vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
4305
EPA-823-F-99-016
September 1999
Fact Sheet
Mercury Update: Impact on Fish Advisories
Mercury is distributed throughout the environment from both natural sources and human activities. Methylmercury is
the main form of organic mercury found in the environment and is the form that accumulates in both fish and human
tissues. Three major episodes of methylmercury poisoning through consumption of contaminated food have
occurred; these resulted in central nervous system effects such as impairment of peripheral vision, mental
symptoms, loss of feeling, and, at high doses, seizures, very severe neurological impairment, and death. Methyl-
mercury has also been shown to be a developmental toxicant, causing subtle to severe neurological effects. EPA
considers there is sufficient evidence for methylmercury to be considered a developmental toxicant, to be of concern
for potential human mutagenicity, and to be a possible human carcinogen (Group C).Asof December 1998, 40
states have issued 1,931 fish advisories for mercury. These advisories inform the public that concentrations of
mercury have been found in local fish at levels of public health concern. State advisories recommend either limiting
or avoiding consumption of certain fish from specific waterbodies or, in some cases, from specific waterbody types
(e.g., all freshwater lakes or rivers).
The purpose of this fact sheet is to summarize current information on sources, fate and transport, occurrence in
human tissues, range of concentrations in fish tissue, fish advisories, fish consumption limits, toxicity, and
regulations for mercury. The fact sheets also illustrate how this information may be used for developing fish
consumption advisories. An electronic version of this fact sheet and fact sheets for dioxins/furans, PCBs, and
toxaphene are available at http://www.epa.gov/OST/fish. Future revisions will be posted on the web as'they
become available.
Sources of Mercury in the Environment
Mercury is found in the environment in the metallic
form and in different inorganic and organic forms.
Most of the mercury in the atmosphere is elemental
mercury vapor; most of the mercury in water, soil,
plants, and animals is inorganic and organic mercury
(primarily methylmercury).
Mercury occurs naturally and is distributed throughout
the environment by both natural processes and
human activities. Solid waste incineration and fossil
fuel combustion facilities contribute approximately
87% of the emissions of mercury in the United States.
Other sources of mercury releases to the air include
mining and smelting, industrial processes involving
the use of mercury such as chlor-alkali production
facilities and production of cement.
Mercury is released to surface waters from naturally
occurring mercury in rocks and soils and from
industrial activities, including pulp and paper mills,
leather tanning, electroplating, and chemical
manufacturing. Wastewater treatment facilities may
also release mercury to water. An indirect source of
mercury to surface waters is mercury in the air; it is
deposited from rain and other processes directly to
water surfaces and to soils. Mercury also may be
mobilized from sediments if disturbed (e.g., flooding,
dredging).
Sources of mercury in soil include direct application
of fertilizers and fungicides and disposal of solid
waste, including batteries and thermometers, to
landfills. The disposal of municipal incinerator ash in
landfills and the application of sewage sludge to crop
land result in increased levels of mercury in soil.
Mercury in air may also be deposited in soil and
sediments.
Fate and Transport of Mercury
The global cycling of mercury is a complex process.
Mercury evaporates from soils and surface waters to
the atmosphere, is redeposited on land and surface
water, and then is absorbed by soil or sediments.
After redeposition on land and water, mercury is
commonly volatilized back to the atmosphere as a
gas or as adherents to particulates.
Mercury exists in a number of inorganic and organic
forms in water. Methylmercury, the most common
organic form of mercury, quickly enters the aquatic
food chain. In most adult fish, 90% to 100% of the
mercury is methylmercury. Methylmercury is found
primarily in the fish muscle (fillets) bound to proteins.
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Skinning and trimming the fish does not significantly
reduce the mercury concentration in the fillet, nor is it
removed by cooking processes. Because moisture is
lost during cooking, the concentration of mercury
after cooking is actually higher than it is in the fresh
uncooked fish.
