead
11
Molybdenum
2
Nickel
18
Selenium
0.21
Zinc
54
"/ig-pollutant/g-soil DW
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TABLE 5.2.7-4
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 7
1 Pollutant
TPI
BS
RF
FS
RSC
Arsenic
50
3
47
0.015
3100
Cadmium
10
0.2
9.8
0.015
650
Chromium
3000
100
2900
0.015
190000
Copper
50
19
31
0.015
2000
Lead
30
11
19
0.015
1200
Molybdenum
10
2
8
0.015
530
Nickel
100
18
82
0.015
5400
Selenium
2.3
0.21
2.09
0.015
130
Zinc
600
54
546
0.015
36000
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
TPI»threshold pollutant intake level (ng-pollutant/g-diet DW)
. BS s background concentration of pollutant in soil (ng-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RF * reference concentratioo of pollutant in diet (ng-pollutant/g-diet DW)
FS = fiaction of animal diet tfaat is sewage sludge (g-sewage sludge DW/g-diet DW)
RSC « reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (ng-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
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5.2.7.6 Sample Calculations
, ~—The following are sampie caleulationsforAgricultural -Pathway ?: Thc poliutant used as
an example is arsenic.
First, RF is calculated to be:
RF = TPI-BS <3>
RF = 50-3.0 (4)
RF = 47 ng-arsenic/g-diet DW (5)
where:
where:
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (jtg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
TPI = threshold pollutant intake level (/ig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
BS = background concentratibn of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
Then, RSC is calculated to be:
RSC = — (6)
FS
RSC - -4Z- (7)
0.015
RSC = 3,100 ng-arseaic/g-sewage sludge DW ^g)
(rounded down to two significant figures)
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (/xg-pollutant/g-
sewage sludge DW)
RF - reference concentration of pollutant in diet (/ig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
FS = fraction of animal diet that is sewage sludge (g-sewage sludge DW/g-diet
DW)
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5JL8 Agricultural Pathway 8 (Plant Toxicity in Plants Grown on Sewage-Sludge-
Amended Soil)
.. 5JZJL1 Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -» Soil Plant
This pathway evaluates the toxic effects of sewage sludge application on the growth of
plants (phytotoxicity). Uptake of pollutants is assumed to occur through plant roots.
52J82 Pollutants Evaluated
Table 52.8-1 presents the pollutants evaluated for Agricultural Pathway 8.
Organics are not assessed, because organic compounds in sewage sludge occur at
extremely low concentrations and are rarely taken up by plants in quantities that exceed
background levels.
Seven metals found in sludge (i.e., cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, selenium,
and zinc) have been identified as potentially phytotoxic. The technical references report
decreases in plant growth and accumulation of cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, and
zinc in crops grown on sludge-treated fields. The limited data that illustrate reductions in yields
suggest that plant phytotoxicity can and does occur from land application of sewage sludge under
conditions of environmental stress (i.e., low soil pH and high application rates,of sludges
containing high concentrations of metals). No study investigated whether detrimental
metal-related biochemical processes had taken place in plants grown on sludge-treated soils.
Thus there is no unequivocal evidence that metals introduced through land application of
municipal wastewater sludge cause phytotoxicity. However, since cadmium, chromium, copper,
nickel, and zinc are phytotoxic and can accumulate in sludge-treated soils, it is prudent to control
input of these metals during land application of municipal sludges. Four pollutants were
evaluated for this pathway: chromium, copper, nickel, and zinc.
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TABLE 5.2.8-1
POLLUTANTS EVALUATED FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 8
Inorganics
Chromium
Copper
Nickel
Zinc
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5£JiJ Definition of Phytotoxicity
Phototoxicity occurs when a substance accumulates in plant tissue to a level that affects
optimal growth and development of the plant. The two conditions usually associated with
phytotoxicity are abnormal morphology in new growth, and retardation of growth and/or
reduction in yield. The degree of phytotoxicity increases with the extent and duration of
exposure.
To unequivocally confirm phytotoxicity, three conditions must be met: identification of
toxicants in the growth medium, significant reduction in yields, and identification of a
biochemical mechanism responsible for the plant injury.
Carlson et al. (1975), Loneragan et al. (1987), and Poschenrieder et al. (1989), among
others, have shown that metals induce phytotoxicity by:
• Altering the plant's water relations, thereby causing water stress and wilting
• Increasing the permeability of the root cell plasma membrane, thereby causing
roots to become leaky and less selective in the uptake of constituents from the
growth medium
• Inhibiting photosynthesis and respiration
• Adversely affecting the activities of metabolic enzymes.
Although their biochemical mechanisms are not thoroughly understood, these observed
disorders are associated with metal-induced phytotoxicity.
For the purpose of establishing standards, phytotoxicity must be defined in quantifiable
terms. Abnormal morphological symptoms are precursors of yield reduction, which ultimately is
the most important measure of phytotoxicity for agronomic species, since it affects the
profitability of producing crops. Yield reduction is used here to define phytotoxicity. The level
of yield reduction considered indicative of phytotoxicity is arguable, since spatial and temporal
variations in crop yield are often large and may exceed SO percent. Since it is possible to discern
much smaller changes in yield from well-controlled field experiments, reduction of more than SO
5-194
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percent in yield is here defined as a LOAEL. Ideally, LOAELs should be obtained from long-
term field studies in which reduction in yield was assessed subsequent to the application of
sewage ^ludge. Therefore, the literature was reviewed. The relevant studies are summarized in
the next section.
5.2M.4 Long-Tom Field Data
The threshold phytotoxic concentration of pollutant in plant tissue, IPC (pg-pollutant/g-
plant tissue DW), is the rate associated with yield reduction. Yield reduction from land
application of sludge has been demonstrated in the field when one of two conditions exist. In
the first condition, sludges with very high metal concentrations were used and sensitive crops
suffered phytotoxicity (Williams, 1975; Marks et al., 1980; Chaney et al., 1978; Sheaffer et al,,
1981; Berrow and Burridge, 1981). These types of sludges are no longer produced. In the
second condition, phytotoxicity occurred wheij the soil pH was extremely low (because of
oxidation and leaching of organic nitrogen and sulfur), and elevated concentrations of
ammonium nitrate were present due to high cumulative sludge applications (Lutrick et al., 1982;
King and Morris, 1972; Giordano et al., 1975; Williams, 1980; Bolton, 1975). In these studies,
increasing the pH completely corrected phytotoxicity.
In natural soil systems, as the pH decreases below 5.5 a rapid, exponential increase in
soluble aluminum and manganese occurs. This increase plays havoc with plant growth and
development in most species (Pearson and Adams, 1967). Therefore, growers need to maintain
soil pH greater than 5.5 for normal crop production in order to prevent phytotoxicity from
aluminum and manganese.
In a long-term field experiment, researchers evaluated phytotoxicity in strongly acidic soils
containing high cumulative loadings of metals. Four sludge treatments were applied annually
from 1968 to 1981, approximately 3,800 kg-zinc/ha; 200 kg-cadmium/ha; 900 kg-copper/ha; 250
kg-iiickel/ha; 2,100 kg-chromium/ha; and 750 kg-lead/ha were applied with the maximum rate of
sludge (approximately 800 rat DW) (Hinesly and Hansen, 1984). Com was grown each year on
the plots, which varied in pH from 4.9 to 7.2. The year-to-year variation in yield in the control
5-195
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plots (3 J to 9 rat/ha) made it difficult to summarize field data across years. Thus, yield
variations as a result of treatment within years was evaluated.
Phytotoxicity to corn, even under these extreme loading rates and low pH, was not
demonstrated. In most years, increased yields were observed on plots treated with sludge as
compared to fertilized controls. Since corn is not a sensitive crop, phytotoxicity might have
occurred in a more sensitive crop. However in a growth chamber experiment in which swiss
chard was grown in the soil/sludge mixture from these plots, the yield of swiss chard was
comparable for soil treated with sludge compared to soil not treated with sludge (Mahler and
Ryan, 1982). In a companion study, Mahler et al. (1987) evaluated 11 sites where sludge
application rates ranged from 100 to 2,000 mt DW/ha; with metal loading rates of 1,200 kg-
coppcr/ha; 1,200 kg-zinc/ha; and 1,000 kg-nickel/ha. They found no difference in the yield of
swiss chard or corn between the control soil and the sludge-amended soil.
In a separate field experiment where the maximum rate of sludge application was 410 mt
DW/ha, the yield of soybeans and wheat was either unaffected or increased by sludge treatment
for all years but one (Hinesly and Hansen, 1984). In 1972, the highest rate of sludge
application was associated with a decreased yield of soybeans, which the authors attributed to
phosphorous toxicity. However, the pH of the soil was 5.0, and the levels of manganese and zinc
were also high, so it is difficult to determine the cause. However, further addition of sludge did
not aggravate the situation. Even where twice as much sludge was applied in 1978 as in 1972
and the pH was 5.1, yield was not suppressed. Thus, it is apparent that phytotoxicity from
cadmium, copper, chromium, nickel, and zinc is not a dramatic problem even under fairly
extreme conditions.
Yield reduction from land application of sludge has only been observed in combination
with low soil pH or with sludges containing veiy high concentrations of metals. The presence of
either condition makes the findings irrelevant for setting metal limits for land application of
municipal wastewater sewage sludge. Since all the field observations are NOAELs the long-term
data from field experiments cannot be used to develop LOAELs.
5-196
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For this pathway where plants are the target organisms, the endpoint of the analysis is a
cumulative reference application rate of pollutant, RPC (kg-pollutant/ha), which is the amount of
the inorganic pollutant that can be applied without phytotoxic effects. Two approaches were
used to determine RPC and the most conservative result was chosen for each metal. In Approach
1, the probability approach, the phytotoxic threshold of corn, a relatively insensitive species, was
determined for each of the inorganic pollutants of concern. (See Table 5.2.8-2 for plant species
sensitivity.) In Approach 2, the plant tissue concentration associated with potential phytotoxicity
in sensitive crops (leafy vegetables) was obtained from the literature. Then the plant response
curves (UC) and background concentrations (BC) of pollutants in leafy vegetables from Pathway
1 were utilized to calculate a loading rate associated with the phytotoxic plant tissue
concentration.
5JL&5 Approach 1: Probability Approach Based on Short-term Experiments
*
In this approach, RPC, the reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-
pollutant/ha) was derived from the literature. Short-term experiments were utilized to develop a
plant concentration of pollutant associated with phytotoxicity (FT*). To establish this association
in each plant group an exhaustive search of the scientific literature was conducted, using several
computerized databases; and 271 technical journal articles were identified on topics discussing
metal accumulation by plants and subsequent phytotoxicity. The information contained in these
articles was sorted according to metal (chromium, copper, nickel, and zinc), source of the metal
input in the study (inorganic soluble metal salts, metal-spiked sludge, or sludge), metal loadings,
culturing methods (hydroponic, pot, or field), soil pH, plant species, metal concentration
accumulated in plant tissue, and growth response (deficiency, normal, or phytotoxicity) (see
Appendix E). Although most studies were on agronomic plants (e.g., lettuce, corn), several
studies included plants not typically cultivated: Rudbeckia hirta (black-eyed susan), Schizachyrium
scoparium (little bluestem), and Quercus rubra (red oak). They were no more sensitive than
sensitive agronomic plants such as swiss chard and lettuce. Thus, the use of agronomic plant
species should provide protection for noncultivated plants, too.
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TABLE 5.ZS-2
RELATIVE SENSITIVITY OF CROPS TO SLUDGE-APPLIED HEAVY METALS
(CHANEY AND HUNDEMANN, UNPUBLISHED)'
Vtry Sensitive*
Seukhre'
T*kmat4 | VtryTaknut'
Chard
Milliard
Cauliflower
Corn
Lettuce
Kale
Cucumber
Sudangrass
Redbeet
Spinach
Zucchini squash
Smooth bromegrass
Carrot
Broccoli
Flatpea
'Merlin' red fescue
Tlirnip
Radish
Oat
Peanut
Tomato
Orchardgnss
Ladino clover
Marigold
Japanese bromegrass
Alsike clover
Zigzag, Red, Kura
and Crimson clover
Switchgrass
Crownvetdi
Red top
•Arc* alfalfa
Alfalfa
Buffelgrass
White sweetclover
Korean lespedeza
Tall fescue
Yellow sweetclover
Sericea lespedeza
Red fescue
Weeping lovegrau
Blue lupin
Kentucky bluegrass
Lehman lovegrasj
Birdsfoot trefoil
Deer tongue
Hairy vetch
Soybean
Snapbean
Timothy
Colonial bentgrass
Perennial ryegrass
Creeping bentgrass
-------
•Sassafras sandy loam amended with a highly stabilized and leached digested sludge containing 5300 mg Zn, 2400 mg Cu, 320 mg Ni, 390 mg Mn, and 23 mg CdAg dry sludge. At 5
percent sludge, maximum cumulative recommended applications of Zn and Cu are made,
injured at 10 percent of a high metal sludge at pH 6.5 and at pH 5.5.
Injured at 10 percent of a high metal sludge at pH 5,5, but not at pH 6.S.
'Injured at 25 percent high metal sludge at pH 5.5, but not at pH 6.5, and not at 10 percent sludge at pH 5.5 or 6.5.
'Not injured even at 25 percent sludge, pH 5,5.
Sonne: Logan and Chancy, 1983
-------
The cause-and-effect relationship between the metal concentrations in plant tissues and
the resulting plant growth retardation was established by pooling data of the same plant species
and the same metal from all pertinent studies. Growth retardation was defined as the percentage
reduction in the biomass of the total plant compared to that of the untreated control. This
methodology assumes that short-term reduction in shoot growth translates into reduced yield at
maturity. Further, since data are not stratified by the method of cultivation, this approach
implicitly assumes that cultivation does not affect the relationship between the metal
concentration in soil and the metal concentration in plant tissue, and subsequent growth
Teduction.
To ensure that the growth retardation could be attributed only to one metal, short-term
(2- to 6-week) laboratory studies were reviewed and data were used only from those studies in
which one metal element, usually in the form of soluble metal salt, was added to the growth
medium. Shoot weight was used to measure percent growth retardation and by inference,
phytotoxicity. Recognizing that plants grown in the field often recover from the phytotoxicity
observed in the early stages of growth and suffer no adverse effect at maturity, the phytotoxicity
threshold level (PT^,) of metal in plant tissue measured in short-term studies was conservatively
assumed to equal the concentration associated with phytotoxicity in mature plants. Therefore,
the short-term studies were used to establish the phytoxicity threshold—the concentration of each
metal in the tissue of each plant group—associated with 50 percent reduction in biomass.
The relationship between the concentration of metal in soil and the associated
concentration of metal in plants grown on sludge-amended fields is not adequately modeled by
the uptake of metals by plants grown in hydroponic solution or pots to which soluble metal salts
have been added. Therefore, the empirical relationship between soil metal loading and the
resulting metal concentration in plant tissue was established based on data from sludge/field
experiments conducted under various agricultural conditions across the United States. These
data are summarized in Appendix F.
Probability analyses were conducted to determine whether application of sewage sludge
would result in metal levels exceeding FTjo in plant tissue. For each metal, the observed sludge
loading rates were divided into loading ranges (e.g., 0 to 100 kg/ha). Assuming the metal
5-200
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concentrations in plants observed at each metal loading range follow a lognormal distribution
and that phototoxicity occurs if the plant tissue concentration exceeds the predetermined
s . . . > phototoxicity threshold, {the-PTa determined by reviewing dat* from short-term studies) a
calculation was made to determine the probability that the metal concentrations in plants grown
on soils within a given metal loading range will exceed the phytotoxic threshold.
Once the level of tolerable risk (defined as the probability of exceeding PT^) is selected,
an appropriate metal loading limit can be determined. The acceptable probability level (level of
tolerable risk) for plant tissue metal concentrations to exceed the phytotoxic threshold was set at
0.01. So it was acceptable to exceed the phytotoxic threshold 1 time out of every 100. Because
confidence in the probability calculations increases with more data, the computations were based
on com, which is not a sensitive plant species, but it is the crop most widely grown at land
application sites for which there are ample data, making it a logical choice for this analysis.
The following procedure was used to compute the probabilities that com grown on
sludge-treated soils would exceed the phytotoxic threshold.
Assumptions:
• The observations are independent and random.
• Within a metal loading range, the data (metal contents in plant tissue) follow a
lognormal distribution.
Procedure:
• Use only data from field investigations where plants were grown on municipal
sludge-treated soils.
• Arrange the data (X; for i = i.... n) according to ascending order of the
corresponding metal loading rate.
• Select appropriate loading ranges and divide the data accordingly.
• Calculate probability for each loading range.
• Transform Xj in a loading range to Yj = In Xj.
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Calculate the mean (p) and standard deviation (a) for Y,.
n
i=l
(1)
£
-------
53J8.6 Approach 2: LOAELsfor Sensitive Crops
52X.6.1 Equation
In Approach 2 the reference cumulative application rate of pollutant, RPC (kg/ha), is:
*p . *n»C-BC (4)
UC
reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-poliutant/ha)
threshold phytotoxic concentration of pollutant in plant tissue (jig-
pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)
background concentration of pollutant in plant tissue (/ig-pollutant/g-plant
tissue DW)
uptake slope of pollutant in plant tissue (^g-pollutant/g-plant tissue
DW) (kg-pollutant/ha)'1.
*
5JL8.M Threshold Phytotoxic Concentration, TPC
The TPC, the concentration of pollutant in plant tissue associated with phytotoxicity, is a
more sensitive indicator of damage than 50 percent reduction in yield (FTjj), which was used in
Approach 1. Further, Approach 1 was based on data for corn, which is a species that is not veiy
sensitive to metal in soil. Consequently, applying loading rates based on com may reduce yield
in more sensitive species such as lettuce, bush beans, and swiss chard. This concern prompted a
literature search to obtain the concentration in sensitive plant species associated with the lowest
observed adverse effect level (LOAEL), which is a more sensitive indicator than yield reduction.
528.SJ Background Concentration of Pollutant in Plant Tissue, BC
Background concentrations in plants are calculated by taking the geometric mean of the
concentration in each plant group grown in soil to which sewage sludge has not been added (see
where:
RPc =
TPC =
BC =
UC =
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Appendix C, Plant Uptake Tables), The background concentrations, by pollutant and plant
group, are shown in the input/output table, Table 5.2.8-7.
S2J&.6A Uptake Slope of Pollutant in Plant Tissue, UC
Hie plant response slope (UC from Pathway 1) for leafy vegetables was utilized to back
calculate the soil loading associated with the IPC. (See Section 5.2.1.4.1.2.6 in Agricultural
Pathway 1 for a complete discussion of plant uptake of pollutants, UC.) (The data used to
calculate the uptake slopes are presented in Appendix C, Plant Uptake Tables.) Uptake is
assumed to be linear in all cases, with zero plant concentration when soil concentration is zero.
For each stucty, the plant uptake slopes were calculated by regressing the pollutant concentration
in the plant against the pollutant application rate per hectare. Then the studies are allocated to
plant groups based on the plants studied. Uptake slopes for each pollutant for each plant group
were derived by calculating the geometric mean of uptake slopes from the applicable studies.
The uptake slopes for leafy vegetables are shown in the input/output table, Table 5.2.8-7. The
plant group leafy vegetables, includes studies on pollutant uptake in such plants as lettuce, swiss
chard, cabbage, collard greens, and spinach.
S2J8.7 Zinc
528.7.1 Approach 1
Based on data from short-term experiments, the relationship between the concentration
of zinc in leaf tissue and the percent growth retardation for corn was fitted by nonlinear
regression to either a parabolic or logarithmic function model. Although the data were derived
from several sources, they are described reasonably well by these models (R* between 0.78-0.85).
The zinc concentration in the leaf tissue of corn corresponding to PTjo is 1,975 p-zinc/g-plant
tissue DW.
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Tlie probability that corn grown on sludge-treated soils would exceed PTs, (1,975 j*g-
zinc/g-plant tissue DW) was computed for 12 loading ranges (see Table 5.2.8-3). An acceptable
probability of reaching the tolerance threshold" v^set at 0.01 (1 chance in* 100). At cumulative
loading of less than 50 kg-zinc/ha, the probability of exceeding a tolerance threshold of 1,975 ftg
zinc/g-plant tissue DW (corresponding to 50 percent growth retardation, PTjq) is less than 0.0001.
If the cumulative loading rate is increased to 2^00 to 3,500 kg-zinc/ha, the probability that the
zinc concentration in the corn leaf would exceed the PTjq is still <0.0001. Therefore, based on
the PTjg at least 3,500 kg-zinc/ha may be added through sludge application without causing a
significant phytotoxic effect in corn.
5J2&.73, Approach 2
Because corn is not the most sensitive crop, the approach utilized by the Peer Review
Committee (PRC, 1989) was followed for lettuce, one of the most sensitive crops (Logan and
Chaney, 1983). In lettuce, the first detectable yield reduction occurs at a foliar tissue
concentration of 400 jig-zinc/g-plant tissue DW (Logan and Chaney, 1983); this is the TPC.
Substituting the geometric mean of the uptake slopes for zinc uptake in leafy vegetables (0.125
pg-zinc/g-plant tissue DW)(kg-pollutant/ha)"1 and the background concentration for zinc in leafy
vegetables (46.962 jig-zinc/g-tissue DW) into equation 1 (see Section 5.2.8.3.1), RPC for zinc is
follows:
- TPC^ BC
UC
- 400 - 47 0
0.125
- 2,800 leg-zinc/ha. (rounded down to iwosignificantfigures)
= reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
= threshold phytotoxic concentration of pollutant in plant tissue (jig-
pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)
= background crop concentration (pg-pollutant/g-tissue DW)
= uptake slope of pollutant in plant tissue (pg-pollutant/g-plant tissue
DW)(kg-pollutant/ha)"1
calculated as
RPC
where:
RPe
TPC
BC
UC
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TABLE 5.2.8-3
PROBABILITY OF ZINC IN CORN GROWN ON SLUDGE-TREATED SOILS EXCEEDING
THE PHYTOTOXICITY TOLERANCE THRESHOLD
Zinc Loading Range
Probability of Exceeding j
Tolerance Treshold |
(kg/ha)
Number of
Observations
PT I
1,975 Jg/g
0
51
<0.0001 |
0-50
16
<0.0001
50-100
28
<0.0001
100-150
16
<0.0001 |
150-200
14
<0.0001 I!
200-300
22
<0.0001 n
300-400
19 •
<0.0001
400-500
14
<0.0001
1 500-750
19
<0.0001
750-1,000
8
<0.0001
1,000-1,500
17
<0.0001
1 1,500-2,500
12
0.0020
| 2,500-3,500
10
<0.0001
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This is within the upper loading limit of the probability approach (2,500 to 3,500 kg-
zinc/ha), and therefore appears to be an appropriate limit.
52J1.8 Copper
5.2J.8.1 Approach 1
Although phytotoxicity of copper has been extensively reported, data suitable to delineate
the cause-and-effect relationship between concentration of copper in leaf tissue and the extent of
retardation of plant growth are sparse. Based on limited data, data for com indicate a negative
dose-response relationship, while data for bush beans and snap beans indicate a positive dose-
response relationship. In corn yield was unaffected by plant tissue concentrations up to 40 fig-
copper/g-plant tissue DW in a hydroponic study in which capric sulfate was used, (Lexmond and
Vorn, 1981). In a pot experiment in which cupric sulfate salts and spiked sewage sludge were
added to soil, the FTX for com was 7 pg-copper/g-plant tissue DW (MacLean and Dekker,
1978).
The phytotoxic threshold was based on corn, but the discrepancy in data made it difficult
to select an appropriate value. According to the diagnostic criteria for plant nutrition and soil
fertility, plants containing 7 /ig-copper/g-plant tissue DW in the leaf tissue have barely adequate
amounts of copper for optimal growth (Bould et al,, 1984; Chapman, 1966; Jones and Eck, 1973).
Therefore, it is unlikely that copper could have caused the decrease in yield at 7 pg-copper/g-
plant tissue DW observed by MacLean and Dekker (1978). Further, most data on more sensitive
species indicate that tissue concentrations must exceed 7 pg-copper/g-plant tissue DW for
phytotoxicity to occur. Even com grown on soils not receiving sludge have a 0.59 probability of
exceeding 7 pg-copper/g-plant tissue DW. Thus, the data of Lexmond and Vorn (1981) appear
to be more appropriate for establishing the copper phytotoxicity threshold for com: Hie
NOAEL identified by Lexmond and Vorn (1981) (40 pg-copper/g-plant tissue DW) was used as
the PTjo. Hie probability that copper levels in plant tissue will exceed this concentration is less
than 0.0001 for cumulative loading rates up to 1,550 kg-copper/ha, the highest loading rate
reported in the literature (see Table 5.2.8-4). Plants can probably tolerate a higher cumulative
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TABLE 5.2£~4
PROBABILITY OF COPPER IN CORN GROWN IN SLUDGE-TREATED SOILS
"EXCEEDING THE "PHYTOTOXICITY TOLERANCE THRESHOLD
Copper Loading
(kg/ha)
Number of
Observations
Probability of Exceeding 1
Tolerance Threshold
40 |ig/g*
0
42
<0.0001 I
0400
52
<0.0001
100-200
28
<0.0001
200-300
21
<0.0001
300-400
17
<0.0001 I
400-500
10
<0.0001 |
500-1,&0
35
<0.0001 1
Tolerance thresholds of 40 /xg/g correspond to the FT*, for copper.
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limit but the available data are limited, and the upper boundary of the safe loading limit for
copper cannot be definitively determined.
5.2.8.8.2 Approach 2
Data were found in the literature on two sensitive species—bush beans and snap beans.
In bush beans experiments conducted in hydroponic culture (Cha and Wallace, 1989; Daniels et
al., 1972; and Daniels and Struckmeyer, 1973), indicated that the PTj,, for copper concentration
in leaf tissue was 60 /xg-copper/g-plant tissue DW. In a hydroponic study in which cupric sulfate
was used, yield was unaffected in bush beans in concentrations up to 40 /xg-copper/g-plant tissue
DW (MacLean and Dekker, 1978).
Yield reductions in snap beans were noted when concentrations in the trifoliate seedlings
increased to 30 /xg-copper/g-plant tissue DW. .For snap beans in a field study where CuS04 and
Cu(OH)2 were applied, severe toxicity was observed at tissue concentrations in excess of 40 /xg-
copper/g-plant tissue DW (Walsh et al., 1972); this is the IPC. The RPe was calculated using the
IPC for snap beans, and the uptake and background concentration data for leafy vegetables, as
shown below:
TPC- BC
UC
40- 6.72
0.013
(6)
= 2,500 kg-coppex/ha (rounded down to two significant figures)
where:
RPC
TPC
BC
UC
reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
threshold phytotoxic concentration of pollutant in plant tissue (/xg-
pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)
background crop concentration (/xg-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)
uptake slope of pollutant in plant tissue (/xg-pollutant/g-plant tissue
DW) (kg-pollutant/ha)"1
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This is somewhat higher than the results from the probability approach, which yielded
1,550 kg-copper/ha. The more conservative result, 1,550 kg-copper/ha, was chosen as the final
result.
S3J8S Chromium and Nickel
5.2J.9.1 Approach 1
Two sets of data establish the phototoxicity of corn for chromium and nickel. The data
suggest that the metal concentration required for normal growth in plant tissue falls into a
7 relatively narrow range. Plant injuries caused by chromium and nickel rise rapidly, becoming
acute as the concentrations of chromium and nickel in leaf tissue exceed the normal growth
ranges. The leaf tissue concentrations corresponding to FT*, are 3.0 pg-nickel/g-plant tissue DW
for nickel and 5.9 ^g-chromium/g-plant tissue .for chromium. They were identified by
interpolating the data points in the most critical concentration region.
The probability that nickel levels in plant tissue will exceed the PT^ of 3.0 pg-pollutant/g-
plant tissue (in the loading range 0 to 100 kg/ha) is 0.0136 (see Table 5.2.8-5). As the nickel
loading increases, however, the concentration of nickel in corn grown on sludge-treated soil
decreases. Consequently, as cumulative loadings increase, the probabilities of nickel
concentrations in corn leaf exceeding the FT*, decrease. (In feet, the probability of exceeding
the threshold is smaller for plants grown in sludge-treated soils than in soils not treated with
sludge.) When the loading range is increased to 100 to 425 nickel kg/ha, the probability of
exceeding the PT^ drops to 0.0045. Since this probability should continue to drop as the load
increases, phytotoxicity due to nickel probably should riot occur under normal agronomic
practice. If the maximum loadings used are representative of the upper boundary, 425 kg-
nickel/ha can be safely applied without affecting corn yields.
For chromium, the probability of exceeding the PTM (5.9 /tg-chromium/g-plant tissue) (in
the loading range of 0 to 30 kg/ha) is 0.1190 (see Table 5.2.8-6). As with nickel, the probability
decreases as the load increases. When the loading range increases to 100 to 1,000 kg/ha, the
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TABLE 5.2J-5
PROBABILITY OF CORN GROWN IN SLUDGE-TREATED SOILS
EXCEEDING THE iraiffiL PHOTOTOXICITY THRESHOLD
Loading Range ...
(kg/ha)
Observations
111 j
Probability of Exceeding I
Tolerance Threshold |
s-o ml* i
0
28
0.0427
0-100
116
0.0136
100-425
40
0.0045 J
Tolerance thresholds of 3.0 pg/g corresponds to the PT^ for nickel.
5-211
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TABLE 5^8-6
PROBABILITY OF CORN GROWN ON SLUDGE-TREATED SOILS
EXCEEDING/THE CHROMIUM PHYTOTOXICITY TOLERANCE THRESHOLD
Loading Range
(kgflia)
Observation
Probability of Exceeding
Tolerance Threshold
SSm/1
0-30
9
0.1190
100-1,000
31
0.0721
1,000-3,000
17
0.0188
"Tolerance thresholds of 5.0 fzg/g corresponds to the FTjo for chromium.
5-212
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probability decreases to 0.0721. At the highest loading range reported in the literature, 1,000 to
3,000 kg/ha, the probability drops to 0.0188. If the maximum loadings are representative of the
upper boundaiy, 3,000 kg-chromium/ha can be safely applied without affecting corn yields.
Approach 2
As with zinc and copper, the Approach 2 was used for nickel, (Approach 2 was not used
for chromium as no data were available.) The IPC for nickel occurs at significantly higher tissue
concentrations than the PT^ (3.0 /ig-nickel/g-plant tissue) (Chapman, 1966; Adriano, 1987). Hie
typical concentration of nickel in plant tissue is approximately 10 /xg-nickel/g-plant tissue DW.
For healthy plants grown on serpentine soils, the nickel concentration of leaf tissue in corn may
reach up to 40 to 50 pg-nickel/g-plant tissue DW (Wallace et at. 1977). These data indicate that
the PTjo for nickel is unlikely to be 3.0 jtg-iiicke!/g-plant tissue. Therefore, the lower limit of 40
pg-nickel/g-plant tissue for corn was used as the IPC for nickel based on the data from Wallace
et al. (1977). This IPC for corn was used with the uptake and background concentration data
for leafy vegetables, as shown below:
RP ¦ tpc-bc
e uc
- 40 - 169 (7)
0.016
» 2,400 kg-nickel/ha (rounded down to twosignificant figures)
where:
%
RPC = ' reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
IPC « threshold phytotoxic concentration of pollutant in plant tissue (pg-
pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)
BC = background crop concentration (pg-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)
UC = uptake slope of pollutant in plant tissue (/ig-pollutant/g-plant tissue
DW)(kg-pollutant/ha)"1
This result is much greater than the upper limits of the probability approach (42S kg-
nickei/ha) so the latter was used as the RPr
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SJ.J8.7 Input and Output Values
Table 5.2.8-7 summarizes the limits caiculated from Approach 1, the probability
approach. Hie input and output data for the PRC approach. Approach 2, are summarized in
Table 5.2.8-8. The limits for this pathway are the lower of Approach 1 and 2, and they are
summarized in Table 5.2.8-9.
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TABLE 5.2.8-7
PROBABILITY ANALYSIS RESULTS
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 8
Pollutant
RPc ||
Chromium
30001
Copper
15001
Nickel
420|
Zinc
3S00|
Note:
RPc = Deference cumulative application rale of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
TABLE 5.2.8-8
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FROM RISK
ASSESSMENT FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 8
Pollutant
TPC |
BC
uc i
RPc
Chromium | |
1
N/A
Copper
40|
6.715
0.0131
2500
Nickel
40
1.687
0.0161
2400
Zinc
4001
46.962
0.1231
2800
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
TPC = threshold phytotoxic concentration of pollutant (jig-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)
BC = background concentration of pollutant in plant tissue (pg-pollutant/g-plant tisue DW)
UC = uptake slope of pollutant in plant tissue (|ig-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)/(kg-poUutant/ha)
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
TABLE 5.2.8-9
LIMITING RESULT FOR
AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 8
\ Pollutant
RPc 1
Chromium
30001
ICopper
15001
Nickel
4201
Zinc
28001
Note:
RPc - reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
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SJ2S Agricultural Pathway 9 (Toxicity to SoU Organisms)
523.1 Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -» SoU ¦* Soil Organisms
This pathway assesses the application of sewage sludge to the land, and the ingestion by
soil organisms of sewage sludge incorporated into soil.
SJ2SJ. Pollutants Evaluated
As discussed in the Summary of Environmental Profiles and Hazard Indices for Constituents
of Municipal Sludge: Methods and Results (EPA, 1985c), all pollutants except copper were
screened out during the initial evaluation. Since the original screening was completed, no
information indicates that this decision should be altered. Therefore, copper was the only
pollutant assessed for this pathway.
53J9.3 Highly Exposed Individual
The analysis developed for this pathway is designed to assist in setting pollutant loading
limits that protect the most exposed/most sensitive soil organisms. No field data currently
indicate the level at which copper becomes toxic to soil organisms. However, Hartenstein et al.
(1980c) routinely produced earthworms in soil containing sewage sludge, thereby providing a
limited source of data. There is no evidence that earthworms are the most sensitive species;
however, because of the lack of data for other species, the criteria for this pathway have been set
using earthworm data. As will be evident later, the criteria are based on a No Observed Adverse
Effect Level (NOAEL) for the earthworm, Eisema foetida.
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5.2S.4 Algorithm Development
Since only copper is analyzed in this pathway, this section will not contain a separate
section for organics.
5.2.9.4.1 Equations
Because the diet of soil organisms is soil, threshold pollutant intake levels are in terms of
soil concentration. Rather than equating these data to an input such as a reference dose (e.g,, in
Pathway 1, sewage sludge -» soil -» plant -» human), the data are equated directly to the
reference concentration of pollutant in soil, RLC (jxg-pollutant/g-soil DW). Thus, the only
calculation that is required is to consider the background concentration of pollutant in soil, BS
(jig-pollutant/g-soil DW), and to convert the soil concentration to the reference cumulative
application rate of pollutant, RPe (kg-pollutant/ha), as in the following equation:
RPC = (RLC-BS)»MS-1(T* (1)
where:
RPC = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
BS = background concentration of pollutant in sofl (/ig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = 2*10® g-soil DW/ha = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm
10* = conversion factor (kg//xg)
5.2.9.4.2 Input Parameters
Reference Cumulative Application Rate of Pollutant in Soil, RPe
Since the diet of soil organisms is soil, the allowable concentration of pollutant in their
diet is given as the reference cumulative application rate of pollutant in soil.
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Reference Co nee ntratio n of Pollutant in Soil, RLC
At the present time, there are no data from sewage sludge studierconducted in the field
that Indicate the level at which copper becomes toxic to soil organisms. However, studies carried
out by Hartcnstein et al. (1980b) indicate that E. foetida feeding on nonamended waste-activated
sewage sludge with copper concentrations of up to 1,500 /xg-copper/g-scwage sludge DW showed
no toxic effect over a feeding period exceeding 4 months. Given this information, sewage sludge-
amended soils with a copper concentration of 1,500 pg-copper/g-soil DW can be considered as
not causing any adverse effects.
Background Concentration of Pollutant in Soil, BS
The background soil concentration, BS, is the sum of the natural background
concentration and the background pollution. .The background concentration of copper in soil is
19.0 jtg-copper/g-soil DW (see Table 5.2.1-5 in Agricultural Pathway 1).
Assumed Mass of Dry Soil in Upper 15 cm, MS
Sewage sludge is usually incorporated into the upper layer of soil is by disking or chisel-
plowing surface-applied sludge, or by directly injecting it into the soil. Sludge is mixed into the
soil to a depth of 15 an, and the soil has a bulk density of 133 g/cm*. Therefore, the diy mass
of this upper layer of soil is 2*10® g DW/ha. (See Section 5.2.1.42.2.12.)
5J2SS Input and Output Values
The criteria for this pathway are based on a No Observed Adverse Effect Level
(NOAEL) for the earthworm, Eisenia foetida. Many studies have shown that copper is toxic to
earthworms. However, most of these studies report the use of ionic copper salts, which are not
typical of chemical conditions in sewage sludge-amended agricultural soils. Bound metals, as
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found in sewage sludge, are far less bioavailable than their ionic counterparts. The data for ionic
salts are thus not suitable for determining intake by soil organisms. A study by Van Rhee (1977)
was considered unacceptable, because it considered the application of copper-containing
fungicides; the reported decline in population could have been due to any number of toxic
compounds in the fungicide formulation.
Table 5.2.9-1 summarizes input and output values for this pathway.
5.2.9.6 Sample Calculations
Substituting the input parameters into equation 1, the reference application rate of
pollutant, RP„, for copper is calculated to be:
RPe = (RLC-BSJ'MS-IO"9
= (1500-19.0) •(2xl
-------
1984; Brookes et al., 1986b; Gilier et al., 1989; McGrath, Brookes, and GiUer, 1988; McGrath,
Hirsch, and Gillcr, 1988). In a long-term experiment (the Wobum Market Garden Experiment),
about 766 kg/ha of sewage sludge having moderately high metal concentrations (averages for
metals were about 3,000/tg-anc/g; 1,300 /xg-copper/g; 200 pg-nickeJ/g; 100 ^g-cadraium/g; 900 fig-
lea d/g; and 1,000 /xg-chromium/g; McGrath, 1984) was applied to field plots of vegetable crops
on a sandy soil from 1942 to 1961. Hie soil microbe populations were examined more than 20
years after the final application of sludge. No legume had been grown since 1942. The
researchers found that the application of sludge caused selection in these soils of a strain of
Rhizobium leguminosamm, biovar trifoUi, which formed nodules on white clover. However, the
nodules were ineffective Rhizobium strain, and no phytotoxicity occurred to the white clover if
nitrogen fertilizer was added to the pots. Further, inoculation of the plots with an effective
strain allowed normal nodulation of white clover, although the population of effective strains in
the soil declined after inoculation. Further, Rhixobia for other legume species have not been
found to be inhibited by soil metals at levels below those that caused significant phytotoxicity
(soybean: Heckman et al, 1986,1987a, 19871?; Kinkle et al., 1987; and alfalfa: Angle and
Chancy, 1991; Angle et al., 1988; El-Aziz et al., 1991).
In addition to the inhibiting of nitrogen fixation by this strain of Rhizobium, nitrogen
fixation by blue-green algae was also inhibited on these plots and on some other high-metal soils
(Brookes, McGrath, and Heijnen, 1986a). Nitrogen fixation by free-living bacteria was also
inhibited on high-metal mine soils (Rother, Millbank, and Thornton, 1982a).
Many other studies have foiled to show inhibition of microbial activity on sludge-amended
soils (e.g., Minnich and McBride, 1986; Rother, Millbank, and Thornton, 1982b). Angle and
coworkers have conducted some work on evaluating the metal tolerance of U.S. strains of white
clover Rhizobium. These strains were found to be less sensitive than the strains described by
McGrath (Angle et al., unpublished). Angle has found effective strains in nodules of white and
red dover growing in farmers' fields in the vicinity of Falmerton, Pennsylvania, zinc smelter, in
soils with higher zinc and cadmium levels than in the Woburn study. It is apparent that these
studies on white clover Rhizobium versus other soil microbes, including other strains of white
dover Rhizobium, conflict as to the toxicity of soil metals to soil microbes. In attempting to
explain the adverse effects of applying sludge on the Woburn plots, it has been hypothesized that
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the finding may have resulted from the very light texture of the soil, the somewhat high level of
metals in the sludge used, and/or the long period of exposure without reinoculation of the soil.
When sowing white clover, the simple inoculation of seeds (a common agronomic practice)
allows normal nodulation and nitrogen fixation. Further research is clearly needed in order to
locate the causative agent and to determine whether the observations represent an adverse effect.
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TABLE 5.2.9-1
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 9
RLC
BS
MS
Pollutant
1500
19.0
2E-
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (ng-pollutant/g-soil DW)
BS - background concentration of pollutant in soil (jig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS - assumed mass of dry soil in upper IS cm (g-soil DW/ha)
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
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5JS.10 Agricultural Pathway 10 (Toxicity to Soil Organism Predators)
52.10.1 Pathway Description
Sewage Sludge -* Soil -» Soil Oiganisms -» Soil Organism Predator
This pathway involves the application of sewage sludge to the land, the ingestion of
sewage sludge by soil organisms, and the consumption of soil organisms by predators. Hie
sewage sludge may, or may not, be incorporated into the soil.
S2JL02 Pollutants Evaluated
As discussed in the Summary of Environmental Profiles and Hazard Indices for Constituents
of Municipal Sludge: Methods and Results (EPA, 1985), all pollutants accept cadmium, lead, zinc,
and aldrin/dieldrin were screened out during the initial evaluation. Since die original screening
was completed, additional information indicates that zinc and aldrin/dieldrin are no longer a
concern to predators of soil organisms but that PCBs are. Therefore the three pollutants
evaluated for this pathway are: cadmium, lead, and PCBs.
5310.3 Highly Exposed Individual
The analysis developed for this pathway is designed to assist in setting pollutant loading
limits that protect the most sensitive/most exposed predator of soil organisms. Of concern in this
pathway, therefore, are sensitive wildlife that consume soil organisms that have been feeding on
sewage sludge-amended soil. No predator of soil organisms has been singled out as being
particularly sensitive to cadmium and lead. The literature indicates, however, that insectivorous
small mammals (shrews and moles) are the best sentinels for both inorganic and organic
contaminants, and they are thus assumed to be the most exposed. This is not the case for PCBs,
where there is clear evidence that chickens are the most sensitive species.
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5.2.10.4 Algorithm Development
5.2.10.4.1 Inoiganics
Equations
As with a number of other pathways, It is necessary to determine a reference
concentration of pollutant in soil, RLC (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW), such that the reference
application rate of pollutant, RF (kg-pollutant/ha), can be calculated for each pollutant..
To calculate RLC, it is necessary to consider the following four factors: the threshold
pollutant intake level, TPI (/ig-pollutant/g-diet DW); the fraction of diet considered to be soil
organisms, FD (g-soil organisms DW/g-diet DW); a bioavailability factor, BAV (unitless); and a
bioaccumulation factor, BACC (pg-pollutant/g-soil organisms DW)(pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)'1.
