United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Wastewater
Management
(4204)
EPA/832-B-00-007
July 2000
SERA Guide to Field Storage of
Biosolids
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EPA/832-B-00-007
July 2000
Guide To Field Storage of Biosolids
and Other Organic By-Products Used in
Agriculture and for Soil Resource
Management
oEPA
USDA
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency U.S. Department of Agriculture
Office of Wastewater Management Agricultural Research Service
Washington, DC Beltsville, MD
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Notice
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Department
of Agriculture intend this document as guidance only. It does not
bind any agencies, nor does it create or confer any rights, privileges,
or benefits for, or on, any person or organization. While this
guidance document represents the best advice of the U.S. EPA,
USDA, and stakeholders, it does not have the force and effect of law.
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Forward
In February 1993, federal standards for the use or disposal of
biosolids (40 CFR Part 503) were enacted (Federal Register, 1993).
The Part 503 rule addresses land application and beneficial use of
biosolids. Included in the rule was a two-year time limit on storage of
biosolids for beneficial use. The Part 503 rule did not specifically
address management standards and practices for storage of
biosolids.
Since the enactment of Part 503, numerous stakeholders, land
appliers and biosolids operators have come to understand that there
are critical issues associated with successful off-site storage of
biosolids (off-site meaning not at the wastewater treatment facility).
These issues have not been addressed by code or other guidance
documents that are available for reference by biosolids generators
and managers, regulatory agencies, or the public.
This guidance document was written to provide a set of consistent
Recommended Management Practices for the field storage of
biosolids. It identifies three critical control points for managing the
system: the wastewater treatment facility, the transportation process,
and the field storage site. It provides the elements needed for good
site design and operation. This document also stresses the
continuing need for partnership and good communication between
the biosolids generators and managers responsible for storage and
land application to ensure community-friendly operations. The guide
targets management practices to address three critical issues: air
quality (odors), water quality, and sanitation (pathogens), which have
potential environmental, public health and community relations
impacts. In the interest of developing a holistic approach to
management of organic byproducts, in Chapter 7 there is a
discussion of recommendations for storage of organic by-products
other than biosolids.
The information in this document represents the collective efforts of a
workgroup of professionals with expertise in the generation,
processing, transport, field storage, land application, agricultural use,
regulation, and public acceptability of biosolids. This group met in
June 1997 at Beltsville, MD, to examine the issues and begin framing
a set of recommendations for biosolids storage practices. The
workgroup continued its effort over a three-year period and has
solicited extensive review and comments from a variety of
stakeholders and peers. This guide represents the ideas,
experience, and knowledge of these scientists and practitioners
relative to management of stored biosolids. The key principles for
-------
successful biosolids storage as described here are common to
numerous storage projects that have been operated successfully in
the U.S. It is the desire of the workgroup and contributors to share
information and field management techniques that lead to success,
and conversely to failure, so that all biosolids managers and states
can develop and operate high quality storage programs that support
beneficial biosolids use projects
-------
Acknowledgments
This document represents the efforts and contributions of numerous
individuals as shown in the Contributors section. Gratitude is
expressed to each person involved in the preparation and review of
the many drafts leading up to this guide.
The authors are Patricia Millner, Soil Microbial Systems Laboratory,
USDA, Agricultural Research Service; Sharon Hogan, Synagro Inc.
(formerly Wheelabrator Water Technologies Inc. Bio Grow Division);
and John Walker, Municipal Technology Branch, U.S. EPA, Office of
Wastewater Management.
For photographs, illustrations, and examples of existing protocols,
special appreciation is extended to:
King County Department of Natural Resources
Los Angles County Sanitation District
Maine Department of Environmental Protection
Springfield Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant
St. Croix, Sensory Inc.
USDA-Natural Resource Conservation Service
We also gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Shannon Garland in
editing and layout of the final publication, Connie Kunzler in editing
workgroup reports and drafts, and Dorothy Talmud for typing the
manuscript.
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Contributors
Mary Jo Aiello, Bureau of Pretreatment &
Residuals, N.J. Dept. Environmental
Protection
Trenton, NJ 08625
Robert Bastian
U.S. EPA, Office of Water
Washington, D.C. 20460
Douglas Borgatti
Springfield Water & Sewer Commission
Springfield, MA 01101
J. Scott Carr
Black & Veatch
Kansas City, MO 64114
Gene de Michele
Water Environment Federation
Alexandria, VA 22314-1994
Elliott Epstein
E & A Environmental
Canton, MA 02021
Ervin Faulman
Biocheck Labs
Toledo, OH 43606
Jeffrey Faust, BioGro Div.
Wheelabrator Water Technologies, Inc.
Millersville, MD21108
Robert A. Gillette
Carollo Engineers
Sacramento, CA 95833
Wes Gregory, President
Waste Stream Environmental
Jordan, NY 13080
Sam Hadeed
National Biosolids Partnership
Alexandria, VA 22314
George Hall
Metropolitan Water Reclamation
District of Greater Chicago
Wllow Springs, III. 60480
Larry Hentz
Post, Buckley, Schue, Jernigan
Bowie, MD 20716
Penny Hill
Los Angeles County Sanitation District
Whittier, CA 90607
Sharon Hogan, BioGro Div.
Wheelabrator Water Technologies, Inc.
Baltimore, MD 21224
John Hoff
City of Columbus, Composting Facility
Lockbourne, OH 43137
Lee Jacobs
Dept. Crop & Soil Sciences
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Ml 48824_1325
Carolyn Jenkins, New England Interstate
Water Pollution Control Commission
Wlmington, MA 01887
Raymond J. Kearney
Hyperion Treatment Div.
Dept. Public Works, City of Los Angeles
Playa Del Rey, CA 90293
Greg Kester
Dept. of Natural Resources
Madison, Wl
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
VII
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Mark King
Dept. Environmental Protection-Maine
Augusta, ME 04333
Mark E. Lang
The Sear_Brown Group
Rochester, NY 14623
Richard Litz
Waste Stream Environmental/Earth Blends
Weedsport, NY 13166
Terry Logan
N-Viro International Inc.
Toledo, OH 43606
Pete Machno
National Biosolids Partnership
Seattle, WA
Patricia D. Millner
USDA-Agricultural Research Service
Beltsville, MD 20705
Richard G. Mills
Massachusetts Water Resources Authority
Boston, MA 02129
J. Patrick Nicholson
N-Viro International Inc.
Toledo, Oh 43606
Bob Odette
Synagro
Advance, NC 27006
Randy R. Ott, County of Onondaga
Dept. Drainage and Sanitation
Syracuse, NY 13204
Anthony Pilawski,
Bureau of Pretreatment & Residuals
N.J. Dept. Environmental Protection
Trenton, NJ 08625
Frank Post, AMSCO
P.O. Box 1770
Clemmons, NC 27012
Ben Price
The Merriwood Corp.
Fallbrook CA 92088
Mark Ronayne, City of Portland
Bureau of Environmental Services
Portland OR 97203
Sally Rowland
NY-Dept. Environmental Protection
Albany, NY 12233
Alan B. Rubin (4304)
U.S. EPA, Office of Water
Washington, D.C. 20460
A. Robert Rubin
North Carolina Cooperative Extension
Service, North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC 27695
L. Douglas Saylor, District Mining Operations
PA-Dept. Environmental Protection,
Hawk Run, PA 16840
John Sendera
Calumet Water Reclamation District
Chicago, IL 60628
Jim Smith
U.S. EPA, NRMRL-TSD
Cincinnati, OH 45268
Bob Southworth (retired)
U.S. EPA , Office of Water
Washington, D.C. 20460
John Stapelton
Waste Stream Environmental/Earth Blends
Weedsport, NY 13166
Steve Stark
Metropolitan Council Environmental Service
St. Paul, MN 55101
Dan Sullivan
Department: Crop & Soil Science
Oregon State Univ.
Corvallis, OR
Michael Switzenbaum
Civil and Environmental Engineering Dept.
Univ. Mass.
Amherst, MA 01003
VIM
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
-------
Joel Thompson
WSSC
Laurel, MD
WilliamToffey
Philadelphia Water Department
Philadelphia, PA 19107
John Walker (4204)
U.S. EPA, Office of Water
Washington, DC 20460
David Wanucha
Synagro
Advance, NC 27006-9801
Neil Webster
Webster Environmental Associates
Pewee Valley, KY 40056
Clyde Wilber
Greeley & Hansen
Upper Marlboro, MD 20772
Wlliam Yanko
Los Angeles County Sanitation District
Whittier, CA 90601
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids ix
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Contents
Chapter 1
Introduction 1
Management for Storage 3
Critical Control Points 3
Variables Related to Intensity of Management 3
Need for Partnerships 6
Chapter 2
Odors 9
I ntroduction 9
What is Odor? 9
Primary Biosolids Odorants 10
Odor Management: A Partnership Effort 10
Factors Affecting Ultimate Odor Potential at Critical Control Point 1: WWTPs 12
Stability 12
Other Odor Prevention Considerations 14
Factors Affecting Ultimate Odor Potential at Critical Control Point 2: The
Transportation Process 15
Factors Affecting Ultimate Odor Potential at Critical Control Point 3: The Field
Storage Site 15
Meteorological Conditions 16
Planning and Monitoring 17
Length of Storage and Changes in Biosolids Characteristics 18
Accumulated Water and Site Management 18
References 19
Chapter 3
Water Quality 21
I ntroduction 21
Water Quality Issues 21
Nutrients, Organic Matter, and Impacts on Surface Water 22
Nutrients and Groundwater 23
Pathogens 23
Metals and Synthetic Organic Chemicals 23
Management Approaches 25
Keep Clean Water Clean 25
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids xi
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Manage Water that comes into Contact with Biosolids 25
Preventing Leaching 26
Managing Accumulated Precipitation (See also Chapters) 26
Prevent Movement of Biosolids 26
Design and Management Approaches for Water Quality Protection 27
References 29
Chapter 4
Pathogens 31
I ntroduction 31
Biosolids Products Characteristics 31
Biosolids Storage Considerations 32
Pathogens in Stored Class A Biosolids 32
Pathogens in Stored Class B Biosolids 34
Accumulated Water 34
When is Retesting Required? 35
Storage Site Management 37
Worker Safety 37
References 38
Chapter 5
Recommended Management Practices 41
I ntroduction 41
I. Site Selection Considerations Applicable to all Storage 44
Climate 42
Topography 42
Soils and Geology 42
Buffers 43
Odor Minimization and Aesthetics 43
Accessibility and Hauling Distance 43
Property Issues 44
11. Field Storage: Stockpiles 44
Design Considerations 45
Site Selection and Water Management 45
Operational Practices 46
Housekeeping 47
Security 48
Site Restoration 48
III. Field Storage: Constructed Facilities 51
I ntroduction 51
Design Considerations 51
More on Water Management 56
Effects of Storage: Application Rate Adjustments 57
Operational Practices for Constructed Facilities 57
Housekeeping and Aesthetics 58
Security 61
IV. Odor Prevention and Mitigation 61
Prevention 61
Mitigation 62
V. Spill Prevention and Response 63
Prevention 63
Spill Response 64
xii Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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Report! ng 64
References 64
Example Biosolids Fact Sheet 65
Example Spill Response Procedure 67
References 69
Chapter 6
Introduction 71
Audience Assessment 73
Program Evaluation 72
Chapter 7
Biosolids-Derived By-Products (Blends) and Other Organic Materials 77
I ntroduction 77
Storage Considerations 78
Physical Consistency and Water Content 78
Biological Consistency 79
Pathogen Potential 79
Odor Characteristics 79
Vector Attraction 80
Nutrient and BOD Content 80
Fats and Oils 80
Dust Potential 80
Combustibility 81
Consistency/Predictability of Product Over Time 81
Regulatory Considerations 81
References 82
Appendix A
Odor Characterization and Odor Sampling 83
Odor Characteristics 83
Sensory Characterization 83
Odor Assessment 84
Field Practice Options 84
Physical-Chemical 83
Odor Determination 89
Odor Sample Collection 89
Sample Analysis 90
Sensory Odor Analysis 90
Chemical Analyzers and Instruments 91
References 92
Appendix B
Pathogens 99
Transmission of Pathogens 99
Methods for Meeting 40 CFR 503 Pathogen Requirements 101
Vector Attraction Reduction (VAR) 102
Appendix C
Runoff Management Practices 105
Water Management 105
Best Management Practices 106
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids xi i i
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Silt Fence 106
Straw Bale Dikes 106
Filter Strips 106
Berms/Earth Dikes 107
Diversions 107
Heavy Use Protection 107
Natural Resources Conservation Service Regional Conservationists 112
Appendix D
Nutrient Content of Organic By-Products 113
Appendix E
Directory of State Regulators 117
Appendix F
Glossary 125
xiv Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
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CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1
Introduction
Successful biosolids land application programs should have provisions to deal
with daily biosolids production in the event biosolids cannot be land applied
immediately. This contingency planning generally includes storage as well as
other back-up options, such as landfill disposal, incineration or alternative
treatment and use, including composting, heat drying and advanced alkaline
stabilization.
Storage is necessary during inclement weather when land application sites are
not accessible and during winter months when land application to snow
covered and frozen soil is prohibited or restricted. Storage also may be needed
to accommodate seasonal restrictions on land availability due to crop rotations
or equipment availability. For small generators, storage allows accumulation of
enough material to efficiently complete land application in a single spreading
operation. Well-planned and managed storage options not only provide
operational flexibility at the treatment facility, but they also can improve the
agronomic, environmental, and public acceptance aspects of biosolids use.
The focus of this document is on management practices for field storage of
biosolids prior to land application, as distinguished from land application and
spreading. The document stresses recommended management practices for
three critical control points: the WWTP, the transportation system, and the field
storage site. The term critical control point, as used in this document, means a
location, event or process point at which specific monitoring and responsive
management practices should be applied. If these points are controlled, the
objectives and goals of a responsible and community-friendly practice can be
achieved. Equally important is the continuing need for partnership and good
communication among biosolids generators, storage site managers and land
appliers.
The term field storage as used in this document refers to temporary or
seasonal storage. Storage operations involve an area of land or facilities
constructed to hold biosolids until material is land applied on designated and
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 1
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CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
approved sites. More permanently constructed storage facilities can involve
state or locally permitted areas of land or facilities used to store biosolids. The
permissible time limits for field storage vary by state and local jurisdiction.
They are usually located at or near the land application site, and are managed
so that biosolids come and go on a relatively short cycle, based on weather
conditions, crop rotations, and land or equipment availability. Alternatively,
storage sites are used to accumulate enough material to conduct an efficient
spreading operation. Some of the terminology frequently used to describe is
shown in the box below. The terminology, as well as associated prescribed
limits on field storage, can vary from state to state. Definitions of these and
other specialized terms that appear elsewhere in this document (as individual
bold typeface), and abbreviations can be found in the Glossary (Appendix F).
It is very clear to all biosolids generators, transporters, storers, land appliers,
and local officials that malodors are the greatest reason for public concern
about storage sites. Much of this guidance document seeks to provide
information and strategies useful in minimizing odor problems.
Frequently Used Field Storage Terminology
Staging Field placement of biosolids at the time of delivery in such
manner as to facilitate land-application the same day or within a
few days; may also involve transfer of biosolids from transport
vehicles to equipment for immediate land application.
Stockpiling Holding of biosolids at an active field site long enough to
accumulate sufficient material to complete the field application
efficiently.
Field storage Temporary or seasonal storage area, usually located at the
application site, which holds biosolids destined for beneficial use
on designated fields. State regulations may or may not
distinguish between staging, stockpiling or field storage. Time
limits for storage range from 24 hours to two years, depending
on the jurisdiction in which it is located.
Storage An area of land or constructed facilities committed to hold
Facilities biosolids until the material may be land applied at on- or off-site
locations. This facility may be used to store any given batch of
biosolids for up to two years. However, most are managed so
that biosolids come and go on a shorter cycle based on weather
conditions, crop rotations and land availability, equipment
availability, or to accumulate sufficient material for efficient
spreading operations.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
The types of biosolids discussed in this document include Class A and Class B
(classes indicate the degree of pathogen reduction, see Chapter 4). These
biosolids are produced by treatment processes that generate liquid, dewatered,
heat dried, air-dried, composted, digested, or alkaline stabilized materials. The
type and intensity of the treatments varies and this impacts the properties of the
biosolids that are placed in storage. Thus, each site should be designed to
adequately handle the types of materials expected.The operations
management plan should be matched to the properties of the designed site
and the type of biosolids being stored.
Management for Storage
This section explains some of the general principles underlying the
management of biosolids in storage situations. Biosolids managers should
keep these concepts in mind as they assess their storage needs and options
and develop a management plan suited to their unique situation.
Critical Control Points (Key Management Areas)
Even with a wide variety of biosolids and the numerous types of field situations
that are encountered throughout the U.S., all field storage operations can be
broken down into three areas that are critical for good management: the
biosolids generating facility, transportation, and the actual field storage site
(see box below). Activities in each of these areas are critical to the overall
success of biosolids storage operations. For instance, the level of treatment
and post-treatment handling at the generating facility may affect the odor
characteristics once biosolids reach the field site.
CRITICAL CONTROL POINT 1: WWTP
CRITICAL CONTROL POINT 2: TRANSPORTATION PROCESS
CRITICAL CONTROL POINT 3: FIELD STORAGE SITE
This guide provides detailed descriptions of the practices recommended for
management of these areas as well as explanations of their importance relative
to odors, water quality, pathogens and community acceptance. Biosolids
managers are encouraged to carefully analyze their own particular situations
and select the most feasible combination of practices for their unique situation
from this guide.
Table 1.1 highlights the main issues and some of the self-monitoring activities
and control options involved in each of these management areas. Complete
descriptions of these practices are provided in subsequent chapters.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
Variables Related to Intensity of Management
There are five variables that affect the level or intensity of management
required for successful field storage of biosolids.
1. Stability of Biosolids: Material that is less well stabilized generally has a
greater potential to generate unacceptable levels of odorous compounds.
2. Water Content of Biosolids: Liquid and some semi-sold material require
pumping equipment and constructed storage facilities.
3. Length of storage period: Longer storage periods increase the potential for
exposure to wet or hot weather and a resumption of microbial
decomposition leading to the generation of odorous compounds.
4. Volume of stored material: Management requirements in terms of site
design, operation and the potential scale of odor or water quality impacts
may increase with the volume of material stored.
5. Climate and weather conditions: Warm humid weather or wet conditions
generally increase management requirements as compared to storage
during dry or cold conditions.
The preceding variables are interrelated and therefore exceptions to particular
points may occur when mitigated by other variables. For instance, a large
volume of a well-stabilized biosolids may be less management intensive in
terms of preventing nuisance odors, than the storage of a small volume of a
less well-stabilized material. Figure 1.1 provides a schematic to illustrate
several of these interrelated factors. Throughout this guide, the diagram will be
used to highlight the importance that the interaction of these factors has on the
overall success of biosolids storage operations.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
Table 1-1. Overview of Management Control Points for Field Stored Materials*
Issues
Self-Monitoring Checklist
Control Options
1 Biosolids Generating Facility
Odors and aesthetics
Consistency of
biosolids
Biosolids treatment
Assess biosolids to determine:
503 treatment criteria for
pathogens and VAR
Degree of stability and odor
potential includes factors such as
volatile solids content; lime,
polymer and iron usage, and pH
Physical consistency
Ratio of primary to secondary
Cleanliness of equipment
Time of retention after treatment
Generator, storer and land applier
communicate about status of
biosolids treatment or problems
Reduce post-treatment retention
Have options to divert
unacceptable loads
Reevaluate treatment and
handling practices to address
chronic issues
Provide further treatment
Provide vehicle cleaning station
2. Transportation
Odors and aesthetics
Traffic and safety
Proper equipment in compliance
with State and Federal
Transportation Regulations
Regular inspections and
maintenance of vehicles and
equipment
Suitable haul routes
Vehicles and equipment kept
clean
Train drivers
Plan/inspect haul routes,
minimize time in transport
Emergency spill plan and
supplies in place
Maintain and clean trucks and
equipment regularly
3. Field Storage Site
Odors and aesthetics
Water quality and
environmental
protection
Safety and health
protection
Proper site location & suitability
Proper design of field storage or
constructed facility
- run-on and run-off controls
- accumulated water control
- buffers
Biosolids quality vs length &
amount in storage
Operations and maintenance plan
Odor prevention and mitigation
plan
Spill control and response plan
Safety plan
Regular self inspections of site
and operations
Consistent implementation of
management plans
Self monitoring of biosolids
quality and condition
Revision of management plans
when necessary
- change amount or length of
storage
- implement odor control and
mitigation measures
- implement additional structural
or site management practices
Remove stored biosolids when
atmospheric conditions are
conducive to low odor impacts on
neighbors
"See Chapter 5 for recommendations for specific facility/storage options.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
Need for Partnerships
It is recognized by experienced biosolids management teams that partnership
and good communication between the biosolids generator and the biosolids
manager responsible for storage and land application is essential to optimizing
the management of biosolids destined for storage. Successful storage
programs require coordination of management activities at the generating
facility, in transit and at the storage site.
Likewise, good communication links are necessary between the biosolids
manager and the biosolids users, local governments, and citizens of
communities where biosolids storage activities are located. Chapter 6
discusses methods to establish and enhance communication links between
biosolids managers and communities.
The absence of such partnerships has often resulted in odors or other
problems with subsequent unfavorable community acceptance, political, or
economic consequences. Land appliers overwhelmed with community
relations problems may be forced to cease land application and seek
alternative management options. These are typically more costly to consumers
than field storage and land application, or result in lost economic and
environmental benefits to farmers, landowners, and diversion of biosolids to
non-beneficial uses, such as land filling or incineration.
Figure 1-1. Successful biosolids storage programs begin with good communications
between biosolids generators and haulers. Pro-active communication and interaction
among generators, field operation managers, and neighboring communities facilitate the
success of beneficial use programs.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
Biosolids Storage Areas
Storage areas are located on Hal, easily
accessible terrain
Storage IIH.'I. (-. specific field require meats
Ajj|i[ii-;ui!'stuivd 11 in solids occur
from Mar - Nov
Stabilized (digested) dewatered biosolids
have sticky, peat-like consistency
Over-winter^storage occurs from
Nov - Mar
Storage is necessary to meet
production, distribution, and
mitrkcl i.k'iii:i:i'.l-: fur biosolids
i'H,' i.-u :-,i"'i!iui restricts upplkntions
Storage piles after 5 rnwnllis of winter
storage
These pilw experienced pretipilsMiuji wltitli
exca*(!ed 10-y«ar average by 35%
Files remained stable with no muvcmcnt via
overhind flow or leaching
« These obs«rv»1icns are supported t»y soil
siunplmg r*siit(s
Figure 1-2. Good site selection and field management practices ensure that field stockpiles
can be used during several seasons (Courtesy of King County, WA, Dept. Natural
Resources in cooperation with Boulder Park, Inc)
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 2 - ODORS
Chapter 2
Odors
Introduction
Malodors are the single most important cause of public dissatisfaction with
biosolids or other organics recycling and utilization projects. Thus, odor
management is a high priority. Experience and practice have demonstrated
that biosolids and other organic by-products, such as animal manure,
landscape trimmings, and food processing residuals, can be handled and
processed without release of excessive malodorous compounds. However, if
any of these materials, including biosolids, are poorly managed, then
objectionable odors may develop during storage, and public acceptance of
such a project will erode.
This section provides basic information about odor and describes the practices
and rationale for various approaches that are used to minimize odor during
storage. A variety of options are available, and it will be necessary for the
biosolids manager to determine which ones provide the flexibility needed to
accommodate the range of situations in their program. There is no "one size
fits all" solution. Chapter 5 has details on odor prevention and mitigation
practices.
What Is Odor?
The malodorous compounds (odorants) associated with biosolids, manures,
and other organic materials are the volatile emissions generated from the
chemical and microbial decomposition of organic nutrients. When inhaled,
these odorants interact with the odor sensing apparatus (olfactory system) and
the person perceives odor.
Individual sensitivity to the quality and intensity of an odorant can vary
significantly, and this variability accounts for the difference in sensory and
physical responses experienced by individuals who inhale the same amounts
and types of compounds. This distinction between "odor", which is a sensation,
and "odorant", which is a volatile chemical compound, is important for everyone
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 9
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CHAPTER 2 - ODORS
who deals with the odor issue to recognize. When odorants are emitted into
the air, individuals may or may not perceive an odor. With biosolids, three
conditions are necessary to create malodorous conditions.
BASIC CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH MALODOROUS SITUATIONS
1. EMISSION: Presence of an odorous volatile chemical (odorant)
2. TRANSPORT: Topographic and atmospheric conditions conducive to
transport of the odorant with minimal dilution
3. PERCEPTION: People are present and they perceive odor
When people perceive what they regard as unacceptable amounts or types of
odor, odorous emissions can become an "odor problem".
Primary Biosolids Odorants
The odorous compounds generated, and most often detectable, at significant
levels during biosolids treatment, storage, and use are ammonia, amines and
reduced sulfur-containing compounds (for detailed descriptions of these
compounds see Appendix B). Amines can be produced in easily detectable
quantities during high temperature processes. Amines include: methylamine,
ethylamine, trimethylamine, and diethylamine. Amines often accompany
ammonia emissions, and if chlorine is used chloramines may be released. The
sulfur compounds include compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, dimethyl
sulfide, dimethyl disulfide, and methyl mercaptan. The potential for these
compounds to be annoying is based in part on their individual and combined
quantity, intensity, pervasiveness, and character (see Appendix B for details
and definitions).
Amines and reduced-sulfur compounds may be detectable and perceived at
greater distances from a storage facility than ammonia because they are more
persistent (pervasive), intense, and have very low odor detection thresholds
(i.e., people can detect just a few parts per billion in fresh air). Although
ammonia is usually the primary odor associated with limed or alkaline stabilized
biosolids; it has an intense odor that can often mask other odors, such as
reduced-sulfur compounds. However, because the detection threshold for
ammonia is much greater than that of many of the reduced sulfur compounds
(i.e., it takes more ammonia in air to be detectable than it does sulfur
compounds), the odors of reduced-sulfur or amine compounds are more likely
than that of ammonia to be detected at distances from the site where ammonia
is no longer above its odor threshold concentration.
10 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 2 - ODORS
Odor Management: A Partnership Effort
There is no doubt that untreated wastewater solids have inherently undesirable
odor qualities. However, many current treatment processes have the capacity
to produce biosolids that are minimally odorous. Despite this, occasional
malodorous batches can occur, and thus biosolids generators, storers and land
appliers should make provisions to handle these appropriately. These
provisions rely on close communication and working linkages among the
biosolids management partners (i.e., generator, transporter, storer, and
applier). Good management of each process technology and a cooperative
effort among the biosolids management partners to ensure proper
transportation, handling, and storage of the materials can minimize the
potential for unacceptable odor concentrations at storage sites.
Minimizing Odor during Storage
Stabilize biosolids at WWTP as much as possible
Avoid use of polymers that lead to malodor
Maintain proper pH during treatment
Meet Part 503 Vector Attraction Reduction
Locate storage at remote sites
Minimize duration of storage
Assess meteorological conditions before loading and
unloading
Ensure good housekeeping
Factors Affecting Ultimate Odor Potential at Critical Control Point 1:
The WWTP
The following section addresses Critical Control Point 1 issues. Specific
situations and conditions associated with biosolids preparation at the WWTP
are described along with their relation to storage and especially odors . When
an odor situation cannot be averted, management of the emissions and quick
response through mitigation practices are required to avoid creating nuisance
odor situations. At the WWTP, which is Critical Control Point 1, this
coordination includes:
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
11
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CHAPTER 2 - ODORS
Assessing the stability of the biosolids before they leave the WWTP
Having contingency plans to provide remedial treatment, or diversion of
unacceptably odorous material to suitable land application or disposal sites.
Notifying the storer and land applier of any changes in mixing (primary or
secondary solids), polymer or other additives, pH, moisture content, or
stability.
Decisions relative to odor control are a series of trade-offs involving higher
degrees of treatment at the WWTP versus the intensity of management at the
off-site storage locations. Ensuring that the odor of biosolids leaving the
WWTP is minimized is a key consideration, since it is more difficult to treat an
odor problem that originated at the WWTP once the biosolids are placed at the
storage site. In all cases, the temporary measures invoked to deal with
unexpected and unanticipated events that lead to odors must be considered
only as such. Persistent problems will require an examination of the treatment
and handling processes to develop a better management approach***.
Stability
The success of the various solids treatment technologies with regard to
malodor reduction depends largely on the degree of stabilization achieved in
the biosolids before it leaves the treatment facility and the preservation of
stability until used. Wastewater treatment technologies differ in their capacity
to stabilize biosolids.
The potential for odorous emissions depends partly on the extent to which
organic matter and nutrients are present in forms that microbes readily use.
Stabilization processes may either: 1) decrease the level of volatile organic
compounds and the availability of nutrients to reduce the potential for microbial
generation of odors; or 2) change the physical or chemical characteristics of the
biosolids in a way that inhibits microbial growth. Table 2-1 lists seven
commonly used stabilization and/or processing methods. Odor issues
associated with each method and/or process are shown along with appropriate
corresponding prevention or remediation approaches.
12 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 2 - ODORS
Table 2-1. Prevention and management of odorous emissions associated with biosolids stabilization or
processing methods.
Stabilization and
Processing
Methods
Anaerobic
Digestion
Aerobic
Digestion
Drying Beds
Compost
Alkaline
Stabilization
Thermal
Conditioning &
Drying
Potential Causes
of Odorous
Emissions
'Sour', overloaded or
thermophilic digester;
volatilization of fatty acids and
sulphur-compounds
Low solids retention time;
High organic loading,
Poor aeration
Incomplete digestion of biosolids
being dried
Poor mixing of bulking agent;
poor aeration;
Improperly operating biofilters.