Concentrations of total mercury in fish at the top of
the food chain, such as pike, shark, and swordfish,
are approximately 10,000 to 100,000 times higher
than the concentrations of inorganic mercury found in
the surrounding waters, the bioconcentration factor
(BCF) of methylmercury in fish is on the order of 3
million. The bioaccumulation of methylmercury is
even greater. Methylmercury levels in predator fish
are, on average, approximately 7 million times higher
than the concentrations of dissolved methylmercury
found in the surrounding waters.
In 1984 and 1985, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
collected 315 composite samples of whole fish from
109 stations nationwide as part of the National
Contaminant Biomonitoring Program (NCBP). The
maximum, geometric mean, and 85th percentile
concentrations for mercury were 0.37, 0.10, and 0.17
ppm (wet weight), respectively. An analysis of
mercury levels in tissues of bottom-feeding and
predatory fish using the data from the NCBP study
showed that the mean mercury tissue concentration
of 0.12 ± 0.08 ppm in predatory fish species (e.g.,
trout, walleye, largemouth bass) was significantly
higher than the mean tissue concentration of 0.08 ±
0.06 ppm in bottom feeders (e.g., carp, white sucker,
and channel catfish).
Mercury, the only metal analyzed as part of EPA's
1987 National Study of Chemical Residues in Fish
(NSCRF), was detected at 92% of 374 sites
surveyed. Maximum, arithmetic mean, and median
concentrations in fish tissue were 1.77, 0.26, and
0.17 ppm (wet weight), respectively. Mean mercury
concentrations in bottom feeders (whole body
samples) were generally lower than concentrations
for predator-fish (fillet samples) (see Table 1). Most
of the higher tissue concentrations of mercury were
detected in freshwater fish samples collected in the
Northeast.
Most recently, the northeast states and eastern
Canadian provinces issued their own mercury study,
including a comprehensive analysis of mercury
concentrations in a variety of freshwater sportfish
collected from the late 1980s to 1996. Top level
predatory fish such as walleye, chain pickerel, and
large and smallmouth bass were typically found to
exhibit the highest concentrations, with mean tissue
residues greater than 0.5 ppm and maximum
residues exceeding 2 ppm. One largemouth bass
sample was found to contain 8.94 ppm of mercury,
while a smallmouth bass sampled contained 5 ppm.
Table 2 summarizes the range and the mean
concentrations found in eight species of sportfish
sampled.
Mercury has also been detected in marine fish
species. Concentrations of methylmercury in muscle
tissue in nine species of Atlantic shark averaged 0.88
ttglg (ppm) (wet weight) and ranged from 0.06 to 2.87
/4J/9 (Ppm)- Bluefin tuna from the northwest Atlantic
Ocean contained mercury at a mean muscle
concentration of 3.41 ^g/g (ppm) (dry weight).
Table 1. Mean Mercury Concentrations in
Freshwater Fish3
Species
Mean
concentration (ppm)b
Bottom Feeders !
Carp
White sucker
Channel catfish
Predator Fish
Largemouth bass
Smallmouth bass
Walleye
Brown trout
0.11
0.11
0.09
0.46
0.34
0.52
0.14
aEPA National Study of Chemical Residues in Fish
conducted in 1987; species included freshwater, estuarine,
and marine finfish; and a small number of marine shellfish.
b Concentrations are reported on wet weight basis
Source: Bahnick et a/., 1994.
Table 2. Mercury Concentrations for Selected
Fish Species in the Northeast
•
Species
Largemouth
bass
Smallmouth
bass
Yellow perch
Eastern chain
pickerel
Lake trout
Walleye
Brown bullhead
Brook trout
Mean
concentration3:
(ppm)
0.51
0.53
0.40
0.63
0.32
0.77
0.20
0.26
Minimum-
maximum
range3
(ppm)
0-8.94
0.08-5.0
0-3.15
0-2.81
0-2.70
0.10-2.04
0-1.10
0-0.98
3 Concentrations are reported on a wet weight basis.
Source: NESCAUM, 1998.
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Because of the higher cost of methylmercury analysis,
EPA recommends that total mercury rather than
methylmercury concentrations be determined in state
fish contaminant monitoring programs. EPA also
recommends that the conservative assumption be
made that all mercury is present as methylmercury in
order to be most protective of human health.