*
The simplest way to conceptualize the development of the algorithm is to consider that
the product of soil concentration, the BAV, and the BACC, is the concentration of pollutant in
soil organisms that is consumed by a predator:
soilaaganistn soil .rAV.ra/y m
pollntant concentration concentration
When this equation is rearranged to solve for the soil concentration, the following
equation is derived:
sollotginism
soil s pollutant concentration (2)
concentration * BAV'BACC
This equation, however, assumes that 100 percent of the diet of the predator is
contaminated soil organisms. This is not a suitable assumption for chronic exposure. Including
the soil organisms fraction of the diet, and replacing the soil organisms pollutant concentration
with a maximum allowable pollutant concentration in the diet (i.e., TPI), the pollutant soil
concentration now represents RLC. The equation thus becomes:
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where:
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (fig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
TPI = threshold pollutant intake level (/ig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
FD = fraction of diet considered to be soil organisms (g-soil organisms DW/g-
diet DW)
BAV = bioavailability factor (unitless)
BACC = bioaccumulation factor (pg-pollutant/g-soil organisms DW)(/xg-polIutant/g-
soil DW)1
For inorganics, a reference cumulative application rate of pollutant, RPe is then
calculated:
RPC = (RLC-BS)*MS*10"® (4)
where:
RPC = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
BS = background concentration of pollutant in soil (/tg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 an (g-soil DW/ha)
10"® = conversion factor (kg/fig)
Input Parameters
Threshold Pollutant Intake Level, TPI. For each pollutant, the available literature was
reviewed to estimate the maximum intake of a pollutant that would not cause a toxic effect to a
most sensitive/most exposed predator. Unlike the reference intake of pollutant in humans, which
is expressed as an allowable daily intake of pollutant (e.g., in Pathway 5, sewage sludge -» soil -»
animal — human), the TPI in this pathway is referenced in the literature as an allowable
concentration of pollutant in the predator's diet
Fraction of Diet Considered to be Soil Organisms, FD. For all the pollutants analyzed in
this pathway, birds and mammals are at risk if they consume earthworms/soil as a significant part
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of their diet. Exposed wildlife species are not presumed to consume earthworms as 100 percent
their of diet. This level might be appropriate for considering acute exposure, but it is not
appropriate for chronic exposure to atoxicant. - After considering maximum chronic consumption
of earthworms by wildlife (see review by MacDonald, 1983), 33 percent was selected as the
fraction of earthworms in the predator's diet.
Bioavailability Factor, BAV. Pollutants in sewage sludge/soil mixtures are not 100
percent bioavailable for uptake by organisms. Complex mechanisms bind chemicals within the
sludge/soil matrix, thus restricting uptake. In addition, pollutants ingested as part of the diet can
further restrict uptake. For example, water-borne soluble lead salts have high bioavailability:
fasting humans can absorb as much as 80 percent of soluble lead salts. However, when
consumed with food, the absorption of lead salts is decreased to about 5 percent (James et al.,
1985). This finding can be applied to other species. When wildlife consumes earthworms, the
earthworms already have soil in their guts. Due to the adsorptive properties of soil, the
bioavailability of the pollutants in the soil cai\ be substantially decreased.
Bioaccumulation Factor, BACC In previous pathways, uptake from one medium to
another was considered through the use of an uptake slope. The bioaccumulation factor serves a
similar purpose, because it describes the concentration that will be present in earthworms
because of a specific concentration of bioavailable pollutant in the soil.
Background Concentration of Pollutant in Soil, BS. For the purposes of this analysis,
inorganics are considered never to be lost from the soil. The application of sewage sludge to the
land is therefore limited by the cumulative total permissible concentration of pollutants. Where
background levels are significant compared to the maximum concentration of allowable pollutant
concentration, the allowable pollutant loading from sewage sludge will be noticeably reduced.
Assumed Mass of Dry Soil in Upper 15 cm, MS. This analysis assumes that sewage
sludge is mixed into the soil to a depth of 15 on and that the soil has a bulk density of 133
g/crc3. Therefore, the diy mass of this upper layer of soil is 2*10* g/ha. (See Section
5.2.1.42.2.1.2 for a complete discussion of this variable.)
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Input and Output Values
Cadmium. Research has demonstrated that soil cadmium constitutes a risk to birds and
mammals that ingest earthworms as a significant part of their diet, because earthworms
bioaccuraulate cadmium to concentrations above that in the soils in which they live. Although
some crops absorb cadmium to high concentrations, there is no evidence that herbivorous wildlife
are at higher risk from eating crops growing on cadmium-rich soils amended with sewage sludge
than are omnivorous wildlife eating earthworms living in the soils.
Beyer et al. (1991) noted that a number of studies have found earthworms with high
cadmium levels, because sewage sludge has been used to amend soil. It is not uncommon to find
up to 100 pg-cadmium/g-earthworm DW for soil-purged worms.
Threshold Pollutant Intake Level, TPI. Hie threshold pollutant intake level for cadmium
equals 100 pg-cadmium/g-diet DW. Because of the short biological half-life of cadmium in
rodents and birds, 100 pg-cadraium/g-diet DW can be tolerated by sensitive individuals. It should
be noted that a threshold cadmium intake level of 0.5 pg-cadmium/g-diet was recommended by
the National Academy of Science (NAS, 1980); however, this TPI was based on cadmium
concentration in liver and kidney consumed by humans. It is therefore not appropriate for this
analysis.
Bioavailability Factor, BAV. In studies in which pigs were fed sludge-cadmium and salt-
cadmium, levels of cadmium in pig kidney indicated that a reasonable figure for bioavailability of
cadmium in sludge is 21.4 percent (Osuna et al., 1981). In studies of the effects of chemically
feeding earthworms to Japanese quail, Stoewsand et al. (1986) and Pimental et al. (1984) found
no adverse effects in feeding 60 percent control or 50 percent cadmium-enriched earthworms
(dry weight basis). This suggests that worm cadmium has low bioavailability. Hie bioavailability
factor for cadmium is thus assumed to be 21.4 percent.
Bioaccumulation Factor, BACC. The bioaccumulation factor for cadmium equals 10 (pg-
cadmium/g-soil organisms DW)(pg-cadmium/g-soii DW)'1 for soil-purged earthworms. Hie
bioaccumulation ratio of worni:soil for cadmium is about 10 for purged worms, and about 5 to 6
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for nonpurged worms. Nonpurged worms contained 45 percent soil (DW bUsis), so the worm
tissue provides about 93 percent of the cadmium, while soil provides about 7 percent. Since the
predator of soil organisms <»nsumes rioripurged earthworras; thei>ioaccamuiationfactor is set at
6, based on these data.
Calculations For Standard Methodology
Substituting the relevant input parameters into Equation 3, the reference concentration of
pollutant in soil (RLC) for cadmium is calculated to be:
RLC
TPI
FD »BAV *BAOC
100
(5)
0.33-0.214*6
236 jig -cadmium/g -soil DW
where:
RLC =
TPI =
FD
BAV ¦
BACC =
reference concentration of pollutant in soU (jtg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
threshold pollutant intake level (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
fraction of diet considered to be soil organisms (g-soil organisms DW/g-
dietDW)
bioavailability factor (unitless)
bioaccumulation factor (^ig-pollutant/g-soil organisms DW)(/ig-pollutant/g-
soil DW)1
Substituting the relevant input parameters and this value for RLC into Equation 4, the
reference cumulative application rate of pollutant, RPC for cadmium is calculated to be:
RP0 - (RLC -BS) *MS * 10"9 (O
RPC » (236 -0J2)-2»109«10h> (7)
¦ 470kg -c*dmftmi/ha (rounded down to 2 significant figures) (8)
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reference application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
background concentration of pollutant in soil (/ig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm (g-soil DW/ha)
conversion factor (Iqg/^ig)
Table 5.2.10-1 summarizes input and output values for the standard methodology for
calculating RPe for cadmium.
Alternative Approaches forCadmhun
Approach 1. Among other studies reporting a correlation between use of sewage sludge
to amend soil and toxicity to wildlife species, Hegstrom and West (1989) looked at tissue metals
in several species of small mammals from forest sites that received sludge applications. They
collected insectivorous Towbridge's shrews (Sorec towbridgii), shrew-moles (Neurotrichus gibbsi),
and granivorous deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) from sludge-treated and control sites at
Pack Forest, where Seattle sludge had been surface-applied at 51 mt/ha several years earlier.
Heavy metals were higher in tissues of Towbridge's shrews from the sludge-treated areas than
from control sites, and accumulations were much higher than in the other species studied.
A second set of shrews was collected from forested sites that had received much higher
cumulative applications in order to identify any kidney or liver lesions that might result from
sludge use. Despite the high levels of heavy metals found in the tissues of Towbridge's shrews
(mean = 126 mg cadmium/kg DW), no lesions were found in their organs. Of course, this
concentration is far below the level expected to cause the first health effect in mammals (696 mg
cadmium/kg whole kidney DW, see below).
To estimate transfer from soil to kidney as a basis for limiting applications of sewage
sludge containing cadmium, the following calculations were made: 51 mt-sewage sludge DW/ha
was applied to forest sites where shrews were sampled. The sewage sludge applied in the studies
contained 50 ppm cadmium; 2,000 ppm zinc; 900 ppm copper; and 1,200 ppm lead. This
5-229
where:
RPe =
RLC =
BS
MS
lC =
-------
TABLE 5.2.104
INPUT AND OUTPUT yALUES FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 10, FROM STANDARD METHODOLOGY
Pollutant
TPI
FD
BAV
BACC
BS
MS
RLC
Cadmium
100
0.33
0.214
6
0.2
2E409
236.0
Lead
150
0.33
0.4
0.45
11.0
2E+09
2525.3
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
TPI*=threshold pollutant intake level (ng-pollutant/g-diet DW)
FD * fraction of diet assumed to be soil biota (g-soil biota DW/g-diet DW)
BAV * bioavailability factor (unitless)
BACC = bioaccumulation factor (ng-pollutant/g-soil biota DW)%g-pollutaiit/g-soil DW)
BS « background concentration of pollutant in soil (ng-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS » assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 on (g-soil DW/ha)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (ng-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RPc » reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutaat/ha)
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application resulted in 2.55 kg-cadraium/ha being applied. If the sewage sludge were mixed with
the 15-cm plow layer, the resulting soil concentration would be 1.26 jtg-cadmium/g-soil DW. But
in this forest, the sewage sludge is not mixed with the plow layer, it is applied to the litter layer,
which lies on the soil surface. Because the sewage sludge is not mixed with the soil plow layer,
and because the litter layer has a low bulk density (approximately one-half that of soil) due to its
organic nature, the mixed zone of litter and sludge is probably about 50 percent sewage sludge or
greater (dry matter basis). Further, these soils are strongly acidic, which prevents earthworms
from living in them. Thus, other macrofauna such as arthropods are involved in degrading the
litter layer. In the absence of earthworms, these organisms are the prey for shrews. The
arthropods reside in the surface litter layer which consists of approximately 50 percent sewage
sludge. On an area-wide basis this is equivalent to 1,000 mt/ha in the soil-sludge mixture, not to
the 50 mt/ha applied, because, as discussed above, the density of litter is one-half that of soil.
Thus, the litter-sludge mixture contains 25 J /tg-cadmium/g-soil DW. Hie cadmium
concentrations in whole shrew kidneys were 33 /xg-cadmium/g-whole kidney DW (25-43, N=66)
on sludged plots, and 9 pg-cadmium/g-whole kidney DW (8-10, N=50) on equivalent forested
control sites. Hie increment in kidney cadmium due to sludge utilization was 24 #ig-cadmium/g-
whole kidney DW.
The concentration of cadmium in the whole kidney has to be related to the potential
toxic level in the kidney cortex (200 jtg-cadmium/g-kidney cortex FW). This value is considered a
measure of the lowest cadmium concentration that can cause tubular dysfunction in sensitive
individuals for many animal species. To relate the toxicity level of cadmium in the kidney cortex
to the concentration in the whole kidney the conversion factor of 1.25 for whole kidney-cadmium
concentration to kidney cortex-cadmium concentration for humans (Svartengren et al., 1986) is
used;
200 tig-cadmium ^ I { ng-cadmium ¥ g-lridncycoitex^ _ 160 ng-cadmipm ^
g-lddneycortexFW 1.25 U-«*o^A»yA fg-cadmium J ~ g-whotekMaeyFW
To complete this calculation, kidney-FW must be converted to kidney-DW. In the
absence of specific data for shrews, the arithmetic mean of the solids content for beef, calf, hog
and lamb kidney (USDA, 1975), 23 percent solids, was used. Thus:
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160 ng-cadnrium . 1.00 gPW _ 696 ug-cadmium (jq)
g-whole kidneyFW 0.23 gDW g-whole kidney DW
Then the slope for (shrew kidney-cadmium):(soil-cadmium)[(24 ^g-cadmium/g-whole
kidncy-DW)/(25J /ig-cadmium/g-soil DW) = 0.941J is divided into the tolerable concentration of
cadmium In the whole kidney on a dry-weight basis;
696ng-cadnuuni/g-wfaolekidaeyDW
941( ^g-cadmium/g-wiiole kidney DW)(iig-cadmhnn/g-soilDW)
=740 ng-cadmium/g-soilDW
Thus, a concentration of 740 jxg-cadmium/g-soil DW is the level at which sensitive shrews
would be expected to display the first effect (on kidney function) of dietaiy cadmium exposure.
A value for RPC is calculated by using this valye for RLC in equation 4:
RP6 - (RLC-BS)*MS»10"* (12)
SPc « (740-0.2)*2*109*10~9 (13)
RPe « 1,400kg-cadmium/ha (rounded down to 2 significant figures) (14)
where:
RPC 3= reference application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RLC =' reference concentration of pollutant in soil (/zg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
BS = background concentration of pollutant in soil (/ig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = 2*10* (g-soil DW/ha) = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm
10** = conversion factor (kg//xg)
Approach 2. A limited number of shrew-moles was sampled by Hegstrom and West
(1989) on plots having received similar applications of sewage sludge. The kidney from the
control animals contained 5 /zg-cadmium/g-whole kidney DW, while the animals exposed to
sewage sludge had 65 (33-128) jtg-cadmium/g-whole kidney DW in their kidneys. Dividing the
slope for (shrew kidney-cadmium):(soil-cadmium)[(60 /ig-eadmium/g-whole kidney DW)/(255 pg-
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cadmium/g-soil DW) = 2,35] into the tolerable concentration of cadmium in whole kidney on a
dry-weight basis calculated in Approach 1, gives:
696 pg -cadmium/g -wholclridney DW
2.35 (jig-cadmium/g-wholekidneyDWXiig-cadmium/g-soilDW)"1
=296 ng-cadmium/g-soilDW
Thus, a concentration of 296 ^g-cadraium/g-soil DW is the level at which sensitive shrews
would be expected to display the first effect on kidney function due to dietary cadmium
exposure. A value for RPC is calculated by using this value for RLC in equation 4:
KPC = (RLC-BS)*MS«10"9
RPC - (296-0.2)•2*10®•10"* (17)
= 590kg-cadrahnn/ha (rounded down to 2 significant figures) (18)
where:
RPC = reference application rate of pollutant (kg-poliutant/ha)
RLC - reference concentration of pollutant in soil (/ig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
BS = background concentration of pollutant in soil (^g-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = 2«109 (g-soil DW/ha) = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm
10* = conversion factor (kg//xg)
Approach 3. Moles are another mammal that consume large quantities of earthworms.
Ma (1987) examined cadmium transfer to mole kidney at four sites in the vicinity of a zinc
smelter where the soils were contaminated with both zinc and cadmium. Earthworms were
present in the soils. Soil cadmium reached 9.2 rag/kg, and zinc reached 1,015 mg/kg at the most
contaminated site. Hie increase in kidney cadmium was 25.7 (^g-cadmium/g-whole kidney
DW)(/ig-cadmium/g-soil DW)"1 (mean of 31.2,28.0, and 17.8 for sites 1,2, Mid 3). Dividing this
slope into the tolerable concentration of cadmium in whole kidney on a dry-weight basis
calculated in Approach 1, gives:
5-233
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25.7 ( ng -cadmium/g -whole kidney DW)( ng -caritnhnn/g -soilDW)
(19)
=27.1 ng-cadmiunVg-soUDW
Thus, a concentration of 27.1 #tg-cadmium/g-soil DW Is the level at which sensitive moles
would be expected to display the first effect of dietaiy cadmium exposure on kidney function. A
value for RPC is calculated by using this value for RLC in equation 4:
RP0 - (RLC-BS)*MS«10"* (20)
RP - (27.1 -0.2)*2*10^*10"* <21>
RPC » 53 kg-cadmium/ha (rounded down to 2 significant figures) (22)
where:
«
RFC = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
BS = background concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = 2*109 g-soil DW/ha = assumed mass of dry soil in upper IS cm
10* a= conversion factor (kg//xg)
This study also requires some further comments. Ma sampled at a depth of 10 on,
thereby analyzing the mineral soil below the. litter layer, ignoring the collection of smelter
emissions in the organic layer on top of the mineral layer. In the vicinity of U.S. smelters, the
surface organic layer contains much higher cadmium concentrations than the subsurface mineral
layer. For example, in an untitled profile 25 km distant from a 90-year-old zinc smelter in
Palracrton, Pennsylvania, the 0 to 2 cm organic layer contained 68.9 pg-cadmium/g, while the 2 to
10 cm mineral soil contained only 12 pg-cadmium/g-soil DW; thus the concentration of cadmium
in the surface layer was 5.7 times higher than in the underlying subsurface layer (Chaney et al.,
1984). Given this information, the 53 kg-cadmium/ha calculated from Ma's data could easily
have been 306 kg-cadmium/ha if the correct soil material had been sampled. Nevertheless,
because it is uncertain what Ma's results might have been had sampling been conducted
differently, the limit for this approach will remain at 53 kg-cadmium/ha.
5-234
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Table 5.2.10-2 summarizes the outputs for the various approaches for cadmium and
indicates the limiting result.
Lead
Since crops do not bioaccumulate lead to any greater concentration than the soils in
which they grow, it has been concluded that, if lead in soil represents a risk to birds and
mammals, it will be a risk to those that ingest earthworms/soil as a significant part of their diet.
There is little evidence of significant bioaccumulation of lead by soil organisms to concentrations
above that in the soils in which they live. Thus, it seems unlikely that soil lead moves through
this food chain.
Threshold Pollutant Intake Level, TPI. Hie threshold pollutant intake level for lead
equals 150 ^g-Iead/g-diet DW. Beyer et al. (1991) noted that birds that consume earthworms can
tolerate approximately 150 pg-lead/g-diet DW.
Bioavailability Factor, BAY. The bioavailability factor for lead is estimated as 0.4.
Chaney et al. (1989) estimated that soil-lead bioavailability ranged from 20 percent at the 1,000
ppm soil-lead level to 70 percent at the 10,000 ppm soil-lead level. Concentrations in sewage
sludge would typically be at the lower end of this scale, but (to remain conservative) a
bioavailability factor of 40 percent was used.
Bioaccumulation Factor, BACC. The bioaccumulation factor for lead is estimated as 0.45
(pg-lead/g-soil organisms DW)(pg-lead/g-soil DW)"1. No bioaccumulation of lead was found in
worms; the ratio of lead in nonpurged worms to lead in soil was 0.45.
Input and output values for lead are summarized in Table 5.2.10-1.
Lead—Other Studies. Other studies conducted using rodents exposed to high lead soils
indicate that 2,500 /xg-lead/g-soil DW may be too high for rodents that live in the field. In
particular, Haschek et al. (1979) found histopathologic lesions in several species sampled in old
5-235
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TABLE 5.2.10-2
OUTPUT VALUES FOR CADMIUM
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 10
RPc
^Standard methodology
470
Alternative Approach 1
1400
Alternative Approach 2
590
Alternative Approach 3
53
|Limiting result T
Note:
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-poHutant/ha)
5-236
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orchards that had been sprayed with lead arsenate pesticides over many years. Soil-lead levels in
0-8 cm depth samples for two orchards studied were 1,342 and 6,326 ppm (Elfving et al., 1978).
Considering that soil residues of lead from orchard sprays are largely in the surface 2 cm,
however, the surface soil lead may have been considerably higher than these reported values. It
may be fair to multiply the reported concentrations by 4 to account for dilution of the surface (0
to 2 cm) soil lead in the depth samples. Multiplication by 4 would make both the soil
concentrations higher than that determined above for the criteria limit. Compared to these data,
therefore, the criteria limit is conservative.
Ma (1989) found excessive kidney lead in shrews living on a shooting range that
contained very high soil-lead levels. No limit can be estimated from the data.
In conclusion, no studies have been found in which wildlife exhibited toxic effects at '
levels at, or below, the criteria limit determined.
*
5.2.10.4.2 Organics
Equations
The development of the equations is the same for organics as for inorganics until the
final equation that calculates application rate of pollutants. The reason for the difference is that
organics typically degrade in soil, and therefore a reference annual application rate, RPa is
calculated from:
RPt = RLC'MS'10"9*!!+e"k+e"a + +e(1_n,fc]~1 (23)
where:
RP, = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha • yr)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (jtg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = (2 • 10® g-soil DW/ha) = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 oil
10"® = conversion factor (kg//tg)
e = base of natural logarithms, 2.718 (unitless)
k = loss rate constant (yr*1)
n = years of application (yr)
5-237
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Input Parameters
Loss Rate Constant, k (yr*1). For a complete discussion of this variable, see Section
5.2.1.4.2.2.13 in Pathway 1. The values used for k are presented in Table 5.2.1-14, also in
Pathway 1.
Input and Output Values
Poly chlorinated Biphenyls, PCBs
In order to estimate the maximum soil concentration of PCBs that protects the most
sensitive/most exposed predators of soil organisms, the available literature was reviewed.
Research has demonstrated that lipophilic organic compounds, such as PCBs, constitute a risk to
birds and mammals that ingest earthworms as .a significant part of their diet, because earthworms
bioaccumulate these compounds to concentrations above that in the soils in which they live.
Threshold Pollutant Intake Level, TPI. The threshold pollutant intake level for PCB
equals 5 jig-PCB/g-diet DW. Beyer et al. (1991) noted that 5 pg PCB/g-diet DW in chronic diets
of chickens was the lowest concentration at which toxicity was observed in mammals or birds
(Lillie et al., 1974; see also Eisler, 1986; McLane and Hughes, 1980; Peakall, 1986; Peakall and
Peakall, 1973; Platonow and Reinhart, 1973; Tori and Peterle, 1983). Other data from
earthworm-consuming wildlife did not indicate injury until the PCB concentration in the diet
greatly exceeded 5 ng/g (Eisler, 1986).
Bioavailability Factor, BAV. For the purposes of this analysis, the conservative
assumption was made that the bioavailability of PCBs is 100 percent.
Bioaccumulation Factor, BACC. The bioaccumulation factor for PCB, calculated as the
geometric mean from a number of studies, equals 3.69 (pg-PCB/g-soil organisms DW)(jtg-PCB/g-
soil DW)1 (see Beyer et al., 1991; Kreis et al., 1987; Tarradellas et al., 1982; and Marquenie et
al., 1987).
5-238
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Loss Rate Constant, lc. Based on aerobic degradation rate in soil, the loss rate constant
for PCB is estimated as 0.063 yf1 (see Table 5.2.1-14).
Years of Application, n. As with all degradation equations in this analysis, the equation is
carried out to 100 years.
Input and Output Values
Table 5.2.10-3 summarizes the input and output values for PGBs for tills pathway.
Sample Calculations
Substituting the relevant input parameters into Equation 3, the reference concentration of
pollutant in soil, RLC, for PCBs is calculated:
RLC » — (24)
ED •BAY *BACC
RLC = - (25)
0-33*1 *3.69
RLC - 4.106 pg-PCBs/g-soilDW (2*>
where:
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (/ig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
TPI a» threshold pollutant intake level (^g-pollutant/g-diet DW)
FD = fraction of diet considered to be soil organisms (g-soil organisms DW/g-
diet DW)
BAV = bioavailability factor (unitless)
BACC = bioaccumulation factor (/ig-pollutant/g-soil organisms DW)(/ig-pollutant/g-
soil DW)'1
5-239
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TABLE 5.2.10-3
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 10
I Pollutant
TPI | FD | BAV | BACC I BS
MS | k | RLC K
iPCBs
5| 0.33| 1| 3.69| 0.2
2E+09| 0.064| 4.106(1
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
TPI = threshold pollutant intake level (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
FD = fraction of diet assumed to be soil biota (g-soil biota DW/g-diet DW)
BAV = bioavailability factor (unitless)
BACC - bioaccumulation factor (ng-pollutant/g-soil biota DW)/(pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
BS = background concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm (g-soil DW/ha)
k = loss rate constant (yrJ'X-l)
RLC =¦= reference concentration of pollutant in soil (ng-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RPa = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha-yr)
5-240
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Substituting the relevant input parameters and this value for RLC into Equation 5, the
reference annual application rate of pollutant, RP„ for PCBs is calculated to be:
RP, = RLOMS«10"**[1 ~e"k«-e~2k+.... +e
-------
5*2.11 Agricultaral Pathway 11 (Human Exposure Through Inhalation of Particulates
Resuspended by Tilling Sewage Shidge)
53.11.1 Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge ¦» Soil -» Airborne Dust -» Human
This pathway evaluates the impact of particles that have been resuspended by the tilling
dewatered sewage sludge into the soil. The particles are inhaled by a tractor operator.
S2J12 Pollutants of Concern
Table 5.2.11-1 lists the organic and inorganic compounds assessed by this pathway.
*
5JJ1J Highly Exposed Individual (HEI)
The HEI for this pathway is the tractor driver tilling the field. It is assumed that the
distance from the driver to the soil surface is 1 meter. It is also assumed that this HEI will not
be exposed to more than 10 mgta3 of total dust. For dust levels at or above this level, the
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) recommends that
individuals work within a closed cab.
5211.4 Algorithm Development
5.2.11.4.1 Equations
Hie reference application rate of pollutant, RF (kg-pollutant/ha), is calculated as a
Auction of the 10 mg/m3 total dust concentration, the National Institute of Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) recommended standard for each contaminant (see Table 5.2.11-2), and the
mass of soil into which sewage sludge is incorporated. The calculations are based on the
5-242
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TABLE 5.2.11-1
- POLLUTANTS OF CONCERN FOR
AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 11
Inorganics
Organics
Arsenic
Aldrin/Dieldrin
Cadmium
DDT/DDE/DDD
| Chromium
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
| Lead
Mercury
Nickel
5-243
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TABU) 5.2.11-2
NIOSH RECOMMENDED OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH STANDARDS
Pollutant
Standard Oigfat*)
Aldrin/Dieldrin
150 TWA*
Arsenic
2 (15 min)
Cadmium
40 TWA J
Chromium
25 TWA
DDT
500 TWA
Lead
50 (8 hr) TWA
Mercury
50 TWA
Nickel
15 TWA
PCBs
1 TWA |
Time-weighted average (TWA) in NIOSH recommendations is
based on a 10-hour exposure unless otherwise noted.
5-244
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assumption that sewage sludge is incorporated to a depth of 15 em, and that the sewage sludge
and soil are well mixed. This assumption results in the following relationship among the
maximum concentration of pollutant in dust, the NIOSH standard, and the ACGIH
recommendation for maximum total dust exposure:
MDC = N1QSH • 10* (1)
TDA
where:
MDC = Maximum concentration of pollutant in dust (mg-pollutant/g-soil
DW)
NIOSH = NIOSH recommended health standard (mg/m3)
TDA = ACGIH total dust standard = (10 mg/m3 soil)
10* = conversion factor (rag/g)
NIOSH/TDA gives the ratio of the total pollutant to total dust such that, at the TDA
limit, the maximum quantity of pollutant in die dust is the NIOSH limit. For example, If TDA
= 15 mg/m3, and if DDT has a NIOSH standard of 0.5 mg/mJ, the concentration can be no more
than 0.5/15, or 1/30th of the total dust. RP is then calculated by multiplying MDC by the mass
of dry soil in the upper 15 cm, thus:
IP - MDC • MS • lCT* <
where:
RP = Reference application rate of pollutant (kg-poUutant/ha)
MDC = Maximum concentration of pollutant in dust (mg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = Assumed mass of diy soil in upper 15 an (2*10* g-soil DW/ha)
10* = conversion factor (kg/mg)
5-245
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5.2.11.4.2 Input Parameters
NIOSH Health Standard
The NIOSH values given in Table 5.2.11-2 were selected to determine the maximum
allowable concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge. These concentrations in sewage sludge do
not result in violations of the occupational health standards.
ACGIH Total Dnst Standard, IDA
ACGU3 recommends a limit of 10 mgfm3 as the total dust exposure to the worker. At
higher dust levels, it recommends use of an enclosed cab to prevent exposure of the worker to
excessive dust levels.
t
S2.ll J Input and Output Values
Table 5.2.11-3 summarizes the NIOSH values and calculated RF outputs for each
pollutant.
SJ2J1.6 Sample Calculations
Following are sample calculations for aldrin/dieldrin:
MDC - 0.15 • — • 10s
10
MDC * 15,000 mg -pollulant/kg -soil DW
RP = 15,000 • 2 • 1
-------
TABLE 5.2.11-3
INPUT1SND OUTPUT VALUES
FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 11
1 Pollutant
NIOSH Std.
TDA
MS
MPC
RPc
lArsenic
0.002
10
2E+09
200
400
Cadmium
0.040
10
2E+09
4000
8000
Chromium
0.025
10
2E+09
2500
5000
0.050
10
2E+09
5000
10000
Mercury
0.050
10
2E+09
5000
10000
Nickel
0.015
10
2E+09
1500
3000
lAldrin/Dieldrin
0.150
10
2E+09
15000
30000
|DDT
0.500
10
2E+09
50000
PPCBs
0.001
10
2E+09
100
I 200l
Notes:
NIOSH standard Is a time weighted average (TWA) based
on 10 hour exposure, except for arsenic and lead where TWA is
based on IS minutes and 8 hoars, respectively.
Totals may not add (hie to rounding.
NIOSH Std. =NIOSH recommended health standard (mg/mA3)
TDA = ACGIH total dust standard (mg/mA3-soil)
MS = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm (g-soil DW/ha)
MDC = maximum concentration of pollutant in dust (ng-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
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5.2.12 Agricultural Pathway 12 (Human Toxicity from Ingestion of Contaminated
Surface Water and Fish)
53.12.1 Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -» Soil ¦» Surface Water "~ Human
Pathway 12 evaluates the effects on humans of applying sewage sludge to the land. The
effects occur when soil erodes and contaminates surface water. Humans are assumed to drink 2
Hters/per day of water and to eat 0.04 kg/day of fish from the contaminated water.
52.122 Pollutants Evaluated
All of the pollutants of concern were evaluated; they are listed in Table 5.2.12-1.
«
SJ2S23 Highly Exposed Individual
Hie Highly Exposed Individual (HEI) for Pathway 12 is assumed to eat 0.04 kg/day of
fish and to drink 2 liters/per day of water from surface water contaminated with pollutants
eroded from sewage sludge-amended soils.
5.2J2.4 Algorithm Development
Pollutants are lost from soil by erosion, which releases pollutants into surface water; by
volatilization into air, by leaching into ground water; and by degradation. Degradation is not
further evaluated here because the pollutants no longer pose a hazard once they have degraded.
TTie remaining three processes are treated as three separate pathways: Pathway 12 (surface
water), Pathway 13 (air), and Pathway 14 (ground water).
5-248
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TABLE.5JL12-1
POLLUTANTS EVALUATED FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 12
| Inorganics
Orgaiiics |
| Arsenic
Benzene
1 Cadmium
Benzo(a)pyrene
| Chromium
Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
|| Copper
Chlordane
H Lead
DDT/DDD/DDE
| Mercury
Lindane
| Nickel
n-Nitrosodiracthylamine
Polychlorinated biphenyis (PCBs)
Toxaphene
Trichloroethylene
5-249
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While the reference application rates are derived separately for these three pathways, the
calculations begin with the mass balance calculations, which partition pollutant loss from the
sludge management area" (SMA) to surface water, to air, and to ground water. The calculations
are integrated so that pollutant mass is conserved. The results are then used in calculating the
reference application rate for each pollutant of concern for Pathways 12,13, and 14.
For organic pollutants, the methodology is designed to derive reference application rates
such that sewage sludge can be applied indefinitely without exceeding reference concentrations in
water or air. It is based on the wont-case assumption that equilibrium may eventually be
reached between the annual loading of pollutant to a site and the total annual loss of pollutant
through all competing loss processes. This equilibrium and accumulation of pollutant in soil are
discussed in Appendix G. Based on that predicted equilibrium and the partitioning of pollutant
among loss processes, the maximum annual reference application rate of pollutant (kg-
poliutant/ha*yr) is calculated for the surface water pathway.
«
For metals, equilibrium is not necessarily achieved. The reference application rates are
expressed as cumulative loadings of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha). The concentration of metals in
soil on the site is expected to increase with repeated applications until metal concentrations
reach maximum allowable levels. The practice of applying sewage sludge to land is then
discontinued. The reference application rates for surface water are based on the maximum
predicted average concentration of pollutant in surface water over 70 years.
For both metals and organic pollutants, the approach to deriving the reference
application rate consists of four steps:
• Preparing a mass balance of pollutant loss, i.e., calculating the relative rates at
which pollutant is removed from the site by each of four competing loss processes
(erosion, leaching, volatilization, and degradation).
• Determining the reference concentration of pollutant in the medium.
• Determining the pollutant concentration in the medium resulting from a unit
loading (kg-pollutant/ha) of sewage sludge at the site.
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• Deriving reference application rates by dividing the reference concentration in the
medium by the concentration predicted per unit loading or per sewage sludge
_ -concentration.
5X12.4.1 Mass Balance
Losses of pollutant through leaching, volatilization, erosion, and degradation are assumed
to be first-order with respect to the residual concentration of the pollutant in treated soil. Mass
balance calculations begin with estimating of loss coefficients for each of these competing loss
processes.
Pollutant Loss to Erosion
*
Annual losses to erosion are calculated based on an average rate of soil loss (8 J
mt/ha*yr) derived by USDA for agricultural land (USDA, 1987). If pollutant is evenly
incorporated into the mixing zone, annual loss of pollutant from this layer is described by the
following first-order loss process:
(1)
where:
loss rate coefficient for erosion (yr1)
depth of soil eroded from site each year (m/yr)
depth of incorporation for sewage sludge (m, equivalent to kg/m2 for a
unit concentration of the pollutant in treated soil)
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Pollutant Loss to Volatilization
~~ " For organic pollutants, estimates of volatile emissions are based on equations provided by
Hwang and Falco (1986). After minor changes in units and names of variable from the original
version, the primary equation is:
2t 0 D C
Na = (2)
where:
Na = total emissions from the soil surface over time interval te (kg/m2)
te = duration of emissions (sec)
$t = effective porosity of soil (unitless)
D,; = intermediate variable to be defined below (m2/sec)
C, = vapor concentration of pollutant in air-filled pore space of treated soil
(kg/m3)
a{ = intermediate variable to be defined below (m /sec)
Certain of the variables used in Equation 2 are further defined below:
D* - (3)
where:
D,; = intermediate variable for Equation 2 (m2/sec)
10"4 = conversion factor (m2) (cm2)*1
D„ = the molecular diffiisivity of pollutant vapor in air (cm2/sec)
0. = effective porosity of soil (unitless)
Hwang and Falco estimate C, with the relation:
C, = J»S. (4)
" EDC, v '
where:
C, = vapor concentration of pollutant in air-filled pore space of treated soil
(kg/m3)
41 = conversion factor (m3/m3) (atm-m3Anol)"1 at approximately 298 K
H = Henry's Law constant for the pollutant (atm*m3/mol)
KD = equilibrium partition coefficient for the pollutant in soil (m3/kg)
C, = concentration of adsorbed pollutant in treated soil (kg/kg)
5-252
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Of interest for these calculations is the relationship between the total concentration of
pollutant in treated soil (in dissolved, adsorbed, or vapor phase) and the concentration in vapor
phase within the soil's pore space. As discussed in Appendix H, this relationship can be
described by:
and:
C. =
C.
(5)
where:
C, = vapor concentration of pollutant in air-filled pore space of treated soil
(kg/m3)
C, = total concentration of pollutant in treated soil (kg/m3)
BD = bulk density of soil in mixing zone (kg/m3)
KD = equilibrium partition coefficient for the pollutant in soil (ra3/kg)
H = nondimensional Henry's Law constant for the pollutant
ffw = water-filled porosity of soil (unitless)
0. = air-filled porosity of soil (unitless)
The nondimensional Henry's Law constant is defined as:
H ¦= JL (6)
RT
H = nondimensional Heniy's Law constant for the pollutant
H = Henry's Law constant for the pollutant (atm*m3/mol)
R = ideal gas constant (8.21xl0"5 atm*m3/K*mol)
T = temperature (K)
Other variables used in Equation 2 are:
D
«.-T
where:
a, (V
1 1 * kS
a; = intermediate variable for Equation 2 (m2/sec)
Dei = intermediate variable for Equation 2 (mz/sec)
jc = intermediate variable for Equation 2 (unitless)
S = intermediate variable for Equation 2 (unitless)
5-253
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and where:
K =
p^KD
<*>
H
where:
Pm
KD
ft
*
intermediate variable for Equation 2 (unitless)
particle density of sewage sludge-soil mixture (kg/m3)
equilibrium partition coefficient for the pollutant in soil (m3/kg)
nondimensional Henry's Law constant for the pollutant
and where:
(9)
where:
S = intermediate variable for Equation 2 (unitless)
6t = effective porosity of soil {unitless)
These equations provide an estimate of total emissions from an uncovered layer of
contaminated soil as a function of time and of the initial concentration of pollutant. As is
evident from Equation 2, however, the process described is not first-order with respect to
pollutant concentration. For consistency with methods used to estimate losses for other
pathways. Equation 2 is evaluated for te equal to 1 year, and the results are used to estimate a
loss coefficient for approximating the loss process as exponential with respect to time. Losses
predicted for the first year are divided into the total mass of pollutant in soil to estimate the
approximate fraction of available pollutant lost per unit of time. For a unit concentration
(1 kg/m3) of the pollutant in soil, the mass of pollutant beneath 1 square meter of soil surface
(kg/ra2) is equal to the volume of treated soil beneath a square meter of surface (mJ per m2),
which is equal to the depth of incorporation (m). The estimated loss rate (kg/mz*yr) is
converted to a comparable comparable first-order loss coefficient (yr^ as:
(10)
5-254
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where:
...js toss oatexoeffidmt far volatilization*-used.to.appraximatelossJunaion
described by Equation 2 (yr1)
Na,, = emissions from the soil surface in first year (kg/ra2,yr)
d; = depth of incorporation for sewage sludge (m, equivalent to kg/m2 for a
unit concentration of the pollutant in treated soil)
C, = total concentration of pollutant in treated soil (kg*pollutant/mJ)
Because Equation 2 was derived by assuming the column of contaminated soil is of
infinite depth, it can predict loss greater than 100 percent within a year for a relatively shallow
layer of treated soil and a relatively volatile pollutant. For such cases, Equation 10 cannot be
evaluated, and the rate coefficient is estimated from predicted emissions in the first second:
- -3.2x10'ln|l-^sj (11)
where:
Kv,,, = loss rate coefficient for volatilization, used to approximate loss
function described by Equation 2 (yr1)
3.2xl07 = conversion factor (sec) (yr)"1
Nat = emissions from the soil surface in first second (kg/m2*sec)
dj = depth of incorporation for sewage sludge (m, equivalent to kg/ra2
for a unit concentration of the pollutant in treated soil)
Pollutant Loss to Leaching
Appendices H and I describe the derivation of a first-order coefficient for losses to
leaching. This coefficient is calculated as:
- - *¦* (12)
(BDKD «0„»H0,) d,
where:
= loss rate coefficient for leaching (yr1)
NR = annual recharge to ground water beneath the SMA (m/yr)
BD = bulk density of soil in mixing zone (kg/m3)
KD = equilibrium partition coefficient for the pollutant in soil (m3/kg)
8V = water-filled porosity of soil (unitless)
5-255
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ft = nondimensional Henry's Law constant for the pollutant
8t = air-filled porosity of soil (unitless)
dj = depth to which sewage sludge is incorporated into soil (m)
Individual Loss Processes as Fraction of Total Loss
These three loss rate coefficients are combined with an estimated loss coefficient for
degradation of the pollutant In treated soil (K&J, obtained from the scientific literature (see
Appendix J), to yield a coefficient for the total rate at which the pollutant is lost from soil:
- K* * ~ K* <13>
where:
K« = total loss rate for the pollutant in treated soil (yr"1)
loss rate coefficient for leaching (yr1)
= loss rate coefficient for volatilization (yr1)
loss rate coefficient for erosion (yr1)
K* = loss rate coefficient for degradation (yr1)
The ratio of each individual coefficient to the total then describes the fraction of
pollutant loss caused by each individual process:
u = ^ (")
where:
fte = fraction of total loss caused by leaching (unitless)
loss rate coefficient for leaching (yr1)
K*, =» total loss rate for the pollutant in treated soil (yr1)
= fraction of total loss caused by volatilization (unitless)
Kyo, = loss rate coefficient for volatilization (yr1)
f,„ = fraction of total loss caused by erosion (unitless)
loss rate coefficient for erosion (yr1)
fdeg = fraction of total loss caused by degradation (unitless)
loss rate coefficient for degradation (yr1)
5-256
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5.2.12.4.2 Calculating the Reference Application Rate
For carcinogenic pollutants, the calculations begin by using the human cancer potency to
calculate a reference intake:
RI » (15)
qt
where;
W = reference intake for carcinogen (mg/kg*day)
RL = risk level (risk of developing cancer per lifetime of exposure)
q,* = human cancer potency (mg/kg'day)"1
For noncarcinogenic pollutants, the reference intake is equal to the oral reference dose (RfD)
established by the U.S. EPA, minus total background intake from sources other than sewage
sludge.
*
This reference intake is used to calculate a reference concentration of the pollutant in
surface water. The HEI is assumed to be exposed through ingesting both contaminated fish and
contaminated water:
C„ BCF EM P, L * C„ L
EXP_ = -= i-i SLJi (16)
BW
where:
EXP*, = dose of pollutant received through surface water pathway (mg/kg-day)
C,. = concentration of pollutant in surface water (rag/1)
BCF = pollutant-specific bioconcentration factor (l/kg)
FM = pollutant-specific food chain multiplier (unitless)
P, = ratio of pollutant concentration in the edible portion of fish to
concentration in whole fish (unitless)
It = daily consumption of fish (kg/day)
4 = daily consumption of water (1/day)
BW = body weight (kg)
To derive a reference water concentration for the pollutant in surface water, RI is
substituted for EXPW and RC,, is substituted for C„. After rearranging,
5-257
-------
RC - (17)
"" BCP FM F, I, + ^
where:
RC„ = reference water concentration for surface water (mg/I)
RI = reference intake for carcinogen (mg/kg*day)
BW = body weight (kg)
BCF = pollutant-specific bioconcentration factor (1/kg)
FM = pollutant-specific food chain multiplier (unitless)
Pf = ratio of pollutant concentration in the edible portion of fish to
concentration in whole fish (unitless)
I, = daily consumption of fish (kg/day)
1^ = daily consumption of water (1/day)
Where acute or chronic freshwater criteria for pollutants have been determined for
aquatic life, the smaller of these two values and of the value calculated above is used as the
reference water concentration.