Addition of insufficient alkaline
material so pH drops below 9,
microbial decomposition may
occur with generation of odorous
compounds. Check compatibility
of polymer with high pH and
other additives, e.g. FeCl3.
High temperature volatilization
of fatty acids and sulfur-
compounds
Long Term
Potential
Solutions
Optimize digester;
don't overload
Increase retention time
and aeration; Lower
organic load
Optimize digestion
Mix better; adjust mix
ratio and aeration rate;
improve biofilter
function
Increase pH
Provide finer mesh
grade of alkaline
material and mix better
to avoid inadequate
contact with biosolids
Use secondary
treatment biosolids;
primary solids are less
stable and more
odorous when heated.
Short term
Temporary
Solutions
Apply topical lime
to stored biosolids
Aerate more
effectively; remix;
re-compost.
Check pH; apply
topical lime
Apply topical lime
if biosolids are
still liquid
Digested and Composted Biosolids
Properly digested and/or composted biosolids meet stabilization and vector
attraction reduction requirements because these extended treatments reduce
pathogens and decompose volatile solids (i.e., the organic matter which serves
as food for microbes). When such materials are placed in proper storage, they
typically do not contain enough readily available nutrients to support a large,
rapid growth of microbes that might generate odorous volatiles.
Alkaline and Chlorine Treated Biosolids
Chemical stabilization processes act to inhibit the growth of microorganisms,
rather than to decompose the organic matter in the biosolids. Addition of
alkaline materials, such as lime, elevates the pH to levels that suppress
microbial activity and kill pathogens. As long as the pH remains high in stored
materials, no new potential odorants will be produced. Small residual levels of
reduced sulfur or amine compounds, which were generated prior to and not
released during stabilization, may be present. One of the sulfur products of
concern, hydrogen sulfide, is converted into a non-soluble (non-volatile) form at
high pH. Raising the pH will liberate ammonia and amines, especially at the
time of treatment. For the ammonia, this is unlikely to result in objectionable
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
13
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CHAPTER 2 - ODORS
off-site impacts because ammonia is not a persistent odorant. However,
amines can be persistent and are more likely detected off-site once ammonia
has dissipated and thus stopped masking the amines. In addition, when
stored, alkaline stabilized biosolids quickly develop a dry crust, which seals the
pile and prevents significant volatilization. Disturbing piles during load-out
operations exposes fresh surfaces to the atmosphere and increases the
potential for volatilization of trapped residual odorous compounds. Hence,
avoid load-out during air temperature inversions and periods of low turbulence,
since pervasive odorants will more likely be detected under such conditions.
Drying Beds and Thermal Drying etc.
Heat and/or desiccation are the primary means of pathogen reduction in
thermal treatment or drying; these methods also halt microbial decomposition
of organic materials. They do not appreciably reduce organic matter during the
relatively short time periods in which drying is conducted, and thus require
appropriate management during storage to prevent significant resumption of
microbial decomposition and release of odorants.
Other Odor Prevention Considerations
The type of treatment and stabilization processes used at a WWTP are primary
factors influencing the type and level of odors which may be potentially
generated by a particular biosolids. Other factors at the wastewater treatment
plant that may affect the odor potential of biosolids include:
Other Important Factors at the Wastewater Treatment Plant
that Affect the Odor Potential of Biosolids
Periodic changes in influent characteristics (e.g. fish wastes, textile wastes
and other wastewaters with high odor characteristics)
Type of polymer used and its susceptibility to decomposition and release of
intense and pervasive odorants such as amines when biosolids are heated or
treated with strong alkaline materials
Blending of primary and secondary biosolids which may create anaerobic
conditions or stimulate a resumption of microbial decomposition
Completeness of blending and mixing, and quality of products used for
stabilization (i.e. type of lime and granule size)
Effectiveness and consistency of Vector Attraction Reduction Method, use of
Part 503 VAR options 1-8 (treatment at WWTP) vs. VAR options 9-10 (at
land application site)
Handling, storage time, and storage method when stabilized biosolids are held
at the WWTP prior to transport (e.g. anaerobic conditions developing in
enclosed holding tanks when material is held for several days during hot
weather).
14
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 2 - ODORS
Vector Attraction Reduction
Stabilization treatment may include processes at the WWTP to reduce the
attraction of vectors to biosolids as outlined in the Part 503 rule. The
effectiveness and consistency of these treatments may also help to minimize
odor potential. Odor is typically less of a problem for biosolids that fully meet
one of the first eight Part 503 VAR options (See Appendix C). However,
sometimes it is necessary to store materials that will meet VAR by options 9 or
10 (injection or soil incorporation). In such cases, increased management
intensity (e.g. storage for short periods of time, storage during cold weather,
storage at remote locations, etc.), and self-monitoring for unacceptable odor
levels may be needed to prevent nuisance odor conditions.
Factors Affecting Ultimate Odor Potential at Critical Control Point 2:
The Transportation Process
The process of transporting biosolids from the generating facility to the field
storage site may impede traffic, be unsightly and can potentially emit nuisance
odors into the community. The transportation process (referred to as Critical
Control Point 2 in this document) must be properly managed as to minimize
these problems, including the public's exposure to biosolids odors. One way to
reduce public exposure to odors is to choose a hauling route that avoids
densely populated residential areas. The fewer residences located along a
hauling route, the less likely the general public will be annoyed by the traffic
and biosolids odors. Making sure that the trucks used to haul biosolids are
clean and well maintained is another effective way to keep road surfaces clean
and control odors during biosolids transport. Trucks should be cleaned before
leaving the generating facility and after the biosolids have been deposited on
the field storage site. These steps are important because odor concerns are
exacerbated by increased road congestion, and by biosolids adhering to trucks
and roadways.
Factors Affecting Ultimate Odor Potential at Critical Control Point 3:
The Field Storage Site
In most cases, biosolids produced at WWTPs with well-operated stabilization
processes can be stored off-site without creating odor nuisances. However, if
certain conditions occur while material is in storage, the potential for odorous
emissions (sulfur- or amine-containing compounds or ammonia) will increase.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 15
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CHAPTER 2 - ODORS
Specific Storage Site Conditions that Contribute to Generation of Odorants
Meteorological conditions
Distance to sensitive receptors (i.e. housing developments)
pH drops below 9 in lime stabilized biosolids
Anaerobic or deficient oxygen conditions within the biosolids
Storage of primary biosolids with waste activated (digested) biosolids
Rewetting of dried material
Ponded water in contact with stored biosolids
Prolonged storage of inadequately stabilized biosolids
Inadequate handling methods
Deficient housekeeping and spill control
Several of the specific site conditions will be discussed later in this chapter or in
Chapter 5.
Meteorological Conditions
r" "~"~"-\ Meteorological conditions such as wind speed and direction, cloud conditions,
/ relative humidity, and temperature, all of which can change with the season,
day to day, and even with the time of day. Warm temperatures and high
humidity increase the potential for odor nuisances, while cold, dry conditions
reduce the potential for nuisance complaints.
Most odors from a biosolids storage site are area source rather than point
source, ground level emissions. Under moderate atmospheric stability (e.g.,
partly sunny, wind speeds 8-12 mph, moderate turbulence), on flat terrain area
source odorants undergo fairly rapid dilution as the distance from the source
increases. As such, concentrations of odorants will likely not be objectionable
W! E to neighbors, if the biosolids are reasonably well stabilized. Conversely,
pervasive odorants from poorly stabilized batches can be detected at
considerable distances from the source. Rough terrain, valleys, and other
topographical features can increase the complexity of airflow patterns. Odor
dispersion analysis can help site managers schedule operations to avoid high
odor concentrations from developing at sensitive downwind locations.
Odorants emitted from ground-level sources will remain most concentrated
during periods of high atmospheric stability, such as occur with air temperature
inversions and low wind speeds at night and very early morning. This means
that odor complaints may be higher during non-business hours. Dispersion is
enhanced once the sun has warmed the soil surface. For permanent
constructed facilities, a basic wind dispersion analysis of the site, including
seasonal and annual prevailing wind direction, and typical meteorological
conditions for the area will help site operators plan activities so as to minimize
odorous emission impacts downwind.
16 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 2 - ODORS
Planning and Monitoring
Whether biosolids are stored in field stockpiles or constructed facilities, odor
prevention and mitigation measures need to be part of the operational plans.
Also, a complaint response plan to promptly and effectively investigate and
respond to local odor concerns or complaints (see Chapter 5 for details on odor
prevention and mitigation) also needs to be included. The plan should include
provisions for diversion of odorous batches to alternate sites that are remote or
other disposal options. In the sections that follow, a notably greater level of
effort is required to control odors for constructed facilities than for field
stockpiles.
Field Stockpiles
Persons responsible for storage of biosolids should realize that odor is a
perceptual, subjective, and frequently emotional issue. In most storage
scenarios (particularly small-scale field stockpiles), sophisticated analysis of
odorous compounds is not necessary to resolve community odor issues. What
is necessary, is a well thought out and implemented odor prevention and
mitigation plan designed to be sensitive to local odor concerns. Such a plan
should include provisions for prompt response, investigation and follow-up if
odor complaints are received (See Chapter 5 for details).
Constructed Facilities
Odor prevention and minimization plans are generally needed for large, longer-
term facilities. These plans may need to rely in part on some type of monitoring
to determine the extent of odor, and the effectiveness of the procedures used
to mitigate odors.
Because sensitivity to the quality and intensity of an odor can vary significantly
among individuals, specialized approaches are needed to evaluate the impact
of odorous compounds. Odor and Odor Event Characterization Monitoring is a
simple, direct approach that relies on odor detection reporting and wind
direction recordkeeping. This approach might be considered in place of
complex chemical quantification and identification. In this approach, a set of
odor characters (descriptors) is identified for use by site operators conducting
routine odor inspections and by citizens reporting odor detection events.
Examples of odor characters include: sharp pungent (ammonia), unpleasant
putrid (amyl mercaptan), pungent suffocating (chlorine), skunk-like (crotyl
mercaptan), fishy (trimethylamine), decayed cabbage (dimethyl disulfide), etc.
(see Table B-2 for additional descriptors). The odor characters selected should
cover the range of odors potentially emitted from a biosolids site, as well as
other nearby operations that may also emit distinctive odors.
To the extent possible, descriptors should be identified that can serve as
markers for emissions from biosolids. In this way, biosolids managers can
focus corrective actions when appropriate. This also will a means to
distinguish biosolids odors from those generated by other types of odor emitting
facilities in the same area as the storage site, to the extent that they are
present.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 17
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CHAPTER 2 - ODORS
In order to use the odor descriptors correctly, site managers, personnel, and
odor investigators would be trained in the proper use of the odor character
descriptors. They would also be trained to recognize field conditions
acceptable for selected odor measurements, i.e., intensity and descriptors, and
key areas and times for inspection. A simple written report (see Appendix B for
example) of odor inspections/investigations can be used to document
performance at a site. On-site inspections coupled with use of an immediate
odor response plan, can aid in reducing the potential for odor complaints. In
some cases, an 'odor hotline' for citizen complaints can be useful. If
complaints are received, the storage facility operator is able to promptly
dispatch personnel to follow-up with the caller and initiate an investigation and
problem remediation.
Recent advances in odor science, detection/recognition threshold
determination, and measurement of odor annoyance have helped to reduce the
subjective nature of odor evaluation for biosolids (see Appendix B for details).
Measurement, Identification, and Monitoring in response to persistent odor
problems that need remediation may involve characterizing the source and type
of odorants. This requires sophisticated collection, identification,
measurement, and evaluation of gases in air samples. Subsequently, the
human sensitivity to these odorants is evaluated in terms of their perceived
intensity, pervasiveness, and/or annoyance in the impact zone. This also
requires specialized measurement equipment and techniques and may benefit
from atmospheric dispersion modeling. Obviously, this relatively complex
approach to odor assessment would be used in only those biosolids storage
situations in which less intensive approaches had failed to lead to remediation,
or if the size, nature and storage capacity of the facility required it.
Length of Storage and Changes in Biosolids Characteristics
Preventing the resumption of microbial activity in biosolids is a primary means
of controlling odors at storage sites. Microbial decomposition is likely to occur if
the pH of lime stabilized biosolids drops below nine; if anaerobic or deficient
oxygen conditions occur within the biosolids (free O2 concentration less than 15
percent); if primary biosolids are mixed and stored with waste activated
(digested) biosolids; or if dried material are rewetted. Ensuring that the
materials brought to the facility are thoroughly stabilized and minimizing the
length of time materials are kept in storage are two major tools to achieve this
goal. In some cases, microbial activity can be halted or controlled by on-site
remedial actions such as the addition of lime to lagoons or top-dressing
stockpiles with lime slurries, or covering of dried materials.
Accumulated Water and Site Management
Precipitation or runoff that accumulates in contact with biosolids will pick up
nutrients and organic matter that promote rapid blooms of microorganisms that
rapidly deplete dissolved oxygen levels and lead to anoxic or septic conditions
and the generation of significant odors. Proper design and operation of the
facility as described in Chapter 5 is key to preventing this problem.
Establishing good housekeeping procedures and keeping the storage area,
18 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 2 - ODORS
equipment and trucks clean and free of standing water is another component of
avoiding odor generation. Likewise, conducting handling operations in a clean
and efficient manner that minimizes the time materials are disturbed will help
limit odor.
References
Borgatti, D., G.A. Romano, T.J. Rabbitt, and T.J. Acquaro. 1997. 1996 Odor
Control Program for the Springfield Regional WWTP. New England WEA Annual
Conf., 26-29 January 1997, Boston, MA.
Haug, R.T. 1990. An essay on the elements of odor management.
Biocycle. 30(10): 60-67.
Hentz, L.H., C. M. Murray, J.L. Thompson, L.L. Gasner, and J.B. Dunson Jr.
1992. Odor control research at the Montgomery Country Regional Composting
Facility. Water Environ. Res 64(1): 13-18.
Lue-Hing, C., D.R. Zenz, and R. Kuchenrither. 1992. Municipal Sludge
Management-Processing, Utilization, Disposal, Water Qual. Mgmt. Libr (Vol
4),Technomic Publ Co, Inc. Lancaster, PA
McGinley, C.M., D.L. McGinley, and K.J. McGinley. 1995. "Odor School"-
Curriculum Development for Training Odor Investigators, pp. 121-127. In Air
Water Mgmt. Assoc. Intl. Specialty Conf Proc. Odors and Environmental Air.
Bloomington, MN, 13-15 September 1995.
McGinley, M.A. 1995. Quantifying Public Perception of Odors in a
Community St. Croix Sensory, Inc. Stillwater, MN.
Rosenfeld, P. 1999. Characterization, Quantification, and Control of Odor
Emissions from Biosolids Application to Forest Soil. Ph.D. Dissertation.
University of Washington, Seattle, WA.
Schiffman, S. S.; Walker, J. M.; Dalton, P.; Lorig, T. S.; Raymer, J. H.;
Shusterman, D.; Williams, C. M. Potential health effects of odor from animal
operations, wastewater treatment, and recycling of byproducts. Journal of
Agromedicine, 7: 2000, in press. Available from Haworth Document Delivery
Service 1-800-342-9678 or getinfo@haworthpressinc.com.
Smith, J. E. and J. B. Farrell. 1992. Vector Attraction Reduction Issues
Associated with the Part 503 Regulations and Supplemental Guidance, U.S.
EPA, Center for Environmental Research Information, Cincinnati, OH
Switzenbaum, M.S., L..H. Moss, E. Epstein, A.B. Pincince. 1997. Defining
Biosolids Stability: A Basis for Public and Regulatory Acceptance. WERF
Project 94-REM-1 Final Report, Water Environ.Res. Foundat., Alexandria, VA.
Vesilind, P.A., G.C. Hartman, and E.T. Skene. 1986. Sludge Management and
Disposal for the Practicing Engineer, Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, Ml
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 19
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CHAPTER 2 - ODORS
Walker, J.M. 1993. Control of Composting Odors, pp. 185-218. In H.A.J.
Hoitink and H.M. Keener (eds.), Science and Engineering of Composting
Renaissance Publ., Worthington, Ohio.
Walker, J.M. 1991. Fundamentals of odor control. Biocycle 30(9): 50-55.
Wilber, C. and C. Murray. 1990. Odor source evaluation. BioCycle 31(3): 68-
72.
Wilber, C. (ed.) 2000. Operations and Design at the Wastewater Treatment
Plant to Control Ultimate Recycling and Disposal Odors of Biosolids. USEPA
sponsored project.
Wilby, F.V. 1969. Variation in recognition odor threshold of a panel. J.Air Pollut.
Contr. Assoc. 19(2):96-100.
Yonkers Joint WWTP. 1997. Process compatibility testing D. Odor. In
Specifications for Furnishing and Delivering Liquid Emulsion type polymer (40-
50 percent active) for Centrigure dewatering of sludge. Yonkers Joint SSTP,
Ludlow Dock, South Yonkers, NY.
20 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 3 - WATER QUALITY
Chapter 3
Water Quality
Introduction
This chapter describes the types of water quality impacts potentially attributable
to specific nutrients and pollutants in stored biosolids and other organic
materials. In addition, key concepts in construction and management of
storage systems that are known to work well in preventing water quality
impacts from biosolids storage are discussed and related specifically to storage
management practices recommended in Chapter 5 (Critical Control Point 3).
Water Quality Issues
Measurements of the following constituents of organic and inorganic materials
stored on and/or applied to soil are customarily made to assess their potential
impact on water quality. Table 3-1 summarizes these components relative to
biosolids storage and their potential impacts on water quality:
Nutrients
Organic matter
Pathogens
Metals
Assessment of the presence of constituents such as nutrients, organic matter,
pathogens or metals is the first step in developing effective water quality
protection practices for stored materials. The second step is to examine the
possible ways of transport. Constituents can only have an impact on water
quality if significant amounts of the material reach surface or ground water.
Good storage design and use of appropriate management practices effectively
block potential transport pathways.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 21
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CHAPTER 3 - WATER QUALITY
Movement of constituents is driven primarily by:
1. precipitation events
2. runoff and erosion of soluble and particulate components (including
nutrients, organic matter, and pathogens to surface waters)
3. leaching to ground water of soluble nutrients and compounds.
In addition, wind erosion can contribute to loss of dry or composted material
under arid, windy conditions that may also impact water quality.
Nutrients, Organic Matter, and Impacts on Surface Water
The content and form of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), which must be taken
into consideration, in specific biosolids, vary depending on wastewater sources
and treatment processes. Like all organic residuals, biosolids contain significant
amounts of N and P. Proper storage conserves these nutrients until crops can
use them during the growing season. Good management of stored organic
residuals is needed to prevent excess amounts of organic or inorganic N from
entering surface or ground water.
Runoff of nutrients can contribute to eutrophication of surface water, which may
impair its use for fisheries, recreation, industry and drinking water source.
Nitrogen is the primary contributor to eutrophication in brackish and saline
waters (e.g., estuaries), and to some extent in freshwater systems. However, P
concentration is usually the controlling eutrophication factor in freshwater.
Both nitrate and ammonia are water soluble, and thus, are transported in
leachate and runoff. Organically bound N does not interact in the environment
until it is mineralized into water soluble nitrate. Ammonia can be toxic to fish.
Excess nutrients and organic matter in surface water can increase the growth
of undesirable algae and aquatic weeds. The carbon and nutrients in organic
matter serve as food for bacteria, thus adding organic matter and nutrients to
water can directly increase BOD, deplete dissolved oxygen levels in water, and
accelerate eutrophication. The amount of oxygen needed to decompose the
organic matter that is suspended in the water is called the Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD). Low oxygen levels resulting from high BOD stress fish,
shellfish and other aquatic invertebrates. In a worst-case scenario, such as a
direct spill of material from a storage facility into a waterway, heavy organic
(BOD) and ammonia-N loadings could deplete oxygen levels rapidly and lead
to septic conditions and fish kills.
The majority of P binds to mineral and organic particles and is therefore subject
to runoff and erosion rather than leaching, except under conditions of very
sandy soils with low P binding capacity. Eroded particulates also serve as a
physical substrate to convey adsorbed P, metals and other potential pollutants
in runoff.
22 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 3 - WATER QUALITY
Nutrients and Groundwater
The main concern with groundwater impacts of longer-term stockpiles (organic
or inorganic) is the potential for leaching of soluble nitrate-N, which can impact
local wells or eventually discharge to surface waters and contribute to
eutrophication. Such situations have occurred in agricultural regions of the
U.S. where excessive amounts of inorganic fertilizer or animal manures have
been applied over several years. The high nitrate levels in wells have resulted
in some cases of methemoglobinemia in susceptible infants. This rare
condition reduces the blood's ability to carry oxygen efficiently, hence the
condition's other name "blue baby syndrome." Elevated nitrate in water can
have the same effect on immature horses and pigs and can cause abortions in
cattle. Water management practices at storage sites must be adequate to
protect against such impacts. Phosphorus is not a drinking water concern,
because it is not a health concern for humans or animals as nitrate is, and it
binds to iron and soil minerals and has low water solubility.
Pathogens
In the U.S., biosolids that are stored prior to land application must have been
treated to meet USEPA Part 503 Class A or Class B pathogen density limits.
The requirements for these types of biosolids can also include restricted access
to field sites (Class B) to protect humans and animals from infection that might
potentially result from direct contact with biosolids. Protection of water sources
from contamination by residual pathogens or parasites in Class B biosolids can
be accomplished through proper site selection, buffers and management
practices as described in Chapter 5.
In general, soil is an effective barrier to the movement of pathogens via
leachate into groundwater. Both organic matter and clay minerals in soil
physically filter, adsorb, and immobilize microorganisms, including protozoan
cysts, and parasitic worm ova. However, sandy soils are typically very porous
and cannot adsorb or immobilize microbes as well as clay and loam soils
containing organic matter, thus they are not as effective retardants to the
movement of pathogens. Soils in general are subject to a range of physical,
chemical, and biological conditions that destroy pathogens such as: extremes
of wetness and dryness; temperature variations; and attack by natural soil
microbes.
Metals and Synthetic Organic Chemicals
Like other residuals, biosolids may also contain measurable levels of metals
and synthetic organic chemicals. In terms of organic and inorganic residuals,
the same management practices that effectively isolate nutrients from surface
and groundwater resources during storage are equally effective in containing
any metals or synthetic organic chemicals. The potential for water quality
impacts from metals or synthetic organic chemicals present in biosolids are
minimal from the outset because of their inherently low levels. Biosolids
suitable for land application must meet stringent quality standards for metal
concentrations under Part 503 regulations.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 23
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CHAPTER 3 - WATER QUALITY
With the widespread implementation of industrial pretreatment programs,
biosolids used in land application increasingly comply with the most
conservative of Part 503 metal standards. In addition, metals in biosolids are
bound strongly with other biosolids constituents and, are not highly water
soluble, hence they cannot leach into ground water. According to a recent
review by the National Research Council (NRC), toxic organic compounds
typically are not found in biosolids in significant levels. This is primarily
attributable to effective industrial pretreatment programs and to the destruction
or volatilization of organics during the treatment process. The NRC report also
noted that "PCBs and detergents are the only classes of synthetic organic
compounds that occur in biosolids at concentrations above levels found in
conventional irrigation water or soil additives". PCBs bind to particulates and
are relatively water insoluble and so are not susceptible to leaching. In
addition, the low PCB levels in biosolids continue to decline due to enactment
of a ban on production and use of PCBs in the United States. Detergent
compounds including surfactants and binders have been found in biosolids in
relatively high concentrations (0.5 - 4.0 g/kg dry weight), however they bind to
biosolids organic matter, rapidly biodegrade, and do not readily leach.
Table 3-1. Potential Ground and Surface Water Quality Impacts Resulting from Improper
Management of Water at Storage Sites
Biosolids
Constituent
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Organic Matter
Particulates
Pathogens
Regulated
Metals
Toxic Organic
Chemicals
Potential Water Quality Impacts
Eutrophi cation
Human/Livestock/ Poultry health
effects
Eutrophication
Depletes oxygen levels in water
Siltation or turbidity. Carrier for
other pollutants
Transmission of viable disease-
causing bacteria, viruses or
parasites
Toxic effects
Toxic effects
Behavior, Transport Mechanism, and
Mitigating Factors
Nitrate-N, Nitrite-N, and Ammonium-N are
water soluble and can move in runoff or leachate
Predominately particulate-bound transported by
erosive surface runoff
Soluble and particulate-bound movement of
organic matter in surface runoff.
Mass transport in surface runoff.
Insignificant levels in Class A biosolids,
potentially present in Class B materials. Physical
transport in sediment, runoff, and leachate from
Class B biosolids is possible.
Not very water soluble; reduced through
pretreatment programs and Part 503 limits.
Reduced through industrial pretreatment
programs and WWTP processes.
24
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 3 - WATER QUALITY
Management Approaches
This section summarizes the key storage design and management elements
that address the water quality issues identified in Table 3-1. Water quality
protection practices are based on three key concepts:
Protecting Water Quality during Storage of Biosolids:
Keep clean runoff clean by minimizing contact with stored biosolids.
Properly manage water that comes into contact with stored biosolids.
Prevent movement of the biosolids into water resources
Keep Clean Water Clean
Minimizing the amount of water that comes into contact with stored biosolids is
the first step in keeping nutrients and pollutants out of water resources.
Practices used under various storage scenarios to achieve this include:
Proper site selection to avoid run-on, flooding, or high water tables that
intercept stored biosolids (see Chapter 5 also).
Installation of upslope diversions to channel runoff away from a field
stockpile or constructed storage facility (see Appendix C also).
Containment of biosolids in enclosed structures or tanks.
Manage Water that Contacts Biosolids
Any significant precipitation or up-slope runoff that comes in contact with stored
biosolids may contribute nutrients, pathogens or pollutants. Whether this water
accumulates on or near the biosolids, runs off or leaches through the soil, it has
the potential to transport contaminants to water resources. Practices to address
this issue include (see also Chapter 5 for details and Appendix C):
Proper shaping of field stockpiles to shed water and avoid puddles of water,
or infiltration of water through a stockpile and subsequent loss through
runoff or leaching.
Construction of enclosed storage facilities or tanks.
Construct lagoons/pads with impervious earthen, concrete or geotextile
liners.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 25
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CHAPTER 3 - WATER QUALITY
Removal of accumulated water to sites where liquid may be applied.
Providing buffers between storage areas and waterways.
Preventing Leaching
For permanent, long term storage facilities, an impermeable liner (i.e., earthen,
geotextile or concrete) is recommended to ensure against leaching. For all
constructed storage facilities, site soils and water table investigations are
essential to ensure stable foundations. Soil settling and shifting can result in
leakage through cracks. High water tables may float concrete pads or rupture
the watertight seals of lagoons.
For short-term field storage, liners are generally unnecessary. Proper shaping
of stockpiles encourages shedding of precipitation to prevent infiltration of water
and subsequent leaching. Stockpiles should not be located on soils in
environmentally sensitive areas with extremely high hydraulic conductivities with
excessive infiltration rates, areas with very shallow seasonal high water tables or
depths to bedrock, or areas adjacent to or on limestone features such as
sinkholes or rock outcrops.
Managing Accumulated Precipitation (See also Chapter 5)
Accumulated water (i.e., precipitation) forms a separate layer on top of liquid or
semisolid biosolids or collects in puddles after contact with the material.
Overflow or runoff of this water to surface or ground water resources can be
prevented or minimized by the following:
For open storage facilities:
- use sumps or gravity flow to direct accumulated water to on-site filter
strips or treatment ponds,
- mix accumulated water with biosolids for removal to land application site,
- decant and transport water accumulations off-site to treatment facilities,
or
- apply to the land through irrigation systems (taking care not to exceed
hydraulic loading rates to prevent ponding or runoff).
For constructed facilities
- roof to keep precipitation off the material
- pads should have adequate slope to prevent ponding and appropriate
flow management.
Prevent Movement of Biosolids
Direct deposition of biosolids in waterways has the greatest potential for
significantly impacting water quality through additions of nutrients, organic
matter, pathogens or pollutants. Management practices to prevent this
occurrence include:
26 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 3 - WATER QUALITY
Adequate buffers between storage area and water resources.
Proper storage methods for the physical consistency of the biosolids.
Proper design and maintenance of constructed storage facilities.
A spill response and control plan supported by staff training and the
availability of the necessary supplies and equipment.
Design and Management Approaches for Water Quality Protection
Proper materials management is an essential measure in water quality
protection for all biosolids storage facilities and field stockpiling sites. Well-
designed storage operations optimize water quality protection measures by
including:
1. structural elements to minimize the potential for accidental spills,
2. operational procedures to reduce potential accidents, and
3. contingency plans to promptly mitigate spills if they do occur (see Chapter 5
for details).
Preventative Measures for Field Stockpiles
Proper site selection including buffer distances and slopes.
Proper vehicle and equipment safety features (e.g., waterproof seals on trailer tailgates),
maintenance and operator training.
Adequate staff training and proper operation of site to prevent accidental spills or losses of
material to water resources (e.g., truck roll-overs, excess residuals left in loading areas).
Written spill clean-up and contingency plans and advanced preparation (e.g., equipping
storage sites and vehicles with appropriate clean-up tools, and staff drills to ensure rapid
and effective response to spills.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 27
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CHAPTER 3 - WATER QUALITY
Figure 3-1. Staging of biosolids for immediate incorporation into the soil
(Maryland.)
Preventative Measures for Constructed Facilities
Soil strength and suitability assessments prior to construction to avoid uneven settling and
other problems that lead to cracks or leaks.
Adequate design volumes, including space for precipitation accumulations.
Use of good engineering construction practices to prevent structural failures and
malfunctions (e.g., impermeable liners or backflow regulators on gravity systems, paving
and curbing of off-loading pads for permanent facilities).
Proper vehicle and equipment safety features (e.g., waterproof seals on trailer tailgates),
maintenance and operator training.
Adequate staff training and proper operation of site to prevent accidental spills or losses of
material to water resources (e.g., truck roll-overs, overtopping of freeboard).