Potential Sources of Exposure and
Occurrence in Human Tissues
Potential sources of human exposure to mercury
include food contaminated with mercury, inhalation of
mercury vapors in ambient air, and exposure to
mercury through dental and medical treatments.
Dietary intake is by far the most important source of
exposure to mercury for the general population. Fish
and other seafood products are the main source of
methylmercury in the diet; studies have shown that
methylmercury concentrations in fish and shellfish are
approximately 10 to 100 times greater than in other
foods, including cereals, potatoes, vegetables, fruits,
meats, poultry, eggs, and milk.
Individuals who may be exposed to higher than
average levels of methylmercury include recreational
and subsistence fishers who routinely consume large
amounts of locally caught fish and subsistence hunters
who routinely consume the meat and organ tissues of
marine mammals.
Analytical methods are available to measure mercury
in blood, urine, tissue, hair, and breast milk.
Fish Advisories
The states have primary responsibility for protecting
their residents from the health risks of consuming
contaminated noncommercially caught fish. They do
this by issuing consumption advisories for the general
population, including recreational and subsistence
fishers, as well as sensitive subpopulations (such as
pregnant women/fetus, nursing mothers and their
infants, and children). These advisories inform the
public that high concentrations of chemical
contaminants, such as mercury, have been found in
local fish. The advisories recommend either limiting or
avoiding consumption of certain fish from specific
waterbodies or, in some cases, from specific
waterbody types (such as lakes or rivers).
As of December 1998, mercury was the chemical
contaminant responsible, at least in part, for the
issuance of 1,931 fish consumption advisories by 40
states, including the U.S. territory of American Samoa.
Almost 68% of all advisories issued in the United
States are a result of mercury contamination in fish
and shellfish. Advisories for mercury have increased
steadily, by 115% from 899 advisories in 1993 to 1,931
advisories in 1998. The number of states that have
issued mercury advisories also has risen steadily from
27 states in 1993 to 40 states in 1997, and remains at
40 states for 1998. Advisories for mercury increased
nearly 8% from 1997 (1,782 advisories) to 1998
(1,931 advisories).
Ten states have issued statewide advisories for
mercury in their freshwater lakes and/or rivers:
Connecticut, Indiana, Maine, Massachusetts,
Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North
Carolina, Ohio, and Vermont. Another five Gulf Coast
states (Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, and
Texas) have statewide mercury advisories in effect
for their coastal marine waters. To date, 90% of the
1,931 mercury advisories in effect have been issued
by the following 11 states; Minnesota (821),
Wisconsin (402), Indiana (126), Florida (97), Georgia
(80), Massachusetts (58), Michigan (53), New Jersey
(30), New Mexico (26), South Carolina (24), and
Montana (22). Figure 1 shows the total number offish
advisories for mercury in each state in 1998.
Fish Consumption Limits—EPA indicated in the
Mercury Study Report to Congress (U.S. EPA, 1997)
that the typical U.S. consumer was not in danger of
consuming harmful levels of methylmercury from fish
and was not advised to limit fish consumption on the
basis of mercury content. This advice is appropriate
for typical consumers who eat less than 10 grams of
fish and shellfish per day with mercury concentrations
averaging between 0.1 and 0.15 ppm, which are
typical for most species of commercially obtained
fish. At these rates offish intake, methylmercury
exposures are considerably less than the interim
reference dose (RfD) of 1 x 10"4 mg/kg-d. However,
eating more fish than is typical or eating fish that are
more contaminated, can increase the risk to a
developing fetus.
Two groups of women of childbearing age are of
concern: (1) those who eat more than 10 grams of
fish a day and (2) those who eat fish with higher
methylmercury levels. Ten grams offish is a little
over one-quarter cup of tuna per week or about one
fish sandwich per week. Based on diet surveys, 10%
of women of childbearing age eat five times or more
fish than does the average consumer. If the fish have
average mercury concentrations of 0.1 to 0.15 ppm,
the women's mercury exposures range from near or
slightly over the interim RfD to about twice the interim
RfD.