Concentrations of pollutant in surface water must be related to concentrations in eroded
soil. Once the eroded soil enters the stream, the pollutant partitions between the solid and the
liquid compartments in the stream. The concentration of pollutant in water is related to the
concentration of pollutant in the eroded soil entering the stream as:
C-d
KD_
'h
(i)
(18)
where:
Cm = concentration of pollutant in surface water (mg/1)
Cied - dry weight concentration of pollutant in eroded soil (mg/kg)
KD„ = partitioning coefficient between solids and liquids within the stream (1/kg)
P( = percent liquid in the water column (unitless, by mass)
P, = percent solids in the water column (unitless, by mass)
pv = density of water (kg/1)
For metals, a partition coefficient for the pollutant is derived by using an equation from
U.S. EPA (1982c):
5-258
-------
KDW - aTSS* (19)
where: -
KDW - partition coefficient between solids and liquids within the stream (1/kg)
a, $ = pollutant-specific empirical constants
TSS = total suspended solids content of the stream (mg/1)
The dimensionless ratio P, /P, is calculated as:
Pi _ Pw
P, TSS 10"*
where:
P, = percent liquid in the water column (unitless, by mass)
P, = percent solids in the water column (unitless, by mass)
pw = density of water (kg/1)
TSS = total suspended solids content of the stream (mg/1)
10"6 = conversion factor (kg) (rag)"1
(20)
The reference dry-weight concentration of pollutant in eroded soil (RC^) can be derived
by substituting RCW for Cm in Equation 18 and rearranging,
RC^ « RCW
where:
RC»d
RCm
KD„
P.
P,
A»
"-•ffi)
(t:
(21)
reference concentration of pollutant for soil eroding into stream (mg/kg)
reference water concentration for surface miter (mg/1)
partition coefficient between solids and liquids within the stream (1/kg)
percent liquid in the water column (unitless, by mass)
percent solids in the water column (unitless, by mass)
density of water (kg/1)
The next step is to determine how eroded soil from the sludge management area (SMA)
is diluted by soil from the (untreated) remainder of the watershed. A dilution factor describes
the fraction of the stream's sediment originating in the SMA:
DF
ME„ SJ ~ (A^-AJ ME„ S,
(22)
5-259
-------
where:
DF = dilution factor (unitless)
= area effected by sewage-sludge management (ha)
ME., - estimated rate of soil loss for the SMA (kg/ha »yr)
sediment delivery ratio for the SMA (unitless)
A„ = area of the watershed (ha)
ME^ = estimated rate of soil loss for the watershed (kg/ha *yr)
S„ = sediment delivery ratio for the watershed (unitless)
The sediment delivery ratio for the SMA is calculated with the following empirical
relationship for delivery of eroded soil from the SMA to the stream (Mills et al., 1982):
S„. = 0.77 (L^)"0"22 , OS)
where:
= sediment delivery ratio for the SMA (unitless)
0.77 = empirical constant
, = distance between the SMA and the receiving water body (m)
0.22 = empirical constant *
The sediment delivery ratio for the watershed is calculated as (Vanoni, 1975):
S„ « 0.872 (AJ-°125 (24)
where:
SM = sediment delivery ratio for the watershed (unitless)
0.872 = empirical constant
A^ = area of the watershed (ha)
0.125 = empirical constant
If it is assumed that the rates of soil erosion from the SMA and from the remainder of
the watershed are the same, ME„ and ME^ cancel from the equation, and the dilution factor
can be calculated as:
Dp = S— (25)
l +
5-260
-------
where:
..... DF --= - dilution Jactor-(iiiiitIess)
= area affected by sewage sludge management (ha)
= sediment deUveiy ratio for the SMA (unitiess)
A*,, = area of the watershed (ha)
= sediment delivery ratio for the watershed (unitiess)
If all pollutants in stream sediment are assumed to originate in the SMA, this same
fraction also describes the ratio between the average concentration of pollutant in sediment
entering the stream and the average concentration in soil eroding from the SMA:
« DF C., (26)
or:
' c - (27)
"" DP
where: *
Q* = dry-weight concentration of pollutant in eroded soil for (mg/kg)
DF = dilution factor (unitiess)
Cm = average pollutant concentration for soil eroding from the SMA (mg/kg)
RC^ is substituted for C.^ and RC^ for C,,, to derive a reference soil concentration for soil
eroding from the SMA:
RC-*.
where:
RC«* (28)
DP
RC,^, as reference pollutant concentration for soil eroding from the SMA (mg/kg)
RC«d = reference concentration of pollutant for soil eroding into stream (mg/kg)
DF = dilution factor (unitiess)
The final step of die calculation is to use earlier results from mass balance calculations to
relate the maximum allowable concentration of pollutant in eroded soil to the reference annual
pollutant loading for the SMA. This step uses the estimated fraction of annual pollutant loss
attributable to erosion and the mass of soil lost from the site each year. For organic pollutants,
5-261
-------
where:
RP, = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg/ha-yr)
RC_, = reference pollutant concentration in soil eroding from the SMA (rag/kg)
estimated rate of soil loss for the SMA (kg/ha *yr)
10"* = conversion factor (kg) (mg)"1
4, = fraction of total loss caused by erosion (unitless)
Annual soil erosion from the site can be calculated from the bulk density of treated soil
and the estimated average rate of loss of agricultural soil in the U.S:
where:
ME^ = estimated rate of soil loss for the SMA (kg/ha *yr)
10,000 = conversion factor (kg/m2) (kg/ha)"1
d, = depth of soil eroded from site each year (m/yr)
BD = bulk density of soil in mixing zone (kg/m3)
The calculations differ slightly for metals, for which criteria are expressed as cumulative
loadings of pollutant As discussed in Appendix G, concentrations of metals in the soil are
assumed to increase over time as pollutant accumulates in the soil, and, after the last application
of sewage sludge, to decrease through erosion. Since the HEI's exposure continues for a
lifetime, criteria for metals are calculated based on maximum estimated average losses of
pollutant through erosion for a period equal to the human life expectancy.
For the years in which sewage sludge is applied, pollutant is assumed to be loaded once
per year, and lost at a continuous first-order rate (It*,). The outcome of combined loading and
losses (for an arbitrary loading of 1 kg/ha*yr) is calculated numerically as:
ME^ = 10,000 d„ BD
(30)
Mj * 0
M, « (M,_, ~ 1)
(t=0)
(IstsN)
(31)
5-262
-------
where:
M, — — mass of pollutant in .soil .at .end .of year t (kg/ha)
K^, = total loss rate coefficient for the pollutant in treated soil (yr1)
N = number of years in which sewage sludge Is applied
After the last application, no further loading of pollutant to soil takes place, but pollutant
continues to be depleted:
Mu=MHe-K-(US-N) (32)
where:
Mls = mass of pollutant at end of individual lifetime (kg/ha)
Mn = mass of pollutant after N applications (kg/ha)
K^, = total loss rate coefficient for the pollutant in treated soil (yr1)
LS = human life expectancy (yr)
N = number of years in which sewage sludge is applied
«
The fraction of total cumulative loading lost in the human lifespan is independent of the
assumed application rate, and can be calculated as:
fw = 1 - ^ • (33)
k N*1
where:
fh = fraction of total cumulative loading lost in human lifetime (unitless)
- mass of pollutant at end of individual lifetime (kg/ha)
N = number of years in which sewage sludge is applied
1 = sewage sludge application rate (kg/ha *yr)
The final step in the calculations for a metal is identical to the corresponding step for
organic pollutants, except that the mass of soil eroding per year is multiplied by the life
expectancy to calculate the total mass of soil lost in that period. This value is multiplied by the
reference soil concentration and converted to kilograms to yield the maximum mass of pollutant
allowed to be lost to erosion per hectare of site, which is adjusted for the fraction of total
loading lost to erosion and the fraction of cumulative loading lost within the human lifespan, to
derive the reference loading rate of pollutant to treated land:
5-263
-------
RC„ ME_ LS 10-" (34)
° C fy
where:
RPC = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg/ha)
RC^ = reference pollutant concentration for soil eroding from the SMA (mg/kg)
= estimated rate of soil loss for the SMA (kg/ha *yr)
LS = human life expectancy (yr)
1CT6 = conversion factor (kg) (mg)"1
= fraction of total loss caused by erosion (unitless)
fk = fraction of total cumulative loading lost in human lifetime (unitless)
SJJ2J Input and Output Values
Output values are presented in Table 5.2.12-2. Input values for parameters used in the
sample equations are found in Tables 5.2.12-3 and 5.2.12-4.
S2.12.6 Sample Calculations for PCBs
Calculations for PCBs follow the procedure outlined in Section 5.2.12.4.
5.2.12.6.1 Mass Balance
Mass balance calculations for PCBs begin by estimating loss rate coefficients for leaching,
volatilization, and erosion. See Appendix J for a discussion of the loss rate coefficient for
degradation.
5-264
-------
TABLE 5.2.12-2
REFERENCE APPLICATION RATES FOR POLLUTANTS (RPs)
PATHWAY 12
Pollutant
RP j
Arsenic
86,000* |
Benzene
Unlimited15
Benzo(a)pyrene
13"
Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
Unlimited*
Cadmium
63,000*
Chlordane
5.3"
Chromium
Unlimited*
Copper ,
Unlimited*
DDT/DDD/DDE
1.2"
Lead
Unlimited*
Lindane
2,100"
Mercuiy
1,100*
Niekel
Unliniited*
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
29,000b
PCBs
0.34"
Toxaphene
5.0b
T richloroethylene
Unlimitedb
'kg-pollutant/ha
bkg-pollutant/ha "year
Note: All RPs rounded down to two significant digits.
(
5-265
-------
TABLE 5.2.12-3
SITE PARAMETERS FOR SAMPLE EQUATIONS
I Parameter
Value
Units
Source
Abb.
1,074
ha
NSSS . |
440,300
ha
U.S. EPA, 1990a I
BD
1,400
kg/m3
Chaney, 1992 J
<*e
0.00060
mfyt
U.S.DA, 1987 I
DF
0.0066
unitless
d,
0.15
ra
U.S. EPA, 1987a
10
ra
Policy
N
20
yr
U.S. EPA, 1983 I
NR
0.5 '*
m/yr
U.S. EPA, 1986a
Pm
2,650
kg/m2
A*
1
kg/1
t«
3.2 xlO7
sec
TSS
16
mgfl
STORET database
0.
0.2
unitless
0t
0.4
unitless
Carsel and Parrish,
1988
e»
0.2
unitless
Note: Appendix J discusses these and other parameter values.
5-266
-------
TABLE 5.2,12-4
POLLUTANT-SPECIFIC PARAMETERS FOR SAMPLE EQUATIONS
I
PCBs
Arsenic
Units
Sontee
BCF
3.1 x 104
350
kg*1
Table J-12
BW
70
70
0.06
NA
cm2/sec
FM
10
1
unitless
Table J-12
H
3.2 x1a4
NA
atm-mVmol
11
0.04
0.04
kg/day
Javitz, 1980
Iw
2
2
1/day
KD
15.1
0.019
m9/kg
Table J-4
KDW
1,510
63,668
mjkg
Table J-3
1 15
70
70
yr
Pf
0.5
1
unitless
I qi'
7.7
1.75
(mg/kg'day)*1
1 R
8.2 xlO"5
8.21 x 10*
(atra*m3/mol)
RL
10"4
104
lifetime"1
T
288
NA
°K
U.S. EPA, 1986a
Note: Appendix J discusses these and other parameter values.
5-267
-------
Pollutant Loss to Erosion
Based on an assumed bulk density of 1,400 kg/m3 for treated soil, 8.5 metric tons of soil
lost to erosion per hectare annually is equivalent to a depth of about 0.00060 m of eroded soil.
The rate of pollutant loss to erosion is therefore calculated as:
K m d,(m/yr)
* dj(m)
. 0.00060(m/yr) (35)
0.15(m)
0.004(yr~l)
where;
K,ro = loss rate coefficient for erosion (yr1)
dt = depth of soil eroded from site each year (m/yr)
dj = depth of incorporation for sewage sludge (m)
Pollutant Loss to Volatilization
Based on the work of Hwang and Falco (1986), volatile emissions from treated soil are
calculated as in Equation 2. A first-order loss rate coefficient for volatilization is estimated from
this equation.
Before calculating Equation 2, a number of intermediate variables used in that equation
must first be calculated:
D,, - Dw(cm2/sec) 0.0001 (n^/cm2) ef
= (0.06) (0.0001)(0.4V3) (36)
- 4.2xlO"V2/sec)
5-268
-------
where:
Dei = intermediate variable for Equation 2
Da = the molecular diffusivity of the pollutant in air (cm2/sec)
0.0001 = conversion factor (m2) (an2)'1
0e = effective porosity of soil (unitless)
To calculate the concentration of PCBs in the air-filled pore, a nondimensional Henry's
Law constant for PCBs is calculated:
^ _ H(atm«m3/mol)
R(m3 • atm/K • mol) T(°K)
(3.2x10-*) (37)
(8.21 xlO*5) (288)
= 0.014
where:
H = nondimensional Henry's Law constant (unitless)
H = Henry's Law constant for {he pollutant (atm*m3/mol)
R = ideal gas constant (atm*ra3/mol)
T = temperature (K)
For a unit concentration (1 kg/m3) of PCBs in treated soil, the concentration in air-filled
pore space is then calculated:
Ct(kg/m3)
V'. —
f BP (kg/m3) KD(m3/kg)^
I H
1 (38)
(1400) (15.1) . (0.2) ^ (0 2)
(0.014) (0.014)
= 6.6xl0"7(kg/m3)
where:
C, = vapor concentration of pollutant in air-filled pore space of treated soil
(kg/m3)
C, = total concentration of pollutant in treated soil (kg/m3)
BD = bulk density of soil in mixing zone (kg/m3)
5-269
-------
KD = equilibrium partition coefficient for the pollutant (m3/kg)
H = nondimensional Henry's Law constant
8W = water-filled porosity of soil (unitless)
0, = air-filled porosity of soil (unitless)
Other intermediate variables needed for Equation 2 are:
pM(kg/m3)KD(m3/kg)
(39)
K =
H
m (2650) (15.1)
(0.014)
= 2.9X106
where:
k = intermediate variable for Equation 2
p„ = particle density of sewage sludge-soil mixture (kg/m3)
KD = equilibrium partition coeffident for the pollutant (ra3/kg)
H = nondimensional Henry's Law constant
and:
s . iA . M04) . m
A (°-4)
where:
S = intermediate variable for Equation 2
6C = effective porosity of soil (unitless)
and:
_ D^(m2/sec)
1 + kS
= (4.2x10**) <41>
1 + (2.9x10^(1.5)
= 9.8xl0"13(m2/sec)
5-270
-------
where:
a; — intermediate variable (m2/sec)
Dei = intermediate variable (m2/sec)
* = intermediate variable (unitless)
S = intermediate variable (unitless)
These results are substituted into Equation 2 to estimate the mass of pollutant emitted in
the first year
2te(sec) 0e Dd(m2/sec) C,(kg/m3)
Na_ = ^ —
a,(m2/sec) te(sec)
= 2 (3.2xl07) (0.4) (4.2 xlO"6) (6.6xl0'7) (42)
v/(3.14) (9;7xl0-u) (3.2X107)
= 0.0072(kg/m2-yr)
where:
Na, = emissions from the soil sutface in first year (kg/m2*yr)
te = duration of emissions (sec)
6C = effective porosity of soil (unitless)
Dei = intermediate variable (m2/sec)
C, = vapor concentration of pollutant in air-filled pore space of treated soil
(kg/m3)
a; = intermediate variable (m2/sec)
The estimated loss rate (in kg/m2*yr) is next converted into a comparable first-order loss
coefficient (yr"1):
= -Jl. (0-0072))
{ (0.15) J
(43)
= 0.049(yr~l)
where:
K^oi = loss rate coefficient for volatilization (yr'1)
Nay = emissions from the soil surface in first year (kg/m2,yr)
d; = depth of incorporation for sewage sludge (m)
5-271
-------
Pollutant Loss to Leaching
Using the value for ft calculated in Equation 37, a rate coefficient for loss of PCBs to
leaching is calculated:
NR(m/yr)
[BDCkg/m3) KD(m3/kg)+0w +H 0,] d,(m)
(OS) W>
= [(1400)(15.1) + (0.2) + (0.014) (02)] (0.15)
= l.exlO^OT"1)
where:
= loss rate coefficient for leaching (yr"1)
NR = annual recharge to ground water beneath the SMA (m/yr)
BD = bulk density of soil in mixing zone (kg/m3)
KD = equilibrium partition coefficient for the pollutant (m3/kg)
6m = water-filled porosity of soil (unitless)
ft = nondimensional Heniy's Lpw constant (unitless)
0, = air-filled porosity of soil (unitless)
dj = depth of incorporation for sewage sludge (m)
Individual Loss Processes as Fraction of Total Loss
These three loss rate coefficients for PCBs (K^, K^,, K^) are combined with an
estimated loss coefficient for pollutant degradation (K^ in treated soil to yield a coefficient for
the total rate at which pollutant is lost from soil:
K** = K^Cyr"1) + ^(yr"1) + K^Cyi"1) + K^Cyr'1)
- (l.fixlO-4) + (0.049) + (0.004) + (0.063) (4S)
» O.^Ot"1)
where:
= total loss rate for the pollutant in treated soil (yr1)
Kjk = loss rate coefficient for leaching (yr1)
K^, = loss rate coefficient for volatilization (yr1)
Krro = loss rate coefficient for erosion (yr1)
5-272
-------
= loss rate coefficient for degradation (yf1)
~Hie*values for Rj^ K^,, and K,—are calculated above. Hie value for K*., is listed in
Table J-7 in Appendix J.
The ratio of each individual coefficient to the total then describes the fraction of
pollutant loss caused by each individual process:
0.0014
KfccO*"1) .
(1.6x10™*)
(0.12)
^(yr*1) _
(0.049) _
(0.12)
(0.004) _ (
^(yr"1)
(0.12)
K^Cyr-1)
(0.063) _ {
(0.12)
0.41
0.035
where:
f = 0.54
f^ = fraction of total loss caused by leaching (unitless)
loss rate coefficient for leaching (yr"1)
total loss rate for the pollutant in treated soil (yr1)
fraction of total loss caused by volatilization (unitless)
K- = loss rate coefficient for volatilization (yr1)
feiD = fraction of total loss caused by erosion (unitless)
K,ro = loss rate coefficient for erosion (yr1)
fdeg 5=5 fraction of total loss caused by degradation (unitless)
K*eg = loss rate coefficient for degradation (yr1)
(46)
5.2.12.6.2 Reference Application Rate for PCBs
For carcinogenic pollutants, the calculations for determining the reference application
rate begin by using the pollutant's potency for causing human cancer to calculate a reference
intake:
5-273
-------
RL
m a ;
-------
£i b P,W
P. TSS(mg/l) x 10"*(kg/mg)
= a)
(16) x 10"6
= 62,500 (unitiess)
(49)
where:
P, = percent liquid in the water column (unitiess, by mass)
P, = percent solids in the water column (unitiess, by mass)
pw = density of pure water (1 kg/1)
TSS = total suspended solids content of the stream (mg/1)
10"6 = conversion factor (kg) (mg)'1
The reference dry-weight concentration of pollutant in eroded soil (RC^) is derived:
'P, (unitiess) ^
RC . = RC^dng/l)
KD^Ocg/l) +
!)f_L
P, (unitiess) J ^pw(kg/l);
= (1.5 xlO"7) [(1,510) + (62,500) (l)]
= 9.4 x 10~3(mg/kg)
(50)
where:
RC,^ = reference concentration of pollutant for soil eroding into stream (rag/kg)
RCm = reference water concentration for surface water (mg/1)
KD„ = partitioning coefficient between solids and liquids in the stream (1/kg)
P, = percent liquid in the water column (unitiess, by mass)
Ps = percent solids in the water column (unitiess, by mass)
pw = density of pure water (1 kg/1)
The sediment delivery ratio for the SMA is calculated from an empirical relationship for
delivery of eroded soil from the SMA to the stream:
S^, = 0.77 IL^Gn)]"0^
= 0.77 (lO)-0^2 (51)
= 0.46 (unitiess)
5-275
-------
where:
= sediment deliveiy ratio for the SMA (unitless)
0.77 — empirical constant
L^. = distance between the SMA and the receiving water body (m)
0.22 = empirical constant
The sediment deliveiy ratio for the watershed is calculated:
S„ ' 0.87 [Aw(fa*)]-W25
= (0.87) (440,300)-*125
» 0.17 (unitless)
where:
= sediment delivery ratio for the watershed (unitless)
0.87 = empirical constant
Aw% = area of the watershed (ha)
0.225 = empirical constant
The dilution factor is calculated as:
Dp A—(ha) (unitless)
A (ha) S (unitless) + [A^flia) - A, (ha)] (unitless)
_ (1074) (0.46)
~ (1074) (0.46) + [(440,300) - (1074)] (0.17)
= 0.0066(unitless)
where:
DF = dilution factor (unitless)
A^ = area affected by sewage sludge management (ha)
= sediment delivery ratio for the SMA (unitless)
A„ = area of the watershed (ha)
S„ = sediment deliveiy ratio for the watershed (unitless)
A reference soil concentration for soil eroding from the SMA is calculated as:
5-276
-------
RC . RC~'(mg/kg)
"* DF(unitless)
(0.0066)
= 1.43 (mg/kg)
where:
RC., = reference pollutant concentration for soil eroding from the SMA (mg/kg)
RC,,,, = reference pollutant concentration for mil eroding into the stream (mg/kg)
DF = dilution factor (unitless)
Annual soil erosion from the site is calculated from the bulk density of treated soil, and
from the estimated average rate of loss of agricultural soil in the U.S:
ME^, - 10,000(m2/ha) d€(m/yt) BD(kg/m3)
- 10,000 (0.00060) (1,400) (5S)
*
= 8,400(kg/ha *yr)
where:
ME_ = estimated rate of soil loss to erosion for the SMA (kg/ha «yr)
10,000 = conversion factor (kg/m2) (kg/ha)"1
d, = depth of soil eroded from site each year (m/yr)
BD = bulk density of soil in mixing zone (kg/m3)
The final step of the calculation is to determine the reference application rate from the
reference concentration of pollutant in eroded soil, using the value for calculated in Section
5.2.12.5.1:
pj _ (mg/kg) ME^ (kg/ha-yr) lO^Ocg/mg)
f^dmitless)
- (1-43) (8,400) 10"6 « (56)
(0.033)
= 0.348(kg/ha*yr)
5-277
-------
where:
RP, = reference annual pollutant loading (kg/ha *yr)
RC^ = reference pollutant concentration for soil eroding from the SMA (rag/kg)
¦ ME_ - — estimated rate-of soil loss to-erosion from the SMA (kg/ha*yr)
10"® = conversion factor (kg) (rag)"1
ftto = fraction of total loss caused by erosion (unitless)
53.12.7 Sample Calculations for Arsenic
Calculations for arsenic follow the procedure outlined in Section 5.2.12.4.
5.2.12.7.1 Mass Balance
Mass balance calculations for arsenic begin by using parameter values from Table 52.12-2
to estimate loss coefficients for erosion and leaching. Arsenic is not lost to vaporization and
degradation.
Pollutant Loss to Erosion
The rate of pollutant loss to erosion is calculated as:
d.(mfyr)
dj(m)
0.00060(m/yr)
0.15(m)
(57)
0.0040(yr"1)
where:
K,ra =
de
dj
fraction of available pollutant lost to erosion each year (yr1)
depth of soil eroded from site each year (m/yr)
depth of incorporation for sewage sludge (m)
5-278
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Pollutant Loss To Leaching
A coefficient for the rate of loss to leaching is calculated as:
NR
where:
[ BDflcg/m3) KD(m3/kg) + 0W + H 0,] d,(m)
(03) <»)
[(1400) (0.02) + (0.2) + (0) (0.2)] (0.15)
0.118(yr_1)
= loss rate coefficient for leaching (yrl)
NR = annual recharge to ground water beneath the SMA (ra/yr)
BD = bulk density of soil in mixing zone (kg/ra3)
KD = equilibrium partition coefficient for the pollutant (m3/kg)
= water-filled porosity of soil (unitless)
H = nondimensional Heniy's Law constant for the pollutant
$m = air-filled porosity of soil (unitless)
dj = depth of incorporation for«sewage sludge soil (m)
Individual Loss Processes as Fraction of Total Loss
The sum of these two coefficients represents the total rate at which arsenic is lost from
treated soil:
K«* = + KTO(yr-1)
= (0.118) + (0.0040) (59>
= 0.122 (yr_1)
where:
K^, = total loss rate for the pollutant in treated soil (yr1)
— first-order loss rate through leaching (yr1)
= fraction of avaUable pollutant lost to erosion each year (yr*1)
The fraction of total loss attributable to each process is then:
5-279
-------
« 0»8(yr-*)
0,122
-------
ri BL
qT(kg'day/mg)
(IP"4)
(1.75)
5.7 x 10"5(mg/kg «day)
where:
RI = reference intake for carcinogen (mg/kg*day)
RL = risk level (risk of developing cancer per lifetime of exposure)
q,* — human cancer potency for arsenic (mg/kg-day)"'
A reference water concentration for arsenic in surface water is calculated as:
RCm -
RI(mg/kg«day) BW(kg)
BCF(l/kg) FM Pf ^ (kg/day) + 1,0/day)
(5.7x10 s) (70)
(350) (1) (1) (0.04) ~ (2)
2.5xl0~4(mg/l)
where:
RC„ = reference water concentration for surface water (mg/1)
RI = reference intake for carcinogen (mg/kg*day)
BW = body weight (kg)
BCF = pollutant-specific bioconcentration factor (1/kg)
FM = pollutant-specific food chain multiplier (unitless)
Pf = ratio of pollutant concentration in the edible portion of fish to
concentration in whole fish (unitless)
I( = daily consumption of fish (kg/day)
= daily consumption of water (1/day)
The partitioning of arsenic between dissolved and adsorbed phases in the stream
estimated as:
KDW - *[TSS(mg/l)]>
- (480,000) (16)(_0 72M)
- 63,668 (1/kg)
5-281
-------
where:
KDW = partition coefficient for pollutant In stream (m'/kg)
a, 0 = .pollutant-specific empirical constants
TSS = total suspended solids content of the stream (mg/l)
Hie reference dry-weight concentration of arsenic in eroded soil is:
RC^ = RCw(mg/l)
KD^a/kg) +
RKJ
aw
(ISxlO"4) [(63,668) + (62>300)(1)]
31.5 (mg/kg)
(65)
where:
RQ* =
reference concentration of pollutant for all soil eroding into stream
(mg/kg)
ii
reference water concentration for surface water (mg/l)
KD„ =
partition coefficient for pollutant in stream (ra3/kg)
P«
percent liquid in the water column (unitless, by mass)
P.
percent solids in the water column (unitless, by mass)
P* =
density of water (kg/1)
A reference soil concentration for soil eroding from the SMA is calculated as:
RC = RC«"(m8^8)
DF(unidess)
- C314)
~ (0.0066)
= 4.8xl03(mg/kg)
where:
RC_ = reference pollutant concentration for soil eroding from the SMA (mg/kg)
RC** = reference pollutant concentration for all soil entering the stream (mg/kg)
DF = dilution factor (unitless)
For the years in which sewage sludge is applied, arsenic is assumed to be loaded once per
year at an arbitrary rate of 1 kg/ha »yr, and lost at the rate of (K*,). The outcome of combined
loading and losses is calculated numerically as:
5-282
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* - ° ^ ^ (67)
M, - (M,-i • 1) (IstiN)
where:
M, = mass of pollutant in soil at end of year t (Kg/ha)
N = number of years in which sewage sludge is applied
Km = total loss rate for the pollutant in treated soil (yr1)
After 20 applications with an annual loss rate of about 12 percent, arsenic has reached a
concentration about seven times higher than its annual loading to soil. After the last application,
no further loading of pollutant to soil takes place, but pollutant continues to be depleted:
Mls = ^(kgflia) e~*- aa_,°
= 7.0 e~°m a°-2a>
= 0.016(kg/ha)
(68)
where:
= mass of pollutant at end of individual lifetime (kg/ha)
Mn = mass of pollutant after N applications (kg/ha)
Ku* = total loss rate for the pollutant in treated soil (yr"1)
LS = human life expectancy (assumed to be 70 years)
N = number of years in which sewage sludge is applied
The fraction of the total, cumulative loading lost in the human lifespan is independent of
the assumed application rate. It can be calculated as:
Mjls (kg/ha)
M. "" 1
h N(yr) 1 (kg/ha *yr)
-I - 0016 (69)
20x1
= 0.9992
where:
fk = fraction of total cumulative loading lost in human lifetime (unitless)
Mls = mass of pollutant at end of individual lifetime (kg/ha)
N = number of years in which sewage sludge is applied
1 = loading rate for arsenic (kg/ha «yr)
5-283
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The final step in the calculations is to derive the reference cumulative application rate of
arsenic to treated land using the value for Me,., calculated in Section 5.2.12.6.2:
^(mg/kg) MEM(kg/ha*yr) LS (yr) lO^Ocg/img)
RP, * _—_
« C4-8*10*) (8*400) (70) 1Q-* (70)
(0.033) (0.9992)
¦ 8.6x10* (kg/h*)
where:
RFe — ~ reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg/ha)
RC^. = reference pollutant concentration for soil eroding from the SMA (mg/kg)
MF^ = estimated rate of soil loss to erosion from the SMA (kg/ha »yr)
LS — human life expectancy (yr)
10"* = conversion factor (kg)(mg)_1
= fraction of total loss caused by erosion (unltless)
fk = fraction of total cumulative loading lost in human lifetime (unitless)
5-284
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5.2.13 Air Pathway
52.13.1 Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -* Soil Air -» Human
Pathway 13 evaluates the effects on humans of breathing pollutants that volatilize from
sewage sludge applied to the land.
53.133 Pollutants! Evaluated
All of the pollutants of concern were evaluated for this pathway. Table 5.2.13-1 lists the
pollutants evaluated for Pathway 13. Criteria for the air pathway are derived for organic
pollutants only. EPA concluded that the movement of metals through this pathway Is negligible,
because the metals do not volatilize at ambient air temperatures.
53.13.3 Highly Exposed Individual
The Highly Exposed Individual (HEI) for the air pathway is assumed to live at the
downwind boundary of the Sludge Management Area (SMA) and to breathe 20 m3/day of air
contaminated with volatile pollutants from sewage sludge.
53.13.4 Algorithm Development
This section describes the methodology used to derive the reference application rate of
pollutant for land application sites for the air pathway. Pathway 13 begins with the mass balance
calculations previously presented for Pathway 12 (see Section 5.2.12.4). The fraction of pollutant
lost through volatilization (f^,, ) is then used in calculating the reference application rate of
pollutant for the air pathway. Sample calculations are performed for PCBs.
5-285
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TABLE 5.2.13-1
. POLLUTANTS OF CONCERN FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 13
Organic?
Benzene
Benzo(a)pyrenc
Bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
Chlordane
DDT/DDD/DDE
lindane
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
Poly chlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
Toxaphene
Trichloroethylene
5-286
-------
For organic pollutants, the methodology is designed to derive a reference application rate
of pollutant such that sewage sludge can be applied indefinitely without exceeding reference
concentrations for water or air. It is based on die worst-case assumption that equilibrium may
eventually be readied between the annual loading of pollutant to a site and the total annual loss
through all competing loss processes. This equilibrium and accumulation of pollutant in soil are
discussed in Appendix G. Based on that predicted equilibrium and the partitioning of pollutant
among loss processes, the reference annual pollutant loading (kg/ha-yr) is calculated for the air
pathway.
5X13.4.1 Mass Balance
The ratio of the loss rate coefficient for volatilization to the total loss rate for the
pollution in treated soil describes the fraction of pollutant loss to volatilization:
U* - ^ ' (D
where:
f^, = fraction of total loss caused by volatilization (unitless)
K^, = loss rate coefficient for volatilization (yr1)
K*,t = total loss rate for the pollutant in treated soil (yr1)
5.2.13.4.2 Reference Application Rate of Pollutant
For each pollutant, a reference air concentration is first established based on the
pollutant's cancer potency:
RC-5r = RL*BW'1000 (2)
Vqi
where:
RClif = reference air concentration for pollutant (/ng/ra3)
RL = risk level (incremental risk of cancer per lifetime)
BW = body weight (kg)
5-287
-------
1000
I.
qr
conversion factor (rag) (pg)"1
inhalation volume (m5/day)
human cancer potency (mg/kg-day)"1
Hie next step is to relate releases of volatilized pollutant torn the site to the expected
concentration in ambient air. The model used to describe transport of pollutant from a land
application site is described by the U.S. EPA (1987e) and is based on equations described in
Environmental Science and Engineering (1985). A source-receptor ratio is calculated to relate
the concentration of pollutant in ambient air at the HETs location to the rate at which
pollutant is emitted from the treated soil (pg/m2«sec);
SRR « 2.032 — (3
(r' + X,) to o,
where:
SRR = source-receptor ratio (sec/m)
2.032 = empirical constant
A = area of SMA (m2)
v = vertical term (unitless)
r' = distance from the center of the site to the receptor (m)
Xy = lateral virtual distance (m)
co = wind speed (m/sec)
-------
The standard deviation of the vertical distribution of concentration (oj is defined by an
atmospheric stability class and the distance from the center of the site to the receptor. Based on
values for parameters a and b,listed for "stable* atmospheric conditionsinTable 5.2.13-2, axis
calculated as:
0X » a x*
where:
a
x
b
(5)
standard deviation of the vertical distribution of concentrations (m)
empirical constant
distance from center of SMA to the receptor (km)
empirical constant
and:
2
where:
x
A
lO*
(6)
distance from center of site to the receptor (km)
area of SMA (m2)
conversion factor (m)(km)"1
The source-receptor ratio is combined with the reference air concentration to calculate a
reference annual flux of pollutant:
RF.
RC^ 316
SRR
(7)
where:
RF,i, =
RC^ =
316 =
SRR =
reference annual flux of pollutant emitted from the site (kg/ha *yr)
reference air concentration for pollutant (^g/m3)
conversion factor (ng/m2»c) (kg/ha •yr)"1
source-receptor ratio (sec/m)
For organic pollutants, the site is assumed to be at equilibrium between annual loadings
and total annual losses. Annual releases of pollutant to volatilization are therefore predicted by
the product of f,ol and annual loadings. A reference application rate of pollutant is therefore
calculated from the reference flux as:
5-289
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TABLE 5X13-2
PARAMETERS USED TO CALCULATE o*
Pascal
Stability Category
Stable
x (km)
0.10 - 0.20
021 - 0.70
0.71 - 1.00
1.01 - 2.00
2.01 - 3.00
3.01 - 7.00
7.01 - 15.00
15.01 - 30.00
30.01 - 60.00
*
> 60.00
15.209
14.457
13.953
13.953
14.823
16.187
17.836
22.651
27.084
34.219
0.81558
0.78407
0.68465
0.63227
0.54503
0.46490
0.41507
0.32681
0.27436
0.21716
* Source: Environmental Science and Engineering, 1985. Hie standard deviation of the vertical
distribution of pollutant concentration in air, ox (m), is calculated as
-------
(8)
reference application rate of pollutant (kg/ha *yr)
reference annual flux of pollutant emitted from the site (kg/ha »yr)
fraction of total loss caused by volatilization (unitless)
5J..13S Output Values
Output values are presented in Table 5.2.13-3.
52.13.6 Sampk Calculations for PCBs
«
5.2.13.6.1 Mass Balance
Calculations for PCBs follow the procedure outlined in 5.2.13.4. Input values for
parameters used in the sample equations are found in Tables 5.2.13-4 and 5.2.13-5.
Calculations for PCBs begin with the mass balance equations that assign pollutant losses
to erosion, volatilisation, leaching (see Section 5.2.12.5.1), and degradation (see
Appendix J). The fraction of pollutant lost to the air pathway (f^,,) is expressed as :
-
_ (0.049) ^
" (0.012)
- 0.42
fraction of total loss caused by volatilization (unitless)
loss rate coefficient for volatilization
total loss rate for the pollutant in treated soil (yr1)
RP a =
where:
RP, -
RF^ —
t* =
where:
C/ol
Kvo,
Kto.
5-291
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TABLE 5.2.13-3
REFERENCE APPLICATION RATES FOR POLLUTANTS (RPs)
PATHWAY 13
Pollutant
1 wr 1
Benzene
160
Bcnzo(a)pyrene
3,500
Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
Unlimited
Chlordane
3.9
DDT/DDD/DDE
45
Lindane
110
n-Nitrosodiracthylaminc
22
PCBs
15
Toxaphene
120
Trlchioroethylene
420
*kg-polIutant/ha -year
Note: All RPs rounded down to two significant digits.
5-292
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TABLE 5.2.13-4
SITE PARAMETER VALUES USED IN SAMPLE EQUATIONS
Symbol
Value
a
13.953 (unitless)
A
1.1 x 107 m2
b
0.63227 (unitless)
r'
1,639 m
1 V
1 (unitless)
I u
4 J m/sec
I x
1.639 km
1 *
9,295 m
Note: Appendix J discusses these and other parameter values.
5-293
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TABLE 5.2.13-5
PARAMETER VALUES USED IN SAMPLE EQUATIONS FOR PCBs
Parameter
Value
BW
70 (kg)
1.
20 (m'/day)
qi*
7.7 (rag/kg* day)'1
RL
10-4
Note: Appendix J discussed these and other parameter values.
5-294
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5.2.13.62 Reference Application Rate for PCBs
To calculate the-reference application rate for- PCBs^ a reference-ai^concentration Is first
established, based on cancer potency:
RC - RL BWCkg) l,000(ng/mg)
I,{m5/day) q,' (kg« day/mg)
_ 10"4«70»1,000 (10)
20*7,7
= 0.045(jig/m3)
where:
RCtir = reference air concentration for pollutant (jig/l)
RL = risk level (incremental risk of cancer per lifetime)
BW = body weight (kg)
1,000 = conversion factor (jigXmg)"1
I, = inhalation volume (ras/day)
q,* = human cancer potency (mg/kg'day)"1
To relate this reference concentration to a rate of volatile emissions from treated land, a
source-receptor ratio is calculated from a vertical term, a lateral virtual distance, and the
standard deviation of the vertical distribution of concentrations. Hie vertical term (v) is a
function of source height, height of the mixing layer, and crz. Under stable conditions the height
of the mixing layer is assumed to be infinite; and for a pollutant release height of zero, v = 1.
The lateral virtual distance is the distance from a virtual point source to the SMA, such that the
angle 0 subtended by the SMA width is 22.5°. This distance is calculated as:
(11)
9,295 (m)
5-295
-------
where:
\ = lateral virtual distance (m)
A — area of SMA (m2)
6 = 225°
The standard deviation of the vertical distribution of concentration (oj is defined by an
atmospheric stability class and the distance from the center of the SMA to the receptor. Based
on values for the "stable" class in Table 5.2.13-2, the value of at is calculated as:
a, - 13.953 (1.639)°63337
« 19 (m)
where:
a =
b
and:
x(km) = V^AQn2) » 10~3(m/lan)
_y/l.lxl07 • IP'3 ^
2
» 1.639(km)
where:
x = distance from the center of the SMA to the receptor (km)
A = area of SMA (m2)
10*5 = conversion factor (m) (km)"1
Using these results, a source-receptor ratio is calculated to relate the concentration of
pollutant in ambient air at the HEI's location (jtg/m3) to the rate at which that pollutant is
emitted from the treated soil (/tg/m2*sec):
standard deviation of the vertical distribution of concentrations (m)
empirical constant
empirical constant
5-296
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SRR - 2.032 A(m2) ^
[r'(m) + Xy(m)] «(m/sec) ax(m)
2032 (llxl07)g) (14)
[(1,639) +(9,295)] (4.5) (19)
= 23(sec/m)
where:
SRR = source-receptor ratio (sec/ra)
2.032 = empirical constant
A =» area of SMA (ra2)
v = vertical term (unitless)
r' = distance from the center of the site to the receptor (m)
Xy = lateral virtual distance (m)
co = wind speed (ra/sec)
as = standard deviation of the vertical distribution of concentrations (m)
The source-receptor ratio is combined with the reference air concentration to calculate a
*
reference annual flux of pollutant:
RF_,
RC.fr (ug/m3) 316
SRR (sec/m)
(0.045) 316 (15)
(23)
0.61 (kg/ha* yr)
where:
RF^ = reference annual flux of pollutant emitted from the site (kg/ha*yr)
RC^ = reference air concentration for pollutant Oxg/m3)
316 = conversion factor (fig/m2*sec) (kg/ha^yr)"1
SRR = source-receptor ratio (sec/m)
A reference application rate for PCBs is then calculated from the reference flux as:
5-297
-------
rp -
, (061) <">
(0.41)
= L5(kg/h**yr)
RP, = reference application rate of pollutant (kg/ha*yr)
RF^ = reference annual flux of pollutant emitted from the ate (kg/ha*yr)
fV0j = fraction of total loss caused by volatilization (unitless)
5-298
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5.2.14 Ground Water Pathway
52J4J Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -» Soil -» Ground Water — Human
Pathway 14 evaluates the effects of sewage sludge application to the land, the leaching of
pollutants from soil into ground water, and the subsequent drinking of contaminated well water
by humans.
52.142 Pollutants Evaluated
All of the pollutants of concern were evaluated for Pathway 14; they are listed in
Table 5.2.14-1.
*
52.14.3 Highly Exposed Individual
The Highly Exposed Individual (HEI) for the ground water pathway is a human drinking
water from wells contaminated with pollutants leaching to ground water from sewage sludge-
amended soil.
52J4.4 Algorithm Development
This section describes the methodology used to derive criteria for land application sites
for the ground water pathway. While the criteria are derived separately for exposure through the
pathways for surface water, air, and ground water, the calculations have been integrated so that
pollutant mass is conserved. Pathway 14 begins with a summary of the mass balance calculations
that partition pollutant loss from the SMA through soil erosion, volatilization, leaching, and
degradation. The results of these calculations are then used in calculating the reference
5-299
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TABLE 5.2.14-1
POLLUTANTS EVALUATED FOR AGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 14
Inoiganics
Organics
Arsenic
Benzene
Cadmium
Bcnzo(a)pyrene
Chromium
Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
Copper
Chlordane
Lead
DOT/DDD/DDE
Mercuiy
Lindane
Nickel
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
«
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Toxaphene
Trichloroethylene I
5-300
-------
application rate based on leaching and subsequent contamination of ground water. Sample
calculations are performed using PCBs as a representative organic pollutant and arsenic as a
representative metal.
For organic pollutants, the methodology is designed to derive application rates such that
sewage sludge can be applied indefinitely without exceeding reference concentrations in water or
air. It is based on the worst-case assumption that equilibrium may eventually be readied
between the annual loading of pollutant to a site and the total annual loss of pollutant through
all competing loss processes. This equilibrium and accumulation of pollutant in soil are
discussed in Appendix G. Based on that predicted equilibrium and the partitioning of pollutant
among loss processes, the reference application rate (kg/ha *yr) is calculated for the ground water
pathway.