Written spill clean-up and contingency plans and advanced preparation (e.g., equip sites
and vehicles with clean-up tools; conduct staff drills to prepare for effective spill response).
28
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 3 - WATER QUALITY
Managers of stored biosolids need to assess the nature of their biosolids, the
operational requirements and limitations of their land application program, and
the storage option most suitable for their operation to select the best
combination of design and management practices for their specific situation.
To assist in this effort, specific design and management practices for various
types of storage options are provided in Chapter 5.
References
CAST. 1996. Integrated Animal Waste Management. Council for Agricultural
Science and Technology, Task Force Report No. 128, Ames, I A.
Chaney, R.L. and J.A. Ryan. 1993. Heavy Metals and Toxic organic
Pollutants in MSW-Composts: Research Results on Phytoavailability,
Bioavailability, Fate, etc., pp. 451-506. In Hoitink, H.A.J. and H.M. Keener
(eds.), Science and Engineering of Composting. Renaissance Publications,
Worthington, Ohio. 728 p.
Gerba, C. P. 1983. Pathogens. In A.L. Page, T.L Gleason, III, J.S., Jr., I.K.
Iskandar, and L.E Sommers (eds.) Proceedings: Workshop on Utilization of
Municipal Wastewater and Sludge on Land. Univ. of Calif., Riverside, CA.
Hue, N.V. 1995. Sewage Sludge I: Amendments and Environmental Quality,
pp. 199-247. In J.E. Rechcigl (ed.), Soil Amendments and Environmental
Quality. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL.
Kloepper-Sarns, P., F. Torfs, T. Feijtel, and J. Gooch. 1996. Effects
Assessments for Surfactants in Sludge-amended Soils: A Literature Review
and Perspectives for Terrestrial Risk Assessment. The Science of the Total
Environment 185:171-185.
National Research Council. 1996. Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in
Food Crop Production. National Academy Press. Washington, DC. 178 pp.
Sharpley, M.A., J.J. Meisinger, A. Breeuwsma, J.T. Simms, T.C. Daniel,
and J. S. Schepers. 1998. Impacts of Animal Manure Management on Ground
and Surface Water Quality. In J.L. Hatfield and B.A. Stewart (eds.). Animal
Waste Utilization: Effective Use of Manure as a Soil Resource. Ann Arbor
Press, Chelsea, Ml. 320 pp.
State of Maryland. 1994. 1994 Maryland Standards and Specifications for Soil
Erosion and Sediment Control. MD Dept. Environ. Water Management Admin.,
Soil Conservation Service and MD State Soil Conservation Committee.
Baltimore. MD.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 29
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CHAPTER 4 - PATHOGENS
Chapter 4
Pathogens
Introduction
Untreated wastewater contains pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, and
animal and human parasites (protozoa and helminths) which may cause
various human diseases and illnesses. Oftentimes these pathogens are or
become attached to the separated wastewater solids. It is precisely because of
the potential presence of pathogens in untreated wastewater that treatment
processes are used to clean wastewater prior to discharge to streams. This is
also the reason that wastewater residuals must be subjected to additional
pathogen reduction treatment prior to land application of the biosolids.
These treatment processes in the U.S. are carefully regulated and monitored to
ensure a consistent level of treatment and pathogen destruction. The
combination of treatment and appropriate biosolids management at land
application sites has proven to be effective in preventing the transmission of
pathogens that can cause disease. Incidents of infectious disease, through
either direct exposure or food and/or water pathways, have not been
documented from land application of biosolids in the U.S. since this
combination of regulated practices has been implemented.
The potential exposure to pathogens during proper biosolids storage is no
greater than that associated with direct land application. This chapter
describes prudent management practices recommended to safely store
biosolids in a manner that limits the potential for transmission of disease
agents. Information in this chapter relates to all three Critical Control Points,
and especially to Critical Control Point 3.
Biosolids Products Characteristics
Biosolids destined for beneficial use in land application must meet pathogen
reduction criteria for either Class A or Class B according to Part 503 rules. Only
biosolids intended for and that meet Part 503 criteria for safe land application
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 31
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CHAPTER 4 - PATHOGENS
should be placed in a field stockpile or a constructed storage facility. The two
classes of biosolids have different characteristics that influence storage
management considerations. Documentation of Class A or B treatment may be
achieved either through testing of the final product for specific pathogens or
indicator organisms and /or by use of approved treatment processes. Appendix
C provides a list of approved Class A and Class B processes.
Class A
Class A biosolids typically are treated by a "Processes to Further Reduce Pathogens"
(PFRP) such as composting, pasteurization, drying or heat treatment, advanced alkaline
treatment, or by testing and meeting the pathogen density limits in Part 503. Class A
pathogen reduction reduces the level of pathogenic organisms in the biosolids to a level
that does not pose a risk of infectious disease transmission through casual contact or
ingestion.
EQ
Class A biosolids which also meet one of Part 503 VAR options 1-8 and meet the metals
limits (Part 503 Table 3) are designated as "Exceptional Quality (EQ)". These products
are exempted from the Part 503 General Requirements, Management Practices and Site
Restrictions, and may be generally marketed and distributed.
Class B
Class B biosolids typically are treated using a "Process to Significantly Reduce
Pathogens" (PSRP) such as aerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion, air drying, and lime
stabilization. As an alternative, producers may document compliance by analyzing the
material for fecal coliform levels. When Class B requirements are met, the level of
pathogenic organisms is significantly reduced, but pathogens are still present. In this
case, other precautionary measures required by the Part 503 rule , i.e., site and crop
harvesting restrictions, are implemented to protection of public health.
In addition to the pathogen reduction requirement, biosolids must also be
treated to reduce their attractiveness to vectors such as rodents, flies,
mosquitoes, etc. capable of transmitting pathogens. Part 503.33 of the federal
rule specifies analytical standards and treatment processes to achieve Vector
Attraction Reduction (VAR) requirements. These include volatile solids
reduction, elevation of pH, soil incorporation etc. (see Appendix C).
Biosolids Storage Considerations
Pathogens in Stored Class A Biosolids
In general, storage of Class A biosolids present few pathogen concerns due to
the level of pathogen reduction achieved by the treatment processes. The
potential for exposure to viruses or parasites (helminth ova) in a Class A
product is insignificant as a result of treatment and because these organisms
32 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 4 - PATHOGENS
cannot grow outside a suitable host organism. This potential does not increase
during storage. Treatment also reduces bacterial pathogens to safe levels.
However, bacteria depend on readily available sources of nutrients, adequate
water, and favorable environmental conditions, and can grow without a host
organism. In specific and very limited situations, the necessary combinations
of these factors have been found to occur in stored Class A biosolids. Three
examples of these circumstances are:
1. If Class A biosolids compost that is no longer self-heating is blended with
green or unstabilized organic materials, such as fresh yard trimmings, fresh
hay, or green woodchips, the bacterial population can grow rapidly. This is
because these fresh materials contain readily available carbon that bacteria
need and the compost lacks. If these types of mixtures are managed as self-
heating compost piles, i.e., time/temperature conditions adequate to destroy
bacterial pathogens are achieved, then the final products will also contain
undetectable levels of pathogens as do Class A biosolids. At such low
concentrations, disease will not be transmitted even with direct contact with
biosolids. If Class A biosolids are mixed with products that contain
unavailable carbon sources, such as cellulose and lignin in paper and wood
processing residuals, pathogen concentrations will remain undetectable
because these nutrients cannot be used by pathogens.
2. If a Class A product is inadequately composted, or its nutrients are not well
stabilized bacterial pathogen growth will not occur as long as the material is
kept very dry, i.e., total solids content of 80 percent or greater. However, if
such dry materials take on moisture during storage, and nutrients, pH,
temperature, and other environmental conditions are favorable, pathogen
and microbial regrowth could occur. Thus, preparers should be aware that if
they conduct various types of blending or permit water content to increase in
heat-dried Class A products, the potential for temporary increases in
bacterial growth exists
It is important to recognize that growth during storage is usually a temporary
condition in which bacterial populations increase in response to the sudden
availability of a food source, but decline to previous low levels once it is
consumed. The growth and presence of non-pathogenic microorganisms in
biosolids act to counterbalance the stimulating effect of nutrients on bacterial
growth through the natural competition for nutrients.
If pathogen regrowth occurs, the material should be held in storage until
populations decline to acceptable levels or it should be re-treated to meet
standard pathogen limits. The potential for pathogen growth should be
considered in establishing appropriate storage conditions and in blending or
augmenting Class A biosolids with other organic materials (see Chapter 7,
"Other Organic By-Products").
3. If the pH of Class A alkaline stabilized material drops significantly during
extended storage and the color, consistency, or odor of the product has
deteriorated, then re-testing for pathogens may be advisable. Significant
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 33
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CHAPTER 4 - PATHOGENS
decreases in pH have, on occasion, been associated with increases in the
level of fecal coliform above the 1000 MPN per gram regulatory limit.
Pathogens in Stored Class B Biosolids
The probable presence of pathogenic organisms is assumed for biosolids
treated to Class B pathogen reduction standards. Likewise, Class B biosolids
blended with any other organic materials, e.g., leaves, sawdust, woodchips
etc., for whatever reason, is not considered to alter the pathogen status. For
this reason, storage practices should provide a level of protection equivalent to
Class B site restrictions for use to minimize human, animal, or environmental
exposure to disease-causing organisms either through direct contact or via the
food chain.
PART 503 PATHOGEN DENSITY LIMITS
Biosolids Pathogen Standards can be satisfied by determining the
geometric mean of seven samples of biosolids after treatment for the
following:
Pathogen or Indicator
Standard density limits (dry wt)
Class A
Salmonella
Fecal Conforms
Enteric Viruses
Viable Helminth Ova
Fecal Coliform Density
< 3 MPN/4g Total Solids or
<1000MPN/g and
< 1 PFU / 4 g Total Solids and
< 1 /4g Total Solids
Class B
<2,000,000 MPN/ g Total Solids
(dry wt. basis)
Accumulated Water
Ponded water that has contacted stored biosolids may contain nutrients and
have a moderate enough pH to provide a favorable medium for growth of
bacteria, including pathogens. This may occur even when the bulk of the stored
product is dry. In addition, according to the preliminary risk assessments for
land application of biosolids, the highest risk pathways for viruses, bacteria and
parasites involve direct human contact with biosolids or with surface waters that
have been contaminated by runoff and sediment, particularly immediately after
a rainfall. Therefore, management of stormwater to minimize contact with
biosolids and properly dealing with any water that accumulates in contact with
stored biosolids is essential.
34
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 4 - PATHOGENS
When is Retesting Required?
Class A and EQ
For EQ biosolids the Part 503 requirements to test stored materials prior to use
depends on who has control of the stored material. If the material remains in
the control of the original preparer (directly or indirectly through a contracted
processor or applier), the material must be retested prior to final use. If a
preparer gives or sells EQ biosolids to a second party, for instance a
landscaper, who then stores the material before land application, testing for
pathogens is not required under Part 503.
The two examples above are often referred to as the "quirk" of the EQ concept.
In one case, the EQ biosolids is still subject to the Part 503 requirements when
something happens to it because it is still under the control of the preparer. In
the other case, the same EQ biosolids is not subject to the Part 503
requirements when something happens to it because it is no longer under the
control of the preparer. Loss of control by the preparer is the critical difference
conceptually. However, even second party receivers of EQ materials should be
aware that pathogen testing is recommended when bulk blending operations of
biosolids with materials that contain available nutrients occur.
Class B Material
For Class B biosolids, any mixture of a Class B biosolids and a non-hazardous
material is considered as a product derived from biosolids, and hence, by
definition, biosolids. Thus, if either a preparer or a land applier blends ground
green waste with Class B biosolids, and then plans to till that mixture into the
soil the mixture would still need to meet the Part 503 Class B standard and site
restrictions (i.e., pollutants, pathogen, and vector attraction reduction
requirements). The party who mixes the biosolids with another material is the
preparer, as defined in Part 503.
Land appliers who are considering or are already blending biosolids with other
materials prior to ultimate disposition of the product need to be aware of Part
503 requirements for biosolids derived products. This means that if the blends
with Class B biosolids are stored, when they are removed from storage for land
application, they must still use site restrictions.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 35
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CHAPTER 4 - PATHOGENS
Type of Stored Biosolids J
Who has
1
CLASS A]
custody of the biosolids?
I
Preparer
Distributor
1
(CLASS B]
\
No
Mix
1
i
IVGx
1
EQ
MX
EQ
NON
EQ
111
NON
EQ
EQ
EQ
Mix
Testing Required* 1 No Testing Required
No Testing Required'
** When used according
to Class B site restrictions
* Before custody of the biosolids is transferred to the distributor, OR
when something other than EQ biosolids is mixed with NON-EQ
biosolids after the preparer has released control of it.
If anything is mixed with NON-EQ biosolids, the mixture is subject to
the land application general requirements and management practices
when it is land-applied.
Fig. 4-1. Decision tree diagram showing the interrelationship between biosolids
pathogen reduction status (Class A, B, and EQ), current custodian, and mixing
with non biosolids material relative to testing and retesting requirements.
Storage Site Management
Three conditions are necessary to produce infectious disease:
The disease agent must be present in sufficient concentrations to be
infectious
Susceptible individuals must come in contact with the agent in a manner that
causes infection
The agent must be able to overcome the physical and immunological
barriers of the individual.
Proper management practices break the chain of transmission either by
keeping susceptible individuals or animals from direct contact with stored
36
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 4 - PATHOGENS
materials and/or by preventing the movement of any residual pathogens or
parasites in stored materials into the environment in a way that would be
harmful. Biosolids regulations are designed to address the first two of three
conditions that produce infections disease.
Biosolids which meet rigorous Class A pathogen reduction standards do not
have detectable levels of pathogens and are exempt from site restrictions.
For Class B biosolids, the risk of transmission of infectious disease agents is
reduced to acceptable levels by a combination of treatment to reduce
pathogen levels and management practices to minimize the potential for
exposure of susceptible individuals to pathogens or parasites.
Management Options to Restrict Potential Movement of Pathogens
Use of appropriate buffers or filter strips to control runoff from field stockpiles.
Diverting stormwater runoff away from the stored biosolids.
Practices such as stormwater containment ponds or collection and irrigation systems
for uncovered constructed storage pads or lagoons.
Enclosure of long term storage of biosolids in facilities with roofed structures to
prevent contact with precipitation or runoff where feasible.
Restriction of public access to field storage sites. Constructed facilities may warrant
fencing, but fencing of field storage stockpiles is needed only if storage will occur in
areas that are accessible to livestock.
Any runoff which has been in contact with the biosolids should be kept isolated from
any adjacent fruit or vegetable crops that would be harvested, sold in the fresh
market, and potentially consumed raw.
Chapter 5 includes detailed discussion of management practices that minimize
pathogen transport or exposure risks for a variety of biosolids storage options.
Worker Safety
Worker safety is always a primary consideration and basic hygiene training
similar to that of workers at a wastewater treatment plant should be provided to
biosolids haulers and storage site staff. The use of good personal hygiene and
work habits form the basis of a worker protection program for those handling
biosolids. Some specific recommendations include:
1. Wash hands thoroughly with soap and water after contact with biosolids.
2. Avoid touching face, mouth, eyes, nose, genitalia, or open sores and cuts.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
37
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CHAPTER 4 - PATHOGENS
3. Wash your hands before you eat, drink, smoke, or use the restroom.
4. Eat in designated areas away from biosolids handling activities.
5. Do not smoke or chew tobacco or gum while working with biosolids.
6. Use gloves to protect against creation of skin abrasions and/or contact
between abrasions and biosolids, or surfaces exposed to biosolids, when
they occur unexpectedly.
7. Remove excess biosolids from shoes prior to entering vehicle.
8. Keep wounds covered with clean, dry bandages.
9. Flush eyes thoroughly, but gently, if biosolids contact eyes.
10. Change into clean work clothing on a daily basis and, if possible, before
going home; reserve work boots for use at storage sites or during biosolids
transport.
The Centers for Disease control recommends that immunizations for diphtheria
and tetanus be current for the general public, including all wastewater workers.
Boosters are recommended every ten years. The tetanus booster should be
repeated in the case of a wound that becomes dirty, if the previous booster is
more than five years old. Consult a doctor regarding direct exposure through
an open wound, eyes, nose, or mouth. It should be noted that a Hepatitis A
vaccine has recently been developed and is available to the general public.
Consequently, it is recommended that those working with biosolids receive this
vaccination as an additional protection.
References
Code of Federal Regulations, 1993. Standards for the Use and Disposal of
Sewage Sludge. Title 40, Volume 3, Parts 425 to 699, Federal Register
February 19, 1993 (58 FR 9248), US Government Printing Office, Washington,
DC [40CFR503.3].
EPA, 1992. Environmental regulations and technology - control of pathogens
and vector attraction in sewage sludge, EPA Pub. No. 625/R-92/013, Center for
Environmental Research Information, Cincinnati, OH 45268.
EPA, 1992b. Preliminary Risk Assessment for Viruses in Municipal Sewage
Sludge Applied to Land. EPA Pub. No. 600/R-92/064, EROC/CSMEE,
Columbus, OH.
EPA, 1991a. Preliminary Risk Assessment for Bacteria in Municipal Sewage
Sludge Applied to Land. EPA Pub. No. 600/6-91/006, EROC/CSMEE,
Columbus, OH.
38 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 4 - PATHOGENS
EPA, 1991b. Preliminary Risk Assessment for Parasites in Municipal Sewage
Sludge Applied to Land. EPA Pub. No. 600/6-91/001, EROC/CSMEE,
Columbus, OH.
EPA, 1989. Environmental regulations and technology - control of pathogens in
municipal wastewater sludge, EPA Pub. No. 625/10-89/006, Center for
Environmental Research Information, Cincinnati, OH 45268.
EPA, 1989. Technical support document for pathogen reduction in sewage
sludge. Publication no. PB 89-136618. National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, Virginia.
EPA, 1985. Health effects of land application of municipal sludge. EPA Pub.
No. 600/1-85/015. EPA Health Effects Research Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina.
EPA, 1979. Technology Transfer Process Design Manual - Sludge Treatment
and Disposal, EPA 625/1-79-011, Center for Environmental Research
Information, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Farrell, J.B., V. Bhide, and J.E. Smith, Jr., 1996. Development of EPA's new
methods to quantify vector attraction of wastewater sludges. Water Environ.
Res. 68, No. 3, 286-294.
Feachem, R.G., D.J. Bradley, H. Garelick, and D.D. Mara. 1983. Sanitation
and disease: health aspects of excreta and wastewater management. Wold
Bank Studies in Water Supply and Sanitation 3. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Smith, J. E., Jr., and J. B. Farrell. 1994. Vector Attraction Reduction Issues
Associated with the Part 503 Regulations and Supplemental Guidance, in
Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation's Conference, "International
management of water and wastewater solids for the 21st century: A global
perspective", June 19-22, 1994, Washington, D.C., pp 1311-1330.
Strauch, D. 1991. Survival of pathogenic microorganisms and parasites in
excreta, manure and sewage sludge. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epizoot.
10(3):813-846.
Yanko, W.A., A.S. Walker, J.L. Jackson, L.L. Libao, and A. L. Gracia. 1995.
Enumerating Salmonella in biosolids for compliance with pathogen regulations.
Water Environ. Res. 67(3): 364-370.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 39
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Chapter 5
Recommended Management Practices
Introduction
This chapter deals with the various issues of Critical Control Point 2: The
Transportation Process and Critical Control Point 3: The Field Storage Site.
Design guidance and management recommendations are provided for storage
of biosolids that meet state and federal standards and are suitable for use in
land application programs. The operative concept for these recommendations
is that site design and management requirements increase as the length of
storage or volume of stored biosolids increases. These recommendations are
based on practical field experience and are designed to protect water quality,
minimize pathogen exposure risks, and reduce the potential for unacceptable
off-site odors.
The five sections in this chapter are:
I. Site Selection Considerations: Applicable to All Storage
II. Field Storage: Stockpiles
III. Field Storage: Constructed Facilities
IV. Odor Prevention and Mitigation
V. Spill Prevention and Response
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
41
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
I. Site Selection Considerations: Applicable to all storage
SITE SELECTION FACTORS
CLIMATE
TOPOGRAPHY
SOIL/GEOLOGY
BUFFER ZONES
ODOR PREVENTION/AESTHETICS
ACCESSIBILITY AND HAULING DISTANCE
PROPERTY ISSUES
Climate
The climate of the area should be assessed to determine the likelihood of
precipitation events over the planned storage period, the expected
temperatures, wind speed and prevailing seasonal directions relevant to
sensitive odor receptors. For constructed facilities, the anticipated length of
inclement weather conditions and rainfall may influence the size of the facility.
For instance, in many areas of the United States, land application of biosolids is
severely limited from the months of November through March.
Topography
Field stockpiles and storage facilities should not be located in areas that are
regularly inundated, in drainage ways or in wetlands. They should be placed
on fairly level land. Stockpiles should be situated near the top of slopes to
minimize exposure to up-slope runoff. Constructed storage facilities may
require storm water controls if subjected to up-slope runoff. U.S. Geologic
Survey (USGS) topographic maps are an excellent tool for screening of
suitable locations. Biosolids should be stored in areas with adequate buffers.
Soils and Geology
Sites selected for field storage should not be located on excessively moist or
wetland soils where very low infiltration rates regularly lead to standing water or
excessive runoff after storm events. Stockpiles also should not be located on
soils with extremely high hydraulic conductivities (such as gravels) that have
excessive infiltration rates. Regulatory requirements and water quality
protection standards regarding depth to seasonal high water table and to
bedrock should also be considered. Stockpiles do not belong on or adjacent to
karst features such as sinkholes or rock outcroppings.
42
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
For constructed storage facilities, the soil must provide a suitable foundation.
The movement, settling and shifting of the underlying soil could result in
leakage through cracks or even the total failure of the storage structure. High
water tables may pose the risk of rupturing the water-tight seals of a lagoon
(particularly with clay lined systems) causing groundwater infiltration into the
storage facility or conversely leakage of the biosolids to the surrounding
groundwater. High permanent or seasonal water tables may also exert enough
flotation force on concrete or steel structures to lift them from their foundations.
The soil at the site should be evaluated in regard to its suitability and strength
for use in embankments, berms and backfill. It may be necessary to truck in
suitable soils, which will significantly increase the cost of the storage facility.
Buffers
Adequate buffers are necessary to protect water resources and to prevent
nuisances to adjacent properties. The storage site should comply with any
federal (10 meters by the 503 rule), state, or local regulations regarding
minimum buffer distances to waterways, homes, wells, property lines, roads,
etc. They also prevent surface runoff from reaching streams by providing room
for infiltration in crop areas and vegetative buffers or crop residue.
Odor Minimization and Aesthetics
Reducing the visibility of the storage site to the general public and maximizing
the distance between the site and residential areas help minimize nuisance
complaints. The length of time biosolids are stored should be minimized when
sites are adjacent to residential areas. Storage during the summer months
poses a greater potential for development of unacceptable odors and requires
a higher level of management.
Accessibility and Hauling Distances
Potential sites should be evaluated based on economical hauling radii from the
generating facility and the accessibility of the site during periods of inclement
weather. Weight restriction and other roadway limits should be observed both
on-site and along the haul route from the treatment facility. Consideration
should also be given to traffic impacts on communities along the haul route and
the least disruptive route selected.
Biosolids must be transported to the storage site in vehicles that are
appropriate for the type of materials being transported, e.g., for dewatered or
dried biosolids, trucks must be covered and have rubber sealed rear gates.
Drivers should be briefed on haul routes and provided with a copy of a written
spill response plan that describes emergency response and clean-up methods
in the event of a spill, accident etc. It is advisable to keep one in each haul
vehicle and at project offices. Investigate and comply with any local road use
requirements or restrictions.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 43
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Prior to biosolids deliveries, mark field stockpile areas. Place signs or flags
conspicuously enough for truck drivers to determine where to drive and unload
biosolids. Make provisions for collection of load tickets to document deliveries.
Permanent storage facilities must have room for trucks to maneuver and pull-
offs or staging areas to ensure vehicles do not queue up on the shoulder of
public roads while waiting to be loaded or unloaded. In landscape and
horticultural uses, where Class A biosolids will be combined with other
materials, consider locating storage areas near other amendments to minimize
the time required to collect and blend potting and landscaping mixtures.
Property Issues
Before constructed storage facilities are built, local zoning requirements and
ordinances must be investigated. In addition, consideration should be given to
the relative security and liability associated with leasing versus ownership of
the land on which the storage facility will be located. Any leases should extend
for several years and preferably over the expected life of the facility. Leases
should have provisions that allow and guarantee proper management of the
site and compliance with regulatory requirements. Plans should also be made
for the eventual closure of the facility such as demolition and restoration of the
site or conversion of the facility to other uses. Adequate insurance of the
property, facility and equipment as well as environmental liability coverage is
necessary. This coverage must be coordinated with any applicable state or
local bonding requirements.
II. Field Storage: Stockpiles
Field Storage Considerations for Stockpiles
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
SITE SELECTION & WATER MANGAGEMENT
OPERATIONAL PRACTICES
HOUSEKEEPING
SECURITY
SITE RESTORATION
44
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A Critical Control Point 3: Field Storage (Stockpile) Checklist (page 48)
summarizes material discussed in this section.
Design Considerations
Field stockpiling is used for short-term storage of dewatered cake, dried, or
composted Class B or Class A biosolids at the land application site. Use
biosolids that stay consolidated and non-flowing - It is advisable to test the
biosolids' ability to stay consolidated before field stockpiling operations are
initiated; such testing can be conducted at the treatment plant. This should be
rechecked if a treatment plant changes polymers or dewatering methods. This
test is suggested because some polymers used in dewatering may break down
after a couple days. If this occurs, bound water in the biosolids is released and
the stockpiled biosolids may lose solidity and slump or flow.
If biosolids do not have the proper consistency, they may be blended with
thicker biosolids from the treatment facility. If Class A is mixed with Class B,
the material must be handled as a Class B biosolids unless the mixture is
retested and/or retreated to meet Class A standards.
Alternatively, it may be feasible in some situations to stockpile biosolids on a
layer of sawdust or other absorbent material. Such practice is not considered
to change the quality of the biosolids, and hence does not require a federal
"Treatment Works Treating Domestic Sewage (TWTDS)" application and
additional testing for Part 503 compliance.
Site Selection and Water Management
Field stockpiles should be placed in the best physical location possible in or
adjacent to the field(s) that will receive the biosolids. Stockpiles should be
placed according to the general siting recommendations listed earlier in this
chapter and conform to all state requirements. For sites with significant slope,
provisions need to be made to manage up-and downslope water. Avoid
forming windrows across slopes to reduce the potential for piles to become
anaerobic at the base where overland flow accumulates. To the extent
possible, shape piles to shed water. Clearly mark access routes and stockpile
areas at field sites.
Vpslope
The longer the storage period, the greater the potential precipitation, and
hence, greater levels of runoff control are needed. Runoff from any up-slope
areas should be diverted by using straw bales, silt fence, by discing soils up-
slope of the stockpile along the contour line, or by constructing a berm with soil
from the site. In some cases, inert, low nitrogen, residuals such as agricultural
lime, pulp/paper sludge, or wood ash have been used successfully as berm
materials. For schematic diagrams of several types of berm construction see
Appendix C.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 45
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Downslope
Ensure that measures are placed down-slope of the stockpile to manage runoff.
These measures could include buffers or filter strips consisting of established
vegetation or crop residues, tillage across the slope to increase soil roughness,
silt fencing, straw bales, or berms (see Appendix D for schematic details on
construction). The extent of these measures should be based on the length of
time the material is expected to remain stockpiled and the likelihood of
significant runoff events occurring during this period. The amount of biosolids
stored at a field stockpile site should be limited to that which can be used on
the adjacent fields.
Covering
Stockpiled biosolids form an air-dried crust that sheds precipitation and
prevents significant percolation of water through the pile. Nonetheless, some
states require stockpiles to be covered. However, field experience has shown
that tarps are not practical, except for very small stockpiles.
Biosolids stockpiles usually occupy a significant area; large tarps needed to
cover them are expensive, difficult to anchor and handle. Spreading the tarp
often requires workers to physically wade in biosolids. Furthermore, placing
and removing tarps may lead to significant drag-out of biosolids and the soiled
tarps themselves are a disposal problem. Shredded bark, compost, straw
mulch, ash, or topical lime application at times have been used as covers for
biosolids stockpiles (primarily to minimize odors as necessary).
For dried (at least 50 percent solids) or composted biosolids, tarps, wind
barriers or periodic wetting may be necessary to minimize blowing of dust,
particularly in arid, windy, climates when stockpiles are in close proximity to
sensitive downwind areas, e.g., residential areas. There have been some
instances of tarps catching fire when used on compost materials. Hence,
monitoring for hot spots as described below in 'inspections' is a useful
preventive strategy.
On a practical basis, several methods of effectively minimizing potential water
quality impacts include proper shaping of stockpiles, whenever possible, to
shed water, up-slope runoff diversions, and down-slope filter strips or other
practices. For biosolids-derived materials slated for use in highway projects,
consider storing the material on paved surfaces below overpasses to shelter
from precipitation.
Operational Practices
\
Inspection
Stockpiles should be inspected regularly and after severe precipitation events
to ensure that runoff controls are in good working order; note any slumping,
erosion, or movement of the biosolids; ensure there is no ponding or excessive
odor at the site. It is recommended that an inspection report be completed,
46 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
documenting the time, date, person conducting the inspection, and any items
requiring maintenance or repair.