The second group of women of concern are those
who eat fish with higher mercury concentrations (e.g.,
0.5 ppm and higher). Examples offish with above
average mercury levels are king mackerel, various
bass species, orange roughy, pike, swordfish, shark
and freshwater fish from contaminated waters. Even
women eating average amounts offish (i.e., <10 g/d)
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Figure 1. Fish Advisories for Mercury.
1998
American Samoa = 1
D Guam
D Virgin Islands
D Puerto Rico
El States issuing Eidvisory (40)
• Statewide Lake Advisories
A Statewide River Advisories
* Statewide Coastal Marine Advisories
have mercury exposures near the interim RfD, if the
mercury concentration is 0.5 ppm. If women eat these
fish species and their average fish intake is between
40 and 70 grams/day (or about a quarter cup per
day), their mercury exposures would range from three
to six times- the interim RfD. Consumers who eat fish
with 1 ppm mercury (e.g., swordfish and shark) at the
level of 40 to 70 g/d have intakes that range from 6 to
nearly 12 times the interim RfD.
Some women of childbearing age in certain ethnic
groups (Asians, Pacific Islanders, and Native
Americans) eat much more fish than the general
population. Because of the higher amounts of fish in
their diets, women in these ethnic groups need to be
aware of the level of mercury in the fish they eat.
The RfD is not a "bright line" between safety and
toxicity; however, there is progressively greater
coqcem about the likelihood of adverse effects above
this level. Consequently, people are advised to
consume fish in moderate amounts and be aware of
the amount of mercury in the fish they eat.
For sensitive populations, such as pregnant women,
nursing mothers, and young children, some states
have issued either "no consumption" advisories or
"restricted consumption" advisories for methyl-
mercury. Additional information on calculating specific
limits for these sensitive populations is available in
EPA's Guidance for Assessing Chemical
Contaminant Data for Use in Fish Advisories, Volume
2, Section 3.
Table 3 shows the recommended monthly fish
consumption limits for methylmercury in fish for fish
consumers based on EPA's default values for risk
assessment parameters. Consumption limits have
been calculated as the number of allowable fish
meals per month based on the ranges of
methylmercury in the consumed fish tissue. The
following assumptions were used to calculate the
consumption limits:
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• Consumer adult body weight of 72 kg
• Average fish meal size of 8 oz (0.227 kg)
• Time-averaging period of 1 mo (30.44 d)
• EPA's interim reference dose for methylmercury
(1x10-4 mg/kg-d) from EPA's Integrated Risk
Information System (U.S. EPA, 1999c).
For example, when methylmercury levels in fish
tissue are 0.4 ppm, then two 8-oz. meals per month
can safely be consumed.
Tables. Monthly Fish Consumption
Limits for Methylmercury
Risk-based
consumption limit
Fish meals/month
16
12
8
4
3
2
1
0.5
None (<0.5)a
Noncancer
health endpoints
Fish tissue concentrations
(ppm, wet weight)
> 0.03-0.06
> 0.06-0.08
> 0.08-0.12
> 0.12-0.24
> 0.24-0.32
> 0.32-0.48
> 0.48-0.97
> 0.97-1.9
a None = No consumption recommended.
NOTE: In cases where >16 meals per month are
consumed, refer to EPA's Guidance for Assessing
Chemical Contaminant Data for Use in Fish Advisories,
Volume 2, Section 3 for methods to determine safe
consumption limits.
Toxicity of Mercury
Pharmacokinetics—Methylmercury is rapidly and
nearly completely absorbed from the gastrointestinal
tract; 90% to 100% absorption is estimated. Methyl-
mercury is somewhat lipophilic, allowing it to pass
through lipid membranes of cells and facilitating its
distribution to all tissues, and it binds readily to
proteins. Methylmercury binds to amino acids in fish
muscle tissue.
The highest methylmercury levels in humans are
generally found in the kidneys. Methylmercury in the
body is considered to be relatively stable and is only
slowly transformed to form other forms of mercury.
Methylmercury readily crosses the placental and
blood/brain barriers. Estimates for its half-life in the
human body range from 44 to 80 days.