For metals, equilibrium is not necessarily achieved and criteria are expressed as
cumulative loadings (kg/ha). The concentration, of metals in sofl on the site is expected to
increase with repeated applications, until the practice of land application is discontinued when
metal concentrations reach maximum allowable levels.
Reference application rates for the ground water pathway are based on the highest
concentrations of pollutant expected at the well within 300 years from the date of the first
application of sewage sludge.
For both metals and organic pollutants, the approach to deriving criteria consists of four
steps:
• Prepare a mass balance of pollutant loss, i.e., calculate the relative rates at which
pollutant is removed from the site by each of four competing loss processes
(erosion, leaching, volatilization, and degradation).
• Determine the reference concentration of pollutant in the ground water.
• Determine the pollutant concentration in ground water at the well location
resulting from a unit loading (kg/ha) of sewage sludge at the site.
5-301
-------
Derive reference application rates by dividing the reference concentration in
ground water by the concentration predicted per unit loading or sewage sludge
concentration.
5.2.14.4.1 Mass Balance
Calculations for the ground water pathway begin with the mass balance equations that
assign pollutant losses to erosion, volatilization, leaching (see Section 5.2.12.4.1), and degradation
(see Appendix J). Leaching is the process through which pollutants move into die ground water
from sewage sludge applied to land. The fraction of pollutant lost to leaching (4,) is expressed
as the ratio of the loss rate coefficient for leaching to the total loss rate for the pollutant in
treated soil:
(1)
«
where:
f^. = fraction of total loss caused by leaching (unitless)
Kj,,,. = loss rate coefficient for leaching (yr1)
K*,, = total loss rate for the pollutant in treated soil (yr1)
52.14.4i Calculating the Reference Application Rate
Calculations of the reference application rate for this pathway begin with the derivation
of a reference ground water concentration (RC^). For carcinogens, RC^ is calculated as:
RCpr - (2)
where:
RC^ = reference water concentration (mg/I)
RL = risk level (incremental risk of cancer per lifetime, unitless)
BW = body weight (kg)
q," = human cancer potency (mg/kg-day)"1
C - daily consumption of water (1/day)
5-302
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For metals, the reference concentration is based on the maximum contaminant level
(MCL) for the pollutant adjusted for an assumed background concentration in well water:
RCj.-MCL-q (3)
where:
RCj, = reference water concentration (mg/1)
MCL = maximum contaminant level in drinking water, established by the U.S.
EPA (mg/1)
C,, = background concentration of the pollutant in well water (mg/1)
For organic pollutants, reference application rates are calculated so that sewage sludge
can be applied indefinitely without exceeding reference concentrations. Hie modeling of ground
water contamination is therefore based on an annual loading of pollutant that is sustained for die
entire 300 years of the simulation. For metals, sewage sludge is assumed to be applied for 20
years, followed by an inactive period in which pollutant is depleted from the treated soil. To
simulate potential contamination of ground water for metals, the loading of pollutant into the
unsaturated zone is linearized into a pulse of constant magnitude to represent the maximum
annual loss of pollutant (kg/ha »yr) occurring over the 300-year simulation period modeled. The
duration of that pulse is calculated so that pollutant mass Is conserved. For land application
sites, the rate of maximum loss will occur in the year immediately following the last application
of sewage sludge, since the concentration of pollutant at the site readies its peak at that time.
As explained in Appendix G, this peak rate could be maintained for a maximum length of time
described by:
_ N
w <«>
1
where:
TP = length of square wave in which maximum total loss rate of pollutant
(kg/ha *yr) depletes total mass of pollutant applied to site (yr)
N = number of consecutive years in which sewage sludge is applied to site (yr)
Kto, = total loss rate for the pollutant in treated soil (yr1)
Hie next step is to relate the concentration of pollutant in well water to the concentration
in leachate from the land application site. Two mathematical models are combined to calculate
5-303
-------
an expected ratio between these two concentrations. The Vadose Zone Flow and Transport
finite element module (VADOFT) from the RUSTIC model (U.S. EPA, 1989c,e) is used to
estimate flow and transport through the unsaturated zone, and the AT123D analytical model
(Yeh, 1981) is used to estimate pollutant transport through the saturated zone.
VADOFT allows consideration of multiple soil layers, each with homogeneous soil
characteristics. Within the unsaturated zone, the attenuation of organic pollutants is predicted
based on longitudinal dispersion, an estimated retardation coefficient derived from an
equilibrium partition coefficient, and a first-order rate of pollutant degradation. The model
executes in two steps: results from the unsaturated zone flow and transport module are passed as
input to the saturated zone module. The input requirements for the unsaturated zone module
include various site-specific and geologic parameters and the rate of ground water recharge in
the area of the site. It is assumed that the flux of pollutant mass into die top of the unsaturated
zone beneath a land application site can be represented by results from the mass-balance
calculations described above. Results from analysis of the unsaturated zone give the flow velocity
#
and concentration profiles for each pollutant of interest These velocities and concentrations are
evaluated at the water table, converted to a mass flux, and used as input to the saturated zone
module.
Hie flow system in the vertical column is solved with VADOFT, which is based on an
overlapping representation of the unsaturated and saturated zones. The water flux at the
soil/liquid interface is specified for the bottom of the impoundment, which defines the top of the
unsaturated zone in the model. In addition, a constant pressure-head boundary condition is
specified for the bottom of the unsaturated zone beneath the lagoon. This pressure-head is
chosen to be consistent with the expected pressure-head at the bottom of the saturated zone.
Transport in the unsaturated zone is determined using the Darcy velocity (v4) and saturation
profiles from the flow simulation. From these, the transport velocity profile can be determined.
Although limited to one-dimensional flow and transport, the use of a rigorous finite-
element model in the unsaturated zone allows consideration of depth-variant physical and
chemical processes that would influence the mass flux entering the saturated zone. Among the-
more important of these processes are advection (which is a function of the Darcy velocity,
5-304
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saturation, and porosity), mass dispersion, adsorption of the ieachate onto the solid phase, and
both chemical and biological degradation.
To represent a variably saturated soil column, the model divides the column into a finite-
element grid consisting of a series of one-dimensional elements connected at nodal points.
Elements can be assigned different properties for the simulation of flow in a heterogenous
system. The model generates the grid from user-defined zones; the user defines the
homogeneous properties of each zone, the zone thickness and the number of elements per zone,
and the code automatically divides each zone into a series of elements of equal length. The
governing equation is approximated using the Galerkin finite element method, and then it is
solved iteratively for the dependent variable (pressure-head), subject to the chosen Initial and
boundary conditions. Solution of the series of nonlinear simultaneous equations generated by
the Galerkin scheme is accomplished by either Picard iteration, a Newton-Raphson algorithm, or
a modified Newton-Raphson algorithm. Once the finite element calculation converges, the
model yields estimated values for all the variables at each of the discrete nodal points. A
detailed description of the solution scheme is found in U.S. EPA (19S9e).
For the present application, the simulation is based on the estimated mass flux of
pollutant into the top of the soil column, and a zero concentration boundary condition at the
bottom of the saturated zone. Sewage sludge is assumed to be applied for 20 consecutive years,
followed by an inactive period in which pollutant is depleted from the land by leaching,
volatilization, erosion, and degradation. To simulate potential contamination of ground water,
the loading of pollutant into the unsaturated zone beneath the application site is "linearized" into
a pulse of constant magnitude (TP) to represent the maximum annual loss of pollutant
(kg/ha »yr) occurring over the 300-year simulation period modeled. The duration of that pulse is
calculated so that pollutant mass is conserved.
This result is used to prepare inputs for VADOFT, which predicts the concentration of
pollutant at the water table. The mass flux of pollutant into the saturated zone is evaluated at
the water table based on the derived concentration distribution and the Darcy velocity. The
resulting mass flux from the VADOFT simulation is used as input for the AT123D model, which
simulates pollutant transport through the aquifer. It is represented as a mass flux boundary
5-305
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condition applied over a rectangular area representative of the land application site. The
transient nature of the lux is represented by time-dependent levels interpolated from the results
generated by the VADOFT simulation of the unsaturated zone.
AT123D estimates the transport of pollutant through the saturated soil zone. As in
calculations for the unsaturated zone, degradation of organic pollutants is assumed to be first-
order during transport through the aquifer. Speciation and complexation reactions are ignored
for metals, leading to the possible over- or underestimation of expected concentrations of metals
in ground water at the location of a receptor well. Detailed descriptions of the AT123D model
are provided by U.S. EPA (1986e) and by Yeh (1981) and will not be repeated here. In general,
the model provides an analytical solution to the basic advective-dispersive transport equation.
One advantage of AT123D is its flexibility: the model allows the user up to 450 options and is
capable of simulating a wide variety of configurations of source release and boundary conditions.
For the current application, AT123D uses the source term and other input parameters to predict
maximum concentrations of pollutant within 300 years in a receptor well at the downgradient
edge of the site. The ratio of the concentration in well water to the concentration in leachate is
defined as:
(5)
ratio of predicted concentration of pollutant in well to concentration in
leachate (unitless)
predicted concentration of the pollutant in well (mg/1)
unit concentration of the pollutant in leachate (mg/1)
Because calculations in both the VADOFT and AT123D components of the ground
water pathway model are linear with respect to pollutant concentration in leachate beneath the
site, this ratio can be used to back-calculate a reference concentration of pollutant in this
leachate:
RC^ - («)
c.
f-'€
where:
U = "
18
=
5-306
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where:
RQk = reference concentration of pollutant in leachate beneath the land
~ application site (mg/1)
RCp, = reference water concentration (rag/1)
f^, as ratio of predicted concentration of pollutant in well to concentration in
leachate (unitless)
Multiplying this reference concentration (mg/1) by the assumed fluid flux (net recharge in
ra/yr) and adjusting units yields the reference flux of pollutant mass from the site:
RFp, - lORC^NR (7)
where:
RF^, = reference annual flux of pollutant beneath the site (kg/ha *yr)
10 = conversion factor ([rag*ra]/I) (kg/ha)"1
RC^e = reference concentration of pollutant in leachate beneath the land
application site (mg/1)
NR = annual recharge to ground water beneath the SMA (m/yr)
This reference flux must be related to the annual or cumulative loading of pollutant to
the soil. At steady state, the annual loading of an organic pollutant will equal combined annual
losses through leaching, volatilization, erosion, and degradation. The fraction lost to leaching
(4J was determined in the mass balance calculation described above. A reference annual
application rate of pollutant can be derived by applying this ratio in reverse:
RF
RP, = -=-*= (8)
'lac
where:
RP, = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha • yr)
RFp, = reference annual flux of pollutant beneath the site (kg/ha *yr)
= fraction of total loss caused by leaching (unitless)
For metals, application of sewage sludge is assumed to end after 20 years. With repeat
applications, concentrations of the metal increase at the site as the metal accumulates In treated
soil. After the last application, concentrations decline exponentially as a result of leaching and
soil erosion. The reference cumulative application rate of pollutant is derived by first calculating
5-307
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a total reference mass of pollutant loaded into the unsaturated zone, and dividing by the fraction
. of.toial4X)llutanlloaxiinglostioleachmg:
RFTP _
RPC - —«— (9)
where:
RPe = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RF,,, = reference annual flux of pollutant beneath the site (kg/ha *yr)
IP - length of square wave in which maximum total loss rate of pollutant
(kg/ha »yr) depletes total mass of pollutant applied to site (yr) -
fte ~ = fraction of total loss caused by ieadiing (unitless)
5J2J.4S Output Valuts
Output values are presented in Table 5.2.14-2.
SJ.J4.6 Sample Calculations for PCBs
Calculations for PCBs follow the procedure outlined in Section 5.2.12.4. Input values for
parameters used in the sample equations are found in Table 5.2.14-3.
5X14.6.1 Mass Balance
Calculations for PCBs begin with the mass balance equations that assign pollutant losses
to erosion, volatilization, leaching, and degradation (see Section 5.2.12.5.1). The fraction of
polliitant lost to leaching (f^) is expressed as the ratio of the rate loss coefficient for leaching to
the total:
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TABLE 5.2.14-2
REFERENCE APPLICATION RATES FOR POLLUTANTS (RPs)
PATHWAY 14
| Pollutant
RP 1
Arsenic
1,200~
Benzene
Unlimited
Benzo(a)pyrene
Unlimited
Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthaiate
Unlimited J
Cadmium
Unlimited
Chlordane
Unlimited
Chromium
12,000**
Copper
Unlimited
DDT/DDD/DDE
Unlimited
Lead
Unlimited |
Lindane
Unlimited
Mercury
Unlimited
Nickel
13,000**
n-Nitrosodiraethylamine
0-56^ 8
PCBs
Unlimited |
Toxaphene
Unlimited |
Trichloroethylene
Unlimited |
"kg-pollutant/ha
bkg-pollutantyha "year
Hounded down to two significant digits
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TABLE 5.2.14-3
INPUT. PARAMETER VALUES USED IN SAMPLE .EQUATIONS
1
PCBs
Arsenic
Units
BW
70
70
kg
Q
NA
0.0032
rag/1
fI
Hie
1
1
mg/I
cui
2.0 x 10"
0.0041
mg/1
i.
2
2
1/day
RL
io-»
NA
unitless |
qr
7.7
1.75
(mg/kg-day)"1
MCL
NA
0.05
mg/1
NR
05
0J
m#r
TP
NA
22
yr
Note: Appendix J discusses these and other parameter values.
5-310
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. ,1^01-')
^
- 0-6x10"*) (10)
(0.12)
= 0.0013
where:
fte = fraction of total loss caused by leaching (unitless)
Kfae = loss rate coefficient for leaching (yr1)
K*, = total loss rate for the pollutant in treated soil (yr1)
5.2.14.6.2 Reference Application Rate for PCBs
A reference ground water concentration for PCBs is calculated as:
rc dm* rlbwosL
" day/mg)I„(Vday)
(lO^qp)
(7-7) (2)
4.5xlO^(mgA)
where:
RC^ = reference water concentration (mg/1)
RL = risk level (incremental risk of cancer per lifetime, unitless)
BW = body weight (kg)
q,* = human cancer potency for PCBs (mg/kg'day)"1
£ = rate of water ingestion (1/day)
With input parameter values discussed in Section 52.14.42 and in Appendix G, the
VADOFT and AT123D components of the ground water pathway model predict the maximum
concentration in ground water at the downgradient edge of the site within 300 years (based on a
unit concentration of 1 mg/1 in leachate). Hie ratio of these two concentrations is:
5-311
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f =
C^mg/i)
(2.0x10'") (12)
(1)
2.0x10""
where;
- ratio of predicted concentration in well to concentration in leachate
(unitless)
CU = predicted concentration of the pollutant in well (rag/1)
= unit concentration of the pollutant in leachate (mg/1)
This ratio is used to back-calculate a reference concentration of pollutant in leachate.
Because the ratio is extremely low for PCBs, the reference concentration for leachate is higher
than physically possible:
RC_(mg/l)
RCs*c~
m (4,5x10-*) <13>
02.0x10"")
- 2.3xl07(mg/l)
where:
RC^ - reference concentration of pollutant in leachate from the land application
site (mg/1)
RCy, = reference water concentration (mg/1)
4* = ratio of predicted concentration in well to concentration in leachate
(unitless)
Multiplying this reference concentration (mg/1) by the known fluid flux (net recharge
mfyr), and adjusting units, yields the reference flux of pollutant mass from the site:
RF^ - RC^(mg/l) NR(2n/yr)-10
- (2.3 xlO7) (OS) 10 (14)
» 1.2xl0,(kg/ha«yr)
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where:
RF^ = reference annual flux of pollutant beneath the site (kg/ha *yr)
• Re,,,. = reference concentration of pollutant in leachate beneath the land
application site (mg/1)
NR = annual recharge to ground water beneath the SMA (m/yr)
10 = conversion factor [(mg*m)/J] (kg/ha)1
A reference annual application rate of the pollutant is derived by adjusting this flux for
the fraction of pollutant lost to leaching:
RF_ (kg/ha* yr)
RP. = — —
= COxltf8) (15)
(0.0014)
= 8.5xl0l0(kg/lufyr)
where:
RP, = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha • yr)
RF^ = reference annual flux of pollutant beneath the site (kg/ha »yr)
= fraction of total loss caused by leaching (unitless)
It is dear from this result that no conceivable application rate or concentration of PCBs
in sewage sludge would be expected to result in concentrations of PCBs in well water above the
reference water concentration.
53.14.7 Sample Calculations for Arsenic
Calculations for arsenic follow the procedure outlined in Section 5.2.12.4.
5.2.14.7.1 Mass Balance
Calculations for arsenic begin with the mass balance equations that assign pollutant losses
to erosion and leaching (see Section 5.2.12.6.1). The fraction of pollutant lost to leaching (4*) is
5-313
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expressed as the ratio of the rate loss coefficient for leaching, to the total loss rate for the
pollutant in treated soil:
f -5=
m 0.12(yr'1) (16)
0.124 (yr-1)
- 0.97
where:
= fraction of total loss caused by leaching (unitless)
Kwc = loss rate coefficient for leaching (yr*1)
Km - total loss rate for the pollutant in treated soil (yr1)
5.2.14.7.2 Reference Application Rate for Arsenic
For input parameters for this section, see Table 5.2.14-3. The reference water
concentration for arsenic is derived by subtracting an average background concentration from the
maximum contaminant level:
RCp, = MCL(mg/D-Cb(mg/l)
= 0.05-0.0032 <17>
= 0.047 (mg/1)
= reference water concentration (mg/1)
= maximum contaminant level in drinking water, established by the U.S.
EPA (mg/1)
= background concentration of the pollutant in well water (mg/1)
The VADOFT and AT123D components of the model predict the maximum
concentration in ground water at the downgradient edge of the site within 300 years (based on a
unit concentration of 1 mg/1 in leachate). The ratio of these two concentrations is:
where:
RC„
MCL
Cfc
5-314
-------
C^(mg/1)
*B| C^Ong/l)
(0,0041)
(1)
» 0.0041
where:
^ = ratio of predicted concentration in well to concentration in leachate
(unitless)
C^, = predicted concentration of the pollutant in well (mg/1)
= unit concentration of the pollutant in leachate (mg/1)
This ratio is used to back-calculate a reference concentration of pollutant in leachate:
Ec _ RC„(mg/l)
f ¦
wd>
- (0 047) * W
~ (0.0041)
= 11.44 (mg/1)
where:
RCfe = reference concentration of pollutant in leachate beneath the land
application site (rag/1)
RCm = reference water concentration (mg/1)
= ratio of predicted concentration in well to concentration in leachate
(unitless)
Multiplying this reference concentration by the known fluid flux, and adjusting units,
yields the reference flux of pollutant mass from the site:
RF^ « RCk)C(mg/l) NR(m/yr) -10
- (11.44) (OS) 10 C20)
= 57.2(kg/ha»yr)
where:
RF^ ss reference annual flux of pollutant beneath the site (kg/ha «yr)
RC^ = reference concentration of pollutant in leachate beneath the land
application site (mg/1)
5-315
-------
NR =
10
annual recharge to ground water beneath the SMA (m/yr)
conversion factor [(mg*m)/I] (kg/ha)'1
A reference cumulative application rate of the pollutant is derived by adjusting this flux
for the fraction of pollutant lost to leaching and the duration of the square wave (see Appendix
G for the calculations of TP for arsenic):
RFgv(kg/ha* yt) TP(yr)
M (57.2) (21.9) (21)
(0.97)
= 1.295(kg/ha)
where:
RPC — reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RFp, = reference annual flux of pollutant beneath the site (kg/ha*yr)
TP = length of square wave in which maximum total loss rate of pollutant
(kg/ha *yr) depletes tqtal mass of pollutant applied to site (yr)
fi,,. = fraction of total loss caused by leaching (unitless)
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S3 APPLICATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE ON NONAGRICULTURAL LAND
Applicationofsewage sludge-on nonagriculturaUand is.defined as.the-use ofsewage
sludge on land that is not ordinarily used for raising edible crops. Hie types of practices within
this category include forest applications, both remote and suburban, where periodic grazing may
occur; soil reclamation, both remote torn and near to human habitation; and public contact sites,
including paries, picnic areas, golf courses, cemeteries, highway median strips, and urban
landscaping.
Three categories were chosen for defining different practices that encompass application
to nonagricultural land: forest land, soil reclamation sites, and public contact sites. These are
described below.
%
Forest Land
*
Sewage sludge is applied as a fertilizer, then reapplied in future years as needed based on
nitrogen requirements. Sewage sludge is sprayed onto forest land (either over or under the
canopy) and not tilled into the soil. (This does not preclude incorporation or injection, but the
model assumes surface application, the most conservative method.) Sites are accessible to the
public (including children) in accordance with restrictions on public access based on die-off of
pathogens. If the applier intends to meet Class A pathogen requirements, there are no
restrictions on public access.
Crops that are ingested by humans or animals are not purposely grown on forest land.
However, edible wild plants and mushrooms can be consumed by humans, and domestic animals
may graze on forest land. Also, wild animals live on forest lands, and hunting is permitted in
accordance with state regulations.
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Soil Reclamation
Wastewater sludge is added to disturbed lands in a single application (or in multiple
applications over a short period of time) for purposes of building topsoil and providing fertilizer
to enhance ground cover. Application rates are not limited by the site's ability to assimilate
nitrogen. Sewage sludge is applied by depositing and spreading, with or without disking;
spraying, with or without disking; or injecting beneath the subsurface. Soil reclamation areas are
available for public access (including access by children) in accordance with restrictions on public
access based on die-off of pathogens.
No food crops directly ingested by humans are cultivated on soil reclamation areas. As
with forest land, edible wild plants can be consumed by humans, and domestic animals may graze
on soil reclamation land. The number of mushrooms would be limited by the small amount of
carbon sources in a soil reclamation site. Because ground cover is usually a grass, it is
reasonable to allow feed crops for domestic animals to be grown on reclamation areas. Hunting
is also permitted, as on forest sites.
Public Contact Sites
Wastewater sludge is applied in single or multiple year applications to enrich and fertilize
the soil on sites such as golf courses, paries, picnic areas, campuses, playgrounds, cemeteries, and
highway medians. Sewage sludge is applied by depositing and spreading, with or without disking;
spraying, with or without disking; or injecting beneath the subsurface. Ground cover varies with
type of site, but includes grasses, shrubs, a few trees, and flowers.
Edible wild plants, such as mushrooms, can also grow on these sites. The number of
mushrooms would be limited by the small amount of carbon sources in public contact sites.
Public contact sites to which sewage sludge is applied are typically smaller than reclamation sites;
the small size limits the number of animals that are exposed, and hunting on most public contact
sites is prohibited because the public uses them.
The pathways assessed are summarized in Table 53-1.
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TABLE 5.3-1
ENVIRONMENTAL PATHWAYS OF CONCERN
IDENTIFIED FOR APPLICATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE TO NONAGRICULTURAL LAND"
S'"' —————
Pathway
Description of HEI
1. Sewage Sludge -* Soil -* Plant -+
Human
A person who regularly harvests wild plants from
forest land, soil reclamation areas, and public contact
sites amended with sewage sludge.
3. Sewage Sludge -* Human
Child who plays unattended in sewage sludge applied
to forest land or soil reclamation sites, and who
ingests sewage sludge daily for 2 years.
3. Sewage Sludge -* Human
Child who plays unattended in sewage sludge applied
to public contact sites, and who ingests sewage sludge
daily for 5 years.
I 4. Sewage Sludge -* Soil -* Plant -~
1 Animal -*• Human
A hunter of herbivores that live in forests or on soil
reclamation sites. The hunter preserves meat for
consumption throughout the year.
I 5. Sewage Sludge -* Animal -*
| Human
Consumer of domestic animals that ingest sewage
sludge in sewage sludge-amended forests and soil
reclamation sites.
6. Sewage Sludge -* Soil -» Plant -•
Animal
Asmall herbivore that lives its entire life in a sewage
sludge-amended area feeding on seeds and small
plants dose to the sewage sludge-soil layer in the
forest and in public contact sites. Domestic animals
that graze the grasses growing on sewage sludge-
amended soil reclamation sites.
7. Sewage Sludge -* Animal
Domestic animals that ingest sewage sludge applied to
forest and soil reclamation sites.
8. Sewage Sludge -* Soil -* Plant
Plants grown in sewage sludge-amended soil in forests
and public contact sites.
9. Sewage Sludge -* Soil -* Soil
. Organisms
Soil organisms living in sewage sludge-amended soil in
forests, soil reclamation sites, and public contact sites.
10. Sewage Sludge -» Soil -* Soil
Organism -* Soil Organism
Predator
Animals eating soil organisms that live in sewage
sludge-amended soil in forests, soil reclamation sites,
and public contact sites.
12. Sewage Sludge -» Soil -* Surface
| Water -» Human
Water Quality Criteria for the receiving water for a
person who eats 0.04 kg/day of fish and drinks 2 liters
water/day.
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TABLE 5.3-1 (cont)
Pathway
Description of HEI
13. Sewage Sludge -» Soil -» Air -~
Human
Human breathing volatile pollutants from sewage
sludge.
14. Sewage Sludge -~ Soil -~ Ground
Water -» Human
Human drinking water from wells contaminated with
pollutants leaching from sewage sludge-amended soil
to ground water.
'Note: Pathway 2 (home gardener) was excluded for nonagricultural land, as was Pathway 11
(tractor operator).
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5.3.1 Nonagricultural Pathway 1 (Hnnaaii Toxicity From Plant Consumption)
5.3J.1 Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -» Soil -» Phot Human
This pathway is important wherever humans can consume wild plants grown in forests, on
reclaimed lands, or on public contact sites that haw been amended with sewage sludge. Food
crops from this pathway that are directly ingested by humans grow wild, or the crops are grown
specifically to harvest for feed for animals. An individual might harvest wild plants (berries or
mushrooms) from forest land, reclaimed land, or public contact sites amended with sewage
sludge. Sites are available for public access in accordance with restrictions on public access
based on because of die-off of pathogens.
f
5JJJ Pollutants Evaluated
Table 53.1-1 lists the organic and inorganic compounds assessed for forest land, soil
reclamation sites, and public contact sites.
5.3.13 Highly Exposed Individual
Forest Land
It is assumed that the major plants consumed from a forest will be berries and
mushrooms. When sewage sludge is applied to forest land, the Highly Exposed Individual (HE!)
is a person who regularly harvests edible wild berries and mushrooms from forest land amended
with sewage sludge. This food is preserved by drying, freezing, or canning and is available for
consumption throughout the year. It is assumed that the HQ continues this practice for 70 years
on a site that has reached the cumulative loading limit.
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TABLE 5.3.1-1
POLLUTANTS EVALUATED FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 1
Inorganics
Organic*
Arsenic
Aldrin/Dicldrin
Cadmium
Benzo(a)pyrene
Mercury
Chlordanc
Nickel
DDT/DDE/DDD
Selenium
Heptachlor
Zinc
Hexachlorobenzene
Hexachlorobutadiene
lindane
n-Mtrosodimethylamine
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
Toxaphcne
Trichlorocthylene
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Reclamation Sites
Assuming there is public access to a soil reclamation site, the HEI is a person who
harvests edible wild berries and mushrooms on a regular basis. The quantities of berries
consumed from these sites are the same as from forest land. Mushroom consumption is not
expected to significantly increase exposure, because the low productivity of mushrooms in this
type of site is expected to be low, so mushroom consumption was not included.
Public Contact Sites
The HEI for public contact sites is the same as that for soil reclamation sites. Although
the size of the treated area is generally smaller, some berries are usually available on these sites.
Again, relatively low production of mushrooms is expected.
53J.4 Algorithm Development
5.3.1.4.1 Inorganics
Equations
The RIA for inorganics is derived as follows:
RIA. - - raij • (1)
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutants in human beings (jig-pollutant/day)
RfD = oral reference dose (nig/kg"day)
BW « human body weight (kg)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of
exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
103 = conversion factor (pgfmg)
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Then, RPC is calculated from:
* Ecuq-DC^PCj) (2)
where:
RP« = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans Qig-pollutant/day)
UC, = uptake response slope of pollutants In plant tissue for the food group
i (/xg-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)(kg-poIlutant DW/ha)"1
DC, = daily dietary consumption of the food group i (g-diet DW/day)
FQ = fraction of food group i produced on sewage sludge-amended soil
(unitless)
Input Parameters
Adjusted Reference Intake, RIA. The values used to calculate RIAs are designed to
protect the sensitive members of the population. The definition and derivation of each of the
parameters used to estimate RIA for threshold-acting toxicants are further discussed in the
following sections.
Oral Reference Dose, RID. The same RfDs were used in this pathway as in Agricultural
Pathway 1 (see Table 53.1-3). Inorganics were assessed as threshold-acting chemicals, and the
RfDs were taken from IRIS (U.S. EPA, 1992h). The recommended dietary allowance (RDA)
was used for zinc instead of the ROD, because the RfD did not meet the RDA, which is required
to maintain health. (For a more detailed discussion, see Section 5.2.1.4.1.2.2 in Agricultural
Pathway 1).
Huoua Body Weight, BW. An adult body weight of 70 kg was used, as explained in
Section 5.2.1.4.1.23 in Agricultural Pathway 1.
Relative Effectiveness of Ingestion Exposure, RE. As stated previously, an RE factor
should be applied only where well-documented/referenced information is available on the
5-324
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contaminant's observed relative effectiveness. Since this information was not available for any of
the carcinogens, RE was set equal to 1.
Total Background Intake Rate of Pollutant from All Other Sources of Exposure, TBI.
Humans are exposed to pollutants found in sewage sludge (e.g., cadmium, volatile organic
compounds), even if no sewage sludge is applied to agricultural land. These sources include
background levels (natural and/or anthropogenic) in drinking water, food, and air. When TBI is
subtracted from the weight-adjusted RfD, the remainder defines the increment that can result
from use or disposal of sewage sludge without exceeding the threshold. The TBIs used for adults
are summarized in Table 5.3.1-4 in Agricultural Pathway 1.
Uptake Response Slope of Pollutants In Plant Tissue, UC. The potential of mushrooms
to bioaccumulate mercury and cadmium has been demonstrated both in sewage sludge-amended
media and in natural environments (Chancy, 1991b). However, only small amounts of the
mercury in mushrooms are in the highly toxic methyl-mercury form. This, coupled with low
ingestion (assumed at 0.6 g DW/day), indicates that mercury should not be a practical limit on
using sewage sludge on forest land. Some mushrooms also accumulate cadmium. However,
cadmium bioavailability in these mushrooms appears to be quite low, and there is no evidence
that mushrooms containing cadmium from a soil/sewage sludge mixture would become a
significant source of dietary cadmium intake for humans (Chaney, 1991b). Other potential toxic
elements in sewage sludge (e.g., nickel, zinc, and lead), are not accumulated to toxic levels in
mushrooms (Zabowski and Zasoski, 1984). Thus, since no data were available, metal intake
from mushrooms is not included in this pathway analysis.
Since no data were available for berries, the uptake slopes for pollutants in garden fruits,
described in detail in Agricultural Pathway 1, were used for inorganics.
Daily Dietary Consumption of Food Group, DC Normal mushroom consumption is
estimated at 0.078 g/day from the Estimated Lifetime Average Daily Food Intake (from Table
5.3.1-10). However, forest lands potentially offer the opportunity for gathering mushrooms in
relatively large amounts. Although the largest portion would probably be ingested fresh, they
can be dried or frozen for use throughout the year. It is relatively easy to pick enough
5-325
-------
mushrooms to consume an average of 2 cups per week, or 6.5 gallons annually. This is
equivalent to about 0.6 g DW/day, which, to be conservative, was the value used for DC.
Consumption of fruits similar to berries (e.g., blueberries, cherries, strawberries) is
estimated at 2.6 g/day, using the data developed by Pennington (1983). The Estimated Lifetime
Average Daily Food Intake was developed for each fruit using the procedure described in
Agricultural Pathway 1. The intakes for the three fruits were summed to yield 2.6 g/day. Berries
can be very prolific at or near forest land, and it is easy to pick large quantities. For example, a
person could consume a half cup of fresh berries 1 to 2 days per week (e.g., a daily serving of
1/8th of a pie, cereal with berries, or juice). A half-cup 13 days per week is equivalent to 170 g
wet weight, or about 17 g dry weight (DW) per week or an average daily ingestion rate of 2.6
g/day. Therefore, 2.6 g DW/day was used.
Fraction of Food Group Produced oa Shidge-Amended Soil, FC. It is assumed that the
fraction of berries and mushrooms grown on sewage sludge-amended soil, FC, is 25 percent, a
reasonable worst-case assumption. Although it is expected that prolific growth of berries can
occur at spots throughout a sludge site, probably most of the picking will be done in the buffer
strips along roads (aside from sites entirety without sludge). Here, only a portion of the berries
bordering the application area is grown in sewage sludge-amended soil. Similarly, mushrooms
will be picked in both nonsludge areas and buffer strips.
Input and Output Values
Tables 5.3.1-2 and 53.1-3 present the input and output values for inorganic compounds
for Nonagricultural Pathway 1.
5-326
-------
TABLE 5.3.1-2
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 1, FOREST LAND
Arsenic
UC*DC*FC
0.00093
2.5952
Berries
Cadmium
Food Group UC DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Berries 0.045 2.5952
0.25
0.02924
Mercury
Food Grow
ies
UC
2.5952
UC*DC*FC
0.0029
RID
0.0008
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.012
RIA
44
|RPc | 47000|
RID
0.001
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.01614
RIA
53.86
|RPc | 1800|
RfD
0.0003
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.0032
RIA
17.8
[RPc
60001
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of tabic for acronym definitions and units.
5-327
-------
TABLE 5.3.1-2 (cont)
Nickel
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Benies
0.003
2.5952
0.25
0.00214
RfD
0.02
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.173
RIA
1227
[RFC
| 5700001
Selenium
Zinc
1 Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC 1
RID
0.005
(Berries
0.010
2.5952
0.25
0.006661
BW
70
~
RE
1
TBI
0.115
RIA
235
HE"
350001
| Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC 1
RID
0.21
IBerries
0.023
2.5952
0.25
0.014981
BW
70
re
1
TBI
13.42
RIA
1280
—
850001
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UC - uptake response slope of pollutant in plant tissue (jig-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)/(kg-pollutant/ha)
DC * duly dietary consumption of food group (g-diet DW/day)
FC « fraction of food group produced on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
RID - oral reference dose (mg/kg-day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
RE « relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
5-328
-------
TABLE 5.3.1-2 (coot)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (jig-pollutant/day)
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
5-329
-------
TABLE 5.3.1-3
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 1, SOIL RECLAMATION SITES
iNTI DTTOT TP fANTirT CITPC
Arsenic
1 Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC 1
IBerrics
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.000931
RID
0.0008
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.012
RIA
44
|RPc
470001
Cadmium
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC 1
RfD
0.001
Benies
0.045
2.5952
0.25
0.029241
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.01614
RIA
53.86
Mercury
|RPc
PpT
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; sec end of tabic for acronym definitions and units.
1800|
1 Food Group
UC 1 DC | FC
UC*DC*FC |
RfD
0.0003
IBerrics
0.0051 2.59521 0.25
0.002961
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.0032
RIA
17.8
"ioool
5-330
-------
TABLE 5 J.l-3 (cont)
Nickel
I Food Group | UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC 1
RID
0.02
(Berries I 0.003
2.5952
0.25
0.00214|
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.173
RIA
1227
Selenium
|RPc
5700001
| Food Group
UC
iBerries
0.010
Zinc
FoodGrouj^
Berries
0.0231
2.5952
FC
0.25
UC-DC-FC
?FC1
006661
DC
2.5952
FC
UC-DC-FC
0.25
0.014981
[RPc
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UC = uptake response slope of pollutant in plant tissue
(Hg-pollutant/g-plant tissue DWy(kg-polhitant/ha)
DC - dally dietary consumption of food group (g-diet DW/day)
FC = fraction of food group produced on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
RfD = oral reference dose (mg/kg-day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
5-331
RfD
0.005
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.115
RIA
235
.
|RPc | 35000|
RID
0.21
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
13.42
RIA
1280
850001
-------
TABLE 5.3.1-3 (cont)
RE - relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (imitless)
' TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant is humans (yg-pollutant/day)
RPc =* reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
5-332
-------
Sample Calculations
The lblfowing calculations shew the derivation of the risk assessment output for
Nonagricultural Pathway 1, Forest Land, Soil Reclamation Sites, and Public Contact Sites. The
pollutant used as an example is arsenic.
First, RIA is calculated to be:
RIA = fM>R^BW " TBIj • 10*
0.0008 • TO . 0 012) . 1Qj P)
1
44 ng -Msenk^g«day
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutants in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
RfD = oral reference dose (nig/kg* day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of
exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
105 = conversion factor (jigfmg)
Then, RPe is calculated to be:
np = RIA
c ZOJCi'DCj.FCj)
44 * W
0.00093
47,000 kg-axsenk/ha (rouiHl£ddownto2signifk^figiires)
where:
RPC = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-poilutant/ha)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (/ug-pollutant/day)
uq = uptake response slope of pollutants in plant tissue for the food group
i (/ig-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)(kg-pollutant DW/ha)"1
DC; = daily dietary consumption of the food group i (g-diet DW/day)
FC; = fraction of food group i produced on sewage sludge-amended soil
(unitless)
5-333
-------
5.3.1.4.2 Organics
Equations
The RIA is calculated from:
RIA. - |RL*B^, - TBIj.lO3 (5)
[ j
where:
RIA = adjusted reference Intake in humans (^g-pollutant/day)
RL = risk level
BW = . human body weight
q,* = human cancer potency (rag/kg* day)"1
RE » relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI — total background intake rate of pollutant (mg-pollutant/day)
10s =» conversion factor (/xg/mg)
For organics, plant uptake is regressed against soil concentration; therefore the next step
is to calculate RLC from:
RLC » = (6)
E(UC|.DCl.PCl) w
where:
RLC — reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
BIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (jig-pollutant/day)
UC; = uptake response slope of pollutants in plant tissue for the food group
i G«g-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)(pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)"1
DCt = daily dietary consumption of the food group i (g-diet DW/day)
FQ - fraction of food group i produced on sewage sludge-amended soil
(unitless)
It should be note that the units for UC, in this equation differ from those in equation (2)
because in this equation the concentration of pollutant in plant tissue is regressed against the
concentration of pollutant in soil, whereas in equation (2) plant tissue is regressed against the
application rate of pollutants to the soil.
5-334
-------
Finally, soil concentration RLC is converted to an annua! application rate (RJP.) by
considering the mass of soil (MS) and the decay series as shown below:
IP, - RLOMS#10"**[1 +e"k+e"2k+— (?)
where:
RPa = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha • yr)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (jig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = assumed mass of dry soil in upper IS cm (g-soil DW/ha)
10"9 = conversion factor (kgfpg)
e = . base of natural logarithms, 2.718 (uiutless)
k = loss rate constant (yr1)
n = years of application until equilibrium conditions are reached (yr)
Hie half-lives of dieldrin and chlordane indicate that these organic pollutants do not
degrade. Thus, they are treated slightly differently from the other organics in that a cumulative
pollutant application rate, not an annual application rate, is calculated from:
RPe - ELC*MS*10"* f (8)
where:
RPC = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil Otg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 on (g-soil DW/ha)
10"* = conversion factor (kg/ng)
Input Parameters
Adjusted Reference Intake in Humans, RIA. The values used to calculate RIAs are
designed to protect the sensitive members of the population. Thus, if the entire population
experienced the level of exposure these values represent, only a small portion of the population
would be at risk. The definition and derivation of each of the parameters used to estimate RIA
for nonthreshold-acting toxicants are further discussed in the following sections.
Risk Level, RL. Since by definition no "safe" level exists for exposure to nonthreshold
agents, specification of a given risk level on which to base regulations is a matter of policy. For
5-335
-------
this risk assessment, RL was set at 10"4. The RIA will therefore be the concentration that, for
lifetime exposure, Is calculated to have an upper-bound cancer risk of one case in 10,000
individuals exposed. This risk level refers to excess cancer risk that fs over and above the
background cancer risk in unexposed individuals.
Body Weight, BW. In keeping with U.S. EPA policy, an adult body weight of 70 kg was
used (see Section 52.1.4.1.23 in Agricultural Pathway 1).
Human Cancer Potency, %*. Hie cancer potency value (%*) represents die relationship
between a specified carcinogenic dose and its associated degree of risk. The q,* is based on
continual exposure of an individual to a specified concentration over a period of 70 years.
Established EPA methodology for determining cancer potency values assumes that any degree of
exposure to a carcinogen produces a measurable risk. The qt* value is the cancer risk (to the
proportion affected) per unit of dose; it is expressed in terms of risk per dose and is measured in
units of milligrams of pollutant per kilogram of body weight per day of exposure (rag/kg* day)"1.
The q,*s were taken from IRIS. When a q,** was not available in IRIS, the pending value was
used, if applicable, or, if one had been previously approved but had been withdrawn, the formerly
approved number was used. See Table 5.2.1-13 in Agricultural Pathway 1 for a summary of the
qt*s used in the risk assessment for land application.
Relative IJfftctivMiess of Ingestion Exposure, RE. As stated previously, an RE factor
should be applied only where well-documented/referenced information is available on die
contaminant's observed relative effectiveness. Since this information was not available for any of
the carcinogens, RE was set equal to 1.
Total Backgnmnd Intake Rate of Pollutant, TBI. No TBI values are available for organic
compounds; they were assumed to be negligible.
Reference Concentration of Pollutant in Soil, RLC. Since plant uptake of a pollutant is
in direct proportion to the concentration of pollutant in soil, the allowable concentration of
pollutant is given as the reference concentration of pollutant in soil.
5-336
-------
Uptake Response Slope of Pollutants in Plant Tissue for the Food Group, UC. Little is
known about transfer of organic compounds to berries and mushrooms. It is expected that, like
most other crops studied, minimal -plant uptake occurs-and-thatJth£jonly.liansfer. mechanism is
volatilization. Therefore, the default uptake response slopes of 0.001 pg-pollutant/g-plant tissue
DW (kg-pollutant/ha)"1 was used for both berries and mushrooms.
Daily Dietary Consumption of the Food Group, DC. The daily dietary consumption of
each food group is the same as that presented for the inorganic compounds.
Fraction of Food Group Produced on Sewage Sludge-Amended Soil, FC. The fraction of
each food group produced on sewage sludge-amended soil is the same for organic compounds as
for inorganic compounds: 25 percent
Reference Annual Application Rate of Pollutant, RP. Hie reference annual application
rate applies to organic compounds that degrade in the environment. The amount of pollutant in
sludge that can be added to a hectare each year takes this degradation into account.
Assumed Mass of Diy Soil in Upper 15 cm, MS. The assumed mass of diy soil in the
upper 15 cm is 2x10® g-soil DW/ha. (See Section 52.1.422.12 in Agricultural Pathway 1 for a
complete description of the derivation of this value.)
Decay Rate Constant, k. For a complete description of this variable, see Section
5.2.1.4.2.2.13 in Agricultural Pathway 1. The values of k used are summarized in Table 5.2.1-14,
also in Agricultural Pathway 1.