Compost Inspection
Incompletely composted materials have the potential to self-heat because
microbial growth can still occur on the remaining nutrients. Thus, it is important
that only stable compost product be placed in storage. The compost reheat
test is an easy, on-site test that a compost producer can use to determine if this
level of compost stability has been achieved prior to storage. Alternatively,
there are oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide test prosedures that can be used
at the production facility. Temperature of stockpiles can be monitored
conveniently and rapidly with hand-held, 'point and shoot' infrared temperature
devices approved by the National Fire Protection Association to ensure the
material does not become a potential fire hazard. Steel temperature probes
inserted into various places in a pile for approximately 10 minutes can also be
used, as can thermistor probes that are buried in piles and relay temperature
data to a remote, electronic data-acquisition system.
Heat Dried Product Inspection
Heat dried products that are rewetted or have not been sufficiently dried and
cooled (<95% solids, >85°F) also can self-heat. In the presence of enough
available water, microbes will utilize the nutrients in the biosolids and generate
heat that cannot dissipate because of the mass of the stockpile. Therefore,
piles should be monitored if rewetting occurs so that a fire hazard does not
develop. A noticeable increase in odor is a reliable indicator of microbial
activity and the potential development of hot spots. Temperature monitoring
devices as used for composting can also be used with stored, heat-dried
biosolids. If hot spots are found, the stockpile should be broken apart to vent
the heat and dry, then restacked or the material should be land applied.
In arid regions or during droughts, prudent management practices for
potentially combustible material might also include:
A fire break of 30 ft. around stored materials by removing combustible
vegetation
Foam-type fire suppressant or emergency water source (tank), possibly
including detergent to enhance the surface contact effectiveness of the
water.
Housekeeping
During stockpile creation or removal, employees must ensure that, at the end
of each work session, runoff controls are in place and stockpiles are properly
shaped whenever possible to prevent ponding of water on top of the biosolids.
They must also ensure that equipment is clean and the area is secured. For a
list of practices useful in preventing the tracking of mud and biosolids onto
public roads see p. 58.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 47
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Security
Locate field storage piles in remote areas of sites, when possible, to limit
access. Install appropriate fencing around stockpiles located on fields where
livestock will be grazed during the storage period to prevent their access.
Site Restoration
For most soils, stockpile areas exhibit soil compaction (especially when wet)
due to heavy equipment operation. Evaluate soil sensitivity to compaction
when selecting the loading and storage areas. Storage areas may also exhibit
high levels of nutrients, salts, and pH (for limed biosolids), that may potentially
inhibit seed germination and crop growth. For these reasons, the following
measures are often needed after biosolids are removed from a stockpile and
land applied:
Remove and spread the residual biosolids in the stockpile area. This can be
accomplished using a loader bucket to closely skim biosolids from the
ground surface and, if necessary, dragging the area with the back of the
loader bucket. In some cases, where equipment has churned biosolids into
the soil, it may be advisable to scrape a thin layer of soil with the biosolids.
Where biosolids are stockpiled on hay or pasture, it may be necessary to
use a chain drag to breakup and spread out biosolids left in the loading area.
When cropping practices allow, the soil in the stockpile area should be tilled
with a disc, chisel plowed, subsoil tilled etc., to breakup compaction. The
site should then be seeded or cropped to take up nutrients. If there are
several suitable locations at a site, stockpiles should be rotated from year to
year rather than repeatedly placed in the same location. If a single area of
the site will be used repeatedly, this area will need a higher level of
management.
48 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Critical Control Point 3: Field Storage (Stockpile) Checklist
(Involving dewatered cake, dried, or composted Class A or Class B Biosolids)
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Management ^
Prepare and maintain a Field Management Plan
Train employees to properly operate the site according to plan; conduct spill
drills
Critical Control Point 1: Work with WWTP to maximize biosolids stability,
consistency, and quality; direct batches to appropriate sites.
Critical Control Point 2: Transportation; Clearly mark site access routes and
stockpile areas; conduct spill drills
Maintain accurate and well organized records
Designate a competent public relations person; maintain communication with
stakeholders; notify agencies of reportable incidents; explain actions taken to
respond to citizens concerns or complaints
Operations ^
Use biosolids that stay consolidated and non-flowing; shape stockpiles whenever
possible to shed water
Minimize ponding and storage time to the extent feasible during hot, humid
weather; manage accumulated water appropriately
Inspect and maintain up-slope water diversions
Inspect buffer zones to ensure run-off is not moving out of bounds
Restrict public access and use temporary fencing to exclude livestock, where
applicable; install signs; secure site appropriately
Clean all vehicles and equipment before they exit onto public roads
Train employees to use of appropriate sanitation practices; inspect for use
Inspect for odors and conditions conducive to odors; apply chemicals or surface
covering material to suppress odors if needed; consider the meteorological
conditions and the potential for off-site odors when scheduling opening the
storage pile and spreading of biosolids
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
49
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
r !"!
Figure 5-1. Daily biosolids deliveries are temporarily stored in a steel box fabricated from
two intermodal freight containers (Snoqualmie Tree Farm, WA). The box breaks down and
stacks together lengthwise for relatively easy relocation to the next unloading site.
Biosolids are loaded from the containers into the Aero-Spread applicator by a clam bucket.
Figure 5-2. Temporary stockpiles of biosolids in Maine covered with lime mud (high pH)
that acts as an odor control measure until material is incorporated. (Courtesy of Mark King,
Maine Dept. Environmental Protection)
50
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
III. Field Storage: Constructed Facilities
Introduction
A checklist of the items discussed in this section appears on page 59.
Longer-term storage is often conducted at constructed facilities where
additional steps and management practices have been implemented to protect
human health and the environment. Constructed facilities include: concrete,
asphalt, clay, or compacted earth pads; lagoons; tanks; or other structures that
can be used continually to store liquid, semi-solid or solid biosolids. Generally
these facilities are made of impervious materials that prevent leaching and
have specific design components to manage precipitation and runoff.
Design and management options presented here for short- or long-term
storage of biosolids, are based on current technologies and actual experiences.
These options are not the only effective ones. New or innovative options may
provide equal or better management.
Design Considerations
Field stockpiling is generally limited to the amount of biosolids needed to meet
agronomic or reclamation requirements at a field or site. Determining the
storage period and suitable capacity for a constructed facility is more variable,
and is a critical component of most well managed land application programs. If
the capacity is for too short a period, the facility may fill before the biosolids can
be used in a sound manner. A design that is based on an overly long storage
period may result in an unjustifiable expenditure for unused storage capacity.
Factors to consider in determining the storage period include the daily
production at the WWTP, storage alternatives, climate and land use
characteristics, equipment and labor requirements, and management flexibility.
The larger the capacity for storage, the greater the flexibility in managing
biosolids to accommodate weather, equipment, etc.
Constructed facilities should be designed and built in accordance with good
engineering principles. Excellent guidance on these types of facilities is
available in the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) design
manuals for animal manure storage facilities. State and local regulatory
requirements and design criteria provide details. The time vs. amount vs.
management intensity relationship applies to these facilities as much as it does
to stockpiles. Table 5-1 provides key design considerations for the three types
of constructed facilities customarily used to store biosolids products:
Lagoons for liquid or dewatered biosolids
Pads or other facilities for dewatered or dry biosolids
Storage tanks for liquids
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 51
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Table 5-1 : Key Design Conce
Issue
Design
Capacity
Accumulated
Water
Management
Runoff
Management
Biosolids
Consistency
Safety
Liquid/
Thickened
7-72% solids
Lagoons
Below ground
excavation.
Impermeable
liner of concrete,
geotextile, or
compacted earth.
Expected
biosolids volume
+ expected
precipitation
+freeboard
Pump out and
spray irrigate or
land apply the
liquid, haul to
WWTP, or mix
with biosolids
Diversions to
keep runoff out of
lagoon
Liquid or
dewatered -
removal with
pumps, cranes or
loaders
Drowning hazard
- post warnings,
fence, locked
gates and rescue
equipment on site
pts for Constructed Biosolids Storage Facilities
Dewatered/Dry Biosolids Facilities
12-30% solids/
>50% solids (dry)
Pads/Basins
Above ground,
impermeable liner
of concrete,
asphalt, or
compacted earth
Expected biosolids
volume, unless
precipitation is
retained; then,
biosolids volume
+ expected
precipitation
+freeboard
Sumps/pumps if
facility is a basin
for collection of
water for spray
irrigation, land
apply or haul to a
WWTP
Diversions to keep
runoff out of site,
curbs and/or
sumps to collect
water for removal
or down-slope
filter strips or
treatment ponds
If no side-walls,
material must
stack without
flowing
Drowning hazard -
post warnings,
fences, locking
gates, and rescue
equipment on site
Enclosed
Buildings
Roofed, open-sided
or enclosed.
Flooring: concrete,
asphalt, or
compacted earth
Expected biosolids
volume
Roof and gutter
system, enclosure,
or up-slope
diversions
Enclosure or up-
slope diversions
Material must stack
well enough to
remain inside
Post 'No
Trespassing ',\
signs, remote
location, lock
doors, gates &
fences
Liquid/
Thickened
7-72% solids
Tanks
Above or below
ground, concrete,
metal or prefab. If
enclosed - ventilation
needed
Enclosed: expected
biosolids volume. If
open-top - expected
biosolids volume +
expected precipitation
+freeboard
Decant and spray
irrigate, land apply or
haul to WWTP or
mix with biosolids in
tank
Prevent gravity
outflows from pipes
and fittings.
Diversions for open,
below ground tanks
Liquid or dewatered
biosolids. If
enclosed, material
must be liquid
enough to pump.
Posted warning.,
locking access points,
e.g., use hatches,
controlled access
ladders, and confined
space entry
procedures to access
52
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Lagoon Storage
Storage lagoons need to be large enough to provide adequate biosolids
storage volumes during worst-case weather conditions (long periods of
inclement weather when field application is restricted and the lagoon storage
cannot be emptied). The design volume must also include space for
accumulation of precipitation expected over the storage period plus capacity to
hold severe storm events (e.g., a 2-year, 24-hour design storm). Lagoons must
also have adequate freeboard (the distance from the maximum water level to
the top of the berm).
An impermeable liner (i.e. earthen, geotextile, or concrete) is recommended to
ensure against loss of biosolids constituents to groundwater by leaching. This
type of design may negate the need for groundwater monitoring wells. Liners
should be protected from damage by restricting vehicle access to concrete
ramps and vehicle lanes. If vehicles must traverse the liner surface or if
dredges will be used to remove biosolids, a layer of sand (approximately one-
foot thick) or clay should be spread over the liner. This sand or clay base is
protection in itself and provides a marker to indicate when removal operations
are approaching the liner.
Fig. 5-5 A lined lagoon (Courtesy ofBioGro Division).
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
53
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Dewatered/Dry Biosolids Storage Facilities
Dewatered/dry biosolids storage facilities can be covered or uncovered and are
designed to provide up to two years of storage for Class A or B dewatered, air-
dried, heat dried, or composted biosolids. These facilities include open-sided
or enclosed buildings and open topped bunkers or pads. Storage facilities
need to be large enough to provide adequate biosolids storage volumes during
worst-case weather conditions (long periods of inclement weather when field
application is restricted and the facility cannot be emptied). If the facility is not
under roof, the design must provide for stormwater retention apart from the
stored biosolids with sufficient volume for precipitation accumulation or provide
other management measures that prevent accumulation.
Unroofed facilities for semisolid cake materials (Class B or Class A with less
than 50 percent solids) should have a durable hard pad with push walls and
stormwater curbs, containment walls, and sumps. An impermeable floor is
recommended to help control runoff, protect against loss of biosolids
constituents to groundwater by leaching, and to accommodate vehicle traffic.
Recommended materials include concrete or asphalt in humid areas; arid areas
may also use compacted soils. Class A material with greater than 50 percent
solids (compost, alkaline stabilized etc.) may be stored on bare ground or
gravel with appropriate runoff controls, such as straw bales, sediment fence,
and grassed filter strips. Facilities with roofs or impermeable floors, when
accompanied by appropriate stormwater management provisions protect
groundwater.
Figure 5-4. Concrete storage bunker with block push walls (Courtesy
Mark King, Maine Dept. of Environmental Protection).
54
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Figure 5-5. Permanent covered storage in Southern Maine (Courtesy
Mark King, Maine Dept. Environmental Protection).
Storage Tanks
Storage tanks for Class A and Class B liquid biosolids may be temporary or
permanent, above- or belowground structures. They are watertight and are
generally concrete or steel structures, which may be prefabricated or
constructed entirely on-site. Due to their impervious nature, these facilities
generally do not warrant groundwater-monitoring wells - particularly
aboveground tanks.
Storage tanks may be open-topped or enclosed. Like lagoons, open-topped
storage tanks must include space for expected precipitation accumulations,
plus adequate freeboard. The tank volumes need to be large enough to
contain daily biosolids produced during worst-case periods of inclement
weather, or, back-up options must be part of the planning process.
Ventilation
Enclosed storage tanks should be ventilated through passive vents or
mechanical fans. Depending on the type of biosolids, tank design, climatic
conditions, and airflow rates, a gas meter and alarm system tied to ventilation
fans may be advisable to eliminate buildup of explosive levels of methane that
might result from anaerobic biological activity in the tank. Specific
requirements for ventilation and electrical systems on or in the immediate
vicinity of different types of enclosed storage facilities are specified in the
National Electric Code requirements adopted by the National Fire Protection
Association. Post "No Smoking" and "Confined Space" signs on all enclosed
storage tanks.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
55
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Spills
Aboveground tanks have the potential for spills due to gravity flow of biosolids.
Two approaches to protect from accidental spills are:
1. The tank may be designed so that valves and piping on the tank do not
allow material to flow out by force of gravity (top feeding systems). In these
systems, biosolids are lifted in and out of the tank by pumps. This prevents
spills in the event that a valve is damaged by equipment or if an operator
fails to shut the valve.
2. For gravity discharge systems, backflow prevention and emergency cut-off
valves should be installed on all piping and valves located at elevations
lower than the highest potential liquid level of the tank.
Berms
An earthen containment berm may be advisable if the facility is located fairly
close to a drainage-way, surface waters, or other sensitive feature. The
containment berm should be designed to retard the movement of biosolids
spilled from a tanker truck, handling equipment, or the tank itself. The
containment berm should detain a spill long enough for it to be cleaned up but
include a dewatering device that will prevent ponding of rainwater (see
Appendix D for diagrams of berms).
More on Water Management
Surface Runoff/Erosion Controls
During Construction - Control of stormwater and runoff during construction of
storage facilities is essential and may be regulated by federal, state or local
erosion and sediment control and stormwater regulations. Erosion and
sediment controls may include installation of up-slope runoff diversions to keep
stormwater from crossing the construction area and by installation of silt fence
or other structures along the lower perimeter of the disturbed area to trap
stormwater and/or sediment. Areas disturbed during construction should be
stabilized to prevent erosion by seeding and mulching.
After Construction - Depending on the type of constructed facility, it also may
be necessary to install permanent diversions to keep up-slope surface runoff
from entering facilities and other down-slope water management structures.
Specifications for erosion and sediment control practices are available at local
planning offices and Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) offices.
(See Appendix C).
Management of Accumulated Water
Accumulated water (i.e., precipitation) that forms a separate layer on top of
liquid or semi-solid biosolids, or collects in puddles after contact with biosolids,
is the primary cause of odors at storage facilities. There are two design
approaches, prevention and mitigation, for dealing with water accumulation at
storage facilities constructed for dewatered and dry biosolids:
56 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Prevention - Construct roofed facilities to prevent water or precipitation from
contacting biosolids, and provide additional water management as needed.
Mitigation -
1. Construct curbs, gutters, and sumps at unroofed facilities to collect and
manage water that has come into contact with the biosolids; treat such
water as liquid biosolids; and/or,
2. Establish gravity flow to on-site filter strips or treatment ponds. In arid
regions of the U.S., accumulated precipitation may not need to be
managed due to evaporation deficits; and/or,
3. Mix accumulated water with the biosolids, or decant it from the storage
facility as quickly and regularly as possible - especially during warm
weather. Use an irrigation system or truck spray system for land
application or back haul to the treatment facility (this option may be
complicated by expensive tip fees or treatment plant acceptance limits on
BOD and nitrogen concentrations).
4. Application to land should be based on nutrient loading rates and hydraulic
loading limits to prevent ponding or runoff to adjacent land.
Land application of accumulated water should be treated under state and
federal regulations as liquid biosolids, if the water has come in contact with
biosolids, and all biosolids management practices and site restrictions should
apply. State nutrient management plan requirements will specify nutrient
testing. In the absence of state requirements, nutrient testing is recommended.
When planning to irrigate accumulated water make sure that adequate land will
be accessible when it is needed. Also, check state and local regulations
regarding land application in the winter.
Effects of Storage: Application Rate Adjustments
The longer biosolids are stored, the more important it is to retest for nutrients.
Before removal, biosolids should be sampled and tested for nitrogen,
phosphorus, and percent solids. Liquid biosolids increase or decrease in
percent solids over time due to precipitation additions or evaporation losses. In
addition, settling may occur during storage. Depending on the degree of
liquid/solids separation and the amount of recirculation and remixing that can
be achieved, the percent solids of the material may vary from the surface to the
bottom of the lagoon. Therefore, it is advisable to retest the percent solids of
the material as the clean-out proceeds to ensure proper application rates.
Operational Practices for Constructed Facilities
Inspections
Inspections should be regularly scheduled while biosolids are stored in facilities to
determine if any maintenance or repairs are necessary. The site should also be
checked for odors, proper management of precipitation, housekeeping, and
security. Inspections after rainfall events during periods of warm weather are
particularly helpful in preventing the development of unacceptable odors. An
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 57
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
inspection report should be completed, documenting the time, date, person
conducting the inspection, and any items requiring maintenance, repair, or
adjustment.
Visual inspections should include examination of the condition of:
Liners
Concrete - Cracks or openings, signs of infiltration, crumbling,
or rust
Wood - Splitting, buckling or rotting
Earthen containment walls - Settling, seepage, slumps, or
animal burrows
Wall alignment (vertical and horizontal) - curves or bulges
Foundation - erosion or piping
Underdrains - check that they are functioning as intended
Leak Detection
In addition, every few years the facility should be cleaned so that an internal
structural inspection by a qualified individual can be conducted. For lagoons
that cannot be emptied, such as clay lined lagoons which should be kept moist
to prevent the clay from drying and cracking, liquid balance tests may be
performed. These tests monitor the liquid level in the lagoon. A leak is
indicated if the liquid level drops more than can be accounted for by
precipitation inputs and evaporative losses.
Monitoring Wells
If facilities cannot be emptied and inspected, it may be advisable to install
groundwater-monitoring wells, e.g., clay-lined lagoons. Three monitoring wells
are recommended - one up-gradient and two down-gradient (relative to the
direction of groundwater movement). Test wells at least annually for nitrate
content and coliform bacteria.
Housekeeping and Aesthetics
Regular housekeeping is essential for efficiency, safety and public acceptance.
Employees should clean equipment and grounds regularly, and collect and
properly dispose of any trash generated; prevent it from blowing to adjacent
sites. Sites that are visible from roads or adjacent properties should be
regularly mowed and kept neat and clean.
Dust
Vehicle traffic is usually the primary source of dust at storage facilities. Speeds
should be limited, and access lanes for larger facilities should be graveled.
Dried Class A or Class B and composted materials may be dusty and require
appropriate dust abatement in arid, windy climates, such as tarps. Care must
be used to be sure the tarps are only used on heat dried biosolids that are
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already very dry, and have not been rewetted, or compost that has been well
stabilized or there may be re-heating. Tarps place on self-heating materials
can enhance heat retention and contribute to spontaneous combustion of
materials and fire.
Practices to Prevent Mud or Biosolids from being Tracked onto Public Roadways
1. Vehicles transporting biosolids should be cleaned before they leave the WWTP
2. Concrete or asphalt off-loading pads at the storage facility, will help keep equipment clean
and make clean up of drips or spills easier.
3. The storage facility should have provisions to clean trucks and equipment when the need
arises. Mud on tires or vehicles can be hand-scraped or removed with a high pressure washer
or with compressed air (as long as this does not exacerbate an existing dust problem).
4. All vehicles should be inspected for cleanliness before leaving the site.
5. Use mud flaps on the back of dump trailers to preclude biosolids getting on tires or
undercarriage during unloading operations.
6. Install a temporary gravel access pad as necessary at the entrance/exit to avoid soil ruts and
tracking of mud onto roads.
7. Public roadways accessing the site should be inspected each day during operational periods,
and cleaned promptly (shovel and sweep).
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Critical Control Point 3: Constructed Facilities Checklist
(Involving lagoons, pads, or storage tanks)
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Project Management
Prepare and maintain a Storage Site Management Plan with spill plan
Critical Control Point 1: Work closely with the WWTP on stability and consistency
Critical Control Point 2: Transportation; clearly mark site access routes and unloading
areas
Train employees to properly operate the storage facility and to perform inspections;
conduct spill drills
Maintain accurate and well organized records
Designate a competent public relations person; maintain communications with
stakeholders; notify agencies of reportable incidents; explain actions taken to respond
to citizens concerns or complaints
Operations
Minimize ponding and storage time; manage accumulated water properly
Inspect and maintain up-and down-slope water diversion/collection systems
Inspect and maintain tanks, ponds, curbs, gutters and sumps used to collect runoff
Inspect buffer zones to ensure flow is not moving out of bounds
Install signs and implement security measures to restrict public access
Inspect concrete, wood, earth, walls, foundation and monitoring wells at constructed
storage facilities
Meet nutrient and hydraulic loading limits and state/local requirements when land
applying accumulated water from storage
Clean all vehicles and equipment before they exit onto a public road
Train employees to use of appropriate sanitation practices; ensure practices are
properly followed
Retest nutrient and solids content prior to land application to re-calculate land
application rate of biosolids, if the characteristics of the biosolids have changed
significantly during storage
Inspect for odors and conditions conducive to odors; mitigate appropriately
Attend to site aesthetics
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Security
Lagoons, tanks, and some pads or bunkers for storage of liquid or dewatered
biosolids are potential drowning hazards. When surface crusts form on the
stored biosolids, they deceptively appear as though they will support a person's
weight, but they will not. In addition, geotextile liners are generally smooth, and
when wet, the sloping walls of lagoons may become so slippery that no
foothold can be achieved. Facility perimeters should be posted with warning
and no-trespassing signs. Fencing should be installed to keep out people and
animals, and locking gates should be installed at vehicle access points.
Appropriate rescue equipment such as life rings, lifelines, and poles should be
kept on-site.
For aboveground tanks, ladders on the outside of tanks should terminate above
the reach of people, or have locked barriers to restrict access to ladders; all
access hatches should be locked. Personnel who access enclosed tanks must
follow OSHA confined space entry guidelines and procedures, and have
access to self-contained oxygen supply equipment when entering tanks.
IV. Odor Prevention and Mitigation
Prevention
Three key efforts to managing stored biosolids in a manner that prevents the
development of odors include:
Only Store Properly Treated Biosolids
Ensure that only properly treated biosolids that meet all state and federal
pathogen reduction regulations are delivered to the facility. Unless
biosolids will be stored at remote sites for limited periods (60 days) and/or
during cool weather months, vector attraction reduction should be met prior
to storage.
Plan: Develop written odor control and response plans.
Train: Operator training can increase sensitivity of personnel to odor
concerns and ensure proper implementation of the odor control plan.
Inspect, Monitor, Respond, and Record: Regular inspections and odor
monitoring, coupled with appropriate corrective action and recordkeeping,
will help site and facility managers maintain good neighbor status and
public acceptance of the project.
On an operational basis, use of the following management practices (where
appropriate) may greatly reduce the potential for unacceptable off-site odors.
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Practices to Reduce the Potential for Unacceptable Off-Site Odors
-S Ensure that the WWTP has used processes that minimize odor during processing.
S Minimize storage time.
Monitor and manage any water to prevent stagnant septic water accumulations.
S Avoid or minimize storage of biosolids during periods of hot and humid weather if
possible. During warm weather, check for odors frequently. Use lime or other materials
to control odors before they reach unacceptable levels off-site.
Empty constructed storage facilities as soon as possible in the spring, for cleaning and
inspection; keep idle until the following winter if possible.
Select remote sites with generous buffers between sensitive neighbor areas.
Consider weather conditions, prevailing wind directions, and the potential for off-site
odors when scheduling and conducting clean-out/spreading operations. For example,
operations on a hot, humid day, with an air inversion layer, and wind moving in the
direction of a residential area on the day of the block party greatly increases the risk of
odor complaints.
S Conduct loading/unloading and spreading operations as quickly and efficiently as possible
to minimize the time that odors may be emitted. Surface crusts on stored biosolids seal in
odors, but they break during handling, and odors can be released.
S Enclosed handling or pumping systems at constructed facilities may reduce the potential
for odors on a day-to-day basis, but theses facilities still have the potential for odors
during off-loading operations when active ventilation is used.
S Observe good housekeeping practices during facility loading and unloading. Clean trucks
and equipment regularly to prevent biosolids build-up that may give rise to odors. If
biosolids spills occur, clean up promptly.
Provide local government and state agency representatives with a contact name and number.
Ask them to call the storage facility operator immediately if they receive citizen questions,
concerns, or odor complaints resulting from storage of biosolids. Operator staff should
politely receive citizen questions or complaints, collect the individual's name and phone
number, conduct a prompt investigation, undertake control measures, if necessary, follow-up
with the person who filed the complaint, and document the event and actions.
Mitigation
If significant odor should develop during handling operations, the following
remedial measures can be taken:
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Odor Remediation Measures for Use During Handling Operations
Immediately correct any poor housekeeping problems (such as dirty equipment).
Immediately treat any accumulated water that has turned septic with lime, chlorine,
potassium permanganate or other odor control product; remove the water as quickly as
possible to a suitable land application site.
If odors are arising from lime stabilized biosolids, pH should be measured. If it has
dropped below 9.0, lime can be applied, topically to dewatered material, or, in highly
liquid systems, lime slurry can be blended into the biosolids by circulation. The pH
should be monitored and dosed with lime until the desired pH has been achieved. Raising
pH halts organic matter decomposition in the biosolids that can generate odorous
compounds.
For most types of biosolids (digested, lime stabilized, liquid, dewatered), applying a
topical lime slurry will raise surface pH levels, create a crust, and reduce odors. Topical
spray applications of potassium permanganate (KMnCu) or enzymatic odor control
products to neutralize odorous compounds may also be effective in some situations.
Cover biosolids with compost or sawdust.
If the odor is due to the combination of wind and weather conditions (hot, humid) and
agitation and circulation of biosolids as part of unloading operations, it may be advisable
to cease unloading operations until weather conditions are less likely to transport odors to
sensitive off-site receptors.
Spread and incorporate or inject odorous material as quickly as possible.
For enclosed storage facilities, absorptive devices (charcoal or biofilters) incorporated into
a ventilation system may be a feasible option for reducing odorous emissions.
Cause the WWTP to change its processes to produce less odorous biosolids.
V. Spill Prevention and Response
Prevention
Liquid tankers, and trailers used for semisolid biosolids, should
have rubber seals around all hatches and tailgates that can be mechanically
tightened to prevent any leakage. At the beginning of each day, inspect the
seal integrity on all vehicles. After loading, check each unit for leakage prior to
operating the unit on public roadways. Seepage or dripping of biosolids is
unacceptable.
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When liquid biosolids are being handled, it is recommended that buckets be
placed under hose connections to collect any drips when hoses are connected
and disconnected. In addition, paving and curbing of the off-loading pad
facilitates collection of small quantities of biosolids that may drip or spill.
Spill Response
A spill response plan should be a special part of the site management plan.
Examples of the spill response plan and accompanying biosolids fact sheets
used by Los Angles County Sanitation District are shown at the end of this
chapter. Furthermore, staff should be trained to follow the plan. This means
conducting periodic training and 'spill drills' that include training on contact with
the media.
To ensure prompt reporting and initiation of clean-up activities, it is
recommended that site supervisors have access to cell phones or to two-way
radios. Also, road tractors and application equipment should have cell phones.
If a spill occurs, the site supervisor should immediately initiate clean-up. The
site supervisor should also contact appropriate emergency services if
necessary (i.e. fire or rescue); notify supervisors; and communicate with the
public on the scene or notify the designated community contact, and
appropriate state regulatory agency. Site workers should also have media
contact training.
The first step in the clean-up process is to ensure public and worker safety.
Next, halt the source of the spill, e.g., a ruptured line or valve or damaged
tanker unit, and contain the spill. In the event large quantities of liquid or semi-
liquid biosolids are spilled off-site, straw bales, where available, may be used to
contain and soak up biosolids.
Once the source is controlled, collect spilled material. For liquid spills, vacuum
equipment on biosolids application vehicles can be used to collect as much
material as possible. Residual amounts are usually removed by hand
shoveling or sweeping. Straw, cat litter, or commercial adsorbents may be
spread as necessary to complete removal of the material. Absorbent materials
should be swept or shoveled up and taken to a permitted land application site
or to an approved landfill. If necessary, roadways may then be flushed with
water to complete the clean-up process.
Reporting
Prior to initiating a field storage operation, it may be advisable to contact the
local police, fire, and hospital teams to brief them on the facility and its
operation, including risks and types of injury that could potentially occur at the
site. In the event of a spill or leak, state and local regulators with oversight
responsibilities for the facility should be notified as required by state and local
regulations. Generally, a written report documenting how the spill occurred and
all remedial actions should be completed promptly after the incident and
submitted to the regulatory authority or kept on file.
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Biosolids Fact Sheet1
(Generator/facility name)
DESCRIPTION
Biosolids (formerly referred to as sewage sludge) are reusable solids from the wastewater
treatment process. At (treatment plant name),
biosolids have been treated by (process, e.g. , anaerobic
digestion) and dewatered by (process type , e.g., filter presses).
The dewatered, semi-solid form is referred to as cake.
Biosolids are not a hazardous material. The biosolids cake produced at
_(treatment plant name) is primarily organic. It is
beneficially reused as a soil amendment on agricultural land (land application),
(other uses here, e.g., compost). Routine analyses demonstrate that
(quality/allowable use, e.g., metals concentrations) meet EPA standards that allow the material to
be land applied at unrestricted metals loading rates.