Excretion of methylmercury is via the feces, urine,
and breast milk. Methylmercury is also distributed to
human hair and to the fur and feathers of wildlife;
measurement of mercury in hair and these other
tissues has served as a useful biomonitor of
contamination levels.
Acute Toxicity—Acute high-level exposures to
methylmercury may result in impaired central nervous
system function, kidney damage and failure, gastro-
intestinal damage, cardiovascular collapse, shock,
and death: The estimated lethal dose is 10 to 60
mg/kg.
Chronic Toxicity—Although both elemental mercury
and methylmercury produce a variety of health effects
at relatively high exposures, neurotoxicity is the effect
of greatest concern. This is true whether exposure
occurs to the developing embryo or fetus during
pregnancy or to adults and children. Human exposure
to methylmercury has generally been through
consumption of contaminated food. Two major
episodes of methylmercury poisoning through fish
consumption have occurred. The first occurred in the
early 1950s among people, fish consuming domestic
animals such as cats, and wildlife living near
Minamata City on the shores of Minamata Bay,
Kyushu, Japan. The source of the methylmercury
contamination was effluent from a chemical factory
that used mercury as a catalyst and discharged
wastes into the bay where it accumulated in fish and
shellfish that were a dietary staple of this population.
Average fish consumption was reported to be in
excess of 300 g/d, 20 times greater than is typical for
recreational fishers in the United States. By
comparison, about 3% to 5% of U.S. consumers
routinely eat 100 grams of fish per day. Among
women of childbearing age, 3% routinely eat 100
grams of fish per day.
In 1965, another methylmercury poisoning incident
occurred in the area of Niigata, Japan. The signs and
symptoms of the disease in Niigata were similar to
those of methylmercury poisoning in Minamata.
Symptoms of Minamata disease in children
and adults included: impairment of
peripheral vision, disturbances in
sensations ("pins and needles" feelings,
numbness) usually in the hands and feet
and sometimes around the mouth;
incoordination of movements;
impairment of speech, hearing, and
walking; and mental disturbances. It
sometimes took several years before
individuals were aware that they were
developing the signs and symptoms of
methylmercury poisoning. Over the
years, it became clear that nervous
system damage could occur to a fetus
whose mother ate fish contaminated with
methylmercury during the pregnancy.
Methylmercury poisoning also occurred in Iraq
following consumption of seed grain that had been
treated with a fungicide containing methylmercury.
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The first outbreak occurred prior to 1960; the second
occurred in the early 1970s. Imported mercury-
treated seed grains that arrived after the planting
season were ground into flour and baked into bread.
Unlike the long-term exposures in Japan, the
epidemic of methylmercury poisoning in Iraq was
short in duration lasting approximately 6 months. The
signs and symptoms of disease in Iraq were
predominantly in the nervous system: difficulty with
peripheral vision or blindness, sensory disturbances,
incoordination, impairment of walking, and slurred
speech. Both children and adults were affected.
Infants born to mothers who had consumed
methylmercury contaminated grain (particularly during
the second trimester of pregnancy) showed nervous
system damage even though the mother was only
slightly affected.
Recent studies have examined
populations that are exposed to lower
levels of methylmercury as a
consequence of routine consumption of
fish and marine mammals including
studies of populations around the Great
Lakes and in New Zealand, the Amazon
basin, the Seychelles Islands, and the
Faroe Islands. The last two studies are
of large populations of children
presumably exposed to methylmercury in
utero. Very sensitive measures of
developmental neurotoxicity in these
populations are still being analyzed and
published. A recent workshop discussed
these studies and concluded that they
have provided valuable new information
on the potential health effects of
methylmercury. Significant uncertainties
remain, however, because of issues
related to exposure, neurobehavioral
endpoints, confounders and statistics,
and study design.
Developmental Toxlclty—Data are available on
developmental effects in rats, mice, guinea pigs,
hamsters, and monkeys. Also, convincing data from a
number of human studies (i.e., Minamata, Iraq)
indicate that methylmercury causes subtle to severe
neurologic effects depending on dose and individual
susceptibility. EPA considers methylmercury to have
sufficient human and animal data to be classified as a
developmental toxicant.