Input and Output Values
Tables 5.3.1-4 and 53.1-5 present the input and output values for organic compounds for
Nonagricultural Pathway 1.
5-337
-------
TABLE 5J.l-4
INPUTAMJ GUTPTTT VALUES TORt)RGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR NONAGMCULTURAL PATHWAY I, FOREST LAND
Aldrin/Diddrin
U
%
Food Group
UC
DC | FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
1.00E-04
Benies
0.001
2.5952 0.25
0.00065
BW
70
Mushrooms
0.001
0.6| 0.25
0.00015
at*
16
sum UC»DC*FC
0.00080
RE
1
DE
1
MS
21+09
R1A
0.438
RLC
547.697
Bcnw>(a)pyreoe
RPc | 10001
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
1.00E-04
Berries
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.00065
BW
70
Mushrooms
0.001
0.6
0.25
0.00015
ql»
7.3
sum UC*DC*FC
0.00080
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
It
0.48
RIA
0.959
RLC
1200.431
|rp<
m
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and unite.
5-338
-------
TABLE 53.1-4 (cont)
Chlordine
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Bemcs
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.00065
Mushrooms
0.001
0.6
0.25
0.00015
sum
UC*DC*FC
0.00080
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
Ql*
1.3
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
RIA
5.38S
RLC
6740.881
|RPc
130001
DDT
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
1.00E-04
Berries
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.00065
BW
70
Mushrooms
0.001
0.6
* 0.25
0.00015
Ql*
0.34
sum UC-DC-FC
0.00080
RE
1
DE
1
MB
2E+09
c
0.04
RIA
20.588
RLC
25773.955
|RP» | 2200j
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-339
-------
TABLE 5.3.1-4 (cont)
Heptacblor
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UG*DC*FG
Berries
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.00065
Mushrooms
0.001
0.6
0.25
0.00015
sum UC-DOFC
0.00080
RL
1.001-04
BW
70
4.5
RE
1
D1
1
MS
2E+09
c
6.024
RIA
1.556
RLC
1947.365
|RF» I 38001
HeMchlorobemoie
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Berries
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.0006S
Mushrooms
0.001
0.6
0.25
0.00015
sum UC*DC*FC
0.00080
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
1.6
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
£
0.122
MA
4.375
RLC
5476.965
|RP> | 1200]
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-340
-------
TABLE 5.3.1-4 (cont)
Hexachlorobutadieae
Food Group
uc
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Berries
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.00065
Mushrooms
0.001
0.6
0.25
0.00015
r
sum UC*DC*FC
0.00080
RL
1.001-04
BW
70
«1*
0.078
RE
1
DE
I
MS
2E+09
Ic
1.406
RIA
89.744
RLC
112348.01
[jtpi
ija
Lindane
Food Group
UC
DC
"FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
1.00E-04
Benies
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.00065
BW
70
Mushrooms
0.001
0.6
0.25
0.00015
Hi*
1.33
sun UC*DC*FC
0.00080
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
It
1.2
RIA
5.263
RLC
6588.831
|rpT
92001
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; sec cad of tabic for acronym definitions and units.
5-341
-------
n-NitroiodimetbyUmine
TABLE 5.3.1-4 (cont.)
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Berries
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.00065
Mushrooms
0.001
0.6
0.25
0.00015
sum UC*DC*FC
0.00080
°CBs
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Berries
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.00065
Mushrooms
0.001
0.6
0.25
0.00015
sum UC*DC*FC
0.00080
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
51
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
c
5.1
RIA
0.137
RLC
171.826
|RPa | 340|
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ai-
7.7
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
c
0.063
RIA
0.909
RLC
1138.071
|RPa | 140|
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-342
-------
TABLE 5.3.1-4 (cont)
Toxaphene
B Food Group
UC
DC FC
UC*DC*FC
teenies
0.001
2.5952 0.25
0.00065
iMushrooms
0.001
0.6 0.25
0.00015
sum UC*DC*FC
0.00080
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
q|*
1.1
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
It
1.2
RIA
6.364
RLC
7966.495
|RP» 1 110001
Trichloroetbylene
Food .Group
UC
DC
*FC
UC*DC*FC
RL
1.00E-04
Berries
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.00065
BW
70
Mushrooms
0.001
0.6
0.25
0.00015
ql*
0.011
sum UC*DC*FC
0.00080
RE
1
DE
I
MS
2E+09
k
0.78
RIA
636.364
RLC
796649.52
|RP« | 8600001
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UC = uptake response slope of pollutant in plant tissue (pg-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)/(kg-polliitant/ha)
DC = daily dietary consumption of food group (g-diet DW/day)
FC = fraction of food group produced on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
RL = risk level (unitless)
BW = human body weight (kg)
ql* = human cancer potency (mg/kg-day^X-l)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
DE = exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
5-343
-------
TABLE 5.3.1-4 (cont)
" MS ~ assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm (g-soilDW/ha)
k = loss rate constant (yi^-l)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (jig-pollutant/day)
RLC " reference concentration of pollutant in soil (|ig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RPc * reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RPa " reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha-yr)
j
5-344
-------
TABLE 5.3.1-5
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 1, SOIL "RECLAMATION SITES
AND PUBLIC CONTACT SITES
Aldrin/Dieldrin
Food Group
ICS
UC
0.001
DC
FC
2.5952
0.25
UC*DC*FC
0.00065
KL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
16
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
RIA
0.438
RLC
674.322
Wt
13001
Benzo(*)pyrene
Food Group
ies
UC,
0.001
DC
2.5952
FC
UC-DC-FC 1
RL
1.00E-04
0.25
0.000651
BW
70
ql-
7.3
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
k
0.48
RIA
0.959
RLC
1477.966
"»*¦ I ll55l
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-345
-------
TABLE 53.1-5 (rant.)
Chlordtne
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC
Berries
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.00065
DDT
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC'DC'FC
Berries
0.001
2.5952
* 0.25
0.00065
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
Ql*
1.3
RE
I
DE
1
MS
2E409
RIA
5.385
RLC
8299.346
|RPc | 16000!
RL
1.001-04
BW
70
at*
0.34
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
It
0.04
RIA
20.588
RLC
31732.792
[rpT
¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦
27001
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-346
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TABLE 5.3.1-5 (coot)
Heptachlor
UC*DC*FC
2.5952
0.00065
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
4.5
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
k
6.024
RIA
1.556
RLC
2397.589
|RPa |
47001
Hexachlorobenzene
I Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC'DC'FC 1
RL
1.00E-04
[Berries
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.000651
BW
70
ql*
1.6
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
It
0.122
RIA
4.375
RLC
6743.218
IEE
15001
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-347
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TABLE 5.3.1-5 (cont)
Hexachlorobutadiene
I Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC 1
iBenies
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.00065|
Lindane
I Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC |
iBcrrics
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.00065)
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
0.078
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
c
1.406
RIA
89.744
RLC
138322.426
|RP« 1 2000001
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
Ql"
1.33
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
c
1.2
RIA
5.263
RLC
8112.142
fRPa 1 . 110001
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table fin- acronym definitions and units.
5-348
-------
TABLE 5.3.1-5 (cont)
n-NitrosodimetbyUunine
I Food Group I UC 1 DC
fC
UC*DC*FC
iBerries 1 0.0011 2.5952
0.25
0.00065
PCBi
Food Group
UC
DC
#C
UC*DC*FC 1
Berries
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.000651
RI*
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
51
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
i
5.1
RIA
0.137
RLC
211.552
IRF. | 4201
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
7.7
RE
1
DE
1
MS
• 2E+09
c
0.063
RIA
0.909
RLC
1401.188
[SET
Tag
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see cad of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-349
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TABLE 5.3.1-5 (cont)
Tozapbeoe
Food Group
UC
DC
FC
UC*DC*FC 1
Barnes
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.00065)
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
1.1
RE
1
DE
1
MS
2E+09
k
1.2
RIA
6.364
RLC
9808.317
|rpT
130001
Trtehloroethylene
I Food Group
UC
DC
* FC
UC*DC*FC 1
iBenies
0.001
2.5952
0.25
0.000651
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
0.011
RE
1
DE
1
MS
21409
c
0.78
RIA
636.364
RLC
980831.745
|RP« 1 10000001
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UC = uptake response slope of pollutant in plant tissue
(pg-poilutant/g-plant tissue DW)/(kg-pollutant/ha)
DC « daily dietary consumption of food group (g-diet DW/day)
FC * fraction of food group produced on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
RL » risk level (unitless)
BW ~ human body weight (kg)
ql* = human cancer potency (mg/kg-day^X-l)
RE 92 relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
DE * exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
5-350
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TABLE 5.3.1-5 (coot.)
MS « assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 an (g-soil DW/ha)
k = loss rateconstant (yrJ'X-l)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (ng-pollutant/day)
RLC - reference concentration of pollutant in soil (ng-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RPc - reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RPa = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha-yr)
5-351
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Sample Calculations
There are two approaches for calculating risk assessment outputs for organics. The first
is for those organics that degrade over time. The following is a sample calculation for
Nonagricultural Pathway 1, Forest Land. The pollutant used as an example is benzo(a)pyrcne.
First, RIA is calculated to be:
•10s
MW a I MMKhW
jRJLJnk I JLJEML
qi'.RE
_ ( 0.0001 '70V103 (9)
( 7.3*1 }
0.959 fig -beazo(a)pyit»e/day
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (jig-pollutant/day)
RL = risk level
BW = human body weight
q* = human cancer potency (mg/kg-day)"1
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant (mg-poUutant/day)
1(P = conversion factor (jxg/mg)
Next, RLC is calculated to be:
RIA
RLC
E(uq«DC,«pq)
„ 0.959 (10)
* 0.00080
- 1200.461 ^g-beazo(a)pyraie/g-soil DW
where:
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RIA * adjusted reference intake in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
UQ = uptake response slope of pollutants in plant tissue for the
food group i (/xg-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)(pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)"1
DC, = daily dietary consumption of the food group i (g-diet DW/day)
5-352
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FQ = fraction of food group i produced on sewage sludge-amended soil
(unidess)
Next, it is necessary to incorporate into die analysis pollutant loss from the soil. To do
this, a first-order loss rate constant is derived from the pollutant half-life:
k - f2 - ~ - (U)
1.44
where:
k = first-order decay rate constant (yr1)
In = natural logarithm
T« - half-life of pollutant in soil (yr)
Finally, RP, is calculated to be:
RP, - RLC +e~k+e~2k+—+«(1"")k]"1
- 1200.431.2.109-U>-».[l +e-2*a4«+.... <12>
910 kg-beo2o(a)pyieiie/ha*yr (roandeddownto2signifia>ntfigures)
where:
RP. = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha • yr)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (/ig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = 2-10* g-soil DW/ha = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 am
10* = conversion factor (kg/jig)
e = base of natural logarithms, 2.718 (unitless)
k = loss rate constant (yr1)
n = years of application until equilibrium conditions readied (yr)
The second approach is for organics that do not degrade over time. The calculations are
identical to the first approach for organics, until the final calculation. The difference between
the two approaches is that the output of the second approach is a cumulative pollutant
application rate, as shown with data for chlordane:
RPC « RLC*MS*10"*
= 6740.881 • (2 •109)* 10"* <13)
= 13,000 kg-chlordane/ha (rouDdeddowntolagnificantfiguies)
5-353
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where:
RPe = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (/tg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = assumed mass of dry soil in upper IS cm (g-soil DW/ha)
10"* = conversion factor (kg/pg)
There are two approaches for calculating risk assessment outputs for organics. The first
is for those organics that degrade over time. The following is a sample calculation for
Nonagricultural Pathway 1, Soil Reclamation Sites and Public Contact Sites. The pollutant used
as an example is benzo(a)pyrene.
First, RIA is calculated to be:
MA. - _ tbjLxoS
^ q,**RE J
where:
f 0.0001 *70^
I 7.3*1 j
<14>
10s
0.959 ng -benzo(a)pyrene/day
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (/ig-pollutant/day)
RL = risk level
BW = human body weight
qt* = human cancer potency (mg/kg*day):1
RE — relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI — total background intake rate of pollutant (mg-pollutant/day)
103 - conversion factor (pg/mg)
Next, RLC is calculated to be:
RIA
RLC -
Edrq-DCj-FC,)
0.959 (15)
0.00065
1477.966 |ig-benzo(a)pyKne/g-soil DW
5-354
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where:
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (jig-pollutant/day)
UQ - uptake response slope of pollutants in plant tissue for the
food group i (jig-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)(pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)'1
DC{ — daily dietary consumption of the food group i (g-diet DW/day)
FC, = fraction of food group i produced on sewage sludge-amended soil
(unitless)
Next, it is necessary to incorporate pollutant loss from the soil into the analysis. To do
this a first order loss rate constant is derived from the pollutant half life, as shown below:
k . M = M. = 0.48 yr"1 (16)
X1.44
where:
k = first-order decay rate constant (yr1)
In = natural logarithm
half-life of pollutant in soil (yr)
Finally, RP, is calculated to be:
RP, - RLC •MS*10~*«{l +e^+e-2k+....+e(1-")k]"1
= 1477.966•2•l{^•10"®•[I+e"4M,+e"4^+,...+e<,"IO®,,
-------
two approaches is that the output of the second approach is a cumulative pollutant application
rate, as shown with data for chlordane:
RPe - RLC*MS*10~®
- 8299346* (2 *10^) •10"® <18)
= 16,000 kg -chlordane/ha (ioundeddownto2significaiitfigutes)
where:
RPt = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS - = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm (g-soil DW/ha)
10"* = conversion factor (kg//xg)
5-356
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SJi Nonagricultural Pathway 2
Nonagricultural Pathway 2 (the home gardener) was not analyzed because it is not an
appropriate nonagricultural pathway (home gardens do not exist in forests, reclamation sites, or
public contact sites).
5-357
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533 Nonagricultaral Pathway 3 (Human Toxicity from Soil Consumption)
533.1 Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -• Human
This pathway assesses the hazard to a child of ingesting undiluted sewage sludge.
533J Pollutants Evaluated
Table 5.33-1 lists the inorganic and organic compounds evaluated for this pathway.
5333 Highly Exposed Individual
Forest Land
The HEI for this pathway is a child who plays unattended in forest land on which sewage
sludge has been applied and who ingests sewage sludge on a daily basis for a 2-year period. This
pathway is appropriate for families who live near amended forest sites and whose children play in
the forest. The number of individuals in this categoiy is expected to be small. This HEI is
similar to the HEI for agricultural use, except that it is assumed a child will not be unattended
before the age of 4 for a long enough time to travel through the buffer zone (an assumed
minimum of 30 m), to enter into the area on which sludge has been applied, and to ingest the
sludge.
Soil Reclamation Sites
The potential for an HEI to exist near reclaimed soil areas is similar to that for forest
land. Therefore, the same assumptions have been made as for forest land.
5-358
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TABLE 533-1
POLLUTANTS EVALUATED FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 3
| Inorganics
Organics
Arsenic
Aldrin/Dieldrin
Cadmium
Benzo(a)pyrene
Chromium
Chlordane
Copper
DDT/DDE/DDD
Lead
Heptachlor
Mercury
Hexachlorobenzene
Molybdenum
Hexachlorobutadienc
Nickel
Lindane
Selenium
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
Zinc *
Poly chlorinated Biphenyis (FCBs)
Toxaphene
I
Trichloroethylene |
5-359
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Public Contact Sites
Public contact sites include sites having a high potential for occupancy (parks) and those
with a low potential for occupancy (highway medians, roadside cemeteries). To be conservative,
the HEI is chosen for the high-occupancy practice. A child's contact with sludge occurs during
play in the park, which can occur daily. It is assumed that this practice results in exposure vety
similar to that for the comparable agricultural scenario and that there will be a 5-year exposure
period. Therefore, the limits calculated for Agricultural Pathway 3 were used.
533.4 Algorithm Development
533.4.1 Imiganics
Equations
«
Hie RIA for inorganics is derived as follows:
R1A - fRfD_*_BW _ tbi) • it? (1)
RE
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutants in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
RfD = oral reference dose (nig/kg* day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of
exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
RE - relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
101 — conversion factor (pg/mg)
Because this pathway considers the direct ingestion of sewage sludge, the reference
concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge is calculated by dividing the adjusted reference intake
of pollutant in humans by the product of a soil ingestion rate and a duration-of-exposure
adjustment factor:
5-360
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ESC - (2)
1,*D1
where:
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge
(pg-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (^g-pollutant/day)
I, = soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
DE = exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
Input Parameters
Adjusted Reference Intake in Humans, RIA. The values used to calculate RIAs are and
designed to protect the sensitive members of the population. Thus, if the entire population
experienced the level of exposure these values represent, only a small portion of the population
would be at risk. The definition and derivation of each of the parameters used to estimate RIA
for nonthreshold-acting toxicants are further discussed in the following sections.
Oral Reference Dose, RID. Inorganics were assessed as threshold chemicals, and the
RfDs were taken from IRIS (U.S. EPA, 1992h), As for Agricultural Pathway 3, the RfD for
trivalent chromium was used, because EPA determined that chromium in sewage sludge and soils
is generally in the trivalent, not hexavalent, state. See Agricultural Pathway 3, Section 5.23.4.1
for a more complete discussion. See Agricultural Pathway 1, Section 52.1.4.122 for a complete
discussion on RfDs. The RfDs and RDAs are summarized in Table 5.33-2.
For lead, a RfD was not available and a RDA was inappropriate (lead intake is
antagonistic to maintaining health). Consequently, EPA's integrated uptake biokinetic (IUBK)
model, designed to predict blood lead levels based on total exposure, was used. Hie Indoor
Quality and Total Human Exposure Committee of EPA's Science Advisory Board (SAB)
reviewed the IUBK model and concluded that it was sound and could be effectively applied for
many current needs.
5-361
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TABLE 5JJ-2
RfDS AND RDAS FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 3
Pollutant
RfD (mg/kg-day)
Route of Exposure
(animal)
Most Sensitive I
Endpoint
Arsenic
(inorganic)
0.0008
oral (human)
Hyperpigmentation,
keratosis, and
possible vascular
complications
Cadmium
0.001
oral (human)
Proteinuria
Chromium'*
1.0
oral (rat)
No effects*
Copper
0.105,0.125"
NA
NA
Mercury
(inorganic)
0.0003
oral (rat)
Autoimmune effects
Molybdenum
0.005
oral (human)
Increased uric acid
levels
Nickel
0.02
oral (rat)
Decreased body and
organ weights
Selenium
0.005
oral (rat)
Selenosis (hair, nail
loss, eta)
Zinc
0526,0.625°
NA
NA
'Based on a NOAEL.
*No RfD available, so the recommended dietaiy allowance (RDA) was used. The RDA
for children is 2 mg/day (NAS, 1989, p.228). 2 rag/day + 19 kg (body weight of a child
age 4 to 6) = 0.105 mg/kg*day for forest and reclamations sites, 2 mg/day + 16 kg (body
weight of a child age 1 to 5) — 0.125 mg/kg*day.
"The RfD did not meet the minimum RDA. Therefore, the RDA was used in lieu of the
RfD. The RDA for children is 10 mg/day (NAS, 1989, p.209). 10 mg/day + 19 kg (body
weight of a child age 4 to 6) = 0.526 nig/kg*day for forest and reclamation sites, 10
mg/day + 16 kg (body weight of a child age 1 to 5) = 0.625 mg/kg*day,
NA; Not Applicable
5-362
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In the proposed Technical Support Document (U.S. EPA, 1989f), the effects on children
of ingesting lead-contaminated sewage sludge were evaluated by extrapolating from data on
cattle. For the present risk assessment, both-EPA'sOffiee-of Researeh and Development (ORD)
and Office of Water (OW) agreed to use the IUBK model instead of extrapolating from the
cattle data.
Human Body Weight, BW. This pathway assesses children 4 to 6 yean old. The
corresponding body weight used was 19 kg.
Relative Effectiveness of Ingestion Exposure, RE. As stated previously, an RE factor
should be applied only where well-documented/referenced information is available on the
contaminant's observed relative effectiveness. Since this information was not available for any of
the pollutants, RE was set equal to 1.
Total Background Intake Rate of Pollutant from All Other Sources of Exposure, TBI.
The TBIs (natural and/or anthropogenic) in* drinking water, food, and air for toddlers are
presented in Table 5.2.3-3. TBIs were available only for seven of the inorganics: arsenic,
cadmium, chromium, mercury, nickel, selenium, and zinc. Since TBIs were not available for
copper and molybdenum, a background of 0 was used in the calculations. See Pathway I for a
complete description of TBIs.
Sewage Sludge Ingestion Rate, I,. The soil ingestion rate used was 0.2 g-soil DW/day,
based on the 1989 EPA directive from the Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
(OSWER) recommending this value for the children at highest risk (U.S. EPA, 1989d).
Exposure Duration Adjustment, DE. EPA's Office of Research and Development
(ORD) expressed concern about the suitability of using RfDs based on lifetime exposure for
evaluating the effects to children of ingesting inorganic pollutants in sewage-sludge/soil mixtures.
Scientists from ORD and the Office of Water re-evaluated the bases for the lifetime RfDs and
proposed new values based on less-than-ltfetime exposures. These new numbers were then
submitted to the Agency's RfD Committee for approval. The Committee was unable to reach
consensus on approving the new numbers, because there is at present no Agency method for
5-363
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calculating less-than-iifetime RfDs. There are plans for continuing these efforts in the future
and, If completed in time, these new less-than-iifetime RfDs will be used by OW to evaluate
metallic pollutants for this pathway in Round II rule making. Since no EPA-approved method
was available for adjusting exposure durations associated with RfDs, the DE was set equal to 1.
Input and Output Values
Tables 5.33-3 and 533-4 present the input and output values for inorganic pollutants for
Nonagricultural Pathway 3, for forest land and soil reclamation sites, and for public contact sites,
respectively.
At the meeting held March 13,1992, a consensus was readied among OW, ORD, the
Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances (OPTS), and the Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response (OSWER) that the IUBK model should not cause a blood lead level to exceed 10
«
/ig/dl and should protect a high percentage of the exposed population. Using a 30-percent
absorption value and a 95th percentile of the population distribution, an allowable soil
concentration of 500 ppra of lead was generated by the model. Because lead levels that trigger
Superfund action range from 500 to 1,000 ppm, it was felt that allowing soil concentrations of
lead to reach the action level was insufficiently protective. The group therefore made a policy
decision to set the allowable lead concentration in sewage sludge at 300 ppm for this pathway.
Several reasons support this decision. First, such action would provide an additional
margin of safety with respect to lead contamination of soil and any threat to the bodies of
developing children. Because childhood ingestion of dirt is so widespread and the potential
consequence so severe, a high order of conservatism is warranted on this point, especially in the
context of regulatory decisions authorizing the addition of a threshold pollutant, lead, to the
environment. In addition, a 300-ppm soil concentration yielded an allowable lead concentration
in sludge that was widely consistent with current sewage sludge quality at all but a small number
of publicly owned treatment works (POTWs). As a result, the social cost of an additional safety
factor is small, relative to the potential benefit.
5-364
-------
TABLE 5.3.3-3
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FORNONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 3, FOREST LAND
AND SOIL RECLAMATION SITES
| Pollutant
RfD
RDA
BW
RE
TBI
RIA
Is
DE
RSC
lArsenic
0.0008
19
1
0.0045
10.700
0.2
1
53
Cadmium
0.001
19
1
0.008156
10.844
0.2
1
54
Chromium
- I
19
I
0.0494
18950.600
0.2
1
94000
Copper
0.105
19
1
0
2000.000
0.2
1
10000
Lead
Based on
EPA policy decision
300
Mercury
0.0003
19
1
0.00128
4.420
0.2
1
22
Molybdenum
0.005
19
1
0
95.000
02
1
470
Nickel
0.02
19
1
0.1554
224.600
02
1
1100
ISelenium
0.005
19
1
0.0594
35.600
02
1
170
{Zinc
0.526
19
1
6.71
3290.000
0.2
1
16000
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding. t
RfD = oral reference :Jose (mg/kg-day)
RDA = Recommended Dietary Allowance (mg/kg-day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitlcss)
TBI - total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
RIA - adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (jig-pollutant/day)
Is = soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
DE = exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
RSC * reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (pg-poliutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
5-365
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TABLE 5.33-4
INPUT AND OUTPtrTTXLUES"FOR'lNORGXNIC POLLUTANTS
FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 3,
PUBLIC CONTACT SITES
Pollutant
RfD
RDA
BW
RE
TBI
RIA
Ii
DE
RSC
Arsenic
0.0008
16
1
0.0045
8.300
0.2
I
41
Cadmium
0.001
16
I
0.008156
7.844
0.2
1
39
Chromium
1
16
1
0.0494
15950.600
0.2
1
79000
Copper
0.125
16
1
0
2000.000
0.2
I
10000
Lead
Based on
iPApo
icy decision
300
Mercury
0.0003
16
1
0.00128
3.520
0.2
I
17
Molybdenum
0.005
16
1
0
80.000
0.2
I
400
Nickel
0.02
16
1
0.1554
164.600
0.2
1
820
Selenium
0.005
16
1
0.0594
20.600
0.2
1
100
Zinc
0.625
16
1
6.71
3290.000
0.2
1
16000
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
RfD * ota! reference dose (mg/kg-day)
RDA = Recommended Dietary Allowance (mg/kg-day)
BW *= human body weigbt (kg)
RE * relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (imMess)
TBI»total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
RIA « adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (jig-pollutant/day)
Is * soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
DE * exposure duration adjustment (imitless)
RSC « reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (ng-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
5-366
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Coinci dentally, this is the same pollutant limit calculated by the Peer Review Committee,
based on the observation that body burdens (absorption) of animals fed up to 10 percent of their
diet as sewage sludge did not change until the concentration of lead in the sewage sludge
exceeded 300 ppm (300 ^ig/g). These data provide further support for the appropriateness of the
value chosen by the Agency.
Sample Calculations
The following is a sample calculation for inorganic pollutants for Nonagricultural Pathway
3, Forest Land and Soil Reclamation Sites. The pollutant used as an example is arsenic.
First, RIA is calculated from:
RIA
0.0008 « 19
- 0.0045
• io3
RIA = 10.700 pg-aisetiic/day
(5)
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutants in humans (jig-pollutant/day)
RfD = oral reference dose (mg/kg*day)
BW - human body weight (kg)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of
exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
103 = conversion factor (/xg/rag)
RSC is then calculated from:
5-367
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. bsc , 10.700
RSC - 53 |ig-arseoic/g-sewageshidgeDW (rcmndcddownto2rignificant figures) (8)
where:
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (pg-pollutant/g-
sewage sludge DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (#tg-polIutant/day)
I, ~ = soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
DE = exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
The following is a sample calculation for inorganic pollutants for Nonagricultural Pathway
3, Public Contact Sites. The pollutant used as an example is arsenic.
First, RIA is calculated from:
(9)
RIA
f
0.0008 » 16
- 0.0045
(10)
RIA. * 8.300 pg-atseiiic^day
(11)
where:
RIA =
RfD «
BW =
TBI =
RE =
10s
adjusted reference intake of pollutants in humans (/ig-pollutant/day)
oral reference dose (mg/kg*day)
human body weight (kg)
total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of
exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
conversion factor (ng/mg)
RSC is then calculated from:
5-368
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RSC
R1A
VDE
(12)
RSC
8.300
0,2*1
(13)
RSC = 41 tig -arsenic/g -sewageshidgeDW (roundeddownto2significantfigures)
(14)
where:
RSC
RIA
I.
DE
reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (pg-pollutant/g-
sewage sludge DW)
adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
exposure duration adjustment (unitiess)
5.2J.4.2 Organlcs
Equations
The RIA is calculated from:
RIA.
where:
RL«BW
q,"»RE
- TBI
103
(15)
RIA
RL
BW
qi*
RE
TBI
10s
adjusted reference intake in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
risk level
human body weight (kg)
human cancer potency (rag/kg'day)"1
relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitiess)
total background intake rate of pollutant (mg-pollutant/day)
conversion factor (figfmg)
Because this pathway considers the direct ingestion of sewage sludge, the reference
calculation of pollutant in sewage sludge is calculated by dividing the adjusted reference intake
5-369
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of pollutant in humans by the product of a soil ingestion rate and a duration exposure
adjustment factor
RSC = (16)
I,*DE
where:
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge
(/ig-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
I, " = soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
DE = exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
Degradation of organics is not considered in this pathway, because the sludge is not
mixed with soil and is subject to little degradation in the environment.
Input Parameters
Adjusted Reference Intake In Humans, RIA. The values used to calculate RIAs are and
designed to protect the sensitive members of the population. Thus, if the entire population
experienced the level of exposure these values represent, only a small portion of the population
would be at risk. Hie definition and derivation of each of the parameters used to estimate RIA
for nonthreshold-acting toxicants are further discussed in the following sections.
Risk Level, RL. Since by definition no "safe" level exists for exposure to nonthreshold
agents, specification of a given risk level on which to base regulations is a matter of policy. For
this risk assessment, RL was set at 10"4. The RIA will therefore be the concentration that, for
lifetime exposure, is calculated to have an upper-bound cancer risk of one case in 10,000
individuals exposed. His risk level refers to excess cancer risk that is over and above the
background cancer risk in unexposed individuals.
Body Weight, BW. As with inorganics, the body weight used for toddlers was 19 kg.
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Total Background Intake Rate of Pollutant, TBI. No TBI values are available for organic
compounds; they were assumed to be negligible.
Human Cancer Potency, q,*. This variable is described in detail in Agricultural Pathway
1, Section 5.2.1.42.2.5. See Table 5.2.1-13, also in Agricultural Pathway 1, for a summary of the
qt*s used in the risk assessment for land application.
Relative Effectiveness of Ingestion Exposure, RE. As stated previously, an RE factor
should be applied only where well-documented/referenced information is available on the
contaminant's observed relative effectiveness. Since this information was not available for any of
the carcinogens, RE was set equal to 1.
Sewage Sludge Ingestion Rate, I,. Hie soil ingestion rate used was 0.2 g-soil DW/day
based on the 1989 OSWER directive suggesting this value for children at highest risk (U.S. EPA,
1989d).
Exposure Duration Adjustment, DE. An adjustment to the RIA was required based on
the brief duration (2 years) of this exposure. Values of qt* are usually calculated to represent a
lifetime exposure. Duration adjustment of cancer risk estimates is consistent with the method in
which potency estimates qt* are derived, and has been used previously by EPA. The value was
derived on the basis of exposure duration divided by assumed lifetime, or 2 years/70 years =
0.029.
Input and Output Values
Tables 533-5 and 533-6 present the input and output values for organic pollutants for
Nonagricultural Pathway 3, for forest land and soil reclamation sites, and for public contact sites,
respectively.
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TABLE 5.3.3-5
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 3, FOREST LAND
AND SOIL RECLAMATION SITES
Pollutant
RL
BW
19
ql*
16
RE
RIA
Is
DE
Aldrin/Dieldrin
1.00E-04
1
0.119
0.2
0.0286
Benzo(a)pyrene
1.00E-04
19
7.3
1
0.260
0.2
0.0286
Chlordane
1.00E-04
19
1.3
1
1.462
0.2
0.0286
DDT
1.00E-04
19
0.34
1
5.588
0.2
0.0286
Heptachlor
1.00E-04
19
4.5
1
0.422
0.2
0.0286
Hexachlorobenzene
1.00E-04
19
1.6
1
1.188
0.2
0.0286
Hexachlorobutadiene
1.001-04
19
0.078
1
24.359
0.2
0.0286
Lindane
1.00E-04
19
1.33
1
1.429
0.2
0.0286
n-Nitxosodimethylamine
1.00E-04
19
51
1
0.037
0.2
0.0286
PCBs
1.00E-04
19
7.7
1
0.247
0.2
0.0286
Toxaphene
1.00E-04
19
1.1
1
1.727
0.2
0.0286
Trichloroethylene
1.00E-04
19
0.011
1
172.727
0.2
0.0286
RSC
20
45
250
970
73
200
4200
250
6.5
43
300
30000
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
RL = rid? level (unitless)
BW « human body weight (kg)
ql* = human cancer potency (mg/kg-day)'X-1)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
RIA * adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (ng-pollutant/day)
Is = soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
DE = exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (iig-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
5-372
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TABLE 533-6
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 3,
PUBLIC CONTACT SITES
RL
BW
qi*
RE
RIA
Is
DE
Aldrin/Dieldrin
I.00E-04
16
16
1
0.100
0.2
0.0714
Benzo(a)pyrene
1.00E-04
16
7.3
1
0.219
0.2
0.0714
Chlordane
1.00E-04
16
1.3
I
1.231
0.2
0.0714
DDT
1.00E-04
16
0.34
1
4.706
0.2
0.0714
Heptachlor
1.00E-04
16
4.5
1
0.356
0.2
0.0714
Hexachlorobenzene
1.00E-04
16
1.6
1
1.000
0.2
0.0714
Hexachlorobutadiene
1.00E-04
16
0.078
20.513
0.2
0.0714
Lindane
1.00E-04
16
1.33
1
1.203
0.2
0.0714
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
1.00E-04
16
51
1
0.031
0.2
0.0714
PCBs
1.00E-04
16
7.7
1
0.208
0.2
0.0714
Toxaphene
1.001-04
16
1.1
1
1.455
0.2
0.0714
Trichloroethylene
1.00E-04
16
0.011
1
145.455
0.2
0.0714
RSC
7.0
15
86
320
24
70
1400
84
IX
14
100
10000
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
RL = risk level (unitless)
BW = human body weight (kg)
ql* = human cancer potency (mg/kg-dayyX-1)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (ng-pollutant/day)
fa — soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
DE = exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (ng-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
5-373
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Sample Calculations
The following is a sample calculation for organic pollutants for Nonagricultural Pathway
3, Forest Land and Soil Reclamation Sites. The pollutant used as an example is benzo(a)pyrene.
First, RIA is calculated from:
MA - [RL*BW - TBI
qT-RE
-103
(17)
RIA = - O.Ooj'lO3 (18)
RIA = 0.260 n g -benzo(a)pyrcne/day (19)
«
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (/tg-pollutant/day)
RL = risk level
BW = human body weight (kg)
q* = human cancer potency (mg/kg'day)'1
RE — relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI — total background intake rate of pollutant (mg-pollutant/day)
103 = conversion factor Qtg/mg)
Then, RSC is calculated from:
RSC > (20)
RSC » —°-260 (21)
0.2 •0.0286
RSC « 45 ng-polhitanl/g-sewageshidgcDW (rounded down to2significant figures) (22)
5-374
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where:
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge
Qig-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (pg-poilutant/day)
I, = soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
DE = exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
Hie following is a sample calculation for organic pollutants for Nonagricultural Pathway
3, Public Contact Sites. The pollutant used as an example is benzo(a)pyrene.
First, RIA is calculated from:
RIA
RL»BW
-------
RSC » —0219 (27)
0.2 *0.0714
RSC » 15 pg-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW (roundeddownto2sigi>ificaiitfigures) (28)
where:
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge
(/xg-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
I, = soil ingestion rate (g-soil DW/day)
DE — exposure duration adjustment (unitless)
5-376
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5-3.4 Nooagricultural Pathway 4 (Human Toxicity from Plant to Animal Consumption)
5.3.4.1 Description of Pathway
Sludge -» Soil -* Plant -» Animal -* Human
Sewage sludge applied to forest lands may contaminate forage plants by uptake or direct
adherence. Herbivores (i.e., deer and elk) may forage in sewage sludge-amended areas and later
may be taken by hunters. Then humans may ingest the deer and elk. The situation for
reclaimed lands is similar to that of forest lands, since large animals might graze there, but it is
unlikely that they will be found grazing on public contact sites.
53.42 Pollutants Evaluated
*
Table 5.3.4-1 lists the organic and inorganic compounds assessed for this pathway.
5,3.4.3 Highfy Exposal Individual
Forest Land
Hie HQ for amended forest land is a hunter of herbivores who preserves meat for
consumption throughout the year. This person also keeps the herbivore's liver and freezes it for
several meals throughout the year.
Soil Reclamation Sites
The potential for an HEI to exist near a reclaimed soil area is similar to that for forest
land; therefore, the same assumptions are made as for forest land.
5-377
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TABLE 53.4-1
- ^POLLUTANTS EVALUATED FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 4
1 Inorganics
Organics
Cadmium
Aldrin/Dicdrin
Mercuiy
Chlordane
Selenium
DDT/DDE/DDD I
Zinc
Hcptachlor
Hexachloroben2ene
Lindane
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
1
Toxaphene
5-378
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Public Access Sites
It is likely that public contact sites will be relatively small and will not support large
animals. Also it is assumed that hunting will be prohibited, because the public use such sites.
Therefore, the assessment of this pathway for public contact sites is not appropriate.
5.3.4.4 Algorithm Development
53.4.4.1 Inorganics
Equations
The RIA for inorganics is derived as follows:
MA ¦ - TBI] • 10* ~ (1)
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutants in human beings (/ig-pollutant/day)
RfD = oral reference dose (mg/kg*day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of
exposure (mg-poOutant/day)
103 = conversion factor (fig/mg)
Because this pathway involves the consumption of animal products by humans, the next
equation in this analysis is a reference application rate of pollutant, RF (pg-pollutant/g-diet
DW):
RF = — ^ (2)
£
-------
where:
.RE.- = ..-reference. concentration of pollutanLin diet Qig-pqllutant/g-diet DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (/ig-pollutant/day)
UAi * uptake response slope of pollutant in animal tissue food group i
(pg-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)(/*g-pollutant/g-diet DW)*1
DA; - daily dietary consumption of animal tissue food group i (g-animal tissue
DW/day)
FAj - fraction of food group i assumed to be derived from animals which ingest
forage grown on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
For inorganics, a cumulative reference application rate of pollutant, RP (kg-pollutant/ha)
is calculated:
RP„ -
RF
UC
(3)
where:
RFe
RF
UC
reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
reference concentration of pollutant in diet (/ig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
uptake response slope of pollutant in forage crop (ug-pollutant/g forage
DW) (kg-pollutant/ha)"1
Input Parameters
Adjusted Reference Intake of Pollutants In Human Beings, RIA. The adjusted reference
intake of pollutant in humans, RIA (^g-pollutant/day), is a level of daily pollutant intake that is
likely to have no appreciable risk of adverse effects during a lifetime of exposure. It is a dose-
response function calculated by considering factors such as human body weight, relative
effectiveness of ingestion exposure, total background intake rate of pollutant, and reference dose.
Oral Reference Dose, RID. The same RflDs used in Agricultural Pathway 4 for cadmium,
mercury, selenium, and zinc were used for this pathway. Inorganics were assessed as threshold
chemicals, and the RfDs were taken from IRIS (U.S. EPA, 1992). The recommended dietary
allowance (RDA) was used for zinc instead of the RfD, because the RfD did not meet the RDA,
5-380
-------
which is necessary to maintain health (see Table 5.33-2). (For a more detailed discussion, see
Section 5.2.1.4.1.22 in Agricultural Pathway 1.)
Human Body Weight, BW. An adult body weight of 70 kg was used, as explained in
Section 5.2.1.4.1.23.
Relative Effectiveness of Ingestion Exposure, RE. As stated previously, an RE factor
should be applied only where well-documented/referenced information is available on the
contaminant's observed relative effectiveness. Since this information was not available for any of
the pollutants, RE was set equal to 1.
Total Background Intake Rate of Pollutant from All Other Sources of Exposure, TBI.
Humans are exposed to pollutants found in sewage sludge (e.g., cadmium, volatile organic
compounds), even if no sewage sludge is applied to agricultural land These sources include
background levels (natural and/or anthropogenic) in drinking water, food, and air. When TBI is
subtracted from the weight-adjusted RfD, the remainder defines the increment that can be added
from use or disposal of sewage sludge without exceeding the threshold. The TBIs used for adults
are presented in Table 53.1-4 in Pathway 1.
Uptake Response Slope of Pollutant in Animal Tissue Food Group, UA. It is assumed
that elk and deer uptake responses are the same as those for cattle. For a complete description
of the methodology used to generate animal uptake slopes, see Section 5.2.4.4.1.2.6 in
Agricultural Pathway 4.
Daily Dietaiy Consumption of Animal Tissue Food Group, DA It was assumed that total
consumption of deer and elk meat and fat constitutes 50 percent of the HEI's consumption of
beet beef liver, pork, lamb, poultry, dairy, and eggs and their fat counterparts, or 62.4 g DW/day.
(See Table 5.3.1-10 in Agricultural Pathway 1 for the intake values for these food groups.) Beef
liver consumption (Estimated Lifetime Dietary Intake) was assumed to be the sane as for the
agricultural pathways. The remainder of the diet (613 g DW/day) was assumed to be 75 percent
meat and 25 percent fat. The analysis is complicated by the assumption that the ratio of elk
meat to deer meat is 2 to 1 (since elk weigh twice as much as deer). Therefore, for liver
5-381
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consumption (i.e., 0.90-(213), elk liver is consumed at a rate of 0.60 g DW/day, and deer liver at
0.30 g DW/day. For organics, as discussed in Agricultural Pathway 4, it was necessary to use
total liver consumption! Therefore, elk liver (total) is consumed at a rate tif 0.76 g DW/day, and
deer liver (total) at 0.38 g DW/Day.
If the remainder of the diet (61J g DW/day) is divided in a similar fashion, remembering
that the meat-to-fiat ratio is 3 to 1, elk meat consumption is 30.6 g DW/day [i.e.,
61.3 • (2/3) • (3/4)]; elk fat consumption is 10.2 g DW/day [i.e., 613 • (2/3)* (1/4)]; deer meat
consumption is 153 g DW/day [i.e., 61.3*(l/3)*(3/4)]; and deer fat consumption is 5.1 g DW/day
[i.e., 613 (1/3) *(1/4)]. These dietary consumption data are summarized in Table 53.4-2.
Fraction of Food Group Assumed to be Derived from Animals That Ingest Forage Grown
on Sewage Sludge-Amended Soil, FA. It is reasonable to assume that all deer inhabit areas in
which sludge has been applied, because deer have been shown to preferentially feed in sewage
sludge-amended areas. Therefore, the FA fqr deer was 100 percent. Elk have a much greater
territorial range and do not spend as much time on a sludge-amended site. The PRC (1989)
estimated that 50 percent of the elk come from areas to which sewage sludge has been applied,
or that an elk spends only 50 percent of the time on sludge-treated areas.
Uptake Response Slope of Pollutants in Forage, UC. The uptake slopes for forage were
derived using the same methodology used and described in Agricultural Pathway 1. See Section
5.2.1.4.1.2.6 for a detailed discussion. The geometric mean of the uptake slopes for forage for
each inorganic evaluated are: 0.07 for cadmium, 0.043 for mercury, 0.003 for selenium, and 0.048
for zinc.
Input and Output Values
Table 5.3.4-3 presents the input and output values for inorganic compounds for
Nonagricultural Pathway 4.