(Further information here, e.g., anaerobic digestion significantly reduces, but does not completely
eliminate, pathogens (disease causing microorganisms). Digesters, which are operated at specific
time and temperature parameters, produce EPA Class B biosolids. Class B quality is suitable for
application to agricultural land in concert with certain EPA site restrictions.)
TYPICAL CHARACTERIZATION
Appearance Black, semi-solid
Total Solids Content % ( % moisture)
Free Liquid None
pH
Nitrogen % (dry weight basis)
Phospate % (dry weight basis)
Potassium % (dry weight basis)
Metals Content e.g., Meets EPA Table 3
Pathogen Reduction e.g., Meets EPA Class B
Soluble Metals e.g., Non-hazardous per STLC and
TTLC
(State)
HANDLING PRACTICES2
Biosolids are treated to reduce pathogens. Nonetheless, there is the potential for exposure to
pathogenic microorganisms. Major routes of infection are ingestion, inhalation and direct contact.
Good, common sense, personal hygiene and work habits provide adequate protection for workers
handling biosolids. Recommendations include:
:Fact sheet was provided courtesy of Los Angeles County Sanitation District
2Much of the information contained herein was taken from Biological Hazards at Wastewater Treatment Facilities, Water
Environment Federation (formerly, Water Pollution Control Federation), 1991.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 65
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Always wash hands after contact with biosolids.
Avoid touching face, mouth, eyes, nose, or genitalia before washing hands.
Eat in designated areas away from biosolids handling activities.
Do not smoke or chew tobacco or gum while working in direct contact with biosolids
Use gloves, when applicable.
Keep wounds covered with clean, dry bandages.
Change into clean work clothing on a daily basis.
If contact occurs, wash contact area thoroughly with soap and water. Use antiseptic
solutions on wounds, and bandage with a clean, dry dressing. For contact with
eyes, flush thoroughly but gently.
The Centers for Disease Control recommends that immunizations for diphtheria and
tetanus be current for the general public. Boosters are recommended every ten
years. The tetanus booster should be repeated in the case of a wound that becomes
dirty if the previous booster is over five years old. Consult a doctor regarding direct
exposure to an open wound or mouth.
HAZARD POTENTIAL
Biosolids are not combustible under ordinary circumstances. If stored in airtight containers for an
extended period, methane gas may be produced which could ignite in the presence of a spark or
open flame. Extinguish with dry chemical, water spray or foam. Avoid use of open flames in
confined areas and around sealed transport containers. Vent confined areas and transport
containers if biosolids have been stored for any significant length of time.
Hydrogen sulfide may also be generated in sufficient quantities to be a hazard in enclosed areas
such as tarpped transport containers. Hydrogen sulfide gas, which smells like rotten eggs, can be
toxic. Exposure can be avoided by removing the container tarp prior to unloading, and discharging
as much material as possible prior to employees entering the container.
GENERATOR DATA
Generator Name Facility Name (if different)
Address Address
City, State, Zip Code City, State, Zip Code
Area Code & Phone Number Area Code &Phone Number
Contact Contact
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Biosolids Hauler Spill Response Procedure3
1. General
A. Biosolids are non-hazardous and non-toxic. If a spill occurs, there is no need for special
equipment or emergency protocol beyond that outlined in this procedure. Biosolids are
primarily processed solids produced by sewage treatment plants.
B. Biosolids spilled onto pavement pose a potential road hazard because they can create wet,
slick surfaces for motor vehicles, and/or can obstruct traffic flow. If biosolids remain on the
surface for a sufficient time, they could be a source of potential contamination of nearby
storm drains, waterways, or ground water. Biosolids should be thoroughly removed so that
no significant residues remain to be washed into any storm drain or waterway by surface
water. All spilled biosolids must be returned to the trailer from which they spilled, or be
loaded into another appropriate transport vehicle.
2. Biosolids Characteristics and Personal Hygiene Procedures
A. Biosolids are processed organic residual solids from domestic sewage treatment,
containing nitrogen, phosphorus, trace metals, and some pathogenic (disease-causing)
organisms. Biosolids being transported are typically % total solids, with a
consistency (Fill in description). Biosolids become
dirt-like when solids exceed 45%. The material contains x % volatile solids, with a pH of
B. Personnel cleaning up a spill of biosolids should:
Wear gloves for shoveling, sweeping or handling biosolids.
Not eat, drink, smoke or chew while working directly with biosolids
Wash hands (and as necessary all other exposed parts of the body) with waterless hand
cleaner, or soap and water, following spill clean-up and prior to eating, drinking, smoking
or chewing.
3. Over-the-Road Spill Response Procedures
A. Park the truck on the side of the road and place traffic cones, reflectors and/or flares to
divert traffic around the spill. Remain with the truck and spilled materials, unless it is
necessary to leave temporarily to contact emergency services.
B. Drivers shall notify their Supervisor as soon as possible by radio or by phone (Area code &
phone number) . Give the location and amount of biosolids spilled.
Also notify the California Highway Patrol by telephone [911], if the spill has occurred on a
public right of way.
3 Procedure courtesy of Los Angeles County Sanitation District
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
C. Inform the authorities that you are hauling biosolids which is non-hazardous and non-toxic.
D. Cooperate with the authorities, assist with traffic control and clean-up.
E. Do not leave the scene of any spill, even a small one, until it is cleaned up. You may clean
up small spills first and then report the spill.
4. Spill Response Procedures
A. Load spilled biosolids back into the vehicle if it is operable. If the vehicle is disabled, the
spill must be loaded into an alternate vehicle.
B. Spilled biosolids must be prevented from migrating off the incident site, into storm drains, or
into surface waters. This is especially important if an incident occurs in rain conditions.
Biosolids spills may be diked or controlled with sand, sand bags, straw, absorbents, or
other blocking material.
C. Two people working with shovels can load a small spill into a vehicle. A large spill must be
loaded into the vehicle by an appropriate rubber tired loader. The scene coordinator is best
suited to choose the appropriate loading option to deal with the spill, based on equipment
availability and spill size.
D. After the spill has been loaded, the incident site must be cleaned. Spills may be cleaned by
sweeping the site free of remaining debris. Do not wash off tools or trucks at the spill
location; return tools and trucks to the wastewater treatment plant for cleaning.
E. Cleaned up spills should either be taken to the original destination or to a landfill permitted
to receive biosolids. They may also be accepted by the originating sewage treatment plan.
F. Spill response drills should be conducted periodically.
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CHAPTER 5 - RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
References
Brinton, W.F., Jr., E. Evans, M.L. Droffner, and R.B. Brinton. 1995
Standardized test for evaluation of compost self heating. BioCycle 36 (11): 64-
69.
National Fire Protection Association. 1994. NFPA 298: Standard on Fire
Fighting Foam, Chemicals for Class A Fuels in Rural, Suburban, and Vegetated
Areas. NFPA, Quincy, MA
National Fire Protection Association. 1997. NFPA 299: Standard for
Protection of Life and Property from Wildfire. NFPA, Quincy, MA
NRCS. 1992. Agricultural Waste Management Field Handbook, Part 651.
National Engineering Handbook 210-VI. Natural Resource Conservation
Service, USDA.
Sullivan, D.M., D.M. Granatstein, C.G. Cogger, C.L. Henry, and K/P.
Dorsey. 1993. Biosolids management guidlines for Washington State.
Washington State Dept. of Ecology Publication 93-80.
Sullivan, D.M. 1999. Towaqrd Quality Biosolids Management: A Trainer's
Manual. Northwest Biosolids Management Assoc. Seattle, WA.
USDA. National Handbook of Conservation Practices. Natural Resource
Conservation Service, http://www.ftw.nrcs.usda.gov/nhcp_2.html for specific
engineering and practice standards about Diversion (362), Composting Facility
(317), Field Border (386), Filter Strip (393), Hillside Ditch (423), Runoff
Management System (570), Waste Management System (312), Waste
Storage Facility (313), Waste Treatment Lagoon (359), Waste Utilization
(633).
USDA. 1992. Agricultural Waste Management Field Handbook, Part 651.
National Engineering Handbook 210-VI. Natural Resource Conservation
Service. Washington, D.C.
Wilber, C. (ed.) 2000. Operations and Design at the Wastewater Treatment
Plant to Control Ultimate Recycling and Disposal Odors of Biosolids. USEPA
sponsored project.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 69
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CHAPTER 6 - COMMUNITY RELATIONS
Chapter 6
Community Relations
Introduction
Whether a biosolids storage site is located in a remote area or in one that is
more densely populated, developing a relationship between project proponents
and the surrounding community is critical to successful field storage. The
public's view of the benefits of biosolids recycling and the necessity for
biosolids storage, as part of well-run land application programs, frequently are
balanced by concerns regarding potential environmental, health or nuisance
impacts. Issues commonly raised about storage sites include potential odors,
noise, dust, traffic, human or animal health effects, and water quality or
environmental impairment. These concerns are often linked to broader issues
such as potential impacts on property values, compatibility with other land
uses, and political issues. For these reasons, biosolids field storage projects,
either in small field stockpiles or in large, permanently constructed facilities,
should include a community relations program. The relationship that the
storer/applier develops with the community is just as, or more important than,
the one between the biosolids generator and the applier. Table 6-1 identifies
potential issues and community concerns related to field storage of biosolids.
Table 6-1. Common Issues and Community Concerns about Field Storage of Biosolids
Issue
Air Quality
Water Quality
Public and Animal Health
Traffic and Safety
Aesthetics
Community Concerns
Odors, dust and pathogens
Surface runoff to streams and well water contamination with
respect to nutrients, toxic metals, organics and pathogens
Contact and potential disease transmission, inadequate buffer
zones, and animal grazing
Posting and access control, road conditions and speeding
Odors; visibility, noise, dust and property values
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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The ultimate goal of the community relations program is to develop public
acceptance of biosolids storage within the community. The size and extent of
the community relations program depends on public interest more so than on
project size. In general, large, capital intensive, constructed storage facilities,
and facilities in high population areas, will require the greatest community
relations effort. It is not uncommon for large constructed facilities at remote
sites to attract less public interest than smaller highly visible projects.
Extensive education and outreach programs are most efficiently conducted on
an ongoing basis, in the context of an entire biosolids recycling program, not
just the storage component. Communications efforts related to storage issues
would be most appropriately handled by being integrated into ongoing
community relations efforts conducted by biosolids managers and WWTPs.
Outreach programs should be initiated as early as possible, when biosolids
projects are in the initial planning phase. The public desires a voice in activities
that may impact their community, and they need to know that biosolids
managers share their concerns and are responsive to their comments.
Seeking early input from local officials and the citizens during the planning
phase is the best way to gain public support. Active listening and
responsiveness to public concerns builds trust and ensures that the project fits
successfully into the community.
Communications programs should present all the pros and cons of a proposed
storage site relative to its role in the land application program. Risks should be
explained in terms that are understandable to the public. Biosolids generators,
storers and appliers must be able to provide concrete answers in response to
questions and concerns. Before a community can be involved, it must be
informed and invited to participate. The basic communications elements that
should be implemented prior to the initiation of any biosolids storage activities,
especially long-term constructed facilities, are as follows:
1. At the inception of the project, arrange to brief local officials and staff (i.e.
county supervisors, planning and zoning staff, Extension Service and soil
conservation district staff) one-to-one on your plans. Solicit their input on
suitable sites and potential local concerns.
2. Inform adjacent property owners and the local community particularly for
constructed facilities. This may be accomplished through informal contacts
and/or as part of formal notices and meetings or hearings associated with
state or local permitting requirements.
3. Look for ways to adapt your project to accommodate legitimate local
concerns. Be prepared to address the pros and cons of the project and
hand out fact sheets answering the most frequently asked questions. Invite
local officials and concerned citizens to tour existing field stockpiles or
constructed facilities.
4. Develop a plan to promptly and effectively address public questions or
complaints on an ongoing basis once the site is in operation. Be sure
people know how to get in touch with you and maintain open channels of
communication and feedback throughout the life of the project.
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Audience Assessment
Managers of biosolids projects should consider that the "public" is not one
homogenous group. Community relations efforts will be more effective if
education and outreach efforts are targeted and tailored to address the
particular concerns and interests of specific groups within the community. Key
subgroups frequently involved in siting and operation of field storage areas are:
Elected Officials/Local Government Agencies
These individuals and organizations may have a regulatory role in the siting
and development of storage facilities. They may have a role in selecting
biosolids management options for their community. Elected officials in particular
will want to ensure that the concerns of their constituencies are addressed.
Citizens Groups
Established organizations in the community (e.g., Rotary Clubs, the Chamber
of Commerce, League of Women Voters) as well as ad-hoc groups established
in response to the proposed project may be interested in storage projects. Their
concerns may focus on the potential impacts of the biosolids activity on the
immediate community, and include a wide range of topics (e.g., economic
development, property values, agricultural and open space preservation, traffic
impacts, aesthetics and health and environmental protection).
Agricultural Organizations
Organizations such as the Farm Bureau, USDA Cooperative Extension
Service, Natural Resources Conservation Service and local Soil Conservation
districts frequently take an interest in biosolids storage and land application
programs from the perspective of providing economic benefits to farmers and
landowners, and ensuring long-term protection and improvement of soil and
water resources. In addition, organizations such as local conservation districts
are excellent sources of technical information to assist in appropriate site
selection and project development. Their participation in the project will help
assure that local concerns are addressed.
Environmental Organizations
National environmental groups with local chapters and groups dedicated to
local and regional environmental issues may take an interest in biosolids
storage and use projects. Their focus may be related to water quality,
environmental protection and improvement; recycling, or land use and
development issues.
Local Media
Local media includes newspapers, television and radio stations that generally
focus on public discussion on such issues.
Biosolids Users
Members of the local community who have personal experience using or
storing biosolids on their properties should be requested to share their
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perspectives on the pros and cons involved. Generally people who are known
and respected in the community are a key source of information.
Employees
Employees (contracting agency and biosolids land applier/storer), particularly
those that reside in the local community, are also a valuable part of community
relations efforts. Employees should be briefed on the project. They can share
information on the project through their informal contacts in the community,
help ensure that public inquiries are promptly referred to the appropriate
individual in the organization, or serve as representatives to area-wide planning
groups, technical advisory committees or other community organizations.
Working successfully with diverse community groups may take special
communication and mediation knowledge, training and experience. Assistance
from a public relations professional may be needed.
Educational Tools
Once various audiences and issues are identified, there are a number of
mechanisms that can be used to effectively disseminate educational materials
and open lines of communication and participation. The following is a list of the
most commonly used methods and pointers for using them effectively:
One to One meetings
The most effective community relations tool is usually one-to-one personal
contacts. Identifying key individuals in the community and spending the time to
meet with them personally is the best way to disseminate information, gain
credibility and ensure that local concerns are identified and addressed.
News and media coverage
Publish meeting dates, times and locations. Invite the press to public meetings,
tours or field days. Provide briefing packages on the project and contacts.
Provide interviews or issue news releases.
Newsletters
Broad circulation of educational information can be achieved by contacting
local organizations and asking them to feature an article you have prepared
concerning the proposed biosolids project (e.g., agricultural extension service,
chamber of commerce, environmental groups).
Fact Sheets/Displays
Develop fact sheets and displays for use at public meetings, libraries, and local
events.
Public Meetings/Hearings
Offer to make presentations about biosolids at meetings of various groups. If
public interest or regulatory requirements mandate it, conduct public meetings
or hearings specifically concerning the proposed storage project.
74 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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CHAPTER 6 - COMMUNITY RELATIONS
Presentations to Schools/Youth Activities
Presentations to schools directly increase students' level
of knowledge, and may result in second hand education of
parents as well. Sponsoring student activities is a gesture
of community support, and may provide another venue for
disseminating project information to the public.
Tours/Field Days
Participate in local agricultural field days through on-site demonstrations,
presentations, or exhibits. Organize educational tours of biosolids storage and
land application sites for specific groups (e.g., local reporters, elected officials,
community or environmental organizations).
Community Advisory Committees
Assemble a community or technical advisory committee. This type of
community involvement is generally limited
to situations involving permanent constructed
storage facilities. Frequently such
committees will be formed at the request of
the local government. Committees of this
nature take a more active role in the planning
and design or storage facilities, management and operational plans and project
oversight.
Program Evaluation
The success or effectiveness of a community relations program can be
evaluated based on some of the following:
Requests for information
The tone of news articles and media coverage
Endorsement from various organizations
Absence of organized opposition to the facility and the continued operation
of storage and land application activities.
It is important that once a program is through the initial planning stages, that
on-going contact and communication is maintained in order to obtain regular
feedback and address any local issues that arise promptly and effectively.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
75
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CHAPTER 7 - BIOSOLIDS-DERIVED BY-PRODUCTS AND OTHER ORGANIC MATERIALS
Chapter 7
Biosolids-Derived By-Products and Other
Organic Materials
Introduction
The management practices recommended in this biosolids field storage
guidance document are also generally applicable to storage of other types of
non-hazardous organic residuals that are suitable for recycling and beneficial
use as a fertilizer or soil conditioner. These materials may be used for
agricultural, horticultural, reclamation, landscaping or landfill cover purposes.
Storage is frequently desirable for these products due to seasonal markets for
some materials (e.g., compost or topsoil), crop cycles, and weather restraints
on land application programs. Organic residuals may be generated through
industrial or agricultural processes and include biosolids-derived products that
serve as topsoil. Examples of these materials are provided below. A more
extensive list of organic materials is provided in Appendix E.
Other Organic By-Products
Biosolids blended topsoil
Yardwaste (leaves, grass clippings, woodchips)
Food processing residuals (fruit and vegetable peelings, pulp, pits)
Meat, seafood, poultry and dairy processing wastewater and solids
Hatchery wastes
Animal manure and bedding
Waste grain, silage
Spent mushroom substrate
Wood ash
Pharmaceutical and brewery waste
Pulp and paper mill residues
Mixed refuse (food scraps, paper etc.)
Textile residuals
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
77
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CHAPTER 7 - BIOSOLIDS-DERIVED BY-PRODUCTS AND OTHER ORGANIC MATERIALS
Storage Considerations
Some organic residuals are unmodified (e.g., vegetable peelings, wood ash,
etc.), others are generated through wastewater treatment processes
(slaughterhouse wastes), or undergo composting, blending, or other treatment
methods. The physical consistency of these residual materials, may be either
liquid, semi-solid/dewatered, or dry.
As with biosolids, locating suitable sites, and the development and
implementation of practices to deal with storage and handling of these
materials will benefit from considering the Critical Control Points approach
described in Chapter 1 to address odors, water quality, pathogens, field
management practices and community relations. Depending on the material in
question, some of these issues may be more significant than others. To
determine which combination of management practices, handling techniques,
and storage options is most suitable, the following specific product
characteristics should be evaluated:
Physical consistency and water content
Biological Stability
Pathogen Potential
Odor Characteristics
Vector Attraction
Nutrient and BOD Content
Fats and Oils
Dust Potential
Combustibility
Consistency and predictability of product
Physical consistency and water content
The physical consistency and solids content of the material, whether liquid,
semisolid, or dewatered or dried, is essential for evaluating the suitability of the
material for various types of storage options and is essential for planning
storage capacities. Generally, materials with solids contents less than 12
percent are not appropriate for field stockpiles because the material is too wet
to hold shape and will slump and flow. Storage of these materials is best
accomplished in lagoons, tanks, or basins. However, dried, composted,
dewatered materials may be suitable for either field stockpiles or constructed
storage facilities.
The percent solids in liquid and semisolid materials may change over time due
to precipitation or evaporative losses. Solids may also settle during storage.
Depending on the degree of liquid/solids separation and the amount of
recirculation possible to resuspend solids prior to removal, it may be necessary
to retest nitrogen and percent solids to determine appropriate application rates.
78
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CHAPTER 7 - BIOSOLIDS-DERIVED BY-PRODUCTS AND OTHER ORGANIC MATERIALS
Biological Stability
Some organic residuals contain organic constituents that are easily digestible
(decomposable) by microorganisms and others do not. Materials not
biologically stabilized through composting or other treatments (Table 2.1), will
require a higher level of management during storage to prevent the
development of unacceptable odors or attraction of flies or other nuisance
vectors. Other organic residuals, that are not easily digestible, present minimal
potential for the generation of nuisance odors. In some cases, storage also
allows blended ingredients to react further with each other (as in curing or
aging phase with compost) and this produces a more stable material with less
odor potential when it is ultimately land applied.
Consideration of the biological stability of the material to be stored is a key
factor in siting decisions (such as suitable buffers) and in selection of
appropriate storage methods and management practices. Explaining how the
operations methods and practices are suited to deal with the type of biosolids
and its degrees of biological stability is an additional and important way to gain
community acceptance.
Pathogen Potential
Certain organic residuals (such as poultry processing wastes or animal
manures) may contain pathogens at levels similar to or higher than the limits
established for Class B biosolids. These materials can have a potentially
negative impact on human or animal health if they are not properly managed.
In some instances, these materials may be disinfected or stabilized prior to
storage, or the storage period itself can provide time for pathogen die off. If the
material is a biosolids blend that must meet Class A standards, testing for
pathogens as per the Part 503 regulations testing will be necessary.
Odor Characteristics
Offensive odors in most organic residuals are generated during microbial
decomposition of the organic matter constituents. In some instances, a
material contains residual levels of compounds that are inherently odorous but
do not result from biological decomposition. The potential for release of
unacceptable levels of odorous compounds is most likely when materials are
agitated, mixed, or moved. Stabilization processes (Table 2.1) used to control
pathogens generally also help reduce potential odor levels. Other methods or
management practices for odor management include: moisture reduction,
maintenance of aerobic conditions, pH adjustment, enclosed handling and
storage, cold weather storage, minimization of storage duration during hot
humid weather, and keeping dried materials dry in the field. A useful technique
to reduce odor from stored materials is to cover them with compost or sawdust.
Field storage of highly odorous materials may require either remote sites or
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 79
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CHAPTER 7 - BIOSOLIDS-DERIVED BY-PRODUCTS AND OTHER ORGANIC MATERIALS
enclosed handling systems (e.g. tanks and subsurface injection applicators).
Depending on the stability of the product and storage conditions, the potential
for off-site odor may increase the longer (months or more) the material is stored
and the greater the volume of stored material.
Vector Attraction
Organic residuals such as food processing wastes and animal manures, or
other unstabilized materials may be attractive to flies or vermin, which can
create nuisance conditions or, with certain materials, are a potential pathway for
pathogen transmission. To foster community acceptance, materials must be
managed in a manner that controls vectors and prevents off-site nuisances.
Nutrient and BOD Content
The nitrogen content and its form in organic residuals depends on the type of
material, handling and storage methods, and the length of storage. Materials
with high ammonia levels can easily lose this nutrient through volatilization.
Appropriate handling and storage options can reduce odor potential and
conserve this plant nutrient.
High biological oxygen demand (BOD) reflects the readily degradable organic
matter in the material. Many untreated organic residuals, particularly those
containing oils and greases, have a high BOD. This means that the material is
subject to microbial decomposition and possibly to anaerobic conditions that
may generate odors during storage. Materials with higher nutrient levels and
BOD also have a greater potential to impact water quality if they escape to
waterways.
The longer organic materials are stored, the greater the potential for the nutrient
content, total solids, and salt content or pH to change. With some materials,
testing for these parameters before removal may be advisable to properly
calculate land application rates.
Fats and Oils
Materials that contain significant amounts of fats and oil (e.g. meat processing
wastes, grease trap wastes) can be highly odorous. Significant management is
required to prevent unacceptable odor levels at storage sites. Remote site
locations for open-air storage may be sufficient in some cases, but in many
localities, enclosed handling using pumps, hoses and tanks may be necessary
to control odors. Fats and oils also contribute to high BOD. These materials
may also present handling challenges caused by clogging or gumming up of
equipment.
Dust Potential
Dried residuals such as composts and wood ash may generate dust during dry
windy conditions. The potential of a material to create dust should be kept in
80 Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
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CHAPTER 7 - BIOSOLIDS-DERIVED BY-PRODUCTS AND OTHER ORGANIC MATERIALS
mind during site selection and these materials must be managed to alleviate
off-site nuisance conditions.
Combustibility
Immature composts, wood chips and yard waste, poultry litter, biosolids blends,
or heat dried materials may be combustible and/or, under certain conditions,
undergo self-heating and spontaneous combustion from the heat generated by
microbial decomposition. Wetting of dry material or confined storage, which
traps heat, may exacerbate these conditions. Management plans should be
developed to prevent this occurrence and contingency plans should be in place
to respond appropriately if self-heating occurs.
Consistency/Predictability of Product Over Time
Consistency of the product's characteristics over time and the volume or amount
produced over the course of a year should be considered. Certain facilities may
produce greater quantities of an organic residual at certain times of the year
(e.g., yardwaste) or the product characteristics may change over the course of a
year (e.g. vegetable wastes at a cannery change as different crops are
harvested and processed). The variability of a material in terms of volume or
product characteristics may require increased flexibility in management and
closer coordination of the storage and land application components.
Regulatory Considerations
Federal and state regulations governing organic residuals vary with the type or
origin of the material, so the applicable laws for any given material must be
investigated (see Appendix F for a list of state agency contacts). The land
application of certain organic residuals is regulated under 40 CFR 257 "Criteria
for Classification of Solid Waste Disposal Facilities and Practices" under the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. However, theses criteria do not
apply to agricultural wastes, including manures and crop residues. The Federal
Part 257 regulations do not address storage issues specifically, but this
regulation does include provisions regarding general management of these
materials. For instance, residuals management practices conducted in
floodplains may not restrict the flow of the base flood, reduce temporary water
storage capacity of the floodplain, or result in washout of solid waste, so as to
pose a hazard to human life, wildlife, or land or water resources. Likewise,
practices may not: impact threatened or endangered species or habitat; be
either a direct discharge or a nonpoint source of pollutants; or contaminate
underground drinking water sources. In addition, Part 257 requires control of
on-site populations of disease vectors.
From state to state, the degree of regulation governing the handling,
transportation, storage, and beneficial use of organic residual materials varies
widely. Some states require permits for land application or storage of these
materials, similar to those for biosolids. Other states do not have
comprehensive regulations or permitting requirements for all, or some types of,
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 81
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CHAPTER 7 - BIOSOLIDS-DERIVED BY-PRODUCTS AND OTHER ORGANIC MATERIALS
these materials. Therefore, it is important that residual managers investigate
the regulations thoroughly prior to initiating a storage and land application
program. In addition, if a constructed storage facility is proposed, local zoning
and building permit requirements will need to be investigated.
References
Brandt, R. C. and K. S. Martin. 1994, The Food Processing Residual
Management Manual Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources,
Harrisburg, PA. Pub. No. 2500-BK-DER-1649.
82 Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
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APPENDIX A - ODOR CHARACTERIZATION, ASSESSMENT AND SAMPLING
Appendix A
Odor Characterization, Assessment and
Sampling
Odor Characteristics
Odors are characterized and measured r£ C* / by their
psycho-sensory, social, and somatic I V^ x^ I impacts as
well as by their physical-chemical ( f / \ \ properties.
Sensory Characterization
Sensory evaluation of odors involves description of the odor character as well
as measurement of odor intensity, pervasiveness, and quantity. Character of
an odor is a word description of what it smells like, e.g., rotten cabbage, rose,
cinnamon. The character of an odor and its desirability (good, bad, or neutral)
influences its acceptability when perceived.
Intensity is a measure of the perceived strength of an odor. This is determined
by comparing the odorous sample with a "standard" odor, often various
concentrations of n-butanol in odor-free air. Intensity is expressed in terms of
micrograms per liter of butanol (|jg/l) in liquid, milligram per cu. meter (mg/cu.
m) in air, or ppm butanol. Intensity is also used to calculate pervasiveness.
Pervasiveness (persistence) describes how noticeable or detectable an
odorant is as it's concentration changes. A pervasive odor is one that can be
perceived by people even though the odor has been diluted many times.
Pervasiveness of an odor is determined by serially diluting the odorant-
containing sample and measuring the intensity at each dilution. When the
results are plotted on log-log paper, an intensity slope is established. A flat
slope (e.g., 0.2) would reflect a very pervasive odor because the odor can still
be detected after millions of dilutions. Conversely, a steeper slope (e.g., 0.5)
would reflect a much less pervasive odor, or one that would not be detectable
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids 83
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APPENDIX A - ODOR CHARACTERIZATION, ASSESSMENT AND SAMPLING
after only a few hundred dilutions. Organic sulfur-containing compounds, e.g.,
dimethyl disulfide, can often be described as pervasive because the odor may
be detected off-site where it is present at very low concentration. The fact that
it is not smelled on-site even though it is present at higher concentrations than
it is off-site, can be explained by the masking effects of ammonia. The latter
typically would have such an intense odor close to the source, that other co-
occurring odorants would not be perceived.
Quantity of odor, as measured on a sensory response scale (i.e., based on
odor detection), is expressed in terms of how many dilutions it takes before it is
no longer detectable, although the exact character of the odor may not be
discernible. This is often expressed as dilutions to threshold or odor units.
If the quantity is expressed in parts per million (ppm) or billion (ppb) or in moles
or micrograms per cubic meter of specific chemical compound, then the
determination is no longer sensory, rather, the value represents the physical,
chemical amount of an odorant (explained in greater detail in this appendix).
Odor Assessment
Effective management of odorous emissions requires a systematic method for
odor assessment and sampling. This can involve a perceptual response
method, an analytical instrument approach, or a process that uses elements of
both approaches. Regardless of how specific odorants are determined
(chemically or perceptually), managing odorous emissions and alleviating odor
nuisance remains the desired end result of odor evaluations and assessments.
Field Practice Options
Several approaches available for field assessments of odor include:
1. pro-active use of on-site and community odor surveys by site or facility
operator and staff (see the Springfield odor survey forms at the end of this
appendix)
2. use of portable sensory instruments by trained odor inspectors (see the St.