Methylmercury accumulates in body tissue;
consequently, maternal exposure occurring prior to
pregnancy can contribute to the overall maternal
body burden and result in exposure to the developing
fetus. In addition, infants may be exposed to methyl-
mercury through breast milk. Therefore, it is
advisable to reduce methylmercury exposure to
women with childbearing potential to reduce overall
body burden (see Fish Consumption Limits section).
Mutagenicity— Methylmercury appears to be
clastogenic but not to be a point mutagen; that is,
mercury causes chromosome damage but not small
heritable changes in DNA.
EPA has classified methylmercury as being of high
concern for potential human germ cell mutagenicity.
The absence of positive results in a heritable
mutagenicity assay keeps methylmercury from being
included under the highest level of concern. The data
on mutagenicity are not sufficient, however, to permit
estimation of the amount of methylmercury that would
cause a measurable mutagenic effect in the human
population.
Carcinogenicity— Experimental animal data suggest
that methylmercury may be tumorigenic in animals.
Chronic dietary exposures of mice to methylmercury
resulted in significant increases in the incidences of
kidney tumors in males but not in females. The
tumors were seen only at toxic doses of
methylmercury. Three human studies have been
identified that examined the relationship between
methylmercury exposure and cancer. There was no
persuasive evidence of increased carcinogenicity
attributable to methylmercury exposure in any of
these studies. Interpretation of these studies was
limited by poor study design and incomplete
descriptions of methodology and/or results. EPA has
not calculated quantitative carcinogenic risk values
for methylmercury. EPA has found methylmercury to
have inadequate data in humans and limited
evidence in animals, and has classified it as a
possible human carcinogen, Group C.
All of the carcinogenic effects in animals were
observed in the presence of profound damage to the
kidneys. Tumors may be formed as a consequence of
repair in the damaged organs. Evidence points to a
mode of action for methylmercury carcinogenicity that
operates at high doses certain to produce other types
of toxicity in humans. Given the levels of exposure
most likely to occur in the U.S. population, even
among consumers of large amounts offish, methyl-
mercury is not likely to present a carcinogenic risk.
Summary of EPA Health Benchmarks
Chronic Toxicity-lnterim Reference
Dose:
1x10-4 mg/kg-d (U.S. EPA, 1999c)
Carcinogenicity: No carcinogenic risk
values calculated
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Special Susceptibilities—The developing fetus is at
greater risk from methylmercury exposure than are
adults. Data on children exposed only after birth are
insufficient to determine if this group has increased,
susceptibility to the adverse central nervous system
effects of methylmercury. In addition, children are
considered to be at increased risk of methylmercury
exposure by virtue of their greater food consumption
as a percentage of body weight (mg food/kg body
weight) compared to adult exposures. Additional risk
from higher mercury ingestion rates may also result
from the apparent decreased ability of children's
bodies to eliminate mercury.
Interactive Effects—Potassium dichromate and
atrazine may increase the toxicity of mercury,
although these effects have been noted only with
metallic and inorganic mercury. Ethanol increases the
toxicity of methylmercury in experimental animals.
Vitamins D and E, thiol compounds, selenium,
copper, and possibly zinc are antagonistic to the toxic
effects of mercury.
Critical Data Gaps—Additional data are needed on
the exposure levels at which humans experience
subtle, but persistent, adverse neurological effects.
Data on immunologic effects and reproductive effects
are not sufficient for evaluation of low-dose methyl-
mercury toxicity for these endpoints.