5-382
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TABLE 53.4-2
ASSUMPTIONS FOR PATHWAY 4
DIETARY INTAKE AND TRACTION OF ANIMAL TISSUE FROM
ANIMALS LIVING ON SEWAGE SLUDGE-AMENDED SOIL
Daily Dietary
Consumption of
Food Group, DA
(g-diet DW/day)
Fraction of Food
Group Produced on
Sewage Sludge-
Amended Soil, FA
(percent)
Deer Muscle
153
100
Deer Fat
5.1
100
Deer Liver
030
100
Deer Liver (total)
038
100
Elk Muscle
30.6
50
Elk Fat
10.2
50
Elk liver
0.60
50
Elk liver (total)
0.76
50
5-383
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TABLE 5.3.4-3
INPUT XND" OUTPUT"VALUES" FOR 1NORGANICPOLLUTANTS
FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 4,
FOREST LAND AND SOIL RECLAMATION SITES
Cadmium
I Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Deer muscle
0.008
15.3166
1
0.1154
Elk muscle
0.008
30.6332
0.5
0.1154
Deer liver
0.413
0.2994
1
0.1235
Elk liver
0.413
0.5989
0.5
0.1235
sum1
JA*DA*FA
0.4778
Mercury
I Food Group
UA
DA
. FA
UA*DA*FA
iDeer muscle
0.004
15.3166
1
0.0602
lElk muscle
0.004
30.6332
0.5
0.0602
iDeer liver
0.262
0.2994
1
0.0783
|Elk liver
0.262
0.5989
0.5
0.0783
1
sum UA*DA*FA
0.2771
RID
0.0011
BW
70|
RE
l|
TBI
0.016141
UC
0.070
RIA
53.861
RF
112.7211
|RPc
1600|
RfD
0.0003
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.0032
UC
0.043
RIA
17.81
RF
64.2401
pgr
1500|
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see cod oftable for acronym definitions and units.
5-384
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TABLE 5.3.4-3 (cont)
Selenium
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Deer muscle
0.151
15.3166
1
2.3100
Elk muscle
0.151
30.6332
0.5
2.3100
Deer liver
1.195
0.2994
1
0.3578
Elk liver
1.195
0.5989
0.5
0.3578
sum
JA*DA*FA
5.3356
Zinc
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Deer muscle
0.006
15.3166
1
0.0854
Elk muscle
0.006
30.6332
0.5
0.0854
Deer liver
0.003
0.2994
1
0.0008
Elk liver
0.003
0.5989
0.5
0.0008
sum
JA*DA*FA
0.1723
IRID
0.005
PW
H
RE
1
TBI
0.115
UC
0.003
RIA
235
RF
44.043
I RPc 15000|
RfD
0.21
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
13.42
UC
0.0481
|
RIA
12801
RF
7430.5261
|rpc
150000
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UA = uptake slope of pollutant in animal tissue (ng-pollutant/g-aiiimal tissue DW)/(|ig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
DA = daily dietaiy consumption of animal tissue food group (g-diet DW/day)
FA = fraction of food group assumed to be derived from animals which ingest sewage sludge (unitless)
RfD = oral reference dose (mg/kg-day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
UC = uptake response slope of pollutant in forage (ng-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)/(kg-pollutant/ha)
R1A = adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (ng-pollutant/day)
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RPc = reference cumulative application rale of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
5-385
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Sample Calculations
The following are sample calculations for inorganics forTsfonagricultural Pathway 4,
Forest Land and Soil Reclamation Sites. The pollutant used as an example is cadmium.
First RIA is calculated to be:
RIA
fRfP « I
[ IE
M - ibi) . 103 (4)
RIA. » * 70 - 0.01614) • 103 (5)
RIA = 53.86 |ig-cadmium/day (<0
where:
*
RIA = adjusted reference intake of pollutants in human beings (pg-pollutant/day)
RfD = oral reference dose (mg/kg*day)
BW = human body weight (kg)
RE - relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI as total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of
exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
103 = conversion factor (/ig/mg)
Then, RF is calculated to be:
RF - S* (7)
^(UAj-DAj-FA^
RF » (8)
0.478
RF « 112.722 ng-cadmium/g-dietDW (9)
5-386
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where:
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (/xg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake iniuunans (/ig-pollutant/day)
UAj = uptake response slope of pollutant in animal tissue food group 1
(/ig-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW) (^g-pollutant/g-diet DW)'1
DAj = daily dietaiy consumption of animal tissue food group i (g-animal tissue
DW/day)
FAj = fraction of food group i assumed to be derived , from animals that ingest
forage grown on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
Finally, RFC is calculated to be:
RP = M (10)
c UC
112.722
rp s __
c 0.070
RPC - 1,600 leg-cadmium/ha (roundeddownto2significantflguies)
where:
RPC = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
UC = uptake response slope of pollutant in forage crop (pg-pollutant/g forage
DW) (kg-pollutant/ha)"1
(11)
(12)
5.3.4.4.2 Organics
Equations
The RIA is calculated from:
RIA.
RL»BW
qt*»RE
\
- TBI
• 10s
(13)
5-387
-------
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
RL = ..risk level —
BW = human body weight
qx* — human cancer potency (mg/kg'day)"1
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant (mg-pollutant/day)
103 = conversion factor (jigfmg)
Because this pathway involves the consumption of animal products by humans, the next
equation in this analysis is a reference application rate of pollutant, RF (pg-pollutant/g-diet
DW):
RF « — — (14)
^(UVDVFA,)
where:
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (fig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
UAj = uptake response slope of pollutant in animal tissue food group i
(pg-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)(pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)'1
DA{ = daily dietary consumption of animal tissue food group i (g-animal tissue
DW/day)
FAj = fraction of food group i assumed to be derived from animals which ingest
forage grown on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
For organics, a reference concentration of pollutant in soil is calculated:
RLC = — (15)
UC
where:
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
UC = uptake response slope of pollutant in forage crop (/ig-pollutant/g-forage
DW) (^g-pollutant/g-soil)"1
Finally, soil concentration, RLC, is converted to an annual application rate (RP.) by
considering the mass of soil (MS) and the decay series as shown below:
5-388
-------
RPt = RLC*MS«10"9«[1 +e"k+e_3fc+....+e(l~°)k]~1
(16)
where:
RP, = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha • yr)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = 2* 10® g-soil DW/ha = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm
10"® = conversion factor (kg/pg)
e = base of natural logarithms, 2.718 (unitless)
k = loss rate constant (yr1)
n = years of application until equilibrium conditions are readied (yr)
The half-lives of dieldrin and chlordane indicate that these organic pollutants do not
degrade. Thus, they are treated slightly differently from the other organics in that a cumulative
pollutant application rate, not an annual application rate, is calculated from:
c
RPC = RLOMS-IO"9 (17)
where:
t
RPe = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = 2 • 10® g-soil DW/ha = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm
10"9 = conversion factor (kg//zg)
Input Parameters
Adjusted Reference Intake in Humans, RIA. The values used to calculate RIAs are
designed to protect the sensitive members of the population. Thus, if the entire population
experienced the level of exposure these values represent, only a small portion of the population
would be at risk. The definition and derivation of each of the parameters used to estimate RIA
for nonthreshold-acting toxicants are further discussed in the following sections.
Risk Level, RL. Since by definition no "safe" level exists for exposure to nonthreshold
agents, specification of a given risk level on which to base regulations is a matter of policy. For
this risk assessment, RL was set at 10"\ The RIA will therefore be the concentration that, for
lifetime exposure, is calculated to have an upper-bound cancer risk of one case in 10,000
5-389
-------
individuals exposed. This risk level refers to excess cancer risk that is over and above the
background cancer risk in unexposed individuals.
Body Weight, BW. In keeping with U.S. EPA policy, an adult body weight of 70 kg was
used, as explained in Section 5.2,1.4.1.23.
Human Cancer Potency, q,*. A complete description of this variable can be found in
Agricultural Pathway 1, Section 5.2.1.4.2.2.5. The values used for q,*s are presented in Table
5.2.1-13 in Agricultural Pathway 1.
Relative Effectiveness of Ingestion Exposure, RE. As stated previously, an RE factor
should be applied only where well-documented/referenced information is available on the
contaminant's observed relative effectiveness. Since this information was not available for any of
the carcinogens, RE was set equal to 1.
«
Total Background Intake Rate of Pollutant, TBI. No TBI values are available for organic
compounds; they were assumed to be negligible.
Reference Concentration of Pollutant in Diet, RF. Animal uptake of a pollutant is in
direct proportion to the concentration of pollutant in food. RLC relates the adjusted reference
intake in humans (RIA) to animal uptake of pollutants and human dietary consumption of such
animals.
Uptake Response Slope of Pollutant in Animal Tissue Food Group, UA. The animal
tissue uptake slopes relate the concentration of pollutant in animal tissue to its concentration in
animal feed. As for inorganics in this pathway, uptake of pollutants in beef muscle and beef liver
were used as surrogates for uptake of pollutants in deer and elk muscle and liver.
Daily Dietaiy Consumption of the Food Group, DA. Since organics sequester in the fat
and liver, the food group assessed were: deer muscle (fat), elk muscle (fat), deer liver, and elk
liver. The daily dietaiy consumption of these food group is the same as for inorganics (see
Table 5.3.4-2 in this pathway).
5-390
-------
Fraction of Food Group Assumed to be Derived from Animals that Ingest Forage Grown
on Sewage Sludge-Amended Soil, FA. As for inorganics for this pathway, deer are assumed to
spend 100-percent of their time in sewage sludge-amended areas, whil& elk spend only 50 percent
of their time there.
Uptake Response Slope of Pollutants in Forage, UC. Since very little data were available
on the uptake of organic compounds by plants, the response slopes could not be calculated and
were therefore conservatively set to a default slope of 0.001.
Reference Annual Application Rate of Pollutant, RP.. The reference annual application
rate applies to organic compounds that degrade in the environment. Hie amount of pollutant in
sludge that can be added to a hectare each year takes this degradation into account.
Assumed Mass of Dry Soil in Upper 15 cm, MS. The assumed mass of dry soil in the
upper IS cm is 2 •10® g-soil DW/ha. (See Section 5.2.1.42.2.12 for a complete description of the
derivation of this value.)
Decay Rate Constant, k. A complete description of this variable is located in Section
5.2.1.4.2.2.1.3 in Agricultural Pathway 1. The values used for k are presented in Table 5.2.1-14,
also in Agricultural Pathway 1.
Input and Output Values
Table 5.3.4-4 presents the input and output values for organic compounds for
nonagricultural Pathway 4.
5-391
-------
TABLE 5.3.4-4
-.. INPUT ANDOUTPUT VALUES FOR ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 4
FOR FOREST LAND AND SOIL RECLAMATION SITES
Aldrin/Dieldrin
I Food Group
UA
DA
5.1055
FA
1.0000
UA*DA*FA
(Deer muscle (fat)
2.156
11.0074
Elk muscle (fit)
2.156
10.2111
0.5000
11.0074
Deer liver
2.873
0.3813
1.0000
1.0952
Elk liver
2.873
0.7625
0.5000
1.0952
sum UA*DA*FA
24.2053
Chlordane
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Deer muscle (fit)
0.071
5.1055
1.0000
0.3610
Elk muscle (fit)
0.071
10.2111
0.5000
0,3610
Deer liver
0.071
0.3813
1.0000
0.0270
Elk liver
0.071
0.7625
0.5000
0.0270
sum
LJA*DA*FA
0.7760
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
16
RE
1
ue
0.001
MS
2E409
RIA
0.438
RF
0.018
RLC
18.075
|RPc
36|
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
Hi*
1.3
RE
1
UC
0.001
MS
2E+09
RIA
5.385
RF
6.939
RLC
6939.236
IRPc
13000|
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-392
-------
TABLE 5.3.4-4 (cont)
DDT/DDE/DDD
Food Group
UA
DA
FA | UA*DA*FA
RL
1.00E-041
Deer muscle (fat)
2.800
5.1055
1.001 14.2945
BW
7(M
Elk muscle (fat)
2.800
10.2111
0.50 14.2945
ql*
°-34
Deer liver
12.891
0.3813
1.00 4.9150
RE
1
Elk liver
12.891
0.7625
0.50 4.9150
UC
0.001
sum
UA»DA*FA| 38.4189
MS
2E+09J
Heptachlor
k
RIA
RF
RLC
RP«
0.041
20.588
0.5361
535.8881
46|
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
RL
1.00E-04
Deer muscle (fet)
3.718
5.1055
1.00
18.9814
BW
70
Elk muscle (fat)
3.718
10.2111
0.50
18.9814
ql*
4.5
Deer liver
12.362
0.3813
1.00
4.7132
RE
1
Elk liver
12.362
0.7625
0.50
4.7132
UC
0.001
sunt
JA»DA*FA
47.3891
MS
2E+09
-
k
6.024
RIA
1.556
RF
0.033
1
RLC
RPa
32.825
65|
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see and of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-393
-------
TABLE 53.4-4 (cont)
Hexachlorobenzene
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
RL
1.00E-04
Deer muscle (fat)
3.482
5.1055
1.00
17.7771
BW
70
Elk muscle (fat)
3.482
10.2111
0.50
17.7771
ql*
1.6
jDeer liver
6.461
0.3813
1.00
2.4634
RE
1
JElk liver
6.461
0.7625
0.50
2.4634
UC
0.001
sum UA*DA*FA
40.4809
MS
2E+09
k
0.122
RIA
4.375
RF
0.108
RLC
108.076
[rpT
Lindane
| Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
RL
1.00E-04
Deer muscle (fit)
1.117
5.1055
1.00
5.7043
BW
70
Elk muscle (fit)
1.117
10.2111
0.50
5.7043
ql*
1.33
Deer liver
1.117
0.3813
1.00
0.4260
RE
1
Elk liver
1.117
0.7625
0.50
0.4260
OC
0.001
sum
JA*DA*FA
12.2605
MS
2E+09
k
1.2
RIA
5.263
RF
0.429
RLC
429.279
6001
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-394
-------
TABLE 5.3.4-4 (cont.)
PCBs
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Deer muscle (fat)
4.215
5.1055
1.00
21.5183
Elk muscle (fat)
4.215
10.2111
0.50
21.5183
Deer liver
6.664
0.3813
1.00
2.5407
Elk liver
6.664
0.7625
0.50
2.5407
sum:
JA*DA*FA
48.1179
Toxophene
Deer muscle (fat)
Food Group
Elk muscle (fat)
Deer liver
Elk liver
UA
18.653
18.653
18.653
18.653
DA
5.1055
10.2111
0.3813
0.7625
FA
1.00
0.50
1.00
0.50
sum UA*DA*FA
UA*DA*FA
95.2339
95.2339
7.1118
7.1118
204.6915
RL
1.00E-04I
BW
701
ql*
7.7
RE
l|
UC
0.001
MS
2E+0W
It
0.0631
1
RIA
0.9091
RF
0.0191
RLC
18.8931
|RP.
2.41
RL
I.00E-04I
BW
7oI
ql*
1.1
RE
1
UC
0.001
MS
2E+09
k
1.2
RIA
6.364
RF
0.031
RLC
31.089
|RPa
431
Notes;
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UA = uptake slope of pollutant in animal tissue (jig-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)/(ng-pollutant/g-diet DW)
DA = daily dietaiy consumption of animal tissue food group (g-diet DW/day)
FA = fraction of food group assumed to be derived from animals which ingest sewage sludge (unitless)
RL = risk level (unitless)
BW = human body weight (kg)
ql* = human cancer potency (mg/kg-day^-l)
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
5-395
-------
TABLE 5J.4-4 (cont.)
' UC - uptake response slope of pollutant in fi3ragcX^gi»Hutant/g-plarrt*tissuc DW)/(kg-poIlutaiiMi2)
MS = assumed mass of dry soil in upper IS cm (g-soil DW/ha)
k »loss rate constant (yrYi-l)
RIA * adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (pg-pollutant/day)
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (ng-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RLC * reference concentration of pollutant in soil (ng-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RPc m reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RPa = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha-yr)
5-396
-------
Sample Calculations
As discussed previously, two approaches are used for organic pollutants. The first, for
organics that degrade over time, is shown by the following sample calculations. The pollutant
used as an example is heptachlor.
First, RIA is calculated from:
•103 (18)
RIA ¦ f RL*BW - TBI
q,'-RE
RIA. - ^°^*7Q - 0.00j.103 (19)
RIA = 1.556 ng -heptachlor/day (20)
where:
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (/xg-pollutant/day)
RL » risk level
BW = human body weight
q,* = human cancer potency (mg/kg^day)"1
RE = relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI = total background intake rate of pollutant (mg-pollutant/day)
103 = conversion factor (jig/mg)
Next, RF is calculated to be: .
RF - — (21)
(UA|*DA|«PA^) K '
RF « 1-556 (22)
47.389
RF - 0.0328 |ig -heptachlor/g -dietDW (23)
5-397
-------
where:
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RIA = adjusted reference intake in humans (/xg-pollutant/day)
UAj = uptake response slope of pollutant in animal tissue food group i
(/xg-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)(pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)"1
DA, = daily dietary consumption of animal tissue food group i (g-animal tissue
DW/day)
FAj = fraction of food group i assumed to be derived from animals that ingest
forage grown on sewage sludge-amended soil (unitless)
Next, RLC is calculated to be:
RLC = H (24)
UC
RLC « 5^1 (25)
0.001
RLC * 32.825 \tg -h«pUchlor/g -soilDW (26)
where:
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (pg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (/ig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
UC * uptake response slope of pollutant in forage crop (/ig-pollutant/g-forage
DW)(^g-polliitant/g-soil)"1
Finally, RP, is calculated to be:
RP, « RLC«MS«10"5>*[l+e-k+e-2k+....+e(I-**]"1 (27)
RP, - 32.825*2• 10®• 10"9«[l +C"*023 +e"2*&aa ~.... «-e(I -«*»•«*»]-» (28)
RP. « 65 kg-heptacliloz/lii *yt (toundeddowiito2aigiiificaiitfigmes) (29)
5-398
-------
where:
RP. =
-RLC- =
MS =
10"* =
k
n
e
reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha*yr)
reference concentration of pollutant in soil Qtg-pollutant/g-soil DW)
2*10® g-soil DW/ha = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm
conversion factor (kg/pg)
base of natural logarithms, 2.718 (unitless)
loss rate constant (yr*1)
years of application until equilibrium conditions are readied (yr)
The second approach is for organics that do not degrade over time. The calculations are
identical to the first approach for organics until the final calculation. The difference between the
two approaches is that the output of the second approach is a reference cumulative application
rate of pollutant The following calculation, using chlordane as an example, shows only the final
step in the procedure, where RPe is calculated to be:
RPC = RLOMS-IO"9 (30)
*
RPC - 6939.236*2»l(f • 10"9 (31)
RPC = 13,000 kg-cMocdane/yr (rounjeddawnto2sagiiificaiitfiguies) (32)
where:
RPC =
RLC =
MS =
10"9 a
reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
reference concentration of pollutant in soil (jig-pollutant/g-soil DW)
2*10® g-soil DW/ha = assumed mass of dry soil in upper 15 cm
conversion factor (kg/pg)
5-399
-------
5J J Nonagricultural Pathway 5 (Human Toxicity from Consumption of Livestock)
S3JS.I Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -* Animal -» Human
Sewage sludge applied to forest land and reclamation sites may be ingested by domestic
animals that graze on grasses Rowing on forest land or reclaimed land; the animals are then
ingested by humans. The pathway continues to individuals that regularly consume these animals'
products. It is assumed that the sludge is not mixed into the soil and is therefore ingested in an
undiluted form. Exposure on public contact sites is limited, because grazing on these sites is
controlled; therefore public contact sites were not assessed.
53J3 Pollutants Evaluated .
As discussed in the Summary of Environmental Profiles and Hazard Indices for Constituents
of Municipal Sludge: Methods and Results (EPA, 1985c), all pollutants except for aldrin/dieldrin,
cadmium, chlordane, DDT/DDE/DDD, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, hexachlorobutadiene,
lindane, mercury, PCBs, and toxaphene, were screened out during the initial evaluation. In
addition to the pollutants remaining, selenium and zinc were assessed, because the animal uptake
data were readily available from Pathway 4. Table 53.5-1 lists the organic and inorganic
compounds assessed for this pathway.
5333 Highly Exposed Individual
Forest Land
This pathway is designed to protect humans that consume domestic animals that graze on
the grasses growing on sewage sludge-treated forest land. The pathway is not considered for wild
animals in forest land, because deer do not graze on plants dose to the ground (they are
5-400
-------
TABLE 535-1
POLLUTANTS EVALUATED FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 5
Inorganics
Organics
Cadmium
Aldrin/Dieldrin
Mercury •
Chlordane
Selenium
DDT/DDE/DDD
Zinc
Heptachlor
Hexachlorobenzene
Hexochlorobutadiene
Lindane
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Toxaphene
5-401
-------
browsers), and other wild-ranging animals have large territories. The HEI is a person who
regularly eats the meats of animals that have grazed on sewage sludge-amended forest land. TOs
scenario is similar to an agricultural pastureland scenario. Hie outputs calculated for
Agricultural Pathway 5 will, therefore, be used for forest land.
Soil Reclamation Sites
Soil reclamation sites can also be used for grazing domestic animals. Therefore, the same
assumptions used for forest land apply to soil reclamation sites. That is, the outputs calculated
for Agricultural Pathway 5 will be used.
Public Contact Sites
«
Exposure through public contact sites is not considered significant It is not expected that
grazing will be allowed on these sites, nor are the areas assumed to be large enough to support
grazing animals.
533.4 Algorithm Development
See Agricultural Pathway 5 for a complete description of the equations and input values
used.
Input and Output Values
533-2 and 533-3 list input and output values for inorganics and organics,
5333
Tables
respectively.
5-402
-------
TABLE 5.3.5-2
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 5
Cadmium
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
RfD
0.001
Beef
0.008
19.2547
0.10
0.0145
BW
70
Beef liver
0.413
0.8983
0.10
0.0371
RE
1
Lamb
0.008
0.2008
0.10
0.0002
TBI
0.01614
Dauy
0.001
28.8679
0.03
0.0010
FS
0.015
sum UA*DA*FA
0.0528
RIA
53.86
RF
1020.556
Mercury
I Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
RfD
0.00031
Beef
0.004
19.2547
0.10
0.0076
BW
70
Beef liver
0.262
0.8983
0.10
0.0235
RE
1
Lamb
0.024
0.2008
0.10
0.0005
TBI
0.0032
Dairy
0.020
28.8679
0.03
0.0171
FS
0.015
sum UA*DA*FA
0.0487
.
RIA
17.8
RF
365.714
|rsc"
24000|
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of tabic for acronym definitions and units.
5-403
-------
TABLE 5.3.5-2 (cont.)
Selenium
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef
0.151
19.2547
0.10
0.2904
Beef liver
1.195
0.8983
0.10
0.1074
Lamb
0.901
0.2008
0.10
0.0181
Dairy
0.901
28.8679
0.03
0.7802
sum UA*DA*FA
1.1960
Zinc
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef
0.006
19.2547
o
o*
0.0107
Beef liver
0.003
0.8983
0.10
0.0002
Lamb
1.106
0.2008
-«.10
0.0222
Dairy
0.005
28.8679
0.03
0.0045
sum UA*DA*FA
0.0377
Irsc"
RfD
0.005
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
0.115
FS
0.0151
1
RIA
2351
RF
196.4871
IRSC 13000|
RID
0.21
BW
70
RE
1
TBI
13.42
FS
0.015
RIA
1280
RF
33970.494
22000001
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UA « uptake slope of pollutant in animal tissue (pg-poOutant/g-animal tissue DW)/(fig-polIutant/g-dict DW)
DA = daily dietary consumption of animal tissue food group (g-diet DW/day)
FA = fraction of food group assumed to be derived from animals which ingest sewage sludge (unitless)
RfD » oral reference dose (mg/kg-day)
BW * human body weight (kg)
RE » relative effectiveness of ingestion exposure (unitless)
TBI»total background intake rate of pollutant from all other sources of exposure (mg-pollutant/day)
FS *= fraction of animal diet that is sewage sludge (g-sewage sludge DW/g-diet DW)
RIA - adjusted reference intake of pollutant in humans (ng-pollutant/day)
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (>ig-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
5-404
-------
TABLE 5.3.5-3
INPUT AND OUTPUT VJULUES FOR ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 5
Aldrin/Dieldrin
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fat)
2.156
15.4977
0.10
3.3413
Beef liver (incl. fat)
2.873
1.1438
0.10
0.3286
Lamb (fat)
1.553
0.2080
0.10
0.0323
Dairy (fet)
12.880
18.1252
0.03
7.0037
sum UA*DA*FA
10.7058
Chlordane
«
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fet)
0.071
15.4977
0.10
0.1096
Beef liver (incl. fet)
0.071
1.1438
0.10
0.0081
Lamb (fet)
0.071
0.2080
0.10
0.0015
Daiiy (fet)
0.060
18.1252
0.03
0.0324
sum UA*DA*FA
0.1515
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
16
RE
1
FS
0.015
RIA
0.438
RF
0.0411
|RSC
2.7|
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
1.3
RE
1
PS
0.015
RIA
5.385
RF
35.538
|MC
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-405
-------
TABLE 53.5-3 (cont)
DDT/DDE/DDD
I Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fat)
2.800
15.4977
0.10
4.3390
Beef liver (incl. fat)
12.891
1.1438
0.10
1.4745
Lamb (fat)
2.289
0.2080
0.10
0.0476
Dairy (fat)
5.601
18.1252
0.03
3.0453
sum UA*DA*FA
8.9065
Heptachlor
Hexachlorobenzene
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fat)
3.718
15.4977
* 0.10
5.7617
Beef liver (incl. fat)
12.362
1.1438
0.10
1.4139
Lamb (fit)
0.853
0.2080
0.10
0.0177
Dairy (fet)
12.362
18.1252
0.03
6.7218
sum UA*DA*FA
13.9153
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fet)
3.482
15.4977
0.10
5.3962
Beef liver (incl. fet)
6.461
1.1438
0.10
0.7390
Lamb (fet)
8.353
0.2080
0.10
0.1737
Daily (fet)
6.461
18.1252
0.03
3.5132
sum UA*DA*FA
9.8221
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
0.34
RE
1
FS
0.015
RIA
20.588
RJF
2.312
|RSC 150|
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql<
4.5
RE
1
FS
0.015
RIA
1.556
RF
0.112
|HSC 7.4|
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
1.6
RE
1
FS
0.015
RIA
4.375
RF
0.445
[Ssc
¦Ml
291
¦¦J
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-406
-------
TABLE 5.3.5-3 (cont)
Hexachiorobutadiene
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fat)
3.482
15.4977
0.10
5.3962
Beef liver (incl. fat)
6.461
1.1438
0.10
0.7390
Lamb (fat)
8.353
0.2080
0.10
0.1737
Dairy (fat)
6.461
18.1252
0.03
3.5132
sum UA*DA*FA
9.8221
RL
I.00E-041
BW
70j
ql*
0.0781
RE
11
FS
0.015
89.7441
RF
9.1371
[Use"
Lindane
1 Food Group
UA
DA
15.4977
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fat)
1.117
0.10
1.7315
Beef liver (incl. fat)
1.117
1.1438
. 0.10
0.1278
Lamb (fat)
1.117
0.2080
0.10
0.0232
Dairy (fat)
1,117
18.1252
0.03
0.6075
sum UA*DA*FA
2.4901
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
1.33
RE
1
FS
0.015
RIA
5.263
RF
2.114
PCBs
|RSC
Food Group
UA
DA
FA
UA*DA*FA
Beef (fat)
4.215
15.4977
0.10
6.5318
Beef liver (incl. fat)
6.664
1.1438
0.10
0.7622
Lamb (fat)
6.664
0.2080
0.10
0.1386
Dairy (fet)
10.536
18.1252
0.03
5.7289
sum UA*DA*FA
13.1615
RL
1.00E-04
BW
70
ql*
7.7
RE
1
FS
0.015
RIA
0.909
RF
0.069
|rsc"
73
Note: Totals may not add due to rounding; see end of table for acronym definitions and units.
5-407
-------
TABLE 533-3 (cont.)
Toxapfcene
UA
18.653
DA
FA
Food Group
RL
1.00E-04
15.4977
0.10
28.9079
BW
Beef liver (incl. fat)
18.653
0.10
1.1438
2.1335
0.2080
18.653
0.10
0.3880
RE
Dairy (fat)
18.653
18.1252
0.03
10.1427
0.015
sum UA*DA"FA
41.5722
RIA
6.364
RF
0.153
[rsc
10
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
UA * uptake slope of pollutant in animal tissue (pg-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)/(ng-pollutant/g-
-------
5JJ.6 Sample Calculations
See Section 5.2X6 in Agricultural Pathway 5 for sample calculations.
5-409
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53.6 Nonagricultural Pathway 6 (Animal Toxicity from Consumption of Plants)
53.6.1" Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge Soil -* Plant -» Animal
This pathway Is similar to Pathways 4 and 5, where animals foraging in forests or on
reclaimed soil sites ingest sewage sludgc-amcnded soil. The point of concern here, however, is
the direct toxicity to the animal from the plants.
5.3.6JZ Pollutants Evaluated
For scenario 1, described below, cadmium has been shown to accumulate in small
herbivores. Therefore, only cadmium was evaluated for this scenario.
For scenario 2, also described below, the same pollutants were evaluated as for
Agricultural Pathway 6: arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, molybdenum, nickel,
selenium, and zinc.
5 J. 6 J Highly Exposed Individual
Forest Land
In a forest application site, two Highly Exposed Individuals (HEIs) are possible. In
scenario 1, the HEI is a small mammal (herbivore) that lives its entire life in a sewage
sludge-amended area feeding on seeds and small plants close to the sludge/soil layer. In scenario
2, the HEI is a domestic animal that grazes on the grasses growing on sewage sludge-amended
forest land. To assess which of these two HEIs provides more restrictive limits, both were
analyzed. A deer mouse was chosen for the first case. Domestic animals were chosen for the
second case, because larger herbivores such as deer probably receive a considerable portion of
5-410
-------
their diet from areas not amended with sewage sludge, since they have a larger foraging territory.
In addition, deer are browsers rather than grazers, and they do not ingest as much sewage sludge
as domestic animals such as cattle or sheep. Using cattle makes this pathway identical to
Agricultural Pathway 6, so the inputs and outputs from Agricultural Pathway 6 were used.
Soil Reclamation Sites
Soil reclamation sites can also be used as pastureland. Thus, the limits calculated for
Agricultural Pathway 6 were used.
Public Contact Sites
Hie HEI for public contact sites is similar to that for the small mammal described for the
forest scenario. Therefore the values for forest land scenario 1 were used for public contact
sites.
5.3.6.4 Algorithm Development
5.3.6.4.1 Equations
For this pathway, threshold feed concentrations, and forage uptake slopes are used to
calculate reference application rates of pollutants. Although many studies have identified
increased concentrations of pollutants in kidneys of small herbivores living in sites to which
sewage sludge has been applied, none has established threshold feed concentrations. Therefore,
a new approach was developed that uses threshold contaminant concentrations in organs and
organ uptake slopes.
For a small mammal, the deer mouse, (for forest land scenario 1 and public contact
sites), a reference concentration of pollutant is calculated:
5-411
-------
- TO - ABI
UA
reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
threshold concentration of pollutant in animal organ (/ig-pollutant/g-organ
DW)
background concentration of pollutant in animal organ (^g-pollutant/g-
organ DW)
uptake response slope of pollutant in animal organ from consumption of
plants (jtg-pollutant/g-organ DW) (kg-pollutant/ha)'1
53.6.42 Input Parameters
Threshold Concentration of Pollutant in Animal Organ, TO. Threshold organ
concentrations have been calculated by Chaney (1991a). Linear response slopes were calculated
from kidneys of deer mice from control sites and sites to which sludge had been applied.
Background Concentration of Pollutant in Animal Organ, AM. The background organ
concentrations were calculated from a geometric mean of kidneys from deer mice from a number
of control sites in Washington state.
Uptake Response Slope of Pollutant in Animal Organ from Consumption of Plants, UA.
Uptake response slopes of pollutant in animal organs from their having consumed plants have
been calculated from kidneys of deer mice from control sites and sites to which sewage sludge
has been applied.
5.3.63 Input and Output Values
The input and output values for the deer mouse are presented in Table 5.3.6-1. Input
and output values for domestic animals from Agricultural Pathway 6 are presented in Table
5.3.6-2.
where:
RF„ =
TO =
ABI =
UA =
5-412
-------
TABLE 53.6-1
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR NONAGRICULTURAL
PATHWAY 6 FOR PUBLIC CONTACT SITES
Pollutant
TO
ABI I
UA
Cadmium
696
12.21
0.596|
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
TO = threshold concentration of pollutant in animal organ ((ng-poIlutant/g-organDW)
ABI = background concentration of pollutant in animal organ ( (ng-pollutant/g-organDW)
UA = uptake slope of pollutant in animal tissue (pg-pollutant/g-animal tissue DW)/(pg-pollutant/g-diet DW)
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
5-413
-------
TABLE 5.3.6-2
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 6
FOR FOREST LAND AND SOIL RECLAMATION SITES
RPc
1600
140
3700
11000
18
1800
790
12000
Notes:
** No data
Totals may not add due to rounding.
TPI == threshold pollutant intake level (jig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
BC = background concentration of pollutant in forage (jig-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (ng-pollutant/g-diet DW)
UC = uptake slope of pollutant in forage (ng-pollutant/g-plant tissue DW)/(kg-pollutant/ha)
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
Pollutant
TPI
BC
RF
UC
Arsenic
50
0.304
49.696
0.030
Cadmium
10
0.225
9.775
0.070
Chromium
3000
**
~ *
Copper
50
5.842
44.158
0.012
Lead
30
2.204
27.796
0.002
Molybdenum
10
2,084
7.916337913
0.423
Nickel
100
0.696
99.304
0.055
Selenium
2.3
0.055
2.245
0.003
Zinc
600
17.372
582.628
0.048
5-414
-------
5.3.6.6 Sample Calculations
The following is a sample calculation for Nonagricultural Pathway 6, Forest Land
scenario 1 and Public Contact Sites. The pollutant used as an example is cadmium:
RPc - W (2)
wp - 696 " 12-2 (3)
c 0.596
RPc = 1,100 kg-cadmium/ha (rounded down to 2 significant figures) (4)
where:
RPC = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
TO = threshold concentration of pollutant in animal organ (#*g-pollutant/g-organ
DW)
ABI = background concentration of pollutant in animal organ (^g-pollutant/g-
organ DW)
UA = uptake response slope of pollutant in animal organ from consumption of
plants (^g-pollutant/g-organ DW)(kg-pollutant/ha)"1
For Forest Land scenario 2 and for Soil Reclamation sites, the limits calculated for
Agricultural Pathway 6 are used. Sample calculations for zinc can be found in Agricultural
Pathway 6, Section 5.2.6.6.
5-415
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S3.7 Nonagricultural Pathway 7 (Animal Toxicity From Consumption of Sewage Sludge)
5.3.7.1 Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -» Animal
For this pathway, sewage sludge is applied to a forest area or to reclaimed land, and it
adheres to plant surfaces, or remains in the thatch layer on the soil surface. Foraging or
browsing animals then ingest sewage sludge directly through consuming plants to which sewage
sludge and soil adhere,
5.3 J2 Pollutants Evaluated
As discussed in the Summary of Environmental Profiles and Hazard Indices for Constituents
of Municipal Sludge: Methods and Results (EPA, 1985c), all pollutants except copper and iron
were screened during the initial evaluation. Since the original screening was completed, further
research indicates that iron is not a problem to animals that incidentally eat sludge, and that
arsenic, cadmium, chromium, molybdenum, nickel, lead, selenium, and zinc are of concern for
animals that incidentally ingest sludge. Table 5.3.7-1 lists the inorganic pollutants assessed for
this pathway.
5.3.7.3 Highly Exposed Individual
Forest Land
Forest animals typically browse rather than graze. As in Nonagricultural Pathway 6,
grazing on forest land is assumed to be similar to grazing on agricultural pasturelands; therefore
the limits calculated for Agricultural Pathway 7 will be used for forest land.
5-416
-------
TABLE 53.7-1
POLLUTANTS EVALUATED FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 7
Inorganics
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Lead
Molybdenum
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc
5-417
-------
Soil Reclamation Sites
The same assumptions exist for soil reclamation-practice as for forest land. Therefore,
the limits calculated for agricultural use will be used.
Public Contact Sites
This pathway is not considered significant for public contact sites. It is not expected that
grazing will be allowed on these sites, nor is the area large enough to support grazing animals.
5.3.7.4 Algorithm Development
See Agricultural Pathway 7 for a complete description of the equations and input
parameters used.
S.3.7S Input and Output Values
The input and output values for this pathway are presented in Table 5.3.7-2.
5.3.7.6 Sample Calculations
Sample calculations can be found in Agricultural Pathway 7 in Section 5.2.7.6.
5-418
-------
TABLE 5.3.7-2
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES
FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 7
Pollutant
TPI
BS
RF
FS
Arsenic
50
3
47
0.015
Cadmium
10
0.2
9.8
0.015
Chromium
3000
100
2900
0.015
Copper
50
19
31
0.015
Lead
30
11
19
0.015
Molybdenum
10
2
8
0.015
Nickel
100
18
82
0.015
Selenium
2.3
0.21
2.09
0.015
Zinc
600
54
546
0.015
RSC
3100
650
190000
2000
1200
530
5400
130
36000
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
TPI = threshold pollutant intake level (ng-pollutant/g-diet DW) ,
BS = background concentration of pollutant in soil (jjg-pollutant/g-soil DW) <
RF = reference concentration of pollutant in diet (fig-pollutant/g-diet DW)
FS = fraction of animal diet that is sewage sludge (g-sewage sludge DW/g-diet DW)
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (ng-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
5-419
-------
5.3.8 Nonagricultural Pathway 8 (Plant Toxicity)
53&.1 Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -• Soil -» Plant Phototoxicity
When sewage sludge is added to an existing plant community, plant uptake of sewage
sludge constituents can lead to phytotoxicity. When sewage sludge is applied to forest land or to
reclaimed land where a crop is planted to stabilize the soil from erosion, surface-level roots of
plants are highly exposed and can easily take up sewage sludge constituents from this layer. In
public contact sites, plants are chosen for aesthetic appeal rather than for their compatibility with
sewage sludge. Therefore, such plants may be highly sensitive to additions of sewage sludge.
S.3JS3 Pollutants Evaluated
Table 53.8-1 lists the organic and inorganic compounds assessed for this pathway.
S.3MJ Highly Exposed Individual
Forest Land
Few studies have been conducted to evaluate the sensitivity of wild plant species to trace
metals in sewage sludge. Phytotoxicity in forest land is also difficult to evaluate or define. When
nutrient-rich sewage sludge is added to an existing plant community, the species that respond
most to nutrients will obviously out-compete other species. Some studies have been conducted
on plant species that occupy a site following application of sewage sludge. In general, the same
plant species exist a number of years after application, but the percentage of each species
changes somewhat. However, this change probably does not constitute phytotoxicity.
Because information is lacking on the phytotoxicity of wild plants to the constituents of
sewage sludge, this pathway cannot be directly evaluated. A conservative approach would,
5-420
-------
TABLE 5-3.8-1
POLLUTANTS EVALUATED FOR
NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 8
Inorganics
Chromium
Copper
Nickel
Zinc
5-421
-------
therefore, be to use the same limits used for the analogous agricultural pathway, Agricultural
Pathway 8.
Soil Reclamation Sites
By definition, crops directly ingested by humans are not grown in soil reclamation sites.
Less sensitive vegetation (i.e., species that are quite harcfy) will be established to provide
long-term ground cover. Thus, use of agricultural phytotoxicity values are conservative, because
agricultural plants include more sensitive species of plants than are usually represented by plants
that grow on nonagricultural land. Phytotoxicity does not appear to apply for this practice,
because plants will be chosen that are compatible with sewage sludge. Therefore, this pathway
was not assessed.
Public Contact Sites
In public contact sites, sewage sludge is used for a variety of plant species that are chosen
for their aesthetic appeal rather than for their compatibility with sewage sludge. Thus, it is
reasonable to use, as the limiting criteria, the phytotoxic values established for agricultural
* practices for sensitive crops.
53*8.4 Algorithm Development
The equations and input parameters used are fully described in Agricultural Pathway 8.
Two approaches were used to evaluate this pathway, then the most stringent result was adopted
as the allowable reference cumulative application rate of pollutant.
«
53Ji3 Input and Output Values
The limiting values for this pathway are presented in Table 5.3.8-2.
5-422
-------
TABLE 5.3.8-2
LIMITING RESULTS FOR
NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 8
Pollutant
RPc
Chromium
3000
Copper
1500
Nickel
420
Zinc
2800
Note:
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
5-423
-------
53.9 Nonagricultural Pathway 9 (Soil Organism Toxicity From Soil)
5.3S.I Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -» Soil -~ Soil Organisms
This pathway assesses the application of sewage sludge to the land, and the ingestion by
soil organisms of sewage sludge incorporated into the soil.
S3SJ2 Pollutants Evaluated
As discussed in the Summary of Environmental Profiles and Hazard Indices for Constituents
of Municipal Sludge: Methods and Results (EPA, 1985c), all pollutants except copper were
screened out during the initial evaluation. Since the original screening was completed, no
information indicates that this decision should be altered. Therefore, copper was the only
pollutant assessed for this pathway.
S.3S3 Highly Exposed Individual
The analysis developed for this pathway is designed to assist in setting pollutant loading
limits that protect the most exposed/most sensitive soil organisms. There is as yet no field data
that indicate the level at which copper in sludge becomes toxic to soil organisms. However,
Hartenstein et al. (1980c) routinely produced earthworms in soil containing sewage sludge,
thereby providing a limited source of data. There is no evidence that earthworms are the most
sensitive species,- however, because of the lack of data for other species, the criteria for this
pathway have been set using data for earthworms. As will be evident later, the criteria are based
on a No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) for the earthworm, Eisenia foetida.
5-424
-------
5.35.4 Algorithm Development
Although there can be differences between populations of soil organisms in agricultural
and in nonagricultural soils, a lack of data leads to the assumption that the analysis for
agricultural land is pertinent to that for nonagricultural land. A complete discussion of the
equations and input parameters used can be found in Agricultural Pathway 9.
5.35.5 Input and Output Values ,
The input and output values are summarized in Table 5.3.9-1.
5-425
-------
TABLE 5.3.9-1
INPUT AND OUTPUT VALUES
FOR NONAGRICULTURAL PATHWAY 9
Pollutant
RLC | BS 1 MS
15001 19.01 2E-H?
RPc
2900
Notes:
Totals may not add due to rounding.
RLC = reference concentration of pollutant in soil (ng-pollutant/g-soil DW)
BS - background concentration of pollutant in soil (ng-pollutant/g-soil DW)
MS = assumed mass of diy soil in upper 15 cm (g-soil DW/ha)
RPc - reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
5-426
-------
5.3.10 Nonagricultural Pathway 10 (Toxicity to Predators of Soil Organisms from
Consuming Soil Organisms)
5.3.10.1 Description of Pathway
Sewage Sludge -» Soil Organisms -» Predators of Soil Organisms
Toxicity to predators of soil organisms is a concern for small mammals that feed on soil
organisms and live on sewage sludge-amended soils. As discussed in Pathway 9, the exposure of soil
organisms, can extend to predators of soil organisms through the food chain. The scenario applies to
forest lands, as well as to public contact sites and reclaimed lands.