Croix sensory example performance standard procedure at the end of this
appendix)
3. application of public nuisance criteria
4. evaluation of odor samples by an odor panel
5. use of an annoyance survey coupled with quantitative chemical analysis of
odorous air samples in a potentially impacted community
84 Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
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APPENDIX A - ODOR CHARACTERIZATION, ASSESSMENT AND SAMPLING
6. establishment of quantitative standards for known odorous compounds
coupled with regular air sampling and chemical analysis
Although several of these approaches (1,2,4) use measurement and
evaluation, they may fail to provide accurate assessments for several reasons.
First, the concentration of the offending compound(s) may be below current
standards. Second, there may not be standards for them, or, third, in the case
of the odor panel, responses may not correspond to the evaluations of people
in the affected community. For these reasons, odor or annoyance surveys
(approach 5) may assist operators, communities, and regulators in fairly
determining and evaluating odor problems and effectiveness of abatement
actions.
The use of odor or annoyance surveys, especially in combination with air
sampling (approach 6), can help objectively determine the presence or
absence of nuisance odors in a community. This approach differs significantly
from the three typical approaches used by regulatory agencies to deal with
odor problems. In addition to collection of air samples for odorous compounds
in an affected community (such as described below), an odor or annoyance
assessment might include a scientifically designed public opinion survey, which
draws opinions from randomly selected individuals in the community. To keep
the odor component of a community survey unbiased relative to other
community annoyances and environmental impacts, the survey may also
include questions about other environmental factors such as noise, traffic, stray
or wild animals, and other community characteristics.
Physical-Chemical
Both organic and inorganic compounds have been identified as odorous
constituents of wastewater, solids, and biosolids. Compounds typically of
concern can be formed during aerobic or anaerobic decomposition of proteins
and carbohydrates that are abundant in wastewater and biosolids. Table A-2
lists common odorous compounds associated with biosolids. Many of these
compounds are intense (see discussion below) and have odor thresholds in the
parts per billion (ppb) concentration ranges. Odor threshold is the minimum
concentration required for an individual to perceive the odorant. The main
odorants emitted from biosolids include:
Ammonia. Ammonia is most often found in emissions from freshly alkaline
stabilized materials and during early phase composting. Table A-1 shows the
considerably greater odor threshold for ammonia than for reduced sulfur
compounds. At least 100 to 1000 times more ammonia than reduced sulfur
compound is needed per unit volume of air for an average person to detect it,
even with the variation in reported odor thresholds.
Ammonia also has an important special characteristic that field site operators
need to recognize. At high concentrations, it is so intense that it strongly
masks odors from other compounds, such as those containing reduced sulfur
groups. Thus, a misleading assessment report indicating no potential for off-
site odor, could result if only ammonia were detected directly at the field
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
85
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APPENDIX A - ODOR CHARACTERIZATION, ASSESSMENT AND SAMPLING
storage site. In fact, reduced sulfur compounds also might be present, but not
detectable, because of ammonia masking. However, as the air 'parcel'
containing both types of compounds moves downwind, beyond the
storage/application site perimeter, ammonia could be diluted below its detection
threshold. In contrast, the reduced sulfur compounds, although also diluted
below their on-site concentrations, may still be concentrated enough to remain
above their detection thresholds. For this reason, odor assessments at field
storage sites should include some monitoring for off-site reduced sulfur or
amine odors.
Ammonia that is emitted comes from anaerobic bacterial digestion of proteins
found in the stored materials. As the pH of the materials increases above 8.0,
more ammonia is released. Ammonia is often accompanied by release of
amines, and if chlorine is used, chloramines may be released as well.
Inorganic sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide
(H2S) often gets the most attention because of the familiar rotten egg odor
associated with it. However, it is rarely detected in field stockpiles. Often other
compounds or combinations of compounds listed in Table A-2 are the primary
cause of odor in biosolids. When pH is less than 9.0, hydrogen sulfide can be
generated from wastewater solids under anaerobic conditions. Increasing the
pH to 9.0 or higher, as happens when biosolids are lime stabilized, can
eliminate H2S emissions.
Organic sulfur compounds. Dimethyl disulfide (DMDS) and dimethyl
sulfide have been associated with odorous emissions from biosolids
composting operations. Also, it has been measured at wastewater solids and
dewatering facilities, pelletizing facilities, and digester gas. In general, DMDS
is a by-product of chemical or microbial degradation (anaerobic) of proteins.
Mercaptans or thiols are a generic class of straight-chained organic
compounds that contain a single sulfur molecule. Methyl mercaptan is the
most common thiol measured in biosolids emissions. Table A-2 shows methyl
mercaptan has a low odor detection threshold, i.e., quite small amounts are
easily detectable. Thus, its presence can lead to odor complaints. Two methyl
mercaptan molecules combine to form one DMDS molecule. Active ingredients
of garlic (allyl sulfide) and onions (propanethiol) have precursors that are
similar to mercaptans; spoiled broccoli also produces mercaptans and DMDS.
The boiling point of methyl mercaptan is 6°C, which makes it a gas at room
temperature. Therefore, measurement techniques that use tedlar bags are
acceptable.
Volatile fatty acids (VFAs). These short chain (< C8) fatty acids have the
general formula CnH2n +COOH and are typically generated during anaerobic
decomposition of vegetable materials, such as hay, straw, grass, leaves,
silage, etc. VFAs include: formic, acetic, propionic and lactic, butyric and iso-
butyric, valeric, and iso-valeric, caproic and iso-caproic, and heptanoic acids.
VFAs are volatile and are subject to rapid microbial decomposition under
aerobic conditions. Production of phytotoxic quantities of VFAs during
composting (prior to compost maturation) are know to occur. The VFAs are
86 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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APPENDIX A - ODOR CHARACTERIZATION, ASSESSMENT AND SAMPLING
most likely to be involved in odorous emissions when vegetative matter is
present, such as occurs in the first stages of a composting operation when
grass and green matter are delivered and sorted. They are unlikely to occur
with biosolids alone.
Amines. These compounds can be produced in easily detectable quantities
during high temperature processes. In composting, amines result from
microbial decomposition that involves decarboxylation of amino acids. The
amines that are produced are easily volatilized when temperatures are elevated
above about 27°C. In biosolids produced with polymeric flocculating agents,
high ambient temperatures can accentuate volatilization of amines that may be
microbially split off from the core backbone of the polymer. Amines include:
methylamine, ethylamine, trimethylamine, and diethylamine. Amines often
accompany ammonia emissions, and if chlorine is used chloramines may be
released.
Table A-l. Range of Odor Thresholds for Selected Sulfur Compounds, Ammonia, and
Trimethylamine as reported in the literature f
COMPOUND
Hydrogen Sulfide
Dimethyl Sulfide
Dimethyl Disulfide
Methyl mercaptan
Ammonia
Trimethylamine
ODOR
CHARACTER
Rotten eggs
Decayed cabbage
Vegetable sulfide
Sulfidy
Pungent, irritating
Fishy, pungent
A
Mg/1
0.47
0.10
-
1.10
-
-
B
Mg/1
0.47
1.00
1.00
1.10
37.0
-
C
Aig/1
4.70
3.00
-
0.50
470
-
D
Mg/1
0.5 - 10.0
2.5 - 50.8
0.1 - 346.5
4.0 X 105 -82
26.6 -39,600
0.8
E
Aig/1
4.8
1.00
-
2.10
46,800
0.21
F
Mg/1
0.50
1.00
-
0.50
17,000
-
G Mg/1
8.1
-
-
1.6
5,200
0.2
f Letters correspond to the references cited as follows: A = Bowker et al. 1989; B=Versucheren, 1996; C=National
Research Council, 1979; D=Ruth, 1986; E=Leonardos et al., 1969; F=Buonicore and Davis, 1992; G= Amoore and
Hautala, 1983.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
87
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APPENDIX A - ODOR CHARACTERIZATION, ASSESSMENT AND SAMPLING
TableA-2. Selected odorous compounds observed in association with manure, compost, sewage sludge
and biosolids as reported in the literature with corresponding ranges of odor threshold values ft
Compound
Odor Character
Odor Threshold
/1 (//g/1)
Nitrogenous compounds
Ammonia
Butylamine
Dibutylamine
Diisopropylamine
Dimethylamine
Ethylamine
Methylamine
Triethylamine
Trimethylamine
Nitrogenous Heterocyclics
Indole
Skatole
Pyridine
Sulfur-containing compounds
Dimethyl sulfide
Diphenyl sulfide
Dimethyl disulfide
Hydrogen sulfide
Sulfur dioxide
Amyl mercaptan
Allyl mercaptan
Benzyl mercaptan
Crotyl mercaptan
Ethyl mercaptan
Methyl mercaptan
Propyl mercaptan
n-butyl mercaptan
Thiocresol
Thiophenol
Other chemicals or compounds
m-Cresol
n-butyl alcohol
Chlorine
Acetaldehyde
Sharp pungent
Sour, ammonia-like
Fishy
Fishy
Putrid, fishy
Ammonical
Putrid, fish
Ammonical, fishy
Ammonical, fishy
Fecal, nauseating
Fecal, nauseating
Disagreeable,burnt
pungent
Decayed vegetables
Unpleasant
Vegetable sulfide
Rotten eggs
Pungent, irritating
Unpleasant, putrid
Strong garlic, coffee
Unpleasant, strong
Skunk-like
Decayed cabbage
Decayed cabbage, sulfidy
Unpleasant
Skunk, unpleasant
Skunk, rancid
Putrid, garlic-like
Tar-like, pungent
Alcohol
Pungent, suffocating
Pungent fruity
5.2 } (150)
1.8 } (6200)
(0.016)1
1.8} (1300)
0.13 (470)
0.95 } (4300)
3.2} (2400)
0.48J (0.42)
0.00044 }
(0.00012-0.0015)1
(0.00035-0.0012)1
0.17} (0.95)
(0.0003-0.016)1
(0.0026) |
(l.OO)t
8.1} (0.000029)
1.1} (0.11)
(0.0003)1
(0.000005)1
(0.013)f
(0.00000043)1
0.00076J (0.0000075)
0.0016 } (0.000024)
0.0000025 - 0.000075
0.00097 (0.000012)
(O.OOOl)t
(0.00014)1
0.000049-0.0079 (37)
0.84J
0.31} (0.0020)
0.050 t (0.034)
f O'Neill and Phillips, 1992; Vesilind et al., 1986; converted from weight by volume concentration (mg/m3) to ^g/1
{ Amoore and Hautala, 1983; jAI\ is the odor threshold for dilutions in odor-free air, and ,wg/l is the odor threshhold;
both units are equivalent to parts per million.
88
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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APPENDIX A - ODOR CHARACTERIZATION, ASSESSMENT AND SAMPLING
Odor Determination
Odor Sample Collection
The need for odor sample collection is most likely to occur in the case of a
longer term, constructed storage facility that has been unable to resolve odor
emissions. In such a case, the facility operators may seek a more analytical
approach upon which to base a remediation program. The proper collection of
an air sample containing odorous compounds is essential for accurate analysis
of the source of the odor. This is true for both qualitative and quantitative
methods of odor analysis. The composition of an odor can range from a single
chemical compound to a complex mixture of compounds. The components of
the odor will often dictate the method of sampling. Therefore, insight as to
which compounds or type of compounds may be contributing to the odor is
desirable. Without this, a sampling method that can handle a broad range of
compounds would be necessary. After identifying the type or group of odorants
present, an appropriate sampling method can be used.
Several aspects should be considered when choosing an appropriate sampling
method. The physical and chemical properties of the odorant will often
determine which sampling method is desirable. Some of these properties are
the polarity, volatility, and stability of the chemical compounds associated with
the odor. To analyze the sample accurately, the composition of the odorant(s)
must remain intact during sample collection. Condensation, adsorption, or
permeation of the odorous compounds through the walls of the collection
system can cause errors. For example, the boiling point of DMDS is 109°C,
which means it is a liquid at ambient temperature. This physical property
greatly influences DMDS emissions and measurement: elevated temperatures
will dramatically increase DMDS emissions. When measuring DMDS and other
compounds with high boiling points, it is important not to use sampling
techniques that allow the sample to cool before it enters the analytical detector.
Otherwise, these compounds will condense on the interior of the sample
container, such as tedlar bags, and results will be negatively biased.
There are two main types of sources that are the focus of air sampling, area
sources (such as from a pile) and point sources (such as from a stack); point
sources can be more reliably sampled than area sources. At a biosolids
storage site and its surrounding neighborhoods, ambient (outdoor) air would
typically be the source for sample collection. The odors may still be intense
(strong) even though the odorants are less concentrated at increasing
distances from the facility. If scrubbers are used, stack emission samples are
collected in the stack after scrubbers.
Odor samples can be collected in canisters, Tedlar bags, flux chambers, and
adsorbent tubes. Adsorption tubes filled with Tenax packing and/or activated
carbon are the most common types of traps used for ambient air sampling.
Industrial hygienists often utilize specific adsorbent tubes for on-site analysis of
specific individual compounds like ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, etc.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 89
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APPENDIX A - ODOR CHARACTERIZATION, ASSESSMENT AND SAMPLING
Sample Analysis
The ability to detect, identify, and quantify odorants in biosolids and other
stored materials is an essential tool in the study of odors and in the
development of prevention and mitigation treatments. If there is some
correlation between the concentration of odorants found by an analytical
method and the odor itself, then this tool is most useful. Since some odorants
have low odor thresholds, the detection limit of an analytical method must be
low or the odorants must be concentrated prior to analysis. The odorants and
their concentrations in a sample will influence the choice of a method of
analysis. The sampling approaches described below cover the range of simple,
rapid, field methods for easy practical use through to the very complex
instrumentally dependent methods, requiring laboratory analysis.
Sensory Odor Analysis
Characterizing the sensation experienced by inhaling an odorous sample is the
object of a sensory odor measurement program. The human body experiences
sensations, processes them, and then reacts. The olfactory system senses
odor. Sensory analysis is most effective for samples containing complex
mixtures of odorants or odorants at concentration levels below detection of an
instrumental technique. It also produces simple, useful results that are
meaningful to all concerned. Standardized testing protocols are now available
for measuring odor intensity (ASTM E 544-75-88) and odor to threshold ratio
(ASTM E679-91).
Odor Character Descriptors - In addition to the intensity of an odor, what an
odor smells like is a big factor in determining whether it is objectionable. What
an odor smells like is called the odor character and can be described through
the use of various descriptors-words or phrases that most accurately represent
the quality of the particular odor of concern. Each panelist is asked to describe
the odor that was sensed. The problem with odor descriptors like "sweet,"
"musty," "sour," "putrid," "rotten," etc. is that different individuals may use a
variety of words or phrases to describe the same odor. Even using what is
called a "Hedonic Scale," which provides the panelist with a numbered scale or
one with odor descriptors already provided, does not eliminate the human
factor and the subjective nature of odor relative to its effect on different
individuals.
Trained Odor Investigators - An extension of the use of simple odor descriptors
is the odor patrol which utilizes trained odor investigators-people who have
been trained to detect odor intensities. These people have "calibrated" their
noses to certain odor intensities. They are trained to go "on site" and rate the
odor intensity on a numeric scale, (see Chapter 2 for examples). Some
examples of the types of written reports used for record keeping on-site and for
citizen odor complaints appear at the end of this Appendix.
Scentometer - For direct field measurement of dilution-to-threshold, this
hand-held device is sometimes used. Varying proportions of ambient (odorous)
90
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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APPENDIX A - ODOR CHARACTERIZATION, ASSESSMENT AND SAMPLING
air, drawn through a activated carbon filter, are introduced to an individual's
nose. The ratio of ambient air to filtered air at which the individual detects an
odor becomes the dilution-to-threshold. Odor inspectors using this method
require training and experience so they can develop confidence in its
application. This device has been used successfully by some inspectors in a
few states.
Olfactometry - An olfactometer with an odor panel is another way to conduct a
sensory analysis of odorous air samples. An olfactometer is an apparatus that
presents an air sample containing the odorous component to an individual at
varying dilutions with odor-free air. The object is to determine what level of
dilution is necessary for each panelist to begin to detect an odor. From a series
of these exposures, results for the odor panel can be calculated. These results
can be expressed in the form of an odor to threshold ratio, or dilution level
required for a percentage of the panel to detect the odor.
The Butanol Wheel - The intensity of an odor is also an important parameter
when measuring odors. However, since the characteristic odors of various
compounds are so different, it is difficult for individuals to compare the relative
strengths or intensities of different odors. This can be overcome by using a
reference compound to which the odor strengths can be compared. In this
way, odors can be analyzed so that individuals not subjected to the actual
odors can understand the results. The reference compound that is most widely
used is n-butanol. A Butanol Wheel (2 - Procedure A) is used to measure the
intensity (strength) of an odor by this comparative method.
The Butanol Wheel is similar to the olfactometer because it delivers the
odorous compound and dilution air into ports to make different dilutions. The
odorous compound in this case is the butanol vapor. The intensity of an
odorous sample is measured by determining at what dilution level of the
Butanol Wheel the sample matches the strength of the butanol vapor. An odor
panel (group of people, each one exposed to the odor sample and butanol
reference independently) is used to make the comparisons. By calculating the
dilution of n-butanol vapor to which the odorous sample is equivalent, it is
possible to express the intensity of the unknown odor in terms of a known
intensity.
One of the principal differences between the forced-choice ascending
concentration and the butanol wheel methods is that in the latter the odorous
sample is tested at full strength against a series of diluted standards, whereas
in the olfactometer method, the odorous sample itself is diluted as it is being
evaluated. This difference results in assessment of odor intensity as well as
dilution threshold ratio, two different sensory characteristics of the odor. This
makes these two sensory test methods complementary to each other.
Chemical Analyzers and Instruments
There are many instruments and methods that can accurately measure
odorous compound concentrations. One that combines sampling and analysis
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids 91
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APPENDIX A - ODOR CHARACTERIZATION, ASSESSMENT AND SAMPLING
is a hand-held reactive absorbent tube, which is available for ammonia,
hydrogen sulfide, and several other compounds of concern to industrial
hygienists. There are single compound analyzers, such as a hydrogen sulfide
(H2S) meter, that measures one analyte. Multiple compound analyzers, like a
gas chromatograph (GC), can measure more than one analyte. There are
specific detectors for a GC that are sensitive to certain types of compounds. If
these types of compounds are unknown or their mixture is complicated, then a
mass spectrometer detector and an electronic library of compounds is
necessary. The latter is an expensive and sophisticated analytical approach
and one that is usually reserved for a research setting, not typically routine
monitoring.
References
ASTM. 1968. Basic principles of sensory evaluation. ASTM Special Technical
Publ., No. 433. Amer. Soc. For Testing and Materials. Philadelphia, PA.
ASTM. 1989. Standard recommended practices for referencing supra-
threshold odor intensity. £544-75(88). Annual Book of Standards, Vol. 11.5.
Amer. Soc. For Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.
ASTM. 1991. Standard practice for determination of odor and taste thresholds
by a forced-choice ascending concentration series methods of limits. E679-91.
1991. Annual Book of Standards, Vol. 11.5. Amer. Soc. For Testing and
Materials. 5 p.
Barnebey & Sutcliffe Corporation. 1974. Scentometer: An Instrument for
Field Odor Measurement. Columbus, OH
Borgatti, D., G.A. Romano, T.J. Rabbitt, and T.J. Acquaro. 1997. The 1996
Odor Control Program for the Springfield Regional WWTP. New England WEA
Annual Conf., 26-29 January 1997, Boston, MA.
Bowker, R.P.G., J.M. Smith, and N.A. Webster. 1989. Odor and corrosion
control in sanitary sewerage systems and treatment plants. Noyes Data Corp.,
Park Ridge, N.J., U.S.A.
Bruvold, W.H., S.M. Rappaport,T.C. Wu, B.E. Bulmer, C.E. DeGrange, and
J.M. Kooler. 1983. Determination of nuisance odor in a community. J. Water
Pollut. Control Fed. 53:229-233.
Bruvold, W.H. Laboratory panel estimation of consumer assessments of taste
and flavor. J. Appl. Psychol. 54: 326
Buonicore, A.J. and W.T. Davis (eds.). 1992. Air pollution engineering
manual. Air & Waste Management Association. Van Nostrand Reinhold, NY.
Dravnieks, A. 1985. Atlas of odor Character Profiles, sponsored by Section E-
18.04.12 on Odor Profiling of Subcommittee E-18.04 on Instrumental-Sensory
92 Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
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APPENDIX A - ODOR CHARACTERIZATION, ASSESSMENT AND SAMPLING
Relationships, ASTM Committee E-18 on Sensory Evaluation of Materials and
Products. Philadelphia, PA.
Hentz, L. H. 1997. The Chemical, Biological and Physical Origins of Biosolids
Emissions: A Review, Post, Buckley, Schuh & Jernigan, Inc. Bowie, MD.
Leonardos, G., D. Kendall, and N. Barnard. 1969. Odor Threshold
determinations of 53 odorant chemicals. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. J. 19(2):91-
95.
Lue-Hing, C., D.R. Zenz, and R. Kuchenrither. 1992. Municipal Sludge
Management - Processing, Utilization and Disposal, Water Quality Management
Library (Volume 4), Technomic Pub Co., Inc. Lancaster, PA.
Miedema, H.M.E. and J.M. Ham. 1988. Odour annoyance in residential areas.
Atmos. Environ. 2:2501-2507.
National Research Council. 1979. Odors from Stationary and Mobile Sources.
National Acad. Sci., Washington, D.C.
Rosenfeld, P. 1999. Characterization, Quantification, and Control of Odor
Emissions from Biosolids Application to Forest Soil. Ph.D. Dissertation.
University of Washington, Seattle, WA.
Ruth, J.H. 1986. Odor thresholds and irritation levels of several chemical
substances: A Review. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 47:A142-A151.
U.S. EPA. 1973. National Survey of the Odor Problem, Phase III. A Study of
the Social and Economic Impact of Odors. La Jolla California, Copley Intl.
Corp., EPA Report No. EPA-650/5-73-001, EPA, RTP. Phase I, 1970 , Phase II,
1971.
Verschueren, K. 1996. Handbook of environmental data on organic chemicals
. 3rd ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold, NY. 2064 p.
Vesilind, P. A., Hartman, G. C., and Skene, E.T. 1986. Sludge Management
and Disposal for the Practicing Engineer, Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, Ml
Wilby, F.V. 1969. Variation in recognition odor threshold of a panel. J. Air
Pollut. Contr. Assoc. 19(2):96-100.
Winneke, G. and J. Kastka. 1977. Odor pollution and odor annoyance
reactions in industrial areas of the Rhine-Ruhr region, pp. 471-479. In Le
Magnead MacLeod. (Ed.), Olfaction and Taste. IV. London
Yonkers. 1997. Process compatibility testing D. Odor. In Specifications for
Furnishing and Delivering Liquid Emulsion type polymer (40-50 percent active)
for Centrifuge dewatering of sludge. Yonkers Joint WWTP, Ludlow Dock, South
Yonkers, NY.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 93
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APPENDIX A - ODOR CHARACTERIZATION, ASSESSMENT AND SAMPLING
SPRINGFIELD, MA ODOR NOTIFICATION FORM
The purpose of this form is to identify odors than can potentially migrate off Bondi Island,
where the Springfield WWTP is located and to communicate those observations to the
respective island facilities. Such a form could be applied to a large field storage site.
NOTIFIER/PHONE /
Odor Date/Time
Location of Odor _
Temperature:
Strength: weak, moderate, strong
Wind speed/direction.
Source
WWTP
Incinerator
Cover Tech
Landfill Gas
RCI Landfill
RCCI Compost
Waste Stream
Street BioFilter
Odor Type Detected
Primary
Treatment
Smoke
Leaf/Earthy
Natural Gas
Sludge
Compost
Sludge
Chemical
Secondary
Treatment
Ash
Yard Waste
Other
Other
Other
Ammonia
Sewage
Biosolids
Hopper Juice
Raw Paper Sludge
Other
Other
Other
Odor Descriptors: (check all that apply) D sewer D putrid foul decayed D
chemical fecal (like manure) D garbage truck D rotten eggs D burnt D smoky
D musty earthy
Source contacted
Message left
_; Source copied
Odor confirmed by Sr. Operator?
Comments:
_;Senior Operator,
Yes No
94
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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APPENDIX A - ODOR CHARACTERIZATION, ASSESSMENT AND SAMPLING
RESIDENT ODOR COMPLAINT FORM
Courtesy of Springfield Regional WWT Facility
Date / Time of Odor AM PM
Wind Direction / Speed
Air Temperature / Relative Humidity
Weather Conditions
Senior Operator
RESIDENT INFORMATION
Name
Address
City,
Zip Code Telephone No.
Odor Description (circle all applicable) sewer putrid foul decayed chemical
fecal (like manure) garbage truck rotten eggs burnt smoky musty earthy
Duration / Frequency of Odor
Intensity of Odor Weak / Moderate / Strong
Senior Operation Information (Detailed)
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids 95
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APPENDIX A - ODOR CHARACTERIZATION, ASSESSMENT AND SAMPLING
EXAMPLE OF PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR ODOROUS
EMISSIONS FROM A PERMANENT CONSTRUCTED FACILITY
Example adapted from a Compost Site Conditional Use Permit, courtesy of St. Croix
Sensory, Inc.
Odor Testing
1. This odor testing practice references the odor intensity of the ambient air to an "Odor
Intensity Referencing Scale (OIRS)".
2. The odor of the ambient air is matched (ignoring differences in odor quality) against the
OIRS (see Section B in the following section) by trained inspectors. The inspector
reports that point, or in between points, on the reference scale which, in her(his)
opinion, matches the odor intensity of the ambient air.
3. The procedure followed for field odor testing is in accordance with Procedure B - Static-
Scale Method of ASTM E-544, except for the following adaptations:
a. The geometric progression scale ratio = 3.
b. Use screw-cap containers for reference concentrations of butanol in water.
c. Inspectors may memorize the OIRS.
d. Inspectors may use a charcoal filter, breathing mask to avoid olfactory adaption
(fatigue) in the ambient air.
e. Inspectors sniff ambient air and match its intensity to the reference scale.
f. Inspectors breathe charcoal filtered air for three minutes in between snifffings of
ambient air.
g. Odorous air sampling shall be performed upon the complainant's property. The
inspector shall not be accompanied by the complainant and results shall be
released after a written report is filed. The inspector shall not conduct the odorous
air sampling if the complainant is present.
h. The inspector shall also sample the ambient air immediately upwind from the
compost site to determine the presence and level of any odors entering the site from
other sources. These records and observations shall be a part of the written report
I. The Odor Intensity Referencing Scale (OIRS) will use numbers and
descriptions corresponding to butanol concentrations as indicated below:
96 Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
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APPENDIX A - ODOR CHARACTERIZATION, ASSESSMENT AND SAMPLING
No. Category Description N-Butanol (ppm)
In air/ in water
0 No Odor 010
1 Very Faint 251250
2 Faint 751750
3 Distinct, Noticeable 22512250
4 Strong 67516750
5 Very Strong 2025/ 20250
Reasonable operating conditions will allow for X (a designated number) or fewer
recorded sniffings by an inspector of the ambient air over a period of Y minutes
with a geometric average OIRS value of:
a) 3.0 or greater if there is a permanent residence upon the property, or,
b) 4.0 or greater if the property does not contain a permanent residence.
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids 97
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APPENDIXB - PATHOGENS
Appendix B
Pathogens
Transmission of Pathogens
Pathogen levels in wastewater reflect the presence or absence and level of
pathogens in the general population served by the municipal facility.
Wastewater treatment processes are designed to reduce the presence of
pathogens in treated discharge water. In addition, there are several treatment
processes that are used to reduce the pathogen content in the residual solids.
The Part 503 rules specify these pathogen limits for two classes of pathogen
reduction, Class A and Class B, in treated solids (see Tables B-2 and B-3).
In assessing the disease potential of biosolids or of a storage situation, the
amounts of pathogen present as well as the potential routes of infection, the
likelihood of a person contacting the source of the pathogen, the success of
storage containment, as well as the amount that a person would potentially
ingest or inhale if containment failed, and the virulence of the disease agent
must all be taken into account. This type of information is essentially the same
as that used to assess the disease potential of infectious pathogens that we
contact in our daily activities (involving hand-to-hand, hand-to-eye, hand-to-
mouth contact with pathogen sources, or inhalation and/or ingestion). It is clear
from our knowledge of daily activity exposures that only some exposures result
in disease. This may in part be attributed to the fact that some are more
intense than others, e.g., the intense exposure to air in enclosed areas like
commercial aircraft cabins, movie theatres, schools, and daycare centers; or,
food and beverages prepared, imported, and/or served commercially by
persons carrying and possibly transmitting a variety of microorganisms; or
simply hand shakes with friends and colleagues. When disease occurs, we
know that the amount of the pathogens present, their virulence, the person's
susceptibility, and the exposure route were all sufficiently above the threshold
levels that result in an infection. Fortunately, most daily activities do not result
in disease.
During the course of wastewater treatment, the microorganisms in sewage are
reduced in number, and become concentrated in the solids. Untreated
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 99
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APPENDIXB - PATHOGENS
(unstabilized) solids have a greater potential to contain significantly larger
amounts of pathogens than do solids that have been treated with pathogen
reduction processes that result in Class A or Class B biosolids according to
Part 503 rules. Class A biosolids have no detectable pathogens, whereas
Class B biosolids have significantly reduced levels of pathogens. Hence, the
part 503 rule specifies site access and crop harvesting restrictions for Class B
biosolids so they can be safely land applied. For these reasons, it is
recommended that only Class A or B biosolids intended for land application be
brought to field sites/facilities for storage.
Table B-l. Major Pathogens Potentially Present in Municipal Wastewater and Manure*
Bacteria
Salmonella spp.
Shigella spp.
Yersinia spp.