EPA Regulations and Advisories
• Maximum Contaminant Level in drinking water = 0.002 mg/L
• Toxic Criteria for those States Not Complying with CWA Section 303(c)(2)(B) - criterion
concentration for priority toxic pollutants:
- Freshwater: maximum = 2.10 u.g/L, continuous = 0.01 2 p.g/L
Saltwater: maximum = 1 .80 |ig/L, continuous = 0.025 (ig/L
- Human health consumption of water and organisms = 0.14 p,g/L
- Human health consumption of organisms only = 0.15
Water Quality Guidance for the Great Lakes System — protection of aquatic life in ambient
water:
- acute water quality criteria for mercury total recoverable: maximum = 1 .694 p.g/L
— chronic water quality criteria for mercury total recoverable: continuous = 0.908 ug/L
- water qualify criteria for protection of human health, drinking water and nondrinking
water: maximum = 1 .8 x 1 0"3 ug/L
- water quality criteria for protection of human health (mercury including methylmercury)
= 1.3 x10'3 ug/L
Listed as a hazardous air pollutant under Section 1 12 of the Clean Air Act
Emissions from mercury ore processing facilities and mercury chlor-alkali plants = 2,300 g
maximum/24 h
Emissions from sludge incineration plants, sludge drying plants, or a combination of these
that process wastewater treatment plant sludge = 3,200 g maximum/24 h
Ban o'f phenylmercuric acetate as a fungicide in interior and exterior latex paints
Reportable quantities: Mercury, mercuric cyanide = 1 Ib; mercuric nitrate, mercuric sulfate,
mercuric thiocyanate, mercurous nitrate, mercury fulminate = 10 Ib; phenylmercury acetate
= 100lb.
Listed as a hazardous substance: Mercuric cyanide, mercuric nitrate, mercuric sulfate,
mercuric thiocyanate, mercurous nitrate
Reporting threshold for Toxic Release Inventory (proposed) = 10 Ib
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Sources of Information
ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry). 1999. Toxicological Profile for Mercury.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service, Atlanta, GA.
Bahnick, D., C. Sauer, B. Butterworth, and D.W.
Kuehl. 1994. A national study of mercury
contamination in fish IV: Analytical methods and
results. Chemosphere 29(3):537-547.
Kidwell, J.M., LJ. Phillips, and G.F. Birchard. 1995.
Comparative analyses of contaminant levels in
bottom feeding and predatory fish using the National
Contaminant Biomonitoring Program Data. Bulletin of
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
54:919-923.
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.
1999. Scientific Issues Relevant to Assessment of
Health Effects from Exposure to Methylmercury. U. S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Public
Health Service, Research Triangle Park, NC.
http://www.niehs. nih.gov.
NESCAUM (Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use
Management). 1998. Northeast States and Eastern
Canadian Provinces Mercury Study. A Framework for
Action. Boston, Massachusetts.
Porcella, D.B. 1994. Mercury in the Environment:
Biogeochemistry. In: Watras, C. J., Huckabee, J. W.,
eds., Lewis Publishers. Mercury Pollution Integration
and Synthesis, Boca Raton, Florida. 3-19.
Schmitt, C. J., and W. G. Brumbaugh. 1990. National
Contaminant Biomonitoring Program: Concentrations
of arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, mercury,
selenium, and zinc in U.S. freshwater fish, 1978-
1984. Archives of Environmental Contamination and
Toxlcololgy. 19:731 -747.
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1997.
Mercury Study Report to Congress. Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards and Office of
Research and Development, Washington, DC.
http://www.epa.qov/ttn/uatw/112nmerc/mercurv.html
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1999a.
Guidance for Assessing Chemical Contaminant Data
for Use in Fish Advisories. Volume 2, 3rd edition. Risk
Assessment and Fish Consumption Limits. EPA 823-
B-99-008. Office of Water, Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1999b.
Fact Sheet: Update: National Listing of Fish and
Wildlife Advisories. EPA-823-F-99-005. Office of
Water, Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). IRIS
(Integrated Risk Information System) for Methyl-
mercury. 1999c. National Center for Environmental
Assessment, Office of Research and Development,
Cincinnati, OH.
For more information about the National
Fish and Wildlife Contamination
Program, contact:
Mr. Jeffrey Bigler
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Science and Technology
401 M St. SW (4305)
Washington, DC 20460
Bigler.Jeff@epa.gov
202260-1305
202 260-9830 (fax)
The 1998 update of the database National
Listing of Fish and Wildlife Advisories is
available for downloading from the
following Internet site:
http://www.epa.gov/OST
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