5.3.10.2 Pollutants Evaluated
Earthworms are a main food of shrews. Earthworms either slightly accumulate essential
elements such as zinc, or they do not accumulate diem at all. Earthworms do not accumulate
chromium, while they somewhat accumulate lead (Chaney, 1991a). Mammals known to ingest
earthworms also have efficient homeostatic mechanisms that preclude metal toxicity unless aerosol
deposition contaminates forages. Three pollutants were evaluated for this pathway: cadmium, lead,
and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
5.3.10.3 Highly Exposed Individual
In all nonagricultural practices, the Highly Exposed Individual (HEI), is a shrew, a small
mammal that lives its entire life in a sewage sludge-amended area feeding on soil organisms.
Mammals known to ingest earthworms have efficient homeostatic mechanisms that preclude metal
toxicity unless aerosol deposition contaminates forages. However, worms highly accumulate
cadmium; therefore this pathway limits the analysis to cadmium. Data are not available on threshold
feed concentration of shrews, especially from sludge research. However, studies have indicated that
high levels of cadmium accumulate in shrews living on sites to which sludge has been applied
(Hegstrom, 1986). In particular, shrews accumulated the highest levels of cadmium in kidneys. No
5-427
-------
predator of soil organisms has been singled out as being particularly sensitive to cadmium and lead.
Rather, die literature indicates that the insectivorous small mammals (shrews) are the best sentinels
for both inorganic and organic contaminants, and are thus assumed to be the most exposed. This is
not the case for PCBs, where there is clear evidence that chickens are the most sensitive species.
5.3.10.4 Algorithm Development
Hie values from Agricultural Pathway 10 were used, because the HEI and the approach are
identical. A complete discussion of the equations, input parameters used, results, and sample
calculations, can be found in Agricultural Pathway 10.
5-428
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5J.11 Nonagricultural Pathway 11 (Tractor Operator Pathway)
As discussed in Section. 5.1, this pathway was not assessed, because it is not an
appropriate pathway for the nonagricultural setting.
5.3.12 Nonagricultural Pathway 12 (Surface Water Pathway)
The values for this pathway were taken directly from Agricultural Pathway 12. See
Agricultural Pathway 12 for a complete discussion of this pathway.
53,13 Nonagricultural Pathway 13 (Air Pathway)
The values for this pathway were taken directly from Agricultural Pathway 13. See
Agricultural Pathway 13 for a complete discussion of this pathway.
5.3.14 Nonagricultural Pathway 14 (Ground Water Pathway)
The values for this pathway were taken directly from Agricultural Pathway 14. See
Agricultural Pathway 14 for a complete discussion of this pathway.
5-429
-------
5.4 AGRICULTURAL AND NONAGRICULTURAL RESULTS
This section presents 10 tables summarizing the results from Section Five,
The first four tables (Tables 5-4-1 through 5.4-4) present output data for inorganic
pollutants from the four scenarios: agricultural; nonagricultural forest land; nonagricultural soil
reclamation sites; and nonagricultural public contact sites. Table 5.4-5 presents the limiting
number for each pathway for each pollutant. The limiting number is the lowest number
generated from the four scenarios for each pollutant/pathway combination.
The following five tables (Tables 5.4-6 through 5.4-10) present the results for organic
pollutants in the same manner. That is, four tables present all the results, and the final table
presents the limiting numbers.
5-430
-------
TABLE 5.4-1
AGRICULTURAL RESULTS FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
i
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Pollutant
RPc
RPc
RSC
RPc
RSC
RPc
RSC
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
Arsenic
6700
930
41
1600
3100
400
66000
1200
Cadmium
610
120
39
6400
68000
140
6S0
53
8000
63000
unlimited
Chromium
79000
190000
3000
5000
unlimited
12000
Copper
10000
3700
2000
1500
2900
unlimited
unlimited
Lead
300
11000
1200
5000
10000
unlimited
unlimited
Mercury
180
370
17
4000
24000
10000
1100
unlimited
Molybdenum
400
18
530
Nickel
63000
10000
820
1800
5400
420
3000
unlimited
13000
Selenium
14000
1200
100
15000
13000
790
130
Zinc
16000
3600
16000
S30000
2200000
12000
36000
2800
Note: All results rounded down to two significant figures
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (^g-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
-------
TABLE 5.4-2
NONAGRICULTURAL RESULTS FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS FOR FOREST LAND
1
I
2
3
4
5
6
1
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
[Pollutant
RPc
RPc
RSC
RPc
RSC
RPc
RSC
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
[Arsenic
47000
53
1600
3100
i
66000
1200
[Cadmium
1800
54
1600
•68000
140
650
53
63000
unlimited
Chromium
94000
190000
3000
unlimited
12000
bopper
10000
3700
2000
1500
2900
unlimited
unlimited
I Lead
300
11000
1200
5000
unlimited
unlimited
Mercury
6000
" 22
1500
24000
1100
unlimited
Molybdenum
470
18
530
Nickel
570000
1100
1800
5400
420
unlimited
13000
Selenium
35000
170
15000
13000
790
130
JZinc
85000
16000
150000
2200000
12000
36000
2800
Note: All results rounded down to two significant figures
RPc - reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollulant/ha)
RSC - reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (ng-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
-------
TABLE 5.4-3
NONAGRICULTURAL RESULTS FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS FOR SOIL RECLAMATION SITES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Pollutant
RPc
RPc
RSC
RPc
RSC
RPc
RSC
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
Arsenic
47000
53
1600
3100
66000
1200
Cadmium
1800
54
1600
68000
140
650
53
63000
unlimited
Chromium
94000
190000
unlimited
12000
Copper
10000
3700
2000
2900
unlimited
unlimited
Lead
300
UOOO
1200
5000
unlimited
unlimited
Mercury
6000
22
1500
24000
1100
unlimited
Molybdenum
470
18
530
Nickel
570000
1100
1800
5400
unlimited
13000
Selenium
35000
170
15000
13000
790
130
Einc
85000
16000
150000
2200000
12000
36000
Note: AH results rounded down to two significant figures
RPc " reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RSC - reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (fig-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
-------
TABLE 5.4-4
NONAGRICULTURAL RESULTS FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS FOR PUBLIC CONTACT SITES
1
2
3
4
S
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Pollutant
RPc
RPc
RSC
RPc
RSC
RPc
RSC
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
Arsenic
47000
41
66000
1200
Cadmium
1800
39
1100
53
63000
unlimited
Chromium
79000
3000
unlimited
12000
Copper
10000
1500
2900
unlimited
unlimited
Lead
300
5000
unlimited
unlimited
Mercury
6000
17
1100
unlimited
Molybdenum
400
Nickel
570000
820
420
unlimited
13000
Selenium
35000
100
Zinc
85000
16000
2800
Note: All results rounded down to two significant figures
RPc reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
tj»> RSC «• reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge ((ig-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
-------
TABLE 5.4-5
LIMITING RESULTS FOR EACH PATHWAY FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14 I
Pollutant
RPc
RPc
RSC
RPc
RSC
RPc
RSC
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
Arsenic
6700
930
41
1600
3100
400
66000
1200
Cadmium
610
120
39
1600
<58000
140
650
53
1 8000
63000
unlimited
Chromium
79000
190000
3000
5000
unlimited
12000
Copper
10000
3700
2000
1500
2900
unlimited
unlimited
Lead
300
11000
1200
5000
10000
unlimited
unlimited
Mercury
180
370
. 17
1500
24000
10000
1100
unlimited
Molybdenum
400
18
S30
Nickel
63000
10000
820
1800
5400
420
3000
unlimited
13000
Selenium
14000
1200
100
15000
13000
790
130
Zinc
1280
1280
16000
150000
• 2200000
12000
36000
2800
Note: All results rounded down to two significant figures
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RSC " reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (fig-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
-------
TABLE 5.4-6
AGRICULTURAL RESULTS FOR ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
Pollutant
1
2
3
4
S
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
RPa
RPc
RPa
RPc
RSC
RPa
RPc
RSC
RPa
RPc
RPa
RPa
RPa
Aldrin/Dieldrin
280
64
7.0
17
2.7
30000
Benzo(a)pyrene
230
54
15
1.3
3500
unlimited
Chlordane
3400
790
86
36000
2300
5.3
3.9
unlimited
DDT
560
130
320
48
150
100000
1.2
45
unlimited
Heptachlor
990
220
24
110
7.4
Hexachlorobenzene
320
75
70
48
29
Hexachlorobutadiene
43000
10000
1400
600
Lindane
2300
540
84
1500
140
2100
no
unlimited
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
87
20
2.1
29000
22
0.056
PCBs
37
8.5
14
4.3
4.6
0.50
200
0.34
1.4
unlimited
Toxaphene
2800
650
100
120
10
5.0
120
unlimited
Trichloroethylene
220000
51000
10000
unlimited
420
unlimited
•K Note: All results rounded down to two significant figures
On RPa - reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha-yr)
RPc - reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RSC 3 reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (|ig-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
-------
TABLE 5.4-7
NONAGRICULTURAL RESULTS FOR ORGANIC POLLUTANTS FOR FOREST LAND
Pollutant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
RPa
RPe
RPa
RPe
RSC
RPa
RPe
RSC
RPa
RPe
RPa
RPa
RPa
Aldrin/Dieldrin
1000
20
36
2.7
Benzo{a)pyrene
910
45
1.3
3500
unlimited
Chlordane
13000
250
13000
2300
5.3
3.9
unlimited
DDT
2200
970
46
150
1.2
45
unlimited
Heptachlor
3800
73
65
7.4
Hexachlorobenzeoe
1200
200
25
29
Hexachlorobutadiene
160000
4200
600
Lindane
9200
250
600
140
2100
110
unlimited
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
340
6.5
29000
22
0.056
PCBs
140
43
2.4
4.6
0.50
0.34
1.4
unlimited
Toxaphene
11000
300
43
10
5.0
120
unlimited
Trichloroethylene
860000
30000
unlimited
420
unlimited
v»
4*. Note: All results rounded down to two significant figures
RPa = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha-yr)
RPe - reference cumulative application (ate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RSC - reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (|tg-pollutant/g~sewage sludge DW)
-------
TABLE 5.4-8
NONAGRICULTURAL RESULTS FOR ORGANIC POLLUTANTS FOR SOIL RECLAMATION SITES
Pollutant
1
2
3
4
S
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
RPa
RPc
RPa
RPc
RSC
RPa
RPc
RSC
RPa
RPc
RPa
RPa
RPa
Aldrin/Dieldrin
1300
20
36
2.7
Benzo(a)pyrene
1100
45
1.3
3500
unlimited
Chlordane
16000
250
13000
2300
5.3
3.9
unlimited
DDT
2700
970
46
150
1.2
45
unlimited
Heptachlor
4700
73
65
7.4
Hexachlorobenzene
1500
200
25
29
Hexachlorobutadiene
200000
4200
600
Lindane
11000
250
600
140
2100
110
unlimited
n-Nitrosodimcthylaminc
420
6.5
29000
22
0.056
PCBs
170
43
2.4
4.6
0.50
0.34
1.4
unlimited
Toxaphene
13000
300
43
10
5.0
120
unlimited!
Trichloroethylene
1000000
30000
unlimited
420
unlimitedl
k
^ Note: All results rounded down to two significant figures
RPa = reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha-yr)
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RSC » reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (ftg-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
-------
TABLE 5.4-9
NONAGRICULTURAL RESULTS FOR ORGANIC POLLUTANTS FOR PUBLIC CONTACT SITES
Pollutant
1
2
3
4
S
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14 1
RPa
RPc
RPa
RPc
RSC
RPa
RPc
RSC
RPa
RPc
RPa
RPa
RPa 1
Aldrin/Dieldrin
1300
7,0
Benzo(a)pyrene
1100
15
1.3
3500
unlimitedl
Chlordane
16000
86
5.3
3.9
unlimited
DDT
2700
320
1.2
45
unlimited
Heptachlor
4700
24
Hexachlorobenzene
1S00
70
Hexachlorobutadiene
200000
1400
Lindane
11000
84
2100
110
unlimited
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
420
2.1
29000
22
0.056
rcBs
170
14
0.50
0.34
1.4
unlimited
Toxaphene
13000
100
5.0
120
unlimited
Trichloroethylenc
1000000
10000
unlimited
420
unlimited
W Note: All results rounded down to two significant figures
RPa - reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha-yr)
RPc - reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (ng-pol!utant/g-sewage sludge DW)
-------
TABLE 5.4-10
LIMITING RESULTS FOE EACH PATHWAY FOR ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
Pollutant
1
2
3
4
S
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
RPa
RPc
RPa
RPc
RSC
RPa
RPc
RSC
RPa
RPc
RPa
RPa
RPa
Aldrin/Dieldrin
280
64
7.0
17
2.7
30000
Benzo(a)pyrene
230
54
15
1.3
3500
unlimited
Chlordane
3400
790
86
13000
2300
5.3
3.9
unlimited
DDT
560
130
320
46
150
100000
1.2
45
unlimited
Heptachlor
990
220
24
65
7.4
Hexachlorobenzene
320
75
70
25
29
Hexachlorobutadiene
43000
10000
1400
600
Lindane
2300
540
84
600
140
2100
110
unlimited
n-Nitrosodimethylamine
87
20
2.1
29000
22
0.056
PCBs
37
8,5
14
2.4
4.6
0.50
200
0.34
1.4
unlimited
Toxaphene
2800
650
100
43
10
5.0
120
unlimited
Trichlorocthylene
220000
51000
10000
unlimited
420
unlimited
Note: All results rounded down to two significant figures
RPa - reference annual application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha-yr)
RPc - reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RSC - reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (ng-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
-------
SECTION SIX
POLLUTANT LIMITS
This section first describes how the pollutant limits calculated in the risk assessment in
Section Five relate to the pollutant limits in the regulation. The regulatoiy limits are then
presented and described. Section 6.1 describes the deletion of organic pollutants from the final
rule, and Section 6.2 presents the limiting concentrations by pathway. The development of
regulatoiy limits is described in Section 6.3 and the implementation of these regulatoiy limits is
summarized in Section 6.4.
6.1 DELETION OF ORGANIC POLLUTANTS FROM THE FINAL RULE
During the public comment period for Technical Standards for Use and Disposal of Sewage
Sludge; Proposed Rule (40 CFR Parts 257 and 503,1989), several commenters recommended
deleting some of the organic pollutants found in sewage sludge from the final rule. The main
reason for this recommendation was that most of these pollutants are currently either banned or
restricted for use in the United States, Because of these comments, the Agency re-evaluated all
of the organic pollutants regulated in the proposed Part 503 rule for land application. As a
result of this evaluation, all of the organic pollutants were deleted from the final rale for land
application. A detailed explanation of the evaluation is presented in Appendix B.
6.2 LIMITING CONCENTRATIONS FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
Separate risk assessments were performed for two types of land: agricultural land, which
includes land on which sewage sludge sold or given away in a bag or other container is applied,
and nonagricultural land (i.e., forest, public contact sites, and reclamation sites). Fourteen
pathways were evaluated for agricultural land and 12 pathways were evaluated for nonagricultural
land.
6-1
-------
The Agency compared the pollutant limits generated under the agricultural and
nonagricultural land application scenarios and used the lower of the two to create pollutant limits
for all land-applied sewage sludge, regardless of end use. EPA concluded that having only one
limit to comply with instead of two, would make compliance simpler for preparers and appliers
of sewage sludge. Table 6-1 shows the most stringent pollutant limits calculated for each
pollutant for each pathway. It should be noted that these numbers are rounded down to two
significant digits. This decision was made to prevent upward rounding, which would result in
pollutant limits less stringent than the risk-based numbers.
As shown in Table 6-1, most risk assessment outputs are reference cumulative application
rates (RPJ, whereas outputs for Pathways 3,5, and 7 are concentrations of pollutants in sewage
sludge (RSC). To enable comparison between pathways, all the results were converted to the
same units, RPC using the following equation:
RP0 = RSC* AWSAR • 0.001 • SL (1)
where:
RPe = cumulative reference application rate of pollutant in sewage sludge
(kg-pollutant/ha)
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (mg-
pollutant/kg-sewage sludge DW)
AWSAR = annual whole sludge application rate (mt-sewage sludge DW/ha»yr)
(see Section 6.53)
0.001 = conversion factor
SL = number of years of site life
The annual whole sludge application rate (AWSAR) is the maximum amount of sewage
sludge that is applied to a hectare in a year (40 CFR Part 503). An AWSAR of 10 mt-sewage
sludge DW/ha«yr, which is somewhat higher than the typical application rate of 7 mt, and a site
life of 100 years, a reasonable maximum site life, were used. Therefore:
RPC - RS00.001 * 10* 100 (2)
6-2
-------
TABLE £-1
LIMITING RESULTS FOR EACH PATHWAY FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
Pollutant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
a
9
10
11
12
13
14
RPc
RPc
RSC
RPc
RSC
RPc
RSC
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
Arsenic
6700
930
41
1600
3100
66000
1200
Cadmium
610
120
39
1600
68000
140
650
53
63000
unlimited
Chromium
79000
190000
3000
unlimited
12000
ICopper
10000
3700
2000
1SOO
2900
unlimited
unlimited
{Lead
300
11000
1200
5000
unlimited
unlimited
[Mercury
180
370
17
1500
24000
1100
unlimited
Molybdenum
400
18
530
Nickel
63000
10000
820
1800
5400
420
unlimited
13000
Selenium
14000
1200
100
1S000
13000
790
130
Zinc
16000
3600
16000
150000
2200000
12000
36000
2800
Note: All results rounded down to two significant figures
RPc = reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
RSC = reference concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (ng-pollutant/g-sewage sludge DW)
-------
Because of the factors used, the RP,* for Pathways 3,5, and 7 are the same numbers as
the analogous RSCs, but the units differ. The RP^s are shown in Table 6-2.
For each pollutant, the lowest RPC of all the pathways is the risk-based limit for land
application. Table 6-3 summarizes this limiting number and also shows from which pathway this
number was derived.
63 DEVELOPMENT OF REGULATORY LIMITS
Part 503 includes two different types of pollutant limits: pollutant concentrations and
pollutant loading rates. Pollutant loading rates, which include cumulative pollutant loading rates
(CPLRs) and annual pollutant loading rates (APLRs), are described in Section 6.3.1. The
pollutant concentration limits, which include both pollutant concentrations and ceiling
concentrations, are described in Section 6.3.2. A separate pollutant limit for domestic septage
applied to land is specified as an annual application rate. This limit is discussed in Section 6.43.
63.1 Pollutant Loading Rates
Two types of pollutant loading rates were developed: annual pollutant loading rates,
which apply only to the application of sewage sludge sold or given away in a bag or other
container, and cumulative pollutant loading rates, which apply to bulk sewage sludge appliers to
the land.
6.3.1.1 Development of Cumulative Pollutant Loading Bates (CPLRs)
A cumulative pollutant loading rate (CPLR), measured in kilograms of pollutant per
hectare of land (kg-pollutant/ha), is the maximum amount of an inorganic pollutant that can be
6-4
-------
TABLE 6-2
LIMITING RESULTS FOR EACH PATHWAY FOR INORGANIC POLLUTANTS,
REPORTED AS REFERENCE CUMULATIVE APPLICATION RATE OF POLLUTANT
1
2
3
4
s
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
] Pollutant
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
RPc
(Arsenic
6700
930
41
1600
3100
66000
12001
Cadmium
610
120
39
1600
68000
140
650
53
63000
unlimited [
Chromium
79000
190000
3000
unlimited
12000
Copper
10000
3700
2000
1500
2900
unlimited
unlimited
Lead
300
11000
1200
5000
unlimited
unlimited
Mercury
180
370
17
1500
24000
1100
unlimited
Molybdenum
400
18
530
Nickel
63000
10000
820
1800
5400
420
unlimited
13000
Selenium
14000
1200
100
ISOOO
13000
790
130
Zinc
16000
3600
16000
150000
2200000
12000
36000
2800
Note: All results rounded down to two significant figures
RPc 3 reference cumulative application rate of pollutant (kg-pollutant/ha)
-------
TABLE 6-3
RISK-BASED POLLUTANT LIMITS AND LIMITING PATHWAYS
Pollutant
Cumulative
Reference
Application Rate
of Pollutant
RPe
(kg-pollutant/ha)
Limiting Pathway
Arsenic
41
3
Cadmium
39
3
Chromium
3,000
8
Copper
1,500
8
Lead
300
3
Mercury
17
3
Molybdenum
18
6
Nickel
420
8
Selenium
100
3
Zinc
2,800
8
6-6
-------
applied to a hectare (40 CFR Part 503). The CPLRs, presented in Table 6-4, are equivalent to
the RPgS.
The values for the CPLRs in the final Part 503 rule differ from those in the proposed
rule. The reason for this difference is that the input parameters for the models used to develop
the loading rates in the pathway risk assessment were updated on the basis of information
received during the public comment period for the proposal. They also incorporate Agency
policy decisions made subsequent to the proposal (see Section Five).
6.3.1.2 Development of Annual Pollutant Loading Rates
For sewage sludge sold or given away in a bag or other container for application to the
land, an annual pollutant loading rate was calculated. An annual pollutant loading rate (APLR),
measured in kilograms of pollutant per hectare of land (kg-pollutant/ha»yr), is the maximum
amount of a pollutant that can be applied to an area of land in any 1 year (40 CFR Part 503).
The APLRs in Table 6-5 were calculated by dividing the CPLRs in Table 6-4 by an assumed site
life of 20 years. The Agency concluded that 20 years is a conservative assumption, because
sewage sludge sold or given away an a bag or other container will probably be applied to a lawn,
home garden, or a public contact site, and will, therefore, probably not be applied longer than 20
years, particularly 20 consecutive years.
6.3.2 Pollutant Concentration Limits
6.32.1 Development of Pollutant Concentrations
A pollutant concentration in sewage sludge is measured in milligrams of pollutant per
kilogram of sewage sludge dry weight (DW) (mg-pollutant/kg-sewage sludge DW). The Agency
"capped" the risk assessment-derived pollutant concentrations by using the lower of the National
Sewage Sludge Survey (NSSS) 99th percentile concentrations (presented in Table 6-6) and the
6-7
-------
TABLE 6-4
CUMULATIVE POLLUTANT LOADING RATES
1 Pollutant
Cumulative Pollutant Loading
Rate
(kg -pollutant/ha DW)
1 Arsenic
41
| Cadmium
39
Chromium
3,000
Copper
1,500
Lead
300
1 Mercury
17
| Molybdenum
18
| Nickel
420
Selenium
100
Zinc
— 1
2,800
6-8
-------
TABLE 6-5
ANNUAL POLLUTANT LOADING RATES
Pollutant
Annual Pollutant Loading Rate
(kilogram per hectare per 365-
day period DW)
Arsenic
2.0
Cadmium
2.0
Chromium
150
Copper
75
Lead
15
Mercury
0.85
Molybdenum
0.90
Nickel
21
Selenium
5.0
Zinc
140
6-9
-------
TABLE 6-6
NSSS 99TH PERCENTILE VALUES
Pollutant
99th Percentile
Value
(mg-pollutant/
kg-sewage sludge DW)
Arsenic
75
Cadmium
85
Chromium
1,200
| Copper
4,300
| Lead
840
| Mercury
57
1 Molybdenum
75
| Nickel
420
| Selenium
36
1 Zinc
7,500
6-10
-------
risk-based pollutant concentrations. This procedure was used because the Agency concluded that
the quality of sewage sludge (based on concentration of pollutants) should be equal to or better
than the current quality, which is characterized by the NSSS. This decision i$ particularly
important since general requirements and management practices do not apply if the sewage
sludge meets the pollutant concentrations, the Class A pathogen requirements, and one of the
appropriate vector attraction reduction requirements (see Sections Ten and Eleven).
The pollutant concentrations in Part 503, therefore, are the more stringent of either the
risk-based pollutant concentrations or the 99th percentile concentrations of the NSSS. The risk-
based pollutant concentrations are the same number as the CPLRs, but the units differ.
The formula used to convert a CPLR (kg/ha) to a risk-based pollutant concentration
(mg/kg) is:
p/-> _ CPLR
~ SL» AWSAR *0.001
where:
PC = concentration of pollutant in sewage sludge (mg-pollutant/kg-
sewage sludge DW)
CPLR — cumulative pollutant loading rate (kg-pollutant/ha)
SL = number of years of site life
AWSAR = annual whole sludge application rate (mt-sewage sludge DW/ha*yr)
0.001 = a conversion factor (unitless)
The pollutant concentration was calculated using the CPLRs, an assumed 100-year
site life, and an assumed AWSAR of 10 metric tons per year (see Section 6.42.1). Therefore:
PC - CPLR (4)
10*100*0.001
The risk-based pollutant concentrations, which are monthly averages, the NSSS 99th
percentiles, and the lesser of these two numbers, the pollutant concentrations, are shown in
Table 6-7.
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TABLE 6-1
NUMBERS USED TO DERIVE POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS
Pollutant
Risk-based
Pollutant
Concentration
(mg-pollutant/kg-
sewage sludge DW)
NSSS
99th Percentile
(mg-poUutant/lcg-
sewage sludge DW)
Part 503
Pollutant
Concentration,
Monthly Average
(mg-pollutant/kg
sewage sludge DW)
Arsenic
41
75
41
Cadmium
39
85
39
Chromium
3,000
1,200
1,200
Copper
1,500
4,300
1,500
Lead
300
840
300
Mercury
17
57
17
Molybdenum
18
75
18
Nickel
420
420
420
Selenium
100
36
36
Zinc
2,800
7,500
2,800
6-12
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6.32.2 Development of Ceiling Concentrations
A ceiling concentration in sewage sludge is measured in milligrams of pollutant per
kilogram of sewage sludge dry weight (DW) (mg-pollutant/kg-sewage sludge DW). For each
pollutant, the ceiling concentration is the higher of either the risk-based pollutant concentration
(calculated as an intermediate number in Section 6.3.2.1), or the 99th percentile concentration of
the NSSS. These ceilings were developed to prevent the application to land of sewage sludge
containing higji concentrations of pollutants. The risk-based pollutant concentrations, the NSSS
99th percentiles, and the greater of these two numbers, which are the ceiling concentrations, are
shown in Table 6-8.
6.4 IMPLEMENTATION OF REGULATORY LIMITS
The pollutant limits for sewage sludge applied to land, specified in Section 503.13 of
Subpart B, include those for bulk sewage sludge, sewage sludge sold or given away in a bag or
other container, and domestic septage. A discussion of how these pollutant limits apply to bulk
sewage sludge is included in Section 6.4.1, and a discussion of how they apply to sewage sludge
sold or given away in a bag or other container is included in Section 6.42. A discussion of the
pollutant limit for domestic septage is included in Section 6.43.
6.4.1 Pollutant Limits for Bulk Sewage Sludge Applied to the Land
Bulk sewage sludge applied to agricultural land, forests, public contact sites, or
reclamation sites must meet either the ceiling concentrations in Table 6-9 and the CPLRs shown
in Table 6-4; or the ceiling concentrations in Table 6-9 and the pollutant concentrations in Table
6-10. Bulk sewage sludge applied to a lawn or home garden must meet both the ceiling
concentrations and pollutant concentrations.
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TABLE 6-8
NUMBERS USED TO DERIVE CEILING CONCENTRATIONS
Pollutant
Risk-based
Pollutant
Concentration
(mg-pollutant/kg-
sewage sludge DW)
NSSS
99th Percentile
(mg-pollutant/kg-
sewage sludge DW)
Part 503
Ceiling
Concentrations
(mg-pollutant/kg-
sewage sludge DW)
Arsenic
41
75
75
Cadmium
39
85
85
Chromium
3,000
1,200
3,000
Copper
1,500
4,300
4,300
Lead
300
840
840
Mercury
17
57
57
Molybdenum
18
75
75
Nickel
420
420
420
J Selenium
100
36
100
| Zinc
2,800
7,500
7,500
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TABLE 6-9
CEILING CONCENTRATIONS
w
Pollutant
Concentration
(mg.poUutant/kg-scwage sludge DW)
Arsenic
75
Cadmium
85
Chromium
3,000
Copper
4,300
Lead
840
Mercury
57
Molybdenum
75
Nickel
420
Selenium
100
Zinc
7,500
6-15
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TABLE 6-10
POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS
I
1 Pollutant
Concentration, Monthly Average
(mg-pollutant/kg-
sewage sludge DW)
Arsenic
41
Cadmium
39
Chromium
1,200
|-Copper
1,500
1 Lead
300
Mercury
17
Molybdenum
18
Nickel
420
Selenium
36
Zinc
2,800
6-16
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6.4.1.1 Ceiling Concentrations
Ceiling concentrations must be met when sewage sludge is applied to land. If any of the
ceiling concentrations in Table 6-9 are exceeded, the sewage sludge cannot be applied to the
land. Bulk sewage sludge that meets all of the ceiling concentrations in Table 6-9 must also
meet either the CPLRs in Table 6-4 or the pollutant concentrations in Table 6-10.
6.4.1.2 Cumulative Pollutant Loading Rates
The CPLR for each pollutant listed in Table 6-4 must not be exceeded when bulk sewage
sludge is applied to agricultural land, forests, public contact sites, or reclamation sites. Once the
CPLR for any one pollutant has been reached, either in the first year or over a number of years,
no additional bulk sewage sludge can be applied to that site. This provision reflects the fact that
metals persist in the soil and accumulate over time. The concentration of a pollutant in sewage
sludge and the rate at which sewage sludge is applied contribute to how quickly the limit of
pollutant per hectare is reached. To comply with this requirement, records that include the
amount of each inorganic pollutant in sewage sludge applied to each site must be kept (see
Section Ten).
6.4.1.3 Pollutant Concentrations
As discussed in Section 6.4.1, bulk sewage sludge applied to agricultural land, forests,
public contact sites, or reclamation sites, may meet the ceiling concentrations in Table 6-9 and
the CPLRs in Table 6-4 or the ceiling concentrations in Table 6-9 and the pollutant
concentrations in Table 6-10.
Bulk sewage sludge applied to a lawn or home garden must meet the ceiling
concentrations in Table 6-9 and the concentrations in Table 6-10. The concentration of each
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pollutant in the sewage sludge must be equal to or less than the concentration indicated for that
pollutant in Table 6-10.
6.4.2 Pollutant Limits for Sewage Sludge Sold or Given Away in a Bag or Other
Container for Application to the Land
Sewage sludge sold or given away in a bag or other container for application to the land
must meet the ceiling concentrations in Table 6-9 and the APLRs listed in Table 6-5 and
explained in Section 6.42.1 below; or it must meet the ceiling concentrations in Table 6-9 and
the pollutant concentrations in Table 6-10.
6.42.1 Annual Pollutant Loading Sates
APLRs are used for sewage sludge sold or given away in bags or other containers, rather
than CPLRs, because the number of sewage sludge applications made to a site over a period of
years cannot be controlled when sewage sludge is sold or given away in a bag or other container
for application to the land.
APLRs must be met for each pollutant listed in Table 6-5 when sewage sludge is sold or
given away in a bag or other container for application to the land. To meet these loading rates,
the product of the concentration of each regulated pollutant in the sewage sludge and the
AWSAR for the sewage sludge must not cause the applicable APLR in Table 6-5 to be
exceeded.
The AWSAR is determined as shown in the following equation:
AWSAR = (S)
C • 0.001
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where:
AWSAR = annual whole sludge application rate (mt-sewage sludge DW/ha»yr)
- - aplR -• = —annual pGlhitanHoading-rate (in Tablets) (kg*poH«tant/ha*yr)
C = pollutant concentration (mg-pollutant/kg-sewage sludge DW)
0.001 = a conversion factor (unitless)
The AWSAR is calculated separately for each pollutant. The allowable AWSAR for
sewage sludge is the lowest AWSAR calculated for any pollutant. The procedure to determine
the AWSAR for a sewage sludge is discussed further in Appendix A of the regulation.
6.4 J Pollutant Limit for Domestic Septage
The regulation contains a separate pollutant limit for domestic septage applied to
agricultural land, forests, or reclamation sites. This requirement is an annual application rate.
The annual application rate for domestic septage depends on the nitrogen requirement of the
crop or vegetation grown on the land where the domestic septage is applied and is expressed as
an hydraulic loading rate in gallons per acre per year. The annual application rate for domestic
septage is determined using the following equation:
AAR = —5z- W
0.0026
where:
AAR = Annual application rate in gallons per acre per 365-day period
N = Amount of nitrogen in pounds per acre per 365-day period needed by the
crop or vegetation grown on the land (nitrogen amounts based on crop
yield are published by various government agencies, such as the
Agriculture Extension Service).
EPA chose only to allow the annual application rate to be used when domestic septage is
applied to agricultural land, forests, or reclamation sites, because certain site restrictions are
imposed on sites where domestic septage is applied. EPA's determination is based on the
assumption that the applier has control over the application site. Because of the difficulty of
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imposing site restrictions on a public site, a lawn, or a home garden, EPA is prohibiting the
application of domestic septage to a public contact site, a lawn, or a home garden at an annual
application-fate. .If domestic septage is applied to other types of land t(e.g.f a public contact site),
the requirements in the land application subpart for sewage sludge have to be met.
EPA chose to limit the annual application rate to domestic septage for two reasons.
First, available data indicate that domestic septage has pollutant concentrations that are lower
than the pollutant concentrations in commercial septage (e.g., grease from a grease trap at a
restaurant) and industrial septage (e.g., liquid or solid material removed from a septic tank or
similar treatment works that receives industrial wastewater). Second, the Agency determined
that the pollutant concentrations in commercial and industrial septage vary greatly. The higher
pollutant concentrations and the variability of those concentrations requires that samples of
commercial and industrial septage be analyzed periodically to determine the quality of the
commercial and industrial septage prior to being used or disposed. For these reasons, the annual
application rate limit for domestic septage is not appropriate for commercial or industrial
septage. Because the characteristics of domestic septage and commercial and industrial septage
are different, the Part 503 requirements for domestic septage do not apply to commercial or
industrial septage.
The justification for the annual application rate for domestic septage can be found in
Appendix K.
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SECTION SEVEN
POLICY DECISIONS FOR THE PART 503 REGULATION
This section presents the policy determinations EPA made in the course of developing
the Part 503 Regulations. These decisions include how pollutant limits were set, the basis for
EPA's decision to prohibit the development of site-specific information, and the reasoning
behind the definition of the term "other container."
7.1 ANNUAL WHOLE SLUDGE APPLICATION RATE (AWSAR)
The Agency used annual whole sludge application rates of 7,26,18, and 74 mt
DW/heetare»yr for agricultural land, forests, public contact sites, and reclamation sites,
respectively. These rates were obtained from data in the National Sewage Sludge Survey (U.S.
EPA, 1990e).
7.2 POLLUTANT LIMITS
The pollutant concentrations limits in Table 6-10 protect human health and the
environment from reasonably anticipated adverse effects from pollutants in sewage sludge,
because they are derived from the cumulative pollutant loading rates (Table 6-4) that provide the
same protection. Also, if sewage sludge meeting pollutant concentration limits is applied to the
land at the AWSARs discussed in Section 7.1 above, the CPLRs in Table 6-4 will not be
exceeded for agricultural land until approximately 100 years have passed; for forests, 55 years; for
public contact sites, 32 years; or for reclamation sites, 13 years. The Agency concluded that
sewage sludge will probably not be applied to these types of land each year throughout these
periods of time.
The annual pollutant loading rates given in Table 6-5, which apply to sewage sludge sold
or given away in a bag or other container for application to the land, are based on a 20-year site
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life. The Agency concluded that 20 years is a conservative assumption, because sewage sludge
sold or given away in a bag or other container will most likely be applied to lawns, home
gardens, or public contact sites. Sewage sludge .will probably not be applied to these types of
land for longer than 20 years, particularly 20 consecutive years. The most recent census
information, collected in 1990, showed that in 1990,44 percent of Americans lived in a different
house than they had in 1985 (U.S. Department of Commerce News, 1992). Although no
statistics are available on the number of U.S. citizens that live in the same house for 20 years, the
Agency concluded that they constitute a very small percentage of the general population.
The annual pollutant loading rates in Table 6-5 are based on 1/20 of the cumulative
pollutant loading rates and provide equal protection to public health and the environment, as it
is unlikely that home gardeners will apply sewage sludge yearly for 20 consecutive years.
73 SITE-SPECIFIC FACTORS
Although the Agency considered allowing publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) to
develop site-specific cumulative pollutant loading rates, it dedded against such rates for several
reasons. First, to develop site-specific cumulative pollutant loading rates, a site-specific pathway
risk assessment has to be conducted. For many of the pathways, the terms in the algorithm used
to calculate the allowable loading rate are based on Agency decisions (e.g., the R£D for a
pollutant, the soil ingestion rate). EPA concluded that values for such terms should not be
allowed to change in a site-specific assessment. Consequently, if the limiting cumulative
pollutant loading rate for a pollutant is based on a pathway for which the algorithm only contains
terms based on Agency decisions, a site-specific cumulative pollutant loading rate could not be
calculated for that pollutant. This decision rules out site-specific cumulative pollutant loading
rates for 4 of the 10 inorganic pollutants regulated under Subpart B, because the factors in their
limiting pathways are based on immutable EPA decisions. Thus, only six of the inorganic
pollutants would have been eligible for site-specific cumulative pollutant loading rates.
In addition, the information that has to be developed to conduct a site-specific pathway
risk assessment is comprehensive and includes, among other things, site-specific information on
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pollutant uptake slopes for each food group grown on each site, the uptake of pollutants by
grazing animals, and variables for the ground water pathway (e.g„ depth to ground water). Much
of this information is difficult and expensive to obtain, particularly for every land application site.
Furthermore, the permitting authority would have to have the necessary expertise to evaluate the
quality of the model inputs.
A third reason the Agency decided not to allow site-specific cumulative pollutant loading
rates is that they have to be developed for individual land application sites. A POTW could not
simply develop one set of site-specific cumulative pollutant loading rates and use them for all
application sites. Instead, a site-specific cumulative pollutant loading rate has to be developed
for each site. Considering the information that has to be developed to conduct site-specific
pathway risk assessment and the cost to obtain that information, the Agency concluded that it is
not feasible or cost-effective to conduct such an assessment for each application site.
7A OTHER CONTAINER
An other container is defined as either an open or dosed container. This includes, but is
not limited to, a bucket, a box, a carton, or a vehicle or trailer that has a load capacity of 1
metric ton or less. Hie vehicle load capacity of 1 metric ton was chosen as the cut-off for an
other container because of the assumptions the Agency used to develop the standards for sewage
sludge sold or given away in a bag or other container for application to the land. EPA assumed
that this sewage sludge would be applied to die land in small amounts. The Agency considers 1
metric ton of sewage sludge to be a small amount, particularly for the types of land on which
these types of products will be used (i.e., lawns, home gardens, or public contact sites). In
addition, EPA determined that a vehicle with a load capacity of 1 metric ton or less will not be
used to haul the amount of sewage sludge needed on agricultural land, and that such a vehicle
will not be uaed to make several trips to the same site.
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SECTION EIGHT
APPLICABILITY
Pan 503.10 of Subpart B indicates to whom and to what the land application
requirements apply and exemptions from these requirements. The applicability of the land
application requirement is discussed in Sections 8.1 and 8.2 below.
8.1 APPLICABILITY OF SUBPART B REQUIREMENTS
Subpart B requirements apply to:
• Any person who prepares sewage sludge that is applied to the land.
• Any person who applies sewage sludge to the land.
• Sewage sludge that is applied to the land
• The land on which sewage sludge is applied.
8.2 EXEMPTIONS
As mentioned previously, the Part 503 use or disposal standards consist of general
requirements, pollutant limits, management practices, and operational standards. For land
application of sewage sludge, there are three cases in which not all requirements must be met to
comply with the standards. Both bulk sewage sludge applied to the land and sewage sludge sold
or given away in a bag or other container for application to the land may be included in one of
these three cases.
In the first case, bulk sewage sludge is exempted from the general requirements (see
Section Ten) and the management practices (see Section Eleven) when certain requirements are
met. These requirements are the pollutant concentration limits in 503.13(b)(3) (see Table 6-10);
8-1
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the Class A pathogen requirements (50332(a)); and one of the vector attraction reduction
requirements in 503.33(b)(1) through 503.33(b)(8) (see Section Twelve for a description of vector
attraction reduction requirements). In these cases, the frequency of monitoring requirements
(see Section Thirteen), the recordkeeping requirements (see Section Fourteen), and the reporting
requirements (see Section Fifteen) must be met from reasonably observed effects of pollutants in
sewage sludge.
In the second case, when sewage sludge that does not meet the quality requirements
described above is used to derive a bulk material (e.g., a combination of sewage sludge and wood
chips), and the derived material meets the requirements described above, the general
requirements and management practices of Subpart B do not apply when the derived material is
applied to the land.
In the third case, when sewage sludge meeting the three quality requirements is used to
derive a material, none of the Part 503 requirements apply when the derived material is applied
to land. The rationale for the exemption of bulk sewage sludge and sewage sludge sold or given
away in a bag or other container for application to the land from the general requirements and
management practices in the case where pollutant concentration limits, Class A pathogen
requirements, and one of the vector attraction reduction requirements specified above are met, is
that the sewage sludge that meets these three quality requirements is a valuable commercial
product. Because of this, the sewage sludge most likely will not be applied to the land
inappropriately (i.e., "wasted"). In addition, the Agency concluded that over-application of the
sewage sludge will not occur because over-application reduces crop yield; increasing yield is the
main reason to apply sewage sludge to the land. The Agency concluded that, if the sewage
sludge meets the three quality requirements, it is a fertilizer material and should be treated in a
manner similar to other fertilizers. For these reasons, the sewage sludge is exempted from the
general requirements and management practices in the land application subpart
The three cases are similar for sewage sludge sold or given away in a bag or other
container. There is one major difference, however, between the exemptions for bulk sewage
sludge, and for sewage sludge sold or given away in a bag or other container. For bulk sewage
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sludge corresponding to the first two cases, the Regional Administrator or the State Director (in
states with an EPA-approved sewage sludge management program) may apply any or all of the
general requirements and the management practices to the sewage sludge on axase-by.rcase basis
after determining that these requirements are necessary to protect public health and the
environment. This is not the case for a material derived from sewage sludge that meets the three
quality requirements, because this material is exempted from Part 503. Records on who receives
that sewage sludge or what happens to the sewage sludge after the three quality requirements are
met are not required. There is no way to know when a material is derived from the sewage
sludge.
Additionally, the provision concerning imposing the general requirements and
management practices after a sewage sludge or material derived from sewage sludge meets the
three quality requirements does not apply to sewage sludge sold or given away in a bag or other
container for application to the land. As mentioned above, this provision allows control to be re-
established over the site where the sewage sludge is applied, among other things. The underlying
assumption for the requirements for sewage sludge sold or given away in a bag or other
container is that it is impossible to exert direct control over the user of the sewage sludge. If
there is no control over the user of the sewage sludge initially, there Is no way to re-establish that
control through the imposition of general requirements or management practices. For this
reason, the provision concerning re-imposing certain requirements is not applicable in this case.