Vibrio cholerae
Campylobacter jejuni
Escherichia coli (enteropathogenic)
Viruses
Poliovirus
Coxsackievirus
Echovirus
Hepatitis A virus
Rotavirus
Norwalk Agents
Reovirus
Protozoa
Cryptosporidium
Entamoeba histolytica
Giardia lamblia
Balantidium coli
Toxoplasma gondii
Helminth Worms
Ascaris lumbricoides
Ascaris suum
Trichuris trichiura
Toxocara canis
Taenia saginata
Taenia solium
Necator americanus
Hymenolepis nana
Disease/Symptoms for Organism
Salmonellosis (food poisoning), typhoid
Bacillary dysentery
Acute gastroenteritis (diarrhea, abdominal pain)
Cholera
Gastroenteritis
Gastroenteritis
Poliomyelitis
Meningitis, pneumonia, hepatitis, fever, etc.
Meningitis, paralysis, encephalitis, fever, etc.
infectious hepatitis
Acute gastroenteritis with severe diarrhea
Epidemic gastroenteritis with severe diarrhea
Respiratory infections, gastroenteritis
Gastroenteritis
Acute enteritis
Giardiasis (diarrhea & abdominal cramps)
Diarrhea and dysentery
Toxoplasmosis
Digestive disturbances, abdominal pain.
Can have symptoms: coughing, chest pain.
Abdom. pain, diarrhea, anemia, weight loss
Fever, abdominal discomfort & muscle aches
Nervousness, insomnia, anorexia.
Nervousness, insomnia, anorexia.
Hookworm disease
Taeniasis
Not all pathogens are necessarily present in all biosolids and manures, all the time.
100
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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APPENDIXB - PATHOGENS
Methods for Meeting 40 CFR 503 Pathogen Requirements
The U.S. EPA 40 CFR 503 regulations, specifically 503.32(a) and (b), require
biosolids intended for agricultural use to meet certain pathogen and vector
attraction reduction conditions. The intent of a Class A pathogen requirement
is to reduce the level of pathogenic organisms in the biosolids to below
detectable levels. The intent of the Class B requirements is to ensure that
pathogens have been reduced to levels that are unlikely to pose a threat to
public health and the environment under the specific use conditions. For Class
B material that is land applied, site restrictions are imposed to minimize the
potential for human and animal contact with the biosolids for a period of time
following land application until environmental factors have further reduced
pathogens. No site restrictions are required with Class A biosolids. Class B
biosolids cannot be sold or given away in bags or other containers. The criteria
for meeting Class A requirements are shown in Table B-2, and criteria for Class
B are shown in Table B-3.
Table B-2. Criteria for Meeting Class A Requirements
Parameter
Fecal Coliform
or
Salmonella
Unit
MPN/g TS*
MPN/4g TS
Limit
1000
3
AND, one of the following process options
Temp/Time based on % Solids
Prior test for Enteric Virus/Viable Helminth
Composting
Heat Treatment
Beta Ray Irradiation
Pasteurization
Alkaline Treatment
Post test for Enterec Virus/Viable Helminth Ova
Heat Drying
Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion
Gamma Ray Irradiation
PFRP** Equivalent Process
* Most probable number per gram dry weight of total solids
** Process to Further Reduce Pathogens; see Glossary in this document, and the EPA, Plain
English Guide to Part 503
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
101
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APPENDIXB - PATHOGENS
Table B-3. Criteria for Meeting Class B Requirements.
Parameter
Fecal Coliform
Unit
MPNorCFU/gTS*
Limit
2,000,000
OR, one of the following process options
Aerobic Digestion
Anaerobic Digestion
Lime Stabilization
Air Drying
Composting
PSRP** Equivalent
* Most probable number or colony -forming units per gram dry weight of total solids
** Process to Significantly Reduce Pathogens; see Glossary in this document, and the EPA, Plain
English Guide to Part 503
Vector Attraction Reduction (VAR)
Under Subpart D of the Part 503 rule, safety and health protection with regard
to biosolids management requires that biosolids meet one of 12 options to
demonstrate vector attraction reduction, VAR (specifically 503.33). Options 1 -
8 consist of operating conditions or test to demonstrate VAR in treated
biosolids, whereas options 9-11 use the soil as a barrier to prevent vectors
from coming in contact with the biosolids. Materials that meet VAR 1 - 8 at the
WWTP require less management at the storage site than biosolids without VAR
treatment. All Class B biosolids that are stored require the same level of
protection by site management as are provided by Class B site restrictions for
land application.
Options prescribed for VAR are shown in Table B-4, and although these are not
federally binding on biosolids storage operations, they do apply to the biosolids
that are released from storage for land application. Some of these options rely
on reducing the volatile solids in biosolids, and this can contribute to increased
stability of the material, which is often associated with odor reduction.
Furthermore, proper storage can assist in volatile solids reduction and as such
in meeting vector attraction reduction requirements applicable to the use and
disposal of biosolids according to Part 503.
The descriptions of the VAR methods presented in the regulation are treatment
standards and descriptions only, but additional guidance is available (see EPA,
1992, EPA, 1995, Farrell et. al. 1996 in Chapter 4 references) which explains
the rationale for the options. Also, Smith et. al. (1994) in another EPA
guidance document provide direction on sampling and testing protocols.
102 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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APPENDIXB - PATHOGENS
Table B-4. Summary of Requirements for Vector Attraction Reduction Options.
Option
1 Volatile Solids (VS)
Reduction
2 Anaerobic benchscale
test
3 Aerobic benchscale
test
4 Specific Oxygen
Uptake Rate
5 Aerobic Process
6 pH adjustment
7 Drying without
primary solids
8 Drying with primary
solids
9 Soil Injection
10 Soil Incorporation
1 1 Daily cover at field
site
12 pH adjustment of
septage
Requirement
> 38% VS reduction during solids treatment
< 17% VS loss, 40 days at 30°C to 37°C (86°F
to 99°F)
< 1 5% VS reduction, 30 days at 20°C (68°F)
SOUR at 20°C (68°F) is <_ 1 .5 mg oxygen/hr/g
total solids
>14 days at > 40°C (104°F) with an average >
45°C(113°F)
> 12 measured at 25°C (77°F)*, and remain at
pH > 12 for 2 hours and > 1 1 .5 for 22 more hours
> 75% Total Solids (TS) prior to mixing
> 90% TS prior to mixing
No significant amount of solids is present on the
land surface 1 hour after injection.
Class A biosolids must be injected within 8
hours after the pathogen reduction process.
<_ 6 hours after land application;
Class A biosolids must be applied on the land
within 8 hours after being discharge from the
treatment process.
Biosolids placed on a surface disposal site must
be covered with soil or other material at the end
of each operating day.
> 12 measured at 25°C (77°F)*, and remain at >
12 for 30 minutes without addition of more
alkaline material.
Where/When
Requirements
must be met
Across the process
On anaerobic
digested biosolids
On aerobic
digested biosolids
On aerobic
stabilized biosolids
On composted
biosolids
When produced or
bagged
When produced or
bagged
When produced or
bagged
When applied
After application
After placement
Septage
* or corrected to 25 °C
References
see Chapter 4 References.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
103
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APPENDIX C - RUNOFF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Appendix C
Runoff Management Practices
Water Management
Field stockpiles and constructed storage facilities with vehicle access points at or
below ground-level such as concrete pads may be vulnerable to surface runoff.
Methods for managing surface runoff include:
Careful site selection and evaluation to assess expected volume of precipitation
and runoff during planned storage periods, and optimizing topographic location to
minimize exposure to runoff or flooding. Good site selection can frequently
eliminate the need for additional runoff controls.
Minimizing the amount of direct precipitation and upslope runoff encountering
stored material through use of stormwater diversions, shaping of stockpiles
roofing, or enclosing the facility.
For constructed facilities, properly managing water that comes into contact with
the residual material through collection of accumulated water, or for field
stockpiles, use of filter strips and buffer zones.
For constructed facilities, sumps or gravity flow can be used for transport of
accumulated water to on-site filter strips or treatment ponds. Water can also be
mixed with the residual for land application, decanted, and transported to off-
site treatment facilities or irrigation systems (taking care not to exceed hydraulic
loading rates to prevent ponding or run-off).
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 105
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APPENDIX C - RUNOFF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Best Management Practices
Grassed waterways: Are shaped and graded channels that are protected with
vegetation, stone or other materials to carry surface water at a non-erosive
velocity to a stable outlet. The vegetation in the waterway protects the soil from
erosion caused by concentrated flows, while carrying water down slope.
Grassed waterways may be used as outlets for diversions or to convey water to
treatment ponds or filter areas. Waterways should be inspected periodically, any
eroding areas should be repaired and they should be mown, reseeded and
fertilized as needed to maintain good vegetative cover.
Provide stabilized machinery crossings, where needed, to prevent rutting of the
waterway. Waterways should not be crossed when wet.
Silt Fence
Temporary barriers of woven geotextile fabric (approximately two feet high) are
used to filter surface runoff, reduce its velocity and trap sediment from disturbed
areas. Silt fences can only be used to intercept sheet flow, they cannot be used in
swales or other areas where the flow of water is concentrated.
Silt fences are installed on or parallel to contours. To work effectively, the bottom of
the entire length of the fabric must be placed in a trench or slot in the soil and back
filled. This ensures a continuous seal with the ground, so that water and sediment
will be trapped and not pass under the fence. To ensure that a silt fence is not
knocked down or overwhelmed with sediment, the maximum length of a silt fence is
proportional to slope steepness and length. Consult your local natural resource
conservationist for specifications applicable to your site. Silt fence should be
inspected after each rainfall event and maintained when bulges occur or when
sediment accumulates to 50 percent of the fence height (See also Figure C-1).
Straw Bale Dikes
Straw bale dikes are temporary measures used to filter sediment from sheet flow
runoff so that deposition of transported sediment can occur. Straw bale dikes clog
and deteriorate rapidly and require frequent maintenance. Bales should be placed in
a row on the contour with the ends of each bale tightly abutting the adjacent bales
and securely anchored in place with stakes. Bales should be entrenched several
inches in the soil to ensure a good seal with the ground to prevent water and
sediment from flowing under the bales instead of through them (See also Figure C-
2).
Filter Strips
A strip or area of grass or other vegetation that removes sediment, organic matter,
nutrients and other pollutants from runoff and wastewater by filtration, infiltration,
absorption, adsorption, decomposition and volatilization. In many cases there may
be enough natural vegetation present to filter pollutants. If not, a filter area can be
planted alone or in combination with existing natural vegetation. This practice may
106 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
-------
APPENDIX C - RUNOFF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
be applied downslope of long term stockpiles, or storage facilities, at the lower
edges of fields or adjacent to streams, channels, or ponds.
Filter strips are designed to handle sheet flow of surface runoff. If any storm
water management practice, such as a grassed waterway deliver water to these
areas they must be designed with outlets that distribute and slow the
concentrated flow of water into an even sheet across the top edge of the filter.
Grassed filter strips are placed along the contour. They must be long enough
and wide enough so that peak sheet flow does not exceed the maximum
permissible depth (e.g. one-half-inch) and so that the time it takes the water to
pass through the filter provides the necessary level of pollutant removal and
treatment. Filter strips should be protected from damage by farm equipment and
vehicle traffic. They should be inspected regularly to ensure that the area
remains properly vegetated and that no gullies or areas of concentrated flow
develop to short circuit the system. Any necessary reseeding or reshaping
should be done promptly.
Berms/Earth Dikes
A temporary earthen ridge of soil, shaped along the contour and compacted, to
divert runoff around a stockpile or constructed storage area. Berms intercept
up-slope sheet flow and outlet to an undisturbed stabilized area or watercourse at a
non-erosive velocity. For temporary stockpiles berms may be created with on-farm
tillage equipment. Berms should be sized to the upslope drainage area. If
necessary, depending on soil type and the expected length of storage, the berm
should be stabilized by seeding or mulching. Berms should be regularly inspected
and maintained to ensure they are not breached or eroded. Following removal of the
field stockpile, berms should be removed and the area returned to its original grade
(See also Figures C-3 and C-4).
Diversions
A channel constructed across a slope with a supporting ridge on the lower side used
to divert clean runoff water away from a storage area. Diversions prevent clean
runoff from coming into contact with stored biosolids and protect down-slope areas
from erosion. A diversion must discharge runoff wafer to a stable outlet at
non-erosive velocities. The outlet may be a grassed waterway, a vegetated area, or
a stable watercourse. Diversions should be compacted and stabilized by seeding,
and regularly inspected. Repair and reseed any bare areas immediately, keep
channel and outlet clear of debris, keep burrowing animals out of the bank; mow,
reseed, and fertilize as needed to maintain vegetation.
Heavy Use Protection
For long term stockpiles or permanent storage facilities, protect loading and other
areas from erosion with gravel or paving, as necessary.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 107
-------
APPENDIX C - RUNOFF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
DETAIL 22 -SILT FENCE
10 MAXIMUM CENTER TO
CENTER
36" MINIMUM LENGTH FENCE POST,
DRIVEN A MINIMUM OF 16" tNTD
GROUND
16" MINIMUM HEIGHT OF
GEDTEXTILE CLASS F
8" MINIMUM DEPTH IN
GROUND
FLOW FLOW
PERSPECTIVE VIEW
35" MINIMUM FENCE-
POST LENGTH
FILTER
CLOTH-
FLOW
TOP VIEW
POSTS
EMBED GEQTEXTILE CLASS F
A MINIMUM OF 8" VERTICALLY
INTO THE GROUND
FENCE POST SECTION
MINIMUM 20" ABOVE
GROUND
UNDISTURBED
GROUND
'FENCE POST DRIVEN A
MINIMUM OF 16" INTO
.THE GROUND
CROSS SECTION
STAPLE
STAPLE1
( STANDARD SYMBOL^
JOINING TWO ADJACENT SILT
FENCE SECTIONS
Construction Specifications
1. Fence posts shall be a minimum of 36* long driven 16" minimum into the
ground. Wood posts shall be 11'/ x i1^" square (minimum) cut. cr 13V diameter
(minimum) round and shall be of sound quality hardwood. Steel posts will be
standard T or U section weighting not less than 1.00 pond per linear foot.
2. Geotexti le shall be fastened securely to each fence post with wire ties
or staples at top and mid-section and shal I meet the fol lowing requirements
for Ceotext iIe CI ass F:
Tens iIe Strength
Tens!lo Modulus
Flow Rate
Filtering Efficiency
50 Ibs/in (min.)
20 lbs/)n (min.)
0.3 gal ft1/ minute (max.!
75% (min. }
Test: MSMT 509
Test: MSMT 509
Tests MSMT 322
Test: MSMT 322
3. Where ends of geotext iIe f abr i c come together.
folded and stapled to prevent sediment bypass.
they shall be overlapped.
A. Silt Fence shall be inspected after each rainfall event and maintained when
bulges occur or when sediment accumulation reached 50% of the fabric height.
US. DEPARTMENT OF AQRICULTOEE
SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE
PAGE
E - lfi-S
MARYLAND DEPAR1MENT OF ENVII0NMENT
WATER MANAGEMENT ADMINISTRATION
1994
Figure C-1. Silt Fence Design Diagram
108
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
-------
APPENDIX C - RUNOFF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
DETAIL 32 STRAW BALE DIKE
STRING BINDER
UNDISTURBED
GROUND
A" VERTICAL
FACE
BEDDING DETAIL
ANGLE FIRST STAKE TOWARD THE
PREVIOUSLY PLACED BALE
ENTRENCH BALES A MINIMUM
OF 4" INTO THE GROUND
pBOUND BALES
PLACED ON
CONTOUR
2 RE-BARS OR 2"X 2" DRIVEN 12'
TO 18" INTO THE GROUND
STAKES ARE TO BE DRIVEN
FLUSH WITH THE TOP OF THE
BALES
UNDISTURBED
GROUND
ANCHORING DETAIL
Oi DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE
PAGE
H -25-2
MARYLAND DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT
WATER MANAGEMENT ADMINISTRATION
Figure C-2. Straw Bale Dike Design Diagram
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
109
-------
APPENDIX C - RUNOFF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
DETAIL 3 - PERIMETER DIKE /SWALE
COMPACTED EARTH v
*V 3'MIN.
A I'MIM. |\ J^-
6-MIN. /' l\ _^^
/ \ __ / " " "ALL SLOPES 2;1
1 . \ / OR FLATTER
Z~~ \ . ,/ 6"MIN.
/ \\ 1'M!N. /
EXISTING GROUND 3'MIN. NT ~~V
CROSS SECTION
I
\\/ \/ \/ V \/ V
J^ ^ a PROVIDE POSITIVE DRAINAGE 4.
?\ H A A /\ A A A TV A A 7i
vy v y Y y v y Y y Y y
. |\/ v V \/ \/ V {
STABILIZATION ' ' '
PD/S-1 SEED AND MULCH (DRAINING -* 1 ACRE) / \
PD/S-2 SEED AND COVER WITH SOIL STANDARD SYMBOL
STABILIZATION MATTING OR v PD/S-K K
LINE WITH SOD (DRAINING BETWEEN 1 AND 2 ACRES) * =^ ^ «y
1. All perimeter diKe/swaies sfial 1 have an uninterrupted positive
grade to an outlet. Spot elevations may be necessary for grades
less than 1%.
2. Runoff diverted from a disturbed area shall be conveyed to a
sediment trapping device.
3. Runoff diverted from an undisturbed area shal I outlet into an
undisturbed stabilized area at a non-erosive velocity.
4. The swale shall be excavated or shaped to line, grade, and
cross-sect Jon as required to meet the criteria specified in the
standard.
5. Fill shall be compacted by earth moving equipment.
6. Stabilization with seed and mulch or as specified of the area
disturbed by the dike and swale shol I be completed within 7 days upon
remova I .
7. Inspection and required maintenance shall be provided after each
rain event.
Note: The maximum drainage area for this practice Is 2 acres.
UJS. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE PAGE MARYLAND DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT
SOD. CONSERVATION SERVICE A - 3 - 8 WATER MANAGEMENT ADMINISTRATION
1994
Figure C-3. Perimeter Dike/Swale Design Diagram
110
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
-------
APPENDIX C - RUNOFF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
DETAIL 1 - EAETH DIKE
i. ...E> .1 2:1 SLOPE OR FLATTER
2:1 SLOPE OR FLATTER J - TV*-""" ftO*
^7 x^C^s^^^--"""""^^*7*^ T0 PROVIDE
GRADE LINE ^_X-- "~ V*-%^ REQUIRED FLOW WIDTH
^-^^J AT DESIGN FLOW DEPTH
CUT OR FILL-"/
SLOPE /
CROSS SECTION Dm£ f D,K£ B
POSITtVE DRAINAGE °-°IKE HEIGHT 18" 30"
SUFFICIENT TO DRAIN b-oiKE WIDTH 24" 36"
i i 6 £ A_ £ _A A. A -_ei niu uirnru d' c'
' V 'V tf V 7 V 7 C~"LU" "lkJin 4
^\/ \/ \/ \/L d-FLOW DEPTH 12" 24"
CUT OR FILL SLOPE «~V V V l/j
PLAN VIEW
STANDARD SYMBOL
A-2 B-3
FLOW CHANNEL STABILIZATION -"~ /-"-
GRADE 0 55 MIN 10% MAX - -
1. Seed and cover with straw mulch.
2. Seed and cover with Erosion Control Matting or lin* with sod.
3. A" - 7" stone or recycled concrete equivalent pressed Into
the sol I 7" minimum
Construct i on Spec i f I cat i ons
1. All temporary earth dikes shall have uninterrupted positive
grade to an outlet. Spot elevations may be necessary for grades less than 1%.
2. Runoff diverted from a disturbed area shall be conveyed1 to a sediment
trapping device.
3. Runoff diverted from an undisturbed area shall outlet directly into an
undisturbed^ stabilized area at a non-erosive velocity.
4. All trees, brush, stumps, obstructions, and other objectional material
shall be removed and disposed of so as not to interfere with the proper
functioning of the dike.
5. The dike shall be excovafed or shaped to line, grade and cross section as
required to meet the criteria specified herein and be free of bank projections
or other irregularities which will impede normal flow.
6 . Fill sha I 1 be compacted by earth mov i ng equ i pment .
7. All earth removed and not needed for construction shall be placed so that
it will not interfere with the functioning of the dike.
8. Inspection and maintenance must be provided periodically and after
each rain event.
HJS, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FACE MAEYLAND DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT
SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE A - -1 - 6 WATER MANAGEMENT ADMINISTRATION
Figure C-4. Earthen Dike Design Diagram.
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
111
-------
APPENDIX C - RUNOFF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Natural Resources Conservation Service Regional Conservationists
Region Name & Address
Eastern Office
Midwest Office
Northern Plains Office
Southeastern Office
South Central Office
Western Office
Phone: 301-586-1387 or 1388
Calverton Office Bldg. #2
Suite 100
11710 Calverton Blvd.
Beltsville, MD 20705
Phone: 608-224-3010
2820 Walton Commons West
Suite 123
Madison, Wl 53704-6785
Phone: 402-437-4082
100 Centennial Mall North
Room 152, Federal Building
Lincoln, NE 68508-3866
Phone:404-347-6105
1720PeachtreeRd., N.W.
Suite 446N
Atlanta, GA 30309-2439
Phone: 817-334-5224
501 W. Felix St., Bldg. 23
Felix & Hem phi 11 Street
Ft. Worth, TX 76115
Phone:916-491-2000
650 Capitol Mall, Room 7010
Sacramento, CA 95814
112
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
-------
APPENDIX D- NUTRIENT CONTENT OF ORGANIC BY-PRODUCTS
Appendix D
Nutrient Content of Organic By-Products
Proper soil and crop management is required to avoid contaminating surface or groundwater when
using fertilizer materials. Plant nutrient requirements can be met by applying inorganic or organic
fertilizers. Nutrient and carbon content information is also very useful when tailor blending
products for specialty purposes.
Table D-1. Nutrient Content of Various Organic
Material
Apple pomace
Blood (dried)
Bone meal (raw)
Bone meal (steamed)
Brewers grains (wet)
Common crab waste
Compost (garden)
Cotton waste from factory
Cottonseed meal
Cotton motes
Cowpea forage
Dog manure
Eggs
Egg shells
Feathers
Fermentation sludges
Fish scrap (dried)
Fly ash:
coal
wood
Materials*
Percentage by Weight
N
2
12- 15
3.5
2.0
0.9
2.0
1.3
6-7
2.0
0.4
2.0
2.1
1.2
15.0
3.5
9.5
0.3
9.8
P2O5
3.0
22.0
28.0
0.5
3.6
varies
0.4
2.5
0.5
0.1
10.0
0.4
0.4
0.5
6.0
0.1
K2O
0.2
0.2
0.2
Ca
0.3
22.0
23.0
with feedstocks
0.4
1.5
3.0
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.7
0.4
4.0
7.3
6.1
0.6
Mg
0.6
0.3
s
0.2
0.1
Cl
0.6
0.2
and processes
0.9
0.7
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.6
0.2
10.0
1.5
0.5
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
113
-------
APPENDIX D- NUTRIENT CONTENT OF ORGANIC BY-PRODUCTS
Table D-1. Nutrient Content of Various Organic Materials (continued)*
Material
Frittercake:
enzyme production
citric acid production
Garbage tankage
Greensand
Hair
Legume
Grass
Oak leaves
Oyster shell sittings
Peanut hull meal
Peat/muck
Pine needles
DAF sludge
Potato tubers
Potato, leaves & stalks
Potato skins, raw ash
Sawdust
Sea marsh hay
Seaweed (dried)
Sewage sludge (municipal)
Shrimp waste
Soot from chimney
Soybean meal
Spent brewery yeast
Sweet potatoes
Tankage
Textile sludge
Wood ashes
Wood processing wastes
Tobacco stalks, leaves
Tobacco stems
Tomatoes, fruit, leaves
Percentage by Weight
N
2.5
12- 16
3.0
0.8
0.8
0.4
1.2
2.7
0.5
8.0
0.4
0.2
1.1
0.7
2.6
2.9
7.0
0.2
7.0
2.8
0.0
3.7-4.0
2.5
0.2-0.4
P2O5
1.5
1 -2
1.5
0.2
0.4
10.4
0.5
0.1
1.8
0.2
0.6
0.2
0.8
3.7
10.0
0.5-11
1.2
7.0
0.1
1.5
2.1
2.0
0.4
0.5-0.6
0.9
0.1
K2O
2.2
5.2
1.0
5.0
1.0
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.8
0.3
0.5
0.2
5.2
0.2
0.8
5.0
0.2
1.5
0.4
0.5
3-10
0.2
6.0
0.2
4.5-6.0
7.0
0.4
Ca
2.0
3.2
0.5
0.3
0.7
0.4
2.0
1.3
1.0
0.4
0.3
0.5
20.0
0.1
Mg S
0.5 0.3
0.3 0.4
2.4 1.9
0.2
0.3 1.0
7.5
0.2
0.4
0.3 0.2
0.04 0.03
0.2
1.0
1.1 0.2
Cl
1.3
1.2
0.1
Note: Approximate values are given. Have materials analyzed for nutrient content before
using.
* Adapted from J. P. Zublena, J. V. Baird, and J. P. Lilly, Extension Soil Science Specialists
North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, Publication AG-439-18 June 1991.
(see http://ces.soil.ncsu.edu/soilscience/publications/Soilfacts/AG-439-18/)
114
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
-------
APPENDIX D- NUTRIENT CONTENT OF ORGANIC BY-PRODUCTS
Table D-2 . Nutrient Content of Manures (Ib/unit wet basis)
Type
DAIRY
Fresh (Ib/ton)
Paved surface scraped(lb/ton)
Liquid manure (lb/1,000 Ib)1
Lagoon liquid (Ib/acre-inch)2
Anaerobic lagoon sludge
(Ib/acre-inch)2
BEEF
Fresh (Ib/ton)
Paved surface scraped (Ib/ton)1
Unpaved feedlot (Ib/ton)
Lagoon liquid (lb/acre-inch)2
Lagoon sludge (lb/1,000 Ib)1
BROILER
Fresh (Ib/ton)
House litter (Ib/ton)
Stockpiled litter (Ib/ton)
DUCK
Fresh (Ib/ton)
House litter (Ib/ton)
Stockpiled litter (Ib/ton)
GOAT
Fresh (Ib/ton)
HORSE
Fresh (Ib/ton)
LAYERS
Fresh (Ib/ton)
Undercage paved (Ib/ton)
Deep pit (Ib/ton)
Liquid (lb/1, 000 Ib)1
Lagoon liquid
(Ib/acre-inch)2
Lagoon sludge (lb/1,000 Ib)1
RABBIT
Fresh (Ib/ton)
SHEEP
Fresh (Ib/ton)
Unpaved (Ib/ton)
TKN
10
10
23
137
15
12
14
26
83
38
26
72
36
28
19
24
22
12
26
28
38
62
179
26
24
21
14
P2O5
5
6
14
77
22
7
9
16
77
51
17
78
80
23
17
42
12
6
22
31
56
59
46
92
23
10
11
K2O
8
9
21
195
81
9
13
20
129
15
11
46
34
17
14
22
18
12
11
20
30
37
26
13
13
20
19
Ca
4
5
10
69
2
5
5
14
24
36
10
41
54
22
27
11
41
43
86
35
62
71
19
14
24
Ma
2
2
5
35
4
2
3
6
19
5
4
8
8
3
4
2
4
6
6
7
57
7
4
4
7
S
1
2
3
25
4
2
2
5
2
15
12
3
6
2
4
7
9
8
52
12
2
3
6
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 115
-------
APPENDIX D- NUTRIENT CONTENT OF ORGANIC BY-PRODUCTS
Table E-2 . Nutrient Content of Manures (Ib/unit wet basis -continued)*
Tvpe
SWINE
Fresh (Ib/ton)
Surface scraped (Ib/ton)
Liquid manure (lb/1,000 lb)1
Lagoon liquid
(Ib/acre-inch)2
Lagoon sludge (lb/1,000 Ib)1
TURKEY
Fresh (Ib/ton)
House litter (Ib/ton)
Stockpiled litter (Ib/ton)
TKN
12
13
31
136
22
27
52
36
P2O5
9
12
22
53
49
25
64
72
K2O
9
9
17
133
7
12
37
33
Ca
8
12
9
25
16
27
35
42
Ma
2
2
3
8
4
2
6
7
S
2
2
5
10
8
9
10
* J.P. Zublena, J.V. Baird, and J.P. Lilly, Extension Soil Science Specialists, N. Carolina Cooperative
Extension Service, Publication AG-439-18, June 1991.
(see12/97. http://ces.soil.ncsu.edu/soilscience/publications/Soilfacts/AG-439-18/)
Notes: Approximate nutrient contents are given. Have materials analyzed for nutrient content before using.
North Carolina mean waste analysis 1981 to 1990 supplied by J.C. Barker, NCSU Dept. Biological and
Agricultural Engineering.
1 Pounds per thousand pounds of manure liquid (slurry);
2 Pounds per acre-inch. Estimated total lagoon liquid includes total liquid manure plus average annual lagoon
surface rainfall surplus; does not account for seepage.
116 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
-------
APPENDIX E - DIRECTORY OF STA TE REGULA TORS
Appendix E
Directory of State Regulators
Entries followed by (B), refer to contacts for biosolids.
Entries followed by (SW), refer to contacts for solid waste.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 117
-------
APPENDIX E - DIRECTORY OF STA TE REGULA TORS
Alabama
www.state.al.us
Water Div.
334-271-7823
(B)
Division of Permits and Services (SW)
334-271-7714
Alabama Dept. Environmental Management
PO Box 301463
Montgomery, AL 36130-1463
Alaska
www.state.ak.us
Air and Water Quality Div. (B)
907-465-5010
Solid Waste Management (SW)
Div. Environmental Health
907-465-5162
Dept. Environmental Conservation
410 Willoughby Avenue, Suite 105
Juneau, AK 99801-1795
Arizona
www.adeq.state.az.us/environ/index.html
WaterQuality (B)
602-207-2306; 1-800-234-5677
Park Place, 500 N. Third Street
Phoenix, AZ 85004
Waste Programs (SW)
3033 North Central Avenue
Phoenix, AZ 85012
602-207-4117; 1-800-234-5677 x4117
Arkansas
www.adeq.state.ar.us
Water Div. (B)
501-682-0656
Solid Waste Div. (SW)
501-682-0600
Pollution Control and Ecology Dept.
8001 National Drive
PO Box 8913
Little Rock, AR 72219-8913
California
www.state.ca.us
Water Quality Div. (B)
Water Resources Control Board
901 P Street
Sacramento, CA 95814
916-657-0756
Integrated Waste Management Board
8800 Cal Center Drive (SW)
Sacramento, CA 95826
916-255-2200
Colorado
www.cdphe.state.co.us/environ.asp
Water Quality Control Div.
303-692-3598
(B)
Environmental Office, Health Dept. (SW)
303-692-3000
Dept. of Health
4300 Cherry Creek Drive South
Denver, CO 80222-1530
Connecticut
www.dep.state.ct.us/ourenvir.htm
Water Management Bureau (B)
Permitting, Enforcement & Remediation
203-424-3705
Compost; Planning & Standards (SW)
Waste Management Bureau
203-424-3066
79 Elm Street
Hartford, CT 06106
District of Columbia
www. washingtondc. gov/agencies/
Water & Sewer Authority (B)
Environmental Regulation Administration
5000 Overlook Ave, SW
Washington, D.C. 20032
202-787-2000
118
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
-------
APPENDIX E - DIRECTORY OF STA TE REGULA TORS
Solid Waste (SW)
Dept. of Public Works
2000 14th Street NW, 6th Floor
Washington, D.C. 20009
202-673-6833
Delaware
www.dnrec.state.de.us/DNREC2000
Water Resources Div. (B)
302-739-4860
Air & Waste Management (SW)
302-739-3689
Natural Resources & Environmental Control
89 Kings Highway, PO Box 1401
Dover, DE 19903-1401
Florida
www.dep.state.fl.us/officsec/contact/
Water Facilities Div. (B)
Waste Management Div. (SW)
1-800-7414 DEP
Environmental Protection Dept.
3900 Commonwealth Boulevard
Tallahassee, FL 32399-3000
Georgia
www. ganet. org/dnr/environ/
Water Protection Bureau (B)
404-675-2692; 1 -888-373-5947
Solid Waste Management (SW)
404-675-2692
Environmental Protection Div.
205 Butler Street SE, Suite 1252
Atlanta, GA 30334
Hawaii
www.state.lii.us
Wastewater Bureau, 808-586-4185 (B)
Office Environmental Qual. Control (SW)
235 S. Beretania St., State Office
Commission on Water Resource Management,
PO Box 6212
Honolulu, HI 96813
808-587-0214
Idaho
www2.state.id.us/deq/waste/wastel.htm
Waste Management (B)
208-373-0298
Main State Office, 208-373-0502 (SW)
Dept. Environmental Quality
1410 N. Hilton St.
Boise, ID 83720-0036
Illinois
www.epa.state.il.us/
Water Pollution Control, 217-782-3397 (B)
Solid Waste, Bureau of Land (SW)
217-785-8604
Environmental Protection Agency
PO Box 19276
Springfield, IL 62794-9276
Indiana
www.state.in.us/idein/index/litml
Water Management
317-232-8470
Solid & Hazardous Waste
Office of Land Quality
317-233-5530
(B)
(SW)
Dept. of Environmental Management
105 South Meridian Street
PO Box 6015
Indianapolis, IN 46206-6015
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
119
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APPENDIX E - DIRECTORY OF STA TE REGULA TORS
Iowa
www.state.is.us/
Water Quality & Wastewaer Bureau (B)
515-281-8877
Solid Waste, Land Quality Bureau (SW)
515-281-4968; compost: -8912
Environmental Protection
Dept. Natural Resources
Des Moines, IA 50319-0034
Kansas
www.kdhe.state.ks.us/
Permits & Compliance Unit (B)
Bureau of Water, Building 283
785-296-5500
Waste Management (SW)
Environmental Div., Building 740
785-296-1600
Dept. Health & Environment
Forbes Field, Topeka, KS 66620
Kentucky
www.nr.state.ky.us/nrepc/dep/dep2.htm
Water Div. (B)
502-564-3410
Waste Management Div. (SW)
502-564-6716
Natural Resources & Environmental
Protection Cabinet
14 Reilly Road
Frankfort, KY 40601
Louisiana
www.deq.state.la.us/
Environmental Compliance (B)
1-888-763-5424
Solid Waste Permits (SW)
225-765-0219
Dept. Environmental Quality
PO Box 82135
Baton Rough, La 70884-2135
Maine
janus.state.me.us/dep/home.htm
Bureau Land & Water Quality (B)
Hazardous & Solid Waste (SW)
207-287-7688; 1-800-452-1942
Dept. Environmental Protection
17 State House Section
Augusta, ME 04333
Maryland
www.mde.state.md.us/
Water & Wastewater Permit Program (B)
Water Management Administration
410-631-3375
Solid Waste Program (SW)
Waste Management Administration
410-631-3318
Dept. Environment
2500 Broening Highway
Baltimore, MD 21224
Massachusetts
www.magnet.state.ma.us/dep/contact.htm
Sewage Div. (B)
Water Resources Authority
617-788-4442
Charlestown Navy Yard
100 First Avenue
Boston, MA 02129
Dept. Environmental Protection (SW)
Div. of Solid Waste Management
617-292-5974
1-800-462-0444
1 Winter Street, 4th Floor
Boston, MA 02108
120
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
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E-D
STATE EGULATORS
Michigan
www.deq.state.mi.us/
Waste Management Div.
Dept. Environmental Quality
PO Box 30473
517-373-1949
Minnesota
Water Quality Div.
Pollution Control Agency
TTY: 651-282-5332
520 Lafayette Road North
Mississippi
www.deq.state.ms.us/
Surface Water Div.
601-961-5171, or-5036, or 5005
PO Box 20305
Jackson, MS 39289-1305
www.dnr.state.mo.us/
Environmental Improvement Authority
1-800-334-6946;
TDD: 1-800-379-2419
(B)
(B)
(SW)
(B)
(SW)
Div. of Environmental Quality
Dept. Natural Resources
PO Box 176
(SW)
(B)
Montana
www.deq.state.mt.us/
Environmental Quality Dept.
406-444-2544
PO Box 200901
Nebraska
www.deq.state.ne.us
Air & Waste Management
402-471-2186
Environmental Quality Dept.
PO Box 98922
Lincoln, NE 68509-8922
www.state.nv.us
Water Resources Div.
Conservation & Natural Resources Dept., 775-
687-6972
(B)
(SW)
Management, Div. of Environmental
1-800-597-5865
123 West Nye Lane
New Hampshire
www.state.nli.us
Water Supply & Pollution Control Div. (B)
Waste Management Div.
1-800-273-9469
Dept. Environmental Services
Concord, NH 03301
(SW)
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
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APPENDIX E - DIRECTORY OF STA TE REGULA TORS
New Jersey
www.state.nj.us/dep
Div. of Water Quality, Bureau of (B)
Pre-Treatment & Residuals Management;
609-633-3828
Solid Waste Regulation (SW)
609-633-1410
Dept. of Environmental Protection,
Trenton, NJ 08625
New Mexico
www.nmenv.state.nm.us/
Water & Waste Management Div. (B)
505-827-0187; 505-827-2918
Solid Waste Bureau (SW)
505-827-2775
Environment Dept.
1190 St. Francis Drive
PO Box 26110
Santa Fe, NM 87502
New York
www.dec.state.ny.us/
Water Div., Dept. Environmental Qual.(B)
518-457-6674
Solid & Hazardous Material (SW)
Environmental Quality Program
518-457-6934
50 Wolf Road
Albany, NY 12233
North Carolina
www.enr.state.nc.us
Water Resource Div. (B)
919-733-4064
Solid Waste, 919-733-0692 (SW)
Dept. Environment & Natural Resources
401 Oberlin Rd. Suite 150
Raleigh, NC 27605
North Dakota
www .health, state, nd. us/ndhd/environ/wq
Water Quality Div.
701-328-5210
Waste Management Div.
701-328-5166
Environmental Health
Health Dept.
1200 Missouri Avenue, PO Box 5520
Bismarck, ND 58502-5520
Ohio
www.epa.state.oh.us
Surface Water Div.
614-644-2001
(B)
(SW)
(B)
Drinking & Ground Water Div. (SW)
Solid & Infectious Waste Management
614-644-2909; 614-644-2621
Environmental Protection Agency
122 S. Front St., P.O. Box 1049
Columbus, OH 43216-1049
Oklahoma
www.deq.state.ok.us/
Water Quality Div.
405-702-8100
Waste Management Div.
405-702-1000
Dept. of Environmental Quality
1000NE 10th Street
Oklahoma City, OK 73117-1212
(B)
(SW)
Environment & Natural Resources
512 N. Salisbury St.
Raleigh, NC 27604
122
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
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PPENDIX E - IRECTORY OF S REGULA TORS
Oregon
(B)
(SW)
Wastewater Control
Dept. of Environmental Quality
Portland, OR 97204
503-229-6442; 503-229-5913;
Pennsylvania
www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/biosolids/biosolids.htm
(B)
Dept. Environmental Protection
Harrisburg, PA 17105-8774
717-787-8184
Dept. Environmental Protection (SW)
Harrisburg, PA 17105-8471
717-787-7816
www.state.ri.us/dem/
Groundwater & Sewage Systems
Water Quality Management
401-222-6820
803-896-4007
2600 Bull Street
South Dakota
www.state.sd.us/denr/denr.html
605-773-3351
605-773-3153
523 East Capitol Avenue
Pierre, SD 57501-3181
www. state .tn.us/environment/wpc/
615-532-0625
615-532-0780
401 Church Street, 21st
Nashville, TN 37243-0435
Texas
(B)
(SW)
(B)
(SW)
401-222-2797
(SW)
Sludge & Transporter Review Unit (B)
235 Promenade Street
Providence, Rl 02908
Waste Permits
(SW)
www. state, sc .us/dhec/
Water Quality Bureau
Bureau Environmental Services
803-898-3432
(SW)
Bureau of Land, Waste Management
123
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APPENDIX E - DIRECTORY OF STA TE REGULA TORS
Natural Resource Conservation
Commission
12100 Park 35 Circle, PO Box 13087
Austin, TX 78753
Utah
www.deq.state.ut.us
Water Quality Div.
801-538-6047
(B)
Solid & Hazardous Waste Div. (SW)
801-538-6775
Dept. Environmental Quality
288 North 1460 West
Salt Lake City, UT 84116
Vermont
www.anr.state.vt.us
Wastewater Management Div.
802-241-3739
(B)
Solid Waste Management Div. (SW)
802-241-3444
Vermont Agency of Natural Resources
State Complex, 103 South Main Street
Waterbury, VT 05671
Virginia
www.deq.state.va.us/info/direct.html
Water Div. (B)
804-762-4050
Waste Management Div.
804-762-4213
Dept. of Environmental Quality (SW)
629 East Main Street
PO Box 10009
Richmond, VA 23240-0009
Washington
www.ecv.wa.gov
360-407-6405
Solid Waste Services (SW)
360-407-6381
Ecology Dept.
PO Box 47600
Olympia, WA 98504-7600
West Virginia
www.state.wv.us/directorv/default.htm
Water Resources (B)
304-558-2107
Waste Management (SW)
304-558-2107
Environmental Protection Div.
10 McJunkin Road
Nitro, WV 25143
Wisconsin
www.dnr.state.wi.us/environment.html
Waste Water Management (B)
608-264-8954
Solid Waste Management Bureau (SW)
Dept. Natural Resources
Madison, Wl 53707
Wyoming
www.deq.state.sv.us/index.htm
Water Quality Div. (B)
307-777-7075
Solid & Hazardous Waste Div. (SW)
307-777-7752
Environmental Quality Dept.
122 West 25th Street
Cheyenne, WY 82002
Water Quality Program
(B)
124
Guide to Field Storage ofBiosolids
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APPENDIX F- GLOSSARY
Appendix F
Glossary
Definitions of words used in this guidance document are listed here; the underlined
words are defined elsewhere in this glossary.
AEROBIC
Living or active in the presence of oxygen. Used in this report to refer especially to
microorganisms and/or decomposition of organic matter.
ANAEROBIC
Living or active in the absence of oxygen, e.g., anaerobic microorganisms.
ANIMAL (AND POULTRY) MANURE
Animal excreta, including bedding, feed and other by-products of animal feeding and
housing operations.
BACTERIA
Single-celled microscopic organisms lacking chlorophyll. Some cause disease, and
some do not. Some are involved in performing a variety of beneficial biological
treatment processes including biological oxidation, solids digestion, nitrification, and
denitrification.
BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION
The aerobic degradation of organic substances by microorganisms, ultimately resulting
in the production of carbon dioxide, water, microbial cells, and intermediate byproducts.
BIOSOLIDS
The organic solids product of municipal wastewater treatment that can be beneficially
utilized. Wastewater treatment solids that have received PSRP or PFRP treatment, or
their equivalents, according to the Part 503 rule to acheive a Class A or Class B
pathogen status.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 125
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APPENDIX F- GLOSSARY
The solids:liquid content of the product can vary:
- liquid biosolids 1-4% solids
- thickened liquid biosolids 4-12% solids
- dewatered biosolids 12-45% solids
- dried biosolids >50% solids (advanced alkaline stabilized, compost,
thermally dried)
In general liquid biosolids and thickened liquids can be handled with a pump.
Dewatered/dried biosolids are handled with a loader.
BOD (BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND)
The quantity of oxygen used in the biological and chemical oxidation (decomposition) of
organic matter in a specified time, at a specified temperature (typically 5 days at 20°C),
and under specified conditions. A standardized BOD test used in assessing the amount
of organic matter in wastewater.
BUFFER
Around the perimeter of a storage or application area, a strip of land that is not intended
to receive biosolids. The purpose of the buffer is to provide a protected zone around
field boundaries, roads and sensitive areas, such as streams and wet soil areas.
BY-PRODUCT
A secondary or additional product; something produced in the course of treating or
manufacturing the principal product.
CAKE
Dewatered biosolids, with a solids concentration high enough (>12%) to permit handling
as a solid material. (Note: some dewatering agents might still cause slumping even with
solids contents higher than 12%).
CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY (CEC)
A measure of the soil's capacity to attract and retain plant nutrients that occur in
positively charged ionic form. CEC is a focus of interest because fertilizers
supply positively charged cationic plant nutrients, which are attracted to nega-
tively charged anionic soil particles, including soil organic matter. Organically amended
soils typically have a higher CEC, i.e., a higher capacity for attracting
and retaining plant nutrients, than unamended or low organic soils.
CFU (COLONY FORMING UNITS)
A term used to enumerate microbes in a sample and based on the fact that the visible
cluster (colony) of microbes that appears on nutrient agar medium in a petri dish can
develop from a single or group of microbial cells.
COMPOSTING
The accelerated decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms, which is
accompanied by temperature increases above ambient; for biosolids, composting is
typically a managed aerobic process.
126 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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APPENDIX F- GLOSSARY
CONSOLIDATED (BIOSOLIDS)
A desirable characteristic of biosolids that allows the material to be stacked and remain
non-flowing when stored.
CRITICAL CONTROL POINT
A location, event or process point at which specific monitoring and responsive
management practices should be applied.
DENITRIFICATION
The conversion of nitrogen compounds to nitrogen gas or nitrous oxide by
microorganisms in the absence of oxygen.
DEWATERED BIOSOLIDS
The solid residue (12% total solids by weight or greater) remaining after removal of
water from a liquid biosolids by draining, pressing, filtering or centrifuging. Dewatering
is distinguished from thickening in that dewatered biosolids may be transported by
solids handling procedures.
DIGESTION
Decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms with consequent volume reduction.
Anaerobic digestion produces methane and carbon dioxide, whereas aerobic digestion
produces carbon dioxide and water.
EQ BIOSOLIDS
Exceptional Quality biosolids, meets Class A pathogen reduction, and Vector Attraction
Reduction standards 1- 8, and Part 503, Table 3 high quality pollutant concentration
standards.
EUTROPHICATION
A natural or artificial process of nutrient enrichment by which a water body becomes
highly turbid, depleted in oxygen, and overgrown with undesirable algal blooms.
FECAL COLIFORM
The type of coliform bacteria present in virtually all fecal material produced by
mammals. Since the fecal coliforms may not be pathogens, they indicate the potential
presence of human disease organisms. See indicator organisms.
FECAL STREPTOCOCCUS
A member of a group of gram-positive bacteria known as Enterococci, previously
classified as a subgroup of Streptococcus. They are found in feces of humans,
animals, and insects on plants often not in association with fecal contamination. See
indicator organisms.
FIELD STORAGE
Temporary or seasonal storage area, usually located at the application site, which holds
biosolids destined for use on designated fields. State regulations may or may not make
distinctions between staging, stockpiling, or field storage. In addition, the time limits for
the same material to be stored continuously on site before it must be land applied range
from 24 hours to two years.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 127
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APPENDIX F- GLOSSARY
FILTER PRESS
Equipment used near the end of the solids production process at a wastewater
treatment facility to remove liquid from biosolids and produce a semi-solid cake.
GENERATOR
Person or organization producing or preparing the biosolids by treatment of wastewater
solids. Also, a person or organization who changes the biosolids characteristics either
through treatment, mixing or any other process.
GOOD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Schedules of activities, operation and maintenance procedures (including practices to
control odor, site runoff, spillage, leaks, or drainage), prohibitions, and other
management practices found to be highly effective and practicable in the safe,
community-friendly use of biosolids and in preventing or reducing discharge of
pollutants to waters of the United States.
HELMINTH AND HELMINTH OVA
Parasitic worms, e.g., roundworms, tapeworms, Ascaris, Necator, Taenia, and
Trichuris, and ova (eggs) of these worms. Helminth ova are quite resistant to
chlorination, and can be passed out in the feces of infected humans and organisms and
ingested with food or water. One helminth ovum is capable of hatching and growing
when ingested.
HYDRAULIC LOADING RATES
Amount of water or liquid biosolids applied to a given treatment process and expressed
as volume per unit time, or volume per unit time per surface area.
INDICATOR ORGANISMS
Microorganisms, such as fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci (enterococci), used as
surrogates for bacterial pathogens when testing biosolids, manure, compost, leachate
and water samples. Tests for the presence of the surrogates are used because they
are relatively easy, rapid, and inexpensive compared to those required for pathogens,
such as salmonella bacteria.
INFILTRATION
The rate at which water enters the soil surface, expressed in inches per hour,
influenced by both permeability and moisture content of the soil.
LAGOON
A reservoir or pond built to contain water, sediment and/or manure usually containing
4% to 12% solids until they can be removed for application to land.
LAND APPLICATION
The spreading or spraying of biosolids onto the surface of land, the direct injection of
biosolids below the soil surface, or the incorporation into the surface layer of soil; also
applies to manure and other organic residuals.
LEACHATE
Liquid which has come into contact with or percolated through materials being
stockpiled or stored; contains dissolved or suspended particles and nutrients.
128 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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APPENDIX F- GLOSSARY
LIQUID BIOSOLIDS OR MANURE
Biosolids or animal manure containing sufficient water (ordinarily more than 88 percent)
to permit flow by gravity or pumping.
MERCAPTANS
A group of volatile chemical compounds, that are one of the breakdown products of
sulfur-containing proteins. Noted for their disagreeable odor.
MICROORGANISM
Bacteria, fungi (molds, yeasts), protozoans, helminths, and viruses. The terms microbe
and microbial are also used to refer to microorganisms, some of which cause disease,
and others are beneficial. Parasite and parasitic refer to infectious protozoans and
helminths. Microorganisms are ubiquitous, possess extremely high growth rates, and
have the ability to degrade all naturally occurring organic compounds, including those in
water and wastewater. They use organic matter for food.
MINERALIZATION
The process by which elements combined in organic form in living or dead organisms
are eventually reconverted into inorganic forms to be made available for a new cycle of
growth. The mineralization of organic compounds occurs through oxidation and
metabolism by living microorganisms.
MITIGATION
The act or state of reducing the severity, intensity, or harshness of something; to
alleviate; to diminish; to lessen; as, to mitigate heat, cold, or odor.
MPN (MOST PROBABLE NUMBER)
A statistically approximation of the number of microorganisms per unit volume or mass
of sample. Often used to report the number of conforms per 100 ml wastewater or
water, but applicable to other microbial groups as well.
NITRIFICATION
The biochemical oxidation of ammonia nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen, which is readily used
by plants and microorganisms as a nutrient.
NONPOINT SOURCE
Any source, other than a point source, discharging pollutants into air or water.
NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION
Man-made or man-induced alteration of the chemical, physical, biological, or
radiological integrity of water or air, originating from any source other than a point
source.
NUTRIENT
Any substance that is assimilated by organisms and promotes growth; generally applied
to nitrogen and phosphorus in wastewater, but also other essential trace elements or
organic compounds that microorganisms, plants, or animals use for their growth.
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 129
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APPENDIX F- GLOSSARY
NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT PLAN
A series of good management practices aimed at reducing agricultural nonpoint source
pollution by balancing nutrient inputs with crop nutrient requirements. A plan includes
soil testing, analysis of organic nutrient sources such as biosolids, compost, or animal
manure, utilization of organic sources based on their nutrient content, estimation of
realistic yield goals, nutrient recommendations based on soil test levels and yield goals,
and optimal timing and method of nutrient applications.
ODOR CHARACTER
The sensory quality of an odorant, defined by one or more descriptors, such as fecal
(like manure), sweet, fishy, hay, woody resinous, musty, earthy, see Atlas of Odor
Character Profiles, 1985.
ODOR DILUTIONS TO THRESHOLD or D/T
Dimensionless unit expressing the strength of an odor. An odor requiring 500 binary (2-
fold) dilutions to reach the detection threshold has a D/T of 500. An odor with a D/T of
500 would be stronger than an odor with a D/T of 20.
ODOR INTENSITY
A measure of the perceived strength of an odor. This is determined by comparing the
odorous sample with "standard" odors comprised of various concentrations of n-butanol
in odor-free air.
ODOR PERVASIVENESS
Persistence of an odor; how noticeable an odorant is as it's concentration changes;
determined by serially diluting the odor and measuring intensity at each dilution.
ODOR THRESHOLD
Detection - The minimum concentration of an odorant that, on average can be detected
in odor-free air.
Recognition - The minimum concentration of an odorant that, on average, a person can
distinguish by its definite character in a diluted sample.
OFF-SITE STORAGE
Storage of biosolids at locations away from the wastewater treatment plant or from the
point of generation. Several terms encompass various types of storage: Staging,
Stockpiling, Field Storage, and Storage facility.
OVERLAND FLOW
Refers to the free movement of water over the ground surface.
PATHOGEN
Disease-causing organism, including certain bacteria, fungi, helminths, protozoans, or
viruses.
PERMEABILITY
The rate of liquid movement through a unit cross section of saturated soil in unit time;
commonly expressed in inches per hour.
PFRP, PSRP
130 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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APPENDIX F- GLOSSARY
See Process to Further Reduce Pathogens, or Process to Significantly Reduce
Pathogens
pH
A measure used to indicate the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a substance. The pH is
expressed as the Iog10 of the reciprocal of the actual hydrogen ion concentration. The
pH ranges from 0-14, where 0 is the most acidic , 14 is the most alkaline, and 7 is
neutral.
PHYTOTOXIN
Any substance having a toxic or poisonous effect on plant growth. Immature or
anaerobic compost can contain volatile fatty acids that are phytotoxic to plants.
Soluble salts can also be phytotoxic in addition to toxic heavy metals and toxic organic
compounds.
POINT SOURCE
Any discernable, confined, or discrete conveyance from which pollutants are or may be
discharged, including, but not limited to, any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well,
stack, container, rolling stock, concentrated animal feeding operation, or vessel or other
floating craft.
POLYMER
A compound composed of repeating subunits used to aid in flocculating suspended
particulates in wastewater into large clusters. This flocculation aids solids removal, and
enhances the removal of water from biosolids during dewatering processes.
PROCESS TO FURTHER REDUCE PATHOGENS (PFRP)
The process management protocol prescribed in U.S. EPA Part 503 used to achieve
Class A biosolids in which pathogens are reduced to undetectable levels. Composting,
advanced alkaline stabilization, chemical fixation, drying or heat treatment, are some of
the processes that can be used to meet Part 503 requirements for Class A.
PROCESS TO SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCE PATHOGENS (PSRP)
The process management protocol prescribed in U.S. EPA Part 502 used to achieve
Class B biosolids in which pathogen numbers are significantly reduced, but are still
present. Additional restrictions on the use and placement of Class B biosolids ensure a
level of safety equivalent to Class A. Aerobic and anaerobic digestion, air drying and
lime stabilization are types of processes used to meet the Class B pathogen density
limit of less than 2,000,000 fecal coliforms/gram dry weight of total solids.
PROTOZOA
Single-celled, microorganisms many species of which can infect man and cause
disease. The infective forms are passed as cysts or oocysts in the feces of man and
animals and accumulate in flocculated solids; they are quite resistant to disinfection
processes, such as chlorination, that eliminate most bacteria, but are susceptible to
destruction by drying.
RETENTION TIME
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 131
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APPENDIX F- GLOSSARY
The period of time wastewater or biosolids takes to pass through a particular part of a
treatment process, calculated by dividing the volume of processing unit by the volume
of material flowing per unit time.
RISK, POTENTIAL
Refers to a description of the pathways and considerations involved in the occurrence
of an event (or series of events) that may result in an adverse health or environmental
effect.
RISK ASSESSMENT
A quantitative measure of the probability of the occurrence of an adverse health or
environmental effect. Involves a multi-step process that includes hazard identification,
exposure assessment, dose-response evaluation, and risk characterization. The latter
combines this information so that risk is calculated:
Risk = Hazard x Exposure
RUNOFF
That part of the precipitation that runs off the surface of a drainage area when it is not
absorbed by the soil.
SALMONELLA
Rod-shaped bacteria of the genus Salmonella, many of which are pathogenic, causing
food poisoning, typhoid, and paratyphoid fever in human beings, or causing other
infectious diseases in warm-blooded animals, and can cause allergic reactions in
susceptible humans, and sickness, including severe diarrhea with discharge of blood.
SEPTAGE
Domestic sewage (liquid and solids) removed from septic tanks, cesspools, portable
toilets, and marine sanitation devices; not commercial or industrial wastewater.
SEWAGE, DOMESTIC
Residual liquids and solids from households conveyed in municipal wastewater sewers;
distinguished from wastewater carried in dedicated industrial sewers. See Wastewater.
SLUMPING
Failure of a stockpile to retain a consolidated shape usually due to insufficient
dewatering of the biosolids. Slumping may result in biosolids movement beyond the
boundaries of a designated stockpile area or create handling difficulties when the
materials are scooped up and loaded into spreaders.
SOLIDS
In water and wastewater treatment, any dissolved, suspended, or volatile substance
contained in or removed from water or wastewater.
STABILITY
The characteristics of a material that contribute to its resistance to decomposition by
microbes, and to generation of odorous metabolites. The relevant characteristics
include the degree of organic matter decomposition, nutrient, moisture and salts
content, pH, and temperature. For biosolids, compost, or animal manure, stability is a
132 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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APPENDIX F- GLOSSARY
general term used to describe the quality of the material taking in to account its origin,
processing, and intended use.
STAGING
The concurrent delivery and application of biosolids, allowing for the transfer of
biosolids from transport vehicles to land application equipment. Dewatered materials
may be off-loaded from delivery vehicles to temporary stockpiles to facilitate the loading
of spreading equipment.
STOCKPILING
Holding of biosolids at an active field site long enough to accumulate sufficient material
to complete the field application.
STORAGE
Placement of Class A or B biosolids in designated locations (other than the WWTP)
until material is land applied; referred to as field storage. See also Off-Site Storage.
STORAGE FACILITY
An area of land or constructed facilities committed to hold biosolids until the material
may be land applied at on- or off-site locations; may be used to store biosolids for up to
two years. However, most are managed so that biosolids
come and go on a shorter cycle based on weather conditions, crop rotations and land
availability, equipment availability, or to accumulate sufficient material for efficient
spreading operations.
THRESHOLD ODOR
See Odor Threshold
TURBULENCE
Irregular atmospheric motion especially characterized by up and down currents.
Increasing turbulence results in dilution of odors.
VAR
Abbreviation for Vector Attraction Reduction (see Appendix C, Table C-3).
VECTOR
An agent such as an insect, bird, animal, that is capable of transporting pathogens.
VIRUS
A microscopic, non-filterable biological unit, technically not living, but capable of
reproduction inside cells of other living organisms, including bacteria, protozoa, plants,
and animals.
VOLATILE COMPOUND
A substance that vaporizes at ambient temperature. Above average heat can increase
the volatilization (vaporization) rate and amount of many volatile substances.
WWTP
Abbreviation for wastewater treatment plant
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids 133
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APPENDIX F- GLOSSARY
Household and commercial water discharged into municipal sewer pipes; contains
mainly human excreta and used water. Distinguished from solely industrial wastewater.
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
The processes commonly used to render water safe for discharge into a U.S. waterway:
1) Preliminary treatment includes removal of screenings, grit, grease, and floating
solids; 2) Primary treatment includes removal of readily settleable organic solids; 50-
60% suspended solids are typically removed along with 25-40% BOD; 3) Secondary
treatment involves use of biological processes along with settling; 85-90% of BOD and
suspended solids are removed during secondary treatment; 3) Tertiary treatment
involves the use of additional biological, physical, or chemical processes to remove
more of the remaining nutrients and suspended solids.
134 Guide to Field Storage of Biosolids
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