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SECTION NINE
DEFINITIONS
Section 503.9, General Definitions of Subpart A, defines words, phrases, and acronyms
specific to Part 503. Section 503.11, Special Definitions of Subpart B, defines words, phrases,
and acronyms specific to land application of sewage sludge. Section 503.31, Special Definitions
of Subpart D, defines words, phrases, and acronyms specific to pathogen and vector attraction
reduction. These definitions are included in Appendix A. (Most of these definitions are also
included in the Glossary at the beginning of this document.) Many of these definitions are self-
explanatory; others are discussed further in the preamble to 40CFR Part 503 as published in the
Federal Register.
9.1 GENERAL DEFINITIONS
Hie following words, phrases, and acronyms are defined in Section 503.9 of Subpart A:
Apply sewage sludge or sewage sludge applied to the land
Base flood
Class I sludge management facility
Cover crop
CWA
Domestic septage
Domestic sewage
Dry weight basis
EPA
Feed crops
Fiber crops
Food crops
Ground water
Industrial wastewater
Municipality
Permitting authority
Person
Person who prepares sewage sludge
Place sewage sludge or sewage sludge placed
Pollutant
9-1
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Pollutant limit
Runoff
Sewage sludge
State
Store or storage of sewage sludge
Threatened or endangered species
Treat or treatment of sewage sludge
Treatment works
Wetlands
9.2 SPECIAL DEFINITIONS FOR LAND APPLICATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE
The following words, phrases, and acronyms are defined in Section 503.11 of Subpart B:
Agricultural land
Agronomic rate
Annual pollutant loading rate
Annual whole sludge application rate
Bulk sewage sludge
Cumulative pollutant loading rate
Forest
Land application
Monthly average
Other container
Pasture
Public contact site
Range land
Reclamation land
93 SPECIAL DEFINITIONS FOR PATHOGEN AND VECTOR ATTRACTION
REDUCTION
The following words, phrases, and acronyms are defined in section 503.31 of Subpart D:
Aerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion
Density of microorganisms
Land with a high potential for public exposure
9-2
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Land with a low potential for public exposure
Pathogenic organisms
pH
Specific oxygen uptake rate (SOUR)
Total solids
Unstabilized solids
Vector attraction
Volatile solids
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SECTION TEN
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
Section 503.12 of the regulation specifies general requirements for the land application of
sewage sludge. These requirements are specified for both the preparer and the applier of sewage
sludge and are described in Sections 10.1 and 102. A discussion of sewage sludge or material
derived from sewage sludge that is exempted from general requirements is included in Section
103.
10.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PERSON WHO PREPARES SEWAGE
SLUDGE FOR APPLICATION TO THE LAND
General requirements for the person who prepares sewage sludge that is applied to the
land indude providing notice and information to users of sewage sludge and to the permitting
authority.
The person who prepares bulk sewage sludge (excluding bulk sewage sludge and derived
bulk material exempted from general requirements—see Section 103) that is applied to
agricultural land, forests, public contact sites, or reclamation sites must provide the person who
applies the bulk sewage sludge written notification of the concentration of total nitrogen (as N
on a dry-weight basis) in the bulk sewage sludge. The purpose of this general requirement is to
ensure that the person who applies the bulk sewage sludge is aware of its nitrogen concentration
and can therefore determine the proper agronomic rate (see Section 11.4) for the crop.
The person who prepares sewage sludge that is applied to the land must provide notice
and information necessary to comply with the requirements of Subpart 8 to the person who
applies sewage sludge and to the person who further prepares the sewage sludge (e.g., the person
who derives a bulk material from the sewage sludge) or who prepares sewage sludge that is sold
or given away in a bag or other container.
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The last general requirement for any person who prepares bulk sewage sludge that is
applied to the land addresses a notice that must be provided when bulk sewage sludge (excluding
bulk sewage sludge exempted from general requirements—see Section 10.3) is transported across
state lines for land application in another state. When bulk sewage sludge is generated in one
state (the generating state) and transferred to another state (the receiving state), the person who
prepares the bulk sewage sludge must notify the permitting authority in the receiving state in
which the bulk sewage sludge will be applied. The notification must be provided to the
permitting authority prior to the application of the bulk sewage sludge and must include:
• The location, by either street address or latitude and longitude, of each land
application site.
• The approximate period of time bulk sewage sludge will be applied to the site.
• The name, address, telephone number, and National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System permit number for the person who prepares the bulk sewage
sludge.
«
• The name, address, telephone number, and National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System permit number Car the person who will apply the bulk sewage
sludge.
The permitting authority may request additional information or a full permit application
if necessary. This notice requirement provides the permitting authority the flexibility to impose
additional requirements, if needed, and to ensure compliance with Part 503.
10.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PERSON WHO APPLIES SEWAGE SLUDGE
TO THE LAND
General requirements for the person who applies sewage sludge include restrictions for
applying sewage sludge to the land and requirements for providing notice and information to
users of sewage sludge, to the owner/leaseholder of the land, and to the permitting authority.
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No person shall apply sewage sludge to the land except in accordance with the
requirements in Subpart B. In addition, no person shall apply bulk sewage sludge subject to the
¦ pollutant ceiling concentrations in.Table 6-9andthecumuiativ£,pollutant ioading rates in Table
6-4 to agricultural land, forests, public contact sites, or reclamation sites if any of the cumulative
pollutant loading rates have been reached at these sites; or apply domestic septage to agricultural
land, forests, or reclamation sites during a 365-day period if the annual application rate (see
Section 6.4) has been reached during that period.
The applier of sewage sludge to the land must obtain the information necessary to
comply with the requirements of Subpart B. This information must be provided by the applier to
the owner or lease holder of the land on which bulk sewage sludge is applied.
When bulk sewage sludge subject to the pollutant ceiling concentrations in Table 6-9 and
the cumulative pollutant loading rates in Table 6-4 is applied to die land, either to land in the
same state where the bulk sewage sludge is generated or to land in a state different from the
state in which the bulk sewage sludge is generated, the person who applies the bulk sewage
sludge must notify the permitting authority for the state in which the bulk sewage sludge will be
applied. This notice is a one-time notice for a land application site for each applier. It must be
provided to the permitting authority prior to the initial application of bulk sewage sludge to a
site and must include:
• The location, by either street address or latitude and longitude, of the land
application site.
• The name, address, telephone number, and National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System permit number, if appropriate, of the person who will apply
the bulk sewage sludge.
The purpose of this general requirement is to ensure that a record is kept that indicates
that bulk sewage sludge subject to pollutant ceiling concentrations and cumulative pollutant
loading rates has been applied to a site. Without that information, a person who intends to
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apply bulk sewage sludge subject to these requirements cannot determine whether bulk sewage
sludge has been applied to a site. Without this information, the cumulative pollutant loading
rates cannot be enforced.
If bulk sewage sludge subject to pollutant ceiling concentrations and cumulative pollutant
loading rates has not been applied to the site 120 days after the effective date of Part 503, the
cumulative amount for each pollutant in Table 6-4 can be applied to the site. The applier must
keep a record of the amount of each pollutant in the bulk sewage sludge applied to the site by
the applier.
If bulk sewage sludge subject to pollutant ceiling concentrations and cumulative pollutant
loading rates has been applied to the site within 120 days after the effective date of Part 503, the
applier must look for the records that indicate the amount of each pollutant in bulk sewage
sludge applied to the site since the effective date. When those records are available, the applier
must use that information to determine the additional amount of each pollutant that can be
t
applied to the site in accordance with Tables 6-9 and 6-4. In this case, the applier must keep the
records of the amount of each pollutant applied previously by other appliers and must also keep
a record of the amount of each pollutant in the bulk sewage sludge applied to the site by the
applier.
If bulk sewage sludge subject to pollutant ceiling concentrations and cumulative pollutant
loading rates has been applied to the site within 120 days after the effective date of Part 503, and
records indicating the cumulative amount of each pollutant in the bulk sewage sludge applied to
the site since the effective date cannot be found, an additional amount of each pollutant cannot
be applied to the site.
103 EXEMPTIONS FROM GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
When bulk sewage sludge, a derived bulk material, or sewage sludge for sale or give away
in a bag or other container meets the pollutant concentration limits in Table 6-10, Class A
10-4
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pathogen requirements (see Section Twelve), and one of the vector attraction reduction
requirements other than injection or incorporation of sewage sludge into the soil [503.33(b)(1)
—through 50333(b)(8)—see Section Twelve], .the general requirements -and management practice
requirements do not apply. This exemption, specified in 503.10 (Applicability—see Section
Eight), can be revoked if the Regional Administrator or State Director determines on a case-by-
case basis that for bulk sewage sludge these requirements are necessary to protect public health
and the environment.
10-5
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SECTION ELEVEN
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Management practices specified in Section 503.14 of the regulation and described in
Sections 11.1 through 11.5 below are required when bulk sewage sludge is applied to agricultural
land, forests, public contact sites, or reclamation sites, unless the sewage sludge is exempted from
these requirements. A discussion of sewage sludge that is exempted from management practice
requirements is included in Section 11.6.
11.1 PROTECTION OF THREATENED OR ENDANGERED SPECIES
The federal government has a mandate to protect threatened or endangered species. The
final regulation [Section 503.14(a)] prohibits the application of bulk sewage sludge to the land if
it will adversely affect a threatened or endangered species (listed under Section 4 of the
Endangered Species Act), or its designated critical habitat. Because pollutant limits in Subpart B
are not designed to protect threatened or endangered species (because those species are not
considered "reasonable worst-case" species), or to protect against the destruction or adverse
modification of a critical habitat, this management practice was needed.
11.2 RESTRICTION ON THE APPLICATION TO FLOODED, FROZEN, OR SNOW-
COVERED LAND
Bulk sewage sludge cannot be applied to flooded, frozen, or snow-covered agricultural
land, forests, public contact sites, or reclamation sites in such a way that the bulk sewage sludge
enters a wetland or other waters of the United States, 3s defined in 40 CFR Part 122.21, except
1 Waters of the United States, as defined in 40 CFR Part 122.2, means: (a) All waters which
are currently used, were used in the past, or may be susceptible to use in interstate or foreign
commerce, including all waters which are subject to the ebb and flow of the tide; (b) All
interstate waters, including interstate "wetlands;" (c) All other waters such as intrastate lakes,
(continued...)
11-1
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as provided in a permit issued pursuant to Section 402 or 404 of the CWA, as amended. This
management practice allows the application of bulk sewage sludge to flooded, frozen, or snow-
covered land when the bulk sewage sludge does not enter"United States waters or wetlands. -
Because the worst-case scenario of application of sewage sludge to flooded, frozen, or
snow-covered lands was not modeled in the risk assessment, the pollutant limits in the regulation
are not designed to protect wetlands and waters from application of sewage sludge to flooded,
frozen, or snow-covered land. When bulk sewage sludge is applied to the land under these
conditions, it can easily be transported into nearby waters unless carefully handled or unless
wetlands or other water bodies are not located near the site. Therefore, the Agency determined
that this management practice was necessary to protect U.S. waters and wetlands.
113 TEN-METER BUFFER FOR U.S. WATERS
«
Bulk sewage sludge cannot be applied to agricultural land, forests, or reclamation sites
that are 10 meters or less from U.S. waters, unless otherwise specified by the permitting
authority. This management practice reduces the likelihood that sewage sludge applied to the
land can reach U.S. waters through runoff resulting from precipitation. It is included in the final
regulation because pollutant limits in Subpart B are not designed to protect U.S. waters when
sewage sludge is applied to land that is 10 meters or less from those waters. This management
practice does not apply to a public contact site, because these sites are typically small areas
where the application of sewage sludge is in small quantities and is easily controlled.
'(...continued)
rivers, streams (including intermittent streams), mudflats, sandflats, "wetlands," sloughs, prairie,
potholes, wet meadows, playa lakes, or natural ponds the use, degradation, or destruction of
which would affect or could affect interstate of foreign commerce including any such waters:
(1) Which are or could be used by interstate of foreign travelers for recreational or other
purposes; (2) From which fish or shellfish are or could be taken and sold in interstate or foreign
commerce; or (3) Which are used or could be used for industrial purposes by industries in
interstate commerce; (d) All impoundments of waters otherwise defined as waters of the United
States under this definition; (e) Tributaries of waters identified in parts (a) through (d) of this
definition; (f) The territorial sea; and (g) "Wetlands" adjacent to waters (other than waters that
are themselves wetlands) identified in parts (a) through (f) of this definition.
11-2
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11.4 AMOUNT APPLIED LIMITED BY AGRONOMIC RATE
Bulk sewage sludge must be applied to agricultural land, forests, or public contact sites at
a rate that is equal to or less than the agronomic rate. The agronomic raie is the whole sludge
application rate designed to: (1) provide the amount of nitrogen needed by the crop or
vegetation grown on the land, and (2) minimize the amount of nitrogen in the sewage sludge that
passes to the ground water below the root zone of the crop or vegetation grown on the land (40
CFR Part 503). This management practice also applies to reclamation sites, unless otherwise
specified by the permitting authority. Hie permitting authority may allow larger amounts of
sewage sludge to be applied to reclamation sites. In such cases, the permitting authority may
impose other requirements on the reclamation site (e.g., only apply larger amounts in one
application).
Several factors must be considered in deriving the agronomic application rate for a crop
*
site. These include, but are not limited to: the amount of nitrogen needed by the crop or
vegetation grown on the land; the amount of nitrogen remaining from previous application of
nitrogen-containing materials; the amount of organic nitrogen that becomes available each year
from previous application of nitrogen-containing materials; the type of soil at the site; and the
geologic conditions of the site. Although the agronomic rate is designed to minimize the amount
of nitrogen that passes to the ground water below the root zone of the crop or vegetation grown
on the land, some of the nitrogen in the sewage sludge may reach the ground water. However,
the Agency determined that by designing the rate to minimize that amount, long-term
contamination of the ground water probably will not occur, because most of the nitrogen wiU be
taken up by the crop or vegetation grown on the land
Application is not limited by the agronomic rate if bulk sewage sludge is applied to a
lawn or home garden or when sewage sludge is sold or given away in a bag or other container for
application to the land. It is unlikely that large amounts of sewage sludge will be applied to such
land in those cases. For this reason, the Agency has determined that the whole sludge
11-3
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application rate for sewage sludge applied to a lawn or home garden or sold or given away
should not be limited by the amount of nitrogen needed.
11J LABELING REQUIREMENTS
Hie final management practice requires that a label be affixed to the bag or other
container in which sewage sludge is sold or given away for application to the land, or that an
information sheet be provided to the person who receives such sewage sludge sold or given away
in a bag or other container. The label or information sheet must contain the following
information: the name and address of the person who prepared the sewage sludge for sale or
give away in a bag or other container, a statement that prohibits application of the sewage sludge
to the land except in accordance with the instructions on the label or information sheet; and the
annual whole sludge application rate for the sewage sludge that does not cause the annual
pollutant loading rates in Table 6-5 to be exceeded. These label information requirements are
minimum requirements, and the person who prepares the label may include additional
information on the label, such as information required by a state or local government.
11.6 EXEMPTIONS FROM MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Bulk sewage sludge that meets the pollutant concentration limits in Table 6-10, the Class
A pathogen requirements (see Section Twelve), and one of the vector attraction reduction
requirements other than injection and incorporation of sewage sludge into the soil [vector
attraction reduction methods in 50333(b)(1) through 503.33(b)(8) — see Section Twelve] is
exempted from management practice requirements. This exemption, specified in 503.10
(Applicability—*ee Section Eight), can be revoked if the Regional Administrator or State
Director determines on a case-by-case basis that for bulk sewage sludge these requirements are
necessary to protect public health and the environment
11-4
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Management practice requirements do not apply if bulk sewage sludge is applied to a
lawn or home garden, because large amounts of bulk sewage sludge most likely will not be
applied to a lawn or a home garden multiple times.
t
>
11-5
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SECTION TWELVE
PATHOGEN AND VECTOR ATTRACTION REDUCTION REQUIREMENTS
Section 503.15 of Subpart B specifies operational standards for pathogen and vector
attraction reduction in sewage sludge that is applied to the land. These operational standards
refer to specific requirements in Sections 50332 and 503.33 in Subpart D, Pathogen and Vector
Attraction Reduction. These pathogen and vector attraction reduction requirements are
described in the Technical Support Document for Reduction of Pathogens and Vector Attraction in
Sewage Sludge (U.S. EPA, 1992a). Pathogen and vector attraction reduction requirements as
they apply to land application are discussed in Sections 12.1 and 12.2 below.
12.1 SEWAGE SLUDGE
*
12.1.1 Pathogen Requirements
Bulk sewage sludge applied to agricultural land, forests, public contact sites, or
reclamation sites must meet either Class A pathogen requirements or Class B pathogen
requirements and site restrictions (restrictions for harvesting of crops and turf, grazing of
animals, and public access). The EPA has determined that public health and the environment
are protected against the reasonably anticipated adverse effects of pathogens in sewage sludge in
both cases.
Bulk sewage sludge applied to a lawn or home garden and sewage sludge sold or given
away in a bag or other container for application to the land must meet Class A pathogen
requirements. The reason for this requirement is that is not feasible to impose site restrictions
(required for a sewage sludge that meets Class B pathogen requirements) on a lawn or home
garden on which bulk sewage sludge is applied and it is impossible to impose the site restrictions
for sewage sludge sold or given away in a bag or other container for application to the land.
12-1
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12.1.1.1 Class A Pathogen Requirements
Class A pathogen requirements are the more stringent of the pathogen requirements. To
meet Class A pathogen requirements, one of six pathogen reduction requirements in 503.32(a)
has to be met. Consequently, when sewage sludge meeting Class A pathogen requirements is
applied to the land, site restrictions (restrictions for harvesting of crops and turf, grazing of
animals, and public access), which must be met when sewage sludge meeting Class B pathogen
requirements is applied to the land, are not required.
12.1.12 Class B Pathogen Requirements
To meet Class B pathogen requirements, a treatment works must meet one of the three
alternatives for pathogen reduction in sewage sludge described in 503.32(b). These alternatives
include testing for fecal coliform by collecting seven samples of sewage sludge at the time the
*
sewage sludge is used or disposed, treating the sewage sludge using a process to significantly
reduce pathogens (FSRF), or treating the sewage sludge using a process determined by the
permitting authority to be equivalent'to a PSRP.
Whenever sewage sludge meeting Class B pathogen requirements is applied to the land,
the harvesting of crops and turfc the grazing of animals, and public access is restricted for a
certain period of time. These site restrictions are described in 503.32(b)(5).
12.1.2 Vector Attraction Reduction Requirements
Bulk sewage sludge applied to agricultural land, forests, public contact sites, or
reclamation sites also must meet 1 of the 10 vector attraction reduction requirements in
50333(b)(1) through 503J33(b)(10). These requirements are designed to reduce the
characteristics of the sewage sludge that attract vectors such as mosquitos and flies. The EPA
concluded that each of the 10 alternative vector attraction reduction requirements protects public
12-2
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health and the environment from the reasonably anticipated adverse effects of the characteristics
in sewage sludge that attract vectors.
Bulk sewage sludge applied to a lawn or home garden and sewage sludge sold or given
away in a bag or other container for application to the land must meet one of the eight vector
attraction reduction requirements in 503.33(b)(1) through 503.33(b)(8). The two vector
attraction reduction requirements that cannot be met when sewage sludge is applied to a lawn or
a home garden are injection of the bulk sewage sludge below the land surface and incorporation
of sewage sludge into the soil. Implementation of these requirements for bulk sewage sludge
applied to a lawn or home garden is difficult, if not impossible; and is not feasible for sewage
sludge sold or given away in a bag or other container for application to the land,
12.2 DOMESTIC SEPTAGE
«
12.2.1 Pathogen Requirements
When domestic septage is applied to agricultural land, forests, or reclamation sites, one
of two pathogen requirements must be met. Site restrictions concerning harvesting crops and
turf, grazing animals, and permitting public access must be met (see Section 12.1.1.2), or the pH
of the domestic septage must be adjusted and the site restrictions concerning harvesting crops
must be met. Restrictions on harvesting crops are included in the latter requirement, because
the Agency concluded that pathogen reduction achieved by pH adjustment is inadequate to allow
crops to be harvested immediately after the application of domestic septage.
1112 Vector Attraction Reduction Requirements
For domestic septage applied to agricultural land, forests, or reclamation sites, one of the
following vector attraction reduction methods must be applied:
12-3
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Raise the pH of the domestic septage to 12 or higher using alkali addition and,
without the addition of more alkali, keep the domestic septage at 12 or higher for
30 minutes.
Inject the domestic septage below the surface of the land. No significant amount
of domestic septage can be present on the land surface within 1 hour after it is
injected.
Incorporate the domestic septage into the soil within 6 hours after application to
the land.
12-4
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SECTION THIRTEEN
FREQUENCY OF MONITORING
Land-applied sewage sludge must be monitored for pollutant concentrations, pathogens,
and vector attraction reduction. Domestic septage must be monitored for pH when pH
adjustment is used to meet either the pathogen requirement and vector attraction reduction
requirement. The frequency of monitoring is specified in Section 503.16 of Subpart B, and
discussed in Sections 13.1 and 13.2.
13.1 SEWAGE SLUDGE
To ensure compliance with Part 503, sewage sludge must be monitored for:
«
• Arsenic, cadmium, chromium, rapper, lead, mercury, molybdenum, nickel,
selenium, and zinc.
• The pathogen density requirements in 503.32(a) through 503.32(b)(4) (Class A
and B pathogen requirements—sec Section Twelve).
• The selected vector attraction reduction requirements, except the vector attraction
reduction requirements in 503.33(b)(9) and 503.33(b)(10), which apply to injection
or incorporation of sewage sludge into the soil and, therefore, do not contain any
monitoring requirements.
The frequency of monitoring for pollutant concentrations, pathogens, and vector
attraction reduction, as presented in Table 13-1, is 1,4, 6, or 12 times per year, depending on the
number of metric tons (mt) (dry-weight basis) of sewage sludge used or disposed annually. The
basis for the frequency of monitoring requirements is discussed in Appendix L.
After the sewage sludge is monitored for 2 years at the frequency in Table 13-1, the
permitting authority can reduce the frequency of monitoring for pollutant concentrations and the
pathogen density requirements in 503.32(a)(5)(ii) and 503.32(a)(5)(iii) (requires the analysis of
13-1
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TABLE 13-1
FREQUENCY OF MONITORING—LAND APPLICATION
| Amounts of Sewage Sludge*
1 (metric tons per 365-day period)
Frequency
| Greater than zero, but less than 290
Once per year
| Equal to or greater than 290, but
| less than 1,500
Once per quarter
(4 times per year)
I Equal to or greater than 1,500, but
| less than 15,000
Once per 60 days
(6 times per year)
1 Equal to or greater than 15,000
Once per month
(12 times per year)
"Either the amount of bulk sewage sludge applied to the land or the amount of sewage sludge
received by a person who prepares the sewage sludge that is sold or given away in a bag or other
container for application to the land (diy weight basis).
Note: Appendix L describes how to calculate the amounts of sewage sludge used or disposed in
order to determine the required frequency of monitoring.
13-2
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sewage sludge for enteric viruses and viable helminth ova prior to pathogen treatment—see
Section Twelve). However, in no case can the frequency of monitoring be less than once per
year when sewage sludge is applied to the land.
In deciding whether to reduce the frequency of monitoring pollutant concentrations, the
permitting authority considers the variability and the magnitude of the pollutant concentrations.
The Agency has determined that data collected over a 2-year period are adequate to calculate
the variability of pollutant concentrations and to determine the magnitude of the pollutant
concentrations when deciding whether to change the frequency of monitoring.
The pathogen density requirements in 503.32(a)(5)(ii) and 503.32(a)(5)(iii) specify that
sewage sludge be analyzed for enteric viruses and viable helminth ova every time the sewage
sludge is monitored. After these two organisms are found in the influent to the pathogen
reduction process and after the required reduction for these organisms is demonstrated through
the pathogen reduction process, the sewage sludge does not have to be monitored for enteric
t
viruses and viable helminth ova if values for the process operating parameters are consistent with
the documented values for those parameters. Because of the costs and complexity of the
analytical methods for enteric viruses and viable helminth ova, the Agency decided to allow the
permitting authority to determine whether to reduce the monitoring frequency after monitoring
at the frequency in Table 13-1 for 2 years. In deciding whether to reduce the monitoring
frequency, the permitting authority considers the frequency of detection of enteric viruses and
viable helminth ova in the sewage sludge. The Agency has concluded that 2 years of monitoring
should provide enough information to make that judgement. The frequency of monitoring
cannot be reduced for the other pathogen density requirements.
13.2 DOMESTIC SEPTAGE
As discussed in Section Twelve, one of two pathogen requirements and one of three
vector attraction reduction requirements must be met for domestic septage applied to the land.
The pathogen requirements specify either that the pH of domestic septage be raised to a
13-3
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minimum of 12 for at least 30 minutes and the land on which domestic septage is applied be
subject to crop harvesting restrictions; or no pH adjustment is performed, but the harvesting of
crops and tur£ the grazing of animals, and public access must be restricted on the land where
domestic septage is applied. The vector attraction reduction requirements specify the same pH
method or either injection or incorporation of the domestic septage into the soil. If the pH
method is used for pathogen and/or vector attraction reduction, each container (e,g., each tank
truck load) of domestic septage applied to agricultural land, forests, or reclamation sites must be
monitored for compliance with the pH testing requirements. Every container must be
monitored, because there Is no way to ensure that the domestic septage in each container meets
the pH requirement by monitoring domestic septage in only a certain number of containers.
13-4
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SECTION FOURTEEN
RECORDKEEPING
The regulation requires that certain information be recorded and retained when sewage
sludge is applied to the land. Recordkeeping requirements vaty depending on whether sewage
sludge is in bulk form or placed in a bag or other container for application to the land. They
also vary depending on which pollutant limits are met, whether Class A or Class B pathogen
requirements are met, and which vector attraction reduction requirements are .met.
Recordkeeping requirements are specified in Section 503.17, described In Sections 14.1 through
14.3 below, and summarized in Table 14-1.
14.1 SEWAGE SLUDGE MEETING POLLUTANT CONCENTRATION LIMITS, CLASS A
PATHOGEN REQUIREMENTS, AND ONE OF THE VECTOR ATTRACTION
REDUCTION REQUIREMENTS IN 50333(b)(1) THROUGH 50333(b)(8)
Bulk sewage sludge and sewage sludge for sale or give away in a bag or other container
meeting the pollutant concentration limits in Table 6-10, the Class A pathogen requirements, and
one of the vector attraction reduction requirements other than injection and incorporation of
sewage sludge into the soil [vector attraction reduction requirements in 503.33(b)(1) through
503.33(b)(8)] is associated with minimum recordkeeping requirements when the sewage sludge is
applied to the land. These requirements, which must be met by the person who prepares such
sewage sludge include collecting, recording, and retaining for 5 years the following information:
• The concentration of each regulated pollutant in the sewage sludge.
• The certification statement in 503.17(a)(l)(ii) that certifies that the Class A
pathogen requirements and one of the vector attraction reduction requirements
other than injection or incorporation of sewage sludge into the soil have been
met.
Many of recordkeeping requirements specify statements certifying that certain
Subpart B requirements are met. A general certification statement is used with
14-1
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TABLE 14-1
RECORDKEEPING RESPONSIBILITIES BY TYPE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE AND PERSON RESPONSIBLE
| Type of Record
Type of Sewage Sludge |
Sulk Sewage Sludge Subject to Cumulative Limits
Sewage Sludge Meeting Pollutant
Concentration Limits
Material
Derived from
Bulk Sewage
Sludge/Material
Meets Pollutant
Concentration
Limits
(Bulk or Bags)
Bagged Sewage
Sludge Not
Meeting
Pollutant
Concentration
Units
dais A Pathogen
Reduction
Class B Pathogen
Reduction
Class A
Pathogen
Reduction
(Bulk or Bags)
Class B
Pathogen
Reduction
(Bulk or Bags)
| Pollutant Concentrations
Preparer
Preparer
Preparer
Preparer
Preparer
Preparer
U Management Practice
Certification and Description
Applier
Applier
None-if not
injected or
incorporated
Applier-if
injected or
incorporated
(bulk only)
Applier
None
Preparer
(certification
only)
I Site Restriction Certification
1 and Description
None
Applier
None
Applier
None
None J
| Vector Attraction Reduction
| Certification and Description"
Preparer or Applier
Preparer or Applier
Preparer or
Applier
Preparer or
Applier
Preparer
Preparer
I Pathogen Reduction
II Certification and Description
Preparer
Preparer
Preparer
Preparer
Preparer
Preparer
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TABLE 14-1 (con!.)
Type of Record
Type of Sewage Sludge 1
Bulk Sewage Sludge Sub,
ect to Cumulative limits
Sewage Sludge Meeting Pollutant
Concentration limits
Material
Derived from
Bulk Sewage
Sludge/Material
Meets Pollutant
Concentration
limits
(Bulk or Bags)
Bagged Sewage
Sludge Not
Meeting
Pollutant
Concentration
Units
Clam A Pathogen
Reduction
Class B Pathogen
Reduction
Class A
Pathogen
Reduction
(Bulk or Bags)
Class B
Pathogen
Reduction
(Bulk or Bags)
Other Information
Applier: Site Location, No.
of Hectares, Date & Time,
of Application, Cumulative
Amount of Pollutant
Applied, including previous
amounts; Amount of
sewage sludge applied;
certification and description
of information gathering
Applier: Site Location, No.
of Hectares, Date & Time
of Application, Cumulative*
Amount of Pollutant
Applied, including previous
amounts; Amount of
sewage sludge applied;
certification and description
of information gathering*
None
None
None
Preparer;
Appropriate
AWSAR
The preparer certifies and describes vector attraction reduction methods other than injection and incorporation into the soil. If vector attraction
reduction using injection or incorporation, the applier is responsible for certification and description of method. If the sewage sludge is to meet
the three high-quality requirements, it cannot be injected or incorporated to meet the vector attraction reduction requirement, thus only the
preparer can certify and describe the procedure used.
information gathering includes obtaining information from the permitting authority regarding the existing cumulative pollutant load
at the site from previous sewage sludge applications.
Source: ERG, based on 40 CFR Part 503 Regulation.
-------
the appropriate requirements included. This general certification statement is as
follows:
"I certify under penalty of law, that the ... haw been met. This determination has
been made under my direction and supervision in accordance with the system
designed to assure that qualified personnel properly gather and evaluate the
information used to determine that the requirements have been met. I am aware
that there are significant penalties for false certification including the possibility of
fine and imprisonment."
• A description of how the Class A pathogen requirements and one of the vector
attraction reduction requirements other than injection or incorporation of sewage
sludge into the soil are met.
14.2 MATERIAL DERIVED FROM BULK SEWAGE SLUDGE THAT MEETS POLLUTANT
CONCENTRATION LIMITS, CLASS A PATHOGEN REQUIREMENTS, AND ONE OF
THE VECTOR ATTRACTION REDUCTION REQUIREMENTS IN 50333 (b)(1)
THROUGH 50333(b)(8)
t
As discussed in Sections Six and Eight, when sewage sludge meeting the pollutant
concentration limits in Table 6-10, the Class A pathogen requirements, and one of the vector
attraction reduction requirements other than injection or incorporation of sewage sludge into the
soil [vector attraction reduction requirements in 50333(b)(1) through 503.33(b)(8)] is used to
derive a bulk material (e.g., a combination of sewage sludge and wood chips), the derived
material is exempted from coverage by Subpart B (specified in 503.10). However, when sewage
sludge not meeting die quality requirements described above is used to produce a derived
material that does meet the quality requirements described above, there are minimum
recordkeeping requirements when the derived material is applied to the land whether in bulk
form or for sale or give away in a bag or other container. The person who derives the material
must collect, record, and retain for 5 years the same information listed in 14.1.1 above.
14-4
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143 BULK SEWAGE SLUDGE MEETING POLLUTANT CONCENTRATION LIMITS,
CLASS A PATHOGEN REQUIREMENTS, AND ONE OF THE VECTOR ATTRACTION
REDUCTION REQUIREMENTS IN 503.33(b)(9) OR 503J3(b)(10)
Bulk sewage sludge meeting pollutant concentration limits, Class A pathogen
requirements, and one of the vector attraction reduction requirements in either 503.33(b)(9) or
503.33(b)(10) (injection or incorporation of sewage sludge Into the soil) applied to agricultural
land, forests, public contact sites, or reclamation sites is also associated with minimum
recordkeeping requirements. These requirements are specified separately for the appUer and the
preparer of the bulk sewage sludge. The person who applies the bulk sewage sludge must
collect, record, and retain for 5 years the following information:
• The certification statement in 503.17(a)(3)(ii)(A) that certifies that the
management practices in 503.14 and the selected vector attraction reduction
requirement of either injection or incorporation of sewage sludge into the soil are
met.
• A description of how the management practices and the selected vector attraction
reduction requirements are met for each site on which bulk sewage sludge is
applied.
The person who prepares the bulk sewage sludge must collect, record, and retain for 5
years the following information:
• The concentration of each regulated pollutant in the bulk sewage sludge.
• The certification statement in 503.17(a)(3)(i)(B) that certifies that the Class A
pathogen requirements have been met.
• A description of how the Class A pathogen requirements are met.
14.4 BULK SEWAGE SLUDGE MEETING POLLUTANT CEILING CONCENTRATIONS
AND CUMULATIVE POLLUTANT LOADING RATES
• . '
Bulk sewage sludge meeting the pollutant ceiling concentrations in Table 6-9 and the
cumulative pollutant loading rates in Table 6-4 applied to agricultural land, forests, public
14-5
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contact sites, or reclamation sites is associated with the most comprehensive recordkeeping
requirements. These requirements are specified separately for the applier and the preparer of
bulk sewage sludge. The person who applies such bulk sewage sludge must collect, record, and
retain indefinitely the following information:
• The location, either by street address or latitude and longitude, of each site on
which bulk sewage sludge is applied.
• The number of hectares in each site on which bulk sewage sludge is applied.
• The date and time bulk sewage sludge is applied to each site.
• The cumulative amount of each regulated pollutant (i.e., kilograms) in the bulk
sewage sludge applied to each site.
• The amount of sewage sludge (metric tons) applied to each site.
• The certification statement in 503,17(5)(ii)(F) that certifies that the requirements
to obtain information as required in 503.12(e)(2) are met. A description of how
these requirements are met is also required. [Part 503.12(e)(2) specifies that the
permitting authority be contacted to determine whether bulk sewage sludge has
been applied to the site since 120 days from the effective date of Part 503—see
Section Ten.]
The person who applies bulk sewage sludge meeting pollutant ceiling concentrations and
cumulative pollutant loading rates must also collect, record, and retain for 5 years the following
information:
• The certification statement in 503.17(5)(ii)(H) that certifies that management
practices in 503.14 have been met for each site on which the bulk sewage sludge is
applied.
• A description of how the management practices are met for each site on which
bulk sewage sludge is applied.
• When the bulk sewage sludge meets the Class B pathogen requirements, the
certification statement in 503.17(5)(ii)(J) is required. This statement certifies that
die site restrictions for harvesting of crops, grazing of animals, and public access
(see Section Twelve) are met for each site on which the Class B bulk sewage
sludge is applied.
14-6
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• A description of how these site restrictions are met.
• If either injection or incorporation of sewage sludge into the soil is used to
achieve vector attraction reduction, the certification statement in 503.17(5)(ii)(L)
that certifies that these are met and a description of how these are met is
required.
The person who prepares the bulk sewage sludge meeting pollutant ceiling concentrations
and cumulative pollutant loading rates must collect, record, and retain for 5 yean the following
information:
• Hie concentration of each regulated pollutant in the bulk sewage sludge.
• The certification statement in 503.17(a)(5)(i)(B) that certifies that the Class A or
B pathogen requirements and 1 of the vector attraction reduction requirements
other than injection or incorporation of sewage sludge into the soil are met.
• A description of how the pathogen and vector attraction reduction requirements
discussed above are met.
*
14 J BULK SEWAGE SLUDGE MEETING POLLUTANT CONCENTRATION LIMITS AND
CLASS B PATHOGEN REQUIREMENTS
Bulk sewage sludge meeting the pollutant concentration limits in Table 6-10 and Class B
pathogen requirements is also associated with minimum recordkeeping requirements when it is
applied to agricultural land, forests, public contact sites, or reclamation sites. Recordkeeping
requirements are specified separately for the applier and the preparer of the sewage sludge. The
person who applies such bulk sewage sludge must collect, record, and retain for 5 years the
following information:
• Tie certification statement in 503.17(a)(4)(ii)(A) that certifies that the
management practices; the site restrictions for harvesting of crops and turf,
grazing of animals, and public access; and one of the vector attraction reduction
requirements of either injection or incorporation of sewage sludge into the soil (if
it is met) are met for each site on which bulk sewage sludge is applied. A
description of how these are met is also required.
14-7
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The person who prepares the bulk sewage sludge meeting pollutant concentration limits
and Class B pathogen requirements must collect, record, and retain for 5 years the following
information:
• The concentration of each regulated pollutant in the bulk sewage sludge.
• The certification statement in 503.17(a)(4)(i)(B) that certifies that Class B
pathogen requirements and one of the vector attraction reduction requirements
other than injection and incorporation of sewage sludge into the soil are met (if
one of these vector attraction reduction requirements is met). A description of
how these are met is also required.
14.6 SEWAGE SLUDGE SOLD OR GIVEN AWAY IN A BAG OR OTHER CONTAINER
FOR APPLICATION TO THE LAND THAT MEETS THE ANNUAL POLLUTANT
LOADING RATES
Sewage sludge for sale or give away, in a bag or other container for application to the
land that meets the annual pollutant loading rates in Table 6-5 is associated with a small number
of recordkeeping requirements. These requirements are specified for the person who prepares
such sewage sludge, which includes collecting, recording, and retaining for 5 years the following
information:
• The annual whole sludge application rate for the sewage sludge that (toes not
cause the annual pollutant loading rates in Table 6-5 to be exceeded.
• The concentration of each regulated pollutant in the sewage sludge.
• The certification statement in 503.17(a)(6)(iii) that certifies that the management
practices, Class A pathogen requirements, and one of the vector attraction
reduction requirements other than injection or incorporation of sewage sludge
into the soil are met.
• A description of how the Class A pathogen requirements and one of the selected
vector attraction reduction requirements are met.
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14.7 DOMESTIC SEPTAGE
Recordkeeping requirements for the appller of domestic septage to agricultural land,
forests, or reclamation sites include, collecting, recording, and retaining for 5 years the following
information:
• The location, either by street address or latitude and longitude, of the site on
which domestic septage is applied.
• The number of acres in the application site.
• The date and time domestic septage is applied to each site.
• The nitrogen requirement of the crop or vegetation grown on each site during the
365-day period.
• The rate, in gallons per year, at which domestic septage is applied to the site.
• The certification statement in 503.17(b)(6) that certifies that the pathogen and
vector attraction reduction requirements for domestic septage have been met.
• A description of how these -pathogen and vector attraction reduction requirements
for domestic septage are met.
14-9
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SECTION FIFTEEN
REPORTING
Section 503.18 of the regulation specifies reporting requirements for Class I sewage
sludge management facilities, POTWs with a design flow rate equal to or greater than 1 MGD,
and POTWs that serve 10,000 people or more to report information to the permitting authority.
Class I sewage sludge management facilities are either a POTW required to have a
pretreatment program or a treatment works treating domestic sewage (TWTDS) that has the
potential to affect public health and the environment adversely because of the TWTDS's sewage
sludge use or disposal practice.
POTWs required to pretreat, industry wastewater and, thus, are more likely to generate
sewage sludge that contains the pollutants controlled in Part 503. For this reason, the Agency
«
has determined that those POTWs should report the information on sewage sludge use or
disposal to the permitting authority. The reporting requirement also applies to other Class I
sludge management facilities, the TWTDS, whose sewage sludge use or disposal practice has the
potential to adversely affect public health and the environment.
The reporting requirement also applies to POTWs that are not a Class I facility and
either have a design flow rate equal to or greater than 1 MGD, or serve 10,000 people or more.
These facilities are included because of the potential for industrial wastewater to be part of the
influent. Sewage sludge generated at such POTWs is more likely to contain die pollutants
controlled in Part 503. For this reason, the Agency concluded that those POTWs should report
the information in the recordkeeping section to the permitting authority.
Each POTW that is a Class I sewage sludge management facility with a design flow rate
equal to or greater than 1 MGD that serves a population of 10,000 or greater, is required to
submit most of the information required in the recordkeeping section to the permitting authority
each year (on the month and day that Part 503 is published). Hiere is some information that
does not have to be submitted:
15-1
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• The information in 503.17(b), which must be recorded when domestic septage is
applied to the agricultural land, forests, or reclamation sites, does not have to be
submitted to the permitting authority.
• The information in 503.17(a)(3)(ii), which must be recorded when sewage sludge
meeting pollutant concentration limits, Class A pathogen requirements, and the
vector attraction reduction requirements of either injection or incorporation of
sewage sludge into the soil is applied to agricultural land, forests, public contact
sites or reclamation sites, does not have to be submitted to the permitting
authority. This includes the following information regarding each site to which
bulk sewage sludge is applied: a description of how the management practice
requirements and the vector attraction reduction requirements of either injection
or incorporation of sewage sludge into the soil are met and a certification
- statement that these are met.
• The information in 503.17(a)(4)(B), which must be recorded when sewage sludge
meeting pollutant concentration limits and Class B pathogen requirements is
applied to' agricultural land, forests, public contact sites, or reclamation sites, does
not have to be submitted to the permitting authority. This includes the following
information regarding each site to which bulk sewage sludge is applied: a
description of how the management practices, site restrictions, and vector
attraction reduction requirements of injection or incorporation of sewage sludge
into the soil (if either of these vector attraction reduction requirements are met),
and a certification statement that these are met (see Section 14.1.4).
• The information in 503.17(a)(5)(ii), which must be recorded when bulk sewage
sludge meeting pollutant ceiling concentrations and cumulative pollutant loading
rates is applied to agricultural land, forests, public contact sites, or reclamation
sites docs not have to be submitted to the permitting authority. This includes
information regarding each site to wMch bulk sewage sludge is applied, such as
the location, the number of hectares of land, the date and time bulk sewage
sludge is applied, the cumulative amount of each pollutant in the bulk sewage
sludge, and the amount of sewage sludge in metric tons.
However, when 90 percent or more of any of the cumulative pollutant loading rates is
reached at a site, the information in 503.17(a)(5)(ii)(A) through 503.17(a)(5)(ii)(G), must be
submitted to the permitting authority each year (on the month and day that Part 503 is
published). This includes the following information regarding each site to which bulk sewage
sludge is applied: the location, the number of hectares of land, the date and time bulk sewage
sludge is applied, the cumulative amount of each pollutant in the bulk sewage sludge, the amount
of sewage sludge in metric tons, a statement certifying that the requirements to obtain
information in 503.12(e)(2) (information regarding the cumulative amount of pollutants applied
15-2
-------
to a site—see Section Ten) have been met, and a description of how this information was
obtained (see Section 14,1.5),
15-3
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SECTION 16
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*
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